A HANDBOOK FOB .SUPERINTENDENTS OF CONSTRUCTION, ARCHITECTS, BUILDERS, AND BUILDING INSPECTORS. BY H. G. Superintendent of Construction U. S. Public Buildings; Author of " Rickey's Guide and Assistant for Carpenters and Mechanics.' FIRST EDITION. THIRD THOUSAND. NEW YORK : JOHN WILEY & SONS. LONDON: CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITED. 1905. Copyright, 1905, BY H. G. RICHEY. PRESS OF BRAUNWORTH & CO. BOOKBINDERS AND PRINTERS BROOKLYN, N. Y. OF THE UNIVERSITY PEEFACE. IN preparing this volume it has been the aim of the author to prepare a book that will be an every-day help to any one engaged in building construction. Building construction, like everything else, advances and changes with the times, and the author has tried to make this work as complete and up to date as possible. He does not claim credit for all the formulas and information given in this volume, some of it having been compiled from various authors and sources, a list of which will be given, and due credit is given to all for anything that is found compiled in this book from any other work. Still there is enough original matter and information to be found in the following pages to make the author think that it will prove a valuable addition to any mechanical or technical library, and taken altogether it is as its title represents: A hand- book for any one engaged in any branch of building construc- tion, and most especially superintendents of construction, and inspectors. If by his past experience as carpenter, contractor, architect, and superintendent of construction, and through the medium of this volume, the author is able to render any information or assistance to those engaged in building construction, he will feel himself amply repaid for the labor expended in preparing the following pages. H. G. RICKEY. iii >> o WORKS AND AUTHORS CONSULTED BY THE AUTHOR IN PREPARING THIS VOLUME, AND OF WHICH LIST ANY WILL PROVE A VALUABLE ADDITION TO ANY LIBRARY. Building Construction, by F. E. Kidder. Architects and Builders' Pocket Book, by F. E. Kidder. Treatise on Foundations, by W. M. Patton. Inspectors' Pocket Book, by Austin T. Byrne. Various Works of Fred T. Hodgson. Bricklaying, by Owen B. Maginnis. Hydraulic Cement, by Frederick P. Spaulding. Civil Engineers' Pocket Book, by J. C. Trautwine. Carnegie's Pocket Book, by Carnegie Steel Co. National Tube Company's Pocket Book, by National Tube Company. Mechanics and Engineers' Pocket Book, by C. H. Haswell. Builders' Guide, by I. P. Hicks. Stones for Building, by G. P. Merrill. Steam, by Babcock and Wilcox. Masonry Construction, by I. O. Baker. Magazines from which information has been derived: Architects and Builders' Magazine, Engineering News, Car- pentry and Building, Brick Builder, Engineering Magazine, Scientific American, National Builder, Cement and Engineer- ing News, Cement. Also catalogues and trade publications of the various manu- factures. The dates of the various building codes from which extracts have been taken are as follows : New York 1901 Philadelphia 1903 Chicago 1903 Baltimore 1904 Cleveland 1904 San Francisco 1904 National Board of Fire Underwriters 1904 iv CONTENTS. PART I. PAGE PERSONALITY AND DUTIES OF A SUPERINTENDENT. EXCAVATING, FOUNDATIONS, PILES, BUILDING-STONES 1 PART II. STONE LAYING, SETTING, AND CUTTING, MARBLE AND SLATE WORK, BRICKWORK AND BRICKLAYING, PAVING, ETC 46 PART III. LIME, SAND, CEMENT, MORTAR, AND CONCRETE. CONCRETE CONSTRUC- TION. FIRE-PROOF FLOOR CONSTRUCTION, PARTITIONS, ETC. ARCHI- TECTURAL TERRA-COTTA. FIRE-PROOF CONSTRUCTION AND FIRE PROTECTION OF BUILDINGS 110 PART IV. LATHING AND PLASTERING. CARPENTRY; TIMBER. PLUMBING. TIN AND SHEET METAL WORK. PAINTING, GLAZING, AND PAPER- HANGING. IRONWORK, ELECTRIC WIRING, ETC. HEATING 292 PART V. DRAWING. LAYING OUT WORK. MENSURATION. GEOMETRICAL MENSURATION. VARIOUS ENGINEERING FORMULAS 533 PART VI. HYDRAULICS AND DATA ON WATER. STRENGTHS, WEIGHTS, ETC., OP MATERIALS. VARIOUS MATERIALS AND DATA 634 V A HANDBOOK FOR SUPERINTEND- ENTS OF CONSTRUCTION. PART I. PEKSONALITY AND DUTIES OF A SUPER INTENDENT. EXCAVATING, FOUNDATIONS, PILES, BUILDING-STONES. Personality and Duties of a Superintendent. A superintendent should be a man who can command the respect and obedience of those under him. In all his dealings he should be honest and just, demanding only what is right and insisting on what he demands being done. He should be a sober, upright, and intelligent man, well conversant with all the details of the work or structure which he will have under his supervision; he should study the work in advance so as to forestall any point or question which may come up for him to decide. Before giving any decision or deciding any point he should study the matter carefully, be sure he is right, and then in a firm manner stick to it. Let a superintendent once give a decision and then by a little argument on the part of the con- tractor alter or change it and he will find the contractor will be sure to try to make him change others in the future. At the commencement of any work or building the superin- tendent should be if anything a little more strict than necessary, for then he will have a chance to relax a little as the work progresses. This refers to both workmanship and material. The superintendent should examine all material as it is brought to the work, and at once reject any that is of poor 2 PERSONALITY AND DUTIES. quality or unfit for the work, and all rejected material he should have removed at once from the premises, for so long as any such material is at the job there is danger of some of it finding its way into the building or structure. Regarding material the superintendent should be suspicious of any change or substitute advanced by the contractor, for it is of no advantage to a contractor to make a change unless it is to substitute something cheaper, and anything cheaper will be inferior in quality. The superintendent should be at his post of duty at all hours when any work is being done, for there are some points of the work that in a few hours can be slighted enough to weaken the whole structure, and a building or any structure is only as strong as its weakest point. In rejecting materials they should be marked and orders given to remove them at once. The superintendent should keep a record of all material rejected, giving the date and cause of rejection. He should be familiar with the tools used by the various trades and methods of using them, as he can then determine more quickly if a mechanic is doing good work or not. He should watch each and every workman employed so far as possible, and any whom he finds careless or unskilful, and whose work does not come up to the required standard, he should have removed. The superintendent should keep a daily diary stating the condition of the work, state of the weather, materials received, or anything which has a bearing on the progress or completion of the work. He should see that the work progresses rapidly enough to insure its completion within contract time, and if there is any delay or suspicion of delay he should notify the contractor and report the same to his superiors. On some work the superintendent is charged with the duty of making up the estimates due the contractor as the work progresses. To do this correctly it is advisable to obtain from the contractor at the commencement of the work a schedule of prices of the various parts of the work as he has estimated them. This should be given both in unit and in total. The superin- tendent in making up these estimates should be careful to do justice to both sides, being careful to give the contractor what is due him, but no more. Of course on work where there are certain amounts to be paid at various stages of the work this schedule is not necessary. PERSONALITY AND DUTIES, 3 as the amounts to be paid will be determined before the work is commenced. If the superintendent would have a cost or price book and keep memoranda of the cost of the various works upon which he is engaged it will be a great help to him in making any estimate of work. The superintendent should study the drawings and specifi- cations carefully in advance of the work, so as to determine if everything is working out correctly, as there are often little changes or questions which will come up as the work progresses which the superintendent will be called upon to decide, and if he keeps on the lookout for such things he will have time to consult with his superiors before rendering a decision to the contractor. Contractors in different localities have different methods of executing work, and it is advisable to leave the mode of execu- tion to the contractor so long as the desired end is obtained, viz., a perfect and acceptable job. The plans and specifications are his guide and he should insist on strict compliance with their meaning. He should avoid any arguments or controversy, as his duty is only to see that the work is carried out according to the meaning of the plans and specifications, and not to decide if any other method or material is better. When he has any complaint to make he should make it at once and in a firm, gentlemanly manner, and insist on its settlement immediately. Any superintendent who acts in this manner and who has had experience enough to make himself familiar with good construction and methods of executing work should have no trouble with any one who is doing work under his supervision. When the superintendent has cause to submit materials to a laboratory for testing, the following amount of each material should be submitted to make a complete test: Cement not less than 15 pounds White lead " " " 2 " Red lead " " " 2 " Varnish " " " 1 quart Oil " " " 1 " Shellac " " " 1 " Tin 3 whole sheets Copper or zinc. .. pieces 6"X6" LAYING OUT. Laying Out for Foundations, etc. The superin- tendent should have the contractor or his representative do all the laying out, so that he will be responsible for all errors, but the superintendent should go over all lines, angles, and measure- ments and verify them as to being correct. In laying out work, turning angles, or running lines or levels it is advisable to do so with a transit and level, and if the super- intendent does not possess or understand the use of one of these instruments he should engage the services of a civil engineer. A convertible architect's level, manufactured by Keuffel & Esser Co. of New York, is a good instrument for a superintendent to possess, as with it he can do all work such as running lines, giving levels, and bench-marks that may be desired. Fig. 1 shows how the batter-boards should be set for the lines of a foundation; the boards should be long enough to catch the lines for both inside and outside of all walls and footings. The lines shown in the cut represent the lines in place for the walls and piers. These boards should be put up firm and well braced and placed far enough back from the excavation to in- sure their being in solid ground; they should also be made high enough for the wall to be built up to the belt course, or ashlar course, without disturbing them. After the batter-boards are set the superintendent should have the main lines stretched and try the distance from opposite corners to prove if they are laid out square. A level or bench-mark should be put up on a solid stake or other solid object, giving the height of a certain point in the height of the walls or building; then all other heights can be measured from this point. As the different grade heights are usually given in decimal parts of a foot from a given point a table giving the various fractions in feet and inches will be found very useful; such a table will be found on pages 608 and 609. After the building is up, say to the belt course or any other level course, it is advisable to have the foreman of the building prepare a pole giving the heights of the various points or courses in the building, and set them all to this pole; in this way after the first course is set and levelled, if all the other courses are FIG. 1. EXCAVATING. 5 % set to this pole they will be correct for height and level. See Fig. 83, page 66. The superintendent should go over the drawings as soon as possible after the work is commenced and see that all measure- ments are marked correct, as a little error in marking sometimes makes a lot of trouble afterwards. The author knows of an instance where the foreman of a building staked it out and built it two feet shorter in length than the plans called for, yet it was never noticed by the superintendent simply because he did not take the trouble to verify the foreman's measure- ments in laying out the building. In laying out work where a series of points come on the same line the tape should be stretched the full length and the location of each point marked by adding together the various distances from the starting-point. In giving any point, such as a bench-mark or height, or measurement of any kind, the superintendent should be very careful and be sure he is correct, for he can be held responsible for any error he may make. In running walls, piers, etc., through from story to story the superintendent should always check them up at each floor-level to see if they are being carried up plumb. Excavating. When the excavating is being done the superintendent should see that all excavations, trenches, etc., are dug out at least six inches larger than the walls, so that there will be room for pointing or cementing, or when concrete is to be used, to have room for building the wood forms. The superintendent should give height or bench-marks and see that the excavating is carried to the proper level, and if by chance any trench for a footing-course is dug too deep he should have it filled up with concrete or masonry, and not with loose earth. If a stream of water or spring is encountered, provision must be made to take the water away; this can be done with a broken-stone or open 1^le drain as shown by Figs. 2 and 3. As soon as the excavation is dug to the proper depth the superintendent should have the sewer to the building run in past the inside of the wall and a strainer put on so as to carry off any water which may gather from rain, snow, or damp soil. The superintendent should pay strict attention to the work during the putting in of the foundation-footing and walls, for 6 FOUNDATIONS. there is a tendency on the part of some contractors to slight this work, thinking it will soon be covered up. .CONCRETE FOOTING^ SEWER PIPE IAID WITH OPEN JOINTS FIG. 2. FIG. 3. Shrinkage of Excavated Material. All materials when first excavated will increase in bulk, but after laying a while will, with the exception of rock, shrink until they will occupy less space than when originally in the earth. The shrinkage of various materials has been estimated as follows: Gravel 8 per cent Gravel and sand 9 " Clay and clay earths 10 " Loam and light sandy earths 12 " Loose vegetable soils 15 " Puddled clay 25 " Foundations. One of the first duties of a superintendent after taking charge of the erection of a building or other struc- ture is to determine the stability of the ground upon which it will rest. The architect should ascertain if possible the nature of the ground before he makes his plans, as then his foundations can be made to suit the material it will rest upon. But often this is not done, and it devolves upon the superin- tendent to test the stability of the ground, and when it is found not to have a sufficient carrying capacity changes will have to be made in the foundation of the structure. If there is TESTING THE SOIL. 7 any other like building in the immediate vicinity already erected the superintendent should make inquiry of the architect and builder of this building and find out all he can as to the nature and formation of the ground, and if any difficulty was experienced in putting in the foundations of the building. Testing the Soil. After the excavation is made, if the superintendent has any doubt as to the stability or carrying power of the ground on which the foundations will rest, he should test the same by boring holes or sinking a shaft, and if the bed is found insecure he should at once consult with his superiors and determine if the excavations are to be carried deeper or the plans of the foundation-walls changed so as to obtain a greater breadth or surface resting on the ground. There should be several borings made in different parts of the excavation to about the same depth (10 to 15 feet is deep enough for ordinary tests) and if the character of the soil is about the same in all the holes this test will be sufficient, but if there is a decided difference in the borings of any of the holes as to material, depth of stratas, etc., it is advisable to sink other holes to make a complete test. It is better to have a little expense at the commencement of a building or other structure to determine the stability of the FIG. 4. foundation than to go ahead and erect the structure and have the walls crack or perhaps worse from unequal settlement. Like a chain, a building is only as strong as its weakest point. After testing the soil by borings as described, if there should be any doubt at all as to its carrying capacity it should be tested by an actual experiment as to what it will carry. This 8 BED OF FOUNDATIONS. can be done by digging a hole and setting up a mast as shown by Fig. 4. The mast should be set up as shown and braced at the top to four posts which must be braced firm and secure as shown. A platform should be built on the mast to carry the load. Before loading, stakes should be driven radiating from the mast out about four feet, and the tops made perfectly level, and then a level should be taken from them to the mast. Now after the load is put on, a straight edge will show if the top of the stakes remains in line or if there has been any upheaval. Then a level should be taken of the mast to see if it has settled any. Bed of Foundations. The superintendent should see that the surface of the foundation-bed is dressed off at right angles to the thrust or weight which is to bear upon it. Where possible all foundations should be carried around at the same level, but where this is impossible and the footings have to be put in at unequal depths the difference in height of the different levels should be made in perpendicular steps as shown by Fig 5. FIG. 5. Where the foundations rest on rock which has an incline or dip of not over two inches in a foot, the rock can be cut or roughed off as shown by Fig. 6, which will prevent the build- ing or structure from sliding. Where there are any rifts or fissures in the rock they should be entirely filled with concrete, as shown by Fig. 7, or if very deep, should be arched over with a masonry or concrete arch or with I beams bedded in the concrete. ROCK. Where rock is used as a foundation-bed the superin- tendent should see if there is any seepage or water; as is often the case the water will follow along the top of the rock and come out in the excavation. In such cases care must be taken to collect the water and dispose of it, or by putting a drain BED OF FOUNDATIONS. 9 outside of the walls, catch the water and carry it away before it enters the excavation. Rock is of course the best foundation that can be had to build upon, as there will be no doubt of its carrying power, and as the crushing strength of the weakest FIG. 7. sandstone is about 3000 pounds to the square inch, a foundation of rock will carry all that is likely to be built on it. GRAVEL. This is one of the best materials to build on, but, like sand, has to be confined to a certain extent, especially if there is any water present, as there will be a tendency to wash out the sand and fine gravel, but if there is no water present and the gravel is packed solid it will carry the heaviest of structures. SAND. Sand makes a good foundation to build on only when it is confined on all sides, and is very dangerous to build on unless it is so confined that there will be no danger of water penetrating and undermining it. CLAY. This is an excellent material for a foundation provid- ing it is solid, free from water, and has no large seams which will let the water penetrate. A clay foundation should be tested thoroughly if there is any doubt as to its not being solid and dry, for some clays are very deceptive. If there are any seams through which the water can penetrate, there will be great danger of the structure slipping. SILT AND SOFT SOILS. No building operation of any magni- tude can be erected on these materials unless an artificial founda- tion is provided by driving piles, putting in footings of timbers or beams and concrete so as to cover a large surface and dis- tribute the weight, or by sinking caissons and filling them with concrete. The table given below will form a guide as to the bearing power of soils, etc. But, after all, there is no definite rule except by experience and testing. 10 PILES FOR FOUNDATIONS. Name of Soil, etc. Rock, hard, on native bed ..... 250 tons Ledge rock ................... 36 " Hard-pan ......... . .......... 8 " Gravel ....................... 5 " Clean sand. . . ................ 4 " Dry clay ..................... 3 " Wet clay .......... . ......... 2 " Loam ....................... 1 ton Regarding the bearing power of soils, etc., the Chicago Build- ing Law says: Sec. 75. Load for Clay 15 Feet Thick. If the soil is a layer of pure clay at least 15 feet thick, without admixture of any foreign substance excepting gravel, it shall not be loaded more than at the rate of 3500 pounds per square foot. If the soil is a layer of pure clay at least 15 feet thick and is dry and thoroughly compressed, it may be loaded not to exceed 4500 pounds per square foot. Sec. 76. Load for Sand 15 Feet Thick. If the soil is a layer of dry sand 15 feet or more in thickness, and without admixture of clay, loam, or other foreign substance it shall not be loaded more than at , the rate- of 4000 pounds per square foot. Sec. 77. Load for Mixed Soil. If the soil is a mixture of clay and sand, it shall not be loaded more than at the rate of 3000 pounds per square foot. Sec. 78. Foundations in Wet Soil Trenches to be Drained. In all cases where foundations are built in wet soil, it shall be unlawful to build the same unless the trenches in which the work is being executed are kept free from water bv baling, pumping, or otherwise until after the completion of work upon the foundations. Sec. 79. Foundation Where not Permitted. Foundations shall not be laid on filled or made ground, or on loam, or on any soil containing admixture of organic matter. Piles for Foundations. Piles are used to a great extent for the foundations of structures which rest on a soft or wet soil, and the superintendent should be familiar with the -methods of driving and using them. MATERIAL. Oak is the best wood for piles, but is not used much on account of its scarcity in some localities and its value for other purposes, which makes the cost too excessive for piling. Spruce, Norway pine, and Oregon pine make good piles. SPECIFICATIONS. 11 Cypress is sometimes used, but it is not hard enough to stand driving. The superintendent should inspect each and every pile as it is brought to the work and any rejected ones should be so marked and removed at once. The following specifications for wood piles and timber were prepared by the American Railway Engineering and Mainte- nance of Way Association and is very complete. SPECIFICATIONS FOR PILES AND TIMBER. PILES. All piles of whatever kind shall be cut from growing trees, free from wind or heart shakes, large or unsound knots, decay or other defects which would impair the strength or durability of the pile. Only butt cuts, cut about the ground swell of the tree, and with both ends cut square, will be accepted. They shall be peeled of bark and the knots trimmed, and the specified sizes shall be, after peeling, straight and uniformly tapering. OAK PILES. Shall be of the variety of white, burr, or post oaks, with wood of close, firm grain and with a sap ring not over 2 ins. thick. They shall be not less than 12 ins. diameter at 6 ft. from the butt, and when 28 ft. or less in length they shall be 10 ins. diameter at the top or small end, and where 30 ft. in length or longer shall be not less than 9 ins. at the top. NORWAY PINE AND TAMARACK PILES. These shall not be less than 14 ins. nor more than 18 ins. diameter at the butt, and where 36 ft. or less in length shall be not less than 10 ins. in diameter at the top, and where over 36 ft. in length shall not be less than 9 ins. at the top. LONG-LEAF PINE PILES. These shall be strictly long-leaf Southern or yellow pine, and no doubtful grades will be accepted. They shall be hewed square, with all the sap removed. They shall be not less than 12 ins. or more than 14 ins. square at the large end, or 8 ins. square at the small end, and must be smoothly hewed without large or deep score hacks. CEDAR PILES. These shall be of white or red cedar. White- cedar piles shall be not less than 14 ins. diameter at the butt and 9 ins. at the top where less than 30 ft. in length. Where over 30 ft. in length, they shall be not less than 8 ins. diameter at the top. Unsound butts will be accepted if the defect is not more than 5 ins. in diameter, and there must be at least 5 ins. of sound wood all around the defect. Red-cedar piles shall be not less than 12 ins. at the butt and 8 ins. at the top. 12 PILES FOR FOUNDATIONS. TIMBER. All timber of whatever variety shall be cut from sound live trees, and shall be sawed full size, square in section and out of wind. It shall be free from wind shakes, large or unsound knots, pitch seams, decay or any other defects which would impair its strength and durability, and shall generally be free from sap. LONG-LEAF PINE. This shall be of the variety known as long-leaf Southern or yellow pine, and no loblolly or other doubtful grades will be accepted. The wood must be close, firm grained, and free from red heart or red-heart streaks; sound knots not over 1^ ins. diameter will be allowed, but knots must not be in groups. Sap wood will be allowed on one or more of the four sides to an extent of not more than 15 per cent of the surface of any one side, and at any one point throughout the length of the piece. FIR. This shall be of the variety of Douglas fir, sometimes called Oregon or Washington fir, and may be the yellow or red variety, preferably the first. It shall not have at any point of its length and at any edge sap wood more than 2 ins. in width, and shall be free from knots over 1 ins. diameter, except that in long stringers sound knots not over 2^ ins. diameter will not be cause for rejection if not more than 4 ft. from the end. POINTING. In silt and very soft soils, piles are usually driven with a square end, but in the harder soils they will have to be pointed, and in some cases pro- vided with an iron shoe. There are several kinds of these shoes made, but those which are made with a socket and flat surface for the pile to set on will drive the best and not be so liable to split the pile as FIG. 8. FIG. 9. FIG. 10. some others. Figs. 8, 9, 10 show very good styles of shoes and ones that will drive well. SPECIFICATIONS. 13 DRIVING. When the piles are being driven the superin- tendent should see that the large end is cut off square so that the hammer will strike it square and solid; he should see that rings are used on the head of the pile to keep it from splitting or brooming. It is customary in driving piles to lay the ring on the top of the pile and let the hammer at the first blow sink the ring into the wood. This is all right, providing the ring is nearly as large as the pile, but if a small ring is used in this way it causes large layers or splinters to split off the pile five or six feet in length. The superintendent should see that rings of different sizes are used or have the head of the pile chamfered off to suit the ring. A patent cap shown in Fig. 13 is now taking the place of rings in driving as .shown. It is made to fit over the top of the pile B and is lifted with the hammer after the pile is driven. Before driving, the pile should be stripped of all the bark, as it has a tendency to promote decay. The superintendent should see that the bottom end of the piles are perfectly square if they are being driven with a square end, or if pointed, see that the point is made true and in the centre of the pile; if the point is not true or the end not square it will cause the pile to glance when being driven. Piles when driven in salt water should be thoroughly impreg- nated with creosote or some other preservative to protect FIG. 11. FIG. 12. them from the ravages of the teredo. The life of a pile where exposed to these mollusks is from three to five years, and when 14 PILES FOR FOUNDATIONS. impregnated with a preservative it lengthens their life about three years. Fig. 11 shows the appearance of a pile eaten by the teredo, and Fig. 12 shows a pile eaten off by limnoria. FIG. 13. During the driving of piles the superintendent should watch the penetration at each blow, and if a hard strata is en- countered and the pile drives hard he should have the lift of the hammer reduced and a shorter fall given or there will be danger of splitting the pile. He should keep a close look- out for short piles and see that each pile is long enough to give the desired penetration. TESTING. The only reliable way to ascertain the carrying power of a pile is by actual experiment with a pile driven in the foundation where they are to be used. To do this several piles should be driven in the foundation and four of them left up high enough to build a platform on, as shown in Fig. 14. The platform should then be evenly loaded with the desired weight or until the piles move. In this way a reliable test can be made, and where a structure of any importance is to rest on a foundation of piles the superintendent should insist on a complete test being made. SPECIFICATIONS. 15 The following table and formula taken from Engineering News has been used by a number of engineers and has been pronounced FIG. 14. very reliable. The table is for spruce piles and average penetra- tion during last five blows of a 1200-pound hammer dropping 15 feet. BEARING VALUE OF PILES. Nature of Soil. Length of Pile in Feet. Average Diam- eter in Inches. Penetra- tion in Inches. Load in Tons. Silt 40 10 6 2 75 Mud 30 8 2 6 Soft earth with boulders and logs . . . Moderately firm earth or clay with boulders and logs Soft earth or clay. 30 30 30 8 8 10 1.5 1 1 7.2 9 g Quicksand. . 30 8 5 12 30 8 5 12 Firm earth into sand or gravel Firm earth to rock. 20 20 8 8 .25 o 14 18 Sand 20 8 18 Gravel. . 15 8 18 The formula is: Safe load in pounds = 2WH s+r in which W equals weight of the hammer in pounds, H its fall in feet, S average penetration in inches during last five blows. 16 CONCRETE PILES. The following from the New York building code will be a good guide for the superintendent: "Sec. 25. No pile shall be used of less dimensions than 5 inches at the small end and 10 inches at the butt for short piles, or piles 20 feet in length, and 12 inches at the butt for long piles, or more than 20 feet in length. No pile shall be loaded with a load exceeding 40,000 pounds. When a pile is not driven to refusal, its safe sustaining power shall be determined by the following formula: Twice the weight of the hammer in tons multiplied by the height of the fall in feet divided by least penetration of the pile under the last blow in inches plus one." There have been cases where piles which were driven for a railroad trestle and which supported a moving load were driven in sand and gravel, and to a depth and resistance which figured an ultimate load of 60 tons; after a few weeks of use under an engine load of about 30 tons the piles settled. This no doubt was caused by the vibration, and the piles resting on a wet sand or gravel caused the water to collect and act something like a water jet, thus causing the piles to settle. Thus it will be seen that there are cases where no formula will give definite results, and this is where the superintendent must use good judgment in testing a pile and its foundation. Concrete Piles. Concrete piles are now being used with good success. One form of pile, Fig. 15, is made by casting the concrete and reinforcing it with steel. After they are thoroughly set and dry they are driven like an ordinary pile, except a special cap is used to prevent shattering the head of the pile. Another type called the Raymond, Fig. 16, has been used, which consists of a thin shell of metal with a strong core inside to take the shock of driving; after the shell and core are driven to the desired depth, the core, which is col- lapsible, is withdrawn and the shell filled with concrete. These piles are usually made with a large taper, as this gives them a large bearing area and permits the core to be taken out easily; about 6 inches at the bottom and 20 inches at the top is the usual size. By a test made in Chicago, one of these piles carried as much as three wooden ones having the same diameter at the point. And at Schenectady, N. Y., they were loaded with from 32,000 to 48,000 pounds per pile without settlement. The soil was a soft fill. Figs. 17 and 18 show what is known as the Simplex Pile. A wrought-iron or steel cylinder with a concrete point is driven STEEL SHEET-PILING. 17 like any ordinary pile, then the reinforcing is put inside the shell and it is filled with concrete, the shell being drawn as the concrete is filled up. There have been used in the building of the wharves in San Francisco harbor concrete piles made by forcing down a shell '-iY <$$ FIG. 15. FIG. 16. W$ FIG. 18. of wood 2 to 3 feet in diameter and after pumping it out filling it with concrete. The wooden shell is left on and by the time it decays or the teredo has destroyed it the concrete is hard and a concrete pile is the result. (See page 165 as to mixing concrete, etc.) Steel Sheet-piling. Fig. 19 shows a section of a sheet- piling made by the Friestedt Interlocking Channel Bar Co. of 18 STEEL SHEET-PILING. Chicago; the piling is built up of channels and Z bars and locks together as driven. L-V--- * -12% ->, Straight H Rivets' Sheeting FIG. 19. Another type of sheet-piling shown by Fig. 20 is manu- factured by the H. Wittekind Interlocking Metal Piling Co. Piles of this kind are valuable for use in foundation- work, as they can be driven around the space to be excavated and the Sheeting interlocked FIG. 20. interior then taken out, the piling holding up the embankment and tending to keep out any water. Fig. 21 shows a new style of steel sheet-piling which has recently been introduced, in which each pile is a single piece, complete in itself without rivets, bolts, or other attachments. The piles are of a special rolled section, consisting of a flat web with a cylindrical rib on each edge, the outer end of each rib CAPPING OF PILES. 19 being slotted, as shown in the accompanying cut. The ribs are not of the same diameter, but the smaller rib of one pile fits easily within the larger rib of the adjacent pile, while the slot admits the web. This allows some flex- ibility in changing the direction of the line of piling, but for turning corners there is a special section of pile having the web bent in a curve or at an angle. The joints can be made water-tight by packing them with suitable material. The cut shows piles for a spacing of 12 inches, weighing 40 pounds per foot, but they are rolled in several sizes, according to the length and character of the work. This form of sheet-piling is the invention of Mr. Samuel K. Behrend, and is manufactured and sold by the United States Steel Piling Co., 135 Adams Street, Chicago. Capping of Piles. After the piles are driven, the superintendent should see that they are cut off below low-water line. They should be cut off level and on a line so that the capping will have a true and equal bearing on each pile. WOOD-CAPPING, OR GRILLAGE. Where wood-capping is used the piles must be cut off low enough so that the timber in the grillage will be below low-water line, otherwise it will decay. The timbers are usually laid longitudinally on top of the piles and these timbers in turn crossed with short timbers, forming a floor to start the masonry on. In putting in these timbers the superintendent should pay close attention to see that the timbers have a bearing on each and every pile and are fastened to them with long drift bolts. The timbers should be strictly No. 1, free from any decay or other imperfection. STEEL GRILLAGE. Steel beams are used extensively for capping, being bedded in concrete; where they are used, the superintendent should see that the beams rest on each and every pile and that the beams are heavily coated with asphalt, or that concrete or cement mortar is put around them in such a manner that the beams will be thoroughly coated with cement, other- wise they will rust. CONCRETE CAPPING. Concrete, which is much used for cap- ping of piles, is. one of the best materials for this purpose, for when it is put in properly it forms one continuous stone having 20 CAPPING OF PILES. a solid bed on all the piles. The superintendent should see that the piles are cut off square and the dirt cleaned away so the concrete can be rammed around the top of the pile to a depth of a foot or more. He should also pay strict attention to the mixing of the concrete and the ramming of it as described on pages 174 and 178, as this work is very often slighted unless the workmen know there is some person watching them. Concrete capping is very often reinforced with steel beams or railroad rails. These should be free from rust or dirt and coated with asphalt, or close attention given to covering them with a coat of cement mortar or concrete. If the concrete is rammed solid enough around the beams it will in itself form a protection, but this takes much care and time and will require the strict attention of the superintendent. The New York building code says: "The tops of all piles shall be cut off below the lowest water line. When required, concrete shall be rammed down in the interspaces between the heads of the piles to a depth and thick- ness not less than 12 inches and for 1 foot in width outside the piles. Where ranging and capping timbers are laid on the piles for foundations, they shall be of hard wood not less than 6 inches thick and properly joined together, and their tops laid below the lowest water line. Where metal is incor- porated in or forms part of the foundation it shall be thoroughly protected from rust by paint, asphaltum, concrete, or by such materials and in such manner as may be approved by the Commissioner of Buildings. When footings of iron or steel for columns are placed below the water level, they shall be similarly coated or enclosed in concrete for preservation from rust." When concrete is used for capping it should be allowed to harden before any additional weight is built upon it, or the ground may give between the piles and the piles will act like a series of punches forcing their way up through the concrete. GRANITE CAPPING. When granite capping is used the superintendent should see that the piles are driven in such a manner and the granite blocks are of such a size that a stone will not rest on more than three piles, as it is hard to get a stone to rest evenly on more, as shown by Fig. 22. The superintendent should see that the bottom bed of the stones is cut true, and in setting them it is well to put a bed of strong cement mortar on top of the piles, as this will insure CAPPING OP PILES. 21 a solid bearing on each pile, The granite blocks should be of such sizes that they will break joints as much as possible, as shown by Fig. 22. On top of this capping the footing-course L o o o o o o o o FIG. 22. FIG. 23. should be laid, each stone extending beyond the lines of the wall as shown by Fig. 23. SPREAD FOOTINGS. In many instances the footings of a structure have to be spread or extended out so as to cover ground enough to insure the carrying of the building, and in some cases the entire area of the foundation is covered with a grillage of steel or iron beams bedded in concrete. The superin- tendent should see that the surface of the foundation which it is intended to cover is carefully levelled off and the concrete laid in layers of not more than 8 inches in thickness, and that the beams are coated with asphalt or covered with cement. It has been demonstrated that iron or steel bedded in concrete, where the iron or steel was completely covered and the cement and iron in contact at all points, that the iron or steel will not rust. Only the best Portland cement and clean sharp sand should be used for this work. See page 168. The Chicago Building Law says: "If steel or iron rails or beams are used as parts of foundations, they must be thoroughly imbedded in a concrete the ingredients of which must be such that after proper ramming the interior of the mass will be free from cavities. The beams or rails must be entirely enveloped in concrete, and around the exposed external surfaces of such concrete foundations there must be a coating of a standard cement mortar not less than 1 inch thick." The foundation should be prepared by first laying a bed of concrete to a depth of from 4 to 12 inches and then placing upon this a row of I beams at right angles to the face of the wall. In the case of heavy piers the beams may be crossed in two directions. Their distances apart, from centre to centre, I BEAMS IN FOUNDATIONS. may vary from 9 to 24 inches, according to circumstances, i.e., length of their projection beyond the masonry, thickness of concrete, estimated pressure per square foot, etc. They should be placed at least far enough apart to permit the introductiou of the concrete filling and its proper tamping between the beams. Unless the concrete is of unusual thickness, it will not be advisable to exceed 20-inch spacing, since otherwise the concrete may not be of sufficient strength to properly transmit the upward pressure to the beams. The most useful applica- tion of this method of founding is in localities where a thin and comparatively compact stratum overlies another of a more yielding nature. By using I beams in such cases, the requisite spread at the base may be obtained without either penetrating the firm upper stratum or carrying the footing courses to such a height as to encroach unduly upon the basement room. I Beams as Used in Foundations. METHOD OF CAL- CULATION. The following cuts and tables which have been prepared by The Carnegie Steel Co. give the strength and safe projection of beams used in foundations and footings. The same precautions should be taken with these beams as described on page 19. The known quantities in this calculation are the load (L) on the column in tons, the allowable bearing capacity per square foot of ground in tons (6), and the projections p, p', p" in feet for the various tiers of beams. Figure the separate areas covered by the successive tiers of beams and divide the load on the column by these areas. The quotients will give their respective pressures b, b'', b" per square foot. Assume any spacing in inches, generally greatest for the lowest tier of beams and about 9 inches for the top course. Find the corresponding figure for such spacing and pres- sure in the table on page 23 and multiply it by the correspond- ing projection. This product will give the modulus M. In the table of moduli find the beam corresponding to this product. For any other spacing or pressure than those given find M from the formula M = p i . A/12 C Assume p=3 ft. 6 in., p' = 5ft. . Let L = 588 tons ) . _ . , , Q . Let 6= 3 tons) ' " "' y ( Then b' = 6 tons and b" = 24 tons. I BEAMS IN FOUNDATIONS. 23 Use 15 in. spacing for lowest tier of beams. -^ " C{ 2d " " " 9 3d " " " Now using the above method of calculation we have for the respective tiers: 3.5 X 1.937 = 6.78 =mod. corresponding to 12-in. 31.5-lb. beam. 5.25 X 2.450 = 12.86 =mod. corresponding to 20-in, 75-lb. beam. 1.75X4.243=7.43=mod. corresponding to 12-in. 40-lb. beam. TABLES GIVING THE SIZE AND WEIGHT OF BEAMS FOR s = 9, 12, 15, 18, 24 INCHES, 6 = 1 TO 50 TONS PER SQUARE FOOT, AND p = VARIABLE IN FEET. a ^ Spacing of I Beams. 03 4 1 a "1 &. M g Is 11 "3 ~ 11 "9 J = ad . . Middleton. . . 21,460 Waterford 23 510 f Meriden (trap rock) Kirkland rocks. . . . 34,920 35 000 1(36 , Lord's Island Mystic River. . 24,000 22 250 164 New H/iTen 9,750 * Millstown Point Milford 16,187 22,600 169 < New London 12,500 166 Lithonia 25 630 Maine. . . Hurricane Isle 19,538 167 Jonesboro (red). . . 24 507 23 111 . North Jay (red). . . . 22367 Dix Island 15 000 166 Fox Island (blue) 15 000 164 Sharkey's Quarry. 22 125 170 Vinalhaven (gray) 17,000 20 296 164 Milford (pink) 30 888 < Milford (Norcross Bros ). 20 883 t Quincy (dark) 17 750 166 i Quincv (light) 14 750 166 t 15 937 Huron Island. . 18 125 164 24 181 East St. Cloud. . 28 000 168 Duluth (dark) 17 631 175 < < Duluth (light) 19 000 New Hampshire Troy 17 950 168 Keene (blue gray). . . 12 000 166 New^York Goshen Staten Island (blue). . . 23,500 22 250 178 M Tarrytown 18 250 162 New Jersey Scotch Plains (trap rock) Passaic Co. (gray) 17,950 24 040 1 1 Jersey City. . 20 750 189 Rhode Island. . . . Westerly (gray) 17*500 165 South Carolina Carlisle. 29 150 Texas Burnet Co 11 891 176 Vermont . . Barre (dark). . . 19 975 Barre (light) 17 856 Virginia Peters 25 100 " " * Richmond . . 25 520 The argillaceous is a soft stone cemented with a clayey matter and disintegrates very easily. The calcareous stone is cemented with carbonate of lime. This stone is soft and easy to work, but does not weather well. In ferruginous stone the cementing material is composed of iron oxides, which cause the red or brown color. This stone is harder than the two last mentioned; does not work so easy, but stands the weather well. 32 SANDSTONE. Ot^ IN 00 00 CO O 1C CO CO I-H * 00 b- GO COCO 05t^COCOOOCl^O)cr!COiO^ ZOOM'S 4, B-^"^ Illillr |jr g-s- ilfililijl tfrt* H^IJ^CQPipHtf^CQ . 'in. fi SANDSTONE. 33 PRODUCTION AND USE OF GRANITE IN U. S. DURING THE YEAR 1901. State. Sold in the Rough. Dressed for Build- ing. Dressed for Mon- umental Work. Made into Paving Blocks. Build- ing. Monu- mental. Other. $2,627 46,300 5,750 29,533 32,191 328,087 401,189 51,637 364,721 20,002 40,651 112,581 87,933 33,025 10,862 15,7 1 2 27,666 8.276 52,089 California Colorado Connecticut $24,057 45,650 108,959 9,069 54,321 100 } 2,340 407,418 181,608 333,047 13,215 550 1 $38,755 7,562 26,267 ' 22,315 5,000 24,475 20,180 236,327 42,197 17,406 52,231 2,515 1,325 4,105 250 1,050 92,974 23,433 ' ll,52i 3,300 534,755 8,300 2,250 79,175 $6,815 $358,832 60,835 94,611 1,750 57,207 7,800 1,501,797 188,568 455,535 55,017 15,600 363,957 19,888 97,350 68,975 3,900 18,916 160,190 165,594 1,650 243 $72,257 1,787 70,894 400 14,526 76,276 7,800 236,273 ' 96,902 3,500 171,239 6,283 6,813 1,116 227 198,831 12,789 10,400 24,384 2,678 2,725 27,447 1,500 118,567 1,550 2,095 9,797 6,150 2,212 1,590 4,538 110 5,730 2,159 Georgia Idaho Indian Territory. Kansas . . Maine Maryland Massachusetts. .. Michigan Minnesota Missouri Montana Nevada New Hampshire. New Jersey New York North Carolina . . Oregon . . 156,832 60,905 24,312 27,464 3,748 63,568 9,722 56,831 25,106 2,652 2,288 208,825 40,763 9,100 3,575 2,810 Pennsylvania. . . Rhode Island. . . South Carolina. . South Dakota. . . Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington Wisconsin Wyoming Total 101,779 230 28,6 15 16,343 45,737 3,000 17,999 354,563 52,404 62,277 16,304 17,253 3,360 113,682 1,878,835 1,257,668 350,071 3,781,294 1,457,557 1,821,431 The silicious stone, being cemented with silica, which has about the same composition as the grains of sand of which the stone is composed, makes a stone very hard and one which will weather well. The color of the stone is usually due to the amount of iron contained in it. The more iron the darker the stone. The iron oxides in the stone do no harm, but iron pyrites or sulphate of iron in light sandstones is sure to stain or rust the stone. Sandstone being of a sedimentary formation, it is usually found in the quarry in layers, or there is a well-defined grain to the stone in the direction of its natural bed, which causes it to split readily. In working the stone, the superintendent should see that the stone is cut so it will set in the wall as it lay in the quarry, or on its natural bed. If it is set on edge it is sure to scale off as the frost and moisture penetrates it. As nearly all the sandstones are very soft when first quarried 34 SANDSTONE. the superintendent should see that too much weight is not put on them until they have had time to season or harden after being taken from the quarry. The defects usually found in sandstones are "drys" (seams which are not cemented together), and holes or cavities filled with sand or clay or uncemented material. Sandstones are of great variety and color, and are found in all parts of the country, the different colors coming from different localities. Dark brown is found near Portland, Conn. ; Hummelstown, Pa.; Marquette, Mich.; West Virginia; North Carolina; Indiana; Arizona, and Colorado. Red is found at East Longmeadow, Mass. ; Potsdam, N. Y. ; Fon du Lac, Minn. ; Manitou, Col. ; Glenrock, Wyoming, and Portage Entry, Mich. (Lake Superior sandstone). Perhaps the most extensively used sandstone comes from Ohio, near Cleveland, and is of a light buff or gray color. Missouri has several quarries of a gray sandstone which has been used extensively in St. Louis and Kansas City. The following table shows some of the principal quarries and buildings in which the stone has been used. State. Location of Quarry. Building Used in. Color of Stone. Conn. , Portland Technology Building, Boston. . . . Brown 1 ' Astor Library, New York City. .. Brown * * Music Hall Buffalo N Y Brown Union League Club B'ld'g. Pbila. Brown i Savings Bank of Baltimore Brown Residence of W. H. Vanderbilt, New York Brown Colo. . Fort^Collins. . . Grace Methodist Church, Denver Dark red Union Pacific Depot , Cheyenne, Wyoming Dark red Mass. . Longmeadow. . Union League Club, Chicago Red Trimmings Trinity C'ch, Boston.. Red Mich. . Portage Entry New Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, N.Y. Red ( Lake Superior) Do. do. U. S. Post-office, Rockford, 111 ... Red ' Marquette .... Court House, Muskegon, Mich . . . Brown Minn. . Kettle River . . Library Bldg., Univ. of Illinois. .. Cream Fond du Lac. . Presbyterian Church, Minneap- olis, Minn Reddish brown N. Y. . Potsdam Parliament B'ld'gs, Ottawa, Ont. Red Medina Columbia College, New York City. U. S. Government Building, Roch- Red ester, N. Y Pink Ohio. . Amherst Palmer House, Chicago Buff State Capitol, Lansing, Mich .... State Historical Library, Minne- Buff apolis, Minn Buff < Wood Co., Ohio, Court House. . . . Gray Berea. . '.'.'.'.'.'. U. S. Post-office, Minneapolis, Minn Blue-gray Pa. ... Hummelstown U. S. Marine Barracks, League Island Brown SANDSTONE. 35 The following table shows the value of the sandstone produc- tion in the United States from 1897 to 1901, inclusive, by States. VALUE OF SANDSTONE PRODUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES FROM 1897 TO 1901, INCLUSIVE, BY STATES. State. 1897. 1898. 1899. 1900. 1901. Alabama Arizona $3,000 15,000 $27,882 57,444 $71,675 4,168 $7,132 64,000 $8,680 202,500 Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut. . . Georgia 3,161 4,035 60,847 364,604 24,825 358,908 89,637 215,733 73,616 261,193 129,815 271,623 104,923 200,090 119,658 192,593 600 62,825 301,028 237,331 146,814 Idaho . . 438 20 843 Illinois 14,250 13,758 16,133 19,141 12,884 Indiana . . 35,561 45,342 35,636 45,063 34 959 Iowa Kansas Kentucky. . . . Louisiana. . . 14,771 20,953 40,000 8,000 7,102 19,528 72,525 2J0.500 24,348 49,629 119,982 1 226,503 19,063 55,173 56,178 2 118, 192 14,341 49,901 108,259 13 646 ' 24 428 6 655 4 546 Massachusetts. Michigan Minnesota. . . . 194,684 171,127 158,057 57 583 91,287 222,376 175,810 48,795 131,877 320,192 294,615 57,662 153,427 238,650 267,000 53,401 247,310 290,578 246,685 42 170 Montana 25,644 3,682 26,160 59,630 60,719 515 New Jersey. . . New Mexico . . 190,976 257,217 3,500 147,768 1,829 193,234 2,500 244,512 New York. . . . N. Carolina. . . Ohio Oregon 544,514 11,500 1,600,058 566,133 9,100 1,494,746 7,864 1,218,053 10,300 1,775,642 4 153 1,467,496 27,210 2,233,596 5 450 1,331,327 11,682 2,576,723 531 Pennsylvania. South Dakota. 380,813 478,451 9,000 3717,053 18,325 1,050,248 12,675 11 300 2,063,082 17,647 10 342 Texas Utah 30,030 7,907 77,190 15,752 35,738 29,091 37,038 66,733 111,568 38,919 Virginia 8 000 6 000 5 303 Washington. . . West Virginia . Wisconsin. . . . Wyoming 16,187 47,288 33,623 11,275 15,575 14,381 80,341 6,382 58,395 33,860 132,901 32,583 68,133 72,438 81,571 27,671 89,174 106,710 90,425 54,145 Totals. . . . 4,065,445 4,721,412 6,362.944 7,149,300 8,844,978 1 Includes small amounts for Idaho and Nevada. 2 Includes Mississippi. 3 Includes bluestone. The following table gives the crushing strength per square inch and weight per cubic foot of sandstones found in various parts of the country. The working strength of any stone should not be more than one-tenth of its crushing, strength. The New York Building Code gives the working strength of sandstones at 400 to 1600 pounds per square inch, according to test. 36 LIMESTONE. STRENGTH AND WEIGHT OF SANDSTONES. State. Location. Color. Strength per Sq. Inch. Weight per Sq. Foot. Arizona California Flagstaff. . Chocolate 5,857 8,880 11,500 11,707 11,000 10,871 6,950 16,890 6,000 6,090 6,805 7,500 15,160 11,595 9,687 10,700 17,000 6,250 6,019 6,776 7,450 18,401 17,250 12,677 142 i49 140 140 148 156 152 154 149 164 139 145 126 158 162 150 Colusa Colorado Connecticut. . . . Indiana St. Vrains Fort Collins Red Gray. Manitou Portland. . Red Middletown Cromwell Riverside Brown Gray. Iowa Kansas Kentucky Massachusetts. . Missouri Minnesota Michigan La Grande Blue Valley Falls Langford East Longmeadow. Warrensburg Kasota Kettle River Frontenac Redrock Portage Entry (Lake Superior) Marquette Red. . Blue gray Pink. . Pinkish buff. . . Buff Red New York. .... Potsdam Red. . Medina Pink Blue . . New Jersey .... North Carolina . Ohio Oxford Warsaw Blue 19,868 13,500 9,850 4,350 11,700 13,310 12,750 5,000 5,950 9,450 9,510 6,800 8,850 8,750 13,097 22,250 29,250 6,914 11,452 6,116 1(1,276 6,237 10,883 167 157 133 147 148 134 133 134 140 135 iee i38 Albion Little Falls. . Brown Brown. . Haverstraw Belleville . . Red Gray. Carthage. . Brown Seneca Reddish brown Lancaster Amherst Berea Cleveland Buff Dark drab. . . . Olive-green. . . . Drab Yellow-drab. .. Brown < < 1 1 Verrr.illion. . . . Pennsylvania. . South Dakota . . Washington. . . . Wisconsin Wyoming Massilon Hummelstown Laurel Run White Haven Hot Springs Rapid City Gray Red. . Chuckanut Fon du Lac Rawlins Purple The table on the page opposite gives the chemical analyses of some of the principal sandstones. Limestone. The varieties of limestones used for building purposes are: Oolitic, limestones which are composed of small round grains that have been cemented together with lime to form a solid rock; magnesian limestones, which contain 10 per cent or more of carbonate of magnesia; dolomite, limestones which are an aggregation of the mineral dolomite; the latter is LIMESTONE. 37 O5 -CO -I-HCO -O -Oi-H -T-I -COO -i-iN. -d -05 -00 -J>05 O -O (N -t^-OOiOCDOOO O O t- GO O O --1 --I O r-i i i-i iO t^ (N -^ O5 CO CO 00 O3 GO i-H O --I rH rt I-H O5 00 >O ^5 O O CN CO -CO I-H i ^^^^^? : :^^S^ :$Z 'coi-i O5 ^O CO O 00 t-H O W O IO O5 O5 lO COrtCOCO -iOOiOOOt>OrtOO5i-i^-iO5O SiO -CO Oi-iO -O rn -3 COCO(N -CO * ^^ -t^^ . -(N or sixth course, as the case may be, shall be a header, and it is the duty of the superintendent FIG. 97. FIG. 98. to see that this is strictly carried out, and that each header course is lapped through the wall, as shown by Fig. 97 or Fig. 98. 80 BRICKS AND BRICK-LAYING. In facework, where it is not desired to show the headers, they are usually put in as shown by Fig. 99. This is called 1 1 1 1 Fi s. 99. clipped or diagonal secrete bond. Fig. 100 shows another style of secrete bond; the stretcher course is clipped to half its width, and a three-quarter bond course laid behind, as shown. \ \ \ V IVVVX \ \A _.. , K~ B V B \ B^ "\ \ y i i i i i i i i i ~ i FIG. 100. Metal wall ties of various kinds are also used for bonding the face brick to the main wall. When these are used the superin- tendent should see that they are used in sufficient numbers, and the two courses of brick brought as near level as possible where the tie is to be used. A in Fig. 101 shows a bad method of using these ties, as there is too much difference in the height of the courses; B in Fig. 101 shows how they should be used, as the strain on the tie is tensile and there is no chance for it to spring or give. At best wall ties are a very poor method of tying the face of a wall to the main structure, and the author cannot recommend their use. The strongest wall is obtained when header courses are used in the face of the wall. Fig. 102 shows the common form of BRICKS AND BRICK-LAYING. 81 bond in which a header course is run at intervals of, say, every six courses. This header course should be started with a quarter or three-quarter brick, as shown at A and B, of which that at A looks the best. 1 ' FIG. 102. A FIG. 103. Fig. 103 shows the wrong way of starting, and brings three vertical joints over each other, as shown at A. Fig. 104 shows what is known as Flemish bond, in which every alternate brick is a header. In this style of work every alternate course should have headers of full brick, and not "bats." The mason will try to work in as many "bats" as possible so as to save face brick, and it will require watching on the part of the superintendent to prevent it. JL_ J L J L J L J L J 1 J L III II I ' l FIG. 104. FIG. 105. Fig. 105 shows English bond in which every alternate course is a header course; in this work every sixth course of brick should be a full header course. English cross-bond shown by Fig. 106 is similar to the English bond, except that each alternate stretcher course breaks joints with the stretcher course below. This divides the face of the wall up into St. George's crosses, as shown by 1, 2, 3, Fig. 106, and makes a very pleasing appear- ance to the eye. Fig. 107 shows how this work should be carried around quoins, etc. In all facework it will be the duty of the superin- tendent to see that tliejaaagea^^keeps his joints plumb and in 82 BRICKS AND BRICK-LAYING. line. Fig. 108 at A shows the distorted appearance of a wall laid in English cross-bond, in which the joints were not kept plumb. Fig. 108 at B shows the work as it should be. D 1 1 1 B I 1 1 I 1 1 I ! ! 1 ! 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 III 1 1 2 | | 1 II! 1 1 3 I 1 1 1 II 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 ! 1 1 1 1 c FIG. 106. A The author has often found it necessary to have the mason mark out a pole, as shown by Fig. 109, and mark on it the 1 1,1 1 1 J I I I 1 1 I 1 1 I 1 1 J I . I I l'l I 1 FIG. 107. FIG. 108. position of the joints in the stretcher courses; for instance, 1,1,1 on the pole will be the position of the joints in one course, and 2, 2, 2 will be the position of the joints in the next stretcher FIG. 109. course. The pole should be made so that one end of it can be held at the corner of the wall or pier, so that it will always be held in the same position. After the header course is laid the pole should be used and each joint of the stretcher course marked off; after the stretcher is laid the header course can be centred with the eye; then repeat the operation for the next stretcher. BRICKS AND BRICK-LAYING. 83 The joints should line up, as shown at AB, Fig. 106, and form a true diagonal step, as shown from C to D, The superintendent should instruct the foreman of the work how he desires to have the work done, and any work not done correctly, have it taken down and done over; this is the only sure way of making brick-masons do perfect work. In backing up stone ashlar or other like work, the superin- tendent must see that the bond courses in the brickwork are built in at the proper place to bond with the stone, as shown by Fig. 110. In finishing to the top of a thin course of stone the last course FIG. 110. FIG. 111. of brick should have a header, as shown at A in Fig. Ill, so that the next course of ashlar will lap onto it and form a bond with it. The superintendent should never allow more than two courses of stone set ahead of the brick-mason; first a thick or bond course, and then a thin one, as shown by Fig. 111. Then the mason can back up these two courses, as shown by Fig. 110, when the wall will be ready to set two more courses of ashlar. Unless the superintendent cautions the mason against it, they will run up three or four courses of ashlar by filling in a course of brick, as shown by Fig. 112. This should never be permitted, as it makes a vertical joint through the wall, as shown from A to B. The superintendent should occasionally, as the walls are being buiit, sight along and down the face of them, to see if they are 84 BRICKS AND BRICK-LAYING. being built straight and plumb; some masons will keep working "hard" against the line until they have the wall considerably out of plumb. FIG. 112. FIG. 113. Where there are projection courses in the outside wall, they should be covered with lead, as shown by Fig. 1135; some- FIG. 114. FIG. 115. times they are covered with cement mortar, as shown by Fig. 113 A; this is not so reliable as the lead, for the cement may crack and work loose. BRICKS AND BRICK-LAYING. 85 In turning arch lintels over door or other openings, it is cus- tomary to use wood centre, as shown by Fig. 114. The superintendent should see that the arch is started at the end of. the wood centre, as shown by Fig. 114, and not as shown by Fig. 115, as this throws the weight onto the wood. Arches are usually built of concentric rings or header courses, as shown by Fig. 116. Where the arch is to carry a heavy load FIG. 116. FIG. 117. it is advisable to tie the courses together, as shown at A, Fig. 117. When an arch springs off an outside wall or pier, or where there will be nothing to counteract the thrust of the arch, it is advis- able to build in an I beam, as shown by Fig. 118, and have it anchored solid top and bottom with a bolt or rod extending back into the main wall. Where there are chases or re- cesses for pipes or vent flues to be built in the wall, the superintend- ent should see that they are located correctly, and that they are built straight and plumb ; these chases or recesses should be shut off at each floor level after the pipes are in place, and before plastering, so as to prevent any egress from floor to floor in case of fire. Where walls are built to any great height or length with nothing to brace them, the superintendent should have them, braced temporarily until the mortar hardens, or until the floor-beams are put in place. In narrow buildings where an engine and elevator are used for hoisting the superintendent should see that the strain from the platform to the engine is lengthwise of the building. The author saw a case where a six-story building had to be taken FIG. 118. 86 BRICKS AND BRICK-LAYING, down when the walls reached the sixth floor, because the engine and elevator had been set crosswise of the building, and the strain and vibration caused the walls to "creep" until they were 6 inches out of plumb. The superintendent should see that all walls are protected from the weather as they are being built, and covered every night, especially front or outside walls. HOLLOW WALLS. In building hollow walls, such as are sometimes built for ventilation, etc., the superintendent must see that they are properly anchored or tied together, and that holes are left at the bottom so the space can be cleaned out at completion of the wall. CHIMNEYS. In building chimneys the superintendent must see that the flues are built straight and with as few bends as possible, and that all joints in the brickwork are slushed full of mortar, and where flue-lining is not used, see that the inside of the flue is plastered smooth. The top of a chimney above the roof should be laid in cement mortar. When the chimney is com- pleted, the superintendent should have a weight dropped down each flue to make sure that it is open its entire length, and not stopped up with "bats" and mortar. The face walls of a building at completion should be washed down with a solution of diluted muriatic acid and all dirt and surplus mortar removed; all open joints left under window- sills, etc., should now be pointed, care being taken to use just enough mortar to fill the face of the joint. HEARTH ARCHES. "Trimmer" or "hearth" arches for the support of a hearth stone or tile are usually built of brick and should be built as shown by Fig. 119; this throws the weight FIG. 119. and thrust nearly all on the chimney and not on the wood joist. A flat wood centre is often used in frame houses, as shown BRICKS AND BRICK-LAYING. 87 by Fig. 120; but the author does not consider this a good method, for the wood in the recess in the brickwork is but 2J or 3 inches away from the flue, which is too close for safety. Where centres FIG. 120. FIG. 121. of this kind are used it is better to corbel out, as shown by Fig. 121; this will give 4 inches of brick between the wood and the flue. BRICK NOGGING. In wooden partitions it is often specified for a course of brick to be built in at the bottom of the story, and also at half height, resting on the bridging; this is to pre- vent the passage of vermin and also act as a fire-stop. The superintendent should see that the brick used in such cases are not wider than the studs, so the lathing can be nailed on straight; where the joist rests on a partition it is well to build "nogging" from the top of this partition to the top of the joist. WA.LLS, PIERS, AND PARTITIONS. The following, taken from the New York Building Code, 1901, is a very good guide for the superintendent : Sec. 27. Materials of Watts. The walls of all buildings, other than frame or wood buildings, shall be constructed of stone, brick, Portland-cement concrete, iron, steel, or other hard, in- combustible material, and the several component parts of such buildings shall be as herein provided. All buildings shall be inclosed on all sides with independent or party walls. Sec. 28. Walls and Piers. In all walls 01 the thickness specified in this code, the same amount of materials may be used in piers or buttresses. Bearing walls shall be taken to mean those walls on which the beams, girders, or trusses rest. If any horizontal section through any part of any bearing wall in any building shows more than 30 per centum area of flues and openings, the said wall shall be increased 4 inches in thick- ness for every 15 per centum, or fraction thereof, of flue or opening area in excess of 30 per centum. The walls and piers of all buildings shall be properly and 88 BRICKS AND BRICK-LATINO. solidly bonded together with close joints filled with mortar- They shall be built to a line and be carried up plumb and straight. The walls of each story shall be built up the full thickness to the top of the beams above. All brick laid in non-freezing weather shall be well wet before being laid. Walls or piers, or parts of walls and piers, shall not be built in freezing weather, and if frozen, shall not be built upon. All piers shall be built of stone or good, hard, well-burnt brick laid in cement mortar. Every pier built of brick, con- taining less than 9 superficial feet at the base, supporting any beam, girder, arch or column on which a wall rests, or lintel spanning an opening over 10 feet and supporting a wall, shall at intervals of not over 30 inches apart in height have built into it a bond-stone not less than 4 inches thick, or a cast-iron plate of sufficient strength and the full size of the piers. For piers fronting on a street the bond-stones may conform with the kind of stone used for the trimmings of the front. Cap- stones of cut granite or bluestone, proportioned to the weight to be carried, but not less than 5 inches in thickness, by the full size of the pier, or cast-iron plates of equal strength, by the full size of the pier, shall be set under all columns or girders, except where a 4-inch bond-stone is placed immediately below said cap-stone, in which case the cap-stone may be reduced in horizontal dimensions at the discretion of the Commissioner of Buildings having jurisdiction. Isolated brick piers shall not exceed in height ten times their least dimensions. Stone posts for the support of posts or columns above shall not be used in the interior of any building. Where walls or piers are built of coursed stones, with dressed level beds and vertical joints, the Department of Buildings shall have the right to allow such walls or piers to be built of a less thickness than specified for brickwork, but in no case shall said walls or piers be less than three-quarters of the thickness provided for brick- work. In all brick walls every sixth course shall be a heading course, except where walls are faced with brick in running bond, in which latter case every sixth course shall be bonded into the backing by cutting the course of the face brick and putting in diagonal headers behind the same, or by splitting the face brick in half and backing the same with a continuous row of headers. Where face brick is used of a different thick- ness from the brick used for backing, the courses of the ex- BRICKS AND BRICK-LAYING. 89 terior and interior brickwork shall be brought to a level bed at intervals of not more than ten courses in height of the face brick, and the face brick shall be properly tied to the backing by a heading course of the face brick. All bearing walls faced with brick laid in running bond shall be 4 inches thicker than the walls are required to be under any section of this Code. Sec. 29. Ashlar. Stone used for the facing of any building, and known as ashlar, skall be not less than 4 inches thick. Stone ashlar shall be anchored to the backing and the back- ing shall be of such thickness as to make the walls, independent of the ashlar, conform as to the thickness with the requirements of sections 31 and 32 of this Code, unless the ashlar be at least 8 inches thick and bonded into the backing, and then it may be counted as part of the thickness of the wall. Iron ashlar plates used in imitation of stone ashlar on the face of a wall shall be backed up with the same thickness of brickwork as stone ashlar. Sec. 30. Mortar for Walls and Ashlar. All foundation-walls, isolated piers, parapet walls and chimneys above roofs shall be laid in cement mortar, but this shall not prohibit the use in cold weather of a small proportion of lime to prevent the mortar from freezing. All other walls built of brick or stone shall be laid in lime, cement, or lime and cement mortar mixed. The backing up of all stone ashlar shall be laid up with cement mortar, or cement and lime mortar mixed, but the back of the ashlar may be pargeted with lime mortar to prevent dis- coloration of the stone. Sec. 31. Walls for Dwelling-houses. The expression "walls for dwelling-houses" shall be taken to mean and include this class walls for the following buildings: Dwellings, asylums, apartment-houses, convents, club-houses, dormitories, hospitals, hotels, lodging-houses, tenements, parish buildings, schools, laboratories, studios. The walls above the basement of dwelling-houses not over three stories and basement in height, nor more than 40 feet in height, and not over 20 feet in width, and not over 55 feet in depth, shall have side and party walls not less than 8 inches thick, and front and rear walls not less than 12 inches thick. All walls of dwellings exceeding 20 feet in width and not exceed- ing 40 feet in height shall be not less than 12 inches thick. All walls of dwellings 26 feet or less in width between bearing-walls which are hereafter erected or which may be altered to be used 90 BRICKS AND BRICK-LAYING. for dwellings, and being over 40 feet in height and not over 50 feet in height, shall be not less than 12 inches thick above the foundation- wall. No wall shall be built having a 12-inch-thick portion measuring vertically more than 50 feet. If over 50 feet in height and not over 60 feet in height the wall shall be not less than 16 inches thick in the story next above the foundation- walls and from thence not less than 12 inches to the top. If over 60 feet in height, and not over 75 feet in height, the walls shall be not less than 16 inches thick above the foundation-walls to the height of 25 feet, or to the nearest tier of beams to that height, and from thence not less than 12 inches thick to the top. If over 75 feet in height, and not over 100 feet in height, the walls shall be not less than 20 inches thick above the foundation-walls to the height of 40 feet, or to the nearest tier of beams to that height, thence not less than 16 inches thick to the height of 75 feet, or to the nearest tier of beams to that height, and thence not less than 12 inches thick to the top. If over 100 feet in height, and not over 125 feet in height, the walls shall be not less than 24 inches thick above the foundation-walls to the height of 40 feet or to the nearest tier of beams to that height, thence not less than 20 inches thick to the height of 75 feet, or to the nearest tier of beams to that height, thence not less than 16 inches thick to the height of 110 feet, or to the nearest tier of beams to that height, and thence not less than 12 inches thick to the top. If over 125 feet in height and not over 150 feet in height, the walls shall be not less than 28 inches thick above the foundation- walls to the height of 30 feet, or to the nearest tier of beams to that height; thence not less than 24 inches thick to the height of 65 feet, or to the nearest tier of beams to that height; thence not less than 20 inches thick to the height of 100 feet, or to the nearest tier of beams to that height; thence not less than 16 inches thick to the height of 135 feet, or to the nearest tier of beams to that height, and thence not less than 12 inches thick to the top. If over 150 feet in height, each additional 30 feet in height or part thereof, next above the foundation-walls, shall be increased 4 inches in thickness, the upper 150 feet of wall remaining the same as specified for a wall of that height. All non-fireproof dwelling-houses erected under this section, exceeding 26 feet in width, shall have brick fore-and-aft parti- tion-walls. All non-bearing walls of buildings hereinbefore in BRICKS AND BRICK-LAYING. 91 this section specified may be 4 inches less in thickness, provided however, that none are less than 12 inches thick, except as in this Code specified. 8-inch brick partition-walls may be built to support the beams in such building in which the distance between the main or bearing walls is not over 33 feet; if the distance between the main or bearing walls is over 33 feet the brick partition- wall shall be not less than 12 inches thick; provided, that no clear span is over 26 feet. No wall shall be built having any one thickness measuring vertically more than 53 feet. This section shall not be construed to prevent the use of iron or steel girders, or iron or steel girders and columns, or piers of masonry, for the support of the walls and ceilings over any room which has a clear span of more than 26 feet between walls, in such dwellings as are not constructed fire- proof, nor to prohibit the use of iron or steel girders, or iron or steel girders and columns in place of brick walls in buildings which are to be used for dwellings when constructed fireproof. If the clear span is to be over 26 feet, then the bearing-walls shall be increased 4 inches in thickness for every 12| feet or part thereof that said span is over 26 feet, or shall have, instead of the increased thickness, such piers or buttresses as, in the judgment of the Commissioner of Buildings having jurisdiction, may be necessary. Whenever two or more dwelling-houses shall be constructed not over 12 feet 6 inches in width, and not over 50 feet in height, the alternating centre wall between any two such houses shall be of brick not less than 8 inches thick above the foundation- wall; and the ends of the floor-beams shall be so separated that 4 inches of brickwork will be between the beams where they rest on the said centre wall. Sec. 32. Walls for Warehouses. The expression "walls for warehouses" shall be taken to mean and include in this class walls for the following buildings: Warehouses, stores, factories, mills, printing-houses, pumping- stations, refrigerating-houses, slaughter-houses, wheelwright- shops, cooperage-shops, breweries, light- and power-houses, sugar-refineries, office-buildings, stables, markets, railroad buildings, jails, police-stations, court-houses, observatories, foundries, machine-shops, public assembly buildings, armories, churches, theatres, libraries, museums. The walls of all ware- houses 25 feet or less in width between walls or bearings shall be not less than 12 inches thick to the height of 40 feet above 92 BRICKS AND BRICK-LAYING. the foundation-walls. If over 40 feet in height, and not over 60 feet in height, the walls shall be not less than 16 inches thick above the foundation-walls to the height of 40 feet, or to the nearest tier of beams to that height, and thence not less than 12 inches thick to the top. If over 60 feet in height, and not over 75 feet in height, the walls shall be not less than 20 inches thick above the foundation-walls to the -height of 25 feet, or to the nearest tier of beams to that height , and thence not less than 16 inches thick to the top. If over 75 feet in height, and not over 100 feet in height, the walls shall be not less than 24 inches thick above the foundation-walls to the height of 40 feet, or to the nearest tier of beams to that height; thence not less than 20 inches thick to the height of 75 feet, or to the nearest tier of beams to that height, and thence not less than 16 inches thick to the top. If over 100 feet in height, and not over 125 feet in height, the walls shall be not less than 28 inches thick above the foundation-walls to the height of 40 feet, or to the nearest tier of beams to that height; thence not less than 24 inches thick to the height of 75 feet, or to the nearest tier of beams to that height; thence not less than 20 inches thick to the height of 110 feet, or to the nearest tier of beams to that height, and thence not less than 16 inches thick to the top. If over 125 feet in height, and not over 150 feet the walls shall be not less than 32 inches thick above the founda- tion-walls to the height of 30 feet, or to the nearest tier of beams to that height; thence not less than 28 inches thick to the height of 65 feet, or to the nearest tier of beams to that height; thence not less than 24 inches thick to the height of 100 feet, or to the nearest tier of beams to that height; thence not less than 20 inches thick to the height of 135 feet, or to the nearest tier of beams to that height; and thence not less than 16 inches thick to the top. If over 150 feet in height, each additional 25 feet in height, or part thereof next above the foundation- walls shall be increased 4 inches in thickness, the upper 150 feet of wall remaining the same as specified for a wall of that height. If there is to be a clear span of over 25 feet between the bearing-walls, such walls shall be 4 inches more in thickness than in this section specified, for every 12-J feet, or fraction thereof, that said walls are more than 25 feet apart, or shall have instead of the increased thickness such piers or buttresses as, in the judgment of the Commissioner of Buildings, may be necessary. BRICKS AND BRICK-LAYING. 93 The walls of buildings of a public character shall be not less than in this Code specified for warehouses with such piers or buttresses, or supplemental columns of iron or steel, as, in the judgment of the Commissioner of Buildings having jurisdiction^ may be necessary to make a safe and substantial building. In all stores, warehouses, and factories over 25 feet in width between walls there shall be brick partition-walls, or girders supported on iron, steel, or wood columns, or piers of masonry. In all stores, warehouses, or factories, in case iron, steel, or wood girders, supported by iron, steel, or wood columns, or piers of masonry, are used in place of brick partition-walls, the building may be 75 feet wide and 210 feet deep, when extend- ing from street to street, or when otherwise located may cover an area of not more than 8000 superficial feet. When a build- ing fronts on three streets it may be 105 feet wide and 210 feet deep, or if a corner building fronting on two streets it may cover an area of not more than 12,500 superficial feet; buo in no case wider nor deeper, nor to cover a greater area, except in the case of fire-proof buildings. An area greater than herein stated may, considering location and purpose, be allowed by the Board of Buildings when the proposed building does not exceed three stories in height. Sec. 33. Increased Thicknesses of Walls for Buildings more than 105 feet in Depth. All buildings, not excepting dwellings that are over 105 feet in depth, without a cross- wall or proper piers or buttresses, shall have the side or bearing-walls increased in thickness 4 inches more than is specified in the respective sections of this Code for the thickness of walls for every 105 feet, or part thereof, that the said buildings are over 105 feet in depth. Sec. 34. Reduced Thickness for Interior Walls. In case the walls of any building are less than 25 feet apart, and less than 40 feet in depth, or there are cross-walls which intersect the walls, not more than 40 feet distant, or piers or buttresses built into the walls, the interior walls may be reduced in thick- ness in just proportion to the number of cross-walls, piers, or buttresses, and their nearness to each other; provided, how- ever, that this clause shall not apply to walls below 60 feet in height, and that no such wall shall be less than 12 inches thick at the top, and gradually increased in thickness by set-offs to the bottom. The Commissioner of Buildings having jurisdic- tion is hereby authorized and empowered to decide (except 94 BRICKS AND BRICK-LAYING. where herein otherwise provided for) how much the walls herein mentioned may be permitted to be reduced in thickness, accord- ing to the peculiar circumstances of each case, without endanger- ing the strength and safety of the building. Sec. 35. One-story Brick Buildings. One-story structures not exceeding a height of 15 feet may be built with 8-inch walls when the bearing- walls are not more than 19 feet apart, and the length of the 8-inch bearing-walls does not exceed 55 feet. One-story and basement extensions may be built with 8-inch walls when not over 20 feet wide, 20 feet deep, and 20 feet high to dwellings. Sec. 36. Inclosure Walls for Skeleton Structures Walls of brick built in between iron or steel columns, and supported wholly or in part on iron or steel girders, shall be not less than 12 inches thick for 75 feet of the uppermost height thereof, or to the nearest tier of beams to that measurement, in any building so constructed, and every lower section of 60 feet, or to the nearest tier of beams to such vertical measurement, or part thereof, shall have a thickness of 4 inches more than is required for the section next abo've it down to the tier of beams nearest to the curb-level; and thence downward, the thickness of walls shall increase in the ratio prescribed in section 26, this Code. Sec. 37. Curtain-walls. Curtain-walls built in between piers or iron or steel columns and not supported on steel or iron girders, shall be not less than 12 inches thick for 60 feet of the uppermost height thereof, or nearest tier of beams to that height, and increased 4 inches for every additional section of 60 feet or nearest tier of beams to that height. Sec. 38. Existing Party Walls. Walls heretofore built for or used as party walls, whose thickness at the time of their erection was in accordance with the requirements of the then existing laws, but which are not in accordance with the require- ments of this Code, may be used, if in good condition, for the ordinary uses of party walls, provided the height of the same be not increased. Sec. 39. Lining Existing Walls. In case it is desired to increase the height of existing party or independent walls, which are less in thickness than required under this Code, the same shall be done by a lining of brickwork to form a com- bined thickness with the old wall of not less than 4 inches more than the thickness required for a new wall corresponding with the total height of the wall when so increased in height. The BRICKS AND BRICK-LAYING. 95 said linings shall be supported on proper foundations and carried up to such height as the Commissioner of Buildings having jurisdiction may require. No lining shall be less than 8 inches in thickness, and all lining shall be laid up in cement mortar and thoroughly anchored to the old brick walls with suitable wrought-iron anchors, placed 2 feet apart and prop- erly fastened or driven into the old walls in rows alternating vertically and horizontally with each other, the old walls being first cleaned of plaster or other coatings where any lining is to be built against the same. No rubble wall shall be lined except after inspection and approval by the Department. Sec. 40. Walls of Unfinished Buildings. Any building, the erection of which was commenced in accordance with specifi- cations and plans submitted to and approved by the Depart- ment of Buildings prior to the passage of this Code, if properly constructed, and in safe condition, may be completed, or built upon in accordance with the requirements of law, as to thick- ness of walls, in force at the time when such specification and plans were approved. Sec. 41. Walls Tied, Anchored, and Braced. In no case shall any wall or walls of any building be carried up more than two stories in advance of any other wall, except by permission of the Commissioner of Buildings having jurisdiction, but this prohibition shall not include the inclosure walls for skeleton buildings. The front, rear, side and party walls shall be prop- erly bonded together, or anchored to each other every 6 feet in their height by wrought-iron tie anchors, not less than 1 inches by f inch in size, and not less than 24 inches in length. The side anchors shall be built into the side or party walls not less than 16 inches, and into the front and rear walls, so as to secure the front and rear walls to the side, or party walls, when not built and bonded together. All exterior piers shall be anchored to the beams or girders on the level of each tier. The walls and beams of every building, during the erection or alteration thereof, shall be strongly braced from the beams of each story, and when required, shall also be braced from the outside, until the building is inclosed. The roof tier of wood beams shall be safely anchored, with plank or joist, to the beams of the storly below until the building is inclosed. Sec. 42. Arches and Lintels. Openings for doors and win- dows in all buildings shall have good and sufficient arches of stone, brick, or terra-cotta, well built and keyed with good 96 BRICKS AND BRICK-LAYING. and sufficient abutments, or lintels of stone, iron, or steel of sufficient strength, which shall have a bearing at each end of not less than 5 inches on the wall. On the inside of all openings in which lintels shall be less than the thickness of the wall to be supported, there shall be timber lintels, which shall rest at each end not more than 3 inches on any wall, which shall be chamfered at each end, and shall have a suitable arch turned over the timber lintel. Or the inside lintel may be of cast iron, or wrought iron or steel, and in such case stone blocks or cast-iron plates shall not be required at the ends where the lintel rests on the walls, provided the opening is not more than 6 feet in width. All masonry arches shall be capable of sustaining the weight and pressure which they are designed to carry, and the stress at any point shall not exceed the working stress for the material used, as given in section 139 of this Code. Tie-rods shall be used where necessary to secure stability. Sec. 43. Parapet Walls. All exterior and division or party walls over 15 feet high, excepting where such walls are to be finished with cornices, gutters, or crown mouldings, shall have parapet walls not less than 8 inches in thickness and carried 2 feet above the roof, but for warehouses, factories, stores, and other buildings used for commercial or manufacturing purposes the parapet walls shall be not less than 12 inches in thickness and carried 3 feet above the roof, and all such walls shall be coped with stone, terra-cotta, or cast iron. Sec. 44. Hollow Walls. In all walls that are built hollow the same quantity of stone, brick, or concrete shall be used in their construction as if they were built solid, as in this Code provided, and no hollow wall shall be built unless the parts of same are connected by proper ties, either of brick, stone, or iron, placed not over 24 inches apart. Sec. 45. Hollow Bricks on Inside of Watts. The inside 4 inches of all walls may be built of hard-burnt hollow brick, properly tied and bonded into the walls, and of the dimen- sion of ordinary bricks. Where hollow tile or porous terra- cotta blocks are used as lining or furring for walls, they shall not be included in the measurement of the thickness of such walls. Soc. 46. Recesses and Chases in Walls. Recesses for stair- ways or elevators may be left in the foundation- or cellar-walls of all buildings, but in no case shall the walls be of less thick- ness than the walls of the fourth story, unless reinforced by BRICKS AND BRICK- LAYING. 97 additional piers with iron or steel girders, or iron or steel col- umns and girders, securely anchored to walls on each side. Recesses for alcoves and similar purposes shall have not less than 8 inches of brickwork at the back of such recesses, and such recesses shall be not more than 8 feet in width, and shall be arched over or spanned with iron or steel lintels, and not carried up higher than 18 inches below the bottom of the beams of the floor next above. No chase for water or other pipes shall be made in any pier, and in no wall more than one-third of its thickness. The chases around said pipe or pipes shall be filled up with solid masonry for the space of 1 foot at the top and bottom of each story. No horizontal recess or chase in any wall shall be allowed exceeding 4 feet in length without permission of the Commissioner of Buildings having jurisdic- tion. The aggregate area of recesses and chases in any wall shall not exceed one-fourth of the whole area of the face of the wall on any story, nor shall any such recess be made within a distance of 6 feet from any other recess in the same wall. Sec. 47. Furred Walls. In all walls furred with wood the brickwork between the ends of wood beams shall project the thickness of the furring beyond the inner face of the wall for the full depth of the beams. Sec. 48. Light and Vent Shafts In every building hereafter erected or altered, all the walls or partitions forming interior light or vent shafts, shall be built of brick, or such other fire- proof materials as may be approved by the Commissioner of Buildings having jurisdiction. The walls of all light or vent shafts, whether exterior or interior, hereafter erected, shall be carried up not less than 3 feet above the level of the roof, and the brick walls coped as other parapet walls. Vent shafts to light interior bathrooms in private dwellings may be built of wood filled in solidly with brick or hard-burnt clay blocks, when extending through not more than one story in height, and carried not less than 2 feet above the roof, covered with a ventilating skylight of metal and glass. Sec. 49. Brick and Hollow-tile Partitions. Eight-inch brick and 6-inch and 4-inch hollow-tile partitions, of hard-burnt clay, or porous terra-cotta, may be built, not exceeding in their vertical portions a measurement of 50, 36, and 24 feet respectively, and in their horizontal measurement a length not exceeding 75 feet, unless strengthened by proper cross-walls, piers, or buttresses, or built in iron or steel framework. All such partitions shall 98 BRICKS AND BRICK-LAYING. be carried on proper foundations, or on iron or steel girders, or on iron or steel girders and columns or piers of masonry. Sec. 50. Cellar Partitions in Residence Buildings. One line of fore-and-aft partitions in the cellar or lowest story, supporting stud partitions above, in all residence buildings over 20 feet between bearing-walls in the cellar or lowest story, hereafter erected, shall be constructed of brick, not less than 8 inches thick, or piers of brick with openings arched over below the under side of the first tier of beams, or girders of iron or steel and iron columns, or piers of masonry may be used; or if iron or steel floor beams spanning the distance between bearing-walls are used of adequate strength to support the stud partitions above in addition to the floor load to be sustained by the said iron or steel beams, then the fore-and-aft brick partition, or its equivalent, may be omitted. Stud partitions which may be placed in the cellar or lowest story of any building shall have good solid stone or brick founda- tion-walls under the same, which shall be built up to the top of the floor-beams or sleepers, and the sills of said partitions shall be of locust or other suitable hard wood; but if the walls are built 5 inches higher of brick than the top of the floor-beams or sleepers, any wooden sill may be used on which the studs shall be set. Sec. 51. Main Stud Partitions. In residence buildings where fore-and-aft stud partitions rest directly over each other, they shall run down between the wood floor-beams and rest on the top plate of the partition below, and shall have the studding filled in solid between the uprights to the depth of the floor- beams with suitable incombustible materials. Sec. 52. Timber in Walls Prohibited. No timber shall be used in any wall of any building where stone, brick, or iron is commonly used, except inside lintels, as herein provided, and brace blocks not more than 8 inches in length. POINTING. Fig. 122 shows different styles of pointing used in face brickwork, that shown at 7 being the most common, or what is known as the struck joint; it is made with the point of the trowel, using the lower course of brick to rest the trowel on, and the top course as a guide for drawing the trowel along. Some architects object to this style of joint, claiming the small projection on the lower course forms a table to catch the water, and preferring that shown at K, which is just the reverse of that at /. The author has used both, and for looks prefers BRICKS AND BRICK-LAYING. 99 that shown at 7, for this reason: A person standing on the ground and looking up at a wall with joints struck as shown at K, the eye will catch the little projection on every course of brick and cause the wall to look rough, but with the method FIG. 122. shown at /, the projections cannot be seen and the wall looks perfectly smooth to the eye. One point the superintendent must watch in striking the joints is to see that the mason holds his trowel at the right angle and does not strike the joint as shown at J. The method shown at A is much used in press-brick work, being a combination of the methods shown at / and K. The joint shown at D is 100 ESTIMATING BRICKLAYERS' WORK. made by using an iron rod the thickness of the joint; this is laid on the face edge of the brick already laid and the mortar spread out to it ; after the bricks are laid and the mortar has suffi- ciently hardened the rod is taken out and the mortar smoothed, if necessary, with a tool. It takes several rods, as the mason, will lay up several courses before the mortar is hard enough to permit the rod to be taken out. The rest of the joints shown are made with a jointing tool of the desired shape. The point- ing of brickwork is done as the walls are built, and the super- intendent must pay attention to see that it is done correctly as the work progresses. EFFLORESCENCE. When the face of some walls become wet or damp they will be covered with a sort of white efflorescence; it is in some cases a nitrate or carbonate of potash, more fre- quently a carbonate or sulphate of soda. There is no way to prevent this unless by coating the bricks with some prepara- tion to render them water- and moisture-proof. Estimating Bricklayers' Work. Brickwork is esti- mated at the rate of a brick and a half thick. Therefore if a wall be more or less than this standard of thickness, it must be reduced to it as follows: Rule. Multiply the superficial contents of the wall by the number of half bricks in the thickness and one-third of that product will be the contents required. Example. How many bricks will it require to build a house 30 feet square, 20 feet high, and 12 inches thick, above which is a triangular gable rising 12 feet and 8 inches thick ? 30 X 6 = 180 = 1 gable end 30X6 = 180 = 1 gable end 360X15 = 5,400 30 + 30 = 60 = two side walls 28 + 28 = 56 = two end walls 116 20= height 2320X22J= 52,200 57,600 (Ans.) One barrel lime will lay 1000 to 1200 bricks. One man with one tender will lay 1800 to 2000 bricks per day. One thousand bricks closely stacked occupy 56 cubic feet. ESTIMATING BRICKLAYERS' WORK 101 One thousand old bricks cleaned and loosely stacked occupy about 70 cubic feet. Six hundred bricks, 1 cubic yard in wall. TABLE OF NUMBER OF BRICKS REQUIRED IN A WALL PER SQUARE FOOT OF FACE OF WALL. 4 inches 7* 8 " 15 12 " 22* 16 " 30 20 " 37* 24 inches 45 28 " 52* 32 " 60 36 " 67* 40 " , ,..75 TABLE TO FIND THE NUMBER OF BRICKS IN ANY WALL. Super- ficial Feet of Wall. Number of Bricks to Thickness of Wall. 4-ioch. 8-inch. 12-inch. 16-inch. 20-inch. 24-inch. 1 7* 15 23 30 38 45 2 15 30 45 60 75 90 3 23 45 68 90 113 135 4 30 60 90 120 150 180 5 38 75 113 150 188 225 6 45 90 135 180 225 270* 7 53 105 158 210 263 315 8 60 120 180 240 300 300 9 68 135 203 270 338 405 10 75 150 225 300 375 450 20 150 300 450 600 750 900 30 225 450 675 900 1,125 1,350 40 300 600 900 1,200 1,500 1,800 50 375 750 1,125 1,500 1,875 2,250 60 450 900 1,350 1,800 2,250 2,700 70 525 1,050 1,575 2,100 2,625 3,150 80 600 1,200 1,800 2,400 3,000 3,600 90 675 1,350 2,025 2,700 3,375 4,050 100 750 1,500 2,250 3,000 3,750 4,500 200 1,500 3,000 4,500 6,000 7,500 9,000 300 2,250 4,500 6,750 9,000 11,250 13,500 400 3,000 6,000 9,000 12,000 15,000 18,000 500 3,750 7,500 11,250 15,000 18,750 22,500 600 4,500 9,000 13,500 18,000 22,500 27,000 700 800 5,250 6,000 10,500 12,000 15,750 18,000 21,000 24,000 26,250 30,000 31,500 36,000 900 6,750 13,500 20,250 27,000 33,750 40,500 1,000 7,500 15,000 22,500 30,000 37,500 45,000 Example. Find the number of bricks in a wall 8 inches thick, 5 feet high, and 10 feet long; five multiplied by ten equals 50 feet of wall 8 inches thick. Under 8 inches and opposite 50 you will find 750, the number of bricks in the wall. The above tables are based on the usual sizes of Eastern brick; Western brick are made some larger and will take a slight percentage less than in the above tables. 102 SPECIFICATIONS FOR PAVING, ETC. Paving 1 , etc. As a guide for street-paving, etc., the follow- ing specifications are given which form a good guide for such work: SPECIFICATIONS. CITY OF CHICAGO, BOARD OF LOCAL IMPROVEMENTS. COMBINED CURB AND GUTTER. STREET-PAVING. PORTLAND- CEMENT FOUNDATION. WEARING SURFACE, EITHER BRICK OR ASPHALT. COMBINED CURB AND GUTTER. In making the combined curb and gutter Portland cement shall be used and ordinarily will be subjected to the following inspection and tests: Fineness. It shall be. so ground that nine-two (92) per cent will pass through a standard No. 100 sieve having 10,000 meshes per square inch. Soundness. It shall meet the requirement of the "boiling" test. " Setting. The cement when mixed with twenty (20) per cent of water, by measure, shall take initial set in not less than forty-five (45) minutes. Strength. Briquettes one (1") inch square in section shall develop the following ultimate tensile strength: Neat one day in air and 6 days in water, 400 pounds. One (1) part cement to two (2) parts fine granite screenings one day in air and 6 days in water, 200 pounds; and shall show a gradual increase in strength of fifteen (15) per cent at the end of twenty-eight (28) days. Samples of cements which it is proposed to use in the work shall be submitted to the Board of Local Improvements in such quantities and such time and place as to make all the required tests. The Board of Local Improvements reserves the right to reject without recourse any cement which is not satisfactory, whether for reasons mentioned in these specifications or for any good and sufficient cause. All cement to be used in the combined curb and gutter must be delivered on the work in approved packages bearing the name, brand, or stamp of the manufacturer. It shall be thoroughly protected from the weather until used, in such manner as may be directed. SPECIFICATIONS FOR PAVING, ETC. 103 The granite screenings used in making the concrete shall be clean, dry, free from, dust, loam, and dirt, and when delivered on the street shall be deposited on flooring and kept clean until used. The crushed granite shall be clean, free from dust and dirt, broken so as to measure not more than one (1") inch in any dimension, and when delivered on the street shall be deposited on a flooring and kept clean until used. The granite concrete combined curb and gutter shall be constructed at the established grade and in a continuous line on each side of the street ( . . ') feet from and parallel with the centre line thereof, except at all intersections of streets and alleys, where it shall be returned to the street line, and at such intersections there shall be formed the necessary circular stones built to such radii as the engineer may direct. All grades and lines will be given by the engineer. The combined curb and gutter shall rest on a foundation of cinders which must be six (6") inches in thickness after being thoroughly flooded and compactly rammed to an even surface. The curb and gutter shall be made of concrete formed by intimately mixing one (1) part of cement with two (2) parts of fine granite screenings ; to this mixture shall be added four (4) parts of crushed granite and the whole thoroughly mixed together, after which just sufficient water to wet the mass shall be added, so that when it is rammed in place a film of moisture shall appear on top. All exposed surfaces shall be covered with a finishing coat of mortar three-eighths (f") inch in thickness, composed of one (1) part of the cement thoroughly mixed wit>h one and one-half (1) parts of the fine granite screenings. Before the concrete sets, the curb and gutter shall be cut into sections not exceeding six (6') feet in length. The gutter flag must be eighteen (18") inches wide and five (5") inches thick; the curb must be seven (7") inches thick throughout, except at the upper face corner, which is to be rounded to a radius of one and one-half (1|") inches. The height of the curve above the gutter flags will be of varying dimensions, averaging not less than (. .") inches. The contractor or contractors shall build without extra charge all "inlets" necessary to properly connect the com- bined curb and gutter with the catch-basins and such steps on the gutter flags at the crossings as the engineer may direct. The curb and gutter shall be back-filled to the top, and filling 104 SPECIFICATIONS FOR PAVING, ETC. at that point shall be four (40 feet wide and shall have a slope of one and one-half (1J) horizontal to one (1) vertical. The full quantity of filling shall be put in front and back of each section of curb and gutter as it is built, and must be thoroughly rammed with a proper rammer at the same time so that the curb and gutter will be firmly held in place. CONCRETE FOUNDATION. After the sub-grade is prepared a foundation of Portland-cement concrete to a uniform thick- ness of six (6") inches shall be laid. CEMENT. In making the concrete, Portland cement shall pass same specifications as for cement used in curb and gutter work. SAND. The sand used in making the concrete shall be clean, dry, free from dust, loam, and dirt, of sizes ranging from one- eighth (!") inch down^ to the finest, and in such proportion that the voids as determined by saturation shall not exceed thirty-three (33) per cent of the entire volume, and it shall weigh not less than one hundred (100) poundc per cubic foot. No wind-drifted sand shall be used. The sand when delivered on the street shall be deposited on flooring and kept clean until used. CRUSHED STONE. The, crushed stone used in making the concrete shall be of the best quality of limestone, clean, free from dirt, broken so as to measure not more than two (2") inches and not less than one (I") inch in any dimension. The stone when delivered on the street shall be deposited on flooring and kept clean until used. MIXING AND LAYING OF CONCRETE. The concrete shall be mixed on movable tight iron platforms of such size as shall accommodate the manipulations hereinafter specified. The cement, sand, and stone shall be mixed in the following proportions: One (1) part of cement, three (3) parts of sand, and seven (7) parts of crushed stone. The sand and cement shall be thoroughly mixed, dry, to which sufficient water shall be added and then made into a stiff mortar. The crushed stone shall then be immediately incorporated in the mortar and the mass thoroughly mixed, adding water from time to time as the mixing progresses, until each particle of stone is covered with mortar. The concrete shall be removed from the platform with shovels and deposited in a layer on the roadway in such quantities that after being rammed in place it shall be of the required thickness SPECIFICATIONS FOR PAVING. ETC. 105 and the upper surface shall be true and smooth and ( . . ") inches below and parallel with the top of the finished pavement. During the progress of the work the sub-grade must be kept moist. The concrete shall be sprinkled so as to prevent checking in hot weather, and shall be protected from injury at all times, and shall lay at least seven days before being covered with the wearing surface, or a longer time if deemed necessary. SAND CUSHION. Upon the concrete foundation shall be spread a layer of sand in such quantity as to insure, when compacted, a uniform thickness of one (I/') inch. On surfacing said layer of sand the contractor or contractors shall use such guides and templets as the engineer may direct. WEARING SURFACE. Upon the layer of sand as above speci- fied shall be placed the brick of such quality and in such manner as hereinafter specified. QUALITY OF BRICKS. The brick to be used shall be of the best quality of vitrified paving brick. Salt-glazed bricks will not be received. The dimensions of the brick used shall be the same through- out the entire work in any particular case, and shall be not less than eight (8") inches in length, four (4 // ) inches in depth, and two and one-half (2J") inches in thickness, with rounded edges to a radius of one-quarter (") of an inch. Said brick shall be of a kind known as repressed vitrified paving brick and shall be repressed to the extent that the max- imum amount of material is forced into them. They shall be free from lime and other impurities, shall be as nearly uniform in every respect as possible, shall be burned so as to secure the maximum hardness, so annealed as to reach the ultimate degree of toughness, and thoroughly vitrified so as to make a homoge- neous mass. The bricks shall be free from all laminations caused by the process of manufacture, and free from fire-cracks or checks of more than superficial character or extent. Any firm, person, or corporation bidding for the work to be done shall furnish specimen brick, which shall be submitted to a "water-absorption" test, and if such brick show a water absorp- tion exceeding three (3) per cent of their weight when dry, the bid of the person, firm, or corporation so furnishing the same shall be rejected. Such " water-absorption" test shall be made by the Board of Local Improvements of the City of 106 SPECIFICATIONS FOR PAVING, ETC. Chicago, in the following manner, to wit : Not less than three (3) bricks shall be broken across, thoroughly dried, and then immersed in water for seventy-two (72) hours. The absorption shall then be determined by the difference between the weight dry and the weight at the expiration of said seventy-two (72) hours. Twenty or more specimen bricks shall also be furnished by each bidder for submission to the "abrasion" test by the Board of Local Improvements. Such test shall be made in the follow- ing manner, to wit : Such specimen brick or a sufficient number to fill 15 per cent of the volume of the rattler shall be submitted to a test for one hour in the machine known as the "rattler," which shall measure twenty (20") inches in length and twenty- eight (28") inches in diameter, inside measurement, and shall be revolved at the rate of thirty (30) revolutions per minute If the loss of weight by abrasion during such test shall exceed twenty (20) per cent of the original weight of the brick tested, then such bid shall be rejected. All brick shall have a specific gravity of not less than two and one-tenth (2 1 /, n ) as determined by the formula specific W gravitjr equals ^ /r ; where W equals weight of brick dry, W f equals weight of brick after being immersed in water for seventy-two (72) hours, and W" equals weight of brick in water. All brick used must be equal in every respect to the speci- ' men submitted by the bidders to the Board of Local Improve- ments for test. How Laid. All brick shall be delivered on the work in bar- rows, and in no case will teams be allowed on the street before the wearing surface is rolled. Broken bricks can only be used to break joints in starting courses and in making closures, but in no case shall less than half a brick be used. The bricks shall be laid on edge, close together, in straight lines across the roadway, between gutters, and at right angles to the curbs and perpendicular to the grade of the street. Gut- ters shall be constructed as directed by the engineer. The joints shall be broken by a lap of not less than three (3") inches. On intersections and junctions of lateral streets the bricks shall be laid at an angle of forty-five (45) degrees with the line of the street unless otherwise ordered by the engineer. SPECIFICATIONS FOR PAVING, ETC. 107 The bricks when set shall be rolled with a roller weighing not less than five (5) tons until the bricks are well settled and made firm. Or, if the engineer shall direct, the bricks, when set, shall be thoroughly rammed two or more times, the ramming to be done under a flatter, with a paving rammer weighing not less than thirty (30) pounds, the iron of the ram- mer face in no case to come in contact with the pavement. After rolling and ramming, all broken brick found in the pavement must at once be removed and replaced by sound and perfect brick. PITCHING OR GROUTING AND TOP-DRESSING. When the bricks are thoroughly bedded, the surface of the pavement must be true for grade and crown. The surface of the pave- ment shall then be swept clean, and the joints or spaces between the brick shall be completely filled with a paving pitch which is the direct result of the distillation of " straight-run" coal- tar, and of such quality and consistency as shall be approved by the Board of Local Improvements. The pitch must be used at a temperature of not less than 280 degrees Fahrenheit. When t*he brick are thoroughly bedded, the surface of the pavement must be true for grade and crown. The surface of the pavement shall then be swept clean, and the joints or spaces between the bricks shall be filled with a cement grout filler composed of limestone 65 per cent, furnace slag 25 per cent, and potters' clay 10 per cent, to be made as follows: The above materials in the proportions stated shall be mixed to- gether and ground into an impalpable powder and then burned in kilns until reduced to clinker, after which it shall again be ground into an impalpable powder.- Equal portions of said grout and clean, sharp sand shall then be thoroughly mixed, and sufficient water added to bring the mixture to such a con- sistency as will allow it to run to the bottom of the joints between the brick. After said joints are filled to the top, the surface shall be finished off smoothly with steel brooms. After the spaces between the brick have been filled with the pitch or grout as above specified, the surface of the pave- ment shall then receive a one-half ($") inch dressing of sand, evenly spread over the whole surface. Where cement grout is used as a filler the pavement must be kept clear of traffic for a period of four (4) days or as much longer as the engineer may direct after the application thereof. ASPHALTIC CEMENT. The asphaltic cement hereinafter speci- 108 SPECIFICATIONS FOR PAVING, ETC. fied shall be made of refined Trinidad Lake asphalt, obtained from the island of Trinidad, or of an asphalt of equal quality for paving purposes, and heavy petroleum-oil. The oil shall be mixed with the asphalt in such proportions as are suitable to the character of the asphalt used. BINDER COURSE. Upon the concrete foundation as above specified shall be laid a "binder" course, composed of clean broken limestone of a size known as "small concrete," and asphaltic cement. The stone shall be heated and thoroughly mixed with asphaltic cement in the proportion of fifteen (15) gallons of asphaltic cement to one (1) cubic yard of stnne; the mixing shall be continued until each particle of stone is thoroughly coated with the asphaltic cement. This binder shall be spread on the base above described, and, while in a hot and plastic condition, shall be rolled, with a five (5) ton steam-roller until it has a uniform thickness of one and one-half (1J") inches. The upper surface shall be parallel with and two (2 // ) inches below the final surface of the pavement. Binder that has been burned or has become chilled shall be removed from the line of the work. WEARING SURFACE. Upon this binder course shall be laid a wearing surface, which shall be composed of asphaltic cement seventeen (17) parts, sand seventy-three (73) parts, and pul- verized carbonate of lime ten (10) parts. The sand and asphaltic cement shall be heated separately to a temperature of three- hundred (300) degrees Fahrenheit. The pulverized car- bonate of lime shall be mixed with the sand, and these ingre- dients then mixed with the asphaltic cement at the above temperature, in an apparatus which shall effect a perfect mix- ture. The mixture at a temperature of not less than two hundred and fifty (250) degrees Fahrenheit shall then be carefully spread by means of hot iron rakes in such a manner as to give a uniform and regular grade, and on such a depth that after having received its ultimate compression it will have a thick- ness of two (2") inches. The surface shall be compressed by rollers, after which a small amount of hydraulic cement shall be swept over it, and it shall then be thoroughly compressed by a fifteen (15) ton steam-roller, the rolling being continued as long as it makes an impression on the surface. Where necessary to make the gutters impervious to water, a width of twelve (12") inches next to the curb shall be coated SPECIFICATIONS FOR PAVING, ETC. 109 with hot pure asphalt and smoothed with hot smoothing- irons in order to saturate the pavement with excess of asphalt. HEADERS. At the end of each intersecting street and alley wing there shall be placed a "header," extending from curb to curb, and so dressed as to conform to the crown of the pave- ment. The "header" shall be constructed of three by twelve (3"X12") inch oak plank, properly supported by six (6") inch split cedar posts, three (30 feet in length, firmly set hi the ground and spaced not more than five (50 feet apart. All " headers" shall be constructed by the contractor or contractors without extra charge. CROSSWALKS. Unless otherwise directed by the engineer there shall be formed in the pavement four (4) crosswalks at each street intersection, three (3) at each half intersection, and one (1) near the middle of each long block. A gutter nine (9") inches in the clear width shall be constructed at the ends of the crosswalks by setting sandstone curbing in the roadway nine (9") inches from and parallel with the curb line. The sandstone curbing must be four (4") inches thick and twenty -four (24") inches deep, and the length of the curb- ing shall be within two (20 feet of the width of the abutting sidewalk space; provided, however, that the minimum length of said curbing shall be six (60 feet. The crosswalks, gutters, and their appurtenances shall be formed and constructed where and as directed by the engineer, and without extra cost over and above the price paid per square yard for the pavement. PART III. LIME, SAND, CEMENT, MORTAR, AND CON- CRETE. CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. FIRE-PROOF FLOOR CONSTRUCTION, PARTITIONS, ETC. ARCHITECTURAL TERRA - COTTA. FIRE - PROOF CON- STRUCTION AND FIRE PROTECTION OF BUILDINGS. Lime, Sand, and Cement. Mortar is one of the prin- cipal materials used in construction, and upon which the strength and stability of the structure depends to a great extent; hence the different materials and proportions used in making the mortar must receive particular attention from the superin- tendent. He must be so familiar with the different materials used that he will be able to judge the quality of them so as to determine any worthless material and reject it at once. SAND. Sand, which enters largely into the composition of all mortars, should be sharp and angular and comparatively free from any dirt or loam. Recent experiments have shown that a slight percentage of clay in the sand used for cement mortar does not affect its strength, but there should not be more than 5 per cent of clay in the sand. For rough stone or common brick work the sand should be coarse, but for " press " brick and setting ashlar it should be fine, so as to get a close joint. Marble dust is often used in place of sand where a close joint is desired in the work. By taking a small amount of sand and spreading it over the hand or examining it with a magnifying-glass the superin- tendent can readily determine its quality. 110 LIME. HI When ocean sand is used for plastering or any work where the salt is liable to come to the surface and show, it should be thor- oughly washed. For concrete or any rough work, the salt does not affect it. LIME. Lime is obtained by burning limestone. When carbonate of lime is calcined the carbonic acid is thrown off and lime is obtained. It is then known as caustic lime or quicklime; if it then be mixed with water it will throw out great heat, swell to several times its original bulk, and finally falls to a powder. In this state it is known as slaked or a hydrate of lime. The quality of lime depends on the composition of the lime- stone from which it is made. Those stones which are nearly pure carbonate of lime make the best lime, while those which contain much impurities, such as silica, clay, magnesia, and alkalies, make the poorest lime according to the amount of impurities contained. Good lime should be free from cinders or unburned stone, and not contain a large per cent of impurities; over 10 per cent of impurities makes poor lime and it should be rejected. Lime should be in large hard pieces and contain little dust. When wet with water it should slake readily into a smooth, fine paste or putty. The lime should slake by simply im- mersing it it the water, although stirring it will hasten it some- what. The superintendent should see that the lime used is freshly burned and has not been exposed to the air, which will cause it to "air slake" and make it unfit for use; he should also see that proper provisions have been made to keep and protect the lime at the work, for lime exposed to a damp atmosphere for a day will absorb dampness enough to cause it to slake. WHAT ONE BARREL OF LIME WILL Do. 1 barrel of lime will make 2| barrels of paste. 1 " " " " lay 3 perch of stone rubble. 1 " " " " " 1000 to 1200 bricks. 1 " " " " plaster 28 yards of 3-coat work. 1 (I U <( if Af\ K O_ " " 1 " " " equals 3 bushels of 80 pounds each. HYDRAULIC LIME. Hydraulic lime is made from calcareous rock containing 12 to 30 per cent of silica, alumina, iron, and 112 CEMENTS. magnesia; when calcined at a low temperature it will slake and will set and harden in water in from one to ten days to five or six months, depending on the amount of silica and alumina contained. Hydraulic lime is not used much in this country, as natural cement takes its place. The following is an average of French hydraulic lime: Silica 22 . per cent Alumina 2.0 " Oxide of iron 1.0 " Lime 63.0 " Magnesia 1.5 " Sulphuric acid 0.5 " Water 10.0 " 100 . per cent Cements. Natural cements are generally called Rosen- dale cement, from the name of the town in New York where it was first made in this country. It is made from a natural rock containing about 60 per cent of lime and magnesia to about 40 per cent of silica and alumina, with a little iron or potash. This cement sets and attains its limit of strength much quicker than Portland, and is used where extreme strength is not necessary. Portland cement, because the price is becom- ing cheaper than in former days, is now fast taking the place of Rosendale cement. Rosendale cement is usually a dark brown; a light color indicates an inferior cement. WEIGHT AND CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. Weight. The average weight of Louisville or Rosendale cement is as follows: 1 cubic foot, loose 55^ pounds. 1 cubic foot, packed 74 " Therefore a barrel of 265 pounds contains 4.77 cubic feet of loose cement and 3.58 cubic feet of packed cement. Louisville cement is shipped in three kinds of packages: bar- rels, weighing 285 pounds gross; paper bags, 82 pounds each; and jute sacks, weighing 133 pounds each. Chemical Analysis. The following is a characteristic analysis of Louisville or Rosendale cement: SPECIFICATIONS FOR NATURAL CEMENT. 113 Silica 26 . 40 per cent Alumina 6 . 28 " Iron oxide 1 .00 " Lime 45. 22 " Magnesia 9 . 00 " Potash and soda 4 . 24 " Sulphate lime 0.00 " Carbonic acid, water, and loss. ... 7. 86 " 100.00 per cent The following specifications for natural cements have been prepared and are used by the United States Engineer Depart- ment; SPECIFICATIONS FOR NATURAL CEMENT. (1) The cement shall be a freshly packed natural or Rosen- dale, dry and free from lumps. By natural cement is meant one made by calcining natural rock at a heat below incipient fusion and grinding the product to powder. (2) The cement shall be put up in strong, sound barrels, well lined with paper so as to be reasonably protected against moisture, or in stout cloth or canvas sacks. Each package shall be plainly labelled with the name of the brand and of the manufacturer. Any package broken or containing damaged cement may be rejected or accepted as a fractional package, at the option of the United States agent in local charge. (3) Bidders will state the brand of cement which they pro- pose to furnish. The right is reserved to reject a tender for any brand which has not given satisfaction in use under cli- matic or other conditions of exposure of at least equal severity to those of the work proposed. (4) Tenders will be received only from manufacturers or their authorized agents. (The following paragraph will be substituted for paragraphs 3 and 4 above when cement is to be furnished and placed by the contractor: No cement will be allowed to be used except established brands of high-grade natural cement which have been in suc- cessful use under similar climatic conditions to those of the proposed work.) 114 SPECIFICATIONS FOR NATURAL CEMENT. (5) The average net weight per barrel shall not be less than 300 pounds. (West of the Allegheny Mountains this may be 265 pounds.) . . . Sacks of cement shall have the same weight as 1 barrel. If the average net weight, as determined by test weighings, is found to be below 300 pounds (265) per barrel, the cement may be rejected, or, at the option of the engineer officer in charge, the contractor may be required to supply free of cost to the United States an additional amount of cement equal to the shortage. (6) Tests may be made of the fineness, time of setting, and tensile strength of the cement. (7). FINENESS. At least 80 per cent of the cement must pass through a sieve made of No. 40 wire, Stubb's gauge, hav- ing 10,000 openings per square inch. (8) TIME OF SETTING. The cement shall not acquire its initial set in less than twenty minutes and must have acquired its final set in four hours. (9) The time of setting is to be determined from a pat of neat cement mixed for five minutes with 30 per cent of water by weight and kept under a wet cloth until finally set. The cement is considered to have acquired its initial set when the pat will bear, without being appreciably indented, a wire one- twelfth inch in diameter loaded to weigh one-fourth pound. The final set has been acquired when the pat will bear, with- out being appreciably indented, a wire one twenty-fourth inch in diameter loaded to weigh 1 pound. (10) TENSILE STRENGTH. Briquettes made of neat cement shall develop the following tensile strengths per square inch, after having been kept in air for twenty-four hours under a wet cloth and the balance of the time in water: At the end of seven days, 90 pounds; at the end of twenty- eight days, 200 pounds. Briquettes made of one part cement and one part standard sand by weight shall develop the following tensile strengths per square inch: After seven days, 60 pounds; after twenty-eight days, 150 pounds. (11) The highest result from each set of briquettes made at any one time is to be considered the governing test. Any cement not showing an increase of strength in the twenty-eight- day tests over the seven-day tests will be rejected. (12) The neat cement for briquettes shall be mixed with 30 PORTLAND CEMENT. 115 per cent of water by weight, and the sand and cement with 17 per cent of water by weight. After being thoroughly mixed and worked for five minutes the cement or mortar is to be placed in the briquette mould in four equal layers, each of which is to be rammed and compressed by thirty blows of a soft brass or copper rammer three-fourths of an inch in diameter (or seven-tenths of an inch square with rounded corners), weighing 1 pound. It is to be allowed to drop on the mix- ture from a height of about half an inch. Upon completion of ramming the surplus cement shall be struck off and the layer smoothed with a trowel held nearly horizontal and drawn back with sufficient pressure to make its edge follow the sur- face of the mould. (13) The above are to be considered the minimum require- ments. Unless a cement has been recently used on work under this office, bidders will deliver a sample barrel for test before the opening of the bids. Any cement showing, by sample, higher tests than those given must maintain the average so shown in subsequent deliveries. (14) A cement may be rejected which fails to meet any of the above requirements. An agent of the contractor may be present at the making of the tests, or, in case of failure of any of them, they may be repeated in his presence. If the con- tractor so desires, the engineer officer may, if he deems it to the interest of the United States, have any or all of the tests made or repeated at some recognized standard testing labora- tory in the manner above specified. All expenses of such tests shall be paid by the contractor, and all such tests shall be made on samples furnished by the engineer officer from cement actually delivered to him. Portland Cement. Portland cement is what is known as a tri-calcic cement and is composed of lime, silica, alumina, iron oxide, and magnesia artificially blended together into a scientifically correct mixture and burned at a white heat. The process varies greatly with the character of the raw materials used. By the heat of the kiln the silica, lime, alumina, and oxide of iron become silicate of lime and alumina, and aluminate of lime and ferrite of lime. If the composition of these compounds is brought about in the right proportions in the molecule and in the mass, their nature is to crystallize when wet with water, and then harden till they become as rocks 116 PORTLAND CEMENT. When any lime leaves the kiln uncombined and is not changed to hydrate of lime, or carbonate of lime by exposure to the air, the .uncombined lime will act as a deleterious ingredient, and is the cause of the swelling of cement in barrels and the checking and blowing found in finished cement-work; if the cement contains any of this uncombined lime it will generally show in the tests made for soundness or expansion. Nearly all the Portland cement made in this country is produced artificially. The name "Portland" is given the cement on account of its color when hardened, which resembles the color of a stone found on the Isle of Portland, off the coast of England. The quality of Portland cement depends on the raw materials used, their proportion, and fineness to which it is ground. Port- land cement sets much slower than the natural cements and requires a much longer time to reach its limit of strength, but attains a much greater strength than the natural cement. The color of Portland cement is a dark bluish or drab color. It should weigh at least 375 pounds per barrel and 4 sacks should equal a barrel. A cement which is lighter in weight than this is liable to be poor. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. The ordinary composition of a good Portland cement varies as follows: Lime from 60 to 64 per cent Silica. from 20 to 24 " Alumina and iron oxide. . . from "8 to 12 " Magnesia from 1 to 3J " Alkalies from trace to 2 " Sulphuric acid from 1 to 2 " Cement containing over 3 per cent of magnesia and 2 per cent of sulphuric acid should be avoided. The manufacturers of Portland cement will usually sell their cement under the following guarantee: 1st. The cement will stand a minimum tensile strain of 600 pounds to the square-inch section of neat briquettes kept one day in air and six days in water. 2d. The cement will stand a minimum tensile strain of 175 pounds per square-inch section, 3 parts of sand and 1 part of cement, the briquettes kept one day in air and six days in water, standard crushed quartz used in testing. 3d. The cement will stand what is known" as the SPECIFICATIONS FOR PORTLAND CEMENT. 117 boiling test. 4th. 85 per cent of this cement will pass through a No. 200 sieve. 96 per cent will pass through a No. 100 sieve. All of the barrel cement will be put up in tight packages of great strength and uniformity. The bag cement will be put up in cotton bags of superior quality, and all the weights are strictly guaranteed. The following are the specifications used by the United States Engineering Department for Portland cement' SPECIFICATIONS FOR AMERICAN PORTLAND CEMENT. (1) The cement shall be an American Portland, dry and free from lumps. By a Portland cement is meant the puctrod obtained from the heating or calcining up to incipient fusion of intimate mixtures, either natural or artificial, of argillaceous with calcareous substances, the calcined product to contain at least 1.7 times as much of lime, by weight, as of the materials which give the lime its hydraulic properties, and to be finely pulverized after said calcination, and thereafter additions or substitutions for the purpose only of regulating certain prop- erties of technical importance to be allowable to not exceeding 2 per cent of the calcined product. (2) The cement shall be put up in strong, sound barrels well lined with paper, so as to be reasonably protected against moisture, or in stout cloth or canvas sacks. Each package shall be plainly labelled with the name of the brand and of the manufacturer. Any package broken or containing damaged cement may be rejected or accepted as a fractional package, at the option of the United States agent in local charge. (3) Bidders will state the brand of cement which they pro- pose to furnish. The right is reserved to reject a tender for any brand which has not established itself as a high-grade Portland cement and has not for three years or more given satisfaction in use under climatic or other conditions of exposure of at least equal severity to those of the work proposed. (4) Tenders will be received only from manufacturers or their authorized agents. (The following paragraph will be substituted for paragraphs 3 and 4 above when cement is to be furnished and placed by the contractor: No cement will be allowed to be used except established 118 SPECIFICATIONS FOR PORTLAND CEMENT. brands of high-grade Portland cement which have been made by the same mill and in successful use under similar climatic conditions to those of the proposed work for at least three years.) (5) The average weight per barrel shall not be less than 375 pounds net. Four sacks shall contain one barrel of cement. If the weight, as determined by test weighings, is found to be below 375 pounds per barrel, the cement may be rejected, or, at the option of the engineer officer in charge, the contractor may be required to supply, free of cost to the United States, an additional amount of cement equal to the shortage. (6) Tests may be made of the fineness, specific gravity, soundness, time of setting, and tensile strength of the cement. (7) FINENESS. Ninety-two per cent of the cement must pass through a sieve made of No. 40 wire, Stubb's gauge, having 10,000 openings per square inch. (8) SPECIFIC GRAVITY. The specific gravity of the cement, as determined from a sample which has been carefully dried, shall be between 3.10 and 3.25. (9) SOUNDNESS. To test the soundness of the cement, at least two pats of neat cement, as taken from the package, mixed for five minutes with about 20 per cent of water by weight, shall be made on glass, each pat about 3 inches in diameter and one-half inch thick at the centre, tapering thence to a thin edge. The pats are to be kept under a wet cloth until finally set, when one is to be placed in fresh water for twenty-eight days. The second pat will be placed in water which will be raised to the boiling-point for six hours, then allowed to cool: Neither should show distortion or cracks. The boiling test may or may not reject at the option of the engineer officer hi charge. (10) TIME OF SETTING. The cement shall not acquire its initial set in less than forty-five minutes and must have acquired its final set in ten hours. (The following paragraph will be substituted for the above in case a quick-setting cement is desired: The cement shall not acquire its initial set in less than twenty nor more than thirty minutes, and must have acquired its final set in not less than forty-five minutes nor in more than two and one-half hours.) The pats made to test the soundness may be used in deter- mining the time of setting. The cement is considered to have acquired its initial set when the pat will bear, without being SPECIFICATIONS FOR PORTLAND CEMENT. 119 appreciably indented, a wire one-twelfth inch in diameter loaded to weigh one-fourth pound. The final set has been acquired when the pat will bear, without being; appreciably indented, a wire one twenty-fourth inch in diameter loaded to weigh 1 pound. (11) TENSILE STRENGTH. Briquettes made of neat cement, after being kept in air for twenty-four hours under a wet cloth and the balance of the time in water, shall develop tensile strength per square inch as follows: After seven days, 450 pounds; after twenty-eight days, 540 pounds. Briquettes made of 1 part cement and 3 parts standard sand, by weight, shall develop tensile strength per square inch as follows : After seven days, 140 pounds; after twenty-eight days, 220 pounds. (In case quick-setting cement is desired, the following ten- sile strengths shall be substituted for the above : Neat briquettes: After seven days, 400 pounds; after twenty- eight days, 480 pounds. Briquettes of 1 part cement to 3 parts standard sand: After seven days, 120 pounds; after twenty-eight days, 180 pounds.) (12) The highest result from each set of briquettes made at any one time is to be considered the governing test. Any cement not showing an increase of strength in the twenty- eight-day tests over the seven-day tests will be rejected. (13) When making briquettes well-dried cement and sand will be used; neat cement will be mixed with 20 per cent of water by weight, and sand and cement with 12^ per cent of water by weight. After being thoroughly mixed and worked for five minutes, the cement or mortar will be placed in the briquette mould in four equal layers, and each layer rammed and compressed by thirty blows of a soft brass or copper rammer three-quarters of an inch in diameter (or seven-tenths of an inch square, with rounded corners), weighing 1 pound. It is to be allowed to drop on the mixture from a height of about half an inch. When the ramming has been completed, the surplus cement shall be struck off and the final layer smoothed with a trowel held almost horizontal and drawn back with sufficient pressure to make its edge follow the surface of the mould. (14) The above are to be considered the minimum require- ments. Unless a cement has been recently used on work 120 PUZZOLAN CEMENT. under this office, bidders wiH deliver a sample barrel for test before the opening of bids. If this sample shows higher tests than those given above, the average of tests made on subse- quent shipments must come up to those found with the sample. (15) A cement may be rejected in case it fails to meet any of the above requirements. An agent of the contractor may be present at the making of the tests, or, in case of the fail- ure of any of them, they may be repeated in his presence. If the contractor so desires, the engineer officer in charge may, if he deem it to the interest of the United States, have any or all of the tests made or repeated at some recognized standard testing laboratory in the manner herein specified. All expenses of such tests to be paid by the contractor. All such tests shall be made on samples furnished by the engineer officer from cement actually delivered to him. Puzzolau Cement. This was originally an imported cement, made from a natural burned material of volcanic origin, but the slag cements now being made are really Puzzolan cement and should be classed under that head. The so-called slag cement is the product obtained by pulver- izing, without calcination, a mixture of granulated basic blast- furnace slag and slaked lime. This product, though in reality a member of the class of - Puzzolanic cements, is usually marketed as "Portland cement," in spite of the fact that it differs from a true Portland cement in method of manufacture, ultimate and rational composition and properties. Some recent tests made with slag cement in the municipal laboratory at Vienna, gave the following results: The mortar was mixed one to three. After seven days hardening, tensile strength, 383 pounds per square inch; strength of compression, 3880 pounds per square inch. After twenty-eight days harden- ing, tensile strength, 551 pounds per square inch; strength of compression, 5411 pounds per square inch. The following regarding Puzzolan or slag cement is taken from the professional papers of the United States Engineer Corps : SLAG CEMENT. This term is applied to cement made by intimately mixing by grinding together granulated blast-fur- nace slag of a certain quality and slaked lime, without calcina- tion subsequent to the mixing. This is the only cement of the Puzzolan class to be found in our markets (often branded as Portland), and as true Portland cement is now made having PUZZOLAN CEMENT. 121 slag for its hydraulic base, the term "slag cement" should be dropped and the generic term Puzzolan be used in advertisements and specifications for such mixtures not subsequently calcined. Puzzolan cement made from slag is characterized physically by its light lilac color; the absence of grit attending fine grind- ing and the extreme subdivision of its slaked-lime element; its low specific gravity (26 to 2.8) compared with Portland (3 to 3.5); and by the intense bluish-green color in the fresh fracture after long submersion in water, due to the presence of sulphides, which color fades after exposure to dry air. The oxidation of sulphides in dry air is destructive of Puz- zolan cement mortars and concretes so exposed. Puzzolan is usually very finely ground, and when not treated with soda sets more slowly than Portland. It stands storage well, but cements treated with soda to quicken setting become again very slow-setting from the carbonization of the soda (as well as the lime) element after long storage. Puzzolan cement properly made contains no free or anhy- drous lime, does not warp or swell, but is liable to fail from cracking and shrinking (at the surface only) in dry air. Mortars and concretes made from Puzzolan approximate in tensile strength similar mixtures of Portland cement, but their resistance to crushing is less, the ratio of crushing to tensile strength being about 6 or 7 to 1 for Puzzolan and 9 to 11 to 1 for Portland. On account of its extreme fine grinding Puzzolan often gives nearly as great tensile strength in 3 to 1 mixtures as neat. Puzzolan permanently assimilates but little water compared with Portland, its lime being already hydrated. It should be used in comparatively dry mixtures well rammed, but while requiring little water for chemical reactions, it requires for permanency in the air constant or continuous moisture. PROPER USES OF PUZZOLAN CEMENT. Puzzolan cement never becomes extremely hard like Portland, but Puzzolan mortars and concretes are tougher or less brittle than Portland. The cement is well adapted for use in sea-water, and generally in all positions where constantly exposed to moisture, such as in foundations of buildings, sewers, and drains, and in underground works generally, and in the interior of heavy masses of masonry or concrete. It is unfit for use when subjected to mechanical wear, attrition, or blows. It should never be used where it may be exposed for 122 SPECIFICATIONS FOR PUZZOLAN CEMENT. long periods to dry air, even after it has well set. It will turn white and disintegrate, due to the oxidation of its sulphides at the surface under such exposure. Sulphuretted hydrogen, which is often evolved upon decom- position of the sulphides in Puzzolan cement, is injurious to iron and steel. Such metals, if used in connection with Puzzolan cement should be protected, or an allowance be made for deterioration by increase of section." Some more recent tests of slag cements show that they con- tain very little ' sulphur and analyses show their composition to be practically the same as the best brands of Portland cements. SPECIFICATIONS FOR PUZZOLAN CEMENT. PREPARED BY THE U. S. ENGINEER DEPARTMENT. (1) The cement shall be a Puzzolan of uniform quality, finely and freshly ground, dry, and free from lumps, made by grinding together without subsequent calcination granulated blast-furnace slag with slaked lime. (2) The cement shall be put up in strong sound barrels well lined with paper, so as to be reasonably protected against moisture, or in stout cloth or canvas sacks. Each package shall be plainly labelled with the name of the brand and of the manufacturer. Any package broken or containing damaged cement may be rejected or accepted as a fractional package at the option of the United States agent in local charge. (3) Bidders will state the brand of cement which they pro- pose to furnish. The right is reserved to reject a tender for any brand which has not given satisfaction in use under cli- matic or other conditions of exposure of at least equal severity to those of the work proposed, and for any brand from cement works that do not make and test the slag used in the cement, (4) Tenders will be received only from manufacturers or their authorized agents. (The folio wing paragraph will be substituted for paragraphs 3 and 4 above when cement is to be furnished and placed by the contractor. No cement will be allowed to be used except established brands of high-grade Puzzolan cement which have been in SPECIFICATIONS FOR PUZZOLAN CEMENT. 123 successful use under similar climatic conditions to those of the proposed work and which come from cement works that make the slag used in the cement. (5) The average weight per barrel shall not be less than 330 pounds net. Four sacks shall contain 1 barrel of cement. If the weight as determined by test weighings is found "to be below 330 pounds per barrel, the cement may be rejected or, at the option of the engineer officer in charge, the contractor may be required to supply, free of cost to the United States, an additional amount of cement equal to the shortage. (6) Tests may be made of the fineness, specific gravity, soundness, time of setting, and tensile strength of the cement. (7) FINENESS. Ninety-seven per cent of the cement must pass through a sieve made of No. 40 wire, Stubb's gauge, hav- ing 10,000 openings per square inch. (8) SPECIFIC GRAVITY. The specific gravity of the cement, as determined from a sample which has been carefully dried, shall be between 2.7 and 2.8. (9) SOUNDNESS. To test the soundness of cement, pats of neat cement mixed for five minutes with 18 per cent of water by weight shall be made on glass, each pat about 3 inches in diameter and one-half inch thick at the centre, tapering thence to a thin edge. The pats are to be kept under wet cloths until finally set, when they are to be placed in fresh water. They should not show distortion or cracks at the end of twenty-eight days. (10) TIME OF SETTING. The cement shall not acquire its ini- tial set in less than forty-five minutes and shall acquire its final "set in ten hours. The pats made to test the soundness may be used in determining the time of setting. The cement is considered to have acquired its initial set when the pat will bear, without being appreciably indented, a wire one-twelfth inch in diameter loaded to one-fourth pound weight The final set has been acquired when the pat will bear, without being appreciably indented, a wire one twenty-fourth inch in diameter loaded to 1 pound weight. (11) TENSILE STRENGTH. Briquettes made of neat cement, after being kept in air under a wet cloth for twenty-four hours and the balance of the time in water, shall develop tensile strengths per square inch as follows: After seven days, 350 pounds; after twenty-eight days, 500 pounds. 124 SILICA CEMENT, OR SAND CEMENT. Briquettes made of one part cement and three parts stand- ard sand by weight shall develop tensile strength per square inch as follows: After seven days, 140 pounds; after twenty-eight days, 220 pounds. (12) The highest result from each set of briquettes made at any one time is to be considered the governing test. Any cement not showing an increase of strength in the twenty- eight-day tests over the seven-day tests will be rejected. (13) When making briquettes neat cement will be mixed with 18 per cent of water by weight, and sand and cement with 10 per cent of water by weight. After being thoroughly mixed and worked for five minutes the cement or mortar will be placed in the briquette mould in four equal layers and each layer rammed and compressed by thirty blows of a soft brass or copper rammer, three-quarters of an inch in diameter or seven-tenths of an inch square, with rounded corners, weigh- ing 1 pound. It is to be allowed to drop on the mixture from a height of about half an inch. When the ramming has been completed the surplus cement shall be struck off and the final layer smoothed with a trowel held almost horizontal and drawn back with sufficient pressure to make its edge follow the sui- face of the mould. (14) The above are to be considered the minimum require- ments. Unless a cement has been recently used on work under this office, bidders will deliver a sample barrel for test before the opening of bids. If this sample shows higher tests than those given above, the average of tests made on subse- quent shipments must come up to those found with the sample. (15) A cement may be rejected in case it fails to meet any of the above requirements. An agent of the contractor may be present at the making of the tests, or, in case of the failure of any of them, they may be repeated in his presence. If the contractor so desires, the engineer officer in charge may, if he deems it to the interest of the United States, have any or all of the tests made or repeated at some recognized testing laboratory in the manner herein specified, all expenses of such tests to be paid by the contractor. All such tests shall be made on samples furnished by the engineer officer from cement actually delivered to him. Silica Cement, or Sand Cement. This is a patented article manufactured by grinding together Lsilica or clean sand SPECIFICATIONS FOR CEMENT. 125 with Portland cement, by which process the original cementing material is made extremely fine and its capacity to cover sur- faces of concrete aggregates is much increased. The sand is an adulteration, but on account of the extreme fineness of the product it serves to make mortar or concrete containing a given proportion of pure cement much more dense, the finer material being increased in volume. The increase in cementing capacity due to the fine grinding of the cement constituent offsets, in great degree, the effects of the sand adulteration, so that sand cement made from equal weights of cement and sand approximates in tensile strength to the neat cement, and the material is sold as cement. The extreme fine grinding also improves cement that con- tains expansives, but nevertheless sand cement should not be purchased in the market, but should be made on the work from approved materials if used for other purposes than for grouting, for which it is peculiarly adapted. SPECIFICATIONS FOR CEMENTS. NATURAL CEMENT. All natural cement must have a specific gravity of not less than 2.70, must be of such fineness that 80 per cent will pass through a No. 100 standard sieve, and briquettes made of such neat natural cement, after exposure to the air for one day and immersion in water for six days, must show a tensile strength of 90 pounds to the square inch. Pats \ inch thick must stand same test hereinafter specified for Portland cement. PORTLAND CEMENT. All Portland cement must have a spe- cific gravity of not less than 3.10, must be of such fineness that 90 per cent will pass through a No. 100 standard sieve, must not contain more than 2 per cent anhydrous sulphuric acid, nor 3 per cent magnesia, and briquettes made of such neat Port- land cement, after exposure to the air for one day and immer- sion in water for six days, must show a tensile strength of 350 pounds to the square inch. One-half-inch pats exposed to the air for seven days or immersed in water for the same time after hard set shall show no blotches, discolorations, checks, or signs of disintegration. NON-STAINING CEMENT. Non-staining cement must be of a brand that has been in use for at least two years to test its 126 TESTS, ETC , OF CEMENT. non-staining qualities, have a specific gravity of not less than 2.75, contain not more than 2 per cent sulphuric acid, nor more than 3 per cent magnesia, be of such fineness that 85 per cent will pass through a No. 100 standard sieve, and bri- quettes of the neat cement, tested as specified for Portland cement, shall have a tensile strength of 200 pounds per square inch. All cement must be of uniform quality and when delivered must be in original packages with the brand and maker's name marked thereon, and must be kept dry. Tests, etc., of Cement, In ordinary work the super- intendent can be guided as to the quality of the cement by the brand and name of the manufacturer; unless the cement is of a standard brand and make, and which has been thor- oughly tested in the past by use, etc. , the superintendent should not permit any of it to be used until it has been tested. This is best done at some laboratory equipped for the purpose. The following rules have been adopted by the U. S. Engineer Corps for testing cement, and should be a good guide for the superintendent. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. The constructing engineer is confronted by no problem more difficult than to decide whether a certain cement, when placed in a work, will behave in a pre- determined way. This is especially true of Portlands. Other cements are much more reliable under conditions of exposure for which they are suited. The difficulties arise from the fact that tests for acceptance or rejection must be made on a product not in its final stage. A cement, when incorporated in masonry, undergoes for months chemical changes in the process of setting, so that the material subjected to strains in the work is not the material tested, but a derivative of it. The object of tests is to establish two probabilities: First, that the product of the given cement will develop the desired strength and hardness soon enough to enable it to bear the stresses designed for it; second, that it will never thereafter fall below that strength and hardness. Up to the present time it appears that the relation between the chemical and physical properties of raw cement and of its partially indurated derivatives, determined by tests, and the physical properties of the same cement or its derivatives, after complete hydration and induration in the work, can be stated only within rather wide limits. TESTS, ETC., OF CEMENT. 127 The most useful tests of cements are those, first, which con- nect themselves definitely with some serious defect to which cements are subject, or with some merit which they should possess; second, which can be made with the least apparatus and manipulation, and which give their indications in the shortest time; and, third, which are freest from personal equa- tion and from influences of local surroundings. These criteria, applied to the customary tests of cements, give indications as to their relative value and the best methods of making them. TEST OF GRINDING. This test derives importance from the fact, apparently well established, that, other things being equal, the finer the cement the greater will be its sand-carrying capac- ity; that is, it will show greater strength with the same charge of sand, or equal strength with a greater charge. According to the best information the Board can obtain, the cementitious value of this material is believed to reside principally, if not wholly, in the very fine part. It follows that a grinding test should be directed to determining the proportion which it very fine rather than the residue above a certain size. The Board does not propose any change in the accepted grinding test of Portland cement, but favors for natural cement the use of the same size screen as for Portland, No. 100, with the requirement that 80 per cent shall pass through it. The screen should be frequently examined, magnified, if practicable, to see that no wires are displaced, leaving apertures larger than the normal. TEST FOR SPECIFIC GRAVITY. This test is made with simple appliances, and its result is immediately known. It appears to connect itself quite definitely with the degree of calcination which the cement has received. The higher the burning, short of vitrification, the better the cement and the higher the specific gravity. This test has another value, in that the adulterations of Portland cement most likely to be practised and most to be feared are made with materials which reduce the specific gravity. The test is therefore of value in determining a properly burned, non-adulterated Portland. If underburned, the specific gravity may fall below 3; it may reach 3.5 if the cement has been over- burned. No other hydraulic cement is so heavy in proportion to volume, natural cement having a specific gravity of about 2.5 to 2.8 and Puzzolan (slag) of about 2.7 to 2.8. Properly burned Portland, adulterated with slag, will fall below 3.L 128 TESTS, ETC., OF CEMENT. TEST OP ACTIVITY. This test, made by gauging the cement with water and observing the times of initial and permanent set, is partly direct and partly indirect. It is direct in so far as its limits relate to the time necessary to get the cement in place after mixing, which must not be greater than the time of initial set, and to the time within which the cement product must take its load, which must not be less than the time of permanent set. It is indirect in so far as its limits relate to the probable final strength, elasticity, and hardness of the cement mixtures. In the latter respect it appears to be reasonably well established that cements exhibiting great activity give, after long periods, results inferior to those with action less rapid. The test for activity is easily made with simple appliances, and its results are known in a few hours at most. Variable results in the test are caused by different local conditions of moisture and temperature and by the different judgments of observers as to whether the needles penetrate or not. Gen- erally speaking, both periods of set are lengthened by increase of moisture and shortened by increase of temperature. Some manufacturers claim that their cements show their best results when gauged with particular percentages of water. It is not considered good policy to encourage these peculiarities at the expense of the uniformity of tests which is so greatly desired. It is better to adopt a definite proportion of water for gauging and require all cements of the same class to stand or fall on their showing when so gauged. Sucli a percentage, adopted and known, will probably be used by manufacturers in testing goods sold to the Engineer Department, and a greater har- mony between mill and field tests of the same cement will result. In gauging Portland cement the samples should be thoroughly dried before adding water. This precaution is not deemed necessary with natural cement. Sufficient uniformity of temperature will result if the testing-room be comfortably warmed in winter and the specimens be kept out of the sun in a cool room in summer and under a damp cloth until set. TEST FOR CONSTANCY OF VOLUME. This test results from observations made on the pats or cakes used in the setting test. It derives its value from its connection with the quantity of expansives in the cement. The test is easy to make, and its results are relatively free TESTS, ETC., OF CEMENT. 129 from personal error, though there is room for a difference of judgment as to the appearance of the cakes. As they may be preserved and the decision reviewed at any time on the original data, such differences are immaterial. TESTS OF STRENGTH. These may be subdivided into compres- sive and tensile tests, the latter including the transverse test made by breaking a beam of the cement. The compressive test need not be further considered, as it is less easily made than the tensile test and gives no surer indications. The ratio of compressive to tensile strength of the same class of cements is quite uniform. Of the tensile tests the direct pull is preferable to the flexure test. The tensile test is theoretically a perfect index of the quality of the cement at the periods of test, and a comparison at dif- ferent periods gives the best obtainable indication of what its subsequent conduct will be. In the opinion of the Board the two periods most generally adopted, seven and twenty-eight days after mixing, are, on the whole, the best. The one-day test, though of some value in a discriminating sense, should not be piaced in the same category as the other periods named. The apparatus for tensile tests is somewhat elaborate and delicate, but is of standard manufacture and readily obtainable at relatively small cost. la respect of uncertainties due to the personal equation of the tester and to the influence of local conditions this test pre- sents greater difficulties than any of the others considered. The most scrupulous care must be observed in the manipula- tions, and the tester should possess natural aptitude for such work. The object is to determine the greatest stress per square inch which the cement can be made to stand under given con- ditions without rupture. If the conditions have been carefully observed and several discrepant results are obtained, the highest may be right, but the others are certainly wrong. No averaging should be done. The remarks made above under the activity test as to the relation between early hydraulic intensity and the final excel- lence of a cement product are equally applicable to the indica- tions from tensile tes^s. A cement which tests moderately high at seven days and shows a substantial increase to twenty- eight days is more likely to reach the maximum strength slowly 130 TESTS, ETC., OF CEMENT. and retain it indefinitely with a low modulus of elasticity than a cement which tests abnormally high at seven days with little or no increase at twenty-eight days. ACCELERATED TESTS. The rules recommended by the com- mittee of the American Society of Civil Engineers in 1885 have been substantially accepted here and abroad as to tests of setting qualities and soundness; more rapid tests for soundness are, however, proposed and practised, though no accelerated test has been generally accepted. Accelerated tests proposed for the speedy detection of the presence of expansives in cement usually consist in the appli- cation, after gauging, of dry heat or of immersion in warm or boiling water or steam. The immersion tests are most in vogue. They vary from immersing freshly gauged pats on glass plates in water at 115 F. for twenty-four hours, or at higher temperatures for various periods, to steaming or boil- ing cakes or cylinders of the material to be tested at 212 F. for varying times. In France and Germany the swelling or expansion of boiled cylinders is measured directly by calibration. Usually change of : volume not accompanied by visible evidences of it i.e., dis- tortion or disruption is not observed in American tests pre- scribed in specifications for the reception of cements. Of all these tests the boiling test is the simplest, requires only appa- ratus everywhere available, and is recommended by the Board. It has been the experience that this test detects material that is unsound by reason of the presence of active expansives; but in some cases it rejects material that would give satisfac- tory results in actual work and will reject material that would stand this test after air slaking. The great value of the test lies in its short-time indications and in at once directing attention to weak points in the cement to be further observed or guarded against. Of two or more cements offered for use or on hand, the cements that stand the boiling tests are to be taken preferably; it should be con- stantly applied on the work among other simple tests to be noted, for although the boiling test sometimes rejects suitable material, it is believed that it will always reject a material un- sound by reason of the existence of active expansives. Sul- phate of lime, while enabling cements ^o pass the boiling tests, introduces an element of danger. This test is proposed as suggestive or discriminative only. TESTS, ETC., OF CEMENT. 131 Except for works of unusual importance it is not recommended that a cement passing the other tests proposed shall be rejected on the boiling test. TESTS TO BE MADE. For selecting Portland and Puzzolan cements from among the brands offered, the Board recommends that the following tests be made: 1. For fineness of grinding. 2. For specific gravity. 3. For soundness or constancy of volume in setting. 4. For time of setting. 5. For tensile strength. For natural cement we recommend the omission of the specific-gravity and soundness tests. On the works the Board recommends simple tests when the more elaborate tests cannot well be made. In determining the minimum requirements for cements given in the subjoined specifications we recognize that many cements that attain only fair strength neat and with sand in a short time and show marked gains of strength on further time will fulfil the requirements of the service, and that unusu- ally high tensile strength attained in a few days after gaug- ing is often coupled with a small or negative increase in strength in further short intervals. Unusually high tests in a short time after gauging should be regarded with suspicion, although some well-known brands of American cements show great strength in short-time tests and, so far as observed, are reliable in air and fresh water. Cements offered under such known brands should show their characteristic strength and other qualities or be suspected as spurious or adulterated, if not rejected, even though the minimum requirements of the speci- fications are met. The practice of offering a bonus or free gift of money in addition to the contract price for cement testing above a fixed high point should be prohibited as un- necessary, for cements so obtained are likely to be unsound in a manner not easily detected in the time usually available in testing. It is believed that most of the very high-testing Portland cements have lime in excess, the effect of which is tempo- rarily masked by the use of sulphate of lime. Overlined cements so treated are unfit for use in sea-water. For .such uses a chemical analysis should be required, and the quantity of sulphuric acid, as well as magnesia, be limited to a low per- 132 TESTS, ETC., OF CEMENT. centage. 1 It is not yet known that sulphate of lime in quan- tity less than 2 per cent is injurious to cements to be used in fresh water or in air. It masks expansives that might ulti- mately cause the destruction of the work, but it is not known whether this effect is permanent. Its addition is now deemed necessary to control time of setting. It makes a quick-setting cement slow setting, at the same time increasing tensile strength acquired in a short time. MANIPULATION OF CEMENTS FOR TESTS. /. Fineness. Place 100 parts (denominations determined by subdivisions of the weighing-machine used) by weight on a sieve with 100 holes to the linear inch, woven from brass wire No. 40, Stubb's wire gauge; sift by hand or mechanical shaker until cement ceases to pass through. The weight of the material passing the sieve plus the weight of the dust lost in air, expressed in hundredths of the original weight, will express the percentage of fineness. In order to determine this percentage the residue on the sieve should be weighed. It is only the impalpable dust that possesses cementitious value. Fineness of grinding is therefore an essential quality in cements to be mixed with sand. The residue on a sieve of 100 meshes to the inch is of no cementitious value, and even the grit retained on a sieve of 40,000 openings to the square inch is of small value. The degree of fineness prescribed in these specifications (92 per cent) for Portland through a sieve of 10,000 meshes to the square inch is quite commonly attained in high-grade American cements, but rarely in imported brands. On the Pacific Coast, where foreign cements mainly are in the market, this requirement may be lowered for the present to 87 per cent on No. 100 sieve. //. Specific Gravity. The standard temperature for specific- gravity determinations is 62 F., but for cement testing temper- atures may vary between 60 and 80 F. without affecting results more than the probable error in the observation. Use any approved form of volumenometer or specific-gravity bottle, graduated to cubic centimeters with decimal subdivisions. Fill instrument to zero of the scale with benzine, turpentine, or some other liquid having no action upon cements. 1 Not more than 3 percent, by weight, of magnesia, 1 per cent of sulphuric anhydride, or 2 per cent of sulphate of lime should be allowed in any case. In sea-water not exceeding one-half these quantities. i TESTS, ETC., OF CEMENT. 133 Take 100 grams of sifted cement that has been previously dried by exposure on a metal plate for twenty minutes to a dry heat of 212 F., and allow it to pass slowly into the fluid of the volumenometer, taking care that the powder does not stick to the sides of the graduated tube above the fluid and that the funnel through which it is introduced does not touch the fluid. Read carefully the volume of the displaced fluid to the nearest fraction of a cubic centimeter. Then the approximate specific gravity will be represented by 100 divided by the displacement in cubic centimeters. The operation requires care. ///. Setting Qualities and Soundness, The quantity of water and the temperature of water and air affect the time of setting. The specifications contemplate a temperature varying not more than 10 from 62 F. and quantities of water given herein: For Portland cements use about 20 per cent of water. For Puzzolan cements use about 18 per cent of water. For natural cements use about 30 per cent of water. These quantities are for the cements as taken from the packages. Mix thoroughly for five minutes, vigorously rubbing the mixture under pressure; time to be estimated from moment of adding water and to be considered of importance. Make on glass plates two cakes from the mixture about 3 inches in diameter, J inch thick at middle, and drawn to thin edges, and cover them with a damp cloth or place them in a tight box not exposed to currents of dry air. At the end of the time specified for initial set apply the needle Viz inch diameter weighted to pound to one of the cakes. If an indentation is made the cement passes the requirement for initial setting, if no indentation is made by the needle it is too quick-setting. At the end of the time specified for " final set" apply the needle Vz inch diameter loaded to 1 pound. The cement cake should not be indented. Expose the two cakes to air under damp cloth for twenty- four hours. Place one of the cakes, still attached to its plate, in water for twenty-eight days; the other cake immerse in water at about 70 temperature supported in a rack above the bottom of the receptacle; raise the water gradually to the boiling-point and maintain this temperature for six hours and f/hen let the water with cake immersed cool. Examine the 134 TESTS, ETC., OF CEMENT. cakes at the proper time for evidences of expansion and dis- tortion. Should the boiled cake become detached from the plate by twisting and warping or show expansion cracks the cement may be rejected, or it may await the result of twenty- eight days in water. If the fresh-water cake shows no evi- dences of swelling, the cement may be used in ordinary work in air or fresh water for lean mixtures. If distortion or expan- sion cracks are shown on the fresh-water cake, the cement should be rejected. Of two or more cements offered, all of which will stand the fresh-water-cake test for soundness, the cements that will stand the boiling tests also are to be preferred. IV. Tensile Strength. Neat Tests: Use thoroughly dried unsifted cements. 1 Place the amount to be mixed on a smooth, non-absorbent slab; make a crater in the middle sufficient to hold the water; add nearly all the water at once, the remainder as needed; mix thoroughly by turning with the trowel, and vigorously rub or work the cement for five minutes. Place the mould on a glass or slate slab. Fill the mould with consecutive layers of cement, each when rammed to be J inch thick. Tap each layer 30 taps with a soft brass or copper rammer weighing 1 pound and having a face f inch diameter or 7 /lo inch square with rounded corners. The tapping or ram- ming is to be done as follows : While holding the forearm and wrist at a constant level, raise the rammer with the thumb and forefinger about -| inch and then let it fall freely, repeating the operation until the layer is uniformly compacted by 30 taps. This method is intended to compact the material in a man- ner similar to actual practice in construction, when a metal rammer is used weighing 30 pounds, with circular head 5 inches in diameter falling about 8 inches upon layers of mortar or concrete 3 inches thick. The method permits comparable results to be obtained by different observers. After filling the mould and ramming the last layer, strike smooth with the trowel, tap the mould lightly in a direction parallel to the base plate to prevent adhesion to the plate, arid 1 The hot clinker is often suddenly chilled by steam or water in order to reduce the work of grinding by first cracking it. This water, as well as that absorbed from the air, should always be expelled or its percentage ascertained and deducted from the amounts prescribed for briquettes. Sand, also, should be similarly treated. TESTS, ETC., OF CEMENT. 135 cover for twenty-four hours with a damp cloth. Then remove the briquette from the mould and immerse it in fresh water, which should be renewed twice a week for the specified time if running water is not available for a slow current. If moulds are not available for twenty-four hours, remove from the moulds after final set, replacing the damp cloth over the briquettes. In removing briquettes before hard set great care should be exercised. Hold the mould in the left hand and, after loosening the latch, tap gently the sides of the mould until they fall apart. Place the briquettes face down in the water trough. For neat tests of Portland cement use 20 per cent of water by weight. For neat tests of Puzzolan cement use 18 per cent of water by weight. For neat tests of natural cement use 30 per cent of water by weight. Nearly all this water is retained by Portland cement, whereas only about one-third of the gauging water is retained by Puz- zolan or natural cements; from this it follows that an apparent condition of plasticity or fluidity that ultimately little injures Portland paste, very seriously injures Puzzolan or natural mortars and concretes by leaving a porous texture on the evap- oration of the surplus water. Sand Tests. The proportions 1 cement to 3 sand are to be used in tests of Puzzolan and Portland, and 1 cement to 1 sand in tests of natural or Rosendale cements. Crushed quartz sand, sifted to pass a standard sieve with 20 meshes per linear inch and to be retained on a standard sieve with 30 meshes to the inch, is to be used. After weighing carefully, mix dry the cement and sand until the mixture is uniform, add the water as in neat mix- tures, and mix for five minutes by triturating or rubbing to- gether the constituents of the mortar. This may be done under pressure with a trowel or by rubbing between the fin- gers, using rubber gloves. The rubbing together seems neces- sary to coat thoroughly the facets of the sand with the cement paste. It is found that prolonged rubbing, when not carried beyond the time of the initial set, results in higher tests. Five minutes is the time of mixing quite generally adopted in European specifications. The briquettes are to be made as prescribed for neat mixtures. 136 TESTS, ETC., OF CEMENT. Portland cements well dried require water from 10 to 12 per cent by weight of constituent sand and cement for maxi- mum ultimate strength in tested briquettes. Puzzolan, about 9 to 10 per cent. Natural, about 15 to 17 per cent. Mixtures that at first appear too dry for testing purposes often become more plastic under the prolonged working re- quired herein. In general, about four briquettes constitute the maximum number that may be made well within the time required for initial setting of moderately slow-setting cements. Three such batches of sand mixtures should be made, and one briquette of each batch may be broken at seven and twenty- eight days, giving three tests at each period. At least one batch of neat cement briquettes should be made. If the first briquette broken at each date fulfils the mini, mum requirement of these specifications it is not necessary to break others which may be reserved for long-time tests. If the first briquette does not pass the test for tensile strength, then briquettes may be broken until six briquettes, two from each batch, have been broken at seven days, and the remain- ing six reserved for twenty-eight-day tests. The highest result from any sample is to be taken as the strength of the sample when the break is at the least section of briquette. If, on the twenty-eight-day tests, the cement not only more than fulfils the minimum requirements of these specifications, but also shows unusual gain in strength, it may still be accepted if the other tests are satisfactory, notwithstanding a low seven- day test, if early strength is not a matter of importance. Such cements are likely to be permanent. For a batch of .four briquettes, the following quantities are suggested as in accord with these specifications. Water is measured by fluid-ounce volumes, not by weight, temperature varying not more than 10 from 62 F. Portland Cement. Neat: 20 ounces of cement, 4 ounces of water. Mix wet five minutes. Sand: 15 ounces sand, 5 ounces cement, 2J ounces water. Mix thoroughly dry; then mix wet five minutes. Puzzolan Cement. Neat: 20 ounces cement, 3f ounces water. Mix wet five minutes. Sand: 15 ounces sand, 5 ounces cement, 2 ounces water. Mix thoroughly dry; then mix wet five minutes. TESTS, ETC., OF CEMENT. 137 Natural Cement. Neat: 20 ounces cement, 6 ounces water. Mix wet five minutes. Sand: 10 ounces cement, 10 ounces sand, 3J ounces water. Mix dry; then wet for five minutes. For measuring tensile strength, a machine that applies the stress automatically at a uniform rate is preferable to one controlled entirely by hand. These specifications for tensile strength contemplate the application of stress at the rate of 400 pounds per minute to briquettes made as prescribed herein. A rate so rapid as to approximate a blow or so slow as to approximate a continued stress will give very different results. The tests for tensile strength are to be made immediately after taking from the water or while the briquettes are still wet. The temperature of the water during immersion should be main- tained as nearly constant as practicable; not less than 50 nor more than 70 F. The tests are to be made upon briquettes 1 inch square at place of rupture. The specifications contemplate the use of the form of briquette recommended by the committee of the American Society of Civil Engineers, held when tested by close-fitting metal clips, without rubber or other yielding con- tacts. The breaks considered in the tests are to be those occur- ring at the smallest section, 1 inch square. SIMPLE TESTS. Tests of cement received upon a work in progress must often be of much simpler character than pre- scribed herein. Tests on the work are mainly to ascertain whether the arti- cle supplied is genuine cement, of a brand previously tested and accepted, and whether it is a reasonably sound and active cement that will set hard in the desired time, and give a good, hard mortar. Simple tests may give this information, and such should be multiplied whether or not more elaborate tests be made. Pats and balls of cement and mortar from the store- house and mixing platform or machine should be frequently made. The setting or hardening qualities, as determined roughly by estimating time and by pressure of the thumb-nail, should be observed; the hardness of the set and strength, by cracking the hardened pats or cakes between the fingers, and by dropping the balls from the height of the arm upon a pavement or stone and observing the result of the impact. By placing the pats in water as soon as hardened sufficiently 138 TESTS, ETC., OF CEMENT. and raising the temperature to the boiling-point for a few hours and observing the character and color of the fracture after sufficient immersion, information as to the character of the material, whether hydraulic, a Portland, or Puzzolan, whether too fresh or possibly "blowy," may be speedily and quite well ascertained without measuring instruments. Many engineers and users of cements regard such simple tests, taken in connection with the weight and fineness of the cement and the apparent texture and hardness of the mortars and concretes in the work, sufficient field tests of a material of known repute. The more elaborate tests, described above, should be made in well-equipped laboratories by skilled cement testers. CLASSIFICATION OF TESTS. The tests to be made are two classes. (1) Purchase tests on samples furnished by bidders to as- certain whether the bidder may be held on the sample to the delivery of suitable material, should his offer be accepted. (2) Acceptance tests on samples taken at random from deliveries, to ascertain whether the material supplied accords with the purchase sample, or is suitable for the purpose of the work, as stated in the specifications for cement supplies. (1) Purchase tests. Under these specifications bids for Port- land cements will be restricted to brands that have been ap- proved after at least three years' exposure in successful use under similar conditions to those of the proposed work. This specification limits proposals to manufacturers of cement of established repute, and in so far lessens the dependence to be placed upon tests of single samples of cement in determining the probable quality of the cements offered, that sample pack- ages may not be required with the proposals when the brand is known to the purchaser. When the cement is not known to the purchasing officer by previous use, a barrel of it should be required as representing the quality of cement to be sup- plied. A full set of tests should be made from this sample, and subsequent deliveries be required to show quality at least 'equal to the sample. In this connection it is advisable in districts where well- equipped laboratories have been established, that sample packages of the cements in use in that territory, as sold in the open market, be obtained and tested as occasion offers to ascertain the characteristic qualities of the brands as commer- TESTS, ETC., OF CEMENT. 139 cial articles, the information to be used in subsequent pur- chases of cements. When purchase samples are waived, acceptance tests should be based upon the known qualities of the brand, as shown by previous tests. The sample barrel should not be broken further than to take therefrom the necessary samples for testing. After- wards it should be put away in a dry place and kept for fur- ther testing, should the results obtained be disputed. (2) Acceptance tests. The tests to be made on cements delivered under contract depend not only on the extent, character, and importance of the work itself, but also on the time available between the delivery and the actual use of the material. (a) On very important and extensive works, equipped with a testing laboratory and adequate storehouses, where cement may be kept at least thirty days before being required for use, full and elaborate tests should be made, keeping in view the fact that careful tests of few samples are more valuable than hurried tests of many samples. (6) On active works of ordinary character, when time will not permit full tests, and on small works where the expenses of a laboratory are not justified, the tests must necessarily be limited to such reasonable precautions against the acceptance and use of unfit material as may be taken in the usually short interval between the receipt and use of the material. Such conditions were in view in formulating the specifica- tion that proposals will be received from manufacturers of such cements only as have been proved by at least three years' use under similar conditions of exposure. Of the tests named in the specifications, those for fineness, activity or hydraulicity, specific gravity, weight of packages, and accelerated tests for indications as to soundness, may be made within two days after the receipt of the material and with a very small outlay for instruments. Cement of established repute, shown by specific gravity and fineness to be properly burnt and ground, or normal for the brand, that will set hard in reasonable time, the cakes snapping with a clean fracture when broken between the fingers, and standing the tests above named, may be accepted and used with reasonable certainty of success. Nevertheless, packages taken at random from the deliveries should occasion- ally be set aside and samples taken therefrom sent to a testing 140 TESTS, ETC., OF CEMENT. laboratory for the more elaborate tests for tensile strength (and for soundness should the boiling tests not be conclusive). The final acceptance and payment for such cement as may not have been actually placed in the work should, by agreement, be made to depend upon such tests. In all cases where cement has been long stored it should be carefully tested before use to ascertain whether it has deterio- rated in strength. Should the simple tests give unsatisfactory or suspicious results, then a full series of tests should be carefully made. When Portland cement is in question the specific-gravity and fineness tests should be made to guard against adultera- tion, and in all cases test weighings should be made to guard against short weights. In cases where the amount of cement or the importance of the work will not justify the purchase of the simple apparatus required for the specific gravity, fineness, and boiling tests, the cement can be accepted on the informal tests mentioned herein, which require no apparatus whatever, but in such cases cements well known to the purchaser by previous use should be selected and purchased directly from the manu- facturer or his selling agent in order that responsibility for the cement may be fixed. Certified tests by professional inspectors made as prescribed herein on samples taken from the cement to be shipped to the work, in a manner analogous to that cutsomary among engineers in the purchase of structural steel and iron, may be required in such cases. SAMPLING. The entire package from parts of which tests are to be made is to be regarded as the sample tested. It should be marked with a distinctive mark that must also be applied to any part tested. The package should be set aside and protected against deterioration until all results from tests made from it are reached and accepted by both parties to the contract for supplies. Cement drawn from several sample packages should not be mixed or mingled, but the individuality of each sample pack- age should be preserved. In testing it should be borne in mind that a few tests from any sample, carefully made, are more valuable than many made with less care. TESTS, ETC., OF CEMENT. 141 The amount of material to be taken for formal tests is indi- cated herein where weights of the constituents of four briquettes are given, to which should be added the amount necessary for the tests for specific gravity, activity, and soundness. In extended tests the material should be taken from the sample package from the heads and 'centre of barrel, and from the ends and centre of bag, by such an instrument as is used by inspectors of flour. All material taken from the same sample package may be thoroughly mixed or mingled and the tests be made therefrom as showing the true character of the con- tents of the sample package. In making formal tests at the work for acceptance of cement sample packages should be taken at random from among sound packages. The number taken must depend upon the impor- tance and character of the work, the available time, and the capacity of the permanent laboratory force. For tensile strength the tests with sand are considered the more impor- tant and should always be made. Tests neat should be made if time permits. It is not necessary in any case on a large work to test more than 10 per cent of the deliveries, even of doubtful cement, and a much less number of samples may be taken should no cause for distrust be revealed by the tests made. In very important work of small extent each package may be tested. A cement should be rejected if the samples show dangerous variation in quality or lack of care in manufacture and result- ing lack of uniformity in the produce without regard to the proportion of failures among samples tested. In all cases in the use of cements the informal or simple tests of the character named herein should be constantly car- ried on. These constitute most valuable tests. Whenever any faulty material is indicated by such tests, elaborate tests should be at once instituted and should the fault be confirmed, the cement delivered and not used should be rejected and the use of the brand be discontinued. TESTS FOR WEIGHT. From time to time packages should be weighed in gross and afterwards the weight of neat cement and tare of the packages determined. If short weight of neat cement is indicated, a sufficient number of packages should be weighed and the average net weight per package ascertained with sufficient certainty to afford a satisfactory basis of settle- ment. 142 NOTES REGARDING CEMENT. The superintendent may make some simple tests to deter- mine the quality of the cement as follows: SOUNDNESS. To test the soundness of the cement, take a lamp-chimney with a large swell to it and stand it on end; fill it with dry cement and then pour water on the cement; if the glass cracks the cement is unfit for use in any damp place. The cement can be tested as to the time the initial set takes place; as a rule the longer it takes the cement to set the stronger it will be. A simple test can be made by mixing some cement with just enough water to make it plastic, and roll it into a ball about the size of a walnut; after it sets in the air for about two hours, place it under water for three or four days If it gradually becomes harder with no cracks it is an indication of good cement. EXPANSION. A cement that will expand should not be used. To test this make a cake of cement and let it remain in the air until it sets, then put it under water for a few days; if any cracks appear around the edge of the cake it indicates expansion and should be rejected. This sometimes happens with newly made cement, and age will overcome it. . The test for soundess will also generally show if the cement will expand. NON-STAINING CEMENT. In setting or pointing marble or limestones or other porous stones a reliable brand of a non- staining cement should be used, as Portland or Rosendale cement will stain the stone enough to disfigure it. This is a patent cement called La Farge, which is usually made from a limestone having hydraulic qualities. Some of the foreign Puzzolan cements also possess this non-staining feature. Notes Regarding Cement. NUMBER AND MESH OF SIEVES FOR TESTING CEMENT. No. 50 2500 meshes to the square inch No. 74 5476 meshes to the square inch No. 100 10,000 meshes to the square inch No. 200 40,000 meshes to the square inch The porosity of mortar and cement, according to recent tests made by Prof. Lang, shows that when wet Portland-cement NOTES REGARDING CEMENT. 143 concrete is impermeable to air. By measuring the amount of air which passes a layer of given thickness, under a certain pressure, in a unit of time, the following values for the degree of permeability were obtained: Dry. Wet. Portland cement, neat 0.05 0.00 Portland-cement concrete . 40 . 00 The specific gravity of Portland cement is between 3.10 and 3.25. The specific gravity of cement is the figure which denotes the density of a sample or the number of times a given volume of it is weightier than the same volume of water. For cement pipe use the following proportions: one part cement to three parts of sand and gravel. After the pipe is removed from the mould it should be coated with a wash of neat cement and water, of the consistency of paint, applied with a brush, to prevent seepage of water when in service. Neat cement reaches a greater strength at short periods than sand mixtures. Concrete, however, gains in strength gradually, and ultimately surpasses neat cement in strength. The compressive strength of cement is usually from eight to twelve times the tensile strength. Quick-setting cement requires more water than slow-setting cement. Temperature of water and atmospheric conditions naturally affect setting time. Saline water retards setting. A sand mixture of a cement which does not stand the neat pat test perfectly may show no imperfections whatever. Sand tends to diminish the ill effects of some inferior qualities. Finely ground cement has greater capacity for sand, ages more rapidly, sets quicker, gets ultimate strength quicker, requires more water, is lighter in color, shows lower tensile strength in neat briquettes, shows greater tensile strength in sand briquettes, than the same cement not so finely ground. The finer the grinding, the more active the cement. Aged cement as a rule sets slower, shows lower tensile strength in early breaks (one, three, and seven days especially), shows greater tensile strength in later breaks, is more liable to with- stand pat tests, has smaller capacity for sand, than the same cement when tested fresh. 144 NOTES REGARDING CEMENT. WHAT A BARREL OF PORTLAND CEMENT WILL Do. A barrel of Portland cement weighs about 380 pounds net. A barrel of Portland cement weighs about 400 pounds gross. A barrel of Portland cement contains about 3.40 cu. ft. packed. A barrel of Portland cement contains about 4.25 cu. ft. loose. A barrel of Portland cement contains about 2.73 bushels packed. A barrel of Portland cement contains about 3.61 bushels loose. A barrel of Portland cement will make about 3.15 cu. ft. of neat mortar. A barrel of Portland cement will make about 5.4 cu. ft. of mortar mixed 1 to 1. A barrel of Portland cement will make about 8.5 cu. ft. of mortar mixed 1 to 2 A barrel of Portland cement will make about 10.7 cu. ft. of mortar mixed 1 to 3. A barrel of Portland cement will make about 13.5 cu. ft. of mortar mixed 1 to 4. A barrel of Portland cement will make about 23 cu. ft. of concrete mixed 1, 3, 5. A barrel of Portland cement will make about 26 cu. ft. of concrete mixed 1, 3, 6. A barrel of Portland cement will make about 29 cu. ft. of concrete mixed 1, 3, 7. A barrel of Portland cement will make about 30 cu. ft. of concrete mixed 1, 3, 8. A barrel of Portland cement (neat) will cover about 40 sq. ft. 1 in. thick. A barrel of Portland cement to 1 sand will cover about 65 sq. ft. 1 in. thick. A barrel of Portland cement to 2 sand will cover about 92 sq. ft. 1 in. thick. A barrel of Portland cement to 3 sand will cover about 128 sq. ft. 1 in. thick. A barrel of Portland cement to 2 sand will lay about 750 brick with f-in. joint. A barrel of Portland cement to 2 sand will lay about 1050 brick with -in. joint. A barrel of Portland cement to 3 sand will lay about 900 brick with f-in. joint. NOTES REGARDING CEMENT. 145 A barrel of Portland cement to 3 sand will lay about 1350 brick with J-in. joint. A barrel of Portland cement to 3 sand will lay about 2 perches of rubble stonework. ANALYSIS OF VARIOUS BRANDS OF CEMENT. Brand of Cement. Lime Silica Clay and Iron Oxi'e 10.60 10.44 10.50 9.75 11.50 10.34 12.18 12.12 12.07 10.39 8.40 10.50 9.18 9.44 10.81 11.50 9.69 10.50 12.34 10.84 11.92 Mag- nesia. Sul- phu'c Acid. Analysis Made by Alpha Atlas 63.93 62.22 63.35 63.50 63.05 63.21 63.40 60.00 62.98 62.20 64.20 63 . 50 62.96 64.78 64.26 61.00 63.47 64.10 64.51 62.71 61.92 20.68 21.48 20.52 22.25 23.00 23.44 20.60 23.10 21.60 23.70 23.30 21.50 22.42 23.30 21.80 22.50 20.65 22.00 19.67 20.14 23.62 2.86 2.95 1.93 1.75 .18 1.15 1.44 1.15 1.27 1.21 .72 1.80 2.76 .97 1.76 1.08 2.76 .60 1.16 2.34 1.78 Manufacturer. Department of Public W'ks, Brooklyn, N. Y. Manufacturer's guarantee. Manufacturer. Adolph New, chemist, Col- ton, Cal. Manufacturer. Superintendent of Construc- tion, U. S. P. O., Clevel'd. 1.03 1.24 .75 1.63 1.25 .79 1.84 .33 .70 .90 .50 .05 1.21 .96 2.00 1.34 1.60 'i.'64 1.32 Buckeye Colton Catskill Diamond Golden Gate. . Hudson Iroquois Ideal. Adolph New, chemist, Col- ton, Cal. Manufacturer. Manufacturer's guarantee. Adolph New, chemist, Col- ton, Cal. Manufacturer. Booth, Garret & Blair, Phila- delphia, Pa. Manufacturer. Manufacturer's guarantee. Adolph New, chemist, Col- ton, Cal. Booth, Garret & Blair, Phila- delphia, Pa. Manufacturer. Manufacturer. Lathbury & Spackman, Philadelphia, Pa. Robt. Hunt & Co., Chicago. Iron clad Lehigh Medusa Marquette. . . . Napa Junction Old Dominion. Peninsula Saviors T. A. Edison . . Universal Average. . 63.10 21.98 10.65 1.61 1.37 146 NOTES REGARDING CEMENT. H -*r o3 .... i * fe-g^eiSfels 3.| cflCfl g !<2j. Jel.S.S.S.SJ? ."s a>>. bc5c M be.-:* |||Iiaia ^ !'toaiQfiw! 6 SQ^P^^^W Lathburv & Spackman, New York. Illinois Central R. R. Co. U. S. Engineer Department, Washin Superintendent of Construction, U. Cleveland. Manufacturer. City Surveyor, Charleston, S. C U. S. Engineer Department, Washin '9A8tg GOT ' ;oo CD; )OOOi QQC ui ^8g ^ -CO S'i* * " :S I . : 1 S I : '8 o i>coa;i>- -cocoi> ooi> ooi> ' 8 * OC<|T}iiO CC r-i O O) C<1 00 C^l ^ CDCONO5 C -O5 I --i IO :g2 : : : : : iOO COi-i CO -OCO W COrH -COlH COO5 CO CO .^2 CQ pol CO i-l -N OS -CO i-l OS C 1-1 CO *' Os' '(NiOt^ OOSO -00 00 -QSOSb- !ioi>os Os ico coco-* r^ 00 OO O05Q5 O5 CO CO 00 ' CN '-i l> -* O5 JCOCOOO^IC 1> -COt-0 I M .-I I-H 00 CM >O"* OiCiC iCO T-I TJI COO iC^C l>- 'COiC^t* 't^* OOOt^-OC^tl l 1 ^ CO^C OOiCOO t'-CO t> -O iCCO r^ iiiiiiii oocod o :2 . :6 9 gh.... rdorfer fe : :-f 85 ^ ill if ilj 1 b sS-^-cc c o^Jo^o S a3d aicscs cics ^^G 5x1 ^^5^ H ^^ ^ss tt ooo (SS 148 NOTES REGARDING CEMENT. i 3lti[. B sw fit |$MifHH| ji ifllliij a s|6Jftftfi^ bfrg wjf OQ >> E 2"J* .s S3 >>,>>>, ^2 CQ lt all 5^. W Is PS 88 il P>0 S^ || P4 a s< 11 .-a x nm .sa 6 ! "Is r. 4^ iS*l ^02 O CPo 8Tg GOT *t^C5 )CO'-ICO >oaco g o* T j s : NOOOC 1-HC t^-< I 88 ^i88 COCO t> X iO t^ 10 rr O5 co t>- 1>- -t^ 00 t>-N iCr-H -t- N COCO COOiC * co t>io icoi I! n ss s >C9 i-iiOrf X COO 300rt< ^HOCM -CO< NCit--fO g G "2 i s 1 nspector, Phil age Canal Boa 1 Z*J ia.lal Q S 6 S b 1 rf tf 1 g' i ii ! ii il *| 1 F 1 ; I | ^ 1 5 i J Cement I ago Drain 2 a3*i-.-ui-5 5 g 3 "w I I 1 1 1 ^ 1 o S : g 1 1 1 g 1 ! 1 1 1 S ! J >> .2 C ^'*>,Q' > >S' >> ^-< c 'O'c' > > PSGo6c5G^I^S 'N H. OJU .* 00 00 o co co o 10 i-i 00 t> O> O5 O> O5 . J5 " o i-i O ' W "* O ' O ' N ; ; TJI co S JO i ; 10 oo o b- : ; ; 1-1 CD S fc * lOCO^CO. ..CO*^ ^ S . i " s I : S i j : 1 1 j JP * N g S R 2 g S 6 8882 p O CO H 1 5 P \ 8 <* | !Ol^N^OO -10 jnoj $ b- o i-i-tcOt^-^OS-^OOt-. !O -jtyuaAY^ Jz; ^ Brand of Cement Akron Star-brand. . . . "Banner" Louisville. J : 02 : '. ' : oj .2 ' ' 11,1 1 1 i -i I ill 1 o | : ^ M o Wa S, .s"2^-Jo?sS a 1 ! || f 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 p^S^^^SSizi^MPP 150 MORTAR. Mortar. The following extract from an article on mortar was taken from the Irish Builder: " Like all other compounds, mortar depends for its quality upon that of its constituents, and also upon the proportions in which they are used, and the method by which they are mixed. To all intents and purposes it is an exceedingly fine concrete, composed of an aggregate and a matrix mixed with water, its purpose being to fill up the interstices in the joints between the bricks or stones of which a wall is composed, so as to provide an even bedding surface, and render the wall water- tight, adherent properties being rather valuable for securing this than needed to prevent the bricks from being pulled apart. "Thus it comes about that the more close is the jointing of a wall, the finer should be the grain of the mortar, and of its aggregate. A coarse rubble wall having wide, irregular mortar joints would be best with a mortar made of a fine gravel or crushed stone, or, at least, with one which contained a con- siderable amount of pea-sized lumps as well as finer sand amongst the aggregate, to assist in filling up the larger hollows without undue liability to settlement. On the other hand, for well- dressed ashlar masonry, the finest sharp-grained sand obtain- able should be used, there being only very small cavities to fill up, and the very thinnest possible joint being required. " Beyond this, it is necessary in all cases that the aggregate should, under a magnify ing-glass, display either sharp edges or a roughened surface or both, in order that the matrix may adhere to it ; for, while there is little necessity to stick the bricks of a wall together, if they be properly laid, it is quite necessary that the mortar should form in itself a homogeneous sub- stance, else it will crumble into dust or wash out of the joints." LIME MORTAR. Lime mortar is made by slaking the lime and adding sand in the desired proportion. The slaking is usually done by putting the lime in a water-tight box and covering with water. The lime is then stirred with the hoe so as to let the water get to all sides of the lumps of lime, and thus cause it to slake more readily. Enough water is added to make the mixture about the consistency of thick cream. It is then run off through a sieve into a larger box, where the sand is added and the mortar allowed to cool a little and thicken. The amount of sand used is regulated by the quality MORTAR. 151 of the lime used, as some limes will take more sand than others. The "mortar-man" by experience can usually tell when he has enough sand added to the lime as he "runs it off," but if it is a little "rich," as it usually is, he will add more sand when he tempers it up for use. The mortar should have just enough sand in it to make it work nicely and not stick to the trowel. The superintendent, by a little experience with, and watching, the mortar, will be able to tell at a glance if the mortar is "rich" or "poor." Mortar should be run off at least three days before using, so that the lime will have time to cool off and there will be no small particles of lime left unslaked and which may slake after being built in the wall. Lime mortar should not be used in freezing weather, although if it is frozen hard and dry without any thawing it hardly ever affects it much, but, if it is alternately frozen and thawed, the mortar will lose its strength and be destroyed; so, to be on the safe side, it is well to follow the rule of using no lime mortar in freezing weather. When the lime is being slaked the superintendent should see that it is of a good quality, as described on page 168, and that the sand is up to the requirements. In making mortar for laying "press" brick or brick with a close joint, a fine white sand or marble-dust is generally used. The New York Building Code requires that lime mortar be made of 1 part of lime and not more than 4 parts of sand. SUGAR IN MORTAR. Sugar has been used for centuries in India in the making of lime mortar and is said to add greatly to its strength. Experiments were made some years ago to ascertain the effect of sugar on Portland cement, and an addi- tion of from | to 2 per cent of pure sugar added to Dyckerhoff's German Portland cement was found to considerably increase its strength after three months. The sugar was said to "retard its setting," and thus permit the chemical changes in the cement to take place more perfectly, but more than 2 per cent of it rendered the cement useless. As sugar is soluble in water it should never be used in mortar which is to be used under water. PORTLAND CEMENT-LIME MoRTAR. 1 "There are many kinds of work which require a quick-hardening mortar, but for which 1 Extracts from " Das Kleine Cement-Buch." 152 MORTAR. the great strength of a mixture of 1 of cement with 1 to 4 of sand is unnecessary. The cost of such mortar is also for many purposes too high. A mixture of cement with 5 or more parts of sand would give abundant strength, but such mortars work too 'short' and adhere too imperfectly to the stone or brick; it cannot therefore be safely used. In such cases the addition of slaked lime or hydraulic lime will correct the faults of poor mixtures of cement and sand, and will produce a cheap mortar, suitable for a great variety of uses. Used in this manner, Portland cement may be used with economy for the most ordinary purposes. The advantages of Portland cement-lime mortar are its cheapness in comparison with other hydraulic materials, its rapid hardening, marked hydraulic properties, great strength on exposure to air, and remarkable resistance to weather. "The following mixtures for cement-lime mortar have been found by experience to be most suitable: Cement 1 part, sand 5 parts, lime paste $ part. " 1 " " 6 to 7 parts, " 1 " " 1 " "8 parts, " li parts. It -1 1C II 1Q ft ft 2 "The above proportions are to be taken by measure. Hy- draulic lime may be used in the place of ordinary slaked lime. " Cement-lime mortar is prepared by making a dry mixture of the required quantities of cement and sand; milk of lime is then made with the necessary quantities of lime paste and water and this milk of lime thoroughly mixed and worked in with the mixture of sand and cement." In laying face brick in cement mortar it is advisable to add a little lime "putty" to the mortar, as it makes the mortar work smooth, and the mason can do a neater job. Mixtures of cement with three parts or more of sand are found to work too "short" for rapid and easy work in laying brick or stone. The addition of lime paste removes this defect, and makes the mortar smooth and plastic. The adhesion of the mortar to brick or stone, and also its impermeability to water, are also greatly increased by the addition of slaked lime. As to strength, it will be found that a mixture of Portland cement 1, lime paste 1, sand 6, is as good in every respect as a mixture of Portland cement 1, sand 3; or in other words, that one-half 153 the cement may be replaced by lime paste without loss of strength. Compared with mortar made with Louisville, the Portland cement-lime mortar will be found immensely stronger, and little or no more expensive. CEMENT MORTAR. In making cement mortar, the strength of it depends on the quality of the cement and sand, the pro- portions used, and the manner of mixing. The sand should be sharp and irregular, as described on page 168, the finest depending on the nature of the work in which the mortar is to be used. For mortar for laying brick or for grouting, it should be comparatively fine, while for concrete or coarse mortar it should range from fine to coarse. A small amount of pure clay in the sand used for cement mortar will not affect its strength. Proportions. The proportions of cement and sand for cement mortar varies according to the cement used, and the strength of the mortar desired. The most common mixture is 1 to 3 for Portland cement and 1 to 2 for natural cements. There must be enough cement to more than fill all the voids in the sand, and make a compact tree. For masonry and brickwork, use 1 part cement to 2, 3, or 4 parts of sand, according to the strength required and the purposes for which the mortar is to be used; for some special purposes 5, or even 6, parts of sand may be used. Cement mortar for face brickwork is usually composed of 1 part cement and 2 parts sand; for backing and in ordinary masonry foundations, it is not necessary to use a richer mortar than 1 part cement to 3 of sand. When large quantities of sand are used, the mortar is "short" and brittle, and will not work well. In some cases lime paste is added to the cement mortar to give it the required plasticity. The proportions are about one-half part lime paste added to the mortar. Stone dust and fine screenings have been used as a substi- tute for sand and gave as strong a mortar as if sand had been used. The table on page 171 shows the average strength of cement mortars of different proportions and age. WATER-TIGHT MORTAR. For the lining of cisterns and reser- voirs, and also in some cases for the protection of underground conduits and piping, a mortar which is impermeable to water 154 MORTAR. is required. According to Dykerhoff, the following .mixtures will be found water-tight as soon as set: Portland cement, 1 ; sand, 1 : "1; " 2; lime paste, J. " " 1; " 3; " " 1. " 1; " 5; " " 1|. From the above mixtures the one may be chosen which offers the required strength and hardness. A solution of 1 pound of concentrated lye, 5 pounds of alum, and 2 gallons of water mixed with cement in the proportion of 1 pint of the solution to 5 pounds of cement and applied with a brush and well rubbed in will make cement walls water- proof. MIXING. At the commencement of the work the superin- tendent should decide what shall be used as a unit of measure in maKing the mortar or concrete. The wheelbarrow is most commonly used, and if this is decided upon the superintendent should have a barrel of cement measured by the barrow so as to ascertain how many barrows of sand or aggregate are to be used to a barrel of cement. The cement and sand should be put in the mortar-box dry and thoroughly mixed until they become a uniform color. The mass should then be drawn to one end of the box and the water added at the other end, and the mortar wet and mixed in just such quantities as can be used before the initial set begins. A common fault on most work is that the cement will be mixed up in large quantities in the morning and some of it will be four or five hours old before it is used. The superintendent should never permit any mortar over three hours old to be used, and any that attains this age in the mortar-box should be thrown away. He will not have to do this more than once or twice until the mortar will be made in such quantities as he desires. At night he should see that the mortar-box is left clean and if any mortar is not used have it thrown out to pre- vent it from being remixed again in the morning. He should also see that the mortar is mixed with just enough water to make it soft enough to allow the brick or stone to bed into it readily and fill all joints. COLORING OF CEMENT MORTAR, ETC. The following coloring materials are usually used for coloring cement mortars. Usu- ally coloring materials will lessen the strength of the mortars MORTAR. 155 so no more than necessary should be used; this is especially so of the ochres. To color Gray, use 2 pounds of Germantown lampblack to a barrel of cement. Black, use 45 pounds of manganese dioxide to a barrel of cement. Blue, use 19 pounds of ultramarine to a barrel of cement. Green, use 23 pounds of ultramarine to a barrel of cement. Red, use 22 pounds of iron oxide to a barrel of cement. Bright red, use 22 pounds of Pompeian or English red to a barrel of cement. Violet, use violet oxide of iron 22 pounds to a barrel of cement. Yellow and brown, use 22 pounds of ochres to a barrel of cement. Ultramarine is one of the best coloring materials, as it does not affect the strength of the cement. Germantown lampblack is also good on account of the small quantity necessary to give a good color. TEMPERATURE AND CEMENT. 1 "The effect of cold is to stop the setting of cement. Most cements set very slowly, if at all, below a certain temperature, which is usually between 30 and 40 F. When the temperature is raised the cement sets, unless in the mean time the water has evaporated sufficiently to leave an insufficient quantity for the chemical action, so that the freezing of work laid in cement mortar usually has the effect simply of delaying the hardening of the mass. If too much water is used in the mortar, the expansion of the water in freezing may disintegrate the mortar by the mechanical action of the ice in forming. Either of these effects is most apparent near the surface of the mass of masonry, and often requires pointing up of the joints of brick or stone masonry, while the remainder of the work will be found in good condition. Alternate freezing and thawing increases the danger of injury. Portland cement is seldom injured by freezing, but many natural cements are more or less injured, and mortar of natural cement is the more liable to disintegrate even under the best conditions if the tempera- ture is long enough or often enough below freezing-point before it has had an opportunity to set. In a few instances some setting of mortar frozen for a long time has been observed, but as a rule the setting is delayed until the temperature again 1 National Builder. 156 MORTAR. rises above the freezing-point. The first method of aiding the setting of mortar which suggests itself is to delay the time of reaching the freezing-point by heating the stone or brick, the sand, the cement, and the water. The amount of heat required depends upon the temperature of the air and the rapidity with which the work can be done after heating stops. This method is seldom entirely satisfactory unless very quick-setting cements are used. Slow-setting cements will evidently give more trouble than those which set as quickly as can be permitted under the conditions of time necessary to get the mortar into the work after the water is added. Mortar should be made richer than for use at ordinary temperatures, say one to one and a half, instead of one to two, and other mixtures in the same proportion. As little water as possible should be used, although this will increase the probability of requiring pointing of joints or the crumbling of outer surfaces of concrete. It is frequently possible to delay freezing by covering the work with straw or even tarpaulins. If stable manure can be kept in place in sufficient quantities to keep up its fermentation it is the most efficient material for covering. Perhaps the most common method of preventing the freezing of mortar is the use of a solution of common salt for mixing. The usual rule is to add 1 per cent of salt to the water for every degree of temperature below freezing, using the minimum temperature to which the masonry will be subjected for the computation. The cold delays the setting of the cement, but there is no mechanical action from freezing, and the results of this method are usually quite satisfactory, the pointing of joints being the only additional operation expected. It is evident that work to be placed upon concrete laid in freezing weather must be delayed until the setting of the cement makes the mass sufficiently stable to carry the weight. Laying of masonry, especially of massive stone masonry, in freezing weather is quite easy, but the placing of masses of concrete in exposed situations, or of small sections of concrete, is not so easy nor so certain of success." The author has used mortar and concrete made of Portland cement in freezing weather and never experienced any trouble, the mortar or concrete made and used in cold weather being equal in strength in a few months to that made in warm weather. The main point in using cement mortar or concrete in freezing weather is to not use too much water, and to keep it from freezing until it is well set. TESTS OF MORTAR EXPOSED TO COLD. 157 Natural cements should not be used in freezing weather, as they will not stand freezing. Sidewalks should not be laid or any plastering or finishing done with cement in freezing weather; the finished surface may be affected by the moisture in the mortar freezing and expanding, causing blisters, making the finished surface scale off. In using cement in hot weather, where the heat or the rays of the sun will strike it, care must be taken to protect it, for heat in such cases dries the cement too quick, drawing out the water before the proper action of the cement takes place, and thus decreasing its strength to a great extent. The small cracks like those in dry mud, sometimes seen in pavements, are the results of the cement being dried too fast by the heat. When laying sidewalks, plastering walls, pointing or finishing any surface with cement, it must be well protected from the heat, and should be wet two or three times a day for about four days after being laid. The following paper, by C. S. Gowen, M. Am. Soc. C. E., giving the result of experiments made by him while resident engineer of the New Croton Dam, N. Y., was read before the Cement Section of the American Society for Testing Materials, July 3, 1903: Tests of Portland-cement Mortar Exposed to Cold. The following experiments were made with a view to get- ting some definite information on the effect of frost on Portland- cement mortar, under the different conditions in which it may be desired to use it in cold weather. No facilities existed for maintaining a prolonged cold or uniform temperature and the briquettes were accordingly exposed to the open air, and so kept until it was evident that the tendency to "dry out" unduly was reducing their proper strength and creating a condition by which no basis of comparison with ordinary results could be had. The briquettes were accordingly placed in water in July* at the end of the first six months of the tests, and the author is inclined to the opinion that if this had been done earlier, at the end of the three months' tests, the twelve months' results would have showed much nearer the average twelve months' results of tests made in the ordinary way of briquettes kept 15B TESTS OF MORTAR EXPOSED TO COLD. BREAKING WEIGHTS OF 2 : 1 MORTAR BRIQUETTES, POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH, EXPOSED TO COLD AT NEW CROTON DAM. (Cement used, Giant Portland ; sand used, crushed quartz Lot 209, 1476 bbls. Each breaking weight given is the mean of eight breakings.) Twenty-eight Days, Temperature Intended. Breaking Weight, Pounds per Square Inch. Temperature Exposure, Degrees. Time to Take Heavy Wire. 24 to 32 370 22 r. 4 hrs. 2 24 to 10 458 24 f Night* 24 to 32 3711 28 f. 20 to 10 272 16 r. 6 hrs.' 20 to 10 255 18 s 35 min 24 to 32 474 27 r! 4* hrs. 2 24 to 10 455 22 s. Night 24 to 32 Three months 413 28 f. 65 min. 20 to 10 360 16 f. 4 hrs. r.* 20 to 10 246 18s. 35 min. 3 24 to 32 366 34 f. 24 to 10 347 12 r. 15 min. 3 24 to 32 Six months 314 28 f. 65 min. 20 to 10 287 14 r. 2| hrs. rj* 20 to 10 300 18s. 35 min. 3 24 to 32 553 28 r. 4} hrs. 2 24 to 10 381 14 r. 15 min. 3 24 to 32 Nine months 452 28 f. 65 min. 20 to 10 567 20 r. 5^ hrs.f 20 to 10 437 18s. 35 min. 3 24 to 32 553 26 r. 7 hrs. s. 24 to 10 586 16 r. 45 min. 4 24 to 32 Twelve mos. 510 28 f. 45 min. 20 to 10 602 26 f. 2i hrs.s* 20 to 10 512 16s. 35 min. 3 1 This set was broken on a day when the temperature was 16; a ninth briquette was thoroughly thawed on same clay and broke at 210 pounds. 2 Did not appear frozen when it took heavy wire. 3 Frozen at end of time rioted, and took wire. 4 Froze slowly and took heavy wire. * Had not set at end of time noted, t Some signs shown of freezing. J One briquette made with fresh water froze and took heavy wire in 20 minutes. Remarks. 24 to 32: Placed in cold air at temperature noted imme- diately after mixing; fresh water used. 24 to 10: Placed in cold air at temperature noted immediately after mixing; fresh water used. 24 to 32: Took heavy wire before being placed in cold air; fresh water used. 20 to 10: Placed in cold air at temperature noted immediately after mixing; brein used. 20 to 10: Placed in cold air at temperature noted imme- diately after mixing; fresh water used. In column of "Temperature Exposure" r. indicates a rising temperature, f. a falling temperature, and s. a steady temperature. All briquettes were left in open air in a dry but not sunny place until the three months' break was made (about April 15); then they were put in a damp place until the six months' break was made (about July 15); and then they were placed in water until finally broken. The brine used was a solution strong enough to float a potato, about 10 per cent by weight of salt to weight of water. TESTS OF MORTAU EXPOSED TO COLD. 159 in water continuously until broken. In the table given below each breaking weight given is the mean of eight briquettes broken, and it may be said that each set of breakings showed marked uniformity in the strength of the briquettes. AVERAGE BREAKING WEIGHTS OF 2 : 1 MORTAR BRIQUETTES. GIANT PORTLAND CEMENT, BROKEN AT NEW CROTON DAM IN 1896, 1897, 1898. Time Number of breakings Average breaking weight, pounds per square inch. . . Time Number of breakings Average breaking weight, pounds per square inch. . . Time Number of breakings Average breaking weight, pounds per square inch. . . Time Number of breakings Average breaking weight, pounds per square inch. . . Time -. Number of breakings. Average breaking weight, pounds per square inch. . . 28 days 690 441 3 mos. 215 563 6 mos. 185 657 9 mos. 155 671 12 mos. 165 663 Lot 209, 1476 bbls. 10 483 1 Normal test of this lot not continued after 28 days. Time of taking heavy wire, mean of seventy tests (2 : 1), briquettes, 63 min. ; mean of seventy tests, neat briquettes, 71 min.; average breaking weight, mean of seventy tests (2:1), briquettes, 1 week, 344 pounds. The results are from experiments made by the author while acting as resident engineer for the Aqueduct Commissioners of the City of New York, in charge of the New Croton Dam, and to them the author wishes to make proper acknowledgment for the use of these data. EFFECT OF COLD UPON SETTING. In the case of this lot of cement, which was moderately quick-setting (taking heavy wire in sixty-three minutes, 2 to 1 briquettes, and taking heavy wire in seventy-one minutes, neat briquettes, under normal conditions of testing in laboratory), moderate cold, 22 and upward, delays setting but does not freeze. This is shown by the set of tests made for the intended temperature, 24 to 32, of exposure. The second set of tests (intended temperature of exposure 24 to 10) show in the case of the twenty-eighth day and three months' breakings (temperature 24 and 22, respectively) a 160 TESTS OF MORTAR EXPOSED TO COLD. delayed setting which resulted in freezing during the night. The other breakings, six, nine, and twelve months, show, at lower temperatures, quick freezing. The third set of tests (intended temperature of exposure 24 to 32) was exposed to moderate cold after having taken heavy wire in laboratory. The fourth set, a mixture with brine (intended temperatures of exposure 20 to 10), shows clearly the influence of the cold in delaying the set, as well as the effect of the brine in delaying freezing. At temperature of exposure 16 + , the set occurred in six hours; 16, no set in four hours and no sign of freezing; 14 + , no set in two and three-quarter hours and no sign of freezing; 20 + , a set in five and one-half hours with some indi- cations of freezing; 26 , no set in two and one-half hours and no sign of freezing. The fifth set of briquettes was exposed at a steady tempera- ture of 18 , and all froze in thirty-five minutes. Conclusion. A moderately ' .quick-setting cement can be used in temperatures about 20, without freezing, with a 2:1 mixture. The use of brine delays freezing, at least at temperatures of about 15, if it does not wholly prevent it before the set has occurred. EFFECT OF COLD UPON BEARING STRENGTH. It is apparent that the general falling off at the end of six months is due to air exposure, the rise for nine and twelve months after being placed in water being marked, and the author is of the opinion that had briquettes enough been made for fifteen and eighteen months' breakings there would have been a uniform increase in strength, comparing favorably with general results from laboratory tests, a summary of which has been added to the tabular statements. The six months' breakings of the various sets show a much greater uniformity than those of one month and three months, as might have been expected, the extremes being 287 and 366 pounds. At nine months sets 1 to 4 agree closely, " " " " 3 to 5 agree closely, while set 2 is lower in its breaking weight than either of the others. TESTS OF MORTAR EXPOSED TO COLD. 161 At twelve months sets 2 to 4 agree closely, " " " 3 to 5 agree closely, while set 1 comes between these extremes, which vary between 510 and 602 pounds, an extreme variation, not much greater than indicated by the six months' breakings, and much less than that shown by the nine months' results. Conclusion. The general result is favorable to the use of brine at low temperatures; also there is no indication that freezing reduces the ultimate strength of the mortar, although it delays the action of setting. In this particular example the frozen set No. 2 shows better at twelve months than frozen set No. 5, but not so well at nine months, where the relative difference is the other way. At twelve months sets Nos. 2 and 4 ("frozen at low tempera- ture" and "brine") agree closely. Set No. 1 comes next ("mixed at moderate temperature"), and sets Nos. 3 and 5 follow. There seems to be nothing in the results shown in set No. 3 to indicate an advantage in securing a set before exposure to freezing temperature. The above results are relative rather than conclusive, as it is impossible to say what would have been the results at the end of the year, and how they would have compared with the general average given for briquettes tested under normal con- ditions if they had not been exposed to the varying tempera- tures of spring and early summer and to "drying out." These briquettes were mixed in February, 1897, as oppor- tunity and the required temperatures occurred, and the records of the time of setting were made as carefully as was practi- cable under the circumstances. The temperatures of the air at the time of the final test for the set were not taken, but as a rule the temperature rose or fell, as indicated, steadily during the time that elapsed while the observation was made. These results are submitted for what they may be worth, as the author does not know of any series of tests extending over so long a time and at the same time covering such extremes and variations of temperature. The following, showing the results obtained by tests made under ordinary laboratory conditions, when brine was used, are added here, and the conclusion seems to be plain that the effect of brine is to delay setting temporarily, while not affect- ing the ultimate strength of the mortar materially. 162 TESTS OF MORTAR EXPOSED TO COLD. Giant Portland 2 to 1 briquettes. Per cent of water used to weight of cement, 40. Time to take heavy wire, fresh- water briquettes, 241 minutes; salt-water briquettes, 306 minutes. One Week. One Month. Three Months. Six Months. Nine Months. Twelve Monthe. Fresh water used Salt water used 236 126 289 231 414 294 549 424 554 452 572 576 Giant Portland 3 to 1 briquettes. Per cent of water used to weight of cement, 50. Time to take heavy wire, fresh- water briquettes, 350 minutes; salt-water briquettes, 407 minutes. One Week. One Month. Three Months. Six Months. Nine Months. Twelve Months. Fresh water used Salt water used . 112 68 183 131 268 215 335 266 351 301 458 413 Standard sand used (crushed quartz). The brine used was strong enough to float a potato, about a 10 per cent solution by weight. Each of the above results is the mean of ten breakings, in pounds per square inch. The briquettes were placed in air twenty-four hours and then immersed in water until broken. The following shows the result of tests for freezing and thaw- ing of cement, made by H. W. Parkhurst, Engineer of Bridges and Buildings, Illinois Central Railroad Company. " Briefly described, these were made as follows: Sets of briquettes were made, one-half of which were put on the flat roof of our office-building, where they were exposed to all the changes of weather, commencing in December, 1902. The other half of the briquettes were treated in the usual way- being put in pans of water kept at pretty nearly uniform tern, perature (between 60 and 70 degrees F.), and sets of ten were taken from each of these lots at the age of twenty-eight days, two months, three months, four months, five months, and six months. Column headed "Frozen" contains results of those that were out of doors exposed to the weather. Column headed GROUTING. 163 "Warm" shows results of those that were kept in the house at uniform temperature. The column headed "Per Cent" shows percentage of strength of briquettes exposed to freezing as compared with those of the same date and age which were not so exposed. You will note that in the case of the "one-to- three" mortar, the briquettes that were exposed to the weather came out considerably stronger at four, five, and six months' age than those which were kept in the water all the time. This speaks well for the probable condition of concrete under the usual exposure." The freezing and thawing tests are shown in the following tabular statement : AA PORTLAND CEMENT 1902-1903. FREEZING AND THAWING. Sieves: No. 50, 100 per cent; No. 100, 99.8 per cent. Age. One to Two. One to Three. Re- marks. Date Brok'n 1903. Frozen Warm Per Cent. Date Brok'n 1903. Frozen Warm Per Cent. 28 days 2.mos. 3 mos. 4 mos. 5 mos. 6 mos. 1/23 2/26 3/26 4/26 5/26 6/26 233 334 363 395 462 628 425 535 572 595 611 531 55 62 63 66 76 118 '2/28' 3/30 4/30 5/30 6/30 189 259 331 453- 441 563 290 348 381 325 373 363 65 74 87 139 118 155 f Grouting". Grout is a thin mortar usually made of sand and cement, and is generally used in brickwork, by building up the two outside courses of the wall, then laying the inside brick and pouring the thin mortar over them, working it well into all the joints. The grouting should be done every course, so that all the joints will be filled. Brick wet and laid with ordinary mortar and the mortar slushed into all the joints makes just as strong a wall as grout- ing, but because it is hard to get brick-masons to lay brick as they should be, grouting is often resorted to when a strong wall is desired. Concrete. Concrete is a mixture composed of broken stone, gravel, or similar material held together by cement mortar. The theory of concrete is that enough cement mortar should be used to fill all me voids between the stones. On large engineering works, the proportions of cement, sand, and broken stone or gravel should be accurately determined 164 CONCRETE. and specified. For general purposes it is possible to state approximate proportions, as the sand, broken stone, and gravel vary in size and proportions of voids according to their source and preparation. The proportion of sand and stone must also be adapted to the character of the work in which the concrete is to be used and the strength required. The superintendent can tell when the first batch of concrete is rammed in place if the proportions of mortar and aggregate are such that the concrete will ram well and all the voids will be filled solid. Concrete is being used more and more every day and is now one of the most used building materials, and as it is one most easily slighted, will require the closest attention from the super- intendent. When any concrete work is being done the super- intendent should be present at all hours while the work is in progress, and see that each batch of concrete is made of the cor- rect proportions and mixed thoroughly, and that it is put in place as soon as mixed. Any time he sees any of it slighted he should reject it at once, or have it mixed over. He should also see that no concrete is, used after initial set has commenced; any concrete over three hours old should be rejected. WET AND DRY -CONCRETE. There is quite a difference of opinion among engineers and architects as to just what amount of water should be used in mixing concrete to get the best results. Some claim that it should be mixed with as little water as possible, others think that a very plastic or wet con- crete is best. It is the opinion of the author that either accord- ing to the conditions under which it is to be used is better than the other. For instance, in a large foundation or any place where the concrete can be spread in thin layers and where no trouble will be experienced in ramming, a mixture that when rammed enough to make it a solid and compact mass with no voids, and which at the end of this ramming shows just a little water at the top, will make as good a concrete as it is possible to obtain. On the other hand, in narrow walls or foundations, between beam grillage, and all places where any difficulty will be had in ramming, then a wet concrete will work the best. The author has used concrete in such places, mixed so it would just carry the man ramming, and which when he walked or tamped on it, caused it to "quake," which gave excellent results, and contained no cavities. Where a concrete is to be CONCRETE. 165 made water-tight a mixture of this kind will give the best results. Tests have been made which show while the dry concrete becomes much stronger in a short period of time, the wet mix- ture if allowed to harden for a long period will ultimately become stronger than the dry mixture. The superintendent must decide, according to the work to be done, just how wet the concrete should be mixed, and he can determine this after a little of it has been put in place and rammed. Where a wet concrete is to be used the forms or moulds should be nearly \vater-tight. MIXING CONCRETE. This is another point in concrete work where engineers and architects differ in opinion, some even preferring hand-mixing to that done with a machine. There are a number of ways or methods employed for mixing concrete by hand, and they will nearly all give good results providing enough labor is expended. This is where the contractor usually tries to save a little, turning the mass once or twice, when it should be turned four or five times. Then experience is a factor in turning concrete by hand; a man who has had experience in turning will mix better with two or three turnings than a man with no experience will do in four or five. It is the duty of the superintendent to examine the first batch after it is mixed and see if it is satis- factory; if not, he should have it turned and mixed until it is, and then see that all subsequent batches are mixed the same. It is well to let the contractor use his own method of mixing provided it gives the desired results. A method which the author has used for hand-mixing and which gave excellent results as to cost of labor and result of mixing is subjoined: Make a tight platform about 30 feet long and 14 feet wide. On one end of this platform mix the sand and cement dry in the following manner: Have a bottomless box of sufficient size and depth to measure the exact proportion of sand, place it on the platform as shown at A, Fig. 123, and fill it with sand, using a straight-edge to strike it level full. On top of this set another bottomless box of the correct depth to measure the correct pro- portion of cement and fill it in like manner; now lift the two boxes and thoroughly mix the sand and cement until it is of a uniform color. 166 CONCRETE. While the cement and sand are being mixed by part of the "gang," let the rest prepare the aggregate. Place a bottomless box on the platform close to the pile of cement and sand as shown by B, Fig. 123, the box to be of a depth to measure the FIG. 123. FIG. 124. aggregate; fill it level full and set on top another box to measure the combined cement and sand ; fill this box level full, as shown by Fig. 124; now remove the boxes and the mass is left in a flat pile with the cement and sand spread uniformly over the aggre- gate. Now let two men, as 1, 1, Fig. 123, start turning the pile toward the vacant end of the platform, and as they turn keep the new pile about the same width and depth as the one made by the boxes. After they have started turning start two more men as shown at 2, 2, giving the second turning; but as it is turned and spread in the pile have a man with the hose and sprinkler (or a good plan is to tie the nozzle of the hose on a shovel-blade so the blade will spray the water) and wet the mass as it is spread in the pile. Then give it two more turnings by men at 3, 3 and 4, 4, and when it reaches the pile C, as shown in Fig. 123, it is thoroughly mixed. With a little experience the man with the water will be able to regulate it so that each batch will have about the same amount of water. The author has also used three boxes as described, on top of each other, one for the aggregate, one for the sand, and one for the cement; then turning and mixing the mass as described, it gave a very uniform mixture. In mixing by hand the men should be provided with long-handled, square-bladed shovels, as they can reach the centre of the pile better and will not tire themselves as with a short-handled shovel. In large work the concrete can be mixed very rapidly as described; as one batch is being finished another one can be got ready, and thus a continuous stream of concrete can be turned out. The author has seen concrete mixed in this way in competition with a CONCRETE. 167 machine where the amount mixed by hand in a day was equal to that done by the machine with the same amount of labor. On small work where it would not pay to go to the trouble as described above, a good method is to mix the sand and cement dry, then add the water, making a wet mortar; spread this out and add the aggregate which has already been wet and washed; now turn and mix until a uniform mass is ob- tained. Where machine-mixing is done, the superintendent must see that the proper proportions are used, and it is well for him to have the sand and cement mixed dry by hand before going into the machine. Some machines are so arranged with a spiral feed that they are supposed to feed themselves. When a machine of this kind is used, the superintendent should have a batch of concrete measured out in the desired proportions and run through the machine to see if it feeds correctly. After the concrete comes through he should examine it and see if it is thoroughly mixed and if too wet or dry. If not mixed right, he should have it run through again or mixed by hand. AGGREGATE. The aggregate for concrete is usually broken stone, gravel, or cinders, or two or all of them combined. Along the seashore and rivers gravel is often used because it can be obtained much cheaper than the broken stone, and makes very good concrete, but on account of the smooth surface of the stones does not make quite as strong a concrete as broken stone, which with its rough angular surfaces and corners causes the mortar to take a better hold. Broken stone from J to 2 inches makes the best concrete and does not require quite as much mortar, the voids not being so large as if the stone were all of the 2-inch size. Cinder aggregate is usually used for fireproofing of floors, etc. When broken stone is used it should be cleaned from dust and dirt, by passing it over a f-inch mesh sieve. Gravel can usually be cleaned by washing it to take out the clay or earthy matter. It should vary from J to 2 inches in size. Cinders for concrete should be nearly all clinkers which will pass through a 1-inch mesh sieve, and if very dirty, they should in addition be passed over a f-inch mesh sieve. They should not contain more than 5 per cent of ash or unburned coal. Specifications usually call for rolling-mill slag or good, 168 CONCRETE. clean, crushed vitrified clinkers, and the superintendent should see that such material is used, as the ordinary cinders are not fit for fire-proof work. CRUSHED STONE should be clean and free from dust or dirt, and should not exceed 1J to 2 inches in size. The best results are obtained from strong, hard, durable rocks, with fracture into sharp angular fragments, such as trap-rock or limestone. Soft, porous, friable rocks, or rocks of a slaty fracture, should be avoided. For some purposes certain kinds of slag make an excellent concrete. Dust in crushed stone weakens the concrete. The best concrete is obtained from crushed stones of various sizes. In some cases the stone is screened to sepa- rate the different sizes, which are then remixed in the proper proportions. SAND FOR CONCRETE. Sand should be clean, coarse, and sharp. A quartz sand gives the best results. Loamy sand or that containing much clay should not be used; it will give poor results and retard the set. Organic matter and dirt are objec- tionable in any sand. A very fine sand or gravel is not* good, as it weakens the work. A very coarse sand gives the greatest strength in concrete, but when the proportions of sand exceed 2 parts to 1 of cement, a sand of mixed grains, fine to coarse, with the coarse predominating, is preferable, as the fine- sand helps to fill the voids in the coarse sand and makes a more dense and less absorbent mortar. PROPORTIONS AND STRENGTH. The proportion of the mortar to the aggregate should be such that it will a little more than fill all the voids of the aggregate, the strength of the con- crete depending a great deal on the proportion of sand to the cement. For all ordinary purposes, such as heavy foundations, machin- ery foundations, reservoirs, cisterns, retaining-walls, sub-sur- faces of sidewalks, cellars, and street-paving, 1 part of cement, 2 or 3 parts of sand, with 5 parts of broken stone, will give the best results; for footings and sub work 1 part of cement, 3 parts of sand, and 7 parts of broken stone will give excellent results. The superintendent should see that the proportious are such that the mortar will fill all the voids in the aggregate, and the mass will tamp solid. The proportion of cement and sand to the aggregate depends a great deal on the nature of the aggregate; if it is of coarse stone with large voids then it will require more mortar to fill them than if the aggregate was of a CONCRETE. 169 finer stone or gravel. To determine the voids in any aggregate, take a box containing a cubic foot and fill it with the aggregate, which should already be soaked with water, then pour water in the box until it is full; now pour off the water and measure it, which will show- the voids contained in a cubic foot of the aggregate. A good method of determining the voids in concrete materials is to fill a box of exactly 1 cubic foot capacity, or a convenient fraction thereof, with the substance and weigh the contents. A solid block of quartz or limestone, measuring exactly 1 cubic foot, will weigh 165 pounds; a cubic foot of sand, gravel, or broken stone, considerably less : and the difference will represent the voids. For example, if 1 cubic foot of gravel weighs 95 pounds, the difference is 165 95 = 70. The percentage of voids is then 70X100-^165 = 42.4. The following table shows the percentage of voids found in some common concrete materials: Sand, not screened 32.3 per cent voids Gravel, J- to f-mch 42.4 " Broken stone, 1- to 2-inch. ... 47 . " Mixed materials, which contain the greatest variety of sizes from fine to very coarse, will be found to have the least voids. With any two materials, one fine and one coarse, there is one mixture, and only one, which will give the greatest possible density. This may be determined by calculation; for example, taking the gravel given above, since it contains 42.4 per cent voids, we must fill these by adding sand to the amount of 42.4 per cent of its volume. For this we require 42.4 measures of sand to 100 measures of gravel, or 1 to 2J. For the stone, 47 measures to 100 will be required, or 1 to 2.13. With mixed materials, such as are generally met with in practice, in which no sharp division between sand and gravel can be made, practical test will be found more satisfactory than calculation. The sand and gravel or stone should be mixed in the calculated propor- tion, and also in other proportions, and the weight per cubic foot of each mixture taken, until that giving greatest density is found. With favorable materials it will be found possible to make a mixture weighing 140 pounds per cubic foot, correspond- ing to 15 per cent voids. If the greatest weight obtainable is less than this, the materials are not the best. 170 CONCRETE. The proportion of cement to be used depends upon the per cent of voids in the mixture of sand and gravel or stone, and also upon the purpose for which the concrete is required. In general it may be said that an amount of cement sufficient to fill the voids in the mixture will give a first-class concrete. With mixed materials weighing 140 pounds per foot and con- taining 15 per cent voids, cement to the amount of 15 per cent, by measure, or 1 to 6f , will theoretically be required. Greater compression strength may be obtained by increasing the pro- portion of cement, and for the foundations of engines or other heavy machinery as high a proportion as 1 to 5 may well be used. On the other hand, for foundations of buildings, filling of abutments, and other purposes requiring less strength, mix- tures of 1 to 10 or 1 to 12 will be found fully satisfactory. It should be remembered that the strength of the concrete will depend on its density. A mixture of cement and sand, 1 to 3, will usually be found weaker than a 1 to 7 mixture, rightly proportioned, of cement, sand, and gravel or stone. Mixtures of cement and sand are greatly strengthened by the addition of a suitable amount of coarse material,, though the proportion of cement is thus decreased. It is, therefore, well worth while to give careful study to the concrete materials which it is proposed to use. The following table, showing the result of tests of cement mortar of different proportions and age, was made at the United States Arsenal, Watertown, Mass. The cement used was Peninsula Portland cement. COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF PORTLAND-CEMENT IN POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH. MORTAR Age in 1 Cement, 1 Cement, 1 Cement, 1 Cement, Air. Water. Air. 1 Sand. 2 Sand. 3 Sand. 4 Sand. 7 1 30 1 92 1 1 1 93 100 101 "e" "29" "gi" 91 90 " 2 " 2 4970 6260 6140 8870 6080 9560 2350 2380 3400 4680 3410 7570 1370 1440 1490 2750 4990 2635 isio 473 557 656 950 1630 1 1 1 96 95 70 4 4 ... 3140 2570 1970 CONCRETE. 171 The following tests of the tensile strength of Portland-cement mortar of different proportions and age were made by the New York State Canal Commission. The cement used was Glens Falls "Iron Clad." NEW YORK STATE CANALS. DEPARTMENT OF CEMENT TESTS. Record of cement tests made with the Glens Falls "Iron Clad" Portland cement, showing tensile strength in pounds per square inch. All briquettes kept in air twenty-four hours, balance of time in water. Figures below rep- resent in each case the average of five briquettes. Quartz was used in mix. ing all briquettes. Amount of Water Used. Kept in Water. 2*oz. HOZ. HOZ. Hoz. lioz. loz. Proportions Used in Mixing. Number Neat. 1 Sand, 2 Sand, 3 Sand, 4 Sand, 5 Sand, of Days. 1 Cement. 1 Cement. 1 Cement. 1 Cement. 1 Cement. 6 516 549 237 210 162 133 12 609 569 349 242 186 150 18 651 651 423 267 222 169 24. 671 660 435 277 227 169 30 715 665 446 285 233 171 Number of Months 3 776 714 549 347 225 184 6 784 651 540 441 217 189 9 744 742 490 375 259 202 12 764 714 535 380 287 194 15 836 738 536 395 292 204 18 848 775 576 396 271 216 21 920 789 555 411 298 238 (Signed) HERSCHEL ROBERTS, Deputy State Engineer and Surveyor. The following tests as to the tensile strength of natural- cement mortar were made with the "Improved Shield" brand of Rosendale cement : Neat Cement. 1 Cement, 2 Sand. Ten sile stre ngth i n 24 he 3 da 7 30 60 90 180 360 urs ys 118 Ib 161 204 318 374 398 440 501 3. 1 42 Ib 278 352 418 500 568 i. 172 CONCRETE. The following tests on the crushing strength of concrete were made by Lathbury & Spackman, Philadelphia, Pa. REPORT ON CRUSHING STRENGTH OF SIX-INCH CUBES. Composition. Age. Average Crush- ing Strength, Three Cubes to Earh Test. 1 part Lehigh Portland cement 2 parts sand. ... 7 days 30 " 36,270 Ibs. 85810 " 4 parts crushed stone 90 " 98,087 " 1 part Lehigh Portland cement 3 parts sand 6 parts crushed stone 7 days 30 " 90 " 28,433 Ibs. 62,003 " 73 073 ' 1 part Lehigh Portland cement . 7 flays 22 687 Ibs 4 parts sand 8 parts crushed stone 30 " 90 " 48,790 " 61 230 ' ' The following report of U. S. Engineer Corps gives the result of tests made with Atlas Portland cement in concrete of different proportions. OFFICIAL REPORT U. S. GOVERNMENT ENGINEERS ON ATLAS PORTLAND CEMENT. REPORT OF TESTS OF CRUSHING STRENGTH OF ONE-FOOT CUBE OF CONCRETE. Made by Capt. Wm. M. Black, Corps Engineers, U. S. A., Washington, D. C., Dec. 1, 1897. No. Composition. Age. Crushing Strength. 137,500 Ibs. 255,000 " 320,000 " 440,000 ' 1 1 part Atlas cement 2 parts sand 6 parts broken stone 10 days 2 months 6 " 12 " "i 1 part Atlas cement 2 parts sand 3 parts gravel 3 parts broken stone 10 days 2 months 6 " 12 10 days 2 months 6 " 12 " 95,000 Ibs. 232,500 " 280,000 " 405,000 " i 1 part Atlas cement 2 parts sand 2 parts gravel 4 parts broken stone 32,500 Ibs. 267 500 ' ' 295000 " 390,000 ' The following are the requirements of the U. S. Navy for tensile tests of Portland cement. TENSILE STRENGTH. The neat briquettes, prepared as 'speci- fied, shall stand a minimum tensile strain per square inch, with- out breaking, as follows: CONCRETE. 173 For 12 hours in air and 12 hours in water 200 Ibs. " 1 day " " " 6 days " " 550 " (( 1 ft it f( ft " * . K" 1 f +T H Q} . | c _o IS id Is |ffl "BO a "Ho 0) O id 6 02 02 5 02 02 vfi s i;i5i^si^^^A*"'"'& wj*t*uf*' ( *ttiii8fe|j i*..." j*; i.':-:' TYPICAL COLUMN SECTION. Plmter ^ thick TYPICAL GIRDER SECTION. FIG. 134. Adapted for Public Buildings, Offices, Theatres, Hotels, Schools, Churches, Banks, Libraries, Hospitals, Residences, etc. of the I beams. On this wire centring Portland-cement con- crete is deposited and allowed to harden. The ceiling consists of a system of supporting rods attached to the lower flanges of the floor-beams by a patent clamp which offsets the rods below the I beams. Under these rods, and securely laced to them, is the Roebling Standard wire lathing, with the woven-in f-inch solid-steel stiffening-ribs crossing the supporting rods at right angles. FIG. 135. System B Flat Construction. The "System B," or flat construction, is illustrated by Figs. 135 and 136. It consists of a light iron framework imbedded RENTON SYSTEM. 203 in concrete and spans the interval between the iron beams in the form of a slab. The light iron framework consists of flat iron or steel bars set on edge and spaced 16 inches, centre to centre, with a quarter turn at both ends where the bars rest upon the iron beams. Spacers of half oval iron are placed at suitable intervals to separate and brace the bars. The Roebling Standard wire lathing, with the -inch solid-steel stiffening-rib woven in every 7 inches, is applied to the under side of the bars, the stiffening-ribs running crosswise under the bars and laced to them at every intersection. On the wire lathing so supported, cinder concrete is deposited, thoroughly imbedding the light ironwork. 1 M *3 1 j_1>"r *i j A'l : r^,t=as^.7^ QffiK ^^S/y^ jj 7 - VK J3* 1 1 lil^FlatBar^ No.lSOak Lacing Wire Sr*-H :'_Tisii"- 1 *i FIG. 136. System B Type I. (Dotted lines indicate temporary wood centring.) The Reiitoii System of Fire-proof Floors. The Renton system of floor construction as shown by the following cuts is a flat concrete arch of cinder concrete, reinforced with ordinary barb wire. The strain on the wire being tensile, the superin- tendent should see that it is stretched tight and made fast at each end. This method of construction 4 inches thick has been tested to carry a load of 650 pounds per square foot. Finished Floorv FIG. 137. System No. 1. SYSTEM No. 1. This is perhaps the most popular system, as it gives a minimum thickness of floor and is adapted to 204 FIRE-PROOF FLOOR CONSTRUCTION. the conditions most commonly found in fire-proof buildings. It can be used for spans up to 8 feet, although a span of 6 feet is the most desirable.. Weight of concrete, about 34 pounds per square foot. Weight of entire floor as shown, 52 pounds per square foot. FIG. 138. System No. 2. SYSTEM No. 2. This system, as shown by Fig. 138, can be used for spans between floor-beams of from 6 to 10 feet, and has ample strength for most mercantile buildings, factories, etc. It can be used either with or without the suspended flat ceiling shown. Weight of entire floor, without ceiling, 40 pounds per square foot. Weight of suspended ceiling, including plaster, 10 pounds per square foot. FIG. 139. System No. 3. SYSTEM No. 3. This system, Fig. 139, is the same as No. 2, except that the floor-beams are thoroughly protected and the flat ceiling is omitted. RENTON SYSTEM. 205 Weight per square foot for 4 inches of concrete, 10-inch steel 'beams, 6 feet on centres, 2X3 sleepers and a single wood floor, no plastering, 48 pounds. Weight with cement top, 59 pounds per square foot. For $-inch plastering add 5 pounds per square foot. /Filling /Finished Floor / /Rough Floor J*''- : - ; - 3 'jjj-7 Channel f-WiEeLath . YJ /%xl"Bivrl6QC. -Heavy Wire V;Barb <^"o.l8 Lacing Wire Wire Cables tip Space H f^7"Beam f |-Wire Lath fi v Plaster ^ Steel Rods Woven in FIG. 140. System No. 4. SYSTEM No. 4. This system, Fig. 40, is adapted to public buildings and all buildings in which considerable strength, absolute fire protection, and a flat ceiling are required. Weight complete as shown, 60 pounds per square foot. -Finished Floor Cement Pipes & Wires Diagonal Sheathing Span-5-0 to-7 0" FIG. 141. System No. 5. SYSTEM No. 5. This system, Fig. 14-1, is especially adapted to apartment houses, private residences, etc. SYSTEM No. 6 (ARCH CONSTRUCTION). This system, Fig. 142, Cement FIG. 142. System No. 6 (Arch Construction). is designed for warehouses, storage buildings, etc., and all buildings in which great strength and absolute fire protection are required. With a span of 6 feet this floor is guaranteed 206 FIRE-PROOF FLOOR CONSTRUCTION. to sustain a distributed load of 1000 pounds per square foot over its entire surface without falling. " Kulme's Sheet-metal Structural Element." The following cuts show a system of floor construction in which a SYSTEM NO.I. SYSTEM NO.II. SYSTEM NO.III. . ; 1 System No. VII FIG. 145. INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM. 207 patent metal lath which is cut and bent so as to form a series of trusses is used as a reinforcing material. This lath is manu- factured by the Truss Metal Lath Company, New York. Fig. 143 shows a view of the lath, and Figs. 144 and 145 show methods of floor construction. International System. This system, used by the Inter- national Fence and Fireproofing Company, Columbus, Ohio, is shown by the following cuts, 146 and 147. In this system the concrete is reinforced with wire rods and wire cables. The strain on the wire and cables being a tensile one the uperintendent must see that they are well fastened at each nd. When rods are used as shown in Fig. 147 and hooked over FIG. 147. he beam, the rod should be bent while hot, so that when the look is made over the beam the rod will be drawn tight and lave no play. Fig. 146 illustrates A flat arch, using the cabling system. I >eams fully incased and reinforced with concrete, the cables run- ling across the I beams and anchored thereto. The sheeting is listributed over the cables and both are imbedded well toward he bottom of the concrete stone. Anchors should be built in /he wall to fasten the cables and sheeting when the walls are 208 FIRE-PROOF FLOOR CONSTRUCTION. built, and always have the brick laid in cement where ancho are placed. Fig. 147 represents flat arch with distributing rods, met* lie sheeting, encased I beams, and section of concrete floe Anchors should be built in the wall at a level with the top Plaster Centers TYPE "A IJ Plaster Centers Suspended Ceiling of Metal Lath.' TYPE "B" (| Yi Flange protection of TYPE "E Metal Lath and Cement g=5y^g.-y'o^ :'ft?>'' Plaster Centers Suspended Celling of Metal Lath (Flange protection of Metal Lath.and Cement) TYPE "F'> TYPES OF VULCANITE. FIRE-PROOF FLOOR ARCHES FIG. 148. the I beams, upon which the ends and outside sheets are fastene Inside laps are attached by means of loops on the edge whi are interwrapped with a twist. THE VULCANITE SYSTEM FERROINCLAVE. 209 The Vulcanite Fire-proof Floor. The Vulcanite fire-proof floor system, constructed by The Vulcanite Paving Company, Philadelphia, is a cinder concrete arch put in on a plaster-of-Paris centre, as shown by Fig. 148. The plaster-of- Paris centre is cast in sections and put in place on the lower flange of the beam and the concrete spread over it. This is a very strong system of floor construction, as the strain on the concrete is a compressive one, Ferroiiiclave. Ferroinclave is the name of a steel and cement fire-proof construction consisting of a sheet of steel corrugated into dovetail shape, and which is laid and fastened to the beams and the mortar or concrete spread on top. FIG. 149. FIG. 150. Sheet bent to shape. FIG. 151. FIG. 152. Figs. 149 and 150 show a sheet of the metal, and Figs. 151 and 152 show floor sections. 210 FIRE-PROOF FLOOR CONSTRUCTION. Buckeye Floor Construction. Fig. 153 shows a method of floor construction patented and used by The Youngs- town Iron and Steel Roofing Co., Youngstown, Ohio. Fia. 153. A series of corrugated metal troughs are furnished the exact length to lay on the beams, and these troughs are filled with the concrete to the desired depth. Jvalin System of Reinforcement. Figs. 154 and 155 show a, bar and method of using the same which has been patented and is used by The Trussed Concrete Steel Company, of Detroit, Mich. Perspective View of Sheared Bar Diagram showing Truss Action Bars as used in Beam and Floor Construction FlG. 154. Metropolitan System. This system, as shown by Figs. 156, 157. and 153, is a slab or arch made of plaster of Paris and wood chips, reinforced with wire cables in the form of METROPOLITAN SYSTEM. 211 hog-chains and bedded in the concrete. The cables must be made secure at the ends and have just sag enough so that at FIG. 155. the low point they will be about one-half inch from the bottom of the concrete. SPECIFICATIONS FOR ABOVE TYPE OF FLOOR. By means of forms or centres placed about the bottom flanges of the floor beams and girders, a 1|" covering of composition, composed principally of plaster of Paris and wood chips, shall FIG. 156. be cast in place, protecting the bottom flanges of the floor beams and girders. Cables, each composed of two No. 12 galvanized wires, twisted, shall be carried over the tops of the floor-beams and shall be secured to walls by anchors and bars; or where they end on a beam, shall be secured to it by strong hooks. These cables shall be laid parallel and pass under round iron bars midway 212 FIRE-PROOF FLOOR CONSTRUCTION. between the beams, so as to cause the cables to deflect uniformly. The cables shall be laid at distances apart from each other, varying from 1" to 3", according to the spans. Forms or centres shall be put in place between the floor- beams 1" below the round iron bars mentioned above. The composition mentioned above shall be poured in place and brought to a level \" above the tops of the flanges of the floor- beams and form a floor plate about 4" thick, ready for the laying of wood sleepers or concrete on top and the plastering underneath. SPECIFICATION FOR THE METROPOLITAN FIRE- PROOFING COMPANY'S SYSTEM OF FIRE-PROOF FLOOR CONSTRUCTION. FORM A. FIG. 157. Metal clips shall be fastened to the bottom flanges of the floor-beams, which shall support 1"X%" flat iron bars spaced about 16" on centres running transversely with the floor- beams, the tops of such flats to be on a level about V below the bottom flanges. Blocks \\" thick of our composition, composed principallv of plaster of Paris and wood chips, shall be fastened securely to the bottom flanges and against the webs of the floor-beams, covering the exposed portions. To take the plaster there shall be fastened to the 1" flats herring-bone pressed-steel lathing, coated with asphaltum. Cables, each composed of two No. 12 galvanized wires, twisted, shall be carried over the tops of the floor-beams and shall be secured to walls by anchors or bars, or where they end on a beam shall be secured to it by strong hooks. These cables shall be laid parallel and pass under round iron bars midway between the beams so as to cause the cables to deflect uniformly. The cables shall be laid at distances apart from each other varying from 1" to 3", according to spans. Forms or centres shall be put in place between the floor-beams I" below the METROPOLITAN SYSTEM. 213 round iron bars mentioned above. The composition men- tioned above shall be poured in place and brought to a level about \" above the tops of the flanges of the floor-beams and form a floor plate about 4" thick ready for the laying of wood sleepers or concrete. The exposed portions of the girders shall be covered with blocks of the same composition 1|" in thickness, securely fastened in place. SPECIFICATION FOR THE METROPOLITAN FIRE- PROOFING COMPANY'S SYSTEM OF FIRE-PROOF FLOOR CONSTRUCTION, FORM A2. FIG. 158. Metal clips shall be fastened to the bottom flanges of the floor-beams, which shall support 1"X&" flat iron bars spaced about 12" on centres, running transversely with the floor-beams, the tops of such flats to be on a level about 1' below the bottom flanges. To take the plaster there shall be fastened to the I" flats herring-bone pressed-steel lathing, coated with asphaltum. Cables, each composed of two No. 12 galvanized wires, twisted, shall be carried over the tops of the floor-beams and shall be secured to walls by anchors or bars, or where they end on a beam shall be secured to it by strong hooks. These cables shall be laid parallel and pass under round iron bars midway between the beams so as to cause the cables to deflect uniformly. The cables shall be laid at distances apart from each other varying from 1" to 3", according to spans. Forms or centres shall be put in place between the floor-beams 1" below the round iron bars mentioned above. A composition composed principally of plaster of Paris and wood chips shall be poured in place and brought to a level about \" above the tops of the flanges of the floor-beams covering the webs of the beams and forming a floor-plate about 4" thick, ready for the laying of wood sleepers or concrete. The exposed portions of the girders shall be covered with 214 FIRE-PROOF FLOORING RANSOME SYSTEM. blocks of the same composition, \\" in thickness, securely fastened in place. The Ransome System. The Ransome system of con- crete and cold-twisted steel construction was invented by Mr. Ernest L. Ransome. The basis of this system is the com- bination of steel and concrete in such a manner as to give to the concrete all the tensional strength of steel, and thereby fully utilize the immense compressive strength inherent in the concrete. The patent for this system covers the use of cold- twisted rectangular steel bars, by means of which the spiral ribs formed upon the metal make a continuous lock between it and the concrete. By this means the ductility of the steel is controlled, defective steel detected, and a large percentage of strength added thereto. The tensional strength of steel or iron (about 30 tons to the square inch) increases the strength of the concrete 100-fold. The Ransome bar strengthens the concrete so that in the heaviest floors for warehouse sand factories bars of only 1^ inches have been used. The extensive application of the Ransome system for fire-proof floors, spanning without steel beams, from 20 to 25 and 45 feet, represents one of its important suc- cesses. To make a practical success of this principle a continuous bond between the iron and the concrete had to be invented, the ductility of the iron had to be controlled, and appliances for moulding had to be perfected, as well as means of controlling the shrinkage. Furthermore, it was desirable to give an artistic appearance to the structure. These, with other important and practical inventions, constituted the Ransome system. This system of concrete-iron construction is universal in its application, covering the entire field now occupied by stone, brick, and terra-cotta, and is unrivalled for stairs, foundations, walls, floors, columns, partitions, harbor works, dry docks, piers, bridges, reservoirs, filter-beds, fortifications, retaining- walls, sidewalks, vault lights, etc. The Ransome patents are owned by the Ransome Concrete Company, 26 Broadway, New York. Heiiiiebique System of Cement Concrete Con- struction. The Hennebique system, Fig. 159, is not only a system of fire-proofing, but a mode of construction success- fully applied to many uses, such as floors, bridges, reservoirs, docks, foundations, etc. Broadly speaking, the system, as HENNEBIQUE SYSTEM. 215 patented in 1898, is for concrete reinforced with ordinary round bars of iron or steel and stirrups of hoop iron. r:;- LJ j /Axis of Compression /Filling IT HJ|"~ Stirrup FIG. 159. Section of Hennebique Floor. The principle of the Hennebique system is to make the cement concrete subject only to compression stresses, resistance to which is its chief characteristic; and the iron subject to ten- sile stresses, which it is essentially adapted to meet. For floor construction plain, round iron bars, set in the lower part of a beam of rectangular or trapezoidal section, are the parts in tension; in that position the metal exerts its best quality, resistance in tension. A series of straps distributed along the beam connect the bar with the upper part of the concrete and make a series of fastenings which steady and support FIG. 160. TVo-inch Ribbed Bar Imbedded in 3 Inches of Concrete. the bar. They carry to the upper part of the concrete the stresses which in them are tensile, but which are then distributed as compression stresses through the body of concrete. 216 FIRE-PROOF FLOORING COLUMBIAN SYSTEM. The Hennebique system has been applied to many important uses in bridge engineering and general building operations. Columbian System of Floor Construction. In the Columbian system, as shown by Figs 160, 161, and 162, MULTIPLEX STEEL-PLATE SYSTEM. 217 the concrete is reinforced with specially designed bars of steel hung on stirrups over the beams. This construction is guaran- teed by the company to carry 200 pounds per square foot with a 3-inch arch, 6-foot span, 600 pounds per square foot with a 4-inch arch, 6-foot span, and 150 pounds per square foot on a 2J-inch arch, 5-foot span, with a factor of safety of four. FIG. 162. No. 3, Double Construction View of Stirrups for Bars, Floors Nos. 2 and 3. Multiplex Steel-plate Floor Construction. This construction, which is used by The Berger Manufacturing Company, of Canton, Ohio, is shown by Figs. 163-166. The The Multiplex Steel Plate used in its simplest form FIG. 163, The Multiplex Steel Plate Floor willi a Paneled Ceiling FiGo 164. steel plate is corrugated and bent as shown, laid on top of the floor-beams and then filled with the cinder concrete 218 FIRE-PROOF FLOORING THACHER SYSTEM. to a height of about 2 inches above the plate. The different methods of construction are shown in the cuts. The Multiplex Steel Plate Floor with a Flat Ceiling FIG. 165. 'Dimensions of the Multiplex Steel Plate as ordinarily used for Floor_Ar,ehes , FIG. 166. The Thacher System of Coiierete-steel Con- struction. The concrete-steel arch, patented Jan. 10, 1899, and known as the Thacher system, may be described as follows: Steel bars (Fig. 167) in pairs, spaced at proper distances apart, FIG. 167. Bar used in the Thacher System. and spliced at convenient intervals, are imbedded in the con- crete near the outer and inner surfaces of the arch, and extend well into the abutments and piers. The bars of each pair have no connection with each other, except through the concrete, although each bar is provided with projections, preferably rivet- heads of extra height; but which may be lugs, dowels, or bolts, spaced at short intervals, thereby providing a mechanical reinforcement of the adhesion between the steel and the con- crete, so that a complete crushing or shearing of the concrete must take place before a separation can be effected. The bars act as the flanges of a beam to assist the concrete in resisting the thrusts and bending moments to which the arch is sub- CUMMINGS SYSTEM. 219 jected. The shearing stresses are small, and are taken mostly by the concrete. The principal advantages claimed for this system are as follows: That it gives a larger moment of inertia, and consequently greater strength, for the same amount of steel; that a more reliable connection is secured between the steel and the concrete than in a system that depends on adhe- sion alone; and that the bars can be shipped straight in any convenient length and bent cold to any desired curve, resulting in less cost for manufacture and greater convenience in hand- ling and shipping. Cummiiigs System of Reinforced Concrete Con- struction. Fig. 168 shows a system of reinforced concrete Top plan of Beam Fio. 168. construction designed by Robert A. Cummings, Pittsburgh, Pa. The rod reinforcement as shown is bedded in the concrete beam. Fig. 169 shows a corrugated steel bar used for concrete con- % in a Bar. Net section, 0.55 a in. Weight, 2.05 Ibs. pes ft. FIG. 169. struction by the St. Louis Expanded Metal Fireproofing Com- pany. These bars are made of various sizes and strengths. Where there will be a tensile strain on concrete in floor con- struction, it should be made of fine crushed stone so as to make the highest quality of tension concrete. Cinders should be used in construction only where the greatest strain is in compression. 220 TERRA-COTTA FLOOR CONSTRUCTION. TOP FILLING. Before any concrete filling is put in on top of any floors, the concrete floors or arches should be swept clean and then thoroughly wet, so the filling will take hold to the concrete arch already in place. -This filling is generally not made as strong with cement as the concrete in the arches, the usual proportions being about 1 cement, 3 sand, and 6 cinder or other aggregate. Terra-cotta Floor Construction. Figs. 170 and 171 show the ordinary terra-cotta arch, Fig. 171 is what is known as side construction, and Fig. 170 end construction. 2*x 4*Beveled Floor Strips .lo'center to Center ^ BteelCleaU .,,,_N..,,_ .. j^.^ 6 ^.'^ '" L1 e _ / Concrete FnIln S * * llLrJf 1 .-! j) Section of Ten Inch Arch End Construction 34 Lbs. per Sq. Ft. FIG. 170. Marble or Tile Floor ^Concrete Filling FIG. 171. The main points to be observed in either of these arches are to see that the blocks are of the right size and that they are bedded in mortar the full width of the joint. The keys should be of a size so that they will shove into place and have a good bed of mortar. The National Fire-proofing 1 Co.'s Johnson System. This system is a terra-cotta arch reinforced with wire, as shown by Fig. 172. The basis of this flooring is formed of large steel wires transversely interwoven with still larger wires placed 4 inches apart. These last run straight from bearing to bearing. Over and through these wires is spread a bed of cement mortar and on this bed the tiles are set. On top of the tiles is spread 3 inches of cinder concrete. This makes a very strong floor. "New York" Reinforced Terra-cotta Arch (Kevier Patent). A system of reinforced terra-cotta arch construction now used by the The National Fireproofing Com- pany is shown by Figs. 173-175. TERRA-COTTA FLOOR CONSTRUCTION. 221 In this construction a wire reinforcement in the form of a wire truss, the upper and lower chords being composed of -: ' ;'-;.-'. .\ ! y.->^~ : .'^$--f^-^ 3T ~ > , ~ . ~ .yi .~ : : = ' ' ^ - ,_ Johnson system of construction side view o a Jehnson system of construction- end view Johnson system 25 feet between girders FIG. 172. 6 Span- 8ECTION SHOWING RAISED ARCH IN DEEP BEAM FIG. 173. Above Arch Accepted by New York Building Department for Live Load of One Hundred and Fifty Pounds per Square Foot. two No. 13 galvanized twisted wires and the diagonal members being single No. 14 wires, is bedded in the cross joints of the terra-cotta, thus adding strength to it. The truss is placed on edge and runs from beam to beam in the vertical joint between adjoining blocks, the joint being about | inch wide and the mortar well grouted around the 222 TERRA-COTTA FLOOR CONSTRUCTION. (< Herculean" Flat Arcli. The floor construction shown by Fig. 176 is known as the " Herculean" arch, and is used by Henry Maurer & Son of New York, 3 SECTIONS WHERE GREATER LOAD OR WIDER SPAN IS REQUIRED. FIG. 174. Half Section through Wide Span Arch, showing use of more than one piece of wire truss to give greater strength in centre and prevent shearing of blocks at ends of arch. Depth of blocks, number of trusses, and size of wires are proportioned to load and span. FIG. 175. "New York" Reinforced Terra-cotta Arch (Bevier Patent). FIG. 176. " Herculean " Flat Arch (Patented May 3, 1898, and February 6, 1900). In this arch the terra-cotta is reinforced with steel tee irons as shown, and makes a very strong floor. In constructing this arch care should be taken to see that sufficient mortar is used so that when the tile blocks are shoved into position the mortar will fill all the spaces and the joint around the tee irons. FIRE-PROOF PARTITIONS. 223 Fig, 177 shows a new style of terra-cotta arch of the end- construction system. As will be seen the number of webs in the blocks makes them very strong. FIG. 177. Fire-proof Partitions. Each fireproofing company usually has its own system for putting up partitions, as well as floor construction, and the superintendent should keep him- self familiar with all the different methods. Fig. 178 shows the partition used by The Roebling Company. Small steel angles or channels are set up and fastened top and bottom to form the studs of the partition, and then covered on both sides with their wire-cloth lath. The space between the two sheets of lath is usually filled with cinder concrete, after which the two sides of the partition are plastered. Expaiided-inetal Partition. This partition is made by setting up small channel bars to form the studs and then covering them with expanded-metal lath, after which it is plastered on both sides, making a solid partition 1 or 2 inches thick. Several other companies put up a partition similar to the one described above; the only difference is using a different make of metal lath. Rabbit Partition. Fig. 179 shows a partition patented by Samuel E. Rabbit of Washington, D. C., which is termed a fire-proof partition. As shown, strips of wood f"X2" are set up and lathed with wood lath, and then plastered on both sides solid to a thickness of 2 inches. This partition has been used in a number of buildings in Washington. Metropolitan Fireproofing Company's Parti- tion. A partition now being used by The Metropolitan 224 FIRE-PROOF PARTITIONS. sM Steel Rod /2x 1 * V 8 Channel SECTION ON B-B 'fe iffl^ No. 18 Gal. - ENLARGED SECTION ON A-A 2 x.2 x,y 8 L. Wire Lacing TYPICAL SECTION OF WOOD TRIM FIG. 178. Roebling Partition. FIRE-PROOF PARTITIONS. 225 Fireproofing Company is shown by Fig. 180 and is described as follows: FIG. 179. A newly patented fire-proof partition which is formed with 2-inch solid blocks of their fire-proof material, which has been fully demonstrated to be effec- tively fire-resisting, as well as fire-proof. The partition is quickly put in place, can be finished and plas- tered at once, requires no up- right studs to support it, holds nail well, and is when finished not over 3 inches thick. Phoenix Wall Construc- tion. Fig. 181 shows a terra- cotta partition called the "Phoenix" which is put up by Henry Maurer & Son, New York. The terra-cotta blocks have dovetail recesses on the sides to receive the plaster, and the partition is reinforced in each horizontal joint with a strip of band iron set in the terra-cotta as shown. The Berger Fire-proof Partition. This partition, as shown by Fig. 182, is made of expanded-metal lath fastened to a metal stud, which is made as shown, having prongs cut and bent out and which are used to fasten the lath to the stud. This partition is plastered on both sides solid. Furring-, Beams, etc. Figs. 183 and 184 show one of the usual methods used to fur out beams, build false beams, etc. A piece of channel iron is bent the desired shape and fastened FIG. 180. 226 ARCHITECTURAL TERRA-COTTA. to the beam or floor above. These ribs are usually spaced about 12 inches apart, then at each angle a |-inch rod is run along and wired to the ribs, and over this frame the metal lath is bent and wired. The superintendent must see that this frame- work is put up secure and braced as well as possible. A good FIG. 181. Method of Construction of the "Phoenix" Wall, 4 inches thick, with band iron between the courses. Size of blocks, 4X8X12 inches. FIG. 182. A shows Stud with Prongs; B and C, Top and Bottom Sockets' D, Stud in Position ready for Lath; E, Lath Attached to Stud by clinching down Prongs. way to fasten the ribs is to run them up through the floor con- struction and turn them over into the concrete. Architectural Terra-cotta. Terra-cotta is used for the ornamentation and trimmings of buildings, taking the place of brick and stone to a great extent. It is made in various shades and colors, from white to deep red or brown, and is usually colored by means of chemicals, so that any color desired can be obtained. The duty of the superintendent, where terra-cotta is used, will be to see that the blocks of terra-cotta, design, etc., con- ARCHITECTURAL TERRA-COTTA. 227 form to the details, that it is the desired color, and that each piece is in perfect condition. In setting, he should take the same precautions as with stone, and in addition to this see FIG. 183. that every piece is anchored properly and tied to the struc- tural iron provided for that purpose. Where any weight will rest on any hollow block, it should be filled with brick and mortar. Care must also be taken to FIG. 184. have all the joints filled with mortar so there will be no chance for the water to get into them. Terra-cotta should always be set in strong cement mortar and each block thoroughly wet before being set. Any blocks twisted or warped in burning, and which cannot be set straight or in line, should be rejected. 228 ARCHITECTURAL TERRA-COTTA. As soon as any terra-cotta is set it should be boxed in so as to prevent any damage being done to it by anything falling on it. FIG. 185. Section through a Main Cornice. Lookouts A held down by continuous |_, B, and rods C. D is a wall plate. Modillions are suspended from lookouts A by means of clips and hangers. FIG. 186. Section through a Main Cornice. Figs. 185-188 show some typical methods of terra-cotta construction. FIRE PROTECTION OF BUILDINGS. 229 Fire-proof Construction and Fire Protection of Building's. It may not be amiss in introducing the follow- ELEVATION SECTION FIG. 187. Details of Construction for a Central Pavilion. A SECTION LONGITUDINAL SECTION. THROUGH A-A. V 4 PLAN THROUGH BALUSTERS. PLAN OF SOFFIT, FIG. 188. Suggestion for a Terra-cotta Balcony. ing suggestions with regard to the installation of fire-proof construction to say a word regarding the general importance of the subject so far as building methods in the United States are concerned. 230 FIRE-PROOF CONSTRUCTION AND The annual fire _oss, that is to say that portion of it paid by insurance companies in this country, is not far from $150,000,000, a large percentage of which might be readily avoided. As a matter of fact corresponding losses are avoided in practically all of the European countries, the fire loss abroad being but a comparatively small percentage of the fire loss here, taking into account equal amounts of property insured. It is a customary error to speak of loss by fire being "covered by insurance." The falsity of this statement lies in the assump- tion that anything actually burned up can be restored, whereas it can only be replaced. As a matter of fact insurance indem- nity represents merely an amount collected from the public at large for the reimbursement of the few who suffer from fire loss. This does not in the least alter the fact that every dollar's worth of property consumed by fire is just so much annihilated from the wealth of the country. Due consideration of the foregoing should bring to the mind of every superintendent of building construction a realization of the personal responsibility devolving upon him as a valuable member of the community to administer his office in such man- ner as to eliminate in the largest measure such probability of fire loss as may come within his province. Too strong emphasis cannot be laid upon the necessity for the superintendent to administer his office in such manner that the work performed shall be consistent with the most rigid of specifications looking to the highest immunity from loss by fire. While failure to live up to specifications is always reprehen- sible, it is to be questioned whether if in any other branch of building construction the results of comparatively insignificant omissions or remissions may so thoroughly nullify the whole effort as in matters pertaining to fire protection. Materials depend for their efficiency first upon wise design and honest manufacture, and second upon intelligent installa- tion, and it is to the latter branch that the following suggestions relate. In these suggestions no attempt is made at logical sequence, but rather an endeavor to place at the disposal of the superintendent certain data which may prove of immediate and practical value. Fire Protection of Buildings. In taking up this subject it is the aim of the author to point out and show some of the points in building construction of the present day that FIRE PROTECTION OF BUILDINGS. 231 are defects, inasmuch as they are liable to cause a fire or to assist it when once started. The superintendent should be always on the lookout during the construction of a building for any of these defects and should see that every part of the work is so done that it will render the building fire-proof, or as near fire-proof as the character of the building will allow. In the ordinary dwellings and the smaller buildings there is often very little care taken on this point, and there is no doubt that many a house or building has been destroyed by fire which gained its start through the neglect of some superintendent, architect, builder, or workman. FRAME-HOUSE PROTECTION, FLUES, ETC. We will take, for instance, the ordinary frame house with brick chimneys, which are usually built, as shown by Fig. 189, with 4 inches of brick- FIG. 189. work around the flues and back of the fireplade. The studs are set tight against the brickwork as shown, and the floor trimmers are usually framed tight against the sides of the chimney. Now all this wood is but 4 inches or the width of a brick from the flue or fire, and how easy it is for a mason to overlook a "dry" joint or leave a little hole through this 4-inch wall, thus giving the fire a chance to get through. A chimney may be built this way and have such defects and be in use for a number of years and no harm result; then the flue may become lined With soot, which may at any time "burn out," when, if there should happen to be a hole or dry joint, the flame or sparks may be drawn through and set fire to the building. Then often when there is but a 4-inch back wall to a chimney and fireplace and the grate tile are set tight against the back wall the heat from 'the grate will be carried through and may be the means of setting fire to the studding behind the chimney. All chimneys should either have 8 inches of brickwork around all outside walls of the flues, as shown by Fig. 190, or else have terra-cotta flue lining, and when flue lining is used the back 232 FIRE-PROOF CONSTRUCTION AND wall of the fireplace should be made 8 inches, or at least 6 inches, by setting a course of brick on edge and thus breaking joints with the back 4-inch wall. The flue lining should be carried up through the roof, or better still, to the top of the chimney. FIG. 190. Another weak point so far as fire protection is concerned in the ordinary house is where the flues are drawn together at the ceiling joist. Fig. 191 shows how this is usually done. FIG. 191. The main part of the chimney is cut off so that the ceiling joist will run across the top and frame around the flues, which are drawn together as shown. This again leaves but 4 inches of brickwork between the flue and the wood joist, and as many a house has been destroyed by a fire starting in the attic, no doubt but some of the fires started at this point The brickwork around tht flues should FIRE PROTECTION OF BUILDINGS. 233 be carried up 8 inches until the chimney passes through the roof as shown by Fig. 192; then if desired it can be drawn in FIG. 192. as shown, making a much better looking top than if there was no base to it. HEARTH BOTTOMS. Another point not to be overlooked is the common method of putting in wooden hearth bottoms, as shown by Fig. 120, page 87. This should not be allowed unless the wall is corbelled out as described by Fig. 121, page 87. Hue FIG. 193. A brick arch or corrugated metal bent to a radius, as shown by Fig. 193, is much to be preferred. 234 FIRE PROTECTION OF BUILDINGS. STUDDED FIREPLACES. A cheap form of chimney which has been used throughout California and the South is shown by FIG. 194. Fig. 194, the fireplace being built up of brick and drawn in at the top as shown; then a terra-cotta, or in some cases a sheet-iron pipe is run up for a flue. The fireplace and chimney is then studded around and plastered, as shown by Fig. 195, so as to give FIG. 195. it the appearance of a large chimney-breast. This arrangement is nothing more or less than a fire-trap and should never be used. Regarding this method of construction around fireplaces and chimneys, the San Francisco Building Code says: "Sec. 21. When a chimney-breast is furred out, the space between the chimney and the breast shall be so built that the passage of fire and smoke shall be intercepted." This section of the Building Code states that the space shall be built so as to intercept the fire, but the only reliable way is to build a brick chimney and have no blank spaces. CHIMNEYS AND FLUES IN FRAME BUILDINGS. 235 CLOSETS AS FIRE-TRAPS. In brick and frame houses the space along the side of the room formed by the projection or jamb of the chimney is usually utilized for a closet, as shown by Fig. 196, and the closet is usually furred down and ceiled a few FIG. 196. inches above the door height. The sides of the flues are usually but 4 inches thick as shown, and the woodwork of the closet is put tight against the chimney , and the space thus formed above the closet is shut off from all access. This wood- work in time becomes so dry that a spark would set it on fire or possibly it would catch fire from the heat from the flue. This is considered by the author a very weak point in the ordinary house construction, so far as fire protection is concerned. As mentioned before, the flues should either be lined with flue lining or the outside walls made 8 inches thick. Chimneys and Flues in Frame Buildings. The following instructions regarding the construction of chim- neys are given in the Building Code prepared by the National Board of Fire Underwriters: MATERIAL. All chimneys in frame buildings shall be built of brick or stone or other fire-proof material. THICKNESS OP BRICKWORK. If of brick the flues shall have walls at least eight inches thick, except where flues are lined with burnt-clay pipe, in which case the walls around flues may be four inches thick. HEIGHT FOR FLUE LININGS. All flue linings shall extend at least one foot above the roof-boards. WHEN CHIMNEYS ARE OF STONE. Where chimneys are built of stone the walls of the flues shall be not less than eight inches on all sides, and shall be lined with burnt-clay pipe. HEIGHT FOR CHIMNEYS. All chimneys shall be topped out at least four feet above the highest point of contact with the roof, and be properly capped. 236 FIRE PROTECTION OF BUILDINGS. PARTY-WALL CHIMNEYS. Chimneys in party walls or serving two rooms on the same floor may be built in the walls or parti- tions. INDEPENDENT CHIMNEYS. Elsewhere, they shall be built inside of the frame, except in the case of ornamental or exposed chimneys Fire-stops in Furred Walls. When brick walls are furred, as shown by Fig. 197, at least two courses of brick J_L 11 J L 11 FIG. 197. should be set out the full thickness of the furring, to form a fire-stop, both above and below the joist as shown at A A. If wood furring is used the plate can be set on this projection and the cap under, and wire lath should be used over the brick to prevent the plaster from cracking. Wooden Nailing-plugs. Another bad piece of work is the ordinary method carpenters have of driving wooden plugs in the joints of the brickwork of a chimney to nail the base to or to fasten the mantel. The author once saw a mantel take fire from this cause; the wooden plug caught fire and burned out, setting fire to the mantel. The base can always be fastened by nailing into the joints of the brickwork, or if the mortar will not hold the nail, metal wall plugs can be put in and the base nailed to the plugs. Mantels can be hung by driving hooks into the joints of the brickwork and the mantel hung to these hooks by eyes or staples screwed on the back of the mantel. Bridging as Fire-stops in Partitions. Where wooden partitions are used, whether inside or outside, and which BRIDGING AS FIRE-STOPS IN PARTITIONS. 237 rest on the sill, they should have a row of solid bridging cut around at the floor level, as shown at A, Fig. 198, and if the studs run through two stories they should be bridged at the ceiling and floor levels, as shown at B, Fig. 198; this prevents any draught or suction up the partitions in case of fire. The joist should also be bridged solid along every partition, so in case of fire to keep it from spreading under the floor between the joist. A method of framing used in some parts of the country, especially on the Pacific Coast, is one in which each story of a building is framed separate, as shown by Fig, 199. For fire X X X FIG. 198. FIG. 199. protection this is a very good method, as the plates and caps of the walls and partitions cut each story off separate from the others and there is no chance for fire to follow up the inside of the walls. Also see Brick-nogging, page 87. Regarding this method of construction the San Francisco Building Code says: *' Sec. 19. When stories are framed separately, each tier of studding must have top and bottom plates, and the top plates must be doubled; when stories are not framed separately, proper bridging must be placed behind the ribbon at the 238 FIRE PROTECTION OF BUILDINGS. ceiling line and on top of the joist at the floor line. Bridging must be two inches thick and of the full width of the studding in every case. " Sec. 20. BRIDGING. All stud-walls, or partitions hereafter built, altered, or repaired, shall have one row of bridging for every seven feet in height over the first seven feet. Said bridging shall in all cases extend to the lathing or sheathing, so as to prevent the passage of fire and smoke, and shall be the same thickness as the studding. All outside walls and cross parti- tions shall be thoroughly and angle braced; all joists shall have solid end blocking. All buildings over twenty-five (25) feet in width shall have a row of solid blocking over girder or partition of stairways. A row of cross bridging at least two (2) inches thick must be placed between the floor-joists at least every twelve (12) feet." Underwriters' Rules for Fire-stops. A better method is to build a fire-stop of brick or other incombustible material as recommended by the rules of the National Board of Fire Underwriters, which reads as follows: , FIRE-STOPS AT ENDS OF BEAMS, IN STUD-WALLS, AND IN PARTITIONS RESTING OVER EACH OTHER. In all frame build- ings which are to be lathed and plastered or otherwise sheathed on the inside, the spaces between such parts of the floor joist or beams that rest upon the stud-walls or upon partition heads shall be filled in solid for the depth of the joist or beams and between the studs or uprights to the depth of the latter to a height of six inches above the top of the floor joist or beams with suitable incombustible materials. HORIZONTAL BODY OF MATERIAL.- The fire-stop shall extend around all the stud-walls of the building, supporting the filling material where necessary on strips of wood nailed between studs, and in all stud-partitions that rest directly over each other, and thus form a horizontal line of incombustible material to effectually cut off draft openings from story to story through floors, stud-walls, and partitions. The Building Code of the National Board of Fire Under- writers gives the following rules regarding chimneys, flues, heat- ing-pipes, etc., and which will be a good guide for the superin- tendent : CHIMNEYS, FLUES, ETC. 239 CHIMNEYS, FLUES, FIREPLACES, AND HEATING-PIPES. Sec. 64. TRIMMER-ARCHES. To Support Hearths. All fire- places and chimney-breasts where mantels are placed, whether intended for ordinary fireplace uses or not, shall have trimmer arches to support hearths. Width of Trimmer-arches. And the said arches shall be at least twenty inches in width, measured from the face of the chimney-breast, and they shall be constructed of brick, stone, or burnt clay. Length of Trimmer-arches. The length of a trimmer-arch shall be not less than the width of the chimney-breast. Wood Centres under Trimmer-arches. Wood centres under trimmer-arches shall be removed before plastering the ceiling underneath. Hearth under Hmter. If a heater is placed in a fireplace, then the hearth shall be the full width of the heater. Mantels. All fireplaces in which heaters are placed shall have incombustible mantels. Woodwork Back of a Summer-piece. No wood mantel or other woodwork shall be exposed back of a summer-piece ; the iron- work of the summer-piece shall be placed against the brick or stone work of the fireplace. Fire-boards. -No fireplace shall be closed with a wooden fire-board. Sec. 65. CHIMNEYS, FLUES, AND FIREPLACES. Joints Struck Smooth. All fireplaces and chimneys in stone or brick walls in any building hereafter erected, except as herein otherwise provided, and any chimney or flues hereafter altered or repaired, without reference to the purpose for which they may be used, shall have the joints struck smooth on the inside, except when lined on the inside with pipe. Parging of Flues Prohibited. No parging mortar shall be used on the inside of any fireplace, chimney, or flue. Fireplace Backs, Thickness of. The fire-backs of all fire- places hereafter erected shall be not less than eight inches in thickness, of solid masonry. Lining Behind Grate in Fireplace. When a grate is set in a fireplace, a lining of fire-brick, at least two inches in thickness, shall be added to the fire-back, unless soapstone, tile, or cast iron is used, and filled solidly behind with fire-proof material. 240 FIRE UNDERWRITERS' RULES REGARDING Thickness for Smoke-flues of Boilers, Furnaces, etc. The stone or brickwork of the smoke-flues of all boilers, furnaces, bakers' ovens, large cooking ranges, large laundry stoves, and all flues used for a similar purpose shall be at least eight inches in thick- ness, and shall be capped with terra-cotta, stone, or cast iron. Inside of Flues for Boilers. The inside four inches of all boiler- flues shall be fire-brick, laid in fire mortar, for a distance of twenty-five feet in any direction from the source of heat. Smoke-flues of Steam-boilers. All smoke-flues of smelting- furnaces or of steam-boilers, or other apparatus which heat the flues to a high temperature, shall be built with double walls of suitable thickness for the temperature with an air space between the walls, the inside four inches of the flues to be of fire-brick. Height for Smoke-flues. All smoke-flues shall extend at least three feet above a flat roof and at least two feet above a peak roof. * Tops of Chimneys on Three-story Dwellings and Stables. On dwelling-houses and stables three stories or less in height not less than six of the top courses of a chimney may be laid in pure cement mortar and the brickwork carefully bonded and anchored together in lieu of coping. CHIMNEYS, FLUES, AND FIREPLACES. Smoke-flues to be Lined with Cast-iron or Clay Pipe. In all buildings hereafter erected every smoke-flue, except the flues hereinbefore mentioned, shall be lined continuously on the inside with cast-iron or well- burnt clay, or terra-cotta pipe, made smooth on the inside, from the bottom of the flue, or from the throat of the fire- place, if the flue starts from the latter, and carried up con- tinuously to the extreme height of the flue. Ends of Lining Pipe to Fit Close. The ends of all such lining pipes shall be made to fit close together, and the pipe shall be built in as the flue or flues are carried up. Brickwork. Each smoke-pipe shall be inclosed on all sides with not less than four inches of brickwork properly bonded together. FLUES TO BE LEFT CLEAN AT COMPLETION OF BUILDING. All flues in every building shall be properly cleaned and all rubbish removed, and the flues left smooth on the inside upon the completion of the building. Sec. 66. CHIMNEY SUPPORTS. Forbidding Supports of Wood. No chimney shall be started or built upon any floor or beam of wood. CHIMNEYS, FLUES, ETC. 241 Corbelling. In no case shall a chimney be corbelled out more than eight inches from the wall, and in all such cases the cor- belling shall consist of at least five courses of brick. Corbelling in Eight-inch Walls. But no corbelling more than four inches shall be allowed in eight-inch brick walls. Piers Supporting Chimneys. Where chimneys are supported by piers, the piers shall start from the foundation on the same line with the chimney-breast, and shall be not less than twelve inches on the face, properly bonded into the walls. Supports for Chimneys Cut Off Below. When a chimney is to be cut off below, in whole or in part, it shall be wholly supported by stone, brick, iron, or steel. Unsafe Chimneys All chimneys which shall be dangerous in any manner whatever shall be repaired and made safe or taken down. Sec. 67. CHIMNEYS OF CUPOLAS. Foundry Cupolas. Iron cupola chimneys of foundries shall extend at least ten feet above the highest point of any roof within a radius of fifty feet of such cupola and be covered on top with a heavy wire netting. Distance for Woodwork. No woodwork shall be placed within two feet of the cupola. Sec. 68. HOT-AIR FLUES, PIPES, AND VENT-DUCTS. Hot-air Flues to be Lined. All stone or brick hot-air flues and shafts shall be lined with tin, galvanized iron, or burnt-clay pipes. Woodwork not to be Placed against Flues. No wood casing, fur- ring, or lath shall be placed against or cover any smoke-flue or metal pipe used to convey hot air or steam. Forbidding Smoke-pipes through Floors. No smoke-pipe shall pass through any wood floor. Stovepipes, Distance from Ceilings and Partitions. No stove- pipe shall be placed nearer than nine inches to any lath-and- plaster or board partition, ceiling, or any woodwork. Metal Shields. Smoke-pipes of laundry-stoves, large cooking- ranges, and of furnaces shall be not less than fifteen inches from any woodwork, unless they are properly guarded by metal shields; if so guarded, stovepipes shall be not less than six inches distant. Distance. Smoke-pipes of laundry-stoves, large cooking- ranges, and of furnaces shall be not less than nine inches distant from any woodwork. Smoke-pipes through Partitions. Where smoke-pipes pass through a lath-and-plaster partition they shall be guarded by 242 FIRE UNDERWRITERS' RULES REGARDING galvanized-iron ventilated thimbles at least twelve inches larger in diameter than the pipes, or by galvanized-iron thimbles built in at least eight inches of brickwork. SMOKE-PIPES THROUGH ROOFS. Permit Necessary. No smoke-pipe shall pass through the roof of any building unless a special permit be first obtained from the Commissioner of Buildings for the same. If a permit is so granted, then the roof through which the smoke-pipe passes shall be protected in the following manner: How Protected. A galvanized-iron ventilated thimble of the following dimensions shall be placed; in case of a stovepipe, the diameter of the outside guard shall be not less than twelve inches, and the diameter of the inner one eight inches, and for all furnaces, or where similar large hot fires are use(}, the diameter of the outside guard shall be not less than eighteen inches, and the diameter of the inner one twelve inches. Thimbles. The smoke-pipe thimbles shall extend from the under side of the ceiling or roof beams to at least nine inches above the roof, and they shall have openings for ventilation at the lower end where the smoke-pipes enter, also at the top of the guards above the roof. Smoke-pips of Boiler through Roof. Where a smoke-pipe of a boiler passes through a roof, the same shall be guarded by a ventilated thimble, same as before specified, thirty-six inches larger than the diameter of the smoke-pipe of the boiler. HOT-AIR PIPES IN WALLS. Covering of Brick or Stone. Tin or other metal pipes in brick or stone walls used or intended to be used to convey heated air, shall be covered with brick or stone at least four inches in thickness. HOT-AIR PIPES IN STUD PARTITIONS. Woodwork to be Guarded. Woodwork near hot-air pipes shall be guarded in the follow- ing manner: A hot-air pipe shall be placed inside another pipe, one inch larger in diameter, or a metal shield shall be placed not less than one-half inch from the hot-air pipe; the outside pipe or the metal shield shall remain one and a half inches away from the woodwork, and the latter must be tin- lined, or in lieu of the above protection, four inches of brick- work may be placed between the hot-air pipe and the wood- work. This shall not prevent the placing of metal lath and plaster directly on the face of hot-air pipes or the placing of woodwork on such metal lath or plaster, provided the distance is not less than seven-eighths of an inch. HEATING PIPES, ETC. 243 Distance from Furnace. No vertical hot-air pipe shall be placed in a stud partition, or in a wood inclosure, unless it be at least eight feet distant in a horizontal direction from the furnace. HOT-AIR PIPES IN CLOSETS. Hot-air pipes in closets shall be double, with a space of one inch between them. HORIZONTAL HOT-AIR PIPES. Distance from Combustible Ceiling. Horizontal hot-air pipes shall be placed six inches below the floor-beams or ceiling; if the floor-beams or ceiling are plastered and protected by a metal shield, then the distance shall be not less than three inches. DUCTS FOR VENTILATION. Construction. Vent flues or ducts for the removal of foul or vitiated air, in which the temperature of the air cannot exceed that of the rooms, may be constructed of iron or other incombustible material, and shall not be placed nearer than one inch to any woodwork, and no such pipe shall be used for any other purpose. Material and Thickness of Same in Fire-proof Buildings. In buildings of fire-proof construction ventilating shafts passing through floors shall be constructed of fire-proof material not less than four inches in thickness. Any opening in such ducts or shafts shall be protected by automatic closing doors or by metal louvres riveted into metal frames, and such ducts shall open to the outside of the building. ' VENT-DUCTS IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. How Constructed. In the support or construction of such ducts, if placed in a public school-room, no wood furring or other inflammable material shall be nearer than two inches to said flues or ducts, and shall be covered on all sides, other than those resting against brick, terra-cotta, or other incombustible material, with metal lath plastered with at least two heavy coats of mortar, and having at least one-half inch air space between the flues or ducts and the lath and plaster. Sec. 69. STEAM AND HOT-WATER HEATING PIPES. Distance from Woodwork. Steam or hot-water heating pipes shall not be placed within two inches of any timber or woodwork, unless the timber or woodwork is protected by a metal shield; then the distance shall be not less than one inch. Through Floors, how Protected. All steam or hot-water heating pipes passing through floors and ceilings or lath and plastered partitions shall be protected by a metal tube one inch larger in diameter than the pipe, having a metal cap at the 244 INSTALLATION OF HEATING PLANTS, ETC. floor, and where they are run in a horizontal direction between a floor and ceiling a metal shield shall be placed on the under side of the floor over them, and on the sides of wood beams run- ning parallel with said pipes. Wood-inclosing Boxes to be Lined with Metal. All wood boxes or casings inclosing steam or hot-water heating pipes and all wood covers to recesses in walls in which steam or hot-water heating pipes are placed shall be lined with metal. Incombustible Pipes. All pipes or ducts used to convey air warmed by steam or hot water shall be of metal or other fire- proof material. Pipe Coverings. All steam and hot-water pipe coverings shall consist of fire-proof materials only. PLUMBING PIPES PASSING THROUGH FLOORS. Cold-water or other exposed plumbing pipes shall have the surrounding air space closed off at the ceiling and floor line of any floor through which any such pipe or pipes shall be carried. Hot-air Pipes. As the hot-air pipes, etc., are put in position the superintendent should pay close attention and see that the work is done properly, as mechanics often slight this part of the work, thinking it will soon be covered up. Installation of Heating- Plants, etc. The Building Code of the city of Cleveland gives the following rules for in- stalling heating-plants, steam and hot-air pipes, flues, etc., and will be a good guide for the superintendent. HEATING. The subjects under this title include all hearths, pipes, and heating apparatus and their inclosures within a building. Sec. 1. FLUE CONNECTIONS. All boilers, furnaces, fireplaces, ovens, and all other heating apparatus mentioned under this title shall be properly connected with a flue chimney or stack as direct and within the shortest distance possible. This shall include all permanent or temporary heat generators which are used in the erection of a building, and no such heat gen- erator shall hereafter be placed upon the floor or in close prox- imity to any building which allows the products of combustion to escape directly into the air within twenty (20) feet of any ceil- ing without being connected with some flue as herein prescribed. Sec. 2. HEARTHS. All hearths of fireplaces, irrespective of the fuel used, shall be supported by trimmer-arches of brick, stone, iron, or concrete, or be of single stone at least six (6) INSTALLATION OF HEATING PLANTS, ETC. 245 inches thick, built into the chimney and supported by iron beams, one end of which shall be securely built into the masonry of the chimney or an adjoining wall, or which shall otherwise rest upon incombustible support. The brick jambs of every fireplace or grate opening, inde- pendent of the lining, shall be at least one (1) brick wide each, and the back of such openings shall be at least one (1) brick thick. All hearths and trimmer-arches shall be at least twelve (12) inches longer on each side than the width of such open- ings, and at least twenty (20) inches wide in front of the chimney- breast. Brickwork over fireplaces and grate openings shall be supported by iron bars or brick arches. The wooden covering in all buildings except those of the VI. and VII. classes under trimmer-arches to be removed before plastering the ceiling underneath. Sec. 3. BOILERS. Brick-set. No brick-set boiler for the generation of hot water or steam for heating or power or any portable power boiler or engine over ten (10) horse-power shall be placed on any wood or combustible floor or beams. Sec. 4. BOILERS. Portable. Wood or combustible floors and beams under and not less than three (3) feet in front and one (1) foot on the sides of all portable boilers shall be protected by a suitable brick foundation of not less than two (2) courses of brick well laid in mortar on sheet iron ; the said sheet iron shall extend at least twenty-four (24) inches outside of the founda- tion at the sides and front. Bearing lines of bricks, laid on the flat, with air spaces between them, shall be placed on the foundation to support a cast-iron ash-pan of suitable thickness, on which the base of the boiler shall be placed, and shall have a flange, turned up in the front and on the sides, four (4) inches high; said pan shall be in width not less than the base of the boiler, and shall extend at least two (2) feet in front of it. If a boiler is supported on a cast-iron base with the bottom of the required thickness for an ash-pan, and is placed on bearing lines of brick in the same manner as specified for an ash-pan, then an ash-pan shall be placed in front of the said base and shall not be required to extend under it. All lath-and-plaster and wood ceilings and beams over and up to a distance of not less than four (4) feet in front of all boilers shall be shielded with metal. The distance from the top of the boiler to said shield shall be not less than twelve (12) inches. No combustible partition shall be within four (4) feet of the sides and back and 246 INSTALLATION OF HEATING PLANTS, ETC. six (6) feet from the front of any boiler, unless said partition shall be covered with metal to the height of at least three (3) feet above the floor, and shall extend from the end or back of the boiler to at least five (5) feet in front of it ; then the distance shall be not less than two (2) feet from the sides and five (5) feet from the front of the boiler. Sec. 5. FURNACES. Brick-set. All brick-set hot-air furnaces shall have two (2) covers with an air space of at least two (2) inches between them; the inner cover of the hot-air chamber shall be either a brick arch or two (2) courses of brick laid on galvanized iron or tin, supported on iron bars; the outside cover, which is the top of the furnace, shall be made of brick or metal supported on iron bars and so constructed as to be perfectly tight, and shall be not less than four (4) inches below any com- bustible ceiling or floor beams. A single concave iron cover may be used if rigidly supported on the margin and filled with sand to a depth of at least eight (8) inches in the centre and two (2) inches at the edges on all sides. The walls of the furnace shall be built hollow in the follow- ing manner: One (1) inner and one (1) outer wall, each four (4) inches in thickness, properly bonded together with an air space of not less than two (2) inches between them. All brick- set furnaces shah 1 be at least four (4) inches from all wood-work. Sec. 6. FURNACES. Portable. All portable hot-air furnaces shall have a double-cased jacket of not less than No. 26 iron from the base to the top of casting, with an air space of at least one (1) inch between, and shall be placed at least two (2) feet from any wood or combustible partition or ceiling, unless the partitions and ceiling are properly protected by a metal shield when the distance shall not be less than one (1) foot. Wood floors under all portable furnaces shall be protected by two (2) courses of brickwork, well laid in mortar on sheet iron. Said brickwork shall extend at least two (2) feet beyond the furnace in front of the ash-pan. Sec. 7. COLD-AIR BOXES. The cold-air boxes of all hot-air furnaces shall be made of metal, brick, or other incombustible material for a distance of at least ten (10) feet from the furnace. Sec. 8. RANGES. Where a kitchen range is placed from twelve (12) to six (6) inches from a wood stud partition, the said partition shall be shielded with metal from the floor to the height of not less than three (3) feet higher than the range; if the range is less than six (6) inches from the partition, then the INSTALLATION OF HEATING PLANTS, ETC. 247 studs shall be cut away and framed three (3) feet higher and one (1) foot wider than the range and filled into the face of the said stud partition with brick or fire-proof blocks with plaster thereon. All ranges on wood or combustible floors and beams that are not supported on legs and have ash-pans three (3) inches or more above their base shall be set on suitable brick founda- tions consisting of not less than two (2) courses of brick well laid in mortar on sheet iron, except small ranges that have ash- pans three (3) inches or more above their base, which shall be placed on at least one (1) course of brickwork on sheet iron or cement. No range shall be placed against a furred wall. All lath-and-plaster or wood ceilings over all large ranges, and ranges in hotels and restaurants, shall be guarded by metal hoods placed at least nine (9) inches below the ceiling. A ventilating pipe connected with a hood over a range shall be at least nine (9) inches from all lath and plaster or woodwork and shielded. If the pipe is less than nine (9) inches from lath and plaster and woodwork, then the pipe shall be covered with one-half ($) inch of asbestos plaster or other incombustible covering. No ventilating pipe connected with a hood over a range shall pass through any floor unless protected as prescribed in Sec. 13 for smoke-pipes. Sec. 9. LAUNDRY-, COOKING-, AND HEATING-STOVES. Laundry- stoves on wood or combustible floors shall have a course of brick, laid on metal, on the floor under and extended twenty-four (24) inches on all sides of them. All stoves for cooking and heating purposes shall be properly supported on iron legs resting on the floor, three (3) feet from all lath and plaster or woodwork; if the lath and plaster or woodwork is properly protected by a metal shield, then the distance shall be not less than eighteen (18) inches. A metal shield shall be placed under and twelve (12) inches in front of the ash-pan of all stoves that are placed on wood floors. Sec. 10. GAS-STOVES AND RANGES. All low gas-stoves shall be placed on iron stands, or the burners shall be at least six (6) inches above the base of the stoves, and metal guard plates placed four (4) inches below the burners, and all woodwork under them shall be covered with metal. Open gas-stoves shall be isolated in the same manner as provided for stoves in Sec. 9. Gas-ranges, if properly air insulated within them- selves, shall be placed one (1) foot distant from all unprotected woodwork or plastered stud partitions. 248 INSTALLATION OF HEATING PLANTS, ETC. The use of gas-burners or heaters, located in a floor system under an open register, or on the outside of the fire-pot of any hot-air furnace, in which the products of combustion are allowed to escape into a room, is hereby prohibited, and all such burners or heaters so located shall be removed within thirty (30) days after the passage of this Code. For gas-fitting and fixtures see Title XXXIX. Sec. 11. BAKE-OVENS. Bake-ovens are to rest on solid foundations or metal beams and columns; the sides and ends shall be at least two (2) feet from any woodwork and the crown of arch at least four (4) feet from ceilings that have wood joists. The hearth in front of bake-oven shall extend at least three and one-half (3) feet beyond the face of said oven, otherwise all woodwork shall be protected as prescribed for boilers in Sec. 4. Sec. 12. CORE- AND ANNEALING-OVENS. All core- and anneal- ing-ovens, or any portable smelting-furnace, shall be set on in- combustible hearths with an air-space of at least five (5) inches between hearths and the bottoms of such ovens or furnaces. The construction of hearths and protection of surrounding woodwork shall be the same as prescribed in Sec. 4 for portable boilers. Sec. 13. SMOKE-PIPES. Where smoke-pipes pass through a wood or plastered stud partition, or furred wall, or floor, they shall be surrounded either by a body of hard, incombustible material, measuring at least four (4) inches all around such smoke-pipe, or they shall be surrounded by a double safety thimble of sheet metal made of two (2) concentric rings of sheet metal at least one (1) inch apart, and the entire thimble so constructed that there will be a circulation of air between the two (2) rings forming the same. No smoke-pipe shall project through an external wall unless connected with a chimney or metal stack carried above the roof. No stove- or smoke-pipe or any pipe conducting the products of combustion from any range, oven, or heater shall be concealed in any wood partition or be placed nearer than nine (9) inches to any unprotected lath-and-plaster or board partition, ceiling, or any woodwork. Smoke-pipes of less diameter than twelve (12) inches shall be kept at least twelve (12) inches distant from any woodwork, unless the same is properly protected by a metal shield, in which case the distance shall not be less than three (3) inches. Smoke-pipes of greater diameter than twelve (12) inches INSTALLATION OF HEATING PLANTS, ETC. 249 and less area than six (6) square feet, must be kept at least twenty (20) inches from any woodwork, unless the same is prop- erly protected by a shield, in which case the distance shall not be less than eight (8) inches. Smoke-pipes of larger area than six (6) square feet shall be kept at least three (3) feet distant from any woodwork, unless the same is properly protected by a shield, in which case the dis- tance shall not be less than sixteen (16) inches. Sec. 14. SMOKE-PIPE SHIELDS. The metal shields prescribed in the previous section shall be at least one and one-half (1) the diameter of the pipe in width and shall have a ventilated air-space of at least one (1) inch between shield and woodwork. Incombustible covering, as prescribed in Sec. 19, may be sub- stituted for metal shields, or the smoke-pipe may be covered as prescribed for steam-pipe in Sec. 17. Sec. 15. HOT-AIR PIPES. Hot-air pipes conveying hot air from hot-air furnaces built in between timbers or joists, or through the same, or through wood floors, or in wood partitions or other combustible materials, within ten (10) inches of the same, shall be made double. The space between the two metal pipes on all sides shall be at least three-eighths (f ) of an inch in the clear, and the two pipes shall be kept apart from each other by the insertion of a sufficient number of metallic separators between, one for every two (2) feet of length of the pipe. Such pipes are to be made with air-tight joints, without soldering them, and shall be securely fastened to the partitions at every two (2) foot interval and at least one-half Q) an inch from any unprotected wood- work. No vertical hot-air pipe shall be placed in a stud partition, or in a wood inclosure, unless it be at least one-half () of a diameter of the least dimension of the furnace distant in a hori- zontal direction from the furnace. Hot-air pipes in closets shall be double, with an air-space as prescribed above, and shall be placed at least one (1) inch from any unprotected wood- work. Horizontal single hot-air pipes shall be placed six (6) inches below the floor-beams or ceiling; if the floor-beams or ceiling are plastered on metal lath or are protected by a metal shield one (1) inch therefrom, then the distance shall not be less than two (2) inches from such ceiling or shield. When the air conveyed through pipes is heated in an ordinary hot-air furnace, or in any other apparatus by direct contact 250 INSTALLATION OF HEATING PLANTS, ETC. of the air with the fire-box, the material used for these double ducts, pipes, and register-boxes shall be bright tin. Where the air is heated with hot-water or steam pipes, any other sheet metal, but of not less gauge than prescribed for tin, may be used for the pipes, and the use of double pipes is not obligatory. Sec. 16. VENT-PIPES. Vent flues or ducts for the removal of foul or vitiated air in which the temperature of the air cannot exceed that of the rooms may be constructed of iron or other incombustible material, and shall not be placed nearer than one (1) inch to any woodwork, and no such pipe shall be used for any other purpose. In the support or construction of such ducts, if placed in a public school-room, no wood furring or other inflammable material shall be nearer than two (2) inches to said flues or ducts, and shall be covered on all sides other than those resting against brick, terra-cotta, or other incombustible material with metal lath, plastered with at least two (2) heavy coats of mortar and having at least one-half (|) inch air-space between the flues or ducts and the lath and plaster. Sec. 17. STEAM AND HOT-WATER HEATING PIPES. Steam and hot-water heating pipes shall not be placed within two (2) inches of any timber or woodwork, unless the timber or wood- work is protected by a metal shield; then the distance shall not be less than one-half () inch. All steam or hot-water heating pipes passing through floors and ceilings or lath and plastered partitions shall be protected by a metal tube one (1) inch larger in diameter than the pipe, having a metal cap at the floor and ceiling, and where they run in a horizontal direc- tion between the floor and the ceiling they shall be supported on iron and a metal shield shall be placed on the under side of the floor over them, and on the sides of wood beams run- ning parallel with said pipes; or said horizontal pipes shall be covered with incombustible pipe-covering at least three-quarters (f) of an inch thick. In no case shall lateral branches from rising lines to radiators or coils be allowed between any floor and ceiling line when such laterals cut into or through joists or beams in conflict with Sec. 5, Title XIII; and when such pipes are inaccessibly concealed, they shall be covered with incom- bustible material, as provided in Sections 18 and 19. Sec. 18. WOOD CASINGS. All wood boxes or casings inclos- ing steam or hot-water heating pipes, and all wood coverings to recess es in walls, in which steam or hot-water heating pipes are placed, shall be lined with metal, or said pipes shall be covered with incombustible sectional pipe-covering at least three-quarters (f ) of an inch thick. Sec. 19. INCOMBUSTIBLE PIPE-COVERING. No concealed pipe shall be covered with a covering whose non-conductivity depends upon cork, felt, or any other organic matter. All coverings of heated surfaces, or surfaces requiring to be protected from heat, and all concealed or inaccessible steam or hot-water pipes, and all cold and ice water pipes, or other pipes, as prescribed in Sec. 12, Title XII, in buildings having iron frames, shall be made of standard fire-resisting covering, either of magnesium carbonate, calcium carbonate with binders of asbestos fibre, or asbestos fibre and sheet coverings. Sec. 20. DUCTS FOR PIPES. All ducts for hot-air, steam, or hot-water pipes shall be inclosed on all sides with fire-proof material, and the opening through each floor shall be properly fire-stopped. Sec. 21. REGISTERS. Registers located over a brick furnace shall be supported by a brick shaft built up from the cover of the hot-air chamber; said shaft shall be lined with a metal pipe, and all wood beams shall be trimmed away not less than four (4) inches from it. Where a register is placed on any woodwork in connection with a metal pipe or duct, the end of the said pipe or duct shall be flanged over on the woodwork under it. All registers for hot-air furnaces placed in any woodwork or com- bustible floors shall have stone or iron borders. All register-boxes shall be made of tinplate or galvanized iron with a flange on the top to fit the groove in the frame, the register to rest upon the same; there shall be an open space of two (2) inches on all sides of the register-box, extending from the under side of the border to and through the ceiling below. The said opening shall be fitted with a tight tin or galvanized-iron casing, the upper end of which shall be turned under the frame. When a register-box is placed in the floor over a portable furnace, the open space on all sides of the reg- ister-box shall be not less than three (3) inches. When only one register is connected with a furnace said register shall have no valve. Register-boxes, heads, or collars in floors or walls shall be made double and set flush with floor or plaster line. Sec. 22. NOTICE AS TO HEATING APPARATUS. In cases where hot-water, steam, hot-air, or other heating appliances or furnaces 252 INSTALLATION OF HEATING PLANTS, ETC. are hereafter placed in any building, or flues or fireplaces are changed or enlarged, due notice shall first be given to the Department of Buildings by the person or persons placing the said furnace or furnaces in said building, or by the contractor or superintendent of said work. Sec. 23. BOILER-ROOMS. No boiler for the generation of power shall be placed in any building of the VII. class if of greater capacity than ten (10) H.P. Boilers of more than ten (10) and less than seventy-five (75) horse-power shall not be located within eight (8) feet of any building of the VII. class; if of more than seventy-five (75) and less than two hundred and fifty (250) horse-power they shall be at least twenty (20) feet distant from any building of this class, and if of greater capacity than two hundred and fifty (250) horse-power, they shall not be less than thirty (30) feet distant. Boiler- and fuel-rooms and smoke-houses which may here- after be constructed shall be located not less than eight (8) feet distant from any other building and shall be built throughout of incombustible material. All the openings to such boiler- and fuel- rooms and smoke-houses, if same are located within thirty (30) feet of any other building, shall have shutters and doors of metal, or wood covered with metal on both sides and edges. Boiler- and fuel-rooms, when constructed in buildings shall be separately inclosed in brick walls so arranged that all open- ings between them and other parts of the building will be securely closed with fire-doors at the end of each day's work. Sec. 24. DRYING-ROOMS. All walls, ceilings, and partitions inclosing drying-rooms, when not made of fire-proof material shall be wire-lathed and plastered, or covered with metal, tile, or other hard incombustible material. Sec. 25. HEATING APPARATUS IN BASEMENTS. All rooms in cellars or basements containing heating-boilers, furnaces, or stoves of any kind, if not constructed of fire-proof material shall have all ceilings lathed and plastered with two (2) coats of brown mortar. When heating-boilers are used, that portion of the ceiling over the boiler and within a radius of four (4) feet therefrom shall be plastered on metal lath or be protected by incombustible shields. Sec. 26. PROTECTION AGAINST MOLTEN METAL, HOT LIQUIDS, GASES, AND DUST. In every factory or workshop, all machinery FIRE-PROOF AND SLOW-BURNING STRUCTURES. 253 and appliances connected therewith, also every vat, pan, or other structure with molten or hot liquids, shall be placed upon an incombustible foundation or hearth, and shall be constructed in such. a manner and so guarded and further protected by such ventilating ducts or pipes as to protect those employed in their operation and use, or about them. Sec. 27. ASH BOXES AND PITS. All receptacles for ashes shall be of galvanized iron, brick, or other incombustible material. When the ash-pit is located in a basement or cellar it shall have brick walls at least one (1) brick in thickness, and if floor over same is of wood, such pit shall be covered over with either brick arching, stone, or concrete not less than four (4) inches thick with four (4) inches of air-space between the covering of pit and the ceiling, except for pits built directly under the trimmer-arches of hearths. The ash-flues connected with the upper floors of any building shall be constructed and extend clear up to and above the roof, the same as chimneys. A self-closing scuppered cast-iron ash-door shall be placed in each story at least two (2) feet above the floor. The metal collar attached to frame shall be at least one-half (|) inch dis- tant from all woodwork and connection with flue made air- tight. Such flues or pits may also be used for sweepings, but for no purpose which would be in violation of the ordinances of the city or the regulations of the Board of Health, and when such flues or pits are built in any building more than two (2) stories high and occupied for any other purpose than a dwelling such ash-pits must have the cleaning-out door accessible from the outside of the building only. Classification of Fire-proof and Slow-burning Structures. Highly fire-retardant as well as so-called fire- proof building construction, in structures of any considerable size, may be roughly divided into three classes. First, mill construction, consisting of brick walls, very heavy solid wooden beams, posts, girders, and flooring, having no con- cealed spaces or ornamentation; vertical subdivisions such as elevator-shafts, stairways, etc., cut off by brick walls and the whole protected by automatic sprinklers. This type is found principally in the textile mills of New England and the Southern States. Second, so-called fire-proof buildings having self-sustaining outside walls of brick or stone and interior supporting members 254 FIRE-PROOF AND SLOW-BURNING STRUCTURES. of steel or iron covered with some form of heat insulator, the horizontal sections of which are utilized as flooring. Third, the so-called steel-cage type of building, consisting of a steel framework of sufficient strength to support the com- paratively thin outside walls with which it is veneered, as well as such interior construction as may be essential to floors, par- titions, etc. The first of these types, the mill-constructed building, ex- pressed the outcome of some fifty years of exceedingly expensive experience. This experience has shown that where such build- ings are isolated and where specifications such as are furnished by the New England mutual insurance companies are followed the fire loss is reduced to a minimum. Complete description and typical plans, however, can be had gratis upon applica- tion to Edward Atkinson, 31 Milk Street, Boston, Mass. The second type of building, namely the outside supporting ivalls with iron or steel interior framework, came into existence practically with the invention of the rolled I beam in about 1855. There is little to say from the fire-protection point of view to the superintendent regarding the construction of outside self-sustaining walls. Their limit of thickness and general de- tails of construction are usually fixed within sufficiently safe limits by local building ordinances, which if followed out con- sistently should insure satisfactory results. Coming to the matter of floors, partitions, and other highly fire-resistant interior subdivisons of the second type of build- ing, it may be stated generally that they are very similar in form to corresponding portions of buildings of the third type, while the outside walls, partitions, etc., in the so-called cage- constructed building might, without much stretch of imagina- tion, be considered merely as a vertical flooring inasmuch as each section is sustained upon the general steel framework. In view of the foregoing it is perhaps fair to treat outside walls of the cage type of building as well as interior floor and parti- tion construction in both second and third class of buildings under one heading and make general suggestions for all at once. As experiments have demonstrated clearly, the steel or iron structural members of a building, while composed of what is commonly regarded as thoroughly fire-proof material, are inca- pable of withstanding any considerable degree of heat without reducing their mechanical strength to such an extent as to FIRE-PROOF AND SLOW-BURNING STRUCTURES. 255 render them no longer self-supporting, let alone capable of supporting any outside load. As is well known, steel has a comparatively low specific heat and is a good conductor of heat These, together with the 256 SLOW-BURNING OR MILL CONSTRUCTION. fact that it loses its mechanical strength at a tremendously rapid rate when heated above 1200 to 1400 F., make exposed- steel construction exceedingly dangerous in the presence of even an insignificant amount of heat, such an amount, for example, as might be generated by the burning of the fur- nishings of an ordinary room. Each system has its advantages, its disadvantages, and its partisan advocates, but any great superiority of either over the other depends on care of installation rather than on any- thing inherent. To protect iron and steel structural building members from the effect of possible heat, many systems of so-called fire-proof con- struction have been put forward. These may be roughly divided into two classes, and in nearly every instance the matter of heat-insulation is combined with /Hoof Timber ""Iron Plate- - Oftoof Anchor- = Post FIG. 201. FIG. 202. Roof-timber resting on cast-iron Roof-timber resting on column- wall-plate, showing overhanging, cap, cast to fit slope of roof. Timbers open, wood cornice and wrought-iron held together by 1-inch wrought-iron anchor. dogs. a more or less feasible system for the installation of floors, partitions, etc., and in some instances outside walls as well. The two systems mentioned are, first, some form of baked clay, or moulded plaster or concrete finished in definite forms or blocks and intended for installation in some modification of the arch form. Second, various combinations of steel-support- ing members incorporated into and forming a support for a body of Portland-cement concrete, which extends in an unbroken mass from one main structural element to another. Slow-burning- or Mill Construction. This method of construction, shown by Fig. 200, has been brought into use SLOW-BURNING OR MILL CONSTRUCTION. 257 through the efforts of the Associated Factory Mutual Fire Insurance Companies of Boston. While not being in any sense of the word a fire-proof con- struction, still it affords protection from fire, inasmuch as what- ever combustible material is used is so exposed and so put together that it is difficult to cause it to take fire, and when once started it burns slowly and the fire is in plain sight, as there are no hollow walls or spaces to conceal it. Post Floor Boards FIG. 203. Floor-timber resting on cast-iron wall-plates, with lugs for anchoring timber to the wall. Pintle Dogs FIG. 204. Cast-iron cap and pintle for col- umns and dogs for holding floor-tim- bers together. JSTot less than 1 ._ inch for top floor Pintle Faced The walls of this class of buildings are usually of brick, with or without piers or pilasters. The floor- and roof-timbers are made heavy enough so that they can be spaced about 8 feet apart, and are carried on wooden posts through the interior of the building. These posts are framed together with a cast-iron pintle, as shown by Figs. 204 and 205. Where the floor-timbers girders rest on the wall they framed, as shown by Fig. 203, on a cast-iron plate or wall anchor- box. The floor-timbers are covered with a 3-inch or 4-inch plank floor put together with hard-wood splines, and on top of this is usually laid a matched floor of some hard wood, and in some or are FIG. 205. Cap and pintle cast to fit columns on each story. Heavy diagonal webs on under side of cap. 258 SLOW-BURNING OR MILL CONSTRUCTION. cases a double floor is laid on top of the plank floor, the first thickness of flooring being laid diagonally and the top floor laid so as to cross the plank floor. In this system of construction the main object is to have no concealed spaces for fire to get into, or cause a draught, and all timbers connecting with or resting on the walls should be so framed and fastened that if broken or burned off they will readily drop out without injury to the wall. In this construe- SLOW-BURNING OR MILL CONSTRUCTION. 259 tion each floor is isolated from the others so far as possible, the stairways, belt tower, vent shaft, etc., being cut off with brick walls extending to the roof, as shown by Figs. 206 and 207. The special features of this method of construction as recom- mended by the associated factory mutual fire insurance companies are as follows: 1. WALLS. Brick walls at least 1 foot thick in top story and increased, in thickness at lower floors to support additional load. The pilastered wall has many favorable features and is often preferred to the plain wall. Window- and door-arches should be of brick, window-sills of sandstone, and door-sills and underpinning of granite. 2. ROOFS. Roofs of 3-inch white pine plank, spiked directly to the heavy roof timbers and covered with 5-ply tar and gravel roofing. Roofs should pitch inch per foot. An incombustible cornice is recommended when there is exposure from neighbor- ing buildings. 3. FLOORS. Floors of spruce plank 4 inches or more in thickness according to the floor loads, spiked directly to the floor-timbers. In floors and roof, the bays should be 8 to 10| feet wide and all planks two bays in length, laid to break joints every 3 feet and grooved for hardwood splines. Usually a top floor of birch or maple is laid at right angles to the planking, but the best mills have a double top floor, the lower one of soft wood laid diagonally upon the plank and the upper one laid length- wise. This latter method allows boards in alleys to be easily replaced when worn, and the diagonal boards brace the floors, prevent vibration, and distribute the floor load even better than the former method. Between the planking and the top floor should be two or three layers of heavy tarred paper, laid to break joints, and each mopped with hot tar or similar material to produce a reasonably water-tight as well as dust-tight floor. Rapid decay of basement or lower floors of mills makes it desirable, whenever wood is not absolutely necessary, to pro- vide cement floors for these places. If wooden floors are re- quired, crushed stone or cinders should be spread evenly over the surface and covered with a thick layer of hot tar concrete, into which an under floor of 2-inch seasoned plank should be pressed and the hardwood top floor-boards nailed across the plank. Cement concretes are apt to promote decay of wood in contact 260 SLOW-BURNING OR MILL CONSTRUCTION. with them. If extra support is required for heavy machinery, independent foundations of masonry should be provided. 4. TIMBERS AND COLUMNS. All woodwork in standard con- struction, in order to be slow-burning, must be in large masses that present the least surface possible to a fire. No sticks less than 6 inches in width should be used, even for the lightest roofs, and for substantial roofs and floors much wider ones are needed. Timbers should be of sound Georgia pine, and for sizes up to 14X16 inches single sticks are preferred, but timbers 7 or 8 inches by 16 are often used in pairs, bolted together with a slight air-space between (J to inch). They should not be painted, varnished, or filled for three years because of danger of dry rot, and an air-space should be left in the masonry around the ends for the same reason. Timbers should rest on cast-iron plates in the walls and on cast-iron caps on the columns. Columns of Southern pine should be bored through the centre by a 1^-inch hole, with ^-inch vent-holes top and bottom, and ends should be carefully squared. They also should not be painted until thoroughly seasoned, to prevent dry rot. Columns should be set on pintles, which may be cast in one piece with a cap, or separately, as preferred. Columns of cast iron are preferred by some engineers, and when the building is equipped with automatic sprinklers have proved satisfactory. 5. STAIRS, ELEVATORS, AND BELTS. One of the most impor- tant features of slow-burning construction is to make the floors continuous from wall to wall without holes for belts, stairways, or elevators, so that a fire may be confined to the floor where it starts. Elevators and stairs, as well as main belts, must be inclosed in brick towers, and all openings provided with self- closing fire-doors. These self-closing doors, as illustrated, should be hung on heavy, inclined, solid-steel rails and balanced by a weight held by a fusible link. 6. WINDOWS. Windows to be placed as high and made as wide as possible to obtain the best light, and the use of ribbed glass is recommended in upper sashes. In the illustration windows with the ordinary rising sash are shown on the end wall in the upper story, and on the third story the English type, in which the lower sashes may be either fixed or rising, with a transom for ventilation. On the second floor is illus- trated a window for wide panels, with a mullion in the centre. ANCHORS ON JOISTS, ETC. In mill or factory, and also in. SLOW-BURNING OR MILL CONSTRUCTION. 261 house construction, the specifications will generally specify that the ends of the joists are to be bevelled on the ends 3 inches or 4 inches in the width of the joists. The idea for this is so in case the joists are broken or burned off they will readily drop out of the wall without doing any damage. Then often the same specifications will go on and call for wrought-iron anchors to be built in the wall and securely fastened to every third or fourth joist. These anchors are usually fastened to the sides of the joist and are often put up near the top edge of the joist, which should not be permitted, for if the anchors are fastened at or near the top of the joist and the joist should drop the anchor will either pull in a part of the wall or the lower corner of the end of the joist will force out a portion of the wall. Thus we find the intent of the specifications con- flicting, one paragraph tending to release the joists and another fastening them more solid. When anchors of this kind are used they should be put at the bottom of the joist, and if made of flat iron, as is usual, they should be given a quarter turn at the wall, so the flat of the iron will be in a position to bend easily if the joist should fall. A more desirable anchor is a cast-iron box in which each joist is set and engaged with lugs, the box being built solid in the wall. Regarding slow-burning and mill construction the Chicago Building Code says: Sec. 68. SLOW-BURNING CONSTRUCTION DEFINED. The term "slow-burning construction" shall apply to all buildings in which the structural members which carry the loads and strains which come upon the floors and roof thereof are made wholly or in part of combustible material, but throughout which the com- bustible as well as the incombustible materials shall be pro- tected against injury from fire, by coverings of incombustible, non-heat-conducting material similar to those described under the head of "skeleton construction," except that a single cover- ing of plastering on metal lath and metal furring shall be con- sidered sufficient protection for the under side of joists, and that a deafening of mortar or its equivalent, applied at least one and one-half inches thick, shall be used to cover all floors and roof-surfaces above the joists of the same. FIRE-PROOF COVERING OF POSTS AND ELEVATOR INCLOSURES Where oak posts of greater sectional area than one hundred 262 FIRE-PROOF CONSTRUCTION. square inches are used, they need not have special fire-proof covering. All partitions and all elevator inclosures in build- ings of this type shall be made entirely of incombustible material. The use of wood furring or of stud partitions shall not be allowed in buildings of this class. Sec. 69. MILL CONSTRUCTION DEFINED. The term "Mill Construction" shall apply to all buildings in which all the girders and joists supporting floors and roof have a sectional area of not less than seventy-two square inches, and above the joists of which there is laid a solid timber floor of thickness not less than three and three-fourths inches thick. Wooden posts used in buildings of this class shall not be of smaller sectional area than one hundred square inches. Partitions and elevator inclosures in buildings of this class shall be made entirely of incombustible material. FIREPROOFING. If iron pillars, girders, or beams are used in buildings of this class, they shall be protected as provided for fire-proof buildings; but the wooden posts, girders, and joists need not be protected by fire-proof covering. The use of wood furring, wood laths, or stud partitions shall not be permitted in buildings of this class. The following regarding bond iron is taken from the San Francisco Building Code, and the author regards it as an excellent method of construction, as the flat iron gives a bearing for the joist and it also ties the wall together. Sec. 130. BOND IRON. Bond iron at least three by one- quarter (3Xi) inches shall be placed under each tier of floor and ceiling joists of all brick and stone buildings other than Class "A" and run around the entire walls of the building, and must be lock-jointed and anchored at each angle Fire Protection of Fire-proof Structures. It is not the intention of the author, in taking up this subject of fire protection, to advocate any one or more of the many systems of fire-proof construction, or to recommend or condemn either tile or concrete construction, for it is his opinion that either tile or cinder-concrete fireproofing will stand any test of fire that it is liable to be subjected to, providing that the materials and workmanship used are of the best, and the work is done in the best possible manner. We have only to notice the tests made by various authorities on the different systems of fireproofing to see that nearly all stand the most severe tests; and why? Because when an arch FIRE-PROOF FLOOR CONSTRUCTION. 263 is built for the purpose of making a test, it is always constructed of the best materials to be obtained, and in the best possible manner. It is very amusing to read the reports and opinions of the different engineers and architects who visited the scene of some great conflagration, as at Baltimore. One engineer will visit the various buildings that have been damaged by the fire, and according to his report he could see nothing that with- stood the fire element but burnt-tile construction; while another engineer will go over the same ground and find that all fire- proofing failed except cinder-concrete construction. Then the trade journals will come out, some advocating tile fireproof- ing, and will publish long articles with photographs showing how tile had stood and concrete failed; while other journals will show that concrete construction had stood and tile had failed; and so to a person not interested in any one method of construction these reports and visits to the scene of the fire show that in places both tile and concrete withstood the hottest fire, and in other places they both failed. Now, with these facts having but recently been brought before us, it will be the intention of the author to try and show where the work of fireproofing is usually slighted, and where it will be the duty of the superintendent to see that it is done as well as the best materials and workmanship can do it. Floor Construction of Fire-proof Buildings. This is one of the most vital points in the construction of a building, and one on which the preservation of the building depends to a great extent in case of fire. Each floor in a build- ing acts as a barrier in case of fire between the different stories, and if the floor construction is weak or fails, then the fire has egress from floor to floor and the fire cannot be confined. Nearly all the various systems of floor construction now used have been tested and have given excellent results in with- standing heat, except in cases where it has been shown that poor materials and bad workmanship have been used. The Baltimore fire proved that where good materials and workman- ship had been used the various systems stood the heat remark- ably well, but where bad materials and careless workmanship had been employed they failed. As the work is so rushed in many instances, and so little care taken in superintending the work, it is little wonder that some buildings fail when put to a fire test. 264 FIRE-PROOF FLOOR CONSTRUCTION. In all the different methods of floor construction only the very best of materials and labor should be employed, and the work should be done under the direct supervision of a com- petent superintendent; no matter how good or competent workmen may be they will at times grow careless unless they know some one is watching them. HOLLOW-TILE CONSTRUCTION. Hollow tile is one of the oldest systems of fire-proof construction, and has given good results in past fires, where the arches were properly built; but where poor workmanship has been used it failed to stand as it should. Mortar. The mortar for setting tile should be made with the best Portland cement, and as Portland-cement mortar is too short or brittle to stick to the tile a little lime putty should be added. The superintendent should see that just enough of the putty is used to make the mortar plastic enough so that it will stick to the tile as it is shoved into place. Hot lime mortar should never be used. Setting Tile. In setting the tile the sides of the beam should first be given a heavy coat of mortar, then the skew-back tile should be coated 011 the end which sets against the beam, and the tile shoved into place. The succeeding tile should then be coated with mortar on one end and side and shoved into place so as to obtain a solid joint of about f inch, as this size joint is heavy enough for all tile- work. The tile used should be of such a size that the key will just fill the space with the above-sized joints; it should not be so tight that it will have to be forced or driven home. If the joints are a little large they should be wedged with a flat piece of tile or slate, but if the proper-sized tile is used this will not be neces- sary. When setting tile arches the superintendent should have the workman complete the arch as he goes along. That is, finish each course of tile across the arch and insert the key before starting another course of tile. In side construction, when the tiles overlap and break joints the courses can be stepped back and the key put in place. This method gives the workman a better chance to get the joints slushed full of mortar and also prevents the wooden centre from sagging with the weight of the tile, which is the case when the tiles are all put in and the keys left out until the last. FIRE-PROOF FLOOR CONSTRUCTION. 265 FIG. 208. In floor arches of end construction, if the workmen are not watched they are liable to get the courses of tile out of line, or one tile higher than another, so that the webs of the two adjoining tiles will not butt against each other, as shown by Fig. 208, the shaded section representing the end of one tile and the dotted lines that t)f the abutting tile. An arch built in this manner has very little strength. The webs of each succeed- ing tile should butt solid against the one already set and all joints should be filled solid with mortar. After the Baltimore fire it was noticed in some of the buildings that the tile floors of side construction stood better than those of end construction, and no doubt the cause of this was that in the side construction it is easier for the mason to fill his joints than in the end construction, and the end construction men- tioned had been slighted. This is one point that the superin- tendent should bear in mind when superintending any tile-work. After the arch is in place it is well to coat it over with about inch of mortar trowelled smooth, as this insures the filling of all holes and protects the tile. The webs of tile, to resist fire effectively, should not be less than 1 inch in thickness, and all shoe-tiles for the protection of beams, etc. , should be heavy enough so that the beam will be protected with at least 2 inches of tile and mortar, exclusive of the plastering. These shoes should be put on so that they are held in place and supported by the beam and its flange, and no wires should be used to hold them in place. The lower lips on arch skew-backs are usually 2 inches or less in thickness and form the section of the block most easily chipped off in handling. Even 2 inches of insulation is quite thin enough on the lower flanges of beams and girders, and all chipped skew-backs should be rejected, as patching cannot be done successfully. Wetting the Tile. In warm weather all hollow tiles, whether dense or porous, should be well wet or water-soaked before laying. In freezing weather they must be kept dry. It is good policy to suspend operations and not set any tiles when the weather is so cold as to prevent wetting the tiles. 266 CONCRETE FIRE-PROOF CONSTRUCTION. Dry tiles draw the moisture from the cement mortar and causes it to loose strength. Concrete Fire-proofConstruction. In fire-proof con- struction of this kind the main point to be observed is to get good materials. Portland-cement mortar has proven to be one of the best materials to withstand fire, and if the aggregate used to form the concrete is of like material, then there will be no danger of failure from a floor built of this material. THE AGGREGATE. Broken brick or tile makes the best aggre- gate, but on account of the cost is not much used. Broken stone is to be avoided, as stone will not stand the heat. Crushed slag or clinkers make a good aggregate and are entirely fire-proof. Cinders have been, and will be, the principal aggregate used for fire-proof concrete construction, because of its cheapness, and because cinders can be obtained in almost any locality. In many cases the cinders that have been used to make the concrete have been fireproof in name only, and it is these cases that fail in case of fire. The ordinary cinders usually contain from 50 to 70 per cent of dirt, ash, and unburned coal, and this must all be taken out before it is a fire-proof material. The cinder aggregate should be composed of small or crushed clinkers, and if there is more than 10 per cent of dirt, ash, or unburned coal it should not be used. The superintendent should see that the cinders are so screened, and if necessary, washed, so as to obtain an aggregate of 90 per cent clinkers. A concrete made of this aggregate and Portland cement will withstand any fire it is liable to come in contact- with. PREPARING AND PLACING. The concrete should be prepared and put in place as described on pages 167 and 174. When beams, girders, columns, etc., are protected by concrete the concrete should not be less than 3| inches thick on the outer corners of the beam or column. USE OF PLASTER OF PARIS. Any floor construction in which plaster of Paris is used to any large extent should be avoided, or any wall plaster which has plaster of Paris as its base should not be used, as plaster of Paris will not stand excessive heat. The Building Code of the city of Cleveland prohibits the use of plaster of Paris in the following: Sec. 1. MATERIALS PROHIBITED. No plaster of Paris, or sulphate of lime, and no coal, sawdust, coke, coke breese, or unconsumed or partly consumed material, inclusive of cinders, containing any of the compounds of carbon and subject to com- TILE PARTITIONS, FURRING, ETC. 267 bustion, disintegration, or distillation at 1590 F., shall enter into any material used for the construction of the floors, par- titions, covering for structural members, or in any part of fire- proof buildings of the I. and II. classes, except in the form of wall plastering or as a gauge for mortar. No quicklime shall be used in the composition of the material used in the con- struction of walls or floors except in combination with Portland cement when used for mortar in setting fire-proof material with a trowel. Tile Partitions, Furring 1 , etc. All tile partitions should start directly on top of the floor arch or beam, and should never be built on top of any wood floor or floor strips. The tile should be well anchored to the adjoining walls and joints broken so as to get as rigid a wall as possible. ARCHES OVER OPENINGS. Over all openings the tile should be cut so as to form a flat arch, and no dependence should be placed on the frame to carry the tile. NAILING-BLOCKS. It has been the custom, in the past to build in wood blocks as shown by Fig. 209, for nailing base or grounds to. FIG. 209. Blocks of this kind should not be used, but a wood block can be put inside the tile for nailing purposes as shown and described on page 303. Casing of Columns, Furring, etc. When iron or steel columns are furred or cased with tile, the tile should never 263 WOOD IN FIRE-PROOF STRUCTURES be less than 4 inches thick, and all space between the tile and iron should be filled solid with mortar and small pieces of tile, as this in itself is a good protection from fire. The tile should always be put up in such a manner that it will sustain itself, and never be dependent on wires or metal clips of any kind. Wood in Fire-proof Structures. During the past few years fire-proof materials have been gradually taking the place of wood in the construction of fire-proof buildings until at the present time all the wood used is in the floors, windows, doors, and trim; and it will be but a short while until all wood will be practically eliminated from any fire-proof structure. Window frames and sash are now made in metal, floors are made of various fire-proof compositions, doors are made of metal or of wood covered with metal, mouldings for trim and base can be made in metal or run in cement, so at the present time it is possible to erect a building that will have no combustible material whatever in its construction. But as construction of this kind means extra cost capitalists and builders will be averse to it unless forced to it by the building laws of the various cities. By making some changes in the methods used at the present time buildings can be made fireproof and with a small percentage of additional cost. Wood floors when laid on sleepers bedded in concrete afford very poor fuel for a fire, and it would be hard to ignite unless a large amount of other inflammable material was in the room to make a great heat. The wood base can be replaced with a neat cement base at very little extra cost. The windows should be entirely of metal to afford protection from the outside, as will be explained more fully. The doors and jambs can be made of wood and the plaster finished to the jamb with a bead or with a stucco or cement moulding. This will give a building with no wood but floors and doors, and the cost will not be much in excess of what it would be with the present methotis of construction. In some buildings erected during the past few years the floors have been laid on strips which were simply laid on the floor- arch, and the space between not filled with concrete but left open. This should never be permitted, as this space only makes a draught or sort of flue in case of fire. The space should be filled solid to the top of the floor strips with concrete. PIPES, WIRES, ETC., IN FIRE-PROOF BUILDINGS. Then heavy wood frames have been set in all openings of partitions, etc., and the tile built around them and across the top, the wood frames being depended upon to carry the tile over the opening. This should never be allowed. Wood blocks can be put inside the tile and the door-jambs can be nailed and fastened through the tile into these blocks, or the jamb can be bolted fast with toggle-bolts. If it is desired to use a rough frame a 2-inch one is heavy enough and should be bolted fast to the tile, and the tile should be arched over the top so as to carry its own weight. There are several processes by which wood can be rendered fireproof, and all wood used in a fire-proof building should be fire- proofed by an approved process. Pipes, Wires, etc., in Fire-proof Buildings. In all fire-proof buildings there should be provisions made for taking care of all pipes, conduits, wires, etc., without having them built in the partitions or in the casing of the columns, as is commonly done. A shaft should be built with brick walls extending from the cellar to the roof with outlets at each floor covered with fire-proof doors. The pipes can be carried up in such a shaft and branches taken off to supply each floor; a ladder should be provided the full length of the shaft with platforms at each floor, then the valves or stop-cocks con- trolling the various branches would be easily accessible. It was claimed by some parties after the Baltimore fire that the pipes encased in the column fireproofing of some of the build- ings got so hot they buckled and forced off the fire-proof casing ; but if they did it was because the fireproofing gave way or was not heavy enough to protect the pipes or they would not have got hot. Still all pipes should be run up in a shaft where they can be got at any time. When a pipe runs up in a partition or column the mason has to cut his tile around it and this weakens the fireproofing. Stairways in Fire-proof Buildings. The stairway or shaft in a fire-proof, or in fact in any brick or other than a frame structure, should be inclosed on all sides with brick walls, and all openings should be provided with fire-proof doors so that the stairway can be shut off from the rest of the building. These doors should be -arranged so as to work automatically in case of fire. The stairs should be built of iron or other incombustible material, and if slate or marble treads or platforms are used the slate or marble should be supported under its entire surface 270 UNDERWRITERS' RULES FOR \vith metal or concrete. Marble and slate will not stand exces- sive heat, and the treads or platforms are liable to get hot and break in case of fire; this endangers the lives of firemen who may be using the stairs. The spread of fire in a vertical direction is undoubtedly most effectively guarded against by making the floors continuous and unbroken; that is, eliminating all openings in the floors and placing the necessary means of communication, such as stair- ways, elevators, pipes, shafts, belts, etc., in shafts entirely separated from the rest of the building by brick walls. Elevator shafts, stairways, and corridors, in buildings where sightliness is an essential, can be thoroughly cut off from the remainder of the building by wire-glass partitions mounted in iron frame- work. This application is favored in office buildings, hotels, department stores, etc. The Building Code recommended by the National Board of Fire Underwriters gives the following RULES FOR FIRE-PROOF CONSTRUCTION. Sec. 105. FIRE-PROOF BUILDINGS. Buildings Named. Every building hereafter erected or altered to be used as a theatre, lodging-house, school, jail, public station, hospital, asylum, institution for the use, care, or treatment of persons, the height of which exceeds three stories and not more than forty feet in height, and every building hereafter erected or altered to be used as a hotel or an apartment hotel which exceeds four stories and not more than fifty feet in height, excepting all buildings for which specifications and plans have been heretofore approved by the proper authorities, and every other building the height of which exceeds fifty-five feet or more than four stories in height, shall be built fireproof; that is to say Fire-proof Construction Stated. They shall be constructed with walls of brick, stone, Portland-cement concrete, iron, or steel in which wood beams or lintels shall not be placed, and in which the floors and roofs shall be constructed with rolled wrought-iron or steel floor-beams, spaced not more than five feet on centres and otherwise so arranged as to spacing and length of beams that the load to be supported by them, together with the weights of the materials used in the construction of the said floors, shall not cause a greater deflection of the said beams than one-thirtieth of an inch per foot of span under the FIRE-PROOF CONSTRUCTION. 271 total load; and they shall be tied together at intervals of not more than eight times the depth of the beams with suitable tie-rods. Floor Filling between Beams. Between the floor-beams shall be placed brick arches springing from the lower flanges of the steel beams, or the spaces between the beams may be filled with hollow-tile arches of hard-burnt clay or porous terra-cotta, or arches of Portland cement reinforced with metal, or such other fire-proof composition may be used, provided that in each and all cases the strength and method of construction shall be accept- able to the commissioner of buildings. Stairs. The stairs and staircase landings shall be entirely of brick, stone, Portland-cement concrete, iron, or steel. Allowed Woodwork Mentioned. No woodwork or other in- flammable material shall be used in any of the partitions, furrings, or ceilings in any such fire-proof buildings, excepting, however, that when the height of the building does not exceed eight stories nor more than one hundred feet the doors and windows and their frames and trims, the casings, the interior finish when filled solidly at the back with fire-proof material, and the floor-boards and sleepers directly thereunder, may be of wood, but the space between the sleepers shall be solidly filled with fire-proof materials and extend up to the under side of the floor-boards. When More than Eight Stories or More than 100 Feet High. When the height of a fire-proof building exceeds eight stories, or more than one hundred feet, the floor surfaces shall be of stone, cement, rock asphalt, tiling, or similar incombustible material, or the sleepers and floor-boards may be of wood treated by some process approved by the commissioner of buildings to render the same fire-retarding. v Metal Window Frames and Sash. All outside window frames and sash shall be of metal. Inside Woodwork, how Treated. The inside window frames and sash, doors, trim, and other interior finish may be of wood covered with metal, or of wood treated by some process ap- proved by the commissioner of buildings, to render the same fire-retarding. Hall and Permanent Partitions of Fire -proof Material. All hall partitions or permanent partitions between rooms in fire-proof buildings shall be built of fire-proof material and shall not be started on wood sills nor on wood floor-boards, but 272 UNDERWRITERS' RULES FOR be built upon the fire-proof construction of the floor and extend to the fire-proof beam filling above. Solid Space above Doors and Windows in Partitions. The tops of all door and window openings in such partitions shall be at least twelve inches below the ceiling line. Inclosing of Stair Halls. In all fire-proof buildings other than stores, warehouses, and factories, if exceeding three stories and forty feet in height, the stair halls shall be inclosed on each story with fire-proof material, same as required for elevators, to so form an inclosure the floor area of which shall not be more than three times the united area of the floor openings for the elevators and stairs. Sec. 106. FIRE-PROOF FLOOR FILLINGS BETWEEN BEAMS. Common Brick Arches. Between the wrought-iron or steel floor-beams shall be placed brick arches springing from the lower flange of the steel beams. Rise per Foot of Span. Said brick arches shall be designed with a rise to safely carry the imposed load, but never less than one and one-quarter inches for each foot of span between the beams, and they shall have a thickness of not less than four inches for spans of five feet or less and eight inches for spans over five feet, or such thickness as may be required by the commissioner of buildings. How Laid. Said brick arches shall be composed of good, hard brick or hollow brick of ordinary dimensions laid to a line on the centres, properly and solidly bonded, each longi- tudinal line of brick breaking joints with the adjoining lines in the same ring and with the ring under it when more than a four-inch arch is used. The brick shall be well wet and the joints filled in solid with cement mortar. The arches shall be well grouted and properly keyed. Hollow-tile Arches of Burnt Clay or Terra-cotta. Or the space between the beams may be filled in with hollow-tile arches of hard-burnt clay or porous terra-cotta of uniform density and hardness of burn. Skew-backs. The skew-backs shall be of such form and section as to properly receive the thrust of said arch; and the said arches shall be of a depth and sectional area to carry the load to be imposed thereon without straining the material beyond its safe working load, but said depth shall not be less than one and three-quarters inches for each foot of span, not including any portion of the depth of the tile projecting below FIRE-PROOF CONSTRUCTION. 273 the under side of the beams, a variable distance being allowed of not over six inches in the span between the beams if the soffits of the tile are straight; but if said arches are segmental, having a rise of not less than one and one-quarter inches for each foot of span, the depth of the tile shall be not less than six inches. Joints Filled with Cement Mortar. The joints shall be solidly filled with cement mortar as required for common brick arches and the arch so constructed that the key parts shall always fall in the central portion. End Construction. The shells and web of all end-construction blocks shall abut, one against another. Arches of Portland-cement Concrete Reinforced with Metal, 'Segmental in Form. Or the space between the beams may be filled with arches of Portland-cement concrete, segmental in form, and which shall have a rise of not less than one and one-quarter inches for each foot of span between the beams. Thickness at Crown of Arch. The concrete shall be not less than four inches in thickness at the crown of the arch and shall be mixed in the proportions required by Section 18 of this Code. Reinforced with Metal. These arches shall in all cases be reinforced and protected on the under side with corrugated or sheet steel, steel ribs, or metal in other forms weighing not less than one pound per square foot and having no openings larger than three inches square. Various Fillings between Floor-beams Tests as a Precedent Condition of Use. Or between the said beams may be placed solid- or hollow-burnt clay, stone, brick, or concrete slabs in flat or curved shapes, concrete or other fire-proof composition, and any of said materials may be used in combination with wire cloth, expanded metal, wire strands, or wrought-iron or steel bars; but in any such construction and as a precedent condi- tion to the same being used, tests shall be made as herein pro- vided by the manufacturer thereof under the direction and to the satisfaction of the Commissioner of Buildings, and evidence of the same shall be kept on file in the Department of Buildings, showing the nature of the test and the result of the test. How Tests shall be Made. Such tests shall be made by con- structing within inclosure walls a platform consisting of four 274 UNDERWRITERS' RULES FOR rolled steel beams, ten inches deep, weighing each twenty-five pounds per lineal foot, and placed four feet between the centres, and connected by transverse tie-rods, and with a clear span of fourteen feet for the two interior beams and with the two outer beams supported on the side walls throughout their length, and with both a filling between the said beams, and a fire-proof protection of the exposed parts of the beams of the system to be tested, constructed as in actual practice, with the quality of material ordinarily used in that system and the ceiling plastered below, as in a finished job; such filling between the two interior beams being loaded with a distributed load of one hundred and fifty pounds per square foot of its area and all carried by such filling; and subjecting the platform so con- structed to the continuous heat of a wood fire below, averaging not less than seventeen hundred degrees Fahrenheit for not less than four hours, during which time the platform shall have remained in such condition that no flame will have passed through the platform or any part of the same, arid that no part of the load shall have fallen through, and that the beams shall have been protected from the heat to the extent that after applying to the under side of the platform at the end of the heat test a stream of water directed against the bottom of the plat- form and discharged through a one and one-eighth inch nozzle under sixty pounds pressure for five minutes, and after flooding the top of the platform with water under low pressure, and then again applying the stream of water through the nozzle under the sixty-pounds pressure to the bottom of the platform for five minutes, and after a total load of six hundred pounds per square foot uniformly distributed over the middle bay shall have been applied and removed, after the platform shall have cooled, the maximum deflection of the interior beams shall not exceed two and one-half inches. Different Tests may be Prescribed. The Commissioner of Buildings may from time to time prescribe additional or dif- ferent tests than the foregoing for systems of filling between iron or steel floor-beams, and the protection of the exposed parts of the beams. Systems Failing under Test, Use Prohibited. Any system failing to meet the requirements of the test of heat, water, and weight as herein prescribed shall be prohibited from use in any building hereafter erected. Authenticated Tests may be Accepted. Duly authenticated FIRE-PROOF CONSTRUCTION. 275 records of the test heretofore made of any system of fire-proof floor filling and protection of the exposed parts of the beams may be presented to the Commissioner of Buildings, and if the same be satisfactory to said Commissioner it shall be accepted as conclusive. Protection against Injury by Freezing. Temporarily Covered over when Necessary. No filling of any kind which may be injured by frost shall be placed between said floor-beams during freezing weather, and if the same is so placed during any winter month, it shall be temporarily covered with suitable material for pro- tection from being frozen. Cinder-concrete Filling on Top, to be Filled up to Under Side of Wood Floor-boards. On top of any arch, lintel, or other device which does not extend to and form a horizontal line with the top of the said floor-beams, cinder concrete, or other suitable fire-proof material shall be placed to solidly fill up the space to a level with the top of the said floor-beams, and shall be carried to the under side of the wood floor-boards in case such be used. Temporary Centring, when to be Removed. Temporary cen- tring, when used in placing fire-proof systems between floor- beams, shall not be removed within twenty-four hours, or until such time as the mortar or material has set. Strength for Fire-proof Floor Fittings Material to be within Safe Bearing Load. All fire-proof floor systems shall be of sufficient strength to safely carry the load to be imposed thereon without straining the material in any case beyond its safe work- ing load. Incasing Exposed Sides and Bottom Flanges of Beams and Girders. Floor- and Roof -beams. The bottom flanges of all wrought-iron or rolled-steel floor- and flat roof-beams, and all exposed portions of such beams below the abutments of the floor arches or filling between the floor-beams, shall be entirely incased with hard-burnt clay, porous terra-cotta, or other fire- proof material corresponding to the filling between the beams, such incasing material to be properly secured to the beams. Girders. The exposed sides and bottom plates or flanges of wrought-iron or rolled-steel girders supporting iron or steel floor-beams, or supporting floor arches or floors, shall be entirely incased in the same manner. Pipe Openings through Fire-proof Floors to. be Shown on Plans. Openings through fire-proof floors for pipes, conduits, 276 PROTECTION FROM FIRE FROM THE OUTSIDE. and similar purposes shall be shown on the plans filed in the Department of Buildings. Limited Size for Holes after Floors are in. After the floors are constructed no opening greater than eight inches square shall be cut through said floors unless properly boxed or framed around with iron; Openings to be Filled. And such openings shall be filled in with fire-proof material after the pipes or conduits are in place. Sec. 107. INCASING INTERIOR COLUMNS. Material and Thick- ness. All cast-iron, wrought-iron, or rolled-steel columns, including the lugs and brackets on same, used in the interior of any fire-proof building, or used to support any fire-proof floor, shall be entirely protected with not less than four inches of hard-burnt brickwork, terra-cotta, concrete, or other fire- proof material, securely applied, but no plaster of Paris nor lime mortar shall be used for this purpose. . Lugs and Brackets, Incasing of. The extreme outer edge of lugs, brackets, and similar supporting metal may project to within seven-eighths of an inch of the surface of the fireproofing. Prohibiting Pipes, Wires, Conduits, being Placed within Cover- ings of Columns, Girders, etc. No pipes, wires, or conduits of any kind shall be incased in the fireproofing surrounding any column, girder, or beam of steel or iron, but shall be placed outside of such fireproofing. Protection of Buildings from Fire from the Out- side. Until within recent years the aim of architects and engineers in designing fire-proof structures has been to design a building or structure which would be fire-proof against any fire originating within itself, giving very little thought to the protection of the structure from an outside fire. One of the first instances of a large fire which demonstrated the fact that outside protection was necessary was when the Home Building in Pittsburg, Pa., was burned in 1897. This building, filled with dry-goods, took fire from the heat of a fire on the opposite side of the street, the contents burned, and the building was gutted and damaged to a great extent. Then in more recent conflagrations the fact has- become more evident that a building to be entirely fire-proof must be pro- tected just as much, if not more, from an outside fire as from one within its own walls. The building itself may be con- structed entirely of fire-proof materials, yet the contents of the building may be very inflammable, and if not protected from PROTECTION FROM FIRE FROM THE OUTSIDE. 277 fire from the outside would become ignited, and in burning do much damage to the building. SELECTION OF MATERIALS. The first consideration in the construction of a fire-proof building should be in the selection of the materials to be used, and if the building is to be erected to withstand fire from the outside, then only those materials should be used that are known to be able to withstand fire. ' The fire-resisting qualities of brick, stone, etc., are about as follows, with brick ranking first: Brick, plain terra-cotta, concrete, sandstone containing iron, granite, limestone, marble. The prevailing material of all outside walls should be brick; and stone or granite should not be used above the first or second stories. Granite or stone will not stand excessive heat, and in case of fire the heat above the first story is so intense that stone or granite will not stand. It is possible that in the first story of a building it would pass through a fire unharmed, pro- viding the stone or granite had no sharp corners or projections to spall off. In the brick it is advisable to have all exposed corners round or chamfered so as to prevent spalling. No brick wall should be less than 18 inches thick, as a wall of less thickness is liable to crack when exposed to strong heat. SILLS AND LINTELS. The sills and lintels of the windows should be of terra-cotta or brick. Terra-cotta is one of the best of fire-resisting materials, but should be made plain and have few projections and sharp corners. When any terra-cotta is built in the wall it should be backed up and filled solid with brick and mortar. METAL WALL TIES AND SECRETE HEADERS. Under no con- sideration should metal wall ties or secrete headers or bond be used in the walls of any structure that may have to withstand a fire, for the face course of brick, or veneering as it really is, will invariably crack and fall off in case of fire. POINTING. The pointing of the joints in the brick- or stone- work should be made concave, for a convex joint will break off in case of fire. CORNICES. The cornices of a fire-proof building should be made of terra-cotta or sheet metal, and if sheet metal is used it should be fastened to iron brackets or supports, and in no case should wood be used for this purpose. When terra-cotta is used for cornices or any projections it should be firmly anchored to iron brackets provided for this purpose. 278 PROTECTION OF OPENINGS IN BUILDINGS. CEMENT MORTAR. Cement mortar should be used through- out in all walls of a fire-proof building. Protection of External Openings in Fire-proof Building's. The exterior door and window openings of a building are its weakest points in resisting an outside fire, and ^ until recent years these points have received but little attention from architects and engineers when designing a building to be fire-proof. Frames and sash are now made of metal, and with wire-glasw and iron shutters a window or door opening can be so protected that it will withstand a most severe fire. The metal frames should be made heavy enough and so anchored to the masonry that they will not warp or twist out of shape and let the sash drop out. The sash should be hung with a chain or ribbon that will not melt if it becomes hot, and the chain should be so fastened that there will be no danger of the weight becoming loose in case of fire and permitting the sash to drop. Lead weights should not be used unless the box in the frame is so protected that the frame will not get hot enough to melt the weights, and thus let the sash drop down. The glass also should be fastened in such a manner that there will be no danger of it dropping out. The sash should be glazed with wire-glass not less than \ inch in thickness, as this offers a very effective resistance to fire; but the author is of the opinion that wire-glass in itself is not a sufficient , protection to window openings. In addition to the wire-glass the openings should be provided with iron shutters. The old iron-clad shutter recommended by the National Board of Fire Underwriters has given a good account of itself in recent fires, but it cannot be expected to withstand extreme heat, for the wood will become charred and the metal covering warp out of shape, permitting an egress for flame Steel shutters should be used on all openings possible, the shutters being made of a single piece of plate not less than \ inch in thickness, and if any stiff ening-bar or frame is used it should be fastened to the plate so as to allow for any unequal expansion between the frame and the plate. The shutters should be arranged so as to allow for expansion, and the fasten- ings made so that the shutters can readily be opened from the outside in case of fire within. Where it is not possible to use a plate-shutter, a rolling one CHICAGO UNDERWRITERS' REQUIREMENTS. 279 can be used. These shutters are made of corrugated bars of sheet metal riveted and locked together, and when used for fire protection should be made of heavy sheet steel. The main points to be considered when using metal shutters and doors of any kind are to see that they are fastened securely to the masonry and also that provisions have been made for expansion. The fastenings should be such that they will hold the door or shutter firmly in place and not allow it to warp open. The following specifications have been accepted by The Chicago Underwriters' Association for metal frames and sash: THE CHICAGO UNDERWRITERS' ASSOCIATION. REQUIREMENTS FOR THE ACCEPTANCE OF WINDOWS OF APPROVED WIRE-GLASS IN METALLIC FRAMES AND SASH IN LIEU OF FIRE-SHUTTERS. FRAMES. All parts of frame and sash must be made of No. 24 galvanized iron or heavier, and of a quality soft enough to bend without breaking, or 18-oz. copper. Sides so made as to form an air-space at least 2 in. X 4 in., made of three parts, two of which are locked entire length, making a half-inch seam of three thicknesses. The third to be locked to first two parts by inseparable cleats every 18 inches. The two parts already mentioned to provide in themselves weather qualities and inseparable cleats for holding glass, thereby insuring stability by reducing to a minimum the parts and connections. TOP-RAIL. To be made in one piece, so formed as to afford ample weather qualities. THE SILL. To be made of one piece, formed so as to afford ample weather qualities and condensation sheds with outlets. THE MIDDLE RAIL. To be made of two pieces, forming an air-chamber with inseparable cleats, lock-jointed, and of length sufficient to extend in and through sides of frame, where the same is lapped four ways onto sides and riveted. The top of this rail receiving sash is made with a wash. Connections of various parts of frame must, in all cases, be made by lapping prior to riveting. SASH. The plain frame, having top, bottom, and two sides, of air-chamber construction and made so that depth of sash is 2 inches, and width of same back or front or rabbet is 2 inches. 280 CHICAGO UNDERWRITERS' REQUIREMENTS. The same shall be lock-jointed throughout, shall have inseparable cleats, and all necessary weather qualities. The corners of this frame shall be double-locked. Each corner of frame shall be double-locked on front, back, and at sharp corners, so as to completely dispense with the need of solder and rivets. The sash shall be so made as to correspond with frame at points 6f meeting, and the hanging of same must be on horizontal pivots above the centre, to allow quick closing, as hereinafter arranged for, automatically. Reinforce frame where pivots enter by riveting a strip of f-in. iron so bored as to allow a bearing for pivot. The upright sash-rail must be made of one piece of galvanized iron or copper, with inseparable cleats and lock-jointed about an iron bar J in.Xl| in., in a manner to afford an air-chamber of 1 inch square, and rabbets for holding glass, and the same lapped and riveted to frame and sash. MULLION WINDOWS. Where an architect prepares clear open- ing for a mullion window, the metal frame must be reinforced at every point of division by structural iron, channels pre- ferred. These divisions, that of necessity must be chambers of air-spaces, will afford ample room for channels. The channels must be built into window as made. IN GENERAL. Flat surfaces that retain water must be avoided. The lock shall be a double-spiral spring brass lock, and shall be bolted to middle rail and sash. The window shall be made with stationary lower sash, and upper sash swung on bearings in upper half of sash, and shall be so equipped with fusible link, rings, and rod, that the same will close and lock automatically under fire. The rabbets against which the glass is set shall be for glass of a small to medium dimension, J in. wide, and for a glass of more than medium dimensions, f in. wide. The inseparable cleat must be at least 1J in. in length, and must repeat at least every 12 inches. Windows of more than ordinary width shall be reinforced by structural iron in cross-rail. Caution must be had against using glass of unreasonable dimensions. For a window 4 ft. X8 ft., arrange sashes for three lights each, or glass 15X46. For a window 4 ft. X6 ft., arrange sash for two lights each, or glass 22 X34. For a window 5 ft. X8 ft., arrange sash for three lights each, or glass about 19X46. My recommendations would be not to exceed in SUGGESTIONS TO FIRE UNDERWRITERS. 281 width 18 inches, where height is 48 inches or more, and in no case to exceed 24 inches in width. The following regarding shutters, etc., for protection against fire is taken from an address by John R. Freeman, Consulting Engineer, Providence, R. I., at the annual banquet of the National Board of Fire Underwriters, Delmonico's, New York, May 12, 1904, in response to the toast "AN ENGINEER'S SUGGESTIONS TO FIRE UNDER- WRITERS." CONCERNING FIRE-SHUTTERS. A point which interested me exceedingly, in studying the Baltimore ruins, was to see whether thin wrought-iron or steel plate, such as is used for covering fire-shutters, had at any point been heated to a point where its power of resistance was seriously impaired. The ordinary underwriters' fire-shutter depends for its strength and its resistance upon its thin covering of very soft mild steel coated with tin. I examined thin sheet-steel lamp-shades, thin bands for pipe-coverings, tin boxes, filing-cases, and dozens of shut- ters themselves. In no place did I find any indication that metal of that quality had been so softened or had reached such a heat that it would be seriously impaired for the pur- pose of fire-shutters, and one of the great lessons that I brought away from the Baltimore fire was that our standard tin covering for the underwriters' shutter is all right, and that this cover- ing material has sufficient power of resistance to withstand the fiercest heat of a great conflagration, but that we do need to find some better material than pine wood to fill it with. I also made careful examinations of copper in flashings, cor- nices, etc., to see if it had melted. In a few small spots in rare instances fusion had begun, but in general I found it had ample resistance to fusion, so that it can prudently be used for covering fire-shutters where something more ornamental or weatherproof than tinned plate is desired and expense is no bar. The standard underwriter shutter of wood covered with tin did not give a very good account of itself in the Balti- more fire, and I think it can be said, without fear of serious contradiction, that the endurance of the ordinary underwriters' shutter of tin-clad wood is limited to not more than about half 282 SUGGESTIONS TO FIRE UNDERWRITERS. an hour's endurance of a temperature of 1500 degrees, and that this limit is often passed in the heat of an ordinary conflagration, and that in many of the cases where single doors or shutters have shown up so well there has happened to be an incoming air-current that has helped to cool the shutter. The limitations of the tin-clad wooden shutter were shown at one corner of the burned district in Baltimore. A large shirt factory whose windows were protected by wooden fire- shutters had a very close call. By heroic efforts with private pump and hose streams the employes saved the factory. I took particular interest in examining those shutters, and al- though this was not at the hottest part of the fire, I found, in parts of the shutter at the hottest exposure, that the pine wood was charred entirely through and all gone. This matter of better shutters is one on which we should set some of our best talent at work in the experimental way. In your excellent laboratory in Chicago there is excellent ap- paratus for the needed tests. Although the present shutter and the present approved form of fire-door is all right nine- tenths of the time, and perhaps nineteen-twentieths of the time, it is not all that we need in a great conflagration. I have said that buildings can be made fireproof against bad exposures. The possibility of making them so is found largely in the development of a superior, thin form of fire- shutter, and in educating the architects and owners of buildings toward building a shape of window that is easily protected by the fire-shutter, and a neat window-jamb formed to receive this shutter when folded back inside the window. Windows of suitable size for all ordinary office purpose can easily be so designed that they can be protected by fire- shutters, and that the shutters when open and folded back on the inside will not be obtrusive or unsightly. When a bad exposure fire comes the ruin of the sash and glazing can be paid for cheerfully if the contents of the building are saved. I was very much interested in the efficiency of the plain steel-plate shutters on the inside of the windows in the Safe Deposit and Trust Company Building. These kept the fire out very successfully, notwithstanding that the large non- fire-proof building of the Baltimore Sun, which was entirely wrecked, and was one of the hottest parts of the entire confla- gration, was only ten feet away. The damage was so immi- nent that the police ordered the men to leave the Safe Deposit SUGGESTIONS TO FIRE UNDERWRITERS. 283 Building, and the heat melted the lead sash-weights within, the cast-iron window-casings, destroyed the sash and glass, and chipped the brick walls, but the damage on the interior of the building was almost nothing. These steel-plate shutters were so set that they were free to expand, and they were free from ribs and of a form not likely to warp much, and they did in fact warp but little, and the casing and jamb were of such form that this warping of the shutter off its seat did not open a wide crack, and there was no combustible material near them on the inside to receive their radiant heat. Capt. Sewell, if I understood his remarks aright, suggested a steel shutter stiffened by ribs. Ribs are dangerous unless very carefully designed and at- tached, and as generally applied increase the liability to warp. I happen to have been an eye-witness of the fire twenty or twenty-five years ago that gave to the tin-clad shutter its great start on the road to popularity. This fire was in the Pacific Mills, at Lawrence, Mass. In that case there was a tin-clad wooden fire-door, of what has since become standard construc- tion, standing immediately beside a steel-plate shutter that was heavily ribbed on the edges. Apparently it was a fair com- parative test for the two shutters. The ribbed-steel shutter warped away from its bearings two inches or three inches, as I now remember it, in a way that let the fire play freely around its edges, while the tin-clad wooden shutter remained in place without warping and was in good working order when the fire was over, the tin covering intact and the wood charred only about half an inch deep. These results were published far and wide, and this gave the first great impetus to tin-clad wooden shutters. There have since been hundreds of demonstrations of the endurance of tin-clad shutters in fires, and I have taken advan- tage of many opportunities to examine carefully into the con- ditions under which they have been exposed. The result of these examinations has been to convince me that the endurance of the tin-clad shutter is limited; that its limit of endurance is often passed; that for severe cases we do need something better than the ordinary underwriters' tin-clad wooden shutter, and that we do need something very much better than the ribbed- steel shutter or the rolling jointed steel shutter. At present the best we can do in any important case is to use two fire-shutters or fire-doors, one outside and another '284 SUGGESTIONS TO FIRE UNDERWRITERS. inside; one will receive the brunt of the onslaught and per- haps in the course of half an hour or an hour warp or break down; the second, shielded behind the first, will stand up to its work until any ordinary fire is over. It seems to me that the main reason why those steel shutters in Baltimore, at the building which I have just mentioned, performed so well was that they were free from ribs, and thus became heated more uniformly, with but very slight warping; that they happened to be so fastened to a frame that they were free to expand, and their seat happened to be of such a shape that, although the shutter did warp a little, this did not open much of a crack, and that there was no combustible material close to them on the inside. The path of safety from exposure fires for office-buildings and the like lies in a window-casing formed so that we can attach to it a shutter of a form similar to the ordinary inside house-blind. Our ordinary business buildings have walls thick enough, so that by making the shutter in four folds, or leaves, two being hinged together, and these two in turn attached to the wall, making each fold in the shutter only about fifteen inches wide, the window will be wide enough for all practical purposes, and we can fold the shutter back within the window- jamb, very much as we do the inside blind. To do that with the present ordinary tin-clad shutter would be almost impossible, because of the thickness of that form of shutter. It can be done with a steel-plate shutter without ribs and the radiation from the inside can be checked by some thin incombustible porous covering like asbestos board. If in our underwriters' laboratories, in our technical schools, and in our tours of survey we can direct attention to these views and urge the solution of the problem of how to make an efficient fire-shutter which shall only be three-quarters of an inch or an inch in thickness, I believe that before long the problem of pro- tecting an office-building against exposure fires will be found solved. It is entirely possible to design a window opening adapted to receive a safe shutter, so that it will be just as convenient for ordinary business purposes as the type now common. I think it probable that the best place for the shutters is inside the glass, sacrificing the glazed sash outside them in case of any great conflagration. " WATER-CURTAINS" AND " WIRE-GLASS." We hear a good SUGGESTIONS TO FIRE UNDERWRITERS. 285 deal nowadays about "water-curtains," and I would like to say just a word on that, because I think there is a great deal of misapprehension about their efficiency. I would like to say a word about wire-glass also, because although in general excellent I think there is a great misapprehension as to what wire-glass can do. I began experimenting with wire-glass very soon after it first came out, and I have used it in numerous instances, and it is a most excellent material in its way, but it has its limita- tions; it has the same limitations that a water-curtain has, and that is, that it does not stop the passage of radiant heat. You all have noticed how, when you are travelling in a rail- way train, perhaps at sixty miles an hour, and they happen to be burning a pile of ties along the track, that although your face is directed towards your newspaper, you will feel the flash of heat passing through the car window and striking against your face as you go past that pile of burning ties. That simply illustrates the great ease and rapidity with which radiant heat passes through glass. Now, radiant heat passes through glass with wire netting in it almost as easily as it does through any other glass, and the record made by wire-glass in a certain building in Balti- more, which is pointed to with so much pride, is, I think, simply due to the fact that it was at a place where nothing combus- tible was immediately behind it. If you have a stock of dry goods, or wooden ware, or baled cotton or hemp just inside a wire-glass window without shutters, and there is a hot fire across the street, these can probably be set on fire with much promptness by the radiant heat passing through the glass, and the subject should be thoroughly studied on a large scale in our underwriters' laboratories. For safety, there must be something which will stop the radiant heat, and that can only be in the form of a shutter, and, by virtue of stopping the heat, the shutter will become hot. The case with the water-curtain is very much the same as with the glass. Water is diathermous, as physicists call it that is, radiant heat passes through water very easily. We must, I believe, set down these stories that have been told about the efficiency of water-curtains as being mainly fairy tales. This supposed efficiency of the waler-curtain is another 286 SUGGESTIONS TO FIRE UNDERWRITERS, topic which I hope that some one of our underwriters' labora- tories and some of our schools of applied science will take up and investigate with precision of measurement. I have heard stories of the wonderful efficiency of the water- curtain, but I must beg to disbelieve them, largely on theo- retical grounds as yet. It is a matter which can be tested very easily. The window-sprinkler came in for a good deal of praise in certain quarters in Baltimore. I took particular pains to inves- tigate that, because I wanted to find just how far they merited it, and I have no doubt they did some good, but they are not entitled to anything like the glory that is claimed for them. They will tell you a great deal about the remarkable work done by the window-sprinklers in the Toronto fire. Now, I sent a bright young engineer up there especially to investi- gate that question and to go into it in detail, and to take photo- graphs of the individual windows and to get right down to the bed-rock facts, and, from the mass of evidence that he brings back, I do not doubt that they did some good; but the inside ordinary automatic sprinkler near each of these windows did very much more good. In short, if you want to provide against an exposure fire, I believe that the only way to do it is, First, by a wall either of brick or cement concrete. Second, by properly designed window openings and window casings, and Third, by good shutters in those windows. In the absence of shutters, automatic sprinklers, supple- mented by heroic efforts with hose streams on the inside, may sometimes save the day ; with great expense for water damage, but where exposures are bad, a good shutter on a proper window should be the first care of architect and owner. Fire Resisting Devices. Of the many fire-retardant and fire-resistant devices with which the modern building is equipped much lies in the province of the superintendent. Per- haps in even larger measure than in the realm of materials does proper installation secure success. The more important of these devices have been the sub- ject of extensive investigations by the engineering bodies of the -National Board of Fire Underwriters, and rules governing their manufacture and installation have been issued. Copies of these rules may be had gratis on application to the Na- FIRE-RESISTING DEVICES. 287 tional Board of Fire Underwriters, 32 Nassau Street, New York City. Among the subjects covered are the following: Rules and requirements for the installation of automatic electric fire-alarm systems and the construction of thermostat alarm circuit closers; the construction and installation and use of acetylene-gas machines, and for the storage of calcium carbide; the installation of auxiliary fire-alarm systems; the installation of automatic-sprinkler equipments; the construc- tion and installation of stationary chemical fire-extinguishers; the manufacture of wired glass and the construction of frames for wired and prism glass used as a fire retardant; the con- struction, installation, and use of gasolene vapor gas lighting machines, lamps, and systems; for the installation of electric wiring and apparatus. Each of these subjects is so thoroughly and concisely covered by the several rules just mentioned that their careful perusal by the superintendent will provide both information and incen- tive looking to the exercise of the most judicious oare in all fire protection matters within his province. Among the most important of the National Board's rules are those which deal with sprinkler systems and with the manu- facture and installation of wire-glass and frames to contain the same. The automatic sprinkler is a device for applying water for the extinguishment of fire, such water to be applied auto- matically at the right spot and in the least volume necessary for such extinguishment. This is accomplished by valves or sprinkler-heads which will open by the effect of heat from the fire they are intended to extinguish. To secure the most efficient sprinkler service, the following general conditions should prevail: 1. Sprinklers to be so located that every portion of the building can be covered by water. This necessitates an open type of construction, free from concealed spaces where water cannot penetrate. 2. Sprinkler piping to be of ample size and provided with water at all times. Should danger of freezing exist, what is called the "dry-pipe system" should be used. 3. The general supply of water should be of ample pressure and volume, and the service be automatic in its action at all times. 288 FORMULA FOR ERECTION OF FIRE-ESCAPES. Location of sprinkler-heads, sizes of piping, and general instructions for installation are fully set forth in the National Board's rules, to which the superintendent should refer. As fire-escapes are one of the main features of building protection, the following is taken from the Philadelphia Building Law: Formula Governing the Erection of Fire-escapes. - In accordance with the Act of Assembly approved June 3, 1885, and the Ordinance of Councils approved December 10, 1896, and supplemental thereto, the following formula will govern the matter of the design, construction, and erection of all fire-escapes hereafter required within the city of Phila- delphia. PLATFORMS. The platforms shall consist of iron balconies not less than four (4) feet in width, the length of the platform to be dependent upon the size of the building and the number of its occupants. The inspector of the district will designate the length of such platform, which shall extend in front of, and not less than nine (9) inches beyond, at least two windows, except in the case of a doorway leading from the floor level of the building to the floor level of the platform, in which case such doorway opening will suffice. Each platform shall be provided with a landing at the head and foot of each stairway of not less than twenty-four (24) inches, the stairway opening of the top platform to be no longer than sufficient to provide clear headway. The floors of balconies must be of wrought iron or steel, one and one-half (1^) inches by five-sixteenths ( 5 /ie) inch slats, not more than one and one-fourth (1^) inches apart, and be securely riveted to frame and brackets. Outside angle frame to be not less than two and one-fourth (2|) inch angle iron. If flooring is made of wire, same to be not less than No. 6 wire gauge, three-fourths (f) inch mesh, securely fastened to frame and brackets. All stair openings to be sufficient to provide clear headway. In all cases platforms must be designed, constructed, and erected to safely sustain in all their parts a safe load, at a ratio of four to one, of not less than eighty (80) pounds per square foot of surface. RAILINGS. The outside top railing to extend around the entire length of the platform, and through the wall at each end, and to be properly secured by nuts and washers, or otherwise equally well braced and bolted. The top rail of the balcony must not be less than one (1) inch pipe iron, or material equally FORMULA FOR ERECTION OF FIRE-ESCAPES. 289 as strong. The bottom rail must not be less than three-fourths (f) inch pipe iron, or material equally as strong, well leaded into the wall. The standards must be not less than one (1) inch pipe iron or material equally as strong, and must be securely connected with top and bottom rail and platform frame. Standards must also be securely braced by means of outside brackets at suitable intervals. Railings in all cases to extend around the stairway openings and be continuous down the stairway, the height of the railing to be not less than three (3) feet. STAIRWAY. Stairways must be designed, constructed, and erected to safely sustain in all their parts a safe load, at a ratio of four to one, of not less than one hundred (100) pounds per step, with the exception of the tread, which must safely sustain, at a ratio of four to one, a load of two hundred (200) pounds per tread. The treads to be not less than six (6) inches wide, and the rise not more than ten (10) inches. The stairs in all cases to be not less than twenty-four (24) inches wide, and the strings or horses to be not less than three (3) inch channels of iron or steel, or other shape equally as strong and to rest upon and be fastened to a bracket; said bracket to be fastened through the wall as otherwise provided for brackets. The strings or horses to be also securely fastened to the balcony a't the top. The steps in all cases to be double riveted or bolted to the strings or horses. BRACKETS. Brackets must not be less than two and one- fourth (2J) inch angle iron, or material equally as strong, not more than three (3) feet apart, braced by means of not less than one (1) inch square, or one and one-fourth (1^) inch round iron, let into the wall at least four (4) inches, with shoulders on brace, and three (3) inch washer between shoulder and wall, and to extend down the wall four (4) feet from the top of the bracket, and out on the bracket angle three (3) feet from the wall. In all cases the bracket angle directly under the balcony must be secured to wall by means of bolts of suitable size passing through the wall, and four (4) inch washers. There must also be a bar of wrought iron or steel two (2) inches by three-eighths (f) inch, let into the wall four (4) inches edge- wise, between the brackets, and riveted to the balcony for the floor to rest upon. Whenever the bottom balcony is supported by means of suspension-rods (riveted or bolted) to the balcony above, the brackets (of the above balcony) shall be increased 290 CONSTRUCTION OF TOWER FIRE-ESCAPE. in size to meet the increase strain occasioned thereby. The bottom balcony to have a drop-ladder of same construction as the stairway, to be hinged and hung with a counter weight. Whenever the drop-ladder is upheld by means of a counter balance-weight suspended to a chain, such weight shall hang within the platform railing if practicable. In all cases the bolts, rivets, and other material used shall be proportioned so as to develop the full strength of the members connected by them. All the parts of such fire-escapes must receive not less than two coats of paint one coat in the shop and one after erection. Formula for Construction of Tower Fire-escape. The said tower fire-escape shall be divided from the building by, and completely inclosed with, brick walls or such other fire-proof materials as shall be accepted by the Bureau of Build- ing Inspection. The said walls to be built solidly from the foundation to and at least 36 inches above the roof. The roof of said tower shall be built of hard, incombustible materials. The stairs of said tower may be iron or wood; but in all cases there must be provided stone or iron thresholds, iron frames, or wood frames covered with metal, and iron doors, or wood doors covered with tin. The rise of said stairs shall not be more than eight (8) inches and the tread not less than nine (9) inches. The entrance to said tower shall be by means of an outside balcony or an incombustible vestibule, of which one side shall be entirely open and extend from the top of floor to under side of ceiling and the full width of the tower, the said open side to face a street or such open space as pro- vides for exit of said tower. There shall be a brick wall, or other wall of hard, incom- bustible material separating the tower from the vestibule. The opening into tower from said vestibule to be not over seven (7) feet in height. The floor, ceiling, and sides of said vestibule to be of hard, incombustible material. The rails inclosing the side facing the open space or street, to be not over four (4) feet high and not less than three (3) feet, may be open or inclosed. The entrance to the tower from the building shall be through the vestibule. Towers that have not the fire-proof vestibule shall have outside balconies; floors of balconies to be solid, and built CONSTRUCTION OF TOWER FIRE-ESCAPE. 291 of hard, incombustible material, and be of sufficient strength to carry the imposed weights. The rails around said balconies shall be not over four (4) feet in height nor less than three (3) feet, and may be inclosed or open. PART IV. LATHING AND PLASTERING. CAEPEN- TEY; TIMBEE. PLUMBING; TIN AND SHEET METAL WOEK. PAINTING, GLAZING, AND PAPEE-HANGING. IEONWOEK. ELECTEIC WIEING, ETC. HEATING. loathing and Plastering 1 . The duties of the superin- tendent during this branch of the work will be first to see that the laths, when wooden laths are used, are sound, straight- grained, and free from sap, loose knots, or oil. As the laths are put on he should see that they are nailed solid and given the proper space between; they should be spaced about f inch apart for ordinary lime mortar and about i inch apart when any of the hard or patent plasters are used. The laths should have one nail to every bearing and have two nails to each end. The perpendicular joints in the laths should be broken about every six lath. No laths should be set vertical to fill out any corner or any other place. Where laths cross a bearing over two inches wide a lath or strip should be put under the laths so the plaster will have a chance to key. Laths over door or other openings should have as few vertical joints as possible so as to prevent cracks; if possible the laths should extend across the opening. 1000 laths If inches wide will cover about 570 square feet. 1000 laths 1^ inches wide will cover about 620 square feet. 1000 laths require about 5 pounds of lath nails, 6 nails to a lath. 292 PLASTERING. 293 METAL OR WIRE LATHING. Where metal or wire lathing is used it must be stretched tight and securely fastened. If it is put on wooden joists or studs it should be fastened with staples, and if fastened to metal furring or beams should be fastened with galvanized or coated wire. All metal lathing should be coated to prevent rust; it is usually prepared in this way by the manu- facturers. In all angles where wood or terra-cotfca partitions join the main wall of the building there should be a strip of the metal lath bent in the angle and extending out on each side about six inches and securely fastened; this will prevent any cracks in the angles after the plastering is done. CORNER BEADS. Metal corner beads should be used on all external angles, and care must be taken in setting them to get them straight and fastened solid. Plastering 1 . Lime for making mortar for plastering should be of the very best quality and free from all dirt. It should slake readily so there will be no unslaked particles of lime in the mortar to slake after it is put on the wall. If this happens the small pieces of lime swelling and slaking will cause small pieces of the plaster to fall off, leaving "pits" or holes. The lime should be slaked at least a week before being put on the wall. SAND. The sand should be sharp and angular, free from any dirt or oil or anything to stain the plaster. When sea sand is used it must be thoroughly washed with fresh water so as to remove all salt. HAIR AND FIBRE. These are used in the mortar to form a bond and bind the sheet of mortar together. Cattle hair is generally used, but of late years jute and several fibre products have been used satisfactorily to a great extent. PLASTER OF PARIS. Plaster of Paris is prepared by grinding and heating natural gypsum in a furnace so as to drive off its water of crystallization. Plaster of Paris owes its value to the property it possesses of absorbing water and passing into the water-soaked condition, in doing which it sets into a hard mass. This setting takes place quickly, but sufficient time elapses between mixing it with water and setting to permit it to be run into moulds or for coating surfaces, and to gauge the skim or finish coat and for running cornices, centre-pieces, and other ornamental work. Plaster of Paris should be kept in a dry place, as it readily absorbs moisture. The superintendent should see that the mortar is made up at 294 PLASTERING. least a week before it will be required for use. Ordinarily the hair is mixed with the- mortar when it is made up, but on first- class work it should be added when the mortar is mixed for use. When the hair is added to the mortar when the lime is first slaked there is danger of the hot lime burning the hair and causing it te rot. Before the mortar is put on the superintendent should ex- amine all grounds to see that they are straight and solid, also see that all gas and electric outlets are in their proper places, and that every possible provision has been made for securing the wood or other finish in place. All walls should be dusted off and wet before any mortar is put on. The superintendent should watch and see that the plasterers use sufficient force in spreading the first coat of mortar to force it through the lathing and key in all spaces. The space back of all wainscot or base should be plastered flush with the face of the grounds, so the wood will lay solid against the plaster. Cornices or any ornamental work should be run and put in place before the finish or skim coat of plaster. In putting on the skim coat the superintendent must see that it is given sufficient trowelling to bring it to a smooth glossy surface. By looking along the finished walls where the light strikes them he can tell if they have a good finish; there should be no trowel- or brush-marks show on the finished surface. PATENT PLASTERS. There are a number of hard or patent plasters on the market and sold under various names, as Adamant, King's Windsor, Rock Wall, Granite, Elastic Pulp, Ideal, Elyria Wood, Kallolite, Imperial Wall, etc. The composition of the various plasters is pretty much the same, the hardness being based on the plaster of Paris or gypsum used in their manufacture. These plasters give good satisfaction and make a hard durable job of plastering. For quick work or for use in cold weather they are preferable to lime plaster, as they will set and harden much quicker. When any of the hard finishes are used the plasterer will generally try to work lime putty in along with it to make it work smoother and easier. This may be permitted to the extent of about 15 per cent lime putty, but no more, and when this permission is granted the superintendent will have to watch to see that no more is used. Wall PLASTERING. 295 The covering capacity of the different patent plasters varies from 90 to 150 yards per ton of plaster. OUTSIDE STUCCO-WORK. This is the name usually given to exterior plastering, and is generally done with cement mortar. Care should be taken to keep any outside work from freezing, or from being dried too fast with the heat; it should be shaded to protect it from the sun, and wetting it two or three times a day for several days will improve it. SCAGLIOLA. This is a composition made to imitate marble. It is composed of plaster of Paris or Keene's cement mixed with glue or gelatine and the various colors are added to obtain the desired imitation. This work when properly done will take a good polish and makes a good imitation of marble. CORNICES AND MOULDINGS. Cornices, mouldings, etc., are usually run with a mould made of sheet iron and cut the reverse contour of the mouldings to be run. Strips of wood are tacked around the walls and ceiling to form a guide to run the mould along. These moulds are usually made to set at right angles to the mouldings, thus leaving a space the width of the moulding or cornice at all angles which have to be worked out by ' FlG> 2 io hand. If the mould is made to set at an angle of 45, or a true mitre with the moulding and the mould made to correspond with the profile of the mouldings on this angle, then the mould can be run in close to all angles. Fig. 210 shows how this mould is made and used. , PLASTERING DATA. 1 barrel of lime will make about 2f barrels of paste. 1 bushel of hair weighs about 15 pounds. 1 barrel of lime, 18 cubic feet of sand, and 22 pounds of hair will brown coat about 40 yards on wooden lath with |-inch grounds, or about 32 yards on brick or terra-cotta walls with f-inch grounds, or about 30 yards on wire or metal lath. 1 barrel of lime, 1 barrel of plaster of Paris, 1 barrel white sand will skim coat about 140 square yards. First coat mortar = 1 barrel lime, 18 cubic feet sand, 1| bushels hair. Second coat mortar = 1 barrel lime, 21 J cubic feet sand, f bushel hair. 296 CARPENTRY. LAFARGE CEMENT. Lafarge cement is much used for out- side stucco-work. It should be mixed as follows: First coat, 1 part cement, 3 parts sand, 25 per cent lime paste, and sufficient hair. Second coat, 1 part cement 2 parts sand, 10 per cent lime paste. 1 barrel of cement and 3 of sand will cover about 34 square yards f inch thick. 1 barrel of cement and 2 of sand will cover about 25 square yards f inch thick. KEENE'S CEMENT. This cement, or plaster, is made by recal- cining plaster of Paris after soaking it in a solution of alum; it is used for wainscot, base, caps, etc., and also for hard finish. The first coat is composed of 1 part cement, 1 part lime paste, and 3 parts sand. The second coat of 1 part cement, 1 part lime paste, and 4 parts sand. 1 ton of Keene's cement will first coat about 475 yards, or brown coat and white hard finish about 300 yards, or first and second coat about 350 yards. WHITEWASH. Common whitewash is made by slaking fresh lime and adding enough water to make a thin paste; by using 2 pounds of sulphate of zinc and 1 pound of salt to each half bushel of lime the whitewash will be much harder and not crack. A half pint of linseed-oil to each gallon of whitewash will make it more durable for outside work. To color add to each bushel of lime 4 to 6 pounds of ochre for cream color; 6 to 8 pound- amber, 2 pounds Indian red, and 2 pounds of lampblack for fawn color; 6 to 8 pounds raw umber and 3 or 4 pounds lamps black for buff or stone color. Carpentry. In superintending this branch of work, the superintendent, in addition to examining the materials used, will be required to see that all work is fitted together and secured in a proper manner. In fire-proof structures, among the first work of the carpenter will be the setting of the window-frames, laying floor strips, etc. Before being set the window-frames should be examined to see that they conform to the detail drawings, that the pulleys and pockets are put in as desired, and that partitions are pro- vided in the boxes to separate the weights. Care should be taken in setting the frames to get them plumb, and to show theproper reveal on the outside jamb; then they should be se- CARPENTRY. 297 * curely fastened to the anchors or whatever means that have been provided for fastening them. As soon as the frames are set the sills should be covered to protect them from any damage. FLOOR STRIPS. The setting of the floor strips will require close attention to be got straight and level, and the superin- tendent should see that this is done or a bad floor will be the result. Where there is to be a diagonal underfloor laid there should be a floor strip around all sides of the room to catch the ends of the diagonal flooring. After the concrete filling is put in place all the floor strips should be examined with a straight-edge, and any not straight or level should be taken out and reset. In putting down the floor strips, they should be run so that when the finished floor is laid it will run lengthwise of the room. Wherever an underfloor is used it should be laid diagonally, as the top floor can then be laid across the floor strips, and also across the joints of the underfloor. If the underfloor is laid in the same direction as the top floor it will cause much trouble in laying the top floor, as the underfloor will usually cup up at the joints enough to make the top floor irregular, but if the top flooring crosses the underfloor this trouble will be avoided. In terra-cotta and other fire-proof partitions it is customary to set a rough-wood frame in the opening, and build up to it. Care must be taken to have these frames set plumb and securely fastened top and bottom, and as the tile is built up against them, to fasten the tile to them with metal clips, or nails driven through the tile. As the partitions are built, provisions must be made for nailing or fastening the wood finish. (See page 303.) JOISTS. In framing wood joist for a building, they should be given a "camber" or crown of about \ inch in 20 feet, and the end should be cut on a bevel of about 4 inches, so that in case of fire the joist can drop out of the wall and do no damage. In levelling up joists no wood should be used, but the joist blocked where necessary with slate or flat pieces of iron. Wood joist in brick or stone walls should have the ends cut on a bevel, so that in case of fire, the joist can drop out without pulling down the wall. In setting joists the superintendent should see that none are set less than 8 inches from the inside of any flue, and 4 inches from any chimney or hot-air pipe; he should watch as the 298 CARPENTRY. joist are framed together and see that all joints are tight and have good bearings. BRIDGING. All joists should be bridged as the specifications may call for. The bridging should be heavy enough so that two tenpenny nails can be used in each end without splitting the bridging. It should be cut and put in place by nailing the top end only, leaving the bottom end to be nailed after the floor is laid; in this way the flooring draws the joists to a straight line and the bridging braces and holds them there. The nails should be started in the lower end before the bridging is put in place; then all that remains to be done is to drive them home after the floor is laid. GROUNDS. This is one of the most particular parts of the carpenter- work, and one that is most often slighted. If the grounds are not put up solid and straight, then the plastering will be crooked and the wood finish will not fit the walls tight. The superintendent should pay special attention and see that all the .grounds are put up in the best possible manner; he should take a straight-edge and try them, and if he finds any not straight, have them made so at once. PARTITIONS. All stud-partitions should be bridged at half- height; the studs should be brought to a line by tacking a straight piece of 2X4 or 2X6 along them as shown at B, Fig. 211. One of the best methods of bridging is shown in Fig. 211, called " herring-bone" bridging; material of the same dimensions as the studs is used, and being set on an angle, as shown, gives a good chance for nailing the ends of the bridging and making the partition solid. Fig. 212 shows another good method of bridging, by running the bridging horizontally, but setting it diagonally across the stud, as shown at A, each alternate piece of bridging being set at opposite angles. Bridging set in this manner gives the plastering a chance to key, and there will be no "dead" plaster. Fro. 211. FIG. 212. DOOR OPENINGS. All door openings in partitions which carry any weight should be trussed as shown in Fig. 213, and CARPENTRY. 299 for bracing it is well to continue the brace to the floor, as shown. In stud partitions a block should be placed at the sides of the door openings to catch and nail the end of the base to, as shown at A, Fig. 213. FIG. 213. ANGLES. Care must be taken to make all angles solid, and in no case should one be permitted to set the partition-studs so that laths can be run from one room to another. Fig. 214 I FIG. 214. shows several methods of setting studs at angles. All studs for partitions should be sized to a width, and all caps and plates sized to a width and thickness; this saves much time and trouble and makes straight work. SHINGLING. In laying shingles the essential points are that the shingles be not too wide, that each shingle receives two nails, that they are not laid too much to the weather, that the joints are well broken, that the shingles have a good lap and are fitted close along any ridges, hips, etc. Shingles should not be over 7 inches wide to make a good roof, and any over this width should be split in two. Each shingle should receive two nails, regardless of its width. Shingles should not be laid more than 5 inches to the weather, and 4J inches makes a better roof. In laying shingles the joints should be broken and the shingles lapped enough, so that there ia 300 CARPENTRY. no danger of the water following under the shingle to the joint in the course below; care should be taken to break joints with the last two courses laid so that, in case a shingle should split under a joint, the split will not come over a joint in the course below. In shingling hips the full shingle should be carried out to the hip, and if no saddle is to be used the courses should be lapped and woven together and also flashed so as to make a water-tight job, or a more desirable method called the Boston hip is shown by Fig. 215. FIG. 215. Gauged shingles or shingles of a uniform width should be selected to shingle the hip and two lines drawn on the sheathing parallel to the hip, as at AA, A A. The roof -shingles should be carried up to these lines in steps as shown bY 1, 2, 3, after which the hip should be shingled, as shown by B, C, D, working the shingles so they lap alternately as shown. This makes a very neat and water-tight hip. When valleys are to be shingled close and flashed, the super- intendent must see that flashings of a large enough size are used and that no nails are driven where they will be liable to cause a leak. In open valleys, in order to keep both sides of the shingles straight, a good scheme is to lay a studding of the desired width in the valley and fit the shingles up to it on both sides. CARPENTRY. 301 The superintendent should see that the shinglers do not drive nails through the roof in building their scaffold. This is often done and the nail-holes plugged up as they take down the scaffold; but it should never be permitted, for the plugs will rot or dry out and cause a leak. In shingling up the corners of a building or the hips of a roof, the shingles should be lapped, as shown in Fig. 216, as this will show the edge of the shingle on both sides of the corner, FIG. 216. FIG. 217. or hip, alternately. A, Fig. 217, shows how the shingles should be lapped two courses at a time. If the courses of shingles are simply lapped time about it will bring all the edges of the shingles to show on the one side of the corner. Flashing should be used up the sides of all frames and across the top, or any place where the water is liable to penetrate. Shingles should always be laid with galvanized nails. Four pounds of 4d common or three pounds of 3d common wire nails will put on 1000 shingles. The following table shows the number of shingles required to a square and the surface 1000 shingles will cover: Exposure to the Weather in Inches. Number of Square Feet of Roof Covered by One Thousand Shingles. Number of Shingles Required for One Hundred Square Feet of Roof. Four Inches Wide. Six Inches Wide. Four Inches Wide. Six Inches Wide. 4 5 6 8 Ill 139 167 194 222 167 208 250 291 333 900 720 600 514 450 600 480 400 343 300 302 CARPENTRY, The average width of shingles is 4 inches; thus 1000 shingles is the equivalent of 1000 shingles 4 inches wide. This is usually four bunches, as each bunch contains 250 shingles, although on the Pacific Coast the redwood shingles are put up 200 to a bunch and four bunches are sold for 1000 shingles, while in reality they contain but 800. This same rule is used by the shinglers in that section of the country: they charge so much a thousand for laying the shingles, but call four bunches 1000. To approximate the number of squares in a roof, see page 555. SHEATHING. When the sheathing of the roof is being put on the superintendent should see that a good joint is made along the line of the hips and valleys, so the lining of the valley will lay solid, and that there will be solid wood at the angle of the hip to hold the nails of the shingles or slate. FLAG-POLES. Masts or flag-poles should be made with a small swell to them, as described for the entasis of columns, page 574. PITCH OP STAIRS: In putting up horses for stairs and getting them out the tread should be made to pitch about inch in its width, as this makes a much easier stair than if the treads were perfectly level. SASH AND DOORS. Great care must be taken in fitting sash and doors, and also in hanging them; they should have just enough play to work without binding. One of the main troubles with sash is ; j I found in the thickness of the sash and meeting-rail, the sash often being made I too thick for the runs in the frame. j When the meeting-rails are too thick they will strike as the bottom sash is closed and pull the top sash down from ^jpd the top; then when the bottom sash is ! raised there will be too much play be- tween the sash and the parting bead, as shown at B, Fig. 218, and thp sash will rattle. 4 , Fig. 218, shows how the meet- ing-rails should come together. Care also must be taken in hanging the sash to FIG. 218. g e t the proper weights so the sash will be evenly balanced. CARPENTRY. 303 FIG. 219. PANEL-MOULDINGS. The superintendent should examine all doors and panel-work and see how the mouldings are nailed or fastened. The moulding should be nailed to the rail or stile as shown at A, Fig. 219, and not to the panel. If the moulding is fastened to the panel and the panel shrinks, as it generally does, it will make an open joint as shown at B. In nailing up finish or any interior work, the nails should be concealed as much as possible; this can be done by nailing in members of the mouldings which will be covered, or if the mould- ing is all exposed, by nailing in the quirks of the moulding where it will not be noticed after being puttied up; in quartered oak, chestnut, ash, etc., if the nail is driven in one of the pores of the wood and puttied neatly it will not be noticeable. SECURING INTERIOR WOOD TRIM. During the entire construc- tion of a building the superintendent must see that proper provisions are made as the work progresses for nailing or fasten- ing the wood finish or trim. Until recent days it has been customary to build wood blocks in the wall and nail the trim to these blocks. Wood blocks in some cases do not give entire satisfaction, as they are liable to shrink and come loose, and this will usually happen unless they are built in properly. Of late some architects go so far as to specify that no wood blocks or plugs shall be used to secure the inside trim. Still there are some places where, if built in properly, a wood block will give better satisfaction than anything else for nailjng and securing the trim. For base moulding, chair-rail, picture mould, etc., a wood block, if cut dove- tail shape as shown by Fig. 220 and built solid in the wall will give good satisfaction and can never come loose, or take a wood block and drive nails in both sides, leaving the nails project out about I inch and build this in the -wall so the projecting nails are bedded in the mortar joint, it will always remain solid and secure. If it is not desired to use wood blocks exposed, a tenra-cotta block filled with wood and built in the wall will answer quite as well provided nails long enough are used so as to reach into the wood. FIG. 220. 304 CARPENTRY. All door openings in terra-cotta walls usually have a rough stud frame, as shown at A, Fig. 221, and the tile should be built up to this frame and each course nailed or anchored to the stud. Wherever there is to be any nailing in the terra-cotta the author has derived the best satisfaction by inserting a wood FIG. 221. block in the tile as shown at B, Fig. 221, and then nailing through the tile into the block. Terra-cotta is supposed to hold a nail, but will not give satisfaction for nailing trim to; the jar of the hammer in setting the nail will nearly always jar the nail loose. Fig. 222 shows a good method of fastening window-frames and securing the trim; the bolts as shown are built in as the FIG. 222. walls are built, and a 2-inch nailing-piece is bolted fast as shown, keeping one edge out to form a plaster ground. The frame can be set and anchored as shown, and the trim nailed to the nailing-piece before the back strip is put on. The space around the frame should always be well calked with oakum or mineral wool. CARPENTRY. 305 Door-frames and trim in brick openings can be secured in a similar manner. Metal nailing-plugs are used to some extent for securing finish or trim, but nothing gives as good satisfaction as wood securely anchored. In some cases expansion-bolts can be used with good satisfaction where there is nothing to nail to. Figs. 223 and 224 show a method the author has used for fastening up wainscotting to brick walls, the bolts, as shown, being built in as the walls were built; the blocking or core piece, as shown, is bolted fast to the wall as the wainscot is put up and bolted fast. The cap and base can then be nailed securely to the wainscot and blocking. FIG. 223. Fir,. 224. In tile partitions, in place of a bolt being built in the wall a toggle bolt can be used. HARDWARE. All hardware should be fitted in place before any painting or varnishing is done, and when this is done the superin- tendent should have it left in place long enough for him to examine it and see that all pieces work easily. After examining them all he should have all hardware taken off and put on final at the completion of the painting. HANDS OF DOORS. The hand of a door is determined from the outside of a building, room, or closet. Door No. 1 in Fig. 225 is a right-hand door because it opens to the right as you enter the room, and No. 2 is a left-hand door, as it opens to the left as you enter. If the doors open to the outside, as shown in Fig. 226, door 306 CARPENTRY. No. 1 will be a right-hand reverse bevel, because it opens to the right, and No. 2 will be a left-hand reverse bevel, as it opens to the left, but the bevel for locks for these doors will r *: FIG. 225. FIG. 226. be just the reverse of those for doors hung or opening on the inside of the room. Regarding wood beams, etc., the New York Building Code says: Sec. 59. WOOD BEAMS, GIRDERS, AND COLUMNS. Wood Beams. All wood beams and other timbers in the party wall of every building built of stone, brick, or iron shall be separated from the beam or timber entering in the opposite side of the wall by at least four inches of solid masonwork. No wood floor-beams or wood roof-beams used in any building hereafter erected shall be of a less thickness than three inches. All wood trimmer and header beams shall be proportioned to carry with safety the loads they are intended to sustain. Every wood header or trimmer more than four feet long used in any building shall be hung in stirrup-irons of suitable thickness for the size of the timbers. Every wood beam, except header and tail beams, shall rest at one end four inches in the wall, or upon a girder as authorized by this Code. The ends of all wood floor- and roof-beams, where they rest on brick walls, shall be cut to a bevel of three inches on their depth. In no case shall either end of a floor- or roof-beam be supported on stud partitions, except in frame buildings. All wood floor- and wood roof-beams shall be properly bridged with cross- bridging, and the distance between bridging or between bridg- ing and walls shall not exceed eight feet. All wood beams shall be trimmed away from all flues and chimneys, whether the same be a smoke, air, or any other flue or chimney. The trimmer beam shall be not less than eight inches from the inside face of a flue and four inches from the outside of a chimney- breast, and the header beam not less than two inches from the CARPENTRY. 307 outside face of the brick or stone work of the same, except that for the smoke-flues of boilers and furnaces where the brickwork is required to be eight inches in thickness, the trimmer beam shall be not less than twelve inches from the inside of the flue. The header beam, carrying the tail beams of a floor, and support- ing the trimmer arch in front of a fireplace, shall be not less than twenty inches from the chimney-breast. The safe carrying capacity of wood beams for uniformly distributed loads shall be determined by multiplying the area in square inches by its depth in inches and dividing this product by the span of the beam in feet. This result is to be multiplied by seventy for hemlock, ninety for spruce and white pine, one hundred and twenty for oak, and by one hundred and forty for yellow pine. The safe carrying capacity of short-span timber beams shall be determined by their resistance to shear in accordance with the unit stresses fixed by Section 139 of this Code. Sec. 60. Anchors and Straps for Wood Beams and Girders. Each tier of beams shall be anchored to the side, front, rear, or party walls at intervals of not more than six feet apart with good, strong, wrought-iron anchors of not less than one and a half inches by three-eighths of an inch in size,, well fastened to the side of the beams by two or more nails made of wrought iron at least one-fourth of an inch in diameter. Where the beams are supported by girders, the girders shall be anchored to the walls and fastened to each other by suitable iron straps. The ends of wood beams resting upon girders shall be butted together end to end and strapped by wrought- iron straps of the same size and distance apart, and in the same beam as the wall anchors, and shall be fastened in the same manner as said wall anchors. Or they may lap each other at least twelve inches and be well spiked or bolted together where lapped. Each tier of beams front and rear, opposite each pier, shall have hardwood anchor strips dovetailed into the beams diag- onally, which strips shall cover at least four beams and be one inch thick and four inches wide, but no such anchor strips shall be let in within four feet of the centre line of the beams; or wood strips may be nailed on the top of the beams and kept in place until the floors are being laid. Every pier and wall, front or rear, shall be well anchored to the beams of each story with the same size anchors as are required for side walls, which anchors shall hook over the fourth beam. 308 CARPENTRY. Sec. 61. Wood Columns and Plates. All timber columns shall be squared at the ends perpendicular to their axes. To prevent the unit stresses from exceeding those fixed in this Code, timber or iron cap and base plates shall be provided. Additional iron cheek plates shall be placed between the cap and base plates and bolted to the girders when required to transmit the loads with safety. Sec. 62. TIMBER FOR TRUSSES. When compression mem- bers of trusses are of timber they shall be strained in the direc- tion of the fibre only. When timber is strained in tension, it shall be strained in the direction of the fibre only. The working stress in timber struts of pin-connected trusses shall hot exceed seventy-five per cent of the working stresses established in section 139, this Code. Sec. 63. BOLTS AND WASHERS FOR TIMBER-WORK. All bolts used in connection with timber and wood-beam work shall be provided with washers of such proportions as will reduce the compression on the wood at the face of the washer to that allowed in Section 139, this Code, supposing the bolt to be strained to its limit. Nails. Functions and Requirements. Nails are used to fasten pieces of wood superposed or adjacent to each other. They are driven perpendicularly to the materials when they are superposed and obliquely when adjacent. In the former case they draw directly in line of the axis of the nail, and in the latter, obliquely to its axis; in this case the rigidity or trans- verse strength of the nail plays an important part. In all cases the adhesive resistance of a nail is nearly in ratio to the area of surface of the nail subjected to compression of the wood fibre, into which it is imbedded. It is therefore requisite that the greater portion of the nail be imbedded in the piece to which another is fastened; but in no instance is it necessary that it should penetrate through it. Adhesive Resistance. This property in a nail is secondary to none, and must always be supplemented with the proper area of head to increase the crushing strength of wood fibre, in order that a nail may fulfill its primary function of holding pieces together by compression. It has been found in practice that the cut nail is harder to drive in than the wire nail, on account of the blunt point and tapering sides. While it has more adhesive resistance than a smooth wire nail of the same length, this is due directly to the CARPENTRY. 309 fact that two of its sides are tapering, or wedging, and that it has nearly twice the area of compression; but the slightest with- drawal of the nail releases the wedge, which immediately re- duces the area of compression and lowers its adhesive resistance about 40 per cent. This is not so with the wire nail, because the area of com- pression only varies as the distance the nail is imbedded, and its adhesive resistance is nearly in ratio to this area. From what has been stated it is readily seen that the greatest area of compression and adhesive resistance in a cut nail is towards the head of the nail, whereas it should be at the point, while in the wire nail it varies only as the units of its length; therefore the excess of metal used and the very form of the cut nail is primarily wrong, as proved by modern practice, and is contrary to the very sense of its purpose, while the wire nail fulfils the requirements of a perfect nail. Herein follow tables showing comparative tests of smooth steel wire nails, steel cut nails, and coated steel wire nails, with reference to their area of compression and adhesive resistance to pull. TESTS SHOWING ADHESIVE RESISTANCE FOR EACH ONE- HALF INCH UNIT OF LENGTH OF NAIL IMBEDDED INTO WHITE PINE. Kind of Nail. Com- mercial Gauge. Diam- eter in Inches. Adhesive Resistance in Pounds for Each i-inch Unit. 2 Ins., Lbs. H Ins., Lbs. 1 In., Lbs. Un., Lbs. 8d common smooth wire lOd common smooth wire 20d common smooth wire 101 9 6 .135 .148 .192 210 200 220 170 150 130 140 110 110 90 80 80 120 150 8d common coated wire nail lOd common coated wire nail 11 10 .120 .135 370 400 2*0 330 220 250 8d common cut steel. . . lOd common cut steel. . . 20d common cut steel. . . Dimensions. 1(HX9 10*X5* 7 X4 260 320 280 90 140 90 40 60 40 Remarks. The resistance here given was recorded on the machine gauge, the nail being driven into the wood 2 inches deep, then each reading of the gauge was taken successively as the nail was withdrawn to the measurements given. 310 CARPENTRY. A CUT NAIL LOSES FORTY PER CENT OF ITS ADHESIVE RE- SISTANCE THE MOMENT IT HAS BEEN SLIGHTLY WITH- DRAWN. Dis- Resist- Resist- Resist- Kind of Nail. Com- mercial Gauge. "tance Em- bedded, Inches. ance to Initial Pull, Lbs. ance Second Pull, Lbs. Loss after First Pull. Per Cent Loss. 8d cut common 10* H 260 160 100 40 12d " " 9 2 390 220 170 43 Remarks. The first pull extracted the nail about 3 9 2 inch. ORDNANCE DEPARTMENT, U. S. A. Reports of mechanical tests made with the United States Testing Machine at Watertown Arsenal, Watertown, Mass., June 30, 1902, and August 5 and 16, 1902, for .1. C. Pearson Company. (Nails driven perpendicular to the grain of the wood. All nails driven in the same stick.) Test Num- ber. Description of Nail. Length Driven, Inches. Adhe- sive Resist- ance, Total Lbs. Aver- age, Lbs. Size and Name. Diam- eter, Inches. .145 .145 .145 .117 .117 .117 .132 .132 .132 .114 .114 .114 .132 .132 .132 .112 .112 .112 .097 .097 .097 .092 .092 .092 Total Length, Inches. 11.989 12.058 11.991 11.992 11.993 12.044 11.998 12.059 ( lOd common smooth . <10d " " . llOd ( lOd coated ^ lOd " 2.99 2.99 2.99 3.00 3.00 3.00 2.83 2.83 2.83 2.68 2.68 2.68 2.52 2.52 2.52 2.39 2.39 2.39 2.05 2.05 2.05 1.94 1.94 1.94 2.50 2.50 2.50 2.50 2.50 2.50 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 1.625 1.625 1.625 1.625 1 . 625 1.625 136 144 220 414 406 435 226 125 196 345 318 317 146 228 192 322 318 309 100 112 105 214 218 247 > 167 I 418 I 182 j- 327 I 189 I 316 >- 106 j- 226 1 lOd " ( 9d common smooth . \ 9d " " . 1 9d " " . ( 9d coated \ 9d " { 9d " ( 8d common smooth . \ 8d " " . 1 8d " " . i 8d coated < 8d " I Sd " I 6d common smooth . \ 6d " " . 1 6d " " . ( 6d coated \ 6d " 1 6d " The coated nails used in making the above tests were those manufactured by J. C. Pearson Company, Boston. The various kinds of nails derive their names from their shape, material from which they are made, or from the use for which they are intended. CARPENTRY. 311 The term penny, as applied to nails, is derived from pound. It originally meant so many pounds to the thousand. Three- penny nails would mean three pounds to the thousand nails; eight-penny, eight pounds to the thousand nails, etc. Now the term penny is used only to refer to the length of the nail. 3 Ibs. 8d nails will lay one square flooring, 2 " 8d " " " " " sheathing. 2 " 8d " " " " " siding, For quantity of nails required see Lathing, Shingling, and Slating. SPIKES, NAILS, AND TACKS. Standard Steel Wire Nails. Steel Wire Spikes. Common Iron Nails. 1 Common. Finishing. 1 A 1 ^3 y C5 y C o c 1 3 f| 1? || |3 K- 1 II 1 1 1 PH CO M C g o3 S c ? Q^ "So S c e CC t3> r" ce j Cj^ s |Cj S | a 1 s ffi 1 ! 2d 1 0524 1060 .0453 1558 3 .1620 41 2d 1 800 3d H .0588 640 .0508 913 .1819 30 3d H 400 4d If .0720 380 .0508 761 4 .2043 23 4d H 300 5d I* .0764 275 .0571 500 41 .2294 17 5d if 200 6d 2 .0808 210 .0641: 350 5 .2576 13 6d 2 150 7d 21 .0858 160 .0641 315 .2893 11 7d 21 120 8d .0935 115 .0720 214 6 .2893 10 8d 2* 85 9d 2i .0963 93 .0720 195 6* .2249 9d 2* 75 lOd 3 .1082 77 .0808' 137 7" .2249 7 lOd 3 60 12d 16d it .1144 .1285 60 48 .0808! 127 . 0907 90 8 9 .3648 .3648 5 12d 16d It 50 20d 4 .1620 31 .1019 62 20d 4 20 30d 41. 1819 22 30d 41 16 40d 5 .2043 17 40d K 14 50d 2294 13 50d 5^ 11 60d 6 .2576 11 60d 8 i TACKS. Title, Ounce. Length, Inches. Num- ber per Title, Ounce. Length, Inches. Num- ber per Title, Ounce. Length, Inches. Num- ber per Pound. Pound. Pound. 1 u 16,000 4 tte 4000 14 18 /lo 1143 1* 1 10,666 8,000 6 8 %a % 2666 2000 16 18 14 15 /ie 1000 888 2^ 6 /ia 6,400 10 Hie 1600 20 1 800 3 H 5,333 12 H 1333 22 IMe 727 24 m 666 312 CARPENTRY. WROUGHT SPIKES. Number to a keg of 150 pounds. L'gth, I u.s. MIn., Num- ber. 5 4 6ln " Num- ber. %In., Num- ber. L'gth, Ins. MIn., Num- ber. 5 /ie In., Num- ber. Ys In., Num- ber. %eln., JN um- ber. X In., Num- ber. 3 3* 1* 6 2250 1890 1650 1464 1380 1292 1208 1135 1064 930 868 742 570 7 8 9 10 11 12 1161 662 635 573 482 455 424 391 445 384 300 270 249 236 306 256 240 222 203 180 WEIGHT OF COPPER NAILS. CUT COPPER SLATING NAILS. \\ inch, about 190 to the pound. 1J inch, about 135 to the pound. CUT YELLOW METAL SLATING NAILS. 1| inch, about 154 to the pound. 1J inch, about 140 to the pound. COPPER WIRE SLATING NAILS. | inch No. 12 gauge about 303 per pound. 1 lt "12 ec fe 270 (t tf J 1 It "11 IC ct 1 " " 10 " " I I (f (t -| o i( {t 1 i- (t "12 " " NUMBER OF BOAT SPIKES 196 " " 134 " 231 " " 210 " TO 200-POUND KEG. Diameter. s-g I s 1 4 Inch Square. Ke Inch Square. ^Inch Square. Vie Inch Square. \4 Inch Square. y 9 Inch Square. % Inch Square. 3 3300 31 2880 4 2343 167i *J 2200 1364 i039 5 2030 1308 935 r * 1828 1175 880 . 6 1624 1115 710 562 433 7 1420 988 665 516 400 8 1220 849 602 453 337 9 519 409 305 10 468 369 297 '182 12 410 302 241 155 14 216 130 '95' 16 182 122 80 TIMBER. 313 NUMBER AND DIAMETER OF WOOD SCREWS. Num- Diam- i Num- Diam- Num- Diam- Num- Diam- ber. eter. 1 her. eter. ber. eter. ber. eter. .056 8 .162 16 .268 24 .374 1 .069 9 .175 17 .281 25 .387 2 .082 10 .188 18 .293 26 .401 3 .096 11 .201 19 .308 27 .414 4 .109 12 .215 20 .321 28 .427 5 .122 13 .228 21 .334 29 .440 6 .135 14 .241 22 .347 30 .453 7 .149 15 .255 23 .361 Timber. DESCRIPTION OF THE VARIOUS WOODS USED IN CONSTRUCTION. White Pine, or Northern pine, is found in the northern part of the United States and in Canada. It is a light, soft, straight-grained wood of a light yellowish color; it is mostly used in buildings for trim and mouldings, where the work is to be painted or stained. It is one of the most reliable of woods for staying in place after it is put up, as it does not twist and warp like some of the other woods. Georgia Pine, which is also known as pitch or hard pine, and is usually specified as "long-leaf pine," is found along the southern coast of the United States, from Virginia to Texas; it is the best variety of the yellow pine, and is much used for flooring, and also for heavy framing. It is a very strong wood and contains much resin. It should not be used under ground or in damp places, as it decays very fast in such places. The other species of yellow pine are often sold as Georgia "long- leaf, " but they are much softer and not so strong. The super- intendent should make himself familiar with the different species so as to be able to distinguish them. Spruce is the name given to all the varieties of the spruce- fir tree, of which there are four: white, black, Norway, and single spruce. Spruce is a very tough light wood, with a red- dish color, and is much used for framing lumber; it is also much used for piles, as it preserves well in the water or in damp places. Oregon Pine. This is the best framing lumber found in the United States. It is much harder and stronger than the white pine and does not contain as much resin as the yellow pine. It can be got in any size and length and is much used for masts and spars. Hemlock is similar to spruce in appearance, but is a much inferior wood. It is very brittle, splits very easily, and is often 314 TIMBER. found shaky. The grain is very coarse and the concentric circular layers of the wood separate easily. It is only used as a cheap framing lumber, and for sheathing, as it holds a nail better than the soft pine. White Cedar is a soft white, fine-grained wood, and is very durable when exposed to dampness, hence it makes good shingles, for which purpose it is much used. Red Cedar is a similar wood to the white cedar, but is of a reddish-brown color. It possesses a strong odor which repels insects, and on this account is much used for making chests, lining wardrobes, etc. It is also a good wood for use in damp places, as it stands the moisture very well. Cypress is a wood somewhat similar to cedar, and is much used for shingles, and for use where dampness is to be con- sidered. It is found in the southern and southwestern parts of the United States. Red Wood, which is the common name given to the Sequoia or "big trees" of California, is a valuable lumber for building purposes where great strength is not necessary. It has great lasting qualities when exposed to dampness and makes the best of shingles. For sills or posts in the ground it is one of the best woods to be found. It makes good weather-boarding or mouldings and takes the paint well. It is of a dull-reddish color and makes a very nice finish when finished natural. White Oak is the hardest of the several varieties of oak, and is found in the eastern half of the United States. The wood is very heavy, hard, and strong, and is used where strength is desired. Red Oak is of a more open grain than the white oak and is softer and not so strong. It is more easily worked and is much used for inside finish. Red oak when quarter-sawed makes one of the most pleasing finishes to the eye. Ash. This wood grows in the northern part of the United States. It is very heavy and hard, is usually white in color, and is used for finish and for furniture. Hickory is the 'heaviest, toughest, hardest, and strongest of all woods found in America. It is very close-grained and is very flexible. It is not used much for building purposes, unless for wedges, pins, and such like. Locust is a hard, close-grained wood of a yellowish color; its use is principally for posts in the ground or such places, as it is a very lasting wood in damp places. TIMBER. 315 Black Walnut is a heavy, hard wood of a dark-brown color and has a very nice even grain. On account of its value it is not used much for building purposes, but its use is confined mostly to furniture and cabinet work. White Walnut (butternut) is a specie of the walnut; the wood is lighter in color and heavier in grain. Its uses are about the same as black walnut. Cherry This wood, which is obtained from the wild-cherry tree, is used for interior finish and for furniture. It is hard, close-grained, and very durable; it takes a high polish and stands well, as it is not liable to twist or warp. Birch is much similar to cherry in structure and in appearance, but it does not stand as well, being more liable to twist and warp. Maple is a hard, heavy, strong, close-grained wood of a light color. It is one of the best woods in use for flooring, and is much used for this purpose. The "bird's-eye" maple, which is covered with small spots which resemble small knots, is used for finish and for furniture. Chestnut, which is a soft, coarse-grained wood of a somewhat similar color to oak, is found in the eastern part of the United States. It is not a strong wood, being very brittle, but its lasting qualities are very good. It is used for inside finish and resembles oak. It is also used for outside structures exposed to the weather, on account of its durability. Poplar (whitewood) is a wood of a yellowish color, soft and brittle, with a close grain. It is used mostly for mouldings or inside finish, frequently to imitate hard woods, as it has a close grain and takes stain well. The sap-wood is nearly white in color. Mahogany. This wood comes from the West Indies and Central America, and is very valuable. It is used principally in the manufacture of furniture; also for finishing in the more expensive houses or buildings. When timber of any kind is to be used in any structure or construction of any kind, it will be the duty of the superin- tendent to see that it is free from all defects, of which the most common are rot, dry-rot, wind-shakes, splits, bad knots, sap, etc. In lumber which contains sap, and which has been piled for some time, just after being sawed, and piled without stick- ing, the sap will usually turn a dark-blue or drab color. This 316 TIMBER. is "black or blue sap" and is the first stages of " dry-rot," and any lumber in this condition should be rejected. Lumber which has been cut from trees growing in soft soil or swamps is often found to contain "wind-shakes," caused by the usually rapid growth of the trees and the swaying or bending of the trees by the wind. These shakes are Bracks separating the concentric circular rings of the wood. Heart-shakes, or splits, are the cracks found in the heart of the log, usually caused by the shrinkage of the log, or the heart of the tree or log separating from the outside layers of the wood. A sound stick of timber when struck a sharp blow with a hammer on the end should give forth a clear ringing sound, and which can be heard by a person placing his ear at the opposite end of the stick. If the sound is dull and faint it is an indication of decay or some defect in the stick. Timber for posts carrying great weight should be from the heart of the tree, as this is usually the strongest, and the com- pression strength will be the same on all outside parts of the stick. Timber for flag-poles or masts should also be from the heart of the tree. If one side of the stick is heart-wood and the opposite side of the stick is wood from out next the bark the unequal shrinkage of the two sides of the stick in length will cause the stick to bow and become crooked. Timber before being used should be well seasoned either by natural or artificial means. Timber if piled when sawed and strips placed between each layer of timber so as to permit the air to get to all sides of the timber will season for ordinary use in from seven months to two years, according to the kind of wood and the size of the sticks. When timber is used in any place where shrinkage in the timber may weaken the structure, the superintendent should make sure that the timber has been well seasoned and is per- fectly dry. When lumber of any kind is brought to the work the super- intendent should see that it is piled up and covered in a proper manner to protect it from the sun and weather, as good lum- ber can be very easily spoiled by carelessness in piling or covering. The shrinkage of timber is shown by the following table: TIMBER. 317 Cedar 12 to 11 .40 inches. Elm 12 to 11:70 " Oak 12 to 11 . 75 " Pine (white) 12 to 11. 80 " Pine (yellow) 12 to 11 .90 " Pine (yellow long-leaf) 12 to 11.95 " Redwood (California) 12 to 11 .95 " Spruce 12 to 11.85 " The working strength of timber as given by the New York Building Code is shown by the following table: WORKING STRENGTH PER SQUARE INCH IN POUNDS. Name of Wood. Direct Compres- sion, Ten- sion. Shearing. Safe Ex- treme Fibre Stress (Bend- ing). With Grain. Across Grain. With Fibre. Across Fibre. Oak Yellow pine White pine Spruce Locust. 900 1000 800 SCO 1200 500 500 800 600 400 400 1000 500 1000 1000 1200 800 800 100 70 40 50 100 40 600 500 250 320 720 275 150 1000 1200 800 800 1200 600 800 Hemlock Chestnut LASTING QUALITIES OF WOOD IN THE EARTH. Experi- ments have been made by driving sticks of different woods into the ground, by which it is ascertained that in five years all of those made of oak, elm, fir, ash, soft mahogany, and all varieties of pine were almost totally rotten; larch and teak were decayed on the outside; acacia was only slightly decayed on the outside; hard mahogany and cedar of Lebanon were in good condition; Virginia cedar was as good as when put in. California redwood is also one of the best woods for use in damp places, as it is very slow to decay. Any wood to be exposed to much dampness should if possible be coated or impregnated with some preservative. The most effectual method of preserving wood from decay is to force the -preservative, such as creosote or other mixture, into the pores of the wood. Plants for doing this are found in nearly all the large cities. For timbers, etc., to be used underground, a coat of coal-tar applied hot is a good method of preserving the wood from rot. 318 TIMBER. SAFE LOADS UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED FOR RECTANGULAR SPRUCE OR WHITE-PINE BEAMS ONE INCH THICK, The following table has been calculated for extreme fibre stresses of 750 pounds per square inch corresponding to the following values for moduli of rupture recommended by Prof. Lanza, viz. : Spruce and white pine 3000 Ibs. Oak 4000 ' Yellow pine 5000 ' For oak increase values in table by . For yellow pine increase values in table by $. The safe load for any other values per square inch is found by increasing or decreasing the loads given in the table in the same proportion as the increased or decreased fibre stress. Depth of Beam. Span "^ in Feet. 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Ins. Ins. Ins. Ins. Ins. Ins. Ins. Ins. Ins. Ins. Ins. 5 600 820 1070 1350 1670 2020 2400 2820 3270 3750 4270 6 500 680 890 1120 1390 1680 2000 2350 2730 13120 3560 7 430 580 760 960 1190 1440 1710 2010 2330 |2680 3050 8 380 510 670 840 1040 1260 1500 1760 2040 2340 2670 9 330 460 590 750 930 1120 1330 1560 1810 2080 2370 10 300 410 530 670 830 1010 1200 1410 1630 1880 2130 11 270 370 490 610 760 920 1090 1280 1490 1710 1940 12 250 340 440 560 690 840 1000 1180 1360 1560 1780 13 230 310 410 520 640 780 930 1080 1260 1440 1640 14 210 290 380 480 590 720 860 1010 1170 1340 1530 15 200 270 360 450 560 670 800 940 1090 1250 1420 16 190 260 330 42J 520 630 750 880 1020 1180 1330 17 180 240 310 400 490 590 710 830 960 1100 1260 18 170 230 290 370 460 560 670 780 910 1040 1190 19 160 210 280 360 440 530 630 740 860 990 1130 20 150 200 270 340 420 510 600 710 820 940 1070 21 140 190 260 320 390 480 570 670 780 890 1020 22 140 190 240 310 380 460 540 640 7^0 850 970 23 ! 130 180 230 290 360 440 520 610 710 810 920 24 130 170 220 280 350 420 500 590 680 780 890 25 120 160 210 270 330 410 480 560 660 750 860 26 110 160 210 260 320 390 460 540 630 720 820 27 110 150 200 250 310 370 440 520 610 690 790 28 110 140 190 240 300 360 430 500 580 670 760 29 110 140 180 230 290 350 410 490 560 640 740 To obtain the safe load for any thickness multiply values for 1 inch by s thickness of beam. To obtain the required thickness for any load divide by safe load for 1 inch. TIMBER. 319 SAFE LOADS FOR RECTANGULAR WOODEN PILLARS (SEASONED). 1 = length of pillar in inches; d = width of smallest side in inches. Yellow Pine (Southern). 1125 White Oak. 925 + 1100rf2 White Pine and Spruce. 800 11 l2 11 P llOOrf 2 1 HOOd 2 These formulae give safe loads of one-fourth the ultimate strength for short pillars, decreasing to one-fifth the ultimate for long pillars. Ratio of Length Safe Loads in Pounds per Square Inch of Section. to Lcust Side i T Yellow Pine (Southern). White Oak. White Pine and Spruce. 12 995 818 707 14 955 785 679 16 913 750 649 18 869 715 618 20 825 678 587 22 781 642 556 24 738 607 525 26 697 575 495 28 657 541 467 30 619 509 440 32 583 479 414 34 549 451 390 36 516 425 367 38 487 400 346 40 458 377 326 The Cleveland Building Code gives the following proportions for wood and other columns: Sec. 14. LENGTH OF COLUMNS, POSTS, AND PIERS. No free- standing or built-in column, pier, or post shall exceed the follow- ing proportions of the least side or diameter to the height with- out being .anchored, stayed, or tied by beams or girders in at least two (2) directions at right angles to each other : Brick piers 1 : 8 Block stone piers 1:10 Wooden posts, short 1:16 320 TIMBER. Wooden posts, long 1 : 24 Cast-iron columns, short 1 : 20 Cast-iron columns, long 1 : 30 Wrought-iron columns 1 : 40 Steel columns . . . 1 : 44 SAFE LOADS IN TONS OF 2000 POUNDS FOR SQUARE WOODEN PILLARS. Unsup- ported Length of Col- umn in Feet. Size of Pillar in Inches. 6X6 8X8 9X9 10X10 12X12 14X14 16X16 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 WHITE PINE OH SPRUCE. 12.80 11.70 10.60 9.54 8.46 7.38 22.7 21.3 19.8 18.4 17.0 15.5 14.1 29.6 28.0 26.3 24.7 23.1 21.5 19.8 18.2 35.5 33.7 31.9 30.1 28.3 26.5 24.7 22.9 51.1 49.0 46.8 44.7 42.5 40.3 38.2 69.6 67.0 64.5 62.0 59.5 57.0 91.0 88.0 85.2 82.3 79.4 WHITE OAK. 6 8 10 I?. 14 16 18 20 22 24 14.80 13.50 12.20 11.00 9.73 8.64 26.2 24.6 22.7 21.1 19.5 17.8 16.3 34.0 32.4 30.4 28.4 26.5 24.7 22.7 21.1 41.0 39.1 36.7 34.6 32.4 30.5 28.2 26.4 59.1 56.9 54.0 51.1 49.1 46.1 43.9 80.4 77.8 74.5 71.3 68.3 65.5 105.0 102.0 98.5 94.7 90.9 YELLOW PINE (SOUTHERN). 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 18.0 16.4 14.9 13.3 11.9 10.4 98.0 94.6 90.7 86.9 83.6 80.0 132.0 128.0 124.0 120.0 115.0 111.0 32.0 29.9 27.8 25.8 23.7 21.8 19.8 41.6 39.4 36.9 34.7 32.3 30.0 27.8 25.7 50.0 47.6 44.7 42.3 39.5 37.0 34.6 32.2 72.0 69.1 65.5 62.6 59.8 56.2 53.3 INSPECTION OF YELLOW PINE. 321 As a guide to the superintendent for inspection of lumber of various kinds the rules for inspection of the different lumber associations are given as follows: SOUTHERN LUMBER MANUFACTURERS' ASSOCIATION. RULES FOR THE GRADING AND CLASSIFICATION OF YELLOW PINE. General Instructions. 1. YELLOW-PINE LUMBER shall be graded and classified according to the following rules and specifications as to quality, and dressed stock shall conform to the subjoined table of standard sizes, except where otherwise expressly stipulated between buyer and seller. 2. Recognized defects in yellow pine are knots, knot-holes, splits (either from seasoning ring hearts or rough handling), shake, wane, red heart, rot, rotten streaks, worm-holes, pitch streaks, pitch pockets, solid pitch, torn grain, loosened grain, seasoning or kiln checks, and black or blue sap-stains. 3. KNOTS. Knots shall be classified as pin, standard, and large, as to size; and round and spike, as to form; and as sound, loose, encased, pith and rotten, as to quality. 4. A pin knot is sound and not over J inch in diameter. 5. A standard knot is sound and not over 1J inches-: in diameter. 6. A large knot is sound and any size over 1| inches in diameter. 7. A round knot is oval or circular in form, and the mean or average diameter of the same shall be considered in applying and construing the rules. 8. A spike knot is one sawn in a lengthwise direction. 9. A sound knot is one solid across its face, is as hard as the wood it is in, may be either red or black, and is so fixed by growth or position that it will retain its place in the piece. 10. A loose knot is one not held firmly in place by growth or position. 11. A pith knot is a small, sound knot with a pith-hole not more than \ inch in diameter in the centre. 322 INSPECTION OF YELLOW PINE. LUMBER MEASURE. Inches Wide. Length in Feet. 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 IX 8 8 9 11 12 13 15 16 IX 10 10 12 13 15 17 18 20 1X12 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 2X 3 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 2X 4 8 9 11 12 13 15 16 2X 6 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 2X 8 16 19 21 24 27 29 32 2X10 20 23 27 30 33 37 40 2X12 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 2X14 28 33 37 42 47 51 56 2X16 32 37 43 48 53 59 64 3X 4 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 3X 6 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 3X 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 3X10 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 3X12 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 3X14 42 49 56 63 70 77 84 3X16 48 56 64 72 80 88 96 4X 4 16 19 21 24 27 29 32 4X 6 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 4X 8 32 37 43 48 53 59 64 4X10 40 47 53 60 67 73 80 4X12 48 56 64 72 80 88 96 6X 6 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 6X 8 48 56 64 72 80 88 96 6X10 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 6X12 72 84 96 108 120 132 144 6X14 84 98 112 126 140 154 168 6X16 06 112 128 144 1GO 176 192 8X 8 64 75 85 96 107 117 128 8X10 80 93 107 120 133 147 160 8X12 96 112 128 144 160 176 192 8X14 112 131 149 168 187 205 224 8X16 128 149 171 192 213 235 256 10X10 100 117 133 150 167 183 200 10X12 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 12X12 144 168 192 216 240 264 288 12. An incased knot is one surrounded wholly or in part by bark or pitch. 13. A rotten knot is one not as hard as the wood it is in. 14. PITCH. Pitch pockets are openings between the grain of the wood containing more or less pitch or bark, and shall be classified as large and small pitch pockets. 15. A standard pitch pocket is one not over f of an inch in open width or 3 inches in length. A small pitch pocket is one less than f of an inch in open width. 16. A pitch pocket showing open on both sides of the piece INSPECTION OF YELLOW PINE. 323 LUMBER MEASURE. Inches Wide. Length in Feet. 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 2X 3 13 14 15 16 2X 4 17 19 20 21 '23 '24 "25 '27 2X 6 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 2X 8 35 37 40 43 45 48 51 53 2X10 43 47 50 53 57 60 63 67 2X12 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 2X14 61 65 70 75 79 84 89 93 2X16 69 75 80 85 91 96 101 107 3X 4 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 3X 6 39 42 45 48 51 54 57 60 3X 8 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 3X10 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 3X12 78 84 90 96 102 108 114 120 3X14 91 98 105 112 119 126 133 140 3X16 104 112 120 128 136 144 152 160 4X 4 35 37 40 43 45 48 51 53 4X 6 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 4X 8 69 75 80 85 91 96 101 107 4X10 87 93 100 107 113 120 127 133 4X12 104 112 120 128 136 144 152 160 6X 6 78 84 90 96 102 108 114 120 6X 8 104 112 120 128 136 144 152 160 6X10 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 6X12 156 168 180 192 204 216 228 240 6X14 182 196 210 224 238 252 266 280 6X16 208 224 240 256 272 288 304 320 8X 8 139 149 160 171 181 192 203 213 8X10 173 187 200 213 227 240 253 267 8X12 208 224 240 256 272 288 304 320 8X14 243 261 280 299 317 336 355 373 8X16 277 299 320 341 363 384 405 427 10X10 217 233 250 267 283 300 317 333 10X12 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400 12X12 312 336 360 384 408 432 456 480 I of an inch or more in width shall be considered the same as a knot-hole. 17. A pitch streak is a well-defined accumulation of pitch at one point in the piece, and when not sufficient to develop a well-defined streak, it shall not be considered a defect. 18. A small pitch streak shall be equivalent to not over one- twelfth the width and one-sixth the length of the piece it is in. A standard pitch streak shall be equivalent to not over one- sixth the width and one-third of the length of the piece it is in. 19. SAP. Bright sap shall not be considered a defect in any of the grades provided for and described in these rules. 324 INSPECTION OF YELLOW PINE. The restriction or exclusion of bright sap constitutes a special class of material which can only be secured by special contract. 20. Blued sap shall not be considered a defect in any of the grades of common lumber. 21. MISCELLANEOUS. Firm red heart shall not be considered a defect in any of the grades of common lumber. 22. Defects in rough stock caused by improper manufacture and drying will reduce grade, unless they can be removed in dressing such stock to standard sizes. 23. All stock shall be inspected on the face side to determine the grade. For stock surfaced one side the dressed surface shall be considered the face side. And for stock rough or dressed two sides, the best side shall be considered the face, but the reverse side of all such stock should not be more than one grade lower. 24. Imperfect manufacture in dressed stock, such as torn grain, loosened grain, broken knots, mismatched, insufficient tongue or groove on flooring, ceiling, drop-sjding, etc., shall be considered defects, and will reduce grade according as they are slight or serious in their effects on the use of the stock. 25. Pieces of either flooring, ceiling, or drop-siding having less than ^ inch of tongue shall not be admitted in any grade above No. 2 Common, pieces with ^ inch or more of tongue to be admitted in any grade. 26. In all grades of flooring, ceiling, drop-siding, etc., wane on the reverse side, not exceeding one-third the width and one- sixth the length of any piece, provided the wane does not extend into the tongue, nor over one-half the thickness below the groove, is admissible. 27. Chipped grain consists in a part of the surface being chipped or broken out in small particles below the line of the cut, and as usually found should not be classed as torn grain and shall not be considered a defect. 28. Torn grain consists in a part of the wood being torn out in dressing. It occurs around knots and curly places. 29. Loosened grain consists in a point of one grain being torn loose from the next grain. It occurs on the heart side of the piece, and is a serious defect, especially in flooring. 30. The grade of all regular stock shall be determined by the number, character, and position of the defects visible in any piece. The enumerated defects admissible in any grade are INSPECTION OF YELLOW PINE. 325 intended to be descriptive of the coarsest pieces such grades may contain. The average quality of the grade should be about midway between such pieces and the coarest pieces allowed in the next higher grade. 31. Lumber and timber sawed for specific purposes must be inspected with a view to its adaptability for the use intended. Material not conforming to standard sizes, for agricultural- implement companies, wagon companies, car-manufacturing companies, railway companies, etc., shall be governed by special contact. 32. The standard lengths are multiples of two feet, ten to twenty-four feet, inclusive, for boards, stripes, dimension, joists, and timbers. Longer or shorter lengths than those herein specified are special. Odd and fractional lengths shall be counted as of the next higher even length. 33. On stock-width shipments of No. 1 Common and better lumber, either rough or dressed one or two sides, no piece shall be admissible that is more than \ inch scant on 8-inch and under; f inch scant on 10-inch, or inch scant on 12-inch or wider. All 4-inch and wider No. 2 Common stock may go inch scant in width. 34. Yellow pine of a better grade than No. 1 Common, up to 4 inches in width, shall be classified as to grain as edge grain and flat grain. Edge grain has been variously designated as rift sawn, vertical grain, quarter sawn, all being commercially synonymous terms. Edge-grain stock is especially desirable for flooring and admits no piece in which the angle of the grain exceeds 45 degrees from verticle at any point, thus excluding all pieces that will sliver or shell from wear. Such as will not meet these requirements shall be known as flat grain. 35. All dressed stock shall be measured and sold strip count, viz., full size of rough material necessarily used in its manufac- ture. All sizes 1 inch or less in thickness shall be counted as 1 inch thick. 36. Equivalent means equal, and in construing and apply- ing these rules, the defects allowed, whether specified or not, are understood to be equivalent in damaging effect to those mentioned applying to stock under consideration. 37. The foregoing general observations shall apply to and govern the application of the following rules: 326 INSPECTION OF YELLOW PINE. DRESSED YELLOW-PINE FINISHING. Grades: First and Sec- ond Clear, Third Clear.. 38. First and Second Clear. Inch, 1, 1J, and 2-inch, dressed one or two sides up to and including 8 inches wide, must show one face practically clear of all defects. 10 inches wide will admit any one of the following defects: One split not more than 6 inches long, one small pitch pocket, one pin knot, pitch streak, or blue sap stain not to exceed the equivalent of 6 square inches. One-third of any shipment of 12- and 14- inch in addition to one straight split not to exceed in length the width of the piece will admit any one of the following defects or its equivalent: Three pin knots, one standard knot, two small pitch pockets, or one large pitch pocket, one small pitch streak, small kiln or seasoning checks, one blue sap stain 1 inches wide running across the face of the piece. Each two inches above 14 inches in width, in addition to one straight split, not to exceed in length the width of the piece, will admit any two of the defects allowed in 12-inch or their equivalent. Pieces otherwise admissible which have loosened or torn grain on the face side shall be put in a lower grade. 39. Special. In case both sides are desired clear special contract must be made. Defective dressing on the reverse side of finishing is admissible. 40. Third Clear. Inch, 1, 1, and 2-inch, dressed two sides up to and including 10 inches in width, in addition to one straight split not to exceed in length the width of the piece, may have any two of the following defects or their equivalent: Slight torn grain, three pin knots, one standard knot, three small pitch pockets, one standard pitch pocket, one standard pitch streak, three blue sap stains 2 inches wide across the face or blue sap not over 8 inches deep on one end, wane not to exceed 1 inch in width and the length of the piece, or small kiln or seasoning checks. Twelve or 14 inches will admit three of the above defects or their equivalent. FLOORING. Grades: A, B, and C Flat, A, B, and C Edge Grain, No. 1 and 2 Fence. Special Section. Defects named in Flooring and Ceiling are based upon a piece manufactured from 1X4 12, and pieces larger or smaller than this will take a greater or less number of defects, proportioned to their size on this basis. INSPECTION OF 41. A Flat Flooring must be practically free from defects on the face side and well manufactured. 42. B Flat Flooring may have any two of the following defects or their equivalent: Blue sap stain not to exceed 15 per cent of the face, three pin knots, one standard knot, three small pitch pockets, one standard pitch pocket, one standard pitch streak, slight torn grain, or small kiln or seasoning checks. Pieces otherwise good enough for A, but containing not over six small pinworm-holes that have no blue sap about them, shall be admitted in B. 43. Edge-grain Flooring shall take the same inspection as flat grain, except as to the angle of the grain. 43 1 . Heart- face Edge Grain shall be free from sap on face side. 43|. Flat-grain C Flooring shall consist of stock that falls below a B grade of flooring in working B and better strips, and will admit of any two of the following or their equivalent of combined defects: 60 per cent of blue sap, pitch streak, or firm red heart; chipped or torn grain not over ^ inch deep in three places in one piece, or other machine defects that will lay without waste; shake or seasoning checks that do not go through, two standard pitch pockets, or six small pitch pockets, twenty pinworm-holes, two standard or six pin knots, or two pith knots; pieces otherwise as good as "A" can have one defect (as a knot-hole) that can be cut out by wasting 1| inches of the length of the piece. 44. No. 1 Fence Flooring may contain the following defects or their equivalent: Sound knots not over one-half the width of the piece at any one point throughout its length; spike knots whose length is not over one-half the width of the piece, and if on the edge not to exceed one-half the thickness; three pith knots, pitch, pitch pockets, blue sap, firm red heart, season- ing checks or slight shake, twenty pinworm-holes, chipped, loosened, or torn grain not over inch deep in three places in a piece, or other machine defects that will lay without waste; and if otherwise as good as "B" one defect (like a knot-hole) that can be cut out by wasting 3 inches of the length of the piece. 45. No. 2 Fence Flooring admit sail pieces that will not grade as good as No. 1 Fence Flooring, that can be used for cheap floors or sheathing without a waste of more than one-fourth 328 INSPECTION OF YELLOW PINE. the length of any one piece, and admits all the defects named in No. 2 Cemmon Fencing. 46. Centre Matched Flooring shall be required to come up to grade on face side only. CEILING. Grades: A, B, No. 1 and No. 2 Common. 47. A Ceiling must be practically free from defects on the face side and well manufactured. 48. B Ceiling will admit of any two of the following defects or their equivalent: Slight torn grain, three pin knots, one standard knot, three small pitch pockets, one standard pitch pocket, one small pitch streak, seasoning or kiln checks that do not go through, blue sap stain or firm red heart not to exceed 15 per cent of the face. Pieces otherwise good enough for A, but containing not over six small pinworm-holes that have no blue sap about them, shall be admitted in B. 49. No. 1 Common Ceiling will admit sound knots not over one-half the width of piece in the rough, blue sap, pitch streaks, pitch pockets, firm red heart, slight shake, torn grain, kiln or seasoning checks, or defects in manufacture. Pieces otherwise good enough for A, but containing one loose or unsound knot or knot-hole, 1 J inches in diameter or less, shall be graded No. 1 Common. Pieces otherwise good enough for A, but containing not over ten small pinworm-holes that have no blue stain about them, shall be graded No. 1 Common. Pieces otherwise good enough for A, but containing one pith knot, shall be admitted in the grade of No. 1 Common. 50. No. 2 Common Ceiling admits of all pieces not as good as No. 1 Common that can be used without waste of more than one-fourth the length of any one piece. WAGON-BOTTOMS. Grades: A and B. 51. Wagon-bottoms unless otherwise ordered (see section 31) shall be graded the same as A and B Flat Flooring. DROP-SIDING. Grades: A, B, and No. 1 Common. 52. A Drop-siding must be practically free from defects on the face side and well manufactured. 53. B Drop-siding will admit any two of the following defects or their equivalent: Slight-torn grain, three pin knots, one standard knot, blue sap stain or firm red heart not to exceed 15 per cent of the face, and slight kiln and seasoning checks. Pieces otherwise good enough for A, but containing not over INSPECTION OF YELLOW PINE. 329 six small pinworm-holes that have no blue sap about them, shall be admitted in B. 54. No. 1 Common Drop-siding will admit one standard pitch streak or one large pitch pocket, or their equivalent; and in addition, sound knots not over one-half the width of piece in the rough, blue sap stain, firm -red heart, slight shake, torn grain, defects in manufacture, and kiln" or seasoning checks that do not go through the piece. Pieces otherwise good enough for A, but containing one loose or unsound knot or knot-hole 1^ inches in diameter or less, shall be graded No. 1 Common. Pieces otherwise good enough for A, but containing not over ten small pinworm-holes that have no blue stain about them, shall be graded No. 1 Common. Pieces otherwise good enough for A, but containing one pith knot, shall be admitted in the grade of No. 1 Common. BEVEL-SIDING. Grades: A, B, and No. 1 Common. 55. Bevel-siding shall be graded according to the rules for drop-siding, and will admit in addition slight imperfections on the thin edge, which will be covered by the lap when laid 4 1 inches to the weather. PARTITION. Grades: A, B, and No. 1 Common. 56. Partition shall be graded according to ceiling rules, and must meet the requirements of the specified grades on the face side only, but the reverse side shall not be more than one grade lower. MOULDED CASING AND BASE. WINDOW- AND DOOR-JAMBS. Grades: A and B. 57. A Moulded Casing and Base must be practically free from defects on the face side and well manufactured. 58. B Casing or Base consists of rejections made after dressing stock inspected in the rough as "A." The defects admitted in B Ceiling shall be allowed. Window- and Door-jambs shall be graded the same as moulded casing and base. See section No. 35 for width. COMMON BOARDS, SHIPLAP, AND BARN SIDING, 8, 10, AND 12 INCHES WIDE. Grades: No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3 Com- mon. 59. No. 1 Common Boards, dressed one or two sides, and No. 1 Common Shiplap and Barn Siding shall be well manu- factured; will admit any number of sound knots, not over one- 330 INSPECTION OF YELLOW PINE. fourth of the width of the piece if located at the edge, nor over one-third of the width of the piece if located away from the edge; or their equivalent spike knots provided, however, that the spike knots when located on the edge do not occupy more than one-half the thickness of said edge two pith knots, one straight split not to exceed in length the width of the piece, pitch, pitch pockets, blue sap, seasoning checks that do not go through, firm red heart, wane \ inch deep on edge, and one- third the length of the piece or its equivalent, and a limited number of small pinworm-holes well scattered. These boards should be firm and strong and suitable for use in all ordinary construction. GROOVED ROOFING. Grooved Roofing shall be graded by rules governing No. 1 Boards, omitting the pith knots, worm- holes, and splits in end. 60. No. 2 Common Boards, dressed one or two sides, and No. 2 Common Shiplap, No. 2 Common Grooved Roofing may contain any number of knots, none of which are over 4J inches in diameter, or their equivalent spike knots, worm-holes, one straight split one-fourth the length of the piece, but must be free from through-rotten streaks, through-heart shakes over one-half of the length of the piece, and wane over 2 inches wide exceeding one-half the length of the piece. A knot-hole l^r inches in diameter, or its equivalent in small knot-holes or rotten streaks, will be allowed, provided the piece is otherwise as good as No. 1 Common. FENCING, 3, 4, AND 6 INCHES WIDE. Grades: No. 1, 2, and 3 Common. 61. No. I Fencing may contain the following defects or their equivalent: Sound knots, not over one-half width of piece at any point throughout its length; spike knots whose length is not over one-half the width of the piece, and if on the edge not to exceed one-half the thickness, three pith knots or their equivalent, wane one-half inch deep on edge and one-half of the length of the piece, pitch, pitch pockets, blue sap, seasoning checks, firm red heart, and a limited number of small pinworm- holes well scattered. 62. No. 2 Fencing, in addition to the defects allowed in No. 1 Common, will admit the following defects or their equiva- lent. Knots that do not badly weaken the piece at any point, small, unsound or loose knots, one straight split one-fourth the length of the piece, worm-holes, rotten streaks that do not INSPECTION OF YELLOW PINE. 331 go through; shake and wane, but must be good enough to be used in full length as fencing. A knot-hole 1J inches in diameter or its equivalent in small hollow knots will be allowed, provided the piece is otherwise as good as No. 1 Common. 63. No. 3 Fencing and No. 3 Boards are defective lumber, and will admit of coarse knots, knot-holes, very wormy pieces, some red rot and other defects that will not prevent its use as a whole for cheap sheathing or cutting one-half its length as No. 2 Common. 64. Miscut 1-inch boards and fencing which do not fall below f inch in thickness shall be admitted in No. 2 Common, provided the grade of such thin stock is otherwise as good as No. 1 Common. DIMENSION. S. 1 S. 1 E. Grades: No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3 Common. 65. Inspection of dimension is a question of strength and uniformity of size, and whatever reduces its strength in cross- section must be considered a defect to that extent. 66. No. 1 Common Dimension may contain sound knots, none of which in 2X4s should be larger than 2 inches in diameter on one or both sides of the piece, and on wider stock which does not occupy more than one-third of the cross-section at any point throughout its length if located at the edge of the piece, or more than one-half of the cross-section if located away from the edge; two pith knots, or smaller or more defective knots which do not weaken the piece more than the knot aforesaid; will admit of seasoning checks, firm red heart, heart-shakes that do not go through, wane, pitch, blue sap stains, pitch pockets, splits in ends not exceeding in length the width of the piece, a limited number of small pin worm-holes well scat- tered, and such other defects as do not prevent its use as sub- stantial structural material. 67. No. 2 Common Dimension may have knots which do not occupy more than one-half of the cross-section at any one point if located at the edge of the piece, nor more than two- thirds of the cross-section if located away from the edge; smaller, loose, hollow, or rotten knots that do not weaken the piece more than the knots aforesaid; will admit rotten streaks, shake, wane, worm-holes, and other defects which do not prevent its use without waste. 68. No. 3 Dimension will include all pieces falling below 332 INSPECTION OF YELLOW PINE. No. 2 grade which are sound enough to use for cheap building material. 69. Miscut 2-inch stock which does not fall below 1| inches in thickness shall be admitted in No. 2 Common, provided such pieces are in all other respects as good as No. 1 Common. 70. ROUGH YELLOW PINE FINISHING. Finish must be evenly manufactured, and shall embrace all sizes from 1 to 2 inches in thickness by 4 inches and over in width. 71. No inch, 1 and 1 finishing lumber, unless otherwise ordered, shall measure when dry more than ^ inch scant in thickness and on 2-inch it may be ^ inch scant. 72. Wane and seasoning checks that will dress out in work- ing to standard thickness and widths are admissible. 73. Subject to the foregoing provisions, rough-finishing shall be graded according to the specifications applying to dressed finishing lumber. All rough finishing lumber, if thicker than specified thick- ness for dry or green stock, may be dressed to such standard thickness, and when so dressed shall be considered as rough stock. When like grade on both faces is required, special contract must be made, 74. COMMON BOARDS, FENCING, AND DIMENSION. Rough com- mon boards and fencing must be well manufactured, and should not be less than f- inch thick when dry. 75. Rough 2-inch common shall be well manufactured and not less than If inches thick when green, or If inches thick when dry. The several widths must not be less than inch over the standard dressing width for such stock. Rough common dimension of a greater thickness than 2 inches and less than 4 inches shall be subject to special con- tract as to thickness and width. 76. Rough Dimension, if thicker than specified thickness for dry or green stock, may be dressed to such standard thickness, and when so dressed shall be considered as rough stock. 77. The defects admissible in rough boards, fencing, and dimension shall be the same as those applying to dressed stock of like kind and grade, and such further defects as would dis- appear in dressing to standard sizes of such material shall be allowed. 78. No. 1 COMMON TIMBERS. Rough Timbers, 4X4 and larger, shall not be more than \ inch scant when green, and INSPECTION OF YELLOW PINE. 333 be well manufactured, with not less than three square edges, and must be free from knots that will materially weaken the piece. Timbers 10X10 in size may have a 2-inch wane on one corner, measured on faces, or its equivalent on two or more corners, one-third the length of the piece. Larger sizes may have proportionately greater defects. Shakes extending not over one-eighth of the length of the piece are admissible, and seasoning checks shall not be con- sidered a defect. 79. Dressed timbers shall conform in grading to the speci- fications applying to rough timbers of same size. 80. Rough timbers, if thicker than specified thickness for dry or green stock, may be dressed to such standard thickness and when so dressed shall be considered as rough stock. STANDARD SIZES OF DRESSED LUMBER. Finishing. 1-inch S. 1 S. or 2 S. to Jf , li inch S. 1 S. or 2 S. to 1&, 1 inch S. 1 S. or 2 S. to 1$, 2 inch S. 1 S. or 2 S. to If inches. Moulded Casing and Base. ^f to patterns as per Southern Lumber Manufacturers' Association Moulding Book, 1901 edition. 1X4 S. 4 S. shall be 3 inches wide, finished, and 1X6 S. 4 S. shall be 5| inches wide, finished. Flooring. The standard of 1X3, 1X4, and 1X6 inches shall be i|X2, 31, and 5| inches, If -inch flooring shall be 1^ inches thick. Drop Siding. D. and M. |X3f and 5 inches; shiplap, f X5 inch face, 5J over all. Partition. fX3 and 5J inches. Ceiling. -inch ceiling, ^ inch; ^-inch ceiling, ^ inch; f-inch ceiling, YS inch; f-inch ceiling j^ inch. Same width as flooring. The bead on all ceiling and partition shall be depressed ^2 of an inch below surface line of piece. Bevel Siding. To be made from stock S. 4 S. to f X 5| and resawed on a bevel. Window- and Door-jambs. (See section 35.) Dressed, rabbeted, and ploughed as ordered, worked f inch scant of width. ' Boards and Fencing. 1-inch S. 1 S. or 2 S. to xf inch. Shiplap. 8-, 10-, and 12-inch. H X7, 9, and 11 inches. D. and M.8-, 10-, and 12-inch, if X7|,9|, and 11 1 inches. Grooved Roofing. 10- and 12-inch S. 1 S. and 2 E. to and 11J. 334 INSPECTION OF CYPRESS. Wagon-bottoms, unless otherwise ordered (see section 31), shall be made in sets 38 and 42 inches face and from stock 4 inches or over in width. Dimension. 2X4 D. 1 S. and 1 E. to If X3f inches; 2X6 D. 1 S. and 1 E. to If X5| inches; 2X8 D. 1 S. and 1 E. to If X7 inches; 2X10 D. 1 S. and 1 E. to If X9| inches; 2X12 D. 1 S. and 1 E. to If Xll inches; 4X4 and 4X6 D. 1 S. and 1 E. to | inch off side and edge; S. 4 S. i inch off each side. SOUTHERN CYPRESS LUMBER ASSOCIATION. In effect February 22, 1897. Strips. 4" to 6" strips shall be graded A, B, C, D, and read the same as flooring grades. Siding. "Clear and A" Siding may have 1" of bright sap on thin edge, and may contain one small sound knot. "B" may have | of face bright sap if otherwise clear, or in lieu of J sap may contain two small sound knots. "C" may be all bright sap or may have one to five knots, the whole not aggregating over 3", or knots or other defects that can be removed in two cuts with waste not exceeding 12" in length, or three pinworm-holes, and may have check or split at one end, not exceeding 12 // in length. "D" may have stained sap and pinworm-holes, or may have other defects that will not cause a waste to exceed J the piece. DRESSED FINISHING. Seven inches (7") and up random width to be two grades, as described in 1st and 2d Clear and Select. FLOORING, CEILING, AND PARTITION. Clear must be free of sap and defects. "A" may have 1" bright sap on one edge, may contain one small sound knot, or may have bright sap J its width on one end for not exceeding two feet from end. "B" may have $ of its face bright sap if otherwise clear, or in lieu of bright sap contain two small sound knots, or may have a split not to exceed 9" at one end. "C" may have all bright sap, or may have one to five knots, the whole not aggregating over 3", or knots or other defects that can be removed in two cuts with waste not to exceed 12" in length, or may have three pinworm-holes, or may have check or split at one end not to exceed 12" in length. INSPECTION OF CYPRESS. 335 "D" may have stained sap and pinworm-holes, or may have unsound knots or other defects that will not cause a waste to exceed $ of the piece. DRESSED FINISHING. Strips 1, 1J, and 1 |X4 to 6 inches wide to be graded as 1st and 2d Clear and Select. The above 1st and 2d Clear strips, which are 1, 11, and 1J thick, shall have one heart face, and will admit one inch sap, on one edge. Select may be all bright sap, or in lieu of sap may contain two standard knots. 2X4 and 2X6 to be graded Clear and 'Select as described in above 1, If, and 1J strips. SQUARES. Squares to be graded Clear and Select 4X4 to 10X10. A clear square to admit 1 its size of sap on one corner. Select may have half bright sap. SHINGLES. Best. A dimension shingle, 4, 5, and 6 inches, each width separately bunched, sixteen inches long, five butts to meas- ure two inches, all heart free of shakes, knots, and other defects. Primes. Dimension, each width separately bunched, six- teen inches long, five butts to measure two inches, admitting tight knots and sap, free of shakes and other defects, but with no knots within eight inches of the butt. Extra "A." Same as Primes, except random width and may admit of shingles fourteen inches long. Clippers. Any shingles which are sound for five inches from the butts worm-holes excepted and two and one-half inches or up in width. WEIGHTS. Pounds per M. Lumber, rough, 2 inches and under 3000 Lumber, rough, 2| and 3 inches 3500 f-inch flooring and ceiling 2300 f-inch ceiling 1600 -inch ceiling 1300 f-inch ceiling 1000 J-inch bevel siding 1000 Shingles, all grades 300 f-inch plaster lath 500 f-inch fence lath 900 liXl|X4 D. & H. pickets 1600 |X2|X4 D. & H. pickets 1800 2-inch O. G. battens 500 2^-inch 0. G. battens 600 3-inch 0. G. battens. ... 700 336 INSPECTION OF CYPRESS. GAUGES FOR MATCHED LUMBER. Flooring. 1X4 and 1X6 shall be E by 3*" and f X 5i". li" flooring shall be 1&. Ceiling. f" shall be &"; J" shall be ^5 f " shall be &"* f " shall be }", and the width shall be the same as flooring. TANK STOCK shall be 5" and over in width, 1J" to 4" thick, and 8' and over long. Pieces up to 7" shall be free of sap. Pieces wider than 7" may have 1" of sound sap on one edge, 'not to exceed half the length and half the thickness of the piece. In all widths, sound knots that do not impair its usefulness for tank purposes may be admitted. IST AND 2o CLEAR shall be 8" and over in width. Pieces 8" to 10" may have 1" of bright sap on each edge, or its equivalent on one edge, otherwise they must be clear. Pieces 10" and under 12" wide may have 1|" of bright sap on each edge, or 3" on one edge, and one standard knot \\" in diameter. Pieces 12" wide may have one standard knot and 2" of bright sap on each edge, or the equivalent on one edge; or in lieu of sap may have two standard knots or their equiva- lents. Pieces wider than 12" may admit of defects in pro- portion as width increases. Pieces 14" and wider may have one straight split not over 10" to 12" long, when comparatively free from other defects. Slight season checks allowed in above grade. SELECTS shall have one face side and be 7" and over in width. Pieces 10" and under in width shall admit two stand- ard knots of \\" in diameter, and an additional standard knot for every two inches in width, over 10". Bright sap not con- sidered a defect. Unsound knots that do not go through the piece to be allowed. Pieces free from other defects, 10" and over wide, to admit pinworm-holes on one edge cae-tenth the width of the piece. Season checks no defect. Slight wane on 10" pieces and over, allowed on one side, not over 3 feet in length. When no other defects appear, slight amount stained sap may be allowed. Pieces 10" and over in width may have a straight split not to exceed 12" in one end, when com- paratively free from other defects. SHOP. Shop to be 6" and over in width, 8' and over in length, and to include all lumber that will not go into above grades, but that will cut for shop use 60 per cent clear of waste. RULES FOR GRADING OREGON WHITE PINE. 337 MERCHANTABLE OR COMMON may be any width, admitting sap, knots, shake, or peck, when the strength is not impaired. RULES FOR GRADING EASTERN OREGON WHITE PINE. Common lumber will be divided into four grades as follows: No. 1 Common, No. 2 Common, No. 3 Common or Sheathing, and No. 4 Common or Culls. No. 1 COMMON BOARDS AND STRIPS shall include all sound, tight-knotted stock whether red or black knots, but must be free from large coarse knots that will weaken the piece or loose knots that will fall out in the seasoning or handling. A small amount of blue sap stain is admissible in a piece where the knot defects are not very pronounced. Ex. 1. No. 1 COMMON 1X1216 S. 1 S. Has five red knots from 1J to 2 in. in diameter, three limb knots or V 1^X3 in., but running in not more than one-half thickness of the board; also twelve small black and red knots all sound and well scattered, these smaller knots varying in size from J in. to 1 in. in diameter. Ex. 2. No. 1 COMMON 1 X 1220 S. 1 S. Has seven red knots from 1 in. to 2 in. in diameter and five red branch knots extend- ing across not more than one-third the width of the board nor running in not more than one-half the thickness of the board ; also several small sound knots from | in. to 1J in. in diameter. This is a heart board. Ex. 3. No. 1 COMMON 1X10 16 GROOVED ROOFING. This piece contains three sound smooth knots from 1| to 2 in. in diameter and eight small red knots from to 1 in. in diameter and a small amount of blue stain. Ex. 4. No. 1 COMMON 1X8 16 SHIPLAP OR RUSTIC. This piece contains three sound red knots from 1^ in. to 1 in. in diameter and eight or ten small sound knots and pin knots and will admit of a small amount of blue stain. The piece must work smooth and sound. Ex. 5. No. 1 COMMON 1X616 FENCING $. 1 S. This piece contains five sound knots from 1 in. to 1 in. in diameter well scattered and some small sound tight knot sthat will in no way weaken the piece. It will also admit of some blue stain. Ex. 6. No. 1 COMMON 1X416 FENCING S. 1 S. Has three sound knots from 1 in. to 1J in. well scattered through the piece and a few smaller sound knots, but none that will impair the 338 RULES FOR GRADING OREGON WHITE PINE. strength of the board. It will also admit of a small streak of blue stain. No. 2 COMMON BOARDS AND STRIPS shall also be sound in appearance, but will admit of larger and coarser knots not necessarily sound and more sap stain than No. 1 Common. It will also admit. of larger and coarser V or limb knots, but not so large or so coarse as to weaken the piece or materially impair its strength. It shall be free from knot-holes, rot, or splits, but should a knot on the edge of the board slough off in the milling it will not disqualify it for this grade. It must have a good bearing on both sides. A single split not to exceed 2 feet in length in one end of a piece shall not disqualify it for this grade. Ex. 1. No. 2 COMMON 1x1216 S. 1 S. Has five knots 2| to 3 in. in diameter and three limb or V knots and a number of smaller knots and will admit of considerable discoloration. All the knots must be firmly set and the limb knots must not extend more than one-half the width of the piece. Ex. 2. No. 2 COMMON 1X1220 S. 1 S. Has six knots from 2J to 3 in. in diameter and five limb or V knots that do not extend across over half the face of the board and a number of smaller knots from to 1A in. in diameter. All knots firmly set and well distributed. One-third of the face of the piece is slightly stained. Ex. 3. No. 2 COMMON 1X10 16 S. 1 S. Has three round knots 3 in. in diameter and several smaller knots from 1J to 2 in. in diameter and a number of knots from \ to \\ in. in diameter,, but all well scattered and firmly set. Ex. 4. No. 2 COMMON 1X816 S. 1 S. Has several red and black knots from 2 in. to 2| in. in diameter and a number of smaller knots scattered throughout the piece and all firm; will also admit of medium-sized live-limb knots. Ex. 5. 1X616 No. 2 COMMON S. 1 S. Will admit of large red or black knots scattered throughout the centre of the piece where they do not materially impair its strength. Ex. 6. 1X416 No. 2 COMMON S. 1 S. Graded practically the same as 1X6 No. 2 Common, admitting of the large knots not to exceed 2 in. scattered throughout the piece, but no large knots in the edge of the board. No. 3 COMMON OR SHEATHING. Will not only admit of all defects of the better grades, but will also admit of large loose knots and knot-holes and any amount of blue stain or pitch and a split extending not more than one-third length of board; but RULES FOR GRADING OREGON WHITE PINE. 339 no rot will be admitted in this grade except the unsound knots or red stain if the wood is quite firm. The boards of this grade must be of good thickness and full size, i.e., no pieces of split or broken boards will be allowed to go in this grade. No. 4 COMMON OR CULLS. The defects characterizing this grade are red- and black-rot pieces showing numerous large worm- holes or a large number of knot-holes or pieces that are extremely coarse-knotted or badly split. Eastern Oregon White Pine Selects or Uppers will be divided into three grades of finish and shall be known as A or No. 1, B or No. 2, and C or No. 3. A OR No. 1 FINISH shall be perfectly bright on the face side and free of knots or stain or pitch seams. The reverse side of the board may show one knot 1 in. in diameter or two knots less than 1 in. and small pitch seams, and may admit of a slight discoloration. Wider pieces will admit of relatively more defects on the reverse side. B OR No. 2 FINISH will admit of more defects, larger and coarser knots, longer pitch seams and also some stain if not too pronounced. A 12-in. piece may show one knot 1J in. to 2 in. in diameter or two or three smaller knots; also a few small pitch seams. Light-blue sap stain may extend over not to exceed one-third of the face of the board where the knot defects are not so pronounced. In wider boards the defects may increase proportionately. C OR No. 3 FINISH. This is the lowest recognized grade of finish lumber and will admit of quite serious defects as long as the piece has the appearance of finish in the knotty type. A 12-in. piece may contain a large number of small knots and one or two very coarse knots or occasionally a knot-hole if board is otherwise fairly clear, or in the absence of knots the whole face of the piece may be blue, but where the piece is very blue no other defects are admissible. In this grade of finish the appearance of the face side only will be taken into consideration except that the reverse side must have a good bearing. FLOORING, DROP SIDING, RUSTIC, AND CEILING, SELECT. In grading this lumber the same rules will be used that govern the other selects except that the grade is determined from the face side only. In all except ceiling, and that only when it is specified as partition, then the grade shall be determined from the poorer side, but it should always be borne in mind that the reverse side should have a good bearing surface and nothing will be 340 RULES FOR GRADING OREGON WHITE PINE. allowed in A or B that would materially weaken the piece and only in a C when the defect may be removed by wasting six inches. COMMON FLOORING. All flooring in the common grades shall be graded the same as wider pieces in the same grade, with the proper allowance for width. BEVEL SIDING. Care shall be taken in selecting this stock, which shall be free from knots in the edge, as in working the knots are liable to drop out, and a knot broken out in the thick edge gives the' piece a rough appearance. This siding shall be graded into four grades : No. 1 or A, No. 2 or B, No, 3 or C, No. 4 or D. In A, or No. 1, the only defects admissible are a sound knot not to exceed J in. in diameter or a very slight pitch pocket in a piece 12 feet or longer. B, or No. 2, will admit of the defects in A or No. 1, together with other defects such as a small amount of stain, larger pitch pockets, or a little pitch or two or three small sound knots not exceeding in. in diameter. In C, or No. 3, the defects admissible are the same as B or No. 2, only more pronounced. It will admit of more discoloration and also of one or two loose knots or small knot-holes provided there would not be more than six inches of waste in the piece by cutting out these defects, and when the waste is allowed the balance of the piece must show a B face. D, or No. 4, will admit of all the defects of the better grades and any amount of blue stain, or where the piece is badly dis- colored it shall be practically free of other defects. This grade is practically a cutting grade when not colored. FACTORY PLANK. Grades described under this head are valued for cutting-up qualities only and should not be con- founded, either in quality or value, with grades outlined in another part of this book for yard purposes. Factory plank of all kinds shall be graded for the percentages of door cuttings that can be obtained. Two grades of door cuttings only shall be recognized, and are to be known as No 1 and No. 2 cuttings. The only defect admissible in No. 1 cuttings is white sap. The grade of No. 1 door cuttings must be free from all other defects. RULES FOR GRADING OREGON WHITE PINE. 341 The grade of No. 2 door cuttings will admit of one defect only in any one piece. This may be a small knot of sound character, not to exceed five-eighths of an inch in diameter, or the defect may be slightly stained sap which does not extend over more than one-half of the face of the piece on one side. No. I Shop Common. The sizes and grades of cuttings ad- missible in the grade of No. 1 Shop Common are as follows: No. 1 Stiles in width 5| or 6 in. and in length from 6 ft. 8 in. to 7 ft. 6 in. No. 1 Rails 9 or 10 in. wide and from 2 ft. 4 in. to 3 ft. in length. No. 1 Muntins 5 J in. wide and from 3 ft. 6 in. to 4 ft. in length. Any number of pieces of either the stiles or rails mentioned above are admissible in the grade of No. 1 Shop Common; but only two muntins of the sizes mentioned above shall be considered, and one No. 2 door stile may also be considered, in securing the required percentage of cuttings in any given plank. Each plank of No. 1 Shop Common shall contain not less than 50 per cent nor more than 70 per cent of door cuttings of the sizes and grades above mentioned. No. 2 Shop Common. The sizes admissible in No. 2 Shop Common are as follows: Stiles in width 5| in. or 6 in. and from 6 ft. 8 in. to 7 ft. 6 in. in length. Rails 9 or 10 in. in width and from 2 ft. 4 in. to 3 ft. in length. Top rails 5J in. wide and from 2 ft. 4 in. to 3 ft. in length. Top rails must, however, be of No. 1 door-cutting quality. Muntins 5J in. wide and from 3 ft. 6 in. to 4 ft. in length. Any number of cuttings of any one of the above sizes are admissible in the grade of No. 2 Shop Common. Each piece of No. 2 Shop Common shall contain either one of the following: At least 25 per cent of No. 1 door cuttings, or not less than 40 per cent of all No. 2 door cuttings, or not less than 33^ per cent of No. 1 and No. 2 door cuttings combined. No. 3 Shop Common, 1| in., 1-| in., and 2 in., will admit all below the grades described as No. 2 Shop Common, except such plank without cuttings as: Show excessive rot. Excessively pitch pieces. Pieces stained on the greater part of both sides. 342 GRADING OF DOUGLAS FIR OR OREGON PINE. The type where there are no cuttings between knots and those knots are too unsound to be admitted in a cheap door. A few small worm- or grub-holes, when not combined with blue sap or other serious defects, are admissible on one side of the piece only. DOUGLAS FIR OR OREGON PINL GRADING RULES. NOTES TO SURVEYORS. BUREAU OF GRADES AND INSPECTION. Surveyors at ports within the jurisdiction of the established Bureau of Grades and Inspection will receive their appointment from and be sub- ject to the instructions of the properly designated officers of said Bureau, particularly as to an interpretation of the fol- lowing rules: At ports outside of said jurisdiction the surveyor shall be satisfactory to and subject to the mutual instructions of both buyer and seller as to any special conditions, but otherwise shall conform to the rules hereinafter noted and exercise his best judgment as to a correct interpretation thereof. SALE MEASURE. All intermediate (odd or fractional) lengths shall be measured as of the contents of the next longer length, unless otherwise especially instructed by the proper parties. All lumber sawn less than 1" in thickness shall be measured as of 1" (i.e., at surface measure). All rough lumber V and over in thickness shall be meas- ured at board-measure contents . All worked lumber shall be measured at board-measure contents before working. Sizes 4" and under in thickness will be worked \" less for each side surfaced. Sizes over 4" in thickness will be worked i" less for each side surfaced. T. & G. S. 1 S. shall be worked \" less in thickness and f" narrower on face. All sizes are subject to natural shrinkage, whether "green, " partially or wholly seasoned, and in such cases the surveyor will make allowance for variations from above. Recognized defects are knots, knot-holes, splits (either from seasoning, ring heart, or rough handling), shakes, wane, red GRADING OF DOUGLAS FIR OR OREGON PINE. 343 heart, rot, rotten streaks, worm-holes, pitch seams, pitch pockets, solid pitch, chipped grain, torn grain, loosened grain, seasoning checks, and black sap. KNOTS shall be classified as pin, small, standard, and large as to size; round and spike as to form; and sound, loose, incased, pith, and rotten as to quality. A pin knot is sound and not over \" in diameter. A small knot is sound and not over 1" in diameter. A standard knot is sound and not over \\" in diameter. A large knot is sound and any size over \\" in diameter. A round knot may be oval or circular in form, and the mean or average diameter shall be considered in applying these rules. A spike knot is one sawn in a lengthwise direction. A sound knot is one solid across its face, as hard as the wood it is in, and so fixed by growth or position that it will retain its place in the piece. A loose knot is one not held firmly in place by growth or position. An incased knot is one surrounded wholly or in part by bark or pitch. A pith knot is a small sound knot with a pith hole not more than \" in the centre. A rotten knot is one not as hard as the wood it is in. PITCH. Seams are openings between the grain of wood containing more or less pitch and shall be classified as large and small. A large pitch seam is one \" and over in open width and not over 8" in length. A small pitch seam is one less than |" in open width and not exceeding 4" in length. A pitch pocket is a well-defined accumulation of pitch at one point of the piece. A pitch seam or pocket showing open on both sides of the piece \" or more in width shall be considered the equivalent of a knot-hole. GRAIN. Chipped grain consists of a part of the surface being chipped or broken out in small particles below the surface, but shall not be classed as torn grain. Torn grain consists of a part of the wood being torn out in dressing, usually around knots or curly places. Loosened grain consists of the point of one grain being torn loose from the next grain, noticeable on the heart side of a piece. 344 GRADING OF DOUGLAS FIR. SAP. Colored, blue or black. Bright sap shall not be considered a defect unless the sur- veyor shall receive from the supervising inspector, or both buyer and seller, contrary instructions. SUNDRIES. Firm red heart shall not be considered a defect in any of the grades of commons. Occasional variations in sawing, or occasional scant thick- ness, shall not be considered a defect when not rendering the piece unfitted for its probable use. Imperfect manufacture in dressed stock, such as chipped grain, torn grain, loosened grain, broken knots, mismatching, or insufficient tongue or groove, will reduce the grade, according to whether such defects are slight or serious, in their effect upon the use of the piece. Equivalent, in the application of these rules, means that the defects allowed, whether specified or not, are understood to be equivalent in damaging effect to those specially mentioned. The grades of all regular stock shall be determined by the number, character, and position of defects visible in any piece. The enumerated defects permissible in any grade are intended to be descriptive of the coarsest piece such grade may contain hereunder; the average quality of the grade should be about midway between such piece and the coarsest piece allowed in the next higher grade. DOUGLAS FIR. Grades shall be known and designated as follows: ROUGH AND WORKED COMMONS. "Merchantable," "Sec- onds," "Refuse." ROUGH UPPERS. "Clear," "Select." Car Stock "No. 1," "No. 2." Ship Stuff "No. 1," "No. 2." WORKED UPPERS. D. & M. Flooring "No. 1," "No. 2," "No. 3." Stepping "No. 1," "No. 2," "No. 3." Rustic "No. 1," "No. 2," "No. 3." Ceiling "No. 1," "No. 2," "No. 3." ROUGH 'COMMONS. Merchantable. This grade shall consist of lengths 10' and over (except shorter lengths be ordered) of sound, strong lumber, free from loose or rotten knots, knot- holes, splits, shakes, wane, rot, pitch seams (open on both sides of the piece), or other defects that materially impair the GRADING OF DOUGLAS FIR. 345 strength of the piece; well manufactured and suitable for good substantial construction purposes, or the purpose for which it is intended. Will allow : Occasional variations in sawing, or occasional scant thick- nesses. Sound large knots. Large pitch seams. Bright or colored sap on corners one-third the width and one-half the thickness. Firm red heart. Recognized defects in all cases to be considered in connec- tion with size of piece and its quality otherwise. Bill Stuff shall consist of sizes ordered 'for specific construction and not intended for "Yard Stock," and must be inspected with the view of its adaptability to the uses intended, and unless manifestly unfit therefor shall be surveyed under this grade, except the order be for a higher grade. Seconds. This grade shall consist of lengths 10' and over (except shorter lengths be ordered) having any of the recog- nized defects which exclude it from grading as Merchantable. Will allow: Recognized defects which render it unfit for good substan- tial construction purposes but suitable for an inferior class of work. Refuse. This grade shall consist only of commons absolutely unfit for any other use than firewood. ROUGH UPPERS. Selects. Shall be sound, strong lumber, and in flooring, ceiling, and finish stock of good grain, well manufactured. Will allow : In sizes under 6"X6": Pin knots, bright sap on corners one-quarter the width and one-half the thickness, and small pitch seams. Not more than two such defects in for each 10 linear feet. In sizes 6"X6" and over: Small and standard knots varying in diameter according to size of piece. Bright sap on corners not to exceed 3" on both faces and edges. Large pitch seams. Recognized defects to be considered in all cases in connec- tion with size of piece and its general quality. 346 GRADING OF DOUGLAS FIR. Clears. Flooring, ceiling, and finish stock shall be sound, close grain, well sawn, and on one side and two edges free from defects impairing its use for probable purposes intended. Edge grain in widths VI" and wider shall be so graded if show- ing grain on edge within an angle of 45 degrees for at least three-fourths of width and otherwise free from defects on one face and two edges. Slash grain (nearly parallel to surface) shall be otherwise free from recognized defects on one face and two edges. Other lumber in this grade shall be uniformly sawn and gen- erally free from recognized defects. Will allow In dimensions containing 24" or less to the linear foot: Bright sap when not exceeding one-quarter the width, thick- ness, or length. Small pitch seams when not extending through the piece. In dimensions 3" to 6" thick and over 8" to 12" wide: Pin knots when on one side and lower half of edges. Bright sap not exceeding one-fourth the face or edges, or one-third the length. Small pitch seams when not extending through the piece. In dimensions larger than above: Small knots, according to size of piece, when on one face and lower half of edges, leaving one face and upper half "of edges clear. Bright sap on corners not exceeding 3" on face and edges, or one-half the length. Large pitch seams when not extending through the piece. Ship Stuff. All lumber for this purpose shall be strong, of live wood, and close grain. No. 1 Plank. Includes outboard planking, garboards, wales, clamps, rails, and lumber for similar purposes; if worked, to be fairly smooth. Will allow: Small tight, hard knots when not on corners or calking seam. Bright sap on face side edges not exceeding one-quarter the width or thickness. Small pitch seams not extending through the piece. Said defects to be considered in connection with size of piece and its quality otherwise. No. 1 Decking. Shall be uniformly sawn, close grain, free from recognized defects on one face and both edges, and if GRADING OF DOUGLAS FIR. 347 worked to be of uniform size and fairly smooth. Flat sizes shall show edge grain on broad face, and both square and flat sizes be free from recognized defects on edge grain face. Will allow : Pin knots on under side and lower part of calking edges. Bright sap on face side edges not exceeding one-eighth the width and one-fourth the thickness. No. 2 Plank and Decking. This grade shall include all of above material not suited for grading as No. 1 hereunder, but in quality shall be equal to the grade of Select. Car Stock. Lumber in this grade shall be strong, of fine grain, and uniformly sawn. Sizes 2" thick and less and 12" and less wide shall be practically clear, free from all recognized defects that would impair it for its intended use. Will allow in dimensions over 2" thick and 12" wide: Small knots, according to size of piece. Bright sap in limited amount, according to size of piece. Small pitch seams. Said defects to be considered in connection with size of piece and its quality otherwise. No. 2. This grade shall include material impaired by recog- nized defects from grading as No. 1, but generally conforming to the grade of "Selects." Car Siding and Roofing. To be graded under rules for D. & M. ceiling. WORKED UPPERS. D. & M. Flooring. No. 1. This grade shall consist of lengths 10' and up (except shorter lengths be ordered), edge grain on face for three-quarters of width; of sound, close grain lumber, and free from recognized defects on face and edges; well worked and conform generally to grade of Clears. Will allow: One pin knot in each piece. Bright sap when not extending over one-quarter face and length. Only one such defect allowed in any one piece. No. 2. This grade shall consist of edge or slash grain of lengths 10' and up (except shorter lengths when ordered), well worked and conform generally to the grade of Selects. Will allow: Small knots if not appearing on edges. 348 GRADING OF DOUGLAS FIR. Bright sap when not extending over one-half the face and length. Small pitch seams. Chipped grain. Said defects to be considered in connection with length of piece and its quality otherwise. Not more than two such defects to each 12 linear feet. No. 3. This grade shall consist of lengths 6' and up re- gardless of grain and conform generally to grade of Merchant- able. Stepping. This material shall consist of lengths 10" and over (except shorter lengths be ordered), and defects allowed shall be considered with regard to length of piece. No. 1. This grade shall conform generally to grade of Clears, be worked smooth on one side, shall show edge grain on face to extent of not less than three-fourths of width, and free from defects on face and one edge. No. 2. This grade shall show edge grain on face to extent of not less than one-half the width and conform generally to grade of "Selects." Will allow: Pin knots on one face or one edge. Bright sap when not extending over one-quarter the width. Small pitch seams. Chipped grain and other recognized defects impairing it from grading as No. 1. No. 3. This grade shall be regardless of grain and conform generally to grade of Merchantable. Rustic Siding and Ceiling. No. 1. Shall consist of lengths 10' and up (except shorter lengths be ordered), sound lumber, regardless of grain, free from recognized defects on face and edges, well worked, and conform generally to grade of "Clears." Will allow: One pin knot. Or bright sap not extending over one-quarter width or length of piece. Only one such defect allowed in any one piece. No. 2. This grade shall conform generally to grade of "Selects." Will allow: Small knots if not appearing on edges. Bright sap when not extending over one-half the face and length. GRADING OF CALIFORNIA REDWOOD. 349 Small pitch seams if not extending through the piece. Chipped grain. Said defects to be considered in connection with size and length of piece. No. 3. Shall conform generally to grade of Merchantable. CALIFORNIA REDWOOD. CLEAR REDWOOD. No. 1. Shall be good and sound, clear of knots, splits, sap and shakes, and well manufactured to standard thickness. Will allow: Small birdseye. Slash-grained sawing. No. 2. Shall be inferior in quality to No. 1. Will allow: Small sound knots and pin knots, sap on end and edge not exceeding 4 per cent of area. Slight roughness in milling. Tank, Panel, and Casing Stock. Shall be good and sound clear of knots, splits, sap, and shakes, and well manufactured. Sap Clear. This grade shall conform generally to No. 1 and No. 2 Clear, except that it shall contain sap in excess of 4 per cent of the area. Will allow: Discoloration of sap. Flooring, Ceiling, and Rustic Stock. No. 1. Shall be the grade of No. 1 clear. Will allow: Slash-grained sawing that will probably not rough up in working. No. 2. Shall conform to the grade of No. 2 clear. Standard Grade, Rustic Stock. Will allow: 3 or 4 sound standard (\\" diameter) knots. 1 or 2 sound knots not to exceed 1" in diameter. Sap with small knots. Poor machining, which would make it unfit for No. 1 and No. 2 clear. Half-inch Lumber. Shall be graded under the same rules as inch lumber of the same quality. GRADES, COMMON. No. 1. This grade shall consist of sound, strong lumber, free from rot, large shake and large, loose knots. It shall be well manufactured and suitable for good, substantial construction purposes. Will allow: Occasional variations in widths and thickness. 350 DIFFERENT KINDS OF WOOD Knots, weather check, and small shake that do not materially impair its strength. Sap not to exceed 4 per cent of the area of outside surfaces. No. 2. This grade shall consist of lumber having any of the recognized defects which exclude it from the No. 1 grade. Will allow : Sap, loose and rotten knots and shakes ; also splits not extend- ing over one-fourth the length of the piece. Recognized defects which render it unfit for good, sub- stantial construction purposes but suitable for an inferior class of work. No. 3. This grade shall consist of anything that is not good enough to go into No. 2 grade, but which can be used for any purpose as lumber. DIFFERENT KINDS OF WOOD AND WHERE FOUND. NAME. Acacia Alder Almond Amboine. . . . Apple Apple (crab). Arbor-vitse. . Ash ' ' black. . . ' ' blue. . . . ' white. . . Bamboo Barwood. . . . Basswood. . . Beech Birch Bite Black Botany Bay wood. ...Australia. Blue-gum. . Bog-oak. . . Boxwood. . . WHERE FOUND. .Warm climates. Europe, etc. . South of Europe. . Africa. .Europe, America. .East. United States. .Temperate climates. . Britain, etc. . East. United States. .China and India. . Africa. . East. United States. .Europe, America. .India. Brazil wood. . Buckeye . England, Ireland. . Southern and west- ern Europe. . Brazil. .Tennessee and North. . Jamaica. Bullet-tree. . . Buttonwood. . .(See Sycamore.) Calamander. . . .Ceylon. Camphor Warm climates. Camwood Africa. Canary-wood . . Brazil. Caugica-wood . " Catalpa East. United States. Cedar, bastard . Southern California. red. . . .East. United States. yellow. .Utah to Pacific Coast. NAME. WHERE FOUND. East India blackwood. . East Indies. Ebony Ceylon, Africa, In- dia. Elder Jamaica. Elm Europe. ' red East. United States. ' white ' Fir, red silver. . Sierra Nevada Mts. ' Scotch .... Europe. ' silver California. Fustic North and South America. Greenheart. . . . Guiana, Trinidad. Gum, black and red East. United States. Hawthorn Europe, etc. Hazel " Hemlock (spruce) North America. Hickory America. Holly Europe, Southeast- ern United States. Hoonsay India. Iron-wood East. United States. red. . . Jamaica. Jackwood Asia, Ceylon. Juniper (See Cedar.) Kjaboca East Indies. Kingwood Brazil. Laburnum Europe. Lancewood. . ...South America. ' ' black. Jamaica. Larch Europe. 4 ' Western . Oregon. Laurel, moun- tain Penn. and South. Leopard-wood. Central America. AND WHERE FOUND. 351 DIFFERENT KINDS OF WOOD AND WHERE FOUND (Continued). NAME. WHERE FOUND. Cedar, Spanish. West Indies and South America. Western. Utah to Oregon, white. . . United States. " West In- dia. . .West Indies. Cherry Europe, America. Cherry, wild,. black East. United States. Cherry-tree Australia. Chestnut America, Europe. Cocoa -wood. .. .West Indies. Coquilla-nut. . . . Brazil. Cork-oak Southwest Europe. Cotton wood. . . .West. United States. Cowdi-pine Temperate climates. Cypress So. Lnited States. Ne\y Zealand. Deodar India. Dogwood Tasmania, Jamaica, and East. United States. Mustaiba Brazil. Myrtle Southern Europe, Tasmania. Nellec India. Nettle-tree South of Europe. Norfolk Island pine Norfork Island. Norway spruce . Norway. Novaladdi India. Oak Europe, etc. African . . .Africa. black East. United States. white ' red ' chestnut. . . ' Olive Europe, Syria, Cali- fornia. Osage orange. . . Arkansas and South. Osiers Europe. Oyster Bay wood Tasmaniar Paddle-wood. . .Guiana. Palm Tropical climates. Partridge-wood.West Indies, South America. P ne Europe and Asia. yello\ red . . . . white., spruce. Plane. . North America. .North America, Asia, Britain. Plum Britain, etc. Poon West Indies. Poplar Europe, Asia. East. United States. Porcupine-wo'd .Tropical climates. Prima Vera. .. . Mexico. Purpleheart . . .Brazil. Quassia Tropical climates. Rattans Red sanders . . .India. Redwood California. NAME. * WHERE FOUND. Lignum-vita?. ..West Indies and Florida. Lime Europe. Linn East. United States. Locust West Indies. East of Missippissi River. Mahogany Central America and Cuba, moun- tain . Rocky Mountains, white. (See Prima Vera.) Mangrove Tropics. Maple, black. . . East. United States, red . . . . ' sugar. . . " " Mountain-ash. .Australia, Britain, etc. Mulberry Europe and China. red. . .East. United States. Muskwood. .... Tasmania, New South Wales. Rhododendron. Himalaya. Rosewood Tasmania. Sandalwood. . . . India. Sapan-wood. . . ' Sassafras America, Tasmania. Satmwood East Indies. Saul " Scotch fir Scotland. Service-tree East. United States. She-oak Tasmania. Silverwood. . . . Cape of Good Hope. Snakewood. . . .West Indies. Spindle-tree. . .Britain, etc. Spruce, black. . Sierra Nevada Mts. Engle- man's Rocky Mountains. Stringy -bark. . .Australia. Sycamore Temperate climates. East. United States. (fig)Egypt. Tamarack (Amer- ican larch)... .N o rt hern and Northeastern United States. Teak, African. . Africa. Indian. ..India. Thorn East. United States. Toonwood India. Toqua Himalaya. Tulip-wood. . . .Australia. Vegetable ivory.Central America. Walnut, black. East. United States. White (1 utter- nut. . ' English. . Europe. French. .Persia, Asia Minor. Whitewood. . . . New South Wales. Willow Europe, America. Yacca-wood. . .Jamaica. Yew-wood. . . . Britain, California, Oregon. Zebray Brazil. 352 STRENGTH, WEIGHT, ETC., OF VARIOUS WOODS. STRENGTH, WEIGHT, ETC., OF VARIOUS WOODS. Name. Strength per Sq. In. in Lbs. Moduli of Elas- ticity. Relative Hardn 'ss Shell- bark Hickory iooa Weight per Cubic Foot. Specific Gravity. Tensile. Crushing in Direc- tion of Grain. Acacia-wood. . . . 46.5 50 49 40.77 38.96 62 35.44 40.42 23.50 44.70 41.25 15 37.25 35 27.60 47.25 86.16 42 32 52.69 53.75 47.50 49.50 43.12 23.00 37.00 35.37 45 34.55 83.31 57.06 45.50 55.75 46.87 36 53.75 40.75 47 49.06 23.99 30 33.25 38.40 43.62 34 45.50 26.23 55.31 31.25 23.93 41.93 33.40 .750 .800 .793 .610 .623 .990 .567 .650 .376 .715 .660 .240 .596 .560 .441 .750 1.331 .671 .512 .843 .860 .760 .792 .690 .368 .592 .566 .720 .552 1 . 333 .913 .728 .829 .750 .576 .860 .652 .752 .785 .383 .480 .532 .612 .698 .544 .728 .419 .885 .500 .383 .671 .535 Alder-wood Apple-wood 6,150 ' ' 700 ' ' 775 Ash (white) Ash (brown). . . . Boxwood Birch 17,000 11,000 18,000 15,000 11,500 9,000 8,600 10,000 8,000 9,000 6,000 ' 5,000 ;;:;::;: ' ' 630 ' ' 660 440 550 520 Beech Butternut Cherry i,'obo,666 Chestnut 10,500 11,400 ' 9,000 5,000 Cork Cedar (white). . . Cedar (red) 6,500 6,000 6,000 700,000 ' 900,606 540 ' ' 750 ' ' ' ' 580 ' ' ' ' 720 ' ' Cypress Dogwood Ebony Elm Fir 13,000 10,000 17,000 8,000 7,000 7,000 1,200,000 Gum Hazel Holly Hickory (pignut) Hickory (shell- bark) Hemlock 15,000 18,000 8,740 9,000 10,000 5,400 950 1000 ' 900,666 Hackmatack. . . . Juniper Lancewood Larch 9,500 Lignum- vitae. . . . Logwood Locust 12,000 20,000 ' 12,000 10,000 10,000 16,000 10,000 9,800 9,000 11,720 6,000 9,000 7,000 6,000 8,000 Mahogany Maple (hard).... Maple (white). .. Oak (white) Oak (red or black) Pear 1.166,666 " 550 ' ' ' 850 ' ' 700 Plum. . . Poplar Pine (white). . . . Pine (Norway). . Pine (yellow). . . Pine( yellow long- leaf) Pine (Oregon). .. Rosewood Redwood (Cal.).. Satinwood Spruce (white). . Tamarack Walnut . . . 7,000 7,000 8,300 16,000 20,000 13,800 '8,000 ' 14,000 16,000 ' 12,000 5,000 5,000 7,000 5,500 9,000 7,000 '2,500" ' 6,500 ' '8,000 ' ,ooo',666 ,200,000 1,200,000 1,700,000 1,400,000 7,66666 1,266,666 510 300 ' 540 ' 650 ' ' Willow PLUMBING. 353 Plumbing. In this part of the work the superintendent must see that the materials are all as specified; he should see that the pipe used is of the right size and weight, and that all fixtures are in perfect condition. He should provide him- self with a catalogue of the various fixtures to be used so he will know if the proper fixtures are provided. In running the sewers and soil-pipes he must see that a proper fall is given, which should not be less than that given in the following table: Diameter of pipe, inches. . . . Length to 1 foot of fall, feet. 2 20 3 30 4 40 5 50 6 60 7 70 8 80 9 90 10 100 A small pipe should have a greater fall than a large one on account of the friction being greater compared with the amount of water used. All turns and connections should be made with Y branches and | bends. If the joints are made with lead the superin- tendent should see that they are made with one pouring of the lead and calked tight. When earthenware pipe is used for sewers they must be examined for cracks, and to see if the bowl is in perfect condi- tion care must be taken in making the cement joints so as to leave the inside of the pipes smooth and level; as the pipes are laid the inside should be wiped out so as to wipe out any surplus cement on the inside. Fig. 227, A, shows how pipes of FIG. 227. this kind are often laid, while Fig. 227, B, shows how they should be laid. After all sewers, soil- and vent-pipes are in place they should be tested by plugging the bottom or main outlet and filling all the pipes to the roof level; this test should remain on for at least six hours, after which all pipes and joints should be thoroughly examined for leaks. Soil- and vent-pipes should be securely fastened to the walls and the vertical runs of pipe should set on a firm footing. Lead pipe should be examined before using as to weight and thick- 354 PHILADELPHIA BUILDING CODE RULES. ness, and as to quality and condition of the pipe. By rougl handling of the coil of pipe in many cases the pipe is flattenec so as to render it unfit for use. In laying water-pipes, or in fact pipes of any kind, they shoulc be laid so that they will drain themselves, and in no case shoulc any pipe be placed so as to cause a seal or trap in the pipe. Stopcocks should be placed on all water lines where they car be got at conveniently, controlling each fixture or set of fixtures After all fixtures are in place the pipe and fixtures should be tested with smoke, which is applied at the main outlet b) burning rags or waste saturated with oil, and forcing the smoke up the pipes; after the pipes are filled with smoke the whole system should be gone over and any joint or connection when there is an odor of ssioke should be examined, as any smel' of smoke is an indication of a leak. This test is mainly foi the connections of the fixtures, as the pipes have already beer tested by the water test. The water system should be tested by hydraulic pressure. The following rules regarding plumbing are taken from the Philadelphia Building Code: Rule 10. The main drain of every house or Main drain to , M ,. in, T i T ^i be connected building shall be separately and independently with street connected with the street sewer, where one is sewer - provided; and where there is no sewer in the ^|n. private street, and it is necessary to construct a private essary, plans . , . . must be ap- sewer to connect with one on an adjacent street, proved by such plans may be used as may be approved by Health the Board of Health; but in no case shall a joint j i n t drain drain be laid in cellars parallel with street or P ot t, be la -id in cellars. alley. All house-drains laid beneath the ground inside Material to be of buildings or beneath the cellar floor shall be derground 1 " of plain, extra-heavy cast-iron pipe, with well house-drains. leaded and calked joints, or of wrought iron, with screw joints made with a paste of red lead and treated to prevent corrosion. All other drains or soil-pipes connected with Material to be the main drain, or where the main drain pipe is above the cellar floor, shall be of plain cast-iron pipe, or of wrought-iron pipe with screw joints made with a paste of red lead and treated to pre- vent corrosion, REGARDING PLUMBING. 355 Outside of the buildings, where the soil is of Terra-cotta sufficient solidity for a proper foundation cylindri- may be used cal terra-cotta pipes of the best quality, free from flaws, splits, or cracks, perfectly burned, and der certain. well glazed over the entire inner and outer sur- faces may be used, laid on a smooth bottom, with a special groove cut in the bottom of trench for each hub (in order to give the pipe a solid bearing on its entire length) and the soil well rammed on each side of the pipe. The spigot and hub ends shall be concentric. The space between the hub and pipe shall be Space be- thoroughly filled with the best cement mortar, ^pip^to be made of equal parts of the best American natural filled with ce- cement and bar sand thoroughly mixed dry, and n water enough afterward added to give it proper consistency. The cement must be mixed in small quantities at a time and used as soon as made. The joints must be carefully wiped and pointed, Joints to be and all mortar that may be left inside thoroughly j^j^Jf cleaned out and the pipe left clean and smooth throughout, for which purpose a swab shall be used. No tempered-up cement shall be used. A Q ua n tyo f straight-edge shall be used, and the different cement. sections shall be laid in perfect line on the bottom and sides; but in no case shall terra-cotta pipes pfjgj'nof tJ> be permitted within five (5) feet of any founda- j?e within 5 , . f . ' ... feet of foun- tion-wall, or for extension to connect with ram- dation-wall, water conductors, surface or air inlets. extensions?" Note. After the test has been approved by Coating of the inspector, iron drain- or soil-pipes may be pipes not to tar-coated. But in no case shall any coating be after appro- applied to cast-iron soil- or drain-pipes until test has been applied and approved by the inspector. Rule 11. The house-drain shall be not less Construction than four (4) inches, nor more than ten (10) inches in diameter, and the fall shall not be less than one-half (J) an inch to the foot, unless by special permission of the Board of Health; it shall be laid in a trench cut at a uniform grade, or it may be constructed along the foundation- 356 PHILADELPHIA BUILDING CODE RULES. walls above the cellar floor, resting on nine (9) inch brick piers laid in cement mortar (said piers to be not more than seven (7) feet apart) and securely fastened to said walls; no tests shall be made by the inspector until said pipes are secured as above described. Rule. 12. The arrangement of soil- and waste- pipes shall be as direct as possible. All changes drains. in direction on horizontal pipes shall be made with Y branches, one-sixteenth (&) or one-eighth () bends. Rule 13. The house-drain shall be provided with Location of a horizontal trap, placed immediately inside the cellar wall nearest to the sewer, or at the curb. The trap shall have a hand-hole, for convenience in cleaning, the cover of which shall be properly fitted and the joints made air-tight. , If the trap and the main drain is placed Main trap to inside of the cellar wall, there shall be no clear- hole. out between the water seal of the trap and the sewer. Rule 14. There shall be an inlet for fresh air entering the drain just inside the water seal of the main trap, and also at the rear of the system, when the vertical line of soil-pipe is located in the central part of the building and the main fresh-air inlet is deemed insufficient to ventilate the entire system. Said inlets shall be at least four (4) inches in diameter, leading to the outer air and opening at any convenient place, with an accessible clean-out. Where air inlets are located off the footway, on grass plots, lawns, etc., they shall extend not less than six (6) nor more than fifteen (15) inches above the surface of the ground and be protected by a cowl securely fastened with bolts. Rule 15. Where the drain passes through a new foundation-wall a relieving arch shall be when drain- built over it with a two (2) inch clearance on either side. Rule 16. Every vertical soil-pipe shall extend at least two (2) feet above the highest part of the REGARDING PLUMBING. 357 building or contiguous property, and shall be of undiminished size, with the outlet uncovered soil- or waste- except with a wire guard. Such soil-pipe shall plpes - not open near a window nor an air-shaft ventilating living-rooms. Rule 17. Every branch or horizontal line of Branch or soil-pipe to which a group of two (2) or more J^ 11 ^^ water-closets is to be connected, and every branch which water- line of horizontal soil-pipe eight (8) feet or more connected to in length, to which a water-closet is to be con- nected, shall be ventilated, either by extending such ventila- said soil-pipe, undiminished in size, to at least two (2) feet above the highest part of the building or contiguous property, or by extending said soil- pipe and connecting it with the main soil-pipe above the highest fixture, or by a ventilating pipe connected to the crown of each water-closet trap, not less than two (2) inches in diameter, which shall be increased one-half (J) an inch in diameter for every fifteen (15) feet in length, and connected to a special air-pipe, which shall not be less than four (4) inches in diameter, or by connecting said ventilating pipe with the main soil-pipe above the highest fixture. Rule 18. Where a separate line of waste-pipes is Construction used, not connected'with sewer-pipes, it shall also be of waste- . pipes not con- carried two (2) feet above the highest part of the nected with building or contiguous property, unless otherwise per- mitted by the Board of Health. But in no case shall not to con- a waste-pipe connect with a rain-water conductor. ?ain-water Rule 19. There shall be no traps, caps, or cowls conductor. on soil- and waste-pipes which will interfere with the system of ventilation. Rule 20. All soil-, waste-, anti-siphon pipes orwaste- and traps inside of new buildings, and of the !^ P ^ S * n new work in old buildings, and also of the entire less than 3 system when alterations are made in old buildings, and the owner or agent of said building or buildings shall have contracted to have the entire drainage drain-pipes system tested, shall have openings stopped and a test of not less than three (3) pounds atmospheric pressure to the square inch applied, 358 PHILADELPHIA BUILDING CODE RULES. Rule 21. The drain-, soil-, and waste-pipes, and the traps, shall, if practicable, be exposed to view for ready inspection at all times, and for convenience in repairing. When placed within walls or partitions and not exposed to view, or not covered with woodwork fastened with screws so as to be readily removed, or when not easily acces- sible, extra-heavy pipes shall be used at the discre- tion of the Board of Health. Rule 22. No drainage work shall be covered or concealed in any way until after it has been examined and approved by a house-drainage inspector, and notice must be sent to the Board of Health, in writing, when the work is sufficiently advanced for such inspection; and immediately on the completion of the work application must be made for final inspection. The failure on the part of a master plumber to make said application for final inspection, or the violation of any of the rules of the Board of Health in the construction of any drainage work, and failure to correct the fault after notification, will be deemed sufficient cause to place his name on the delinquent list until he has complied with said rules and regulations. Any attempt on the part of a master plumber to con- struct or alter a system of drainage during the time his name appears on said delinquent list will subject him to criminal prosecution. Rule 23. All drain and anti-siphon pipes of cast iron shall be sound, free from holes, and of a uniform thickness, and shall conform to the follow- ing relative weights: Drain-pipes and traps to be easily ac- cessible when practicable. When drain- pipes and traps are not easily acces- sible, heavy pipe to be used. Drainage work not to be covered or concealed un- til inspected. Notice to Board of Health. Final inspec- tion. Name of mas- ter plumber to be placed on delinquent list for viola- tion of rules of Board of Health. Criminal prosecution in case a de- linquent shall do any drain- age work. Quality and weight of drain- and soil-pipes. Standard. In. Lbs. i p pe, 4 per foot. o 6 " 4 9 5 12 " 6 15 7 20 " 8 25 " 10 35 " 12 45 " Extra Heavy. In. Lbs. 2p 3 pe, 5J per foot. ' Ql ( t 4 13* " 5 17 f 6 20 t 7 27 t 8 334- ( 10 45 t 12 54 < REGARDING PLUMBING. 359 Rule 24. All drain and anti-siphon cast-iron Nameofman- , ,, , , , ... - , , , ufacturer and pipes shall have the weight per foot and the name weight per of the manufacturer cast on the exterior surface, ^Tdrain- Sfd directly back of the hub of each section, in char- soil-pipes. acters not less than one-half ($) inch in length. Rule 25. Lead waste-p'ipes may be used for When lead i j_ i v xi j /<-\ i i waste-pipes horizontal lines that are two (2) inches or less in may be used. diameter, and shall have not less than the follow- ing prescribed weights: 1 inch pipe, 2 Ibs. oz. Weight of j tt waste-pipes not less than one and one-half (H) and wash-' . , . v trays. inches in diameter. Rule 28. All joints in cast-iron drain-, soil-, and Joints in cast- waste-pipes shall be so calked with oakum and pipes to be lead, or with cement made of iron filings and calked - salammoniac, as to make them gas-tight. Rule 29. All connections of lead with iron pipe Connections , ,, . , . , , ' -i j i ^1 of lead with shall be made with a brass ferrule not less than iron pipe to one-eighth () of an inch in thickness, put in the hub of the iron pipe and calked in with lead, rule; IK>W . . . connection to except in cases of iron water-closet traps or old be made. work, when drilling and tapping is permitted. The lead pipe shall be attached to the ferrule by a wiped solder joint. Rule 30. All connections of lead pipe shall be Connections of lead pipe by wiped solder joints. to be by sol- Rule 31. Every water-closet, sink, basin, wash- der joints. J , n , Water-clos- tray, bath, and every tub or set of tubs, shall be e ts, sinks, separately and effectually trapped. SepaiSeiy Rule 32. The trap must be placed as near the trapped. fixture as practicable. All waste-pipes shall be J r ap^ 10n f provided with strong metallic strainers. All gt; ram erg. 360 PHILADELPHIA BUILDING CODE RULES. drains from hydrants shall be trapped and in a Drains from manner accessible for cleaning out. Rule 33. Traps of fixtures shall be protected p r r j t p e s e ted be from siphonage. All anti-siphon pipes shall be from siphon- carried up and through the roof or connected &{ with the main soil-pipes above the highest fixture. Rule 34. Every anti-siphon pipe shall be of Construction lead, of galvanized gas-pipe, or of plain cast-iron pipe. Where these pipes go through the roof they shall extend two (2) feet above the highest part of the building or contiguous property; they 81 P hon P^ 8 - may be combined by branching together those which serve several traps. These pipes where not vertical must always be a continuous slope, to avoid collecting water by condensation. Rule 35. All drip- or overflow-pipes from safes Construction under wash-basins, baths, urinals, water-closets, or overflow^ other fixtures shall be by a special pipe run to an PiP es - open sink outside the house or some conspicuous point; and in no case shall any such pipe be con- nected with a soil-, drain-, or waste-pipe. Rule 36. No waste-pipe from a refrigerator or Waste-pipe other receptacle in which provisions are stored Ito^etc^ shall be connected with any drain-, soil-, or other to be con - / , ., '. , nected with waste-pipe. Such waste-pipes shall be so arranged any drain- as to admit of frequent flushing, and shall be as plpe ' short as possible. Rule 37. The overflow-pipes from tanks and Discharge of the waste-pipes from refrigerators shall discharge tankf andTe into an open fixture properly trapped. frigerat9r Rule 38. All water-closets within buildings shall be supplied with water from special tanks or cistern J^Jh wRteJ ied which shall hold not less than eight (8) gallons of from flushing- water when up to the level of the overflow-pipe taaks> for each closet supplied, excepting automatic or siphon tanks, which shall hold not less than five (5) gallons of water for each closet supplied; the water in said tanks shall not be used for any other purpose. The flushing-pipe of all tanks shall not Size of flush- be less than one and one-quarter (1) inches in mg " plpe - diameter. REGARDING PLUMBING. 361 Rule 39. No closet, except those placed in the Water-closets yard, shall be supplied directly from the supply pTieddirectiy~ pipes. from ma n - Rule 40. A group of closets may be supplied Supplying from one tank, but water-closets on different floors cloStefrom shall not be flushed from one tank. same tank. Rule 41. Water-closets, when placed in the Yard water- yard, shall be so arranged as to be conveniently S?quately )e and adequately flushed, and their water-supply flushed - pipes and traps shall be protected from freezing Protection of by placing them in a hopper-pit, at least three tosameTom and one-half (3) feet below the surface of the freezin g- ground, the walls of which shall be of brick or stone laid in cement mortar. The water-pipe from the hopper stopcock shall be conveyed to -the drain through a three-eighths (f) inch pipe, prop- erly connected. Rule 42. The inclosure of the yard water- closet shall be ventilated by slatted openings* and there shall be a trap-door in the floor of suffi- and have cient size for access to the hopper-pit. fkx>r~ Rule 43. Water-closets must not be located Water-closets in the sleeping-apartments of any building, nor rated in sleep? in any room or apartment which has not direct mfiJJgn^in communication with the external air either by a apartment . , , ., , ,, without corn- Window or an air-shait having an area to the munication open air of at least four (4) square feet. ^ th external Rule 44. The containers of all water-closets Containers of shall be supplied with* fresh air and properly ventilated, as approved by the Board of Health, lated. Rule 45. All water-closets within a building Lead con- using lead connections shall have a cast-brass ^IftSlosets flange not less than three-sixteenths (^) of an within a inch in thickness (fitted with a pure-rubber gasket of sufficient thickness to insure a tight joint) bolted to the closet. Rule 46. Where latrines are used for schools Construction ,1 i 11 i e v i -j-i- of latrines for they shall be of iron, properly supplied with water, schools. and located in the yard at least twenty (20) feet from the building when practicable. Rule 47. Rain-water conductors shall be con- Rain-water , .j. . . . . . . conductors to nected with the house-dram or sewer and be be connected 362 PHILADELPHIA BUILDING CODE RULES. provided with a trap the seal of which shall be not with house- less than five (5) inches. Said trap shall have a hand-hole for convenience in cleaning, the cover to of which shall be made air-tight. have' hand- Rain conductors shall not be connected outside Rain conduc- of the main trap, nor used as soil-, waste-, or vent- cormected be pipes; nor shall any soil-, waste-, or air-pipe be outside of , . , i < i i -ji main traps, used as a rain conductor, and if placed within nor used as a building shall be of cast iron with leaded joints. Rule 48. No steam exhaust or waste from Steam-ex- i 11 i , i .,1 i haust pipes steam-pipes shall be connected with any house- not to be con- drain or soil-pipe. Rule 49. No privy vault or cesspool for sewage Privy-vault shall hereafter be constructed in any part of the t C toT con- city where a sewer is at all accessible. stmcted ._-.,,. . , , where a sewer Rule 50. JNo connection irom any cesspool or is accessible. privy-well shall be made with any sewer, nor shall Connection of . . ' cesspool or any water-closet or house-drainage empty into a privy-well cesspool or privy-well. Rule 51. In rural districts waste-pipes from sewer. buildings may be connected with cesspools con- structed for that special purpose, properlv flagged drainage not A i f i - i to empty into or arched over, and not water-tight, by special cesspool or permission of the Board of Health. privy-well. Rule 52. Privy-vaults must be constructed as Waste-pipes (.11 -nii MT , , may be con- follows: Each building situate on an unsewered nected with street must have a privy-vault not less than four 3 dis- m (4) feet in diameter and ten (10) feet* deep in the tricts. clear, lined with hard brick nine (9) inches in Construction thickness, laid in cement mortar, and proved to be ?aults? r ~ water-tight. Rule 53. Privy-vaults shall not be located Privy-vaults within two (2) feet of party lines, or within twenty cated within (20) feet of a building when practicable; and before any privy-vault shall be constructed, appli- of a building. cation shall be made and a permit for same issued by the Board of Health. Rule 54. No opening will be permitted in the NO opening drain-pipe of any building for the purpose of drain- * l ^fj ) 1 J|}j a - n ing a cellar, unless by special permission by the ing cellar un- Board of Health. REGARDING PLUMBING. 363 Rule 55. Cellar-drains shall be constructed as follows: By a system of French drains, or field tile, to a catch-basin, flagged over; the outlet pipe Construction shall be properly trapped and connected with the house-drain, and shall also be provided with a back-pressure valve or stopcock the required size. FLOW OF WATER IN HOUSE-SERVICE PIPES. (Thomson Meter Co.) Condition of Dis- charge. Pressure in Main, Lbs. per Sq. In. Discharge in Cubic Feet per Minute from the Pipe. Nominal Diameters of Iron or Lead Service-pipe in Inches. | f f 1 1* 2 3 4 6 Through 35 feet of service- Eipe, no ack pressure. 30 40 50 60 75 100 130 1.10 1.92 1.27;2.22 1 . 42 2 . 48 1.56,2.71 1.743.03 2.01 3.50 2 . 29 3 . 99 3.01 3.48 3.89 4.26 4.77 5.50 6.28 6.13 16.58 7.08 19.14 7.9221.40 8 . 67 23 . 44 9.7026.21 11.2030.27 12.7734.51 33.34 38.50 43.04 47.15 52.71 60.87 69.40 88.16 101.80 113.82 124 . 68 139.39 160.96 183.52 173.85 200.75 224.44 245.87 274 . 89 317.41 361.91 444 . 63 513.42 574 . 02 628.81 703 . 03 811.79 925.58 Through 100 feet of service- Eipe, no ack pressure. 30 40 50 60 75 100 130 30 40 50 60 75 100 130 0.66 0.77 0.86 0.94 1.05 1.22 1.39 1.16 1.34 1.50 1.65 1.84 2.13 2.42 1.84 2.12 2.37 2.60 2.91 3.36 3.83 3.78 4.36 4.88 5.34 5.97 6.90 7.86 10.40 12.01 13.43 14.71 16.45 18.99 21.66 21.30 24.59 27.50 30.12 33 . 68 38.89 44.34 58.19 67.19 75.13 82.30 92.01 106.24 121.14 118.13 136.41 152.51 167.06 186.78 215.68 245.91 317.23 366.30 409.54 448 . 63 501 . 58 579.18 660.36 Through 100 feet of service- pipe and 15 feet vertical rise. 0.55 0.66 0.75 0.83 0.94 1.10 1.26 0.961.52 1.15 1.81 1.312.06 1.452.29 1.642.59 1 . 92 3 . 02 2.203.48 3.11 3.72 4.24 4.70 5.32 6.21 7.14 8.57 10.24 11.67 12.94 14.64 17.10 19.66 17.55 20.95 23.87 26.48 29.96 35.00 40.23 47.90 57.20 65.18 72.28 81.79 95.55 109.82 97.17 116.01 132.20 146.61 165.90 193.82 222.75 260 . 56 311.09 354.49 393.13 444.85 519.72 597.31 Through 100 feet of service- pipe and 30 feet vertical rise. 30 40 50 60 75 100 130 0.44 0.55 0.65 0.73 0.84 1.00 1.15 0.771.22 Oi.971 63 1.14 1.79 1.282.02 1.4712.32 1.742.75 2.02J3.19 2.50 3.15 3.69 4.15 4.77 5.65 6.55 6.80 8.68 10.16 11.45 13.15 15.58 18.07 14.11 17.79 20.82 23.47 26.95 31.93 37.02 38.63 48.68 56.98 64.22 73.76 87.38 101.33 78.54 98.98 115.87 130.59 149.99 177.67 206.04 211.54 266.59 312.08 351.73 403.98 478 . 55 554.96 SAFE PRESSURES AND HEADS OF WATER i N OQ CD 1 o ui peajj ' 'oOOrH^llOOOrHOJ rH t-. c oo oo rH rH (N N CO CO * lO spunoj ui aanssaa j -: :;S^2 2 S| 1 1 2 ui peajj ION Or-iOcMO t^ OS 10 rH CO O CO i>- O CO CO ctf Wl g 3 | : a 1 o ui peajj i i ; ; H M o o spunoj ui aanssaj j CM CO OS CO t^ 2 ^H ' ' '. '. ^g 5 i I ui pnajj :3S82 :::::: H ^ i Q ". o spunoj ui aanssajj i'sisg j-jjH j 3 - 1 ut p^ajj -511 r :; HilJ J H 1 1 c 00 spunoj ui aanssajj SS|g : i.,j |..| JIJ a -a '^^ dOOO i ' B 1 ui pnajj rHOOlOCO 1 d r-H CO spunoj ui aanssajj 9 ^aaj 00 CO-* ' ui peatr O5 O N CO W5 00 IH spunoj ui aanssaaj Ut spunoj i-H rH 1-1 C *-< co oo o fri > 5 M 1C C<1 OC ^ >-i l> CO i-l r-t CH O * rH 00 1C O ?C C5 ^TtC O5 CC TH spunoj UI 8JHSS8JJ OS CO M Oi 1C PURE BLOCK-TIN PIPE. Calibre. Wei'ht Weight F*oot. Calibre. per Foot. Oz. Lbs. Oz. J inch strong 2* | inch double extra strong 15 ? extra strong. . . . 1C CO CO CO 00 f extra strong double extra strong, extra strong double extra strong extra strong 9 14 11 1 14 double extra strong. . double extra strong. . extra strong double extra strong. . strong 67 1 double extra strong 1 4 * extra strong 10 368 PIPE TABLES. WEIGHTS AND SIZES OF SHEET LEAD. Pounds per square foot Wire-gauge number. . . aj 19 3 18 3* 17 K I J 4< 15 t 5 14 6 13 Pounds per square foot Wire-gauge number. . . 7 12 !- 9 10 10 9 11 8 12 7 (A square foot of sheet lead & of an inch thick weighs 4 pounds.) APPROXIMATE WEIGHTS OF CAST-IRON SOIL-PIPE AND FITTINGS. STANDARD. Size, inches 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 Pipe pounds per foot 3* 5 8 3 3 f "3" 2t ? 4* 10 11 4 4* 6i 5* 3 J* 8 10 9 6* 12 18 6 6 10 8 6 5 10 19 13 8* 16 26 8 8 14 10 6 8 6 15 26 18 10 24 37 10 11 16 'I 1 11 7 20 35 25 17 23 45 33 Crosses pounds each Double Y branch Double hubs Eighth bends. . . . Half Y branches . Quarter bends. . . 16 24 34 ' 9 24 ' 38 ' ' 42 ' 4X12 15 26 32* ' 41 ' 32* ' 55 ' 70 ' Sixth bends T branches Traps Y branches Size, inches 2X8 3X8 8 5X12 20 6X8 22 Offsets pounds each 5 EXTRA HEAVY. 2 3 4 IT 24 32 8 9* 18 12 6 9* 20 28 25 5 6 8 10 12 Pipe pounds per foot . 5* 10 12 ? 6 "4| 7 9 10 9* 20 20 7 6i 13 8 4 ? 13 18 15 17 32 42 11 12 24 15 8 12 9 25 45 32 20 48 60 14 16 30 20 11 16 10 34 68 45 3X8 15 34 85 ' 28 " 35* ' 44 ' 16 35i 50 ' ' 85 ' 45 ' '47' 59* "74" "59* i64 'isi' 54 6X8 Crosses pounds each Double Y branch. Double hubs Eighth bends .... Half Y branches Quarter bends. . Reducers Sixth bends Sleeves T branches Traps . Y branches Size inches 2X8 4X12 23 5X12 30 Offsets, pounds each 9 38 BOILERS AND TUBING. 369 CAPACITY AND SIZE OF GALVANIZED BOILERS. Capacity. Size. Weight of Boiler. Total Weight Filled with Water. 18 gall 21 24 24 27 28 30 32 35 36 36 40 42 47 48 52 53 63 66 79 82 98 100 120 120 144 168 192 ons 3 feet b 3 * !! 3 " a - 5 4 5 6 I : ? '' 5 " 4 " 6 " 5 " 6 ' 5 6 5 6 5 6 7 8 y 12 inc * 12 12 14 12 14 12 14 13 12 14 14 16 16 14 16 18 16 18 18 20 20 22 22 24 24 24 24 hes 47 49 57 52 66 66 i 72 72 76 85 78 85 95 102 102 119 119 146 150 171 192 210 220 265 260 332 348 391 196 224 257 255 291 299 322 339 867 384 377 418 444 493 503 551 562 670 699 829 875 1026 1053 1264 1259 1531 1747 1990 TABLE OF WEIGHTS PER LINEAL FOOT OF SEAMLESS BRASS AND COPPER TUBING. IRON PIPE SIZES. Made to correspond with iron tubes and to fit iron tube fittings. Same as Exact Outside Exact Inside About Inside Weight per Foot. Iron Diameter. Diameter. Diameter. Size. Decimals. Decimals. Fractions. Brass. Copper. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Lbs. Lbs. .405 .281 .25 .26 1 .540 .375 n .43 .45 I .675 .484 n .62 .65 X .840 .625 * I .90 .95 I 1.04 .822 21 1.25 1.31 1 1.315 1.062 l^jf 1.70 1.79 If 1.66 1.368 1M 2.50 2.63 If 1.90 1.600 Ijf 3.00 3.15 2 2 . 375 2.062 2Jj 4.00 4.20 21 2.875 2.500 2-^- 5.75 6.04 3 3.50 3.062 3iV 8.30 8.72 3* 4.00 3.5000 31 10.90 11.45 4 4.50 4.000 4-j^. 12.70 13.33 4* 5.00 4 . 5000 41 7 : 3~2 13.90 14.60 5 5.563 5.062 5jfe 15.75 16.54 6 6.625 6.125 6^5 18.31 19.23 370 PIPE TABLES. SEAMLESS BRASS AND COPPER TUBING (Continued). EXTRA-HEAVY IRON PIPE SIZES. Approximate Weight in Same as Exact Exact Pounds per Foot. Extra-heavy Iron Pipe. Outside Diameter. Inside Diameter. Brass. Copper. Inches. Inches. Inches. Lbs. Lbs. .405 .205 .370 .389 .j. .504 .294 .625 .651 3 .675 .421 .830 .872 i .840 .542 1.200 1.260 1.050 .736 1.660 1.743 1 1.315 .951 2.360 2.478 1J 1.660 1.272 3.300 3.465 8 1.900 1.494 4.250 4.462 2 2.375 1.933 5.460 5.733 2* 2.875 2.315 8.300 8.715 3 3.500 2.892 11.200 11.760 3* 4.00 3.358 13.700 14.385 4 4.50 3.818 16.500 17.325 5 5 . 563 4.813 22.800 23.940 6 6.625 5.750 32 . 000 33.600 SIZE, WEIGHTS, ETC., OF VITRIFIED SALT-GLAZED SEWER-PIPE. Calibre of Pipe. Thickness of Pipe. Weight per Foot. Feet to 15-ton Car Load. 3 inches inch 6 pounds 5000 4 7* 4000 5 11* 2610 6 16 1880 8 22 1366 10 31 970 12 41 734 14 1 50 600 16 1 in hes 66 456 18 1 80 376 20 1 90 334 22 1 100 300 24 1 120 250 30 j 190 158 DOUBLE-STRENGTH PIPE. Calibre of Pipe. Thickness of Pipe. Weight per Foot. Feet to 15-ton Car Load. 15 inches 18 " . 21 " 24 " 30 " H inches ? ;: 2* " 65 pounds 100 132 " 175 260 " 462 300 228 172 116 GAS-PIPING, ETC. 371 TERRACOTTA FLUE-LININGS. Inside Measure. Outside Measure. Form. Weight per Foot. Feet to Car Load of 15 Tons. 5 inches 7 inches Round 14 pounds 2144 6 8 19 1580 8 10 22 1364 10 12J 30 1000 Sq are 10 3000 7X7 gi v gi 20 1500 Six 13 30 1000 7 X 15' Six 17 33 910 IliX Hi 13 X13 37 810 Hi X 15' 13 X17 40 750 15i X 15^ 17 X17 50 600 Gas-piping, etc. The gas-pipes in a building should be wrought iron or soft steel of standard make. The fittings should be galvanized, as the zinc coating makes the fittings more solid and durable. Each piece of pipe before being put in place should be looked or blown through to see if it is clear of any stoppage. No gas-fitters' cement should be permitted to be used in any joints except the caps on the outlets. In running a line of pipe it should run in as direct a line and with as few turns as possible. All pipes should be run with a uni- form fall to the riser or starting-point, so that any water which may gather will run back to the main. In taking off branches or outlets from any run of pipe they should always be taken out at the side and all drop lights should be taken from a tee fitting in a short branch and the branch extended about a foot beyond the tee and capped; this insures the drop to hang plumb. Bracket lights should always be brought from the floor below, as gas should never be made to run down a pipe where it is possible to do otherwise, where convenient separate risers should be run to each floor and controlled by stopcocks in the cellar where they can be got at. When pipes cross wooden beams or joists, the pipes should be run across the top of the beams and the beams notched as little as possible, and not more than two feet from a bearing. When the pipes are all in place the superintendent should go over them and see that all outlets are provided for, and that all pipe are laid in the best possible manner. He should then have them tested to 8 or 10 pounds pressure, which should be left on for about twenty-five minutes, After the test is 372 GAS-PIPING, ETC. made, a good scheme is to leave the pressure on and loosen the cap on each outlet separately and notice if the pressure goes down as each one is loosened; this will show if the pipes are all clear, or if any of them contains any obstruction. The test on the pipes should be repeated just before the plastering is commenced, and again when it is finished. The following table shows the size of pipes and number of burners which they will supply: Greatest Number of Feet to be Run. Size of Pipe. | inch 1 li inches Greatest Number of Burners to be Sup- plied. Greatest Number of Feet to be Run. Size of Pipe. Greatest Number of Burners to be Sup- plied. 70 140 225 300 500 20 feet 30 " 50 " 70 " 100 " 2 4 15 25 40 150 feet 200 " 300 " 400 " 500 " 1$ inches 2 ? ''' 4 Computing the Pressure. Pressures which have been meas- ured in inches of water or mercury may be translated in pounds per square inch or foot by multiplying the reading by the following figures: One inch of water at 62 equals 5.2 pounds per square foot. One inch of water at 62 equals 0.0361 pound per square inch. One inch of mercury at 62 equals 0.4897 pound per square inch. Pressures per square inch or square foot may be converted into inches or feet of water, or inches of mercury, by multiply- ing the pressure by the following figures : One pound per square foot equals 0.1923 inch of water. One pound per square inch equals 27.7 inches of water at 62. One pound per square inch equals 2.042 inches of mercury at 62. Increase of Pressure. The increase of pressure in each 10 feet of rise in pipes with gas of various densities is as follows: Rise in pressure (ins. of water) .0147 .0293 .044 .058 .073 .088 .102 Density of gas 1 .9 .8 .7 .6 .5 .4 .3 Example. The pressure in the basement at the meter is 1.2 of water; what will be the pressure at the sixth story, 70 feet above, the density of the gas being .4? GAS PIPING, ETC. 373 Solution. The table shows that the increase will be 0.088 inch for each 10 feet of rise, therefore 0.088X7 equals 0.616 inch increase. Then the pressure at the sixth story equals 1.2+0.616 = 1.816. CAPACITY OF GAS-PIPES UNDER A PRESSURE OF 10.4 LBS. PER SQUARE FOOT. Capacity per Hour. Diameter of Pipe Maximum Length in Inches. in Feet. Coal Gas, Gasoline Gas, Cubic Feet. Cubic Feet. i 6 10 1 20 15 "16 i 30 30 20 I 50 100 75 1 70 175 125 H 100 300 200 lj 150 500 350 2 200 1000 700 2* 300 1500 1100 3 450 2250 1500 4 600 3750 2500 Flow of Gas in Pipes. If d = diameter of pipe in inches; Q= quantity of gas delivered in cubic feet per hour; 1= length of pipe in yards; h = pressure in inches of water-column; s=spe- cific gravity of the gas, air being one; then Q-iooo, te Nj 8l' (Molesworth) ; (King's Treatise on Coal-gas); si (J. P. Gill, Am. Gas-light Jour., 1894). Mr. Gill's formula is said to be based on experimental data, and to make allowance for obstructions by tar, etc., that tend to check the flow of gas through the pipe. An experiment made by Mr. Klegg, in London, on a 4-inch pipe 6 miles long gave a discharge that corresponds very closely with that computed by the use of Moles worth's formula. 374 SUPPLY OF GAS THROUGH PIPES. MAXIMUM SUPPLY OF GAS THROUGH PIPES IN CUBIC FEET PER HOUR, SPECIFIC GRAVITY BEING 0.45. Formula, Q = 10QQ^d 5 h+sL (Molesworth.) LENGTH OF PIPE = 10 YARDS. Diameter of Pipe in Inches. [Pressure by the Water-gauge in Inches. 0.1 13 26 73 149 260 411 843 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 29 59 162 333 582 918 1886 0.6 31 64 187 365 638 1006 2066 0.7 0.8 0.9 38 79 218 447 781 1232 2530 1.0 41 83 230 471 823 1299 2667 18 37 103 211 368 581 112 22 46 126 258 451 711 1460 26 53 145 298 521 821 1686 34 70 192 394 689 1082 2231 36 74 205 422 737 1162 2385 1 IE: ;:: 2 LENGTH OF PIPE = 100 YARDS. Pressure by the Water-gauge in Inches. 8.3 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.75 1.0 1.25 1.5 2.0 2.5 ^ 8 12 14 17 19 23 26 29 32 36 42 a 23 32 42 46 51 63 73 81 89 103 115 1 47 67 82 94 105 129 149 167 183 211 236 if 82 116 143 165 184 225 260 291 319 368 412 u 130 184 225 260 290 356 411 459 503 581 649 2 267 377 462 533 596 730 843 943 1033 1193 1333 2* 466 659 807 932 1042 1276 1473 1647 1804 2083 2329 3 735 1039 1270 1470 1643 2012 2323 2598 2846 3286 3674 3* 1080 1528 1871 2161 2416 2958 3416 3820 4184 4831 5402 4 1508 2133 2613 3017 3373 4131 4770 5333 5842 6746 7542 LENGTH OF PIPE = 1000 YARDS. JJ Us .*o.S Pressure by the Water-gauge in Inches. 0.5 0.75 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 i f 5 6 33 92 189 329 520 1067 1863 2939 41 113 231 403 636 1306 2282 3600 47 130 267 466 735 1508 : 2635 4157 58 159 327 571 900 1847 3227 5091 67 184 377 659 1039 2133 3727 5879 75 205 422 737 1162 2385 4167 6573 82 226 462 807 1273 2613 4564 7200 AQUEOUS VAPOR IN GAS. 375 MAXIMUM SUPPLY OF GAS THROUGH PIPES, ETC. (Continued). LENGTH OF PIPE = 5000 YARDS. Igj Pressure by the Water-gauge in Inches. gus 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 2 119 146 169 189 207 3 329 402 *" 465 520 569 4 675 826 955 1067 1168 5 1179 1443 1667 1863 2041 6 1859 2277 2629 2939 3220 7 2733 3347 3865 4321 4734 8 3816 4674 5397 6034 6610 9 5123 6274 7245 8100 8873 10 6667 8165 9428 10541 11547 12 10516 12880 14872 16628 18215 Where there is apt to be trouble from frost no pipe less than f inch should be used, and in extremely cold climates the smallest size should not be less than 1 inch. To provide for the resistance due to bends, one rule is to allow a pres- sure of 0.204 inch of water-column for each right-angled elbow. AQUEOUS VAPOR CONTAINED IN 1000 CUBIC FEET OF GAS AT INDICATED TEMPERATURE. Temp. Degrees. Volume A queous Vapor. Temp. Degrees. Volume Aqueous Vapor. Temp. Degrees. Volume Aqueous Vapor. 40 9.33 54 15.33 68 24.06 41 9.73 55 15.86 69 24.83 42 10.13 56 16.40 70 25.66 43 10.53 57 16.93 71 26.53 44 10.93 58 17.53 72 27.40 45 11.33 59 18.10 73 28.30 46 11.73 60 18.66 74 29.23 47 12.13 61 19.23 75 30.20 48 12.53 62 19.80 76 31.20 49 12.93 63 20.50 77 32.20 50 13.33 64 21.20 78 33.23 51 13.80 65 21.90 79 34.23 52 14.26 66 22.60 80 35.33 53 14.80 67 23.30 81 36.43 376 SIZES, ETC., OP GAS-PIPE. t- fc s ei t oo oo * * I-H ; N i-H l-t iH l-l iH al..* \ I-H O5 t^ 1C CO ^ 00 C P I ' H -' )COC >coc 138888988 . O' O5( rH I s * ^ 00 Oi O (N t^- Oi 5r!O CD t- 1> 00 O i-l C i> 06 os q rH ocj II .3 II > _ ll :< S n SIZES, ETC., OF GAS-PIPE. 377 C>Ci-HC5lOCOC:COr^C>CO 16 -g sll - t^fOOOO 5 2" 378 SIZES, ETC., OF GAS-PIPE. I! PS ^ON.O5iOCOCO-*.C.00>O'*lOiO< iOt>O'OClCOOiOl^.'-iCOOOOOiO< rH fr ff rj CO O5 Cj JO OS * * 1C 00 I! 1 1-H r- r* (N (N CO CO * -# 5 CO O O^O O O *O *O C rt< iO T-< CO O l> l> C OOOfOOOSMOOi ,H r* T- TH (N 00 iO ^ 1 5 STEEL AND WROUGHT-IRON PIPES. 379 How Steel and Wroiight-iron Pipes are Made. 1 LAP-WELDING. The plate for the larger sizes of pipe is first laid upon a travelling-table and the edges scarfed or bevelled. It is then heated in a bending furnace and rolled up into pipe form with the scarfed edges overlapping. The plates for the smaller sizes are formed up by being drawn through the die shown in the accompanying illustration. This consists of a stout cast-iron bending die the front half of which next the furnace door is flared out to receive the plate. Inside the die is a mandrel of the shape shown in the smaller engraving, whose rear portion is of about the size of the finished pipe. As the plate is pushed out of the furnace it is drawn by a pair of tongs through the die the flaring sides of which curve the plate until its edges meet and lap as they pass through the tubular end of the die. The plates, now bent up into form and known as skelp, are heated in a gas-fired welding furnace, and when they have reached a welding heat the skelp is pushed through the door at the back of the furnace into the welding- rolls, which are located just outside the door. The rolls, which are concave, are curved to the desired radius, and between them, held in position by a long bar, is a "ball," or mandrel, of the same diameter as the inside of the pipe. As the skelp passes through the rolls, its lapping edges are squeezed together between the rolls and the mandrel and a perfect weld is made. Each piece of pipe is carefully examined and all doubtful welds are rejected. The rough pipe then goes through the sizing rolls, in which it is brought to the exact diameter. Then it passes to the cross-straightening rolls the axes of which are inclined at an angle, as shown in the accompanying illustration. By this time it is perfectly true and straight, and to prevent it from warping as it cools, it is rolled and conveyed on a cooling - tnble to a straightening-machine, where it receives its final straightening in dies controlled by hydraulic pressure. The ends are then cut off, and after being threaded and the coup- ling put on, the pipe is tested in a hydraulic testing-machine, the smaller sizes at from 600 to 1500 pounds, the larger at from 500 to 750 pounds to the square inch. For oil-well tub- ing the tests run as high as 2500 pounds to the square inch. BUTT-WELDING. The smaller sizes of pipes are butt-welded. The plates, which are not scarfed as in the larger pipe, are 1 Scientific American, 380 STEEL AND WROUGHT-TRON PIPES. heated in the furnace, and when raised to a welding heat are drawn through a bell-shaped die the diameter of which is a little less than that of the skelp. The pressure thus induced is suffi- cient to squeeze the edges together and form the plate into a perfectly welded pipe. WEIGHTS OF CAST-IRON PIPE IN POUNDS. Standard Water-pipe. Lbs. Lead per Joint. Ounces Jute per Joint. Size Pipe. Thick- ness. Weight per Foot with Bell. Weight per Length with Bell. Weight of Bell. 3 2.8 3" ir 17 204 12 5.5 3.5 4" Jr 22 264 12 8 5.0 6" 34 408 24 11 7.0 8" 17" 47 564 36 14 8.5 10" &' 64 768 48 18 11.0 12" 4' 82 984 60 21 13.0 14" H' 105 1260 72 24 15.0 16" V 133 1596 108 27 16.0 18" H' 160 1920 120 31 23.0 20" ~k' 190 2280 144 36 24.0 24" 1' 2(50 3120 180 50 76 33.0 48.0 30" 36" !!= 360 488 4320 5856 204 360 95 112 170 58.0 70.0 100.0 42" 48" 60" 1 625 830 1220 7500 9960 14640 468 648 960 Standard Gas-pipe. Lbs. Lead per Joint. Ounces Jute per Joint. Size Pipe. Thick- ness. Weight per Foot with Bell. Weight per Length with Bell. Weight of Bell. 3 2.8 3" w 14 168 12 5.5 3.5 4" H ' 19 228 12 8 5.0 6" T^ ' 30.5 366 18 11 7.0 8" M ' 41 492 24 14 8.5 10" ' 56 672 48 18 11.0 12" 1 74 888 60 - 21 13.0 14" ' 92 1104 72 24 15.0 16" I 112 1344 96 27 16.0 18" ' 133 1596 108 31 20.0 20" ' 159 1908 120 36 24.0 24" j I 205 2460 1.32 50 76 33.0 48.0 30" 36" 1 I 275 368 3300 4416 168 304 The above tables show the weights which have been adopted by the United States Cast Iron Pipe and Foundry Company as standard weights for water- and gas -pipe respectively for ordinary service. STEEL AND WROUGHT-IRON PIPES. 381 LIST OF STANDARD SPECIALS. (Approximate weight.) Size in In. Wt. in Lbs. Size in In. Wt. in Lbs. Size in In. Wt. in Lbs. Crosses. Tees. Tees. 2 40 2 28 24X12 1425 3 110 3 85 24X8 1375 3X2 90 3X2 76 24X6 1450 4 140 4 110 30 3025 4X3 114 4X3 120 30X24 2640 4X2 90 4X2 87 30X20 2380 6 200 6 170 30X12 2035 6X4 160 6X4 145 30X10 2050 6X3 160 6X3 145 30X6 1825 8 330 6X2 75 36 5140 8X6 280 8 290 36X30 4200 8X4 265 8X6 280 36X12 4050 8X3 225 8X4 220 10 595 8X3 220 10X8 415 10 390 45 Branch 10X6 430 10X8 345 Pipes. 10X4 390 10X6 370 10X3 370 10X4 350 12 740 10X3 330 3 90 12X10 650 12 600 4 125 12X8 620 12X10 555 6 205 12X6 540 12X8 530 6X6X4 145 12X4 525 12X6 525 8 330 12X3 495 12X4 550 8X6 330 14X10 750 14X12 650 24 2765 14X8 625 14X10 650 24X24X20 2145 14X6 570 14X8 575 30 4170 16 1100 14X6 545 36 10300 16X14 1070 14X4 525 16X12 1000 14X3 490 16X10 1010 16 790 Sleeves. 16X8 825 16X14 850 16X6 700 16X12 850 16X4 690 16X10 825 2 10 18 1560 16X8 755 3 30 20 1790 16X6 680 4 45 20X12 1370 16X4 655 6 100 20X10 1225 18 1235 8 120 20X8 1335 20 1475 10 140 20X6 1000 20X16 1115 12 190 20X4 1000 20X12 1025 14 208 24 2400 20X10 1090 16 350 24X20 2020 20X8 1070 18 340 24X6 1340 20X'6 875 20 400 30X20 2635 20X4 845 24 710 30X12 2250 24X10 1465 30 965 30X8 1995 24 2000 36 1200 24X20 1730 TIN AND SHEET-METAL WORK, LIST OF STANDARD SPECIALS. (Continued}. Size in In. Wt. in Lbs Size in In. Wt. in Lbs. Size in In. Wt. in Lbs. 90 Elbows. Reducers. Plugs. 2 3 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 24 30 14 34 55 120 150 260 370 450 660 850 900 1400 3000 3X2 4X3 4X2 6X4 6X3 8X6 8X4 8X3 10X8 10X6 10X4 12X10 12X8 12X6 12X4 14X12 14X10 14X8 14X6 16X12 16X10 20X16 20 X 14 20X12 20X8 24X20 30X24 30X18 36X30 35 45 40 95 70 126 116 116 200 180 160 320 300 250 250 475 400 390 285 475 435 690 575 540 400 860 1305 1385 1730 2 3 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 24 30 3 10 10 15 30 46 66 90 100 130 150 185 370 Caps. i or 45 Bends. 3 4 6 8 10 12 16 20 25 60 75 100 120 265 3 4 6 8 10 12 16 18 20 24 30 30 70 95 150 200 290 510 580 780 1425 2000 Drip-boxes. 4 6 8 10 20 295 330 375 875 1420 Angle Reducers for Gas. & or 221 Bends. 6X4 6X3 95 70 4 6 8 10 12 16 24 30 65 150 155 205 260 450 1280 2000 S Pipes. 4 6 105 190 TIN AND SHEET-METAL WORK. PAINTING IRONWORK, ETC. ELECTRIC WIRING, ETC. HEATING. Tin and Sheet-metal Work. Tin for flat roofs is usu- ally put on with the ordinary flat lock joint, the sheets of tin being nailed under the lock. After the sheets are nailed and TIN AND SHEET-METAL WORK. 383 hooked together the hook joints are beaten down with a wooden mallet and then soldered. When it is desired to make some allowance for contraction and expansion the sheets should be fastened with tin clips nailed to the roof as shown by Fig. 228; in this way there are no nails through the sheets of tin, but they are held in place by the clips. Fig. 229 shows a section of the joint. Standing seam roofs are also fastened with clips nailed to FlG 22g> the sheathing and turned down in the standing seam. Fig. 230, 1, 2, 3, shows a standing seam roof in the different stages of construction. FIG. 229. Fig. 230, at 5, shows the joint turned down in a flat lock joint. Fia. 231. 384 TIN AND SHEET-METAL WORK. In standing seam roofs or any roof where the tin is laid in long lengths the cross-joints should be double-locked; this FIG. 232. is shown in Fig. 231, while Fig. 232 shows the ordinary single lock. Tin roofs are sometimes put on in lengths running with the slope of the roof, the strips of tin being turned up and laid between strips of wood, as shown by Fig. 233. This method is used to make an allowance for expansion and contraction. ,_===_ Fi S s - 234 and 235 show F IG 233. another method of putting a cap over the wooden strip; this makes a very good roof and all the tin is held in place by the 1 FIG. 234. FIG. 235. clips under the wooden strips and the lock joint. The different stages of construction of the joint are shown in the two figures. Fig. 236 shows a method used for zinc and copper, while Fig. 237 shows how the cross-joints should be made at the ends of the sheet of metal. A rise or step should be made in the roof and the two sheets of metal turned and locked as shown in Fig. 237. In working zinc care must be exercised in making the bends and angles, for if they are made too sharp the metal is liable to crack. Wherever any metal roof covering finishes at a wall or any place where flashing is necessary the roof metal should be turned up 8 or 10 inches and securely fastened; then this metal should be counter-flashed and the flashing let into the joint of the wall at least 2 inches and well cemented. This is one part of the work that the superintendent should pay particular atten- tion to, so as to get everything water-tight. TIN AND SHEET-METAL WORK. 385 In all metal roofing the main points are to get the roof water- tight and to make provision for expansion and contraction. FIG. 236. PAINTING. As soon as the roofing is in place and the joints all soldered, it should then be painted. Before painting the FIG. 237. superintendent should see that all surplus resin and grease are cleaned off so the paint can take hold of the metal. VENT AND HOT-AIR PIPES. The superintendent must be particular to see that these pipes are located right and the openings put at the proper height. When the opening is at the bottom it should be just above the wood base, so the flange of the register plate will set on top of the wood base. In vent- pipes the top opening should be as near the ceiling or cornice as possible. The hot-air openings are placed at various heights according to the system of heating employed, and these heights should be indicated on the drawings. All pipes should run as direct and have as few turns as possi- ble. Any pipe having a width of 18 inches or over should be stiff- 386 TIN AND SHEET-METAL WORK. ened by having ribs riveted across them about 2 feet apart. Fig. 238 shows a section of the rib. Fio. 238. In metal-work, such as cornices, etc., the superintendent must see that the desired forms or brackets are fastened se- curely and the metal is fastened as desired to the brackets and made water-tight. GUTTERS. The superintendent must see that all gutters have sufficient fall to insure all water to be carried to the con- ductor, or down spout. At the intake the down spout should be enlarged to about twice its area and covered with a wire screen to prevent leaves or dirt from entering the pipe. VENTILATORS. There are a number of various kinds and styles of ventilators on the market, the majority of which are sold under patent. Nearly all of the various ventilators give good satisfaction, but there is one, known as The Emerson Ventilator, shown by Fig. 239, and which is just as efficient as any on the market, and can be made by any one, as the patent on it has expired. This venti- lator gives good satisfaction either for FIG. 239. ventilation purposes or for smoke, as its shape insures an upward draft no matter which way the wind is blowing. TIN-PLATE. Tin-plate is sheet iron, &* steel coated with tin. Terne-plate is a plate of sheet iron coated with tin and lead and is inferior in quality to the tin-plate. The best plates are those known to be made by the "charcoal" or "old" process. Plates coated with tin are known as "bright tin," while those coated with a mixture of tin and lead are known as "terne" or "dull" plates. Plates are made in two thicknesses, 1C and IX. The 1C is No. 30 gauge and weighs .5 pounds to the square foot; the IX is No. 28 gauge and weighs .625 pounds per foot. Imperfect sheets are called "wasters," and the letter W on a box after the 1C or IX indicates that the box contains imperfect sheets. TIN AND SHEET-METAL WORK. 387 COMPOSITION AND FUSING-POINTS OF SOLDER. Hard. Soft. Kind. Zinc. Cop- per. Silver. Tin. Lead. Bis- muth. ing- point. Spelter, hardest ] 700 hard 2 3 550 " soft 1 1 ' ' fine 2 2 4- 1 I ' ' medium . . 1 3 so ft 1 2 Plumbers', coarse 1 3 480 ' ' ordinary . . 1 2 441 ' ' fine 2 3 400 1 1 370 For tin pipe 3 2 330 4 4 1 Solder may be tested by melting, when, if a great many bright spots appear floating on the top, it must be considered too soft or fine, while if the spots are totally absent, it con- tains too much lead. Tin spots about three-eighths of an inch in diameter indicate good solder. Fluxes are used to aid in the fusion of solder and to clean the surface of the metals to be soldered. Those commonly used and the metals to which they are applied are as follows: Flux. Rosin Tallow. Sal ammoniac Muriatic or hydro- chloric acid Chloride of zinc. . . . Borax Metals to be Joined. Lead, tin, or tinned metals. Copper, iron, and lead. Dirty zinc, copper, and brass. Clean zinc, copper, tin, or tinned metals. Lead, zinc, tin tubes, and tinned metals. Iron, steel, copper, brass, gold, and platinum. SOLDERS TO USE FOR DIFFERENT METALS. Material to be Soldered. Solder to Use. Tin. Soft, coarse or fine. Lead. . Soft, coarse Brass, copper, iron, and zinc. . . . . Pewter Pewterers' or fusible Brass. . . Spelter ^oft Copper and iron 388 TIN AND SHEET-METAL WORK. To SOLDER ALUMINUM. The solder consists of aluminum 5 parts, antimony 5 parts, and zinc 90 parts. To make it harder, use a little more antimony and a little less zinc. The following is the process of making the solder and the method of using it: The aluminum is first melted in a pot; the zinc is then added, and when this is melted, the antimony is added. The metal is then thoroughly puddled with sal ammoniac. When the surface of the metal is quite clear and white, it should be poured into sticks ready for use, the cinders being first removed. To make joints in aluminum with this solder, the two or more surfaces to be joined should be cleaned, either by scraping or by using acid; and the surfaces should be well coated with the solder, special care being taken that the solder penetrates into the surface of the metal without burning it. The parts to be joined should then be placed together and kept in close con- tact. Heat should now be applied till the solder melts, any surplus that squeezes out being wiped off. Table showing quantity of 14 // X20 // tin required to cover a given number of square feet with flat-seam tin roofing. A sheet of 14"X20" with \" edges measures, when edged or folded, 13" 'X19", or 247 square inches. In the following all fractional parts of a sheet are counted a full sheet. Num- Sheets Num- Sheets Num- Sheets Num- Sheets ber of Re- ber of Re- ber of Re- ber of Re- Sq. Ft. quired. Sq. Ft. quired. Sq. Ft. quired. Sq. Ft. quired. 100 59 330 193 560 327 780 455 110 65 340 199 570 333 790 461 120 70 350 205 580 339 800 467 130 76 360 210 590 344 810 473 140 82 370 216 600 350 820 479 150 88 380 222 610 356 830 484 160 94 390 228 620 362 840 490 170 100 400 234 630 368 850 496 180 105 410 240 640 374 860 502 190 111 420 245 650 379 870 508 200 117 430 251 660 385 880 514 210 123 440 257 670 391 890 519 220 129 450 263 680 397 900 525 230 135 460 269 690 403 910 531 240 140 470 275 700 409 920 537 250 146 480 280 710 414 930 543 260 152 490 286 720 420 940 549 270 158 500 292 730 426 950 554 280 164 510 298 740 432 960 560 290 170 520 304 750 438 970 566 300 175 530 309 760 444 980 572 310 181 540 315 770 449 990 578 320 187 550 321 1000 square feet, 583 sheets. A box of 112 sheets 14"X20" will cover approximately 192 square feet. TIN AND SHEET-METAL WORK. U. S. STANDARD GAUGE. (Fon SHEET AND PLATE IRON AND STEEL.) (Copy.) (Public Number 137.) An act establishing a standard gauge for sheet and plate iron and steel. Be it enacted by the Senate and flouse of Re^rresentatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That for the purpose of securing uniformity the following is established as the only standard gauge for sheet and plate iron and steel in the United States of America, namely: Number of Gauge. Thickness. Weight. Number of Gauge. Approximate Thickness in Fractions of an Inch. Approximate Thickness in )ecimal Parts of an Inch. Weight per Square Foot in Ounces Avoirdupois. Weight per Square Foot in Pounds Avoirdupois. 0000000 1/2 .5 320 20 0000000 000000 15/32 .46875 300 18.75 000000 00000 7/16 .4375 280 17.5 00000 0000 13/32 .40625 260 16.25 0000 000 3/8 .375 240 15 000 00 11/32 .34375 220 13.75 00 5/16 .3125 200 12.5 1 9/32 .28125 180 11.25 1 2 17/64 .265625 170 10.625 2 3 1/4 .25 160 10 3 4 15/64 .234375 150 9.375 4 5 7/32 .21875 140 8.75 5 6 13/64 .203125 130 8.125 6 7 3/16 .1875 120 7.5 7 8 11/64 .171875 110 6.875 8 9 5/32 . 15625 100 6.25 9 10 9/64 . 140625 90 5.625 10 11 1/8 .125 80 5 11 12 7/64 . 109375 70 4.375 12 13 3/32 .09375 60 3.75 13 14 5/64 .078125 50 3.125 14 15 9/128 .0703125 45 2.8125 15 16 1/16 .0625 40 2.5 16 17 9/160 .05625 36 2.25 17 18 1/20 .05 32 2 18 19 7/160 .04375 28 .75 19 20 3/80 .0375 24 .5 20 21 11/320 .034375 22 .375 21 22 1/32 .03125 20 .25 22 23 9/320 .028125 18 .125 23 24 1/40 .025 16 24 25 7/320 .021875 14 .875 25 26 3/160 .01875 12 .75 26 27 11/640 .0171875 11 .6875 27 28 1/64 .015625 10 .625 28 29 9/640 .0140625 9 .5625 29 30 1/80 .0125 8 .5 30 31 7/640 .0109375 7 .4375 31 32 13/1280 .01015625 6* .40625 32 33 3/320 .009375 6 .375 33 34 11/1280 . 00859375 5* .34375 34 35 5/640 .0078125 5 .3125 35 36 9/1280 .00703125 4* .28125 36 37 17/2560 .006640625 4i .265625 37 38 1/160 .00625 4 .25 38 And on and after July first, eighteen hundred and ninety-three, the same and no other shall be used in determining duties and taxes levied by the United States of America on sheet and plate iron and steel. But this act shall not be construed to increase duties upon any articles which may be imported. SEC. 2. That the Secretary of the Treasury is authorized and required to prepare ;?uitable standards in accordance herewith. SEC. 3. That in the practical use and application of the standard gauge hereby established a variation of two and one-half per cent either way may be allowed. Approved March 3, 1893. TIN AND SHEET-METAL WORK. TABLE OF WEIGHTS OF IRON AND STEEL SHEETING PER SQUARE FOOT. (Kent.) Thickness by Stubs' or Birmingham Gauge. Thickness by American (Brown & Sharpe's) Gauge. No. of Gauge. Thick- ness in Inches. Iron. Steel. No. of Gauge. Thick- ness in Inches. Iron. Steel. 0000 .454 18.16 18.52 0000 .46 18.40 18.77 000 .425 17.00 17.34 000 .4096 16.38 16.71 00 .38 15.20 15.30 00 .3648 14.59 14.88 .34 13.60 13.87 .3249 13.00 13.26 1 .3 12.00 12.24 1 .2893 11.57 11.80 2 .284 11.36 11.59 2 . 2576 10.30 10.51 3 .259 10.36 10.57 3 .2294 9.18 9.36 4 .238 9.52 9.71 4 .2043 8.17 8.34 5 .22 8.80 8.98 5 .1819 7.28 7.42 6 .203 8.12 8.28 6 .1620 6.48 6.61 7 .18 7.20 7.34 7 . 1443 5.77 5.89 8 .165 6.60 6.73 8 .1285 5.14 5.24 9 .148 5.92 6.04 9 .1144 4.58 4.67 10 .134 5.36 5.47 10 .1019 4.08 4.16 11 .12 4.80 4.90 11 .0907 3.63 3.70 12 .109 4.36 4.45 12 .0808 3.23 3.30 13 .095 3.80 3.88 13 .0720 2.88 2.94 14 .083 3.32 3.39 14 .0641 2.56 2.62 15 .072 2.88 2.94 15 .0571 2.28 2.33 16 .065 2.60 2.65 16 .0508 2.03 2.07 17 .058 , 2.32 2.37 17 .0453 1.81 1.85 18 .049 1.96 2.00 18 .0403 1.61 1.64 19 .042 .68 1.71 19 .0359 1.44 1.46 20 .035 1.40 1.43 20 .0320 1.28 1.31 21 .032 .28 1.31 21 .0285 1.14 1.16 22 .028 .12 1.14 22 .0253 1.01 1.03 23 .025 .00 1.02 23 .0226 .904 .922 24 .022 .88 .898 24 .0201 .804 .820 25 .02 .80 .816 25 .0179 .716 .730 26 .018 .72 .734 26 .0159 .636 .649 27 .016 .64 .653 27 .0142 .568 .579 28 .014 .56 .571 28 .0126 .504 .514 29 .013 .52 .530 29 .0113 .452 .461 30 .012 .48 .490 30 .0100 .400 .408 31 .01 .40 .408 31 .0089 .356 .363 32 .009 .36 .367 32 .0080 .320 .326 33 .008 .32 .326 33 .0071 .284 .290 34 .007 .28 .286 34 .0063 .252 .257 35 .005 .20 .204 35 .0056 .224 .228 Iron. Steel. Specific gravity 7.7 7.854 Weight per cubic foot 480 489.6 " " inch. . .2778 .2833 As there are many gauges in use differing from each other, and even the thicknesses of a certain specified gauge, as the Birmingham, are not assumed the same by all manufacturers, orders for sheets and wires should always state the weight per square foot or the thickness in thousandths of an inch. TIN AND SHEET-METAL WORK. 391 STANDING SEAM TIN ROOFING. Table showing quantity of 20"X28" tin required to cover a given number of square feet with standing seam roofing. The standing seams and the locks on a steep roof require 2f " off the width and I" off the length of the sheet; fractional parts are counted as a full sheet. A sheet will cover 475 square inches. Num- ber of Sq. Ft. Sheets Re- quired. Num- ber of Sq. Ft. Sheets Re- quired. Num- ber of Sq. Ft. Sheets Re- quired. Num- ber of Sq. Ft Sheets Re- quired. 100 31 330 100 560 173 780 237 110 34 340 103 570 176 790 240 120 37 350 106 580 182 800 243 130 40 360 109 590 185 810 246 140 43 370 112 600 184 820 249 150 46 380 115 610 135 830 252 160 49 390 118 620 188 840 255 170 52 400 122 630 191 850 258 180 55 410 125 640 194 860 261 190 58 420 128 650 197 870 264 200 61 430 131 660 200 880 267 210 64 440 134 670 203 890 270 220 67 450 137 680 206 900 273 230 70 460 140 690 207 910 276 240 73 470 143 700 212 920 279 250 76 480 147 710 215 930 282 260 79 490 149 720 218 940 285 270 82 500 152 730 221 950 288 280 85 510 158 740 224 960 291 290 88 520 161 750 228 970 294 300 91 530 164 760 231 980 297 310 94 540 167 770 234 990 300 320 97 550 170 1000 square feet 303 sheets. approximately 370 square feet. A full box 112 sheets 20"X28" will cover The common sizes of tin plates are 10X14" and multiples of that measure. The sizes most generally used are 14X20" and 20X28". WEIGHT OF SHEETS PER SQUARE FOOT. Black. United States Standard Weights. Galvanized. National Association of Galvanized Sheet-iron Manufacturers' Weights. Num- ber. Pounds. Num- ber. Pounds. Num- ber. Ounces. Num- ber. Ounces. 10 5 . 625 21 1 . 375 10 . 92* 21 24^ 11 5 22 1.25 11 82* 22 22^ 12 4.375 23 1.125 12 72* 23 20J 13 3.75 24 1 13 62* 24 18J 14 15 16 3.125 2.8125 2.5 25 26 27 .875 .75 .6875 14 15 16 52* 47* 42* 25 26 27 16J 14, 17 18 2.25 2 28 29 .625 .5625 17 18 1 28 29 12; 19 20 1.75 1.50 30 .5 19 20 I 30 10J 392 TIN PLATES. WEIGHT OF BLACK PLATES BEFORE BEING COATED. Black plates before coating weigh per 112 sheets. . . . 1C 14X20 1C 20X28 1X14X20 1X20X28 Lbs. 95 to 100 Lbs. 190 to 200 Lbs. 125 to 130 Lbs. 250 to 260 NET WEIGHT PER BOX TIN PLATES. Basis 14X20, 112. Trade term 80-1 85-1 90-1 95-1 100-1 1C IX IX IXX IXXX IXXXX Weight per box Ibs 80 85 90 95 100 107 12 13 155 175 195 Nearest wire gauge No 33 32 31 31 30 3C 2 2 2 26 25 Size of Sheets Sheets. Box. 10 X14 225 80 85 90 95 100 107 128 135 15 175 195 14 X20 112 80 85 90 95 100 107 128 135 15 175 195 20 X28 112 160 170 180 190 200 214 256 270 310 350 390 10 X20 225 114 121 129 136 143 153 183 193 22 250 279 11 X22 225 138 147 156 164 172 184 222 234 268 302 337 1HX23 225 151 161 170 179 189 202 242 255 293 331 368 12 X12 225 82 87 93 98 103 110 132 139 159 180 201 12 X24 112 82 87 93 98 103 110 132 139 159 180 201 13 X13 225 97 103 109 115 121 129 154 163 187 211 235 13 X26 112 97 103 109 115 121 129 154 163 187 211 235 14 X14 225 112 119 126 133 140 150 179 189 217 245 273 14 X28 112 112 119 126 133 140 150 179 189 217 245 273 15 X15 225 129 137 145 153 161 172 206 217 249 281 313 16 X16 225 146 155 165 174 183 196 234 247 283 320 357 17 X17 225 165 175 186 196 206 221 264 279 320 361 403 18 X18 112 93 98 104 110 116 124 148 156 179 202 226 19 X19 112 103 110 116 122 129 138 165 174 200 226 251 20 X20 112 114 121 129 136 143 153 183 193 221 250 279 21 X21 112 126 134 142 150 158 169 202 213 244 276 307 22 X22 112 138 147 156 164 172 184 221 234 268 302 337 23 X23 112 151 161 170 179 189 202 242 255 293 331 368 24 X24 112 164 175 185 195 204 220 263 278 319 360 401 26 X26 112 193 205 217 229 241 258 309 26 374 422 471 16 X20 112 91 97 103 109 114 22 146 54 177 200 223 14 X31 112 124 132 140 147 155 66 198 09 240 271 302 1HX22* 112 73 78 82 87 91 98 131 X 17f 112 67 71 76 80 84 90 13iX19| 112 73 77 82 87 91 97 13*X19* 112 75 80 85 89 94 00 13*X19 112 76 81 86 90 95 02 14 Xl8f 124 83 88 93 98 103 10 14 X19J 120 83 88 93 98 103 10 14 X21 112 84 89 95 100 105 12 14 X22 112 88 94 99 105 110 18 14 X22i 112 89 95 100 106 111 19 15JX23 112 02 108 115 121 127 36 COPPER AND BRASS SHEETS. 393 TABLE OF WEIGHTS PER SQUARE FOOT OF COPPER AND BRASS SHEETS. American or B. & S. Gauge. Thickness. .46 inch, or ft inch full 20.838 .40964 inch 18.557 .3648 " , or $ inch scant 16.525 .32486 " 14.716 .2893 " 13.105 . 25763 inch, or i inch f ull . . 1 1 . 670 .22942 "... 10.392 .20431 " 9.255 .18194 " , or & inch scant 8.242 .16202 " 7.340 . 14428 inch 6.536 .12849 " , or i inch full 5.821 .11443 " 5.183 .10189 " 4.616 .090742" 4.110 .0808 inch... 3.66 .0720 " 3'.26 .06408 " 2.90 .057068 " 2.585 .05082 " 2.302 .045257 inch 2.05 .0403 " 1.825 .0359 " 1.626 .0320 " 1.448 .02846 " 1.289 .02535 inch 1 . 148 .02257 " 1.023 .0211 " 910 .0179 " 811 .0159 " 722 .01419 inch 643 .01264 " 573 .01126 " 510 .01003 " 454 .0089 " .404 .0079 inch 360 .0071 " 321 .0063 " 286 .0056 " 254 .0050 " 226 .00445 inch .202 .00396 " 180 .00353 " 160 .00314 " .142 Copper. Pounds. These weights are theoretically correct, but variations must be expected in practice. 394 COPPER AND BRASS SHEETS. TABLE OF WEIGHTS PER SQUARE FOOT OF COPPER AND BRASS SHEETS (Continued). Stub s' Gauge. Copper. Brass. Number. Thickness. Pounds. Pounds. 0000 .464 inch, or TS inch full 20.556 19.431 000 .425 " . 19 253 18.19 00 .380 " , or f inch full 17.214 16.264 .340 " " vs " scant. . , 15.402 14 552 1 .300 " || " full 13.59 12.84 2 .284 inch, or -* inch full. ... 12 865 12 155 3 .259 " 11.733 11.09 4 . 238 ' ' nis i < 10 781 10.19 5 .220 " " & " " 9.966 9.416 6 .203 " < U tt 9 20 8.689 7 .180 inch, or Yf inch scant. . . . 8 154 7.704 8 165 " 7 475 7 062 g .148 " " <& " full 6.704 6.334 10 11 .134 " 120 " j| & " scant 6.070 5 436 5.735 5 137 8 12 13 14 .109. inch, .095 " .083 " or ^ inch ;; & ;; full 4.938 4.303 3.760 4.667 4.066 3.552 15 .072 " "A " scant. . 3 . 262 3.08 16 .065 " " J* " full 2.945 2.78 17 058 inch, or TJT 'inch scant. . 2 627 2.48 18 19 .049 " 042 " " & " full "A " scant 2.220 1.90 2.10 1.80 20 21 .035 " .032 ' " A " full "A " scant 1.59 1.45 1.50 1.37 22 .028 inch. 1.27 1.20 23 025 " . 1.13 1.07 24 022 " 997 .941 25 020 " . .906 .856 26 018 " .815 .770 27 28 .016 inch, 014 " or fa inch .725 634 .685 .599 29 013 " . .589 .556 30 012 " .544 .514 31 .010 " . .453 .428 32 009 inch 408 .385 33 008 ' ' 362 342 34 007 " . .317 .2996 35 005 " .227 .214 36 004 " 181 .171 BRASS AND COPPER RODS. 395 TABLE OF WEIGHTS PER LINEAL FOOT OF BRASS AND COPPER RODS. Inches. Brass. Copper. Round. Square. Round. Square. A Pounds. .011 .045 .100 .175 .275 Pounds. .014 .055 .125 .225 .350 Pounds. .01155 .047 .106 .189 .296 Pounds. .0147 .060 . 13497 .241 .377 3 tv.v::::: .395 .540 .710 .90 1.10 .510 .690 .905 1.15 1.40 .426 .579 .757 .958 1.182 .542 .737 .964 1.22 1.51 i $. |;;: ;; 1.35 1.66 1.85 2.15 2.48 Iv72 2.05 2.40 2.75 3.15 1.431 1.703 1.998 2.318 2.660 1.82 2.17 2.54 2.95 3.39 1. . 2.85 3.20 3.57 3.97 4.41 3.65 4.08 4.55 5.08 5.65 3.03 3.42 3.831 4.269 4.723 3.86 4.35 4.88 5.44 6.01 ITS'. it if y:.y.:::: Jfr 4.86 5.35 5.85 6.37 6.92 6.22 6.81 7.45 8.13 8.83 5.21 5.723 6.255 6.811 7.39 6.63 7.24 7.97 8.67 9.41 IT?. &::::: :::: pli 7.48 8.05 8.65 9.29 9.95 9.55 10.27 11.00 11.82 12.68 7.993 8.45 9.27 9.76 10.642 10.18 10.73 11.80 12.43 13.55 ff P y.y.:::: 10.58 11.25 12.78 14.32 15.96 13.50 14.35 16.27 18.24 20.32 11.11 12.108 13.668 15.325 17.075 14.15 15.42 17.42 19.51 21.74 If-::::::::: 2!.. 2* 2 2f. .. 17.68 19.50 21.40 23.39 25.47 22.53 24.83 27.25 29.78 32.43 18.916 20.856 22.891 25 . 019 27.243 24 09 26.56 29.05 31.86 34.69 2! .. 3 8 30.45 35.31 46.124 38 . 77 44.96 58.73 31.972 37 . 081 48.433 40.71 47.22 61.67 t :::::::::: To find the weight of octagon rod, take the weight of round rod of a given size and multiply by 1.084. To find the weight of hexagon rod, take the weight of round rod of a given size and multiply by 1.12. These tables are theoretically correct, bitt variations must be expected in practice. 396 PAINTING. Painting. MATERIALS. The most common materials used for mixing paints are linseed-oil, turpentine and benzine, and zinc white. Generally speaking, and with many excep- tions of course, two or more of these substances in combination, with varying proportions of the several colors, constitute the house-painting materials on the market. Linseed-oil. Linseed-oil is pressed from the seeds of the flax plant, and after purification becomes the raw oil of commerce. After being heated in connection with certain oxidizing agents (driers) such as red lead, litharge, man- ganese oxide, manganese borate, etc., either by means of direct fire or in a steam-jacketed kettle, it is known as boiled oil. The peculiar quality of linseed-oil to absorb oxygen from the air, and in oxidizing to form a tough, elastic substance, known as linoxyn (a property which it possesses in common with a few other so-called drying oils poppy-oil, nut-oil, etc.), gives it special value in paint- and varnish-making. Any admix- ture with mineral oils or non-drying vegetable oils greatly impairs or wholly destroys this value, so that for painting purposes it is most essential to know that the oil employed is absolutely pure. Good raw linseed-oil is pale in color and transparent, has very little odor and is sweet to the taste. If it is dark in color and dries very slowly it indicates an inferior oil. Linseed-oil should have an age of six months before being used, and more age improves it. Raw oil spread on a glass should dry in from two to three days, according to the state of the weather. Boiled Oil. Boiled linseed-oil, commonly called boiled oil, is prepared by heating the raw oil with certain driers. By this process the drying qualities of the oil are greatly improved ; the drying qualities of raw oil are also improved by simply boil- ing it, but when such substances are added as mentioned below, this improvement is greatly enhanced. Dark drying oil may be made of these ingredients : To 1 gallon of raw oil add 1 pound of red lead, 1 pound of umber, and 1 pound of litharge. The oil is heated to about 200 F. When it looks brown and the scum is burned off, the substances mentioned are added ; the whole is then brought up to about 400 F., and for two or three hours kept at that temperature. The oil is then drawn PAINTING. 397 off and the albuminous matter allowed to deposit, after which it is ready for use. The umber is added simply to give the oil a dark color. Pale drying oil may be made by mixing 7 pounds of litharge or acetate of lead to each gallon of oil and raising to a moder- ate temperature. For common work, drying oil can be made by adding 1| pounds of red lead to a gallon of oil and allowing the mixture to settle after having been boiled. Boiled oil is much thicker and darker in color that the raw oil. When spread on a glass in a thin film it should dry in from twelve to twenty-four hours, depending on the condition of the weather. Raw oil is used for interior work and for grinding colors; the boiled oil is used for outside work and is not suited for grinding. For outside work the boiled oil gives the paint a much more glossy finish than the raw oil, for when the raw oil is used, a liquid or other drier must be added, and this takes away the lustre from the oil. The bung-hole process, so-called, is the simple injection of manganese drier into a barrel of raw linseed at proper tem- perature. Raw oil in which a certain percentage of liquid japan drier has been mixed is often sold as boiled oil. Fish-oil, cottonseed-oil, and vegetable oils are often substi- tuted for boiled oils. Linseed-oil to which turpentine has been added (in small quantity) dries more rapidly than without the turpentine because it spreads over more surface, being thinner, and so comes in contact with a larger body of air, which dries it in the diluted state faster. Turpentine is not a drier, simply a thinner. Linseed-oil is often adulterated by adding fish, hemp, cotton- seed, resin, and mineral oils. These adulterations are hard to detect except by chemical analysis; they change the odor somewhat and the specific gravity. The superintendent should always keep himself in possession of a sample of both the raw and boiled oils which he knows to be pure, and with which he can compare any oils which may be used under his supervision. Good linseed-oil should be of a light straw color, weigh 7 pounds to the gallon, boil at 130 C. (200 F.), solidify at 27 C. 398 PAINTING, (17 F.), and have a specific gravity at 15 C. (60 F.) of 20 Baume (0.932). To test for th3 presence of fish-oil, shake equal parts of oil and strong nitric acid in a small glass vial and let it stand fifteen to thirty minutes. In pure linseed-oil the upper stratum will be olive-green, which gradually changes to a brown, and the lower stratum will be almost colorless; if fish-oil is present, the upper stratum will be of a deep red brown and the lower stratum will be deep red or cherry-red. If only a small amount of fish-oil is present, the color of the lower stratum may gradually disappear until it becomes almost colorless. To test for petroleum, shake the oil with concentrated solu- tion of potash or soda containing a little grain alcohol and then add a little warm water and shake again. Let it stand for about thirty minutes, and if any petroleum is present it will separate and float on top. To test for cottonseed-oil, put samples of the oil in tubes and place them in a freezing mixturesuch as ice or snow and salt. If the mixture solidifies at or 10 to 13 F., then cottonseed-oil is probably present, as pure linseed-oil solidifies at 17 F. HYDROMETER TESTS. First test the specific gravity of an oil known to be pure, and then test the doubtful oil at the same temperature. Twenty-five per cent of cottonseed-oil will make a differ- ence of 1 Baume less than pure linseed-oil at the same tempera- ture. Ten per cent of petroleum will make a difference of f less and 20 per cent will make a difference of 1 J less at the same temperature. The quality of linseed-oil may be determined by looking through a vial filled with it and turned towards the light. If poor in quality, the oil tends towards opacity, appears turbid or milky, while its taste is strong and rancid. Turpentine. Spirits of turpentine is a volatile oil, obtained by distilling with water, in an ordinary copper still, turpentine previously melted and strained. The distilled product is colorless, limpid, very fluid, and has a peculiar smell. The residuum left after distillation is called resin. The ordinary use of spirits of turpentine is to thin oil paints, to flatten white .and other colors, or to remove superfluous color in graining. It prevents paint, however, from bearing PAINTING. 399 out, and when used alone will not fix the paint on the surface to which it is applied. Good turpentine is colorless and has a pleasant pungent odor; if adulterated or of an inferior quality it will have a disagreeable odor. When evaporated, good turpentine should have a very slight residue, and when spread on a glass in a thin film should dry in twelve to twenty-four hours. Turpentine is often adulterated with mineral oils. The pure turpentine loses bulk by evaporation and gains weight upon exposure to the air. Adulterated with mineral oils, the spirit evaporates, leaving the oil without any assistance in har- dening. Turpentine containing such oils will usually leave a greasy stain on white paper, a drop of it on a watch-crystal will reflect prismatic colors in the direct rays of the sun, and the hydrom- eter will stand in such a mixture above 32. But little if any turpentine should be used on good work. The result of the use of turpentine is that the proportion of oil is reduced. This enables the painter to conceal the painted surface with fewer coats than would otherwise suffice. Tur- pentine also hastens the drying of the paint by reducing the quantity of the oil, and the turpentine itself possessing some oxidizing or drying properties. Good turpentine should be crystal-clear and water-white, weigh 7 pounds to the gallon, boil at 160 to 165 C. (320 to 340 F.), and have a specific gravity at 15 C. (59 F.) of 31 Baume hydrometer (0.870). The presence of benzine or naphtha in turpentine can usually be detected by the odor; with the hydrometer test 5 per cent of this adulterant will make a difference of 1 Baum6. The presence of petroleum can usually be detected by the delicate "bluish bloom" or smoky bluish-yellow cloud it im- parts to the turpentine. To detect small quantities of petroleum, fill two white glass vials, one with the doubtful article and one with turpentine known to be pure; hold both over a piece of black paper and look directly down into the liquid; 3 to 5 per cent of petroleum will impart a decided bloom or cloud to the "turps." With the hydrometer test 5 per cent of petroleum will make a differ- ence of ^ Baum6. 400 PAINTING. Pure turpentine at 15 C. (59 F.) is 31 Baume* hydrometer. 5% benzine " " " " 32^ " " 15% " ^ tt 34 o tt tt 25% " " " " " 38 " " 5% petroleum " " " " 31J " " JQC/ ft II tt tt tt 02 tt tt 25% " " << " tt 340 (t tt 33J% " " " " " 35| " " White Lead. The discovery of white lead is lost in the mists of antiquity. It has been a familiar painting material for many centuries, and the earliest recorded method of production differed only in detail from that generally practised at the present day. In most European and American factories the method used is that known as the "Old Dutch" process of corrosion. The chief exceptions are the single plant in France producing the celebrated Ceruse de Clichy; the few German factories producing "Kremnitz white" by dry precipitation; the one plant in England producing the celebrated Pattison white lead by wet precipitation; and the two equally famous plants of the Carter White Lead Company in this country, practising corrosion by a controllable chemical process acting on the lead in a finely comminuted form, the last named being merely a technical modification of the older process, shortening the time required for completion. The old Dutch process of corrosion is in outline as follows: The pig or metallic lead is melted and cast into perforated disks, called buckles, about 6 inches in diameter, which are put into pots containing each about one pint of dilute vinegar. These are placed in rooms holding several layers, or tiers, 600 to 1000 pots each. The pots are covered with boards and layers of tanbark, placed between each tier. The rooms, technically called beds, are kept closed from three to four months. During this period the heat and the carbonic-acid gas generated by fermentation of the tan, together with the acid vapors, combine to corrode the lead into a white flaky sub- stance. This, after it is crushed, screened, ground in water and dried, forms the white lead of commerce, and is either sold in the dry- state to mixed paint and color manufacturers or ground in linseed-oil and sold for general painting purposes. White lead thus produced is a compound of lead hydroxide PAINTING. 401 and lead carbonate, generally retaining a residue of acetic acid and more or less water. It is exceedingly variable in compo- sition, nearly every sample analyzed showing different propor- tions of the constituent components. Thus in four analyses reported by Prof. Hurst the proportion of carbonate ranged from 63.35 per cent to 72.15 per cent; that of the hydroxide from 25.19 to 36.14; and that of the moisture from 0.42 to nothing. Prof. Church gives the ideal proportion as 70 per cent of the carbonate to 30 per cent of the hydrate, but this exact proportion is very rarely attained in practice. Five dif- ferent American brands of pure old Dutch process white lead analyzed a few years since by Mr. Convers proved to be con- stituted as follows: I. II. III. IV. V. Lead carbonate .... Lead hydrate. . . 85.32 14.83 79.37 19.80 78.58 20.11 77.98 20.60 69.96 30.19 Lead oxide . 1.48 1.48 Water 03 21 .07 The samples analyzed were dry leads and not the product in oil as sold to the consumer. The latter, especially when mixed without drying, as in the pulp process, will generally show a higher percentage of moisture, while acetic acid and un- corroded particles of lead, left by imperfect grinding and wash- ing, are not rare; Church reports as high as 11 per cent of lead acetate in flake white. This, the ordinary white lead of commerce, is a heavy, opaque material, ranging in color from yellowish white (cream color) to grayish white; indeed, it seldom happens that two separate corrosions yield precisely the same shade of tone. This varia- tion is, of course, unimportant, except in attempting to match shades by the addition of definite proportions of color. Precipitated white lead is made by suspending rolls of thin sheet lead or small bars over malt vinegar or pyroligneous acid in closed vessels, the evaporation of the acid being kept up by heat applied to the vessels while immersed in a steam bath. The white lead produced by precipitation is generally considered inferior to that prepared by corrosion, wanting, as it is, in density or body, and when mixed with its vehicle, absorbing too much oil. Sublimed Lead is obtained as a by-product in the smelting 402 PAINTING. of lead ores. The products of this smelting are pig lead, slags poor enough in lead to be thrown away, and the "fume," which is white and in a fine state of subdivision, suitable for a white pigment, and is sold as such either dry or ground in oil. It is known to the trade as Joplin lead, being manufactured first at Joplin, Mo., or as Picher lead, from the name of the com- pany manufacturing it. Adulterations. White lead may be either pure or mixed with various substances, such as sulphate of baryta, sulphate of lead, sulphate of lime, whiting, chalk, zinc white, etc.; these substances do not combine so well with oil as does white lead, nor do they so well protect the surfaces to which they are applied. Sulphate of baryta, the most common adulterant, is a dense, heavy, white substance, very much like white lead in appear- ance. It absorbs very little oil, and can usually be detected by the gritty feeling produced when the paint is rubbed between the fingers. Pure white lead is insoluble in water, effervesces with dilute hydrochloric acid, dissolving when heated, and is easily soluble in dilute nitric acid. When heated on a piece of glass the white lead becomes yellow. To test dry lead, digest a small quantity with nitric acid, in which it dissolves readily on boiling. When ground with oil, the oil should be burned off and the residue treated with nitric acid; or the white lead ground with oil may be boiled for some time with strong nitric acid, which destroys the oil and dissolves the lead on the addition of water. If sulphate of baryta be present, it being insoluble in the acid, it remains behind and can be collected on a filter, washed with hot dis- tilled water, and weighed. The presence of other adulterants may be detected by the change in the specific gravity of the lead when dry, or by various methods of analysis. Zinc White. Zinc white is hydrated zinc carbonate or oxide. It is perfectly durable in oil and water, but wanting in body. For inside work, zinc is preferable to white lead, and for out- side work, about 25 per cent of zinc in the lead color makes a better paint than the pure lead. For use in its pure state, zinc white should be finely ground in refined linseed-oil with the proper proportions of manganese drier, and if for interior use, should have a small proportion of good white varnish. PAINTING. 403 In painting in pure zinc, the first coat may be tinted with black, over which the second coat will make a perfect covering. A soft brush with long hairs should be used, brushing lightly, and the paint should be applied a little thicker than a lead paint. The purity of zinc may be determined by washing out the oil with benzine and dissolving the pigment in sulphuric acid. Any residue shows the presence of other pigments. On a painted surface the presence of lead can be determined by scratching a spot through the paint and applying a drop of sodium sulphide of 100 Baume". If lead be present it will cause a decided discoloration. Red Lead (Red Oxide of Lead). This is one of the oldest pigments, formerly known as minium or saturnine red. It is a deuoxide of lead prepared by subjecting massicot to the heat of a furnace, with an expanded surface and free accession of air. Red lead is often adulterated with red oxide of iron, brick- dust, or mineral paints. To test, heat the red lead and treat with dilute nitric acid; the red lead will be dissolved and the adulterants remain. Boiling hydrochloric acid extracts the ses- quioxide of iron from the residue. Oxide of Iron is produced from the brown hematic ores; the ore is roasted and separated from impurities and then, ground. Antimony Vermilion (Sulphide of Antimony) is produced from antimony ore. It is sometimes used as a substitute for red lead. Vermilion is a sulphuret of mercury, which previous to its being levigated is called cinnabar. Vermilion is adulterated with red lead, brightened with eosine, and with logwood mixed with molasses. Powder vermilion may be tested by placing a small quantity on a piece of paper laid on a hard surface; cover this with a card or other piece of paper, which rub w r ith the thumb- nail or smooth handle of a penknife. If the vermilion be pure, it will on the removal of the paper present a smooth surface of the uniform original color, but if adulterated with red lead, etc., it will appear orange or yellow. Indian Red is ground hematite ore or peroxide of iron, but can be made artificially by calcining sulphate of iron. It is sometimes called Persian red. Scarlet Red. A name given to a very bright scarlet shade of iron-oxide pigments. 404 PAINTING. Venetian Red. A red pigment made by heating ochres. Light- red color works well in oil or water. This red is not only useful as a solid color of extreme permanence, but the tints are clean and sharp even when reduced to a delicate rose tint. Many common Venetian reds are made in a crude manner with a cheap, coarse base. Oxide. Oxide reds are noted for their permanency and durability. They owe their color to ferric oxide by the pre- cipitation of iron solutions. Lakes. A class of pigments of ancient origin, made exten- sively of cochineal, combined with tin and alumina. Floren- tine lake, Dutch pink, and rose pmk contain an excess of metallic base in their composition. YELLOWS. Chrome Yellow is obtained from the subchromate of lead. Frequently adulterated with gypsum, it is prepared by mixing diluted solutions of acetate or nitrate of lead and bichromate of potash. Naples Yellow. This old and well-known pigment is a com- pound of the oxides of lead and antimony. This pigment is generally replaced by chrome yellows. King's Yellow, the least durable of the yellow pigments, is obtained from arsenic. It is sometimes called Chinese yellow and should never be used for good painting. OCHRES. A most important group of natural pigments found in many places. The depth of color is variable; in some it is strong, in others weak. Yellow Ochre is a natural clay, colored by oxide of iron. It varies in color from yellow to brown. Raw Sienna appears to be an iron ore, considered as a crude natural yellow lake. Dutch Pink. Strange to say a yellow lake should be called Dutch pink, still such is the case. This pigment is a yellow lake prepared from Persian berries by precipitating with alum and whiting. BLACK PIGMENTS. Lampblack is simply the soot obtained by burning resinous woods, tallow, coal-tar, oil, bituminous coal, etc. It is a purely carbonaceous substance of fine texture and very durable. Ivory-black is obtained by calcining or charring to black- ness in a closed vessel waste ivory and then grinding. This makes a superior black, but is more expensive than the others. PAINTING. 405 Bone-black is prepared from bones by a similar process to ivory-black, using bones as the raw material. It has a reddish tint, and unless well burned tends toward a brown color. Frankfort or Vegetable Black is a pigment prepared from the sediment of wine, vine twigs, and tendrils from which the tartar has been washed, by burning in the same manner as ivory- black. It is used mostly by printers. Blue Black is a well-burned and levigated charcoal of a cool neutral color, very much like the Frankfort black. BLUE PIGMENTS. Prussian Blue is made by mixing prussiate of potash with a salt of iron. The prussiate of potash is obtained by calcining and digesting old leather, blood, hoofs, or other animal matter with carbonate of potash and iron filings. Indigo Blue is a pigment manufactured in the East and West Indies from several plants, but principally from the anil, or indigofera. It is very inferior to Prussian blue. Cobalt Blue is an oxide of cobalt made by roasting cobalt ore. Blue Lead is obtained by subliming lead similar to the process used for making sublimed white lead. Ultramarine Blue. Ultramarine is one of the most important blue pigments at the disposal of the painter. The ultramarine of commerce is largely made artificially by furnacing a mixture of silica, china clay, sulphur, soda, sodium sulphate, and rosin, these ingredients being mixed together in various portions according to the character of the ultramarine desired. Several qualities of ultramarine are made, varying in depth of tone, tint, fineness, and other qualities. Ultramarine is a blue pigment of exceedingly bright character, varying from a pale greenish blue to a violet-blue. It is exten- sively used in water painting, distemper, fresco-work, printing of all kinds, and laundry purposes. When exposed to all ordinary atmospheric conditions it is quite permanent, which is a most important feature of ultramarine. It is easily affected when treated with acids, as the color is destroyed, although it is unaf- fected by boiling with alkaline solutions of any kind. Some varieties of ultramarine are reddened in tone by being mixed with a solution of alum or alumina sulphate. The use of even the most carefully selected ultramarine with white lead is not to be- recommended, as it is a sulphur com- pound and liable to blacken the lead. Prussian blue is without this defect, having no sulphur in it. 406 PAINTING. Bremen Blue, Bremen blue is a basic carbonate of copper, soluble in acids; on adding ammonia a deep-blue solution is obtained, a reaction which is highly characteristic of copper. GREEN. Chrome Green. An oxide of the metal chromium, and usually made by fusing together bichromate of potash and boracic acid. It is the most permanent green known, very bright, not acted on by acids, heat, or alkalies. Greens known by various trade names are produced by treating the acetate or carbonate of copper with sal ammoniac. Greens are also made from the arsenites of copper, and from cobalt and ferrous oxide of zinc. BROWN. Umber is the name of a brown pigment obtained through the agency of oxide of iron from naturally colored clays, some coming from Turkey, and some from Umbria, in Italy, from which it derives its name. When in its natural state it is called raw umber, but after being calcined at a low temperature it is called burnt umber. Raw Sienna is a clay stained with oxides of iron and man-' ganese. It was originally found in Sienna, Italy. Siennas differ from ochres in being rather more transparent, making them very serviceable in staining properties. Burnt Sienna is of a bright orange-red color, permanent in color and mixes well with oil and water. Vandyke Brown. A natural earth of warm brown color resembling the umbers, works well in oil or water, and is perma- nent. COMPOUND COLORS. In mixing different colored paints to produce any desired tint, it is best to have the principal ingre- dient thick and add to it the other colors thinner. In the following list of the combinations of colors required to produce a required tint, the first-named color is the principal ingredient and the others follow in the order of their importance: Buff white, yellow ochre, red. Chestnut red, black, yellow. Chocolate raw umber, red, black. Claret red, umber, black. Copper red, yellow, black. D ove white, vermilion, blue, yellow. Drab white, yellow ochre, red, black. Fawn white, yellow, red. Flesh white, yellow ochre, vermillion. Freestone red, black, yellow ochre, white. PAINTING. 407 French gray white, Prussian blue, lake. Gray white lead, black. Gold white, stone ochre, red. Green bronze chrome, green, black, yellow. Green pea white, chrome green. Lemon white, chrome yellow. Limestone white, yellow ochre, black, red. Olive yellow, blue, black, white. Orange yellow, red. Peach white, vermilion. Pearl white, black, blue. Pink white, vermilion, lake. Purple violet, with more red and white. Rose white, madder lake. Sandstone white, yellow ochre, black, red. Snuff yellow, Vandyke brown. Violet red, blue, white. The following table gives the proportions of colors for some of the most common colors: Colors. Ingredients by Weight. White Lead. 100 '25 99 98 Lamp- black. ioo Red Lead. Red Ochre. Verdi- gris. Burnt Umber. Spanish Brown or Raw Umber. White . ... ... Black Green Stone 75 T '96' Lead Red Chocolate... . 2 ' '4 50 50 ... PREPARING FOR AND APPLYING PAINTS. In preparing work for painting too much care cannot be exercised, as succeeding coats and the final result depend very much on the proper condition of the work when the priming coat is applied. First, all the rough places in the wood should be rubbed down with a block covered with sandpaper and all mouldings cleaned out with the same. Then every knot, however small, every indication of sap-wood or discoloration of any kind, and every appearance of pitch or gum, should be carefully covered with a coat of shellac. If the work is to be finished in a light color, or if it is inside work, white shellac should be used. 408 PAINTING. When the work is to be finished in two coats, the putty used for stopping the nail-holes and other indentations should be made of white lead, worked up with whiting to the proper consist- ency, and the filling should be done after the first coat has become well dried. When more than two coats are to be put on, the filling or putty should be used between the first and second coat, and ordinary linseed-oil putty should be used. As a rule white should never be used as a priming coat; no matter how many coats are to be put on the result will be more satisfactory if the first coat be darkened a little with lampblack. The way to produce solid, uniform work is by making every succeeding coat a little lighter in color than the one preced- ing it. It is well to use for priming the same color as the work is to be finished; if it is to be finished green, use green for priming, or if to be finished blue, let blue be the groundwork. All work should be primed, especially with regard to the finishing color. The paint should be put on by strokes parallel to the grain of the wood; and long smooth pieces, such as window- and door- casings, should be finished by drawing the brush the full length, so that there will be no breaks or brush-marks. The brush must always be at right angles to the surface being painted, and only the ends of the hairs touching it; in this way the paint is spread evenly and forced into the pores of the wood. No paint should be put on top of a preceding coat unless it is perfectly dry and hard. When paint is applied to walls and ceilings the plaster must be perfectly dry and free from all moisture. Paint for exterior work should be mixed with boiled linseed- oil. Painting Tinwork. Before painting tin, all surplus resin, grease, or oil must be carefully removed. If necessary the surface should be washed with benzine. Red lead is usually used for painting tin. It should be composed of 15 pounds red lead to 1 gallon of linseed-oil. Tinwork should be painted as soon as possible after being put in place, and if any rust shows it should be carefully removed. Painting Ironwork. Before painting wrought iron or steel care must be taken to have all scales, grease, rust, etc., removed. The scales can be taken off by brushing with a stiff wire brush, PAINTING. 409 and the rust can be removed by scraping with steel scrapers, or by a sand-blast, or by pickling in diluted acid, which is washed off with water. All indications of rust should be removed before any paint is put on, for a small spot of rust may grow under the paint and in time cause a flake of the paint to scale off. Deep rust can be burned off with a gasoline torch; the heat converts the rust into peroxide of iron, which can be dusted off. When red lead is used for painting iron or steel it should be composed of 25 pounds of lead to 1 gallon of oil. It will require the close attention of the superintendent to have it put on this thick, for it is hard to spread, but when it is mixed thin it will run and the lead will settle to the lower part of the iron, leaving just a coat of oil. When any interior painting is being done, all windows should be covered to keep the paint off the glass; a little precaution at this time will save lots of work in the future. Cleaning Old Paint. This may be effected by washing it with a solution of pearlash in water. If the surface is greasy, it should be treated with fresh quicklime mixed in water, washed off and reapplied until the gredse is entirely removed. Removing Old Paint. Dissolve 2 ounces of soft soap and 4 ounces of potash in boiling water; add \ pound of quicklime; apply hot and leave from twelve to twenty-four hours. This will enable the old paint to be washed off with hot water. VARNISHES. Varnish is a solution of certain gums or resins in alcohol, turpentine, linseed-oil, or the like, and is applied to produce a hard shining transparent coat on the surface. To estimate the quality of a varnish, the following points are to be considered: (1) Quickness in drying; (2) hardness of film or coating; (3) toughness of film; (4) amount of gloss; (5) permanence of gloss; (6) durability on exposure to weather. Varnish Gums. Under the names of copal and damar various gums in the form of resins which are found in various parts of the world are employed in the manufacture of var- nishes. The typical copal comes from the west coast of Africa, and is found as a fossil in the river-beds and soft ground of the district. The gathering is done during the wet season, when the ground is sufficiently soft to permit of its being dug into by negroes, who use such primitive tools that they are ineffective in dry season. The botanical origin of copal is unknown. Some authorities assign it to a tree, now extinct, along the coast. Copal from this section comes in rough angular pieces 410 PAINTING. covered with a crust of disintegrated resin; when scraped off the resin is found lustrous, quite transparent, and almost color- less. It melts at 400 F. When powdered about 33 J per cent after long digestion will dissolve in ether, while the rest simply swells up. When melted it gives off a small proportion of an oily liquid which contains a terpene; the residue on cooling will set into a hard, brittle mass soluble in ether, turpentine, or chloroform, etc. It is on this property of becoming soluble after being fused that the manufacture of varnishes from copals is based, and from which the best class of carriage and cabinet- makers' varnishes are made. The Singapore damar is generally considered the true damar, from the Amboyna pine tree, exuded out of certain excres- cences which grow a little above the root of the tree. In Java and Sumatra the resin is allowed to flow out naturally; in some localities natives make incisions to promote the flow. The Singapore damar comes in form of rounded pieces with pow- dery crust, transparent and quite brittle. It is soluble in tur- pentine, ether, chloroform, etc. Damar produces a varnish which is pale, lustrous, and dries with a very hard coat. Var- nishes requiring a clear, light, brilliant, lustrous finish are made from the best damar. A great variety of varnish gums are also employed in the manu- facture of varnish, although the above described are considered the best of their class. Much care must be exercised in applying varnish to get it spread on evenly; a fine hair-brush must be used and the varnish well spread out, but not worked enough to make it froth or foam; it must be worked out thin enough so that it will not run, and no succeeding coat of varnish should be put on until the preceding coat is hard and dry. Each coat of varnish should be well sandpapered before another one is put on. Good varnish should dry and be free from stickiness in from one to two days. The more oil a varnish contains the less liable it is to crack. One pint of varnish will single coat about 14 square yards. FINISHING OF CALIFORNIA. REDWOOD. California redwood is being more generally used for inside finish every year, and on account of its peculiarities in regard to finishing and varnishing, the following directions are given, which if followed will produce the best results. PAINTING. 411 Formula for Finishing Redwood: Shellac Finish. First give one coat of orange-gum shellac (which is a good quality of gum shellac and alcohol), applied very thin. If more color is required, give another coat of orange shellac, waiting at least twenty-four hours after giving the first coat. Take No. 1 sandpaper and work the raised grain, caused by shellack- ing down to a surface; then give one coat of white shellac. Let this coat be heavy and stand twenty-four hours to harden; if you finish quicker than this the whole is liable to crack. Then rub with curled hair or haircloth until the gloss is taken off. Then apply another coat of white shellac a little thinner. Let stand two days and rub with curled hair or haircloth same as first coat; then apply a third coat of white shellac same as second, and let stand two days; rub down to a surface with No. 00 pulverized pumice-stone, felt, and water, being careful not to rub through the varnish on the corners; clean off thor- oughly dry with chamois skin; then take pulverized rotten- stone and water and a piece of dry felt and rub the work thoroughly with the same; clean off with water and dry with chamois skin, or instead of cleaning off the rottenstone with water and drying with chamois skin, take the palm of the hand and rub the rottenstone until it is dry, which will bring it to a fine gloss (but to finish in this latter way the finisher's hand must be perfectly soft and free from dust or grit), and take a soft cloth and wipe the hands off often, because if the least bit of grit accumulates it mars the work; then take raw linseed-oil, a little fine cotton batting, and rub work over thor- oughly, and take a piece of dry soft cotton cloth and wipe it off. To do better work, rub with pumice-stone between every other coat of shellac, and the more times rubbed and shellacked, the finer the work turned out, or, in other words, by finishing the wood smooth to commence with, and putting on five to seven coats of shellac and rubbing between every other coat, the finest piano finish can be obtained. To finish a DEAD finish, use no rottenstone, but instead rub in pulverized pumice-stone and water, clean off thoroughly, and oil off with raw linseed-oil. To give redwood a bright, rich color, take the following: One-fourth pound dry Venetian red and put in two quarts of turpentine, stir up and let settle; then use the turpentine, which will be colored a very little. Apply this for first coat. 412 PAINTING. Other formulas for finishing are used to a great extent. For instance, many use last coats of rubbing varnish, because it is softer to work and polishes easier, but where they are used none but the best grades are desirable; also all good grades of rubbing varnish take from five to thirty days to dry each coat. The quick-drying grades have more or less resin in them and scratch white. Shellac, being very hard, is, of course, more expensive to rub down, but the firmness is a protection to the wood, and it is known to be the most durable finish for any kind of wood. Never buy prepared shellac, but buy the gum shellac and alcohol and cut it, as most prepared shellac is cut with cheaper ingredients than alcohol, and oftentimes spoils what otherwise would have been a nice finish. Use it quickly, so as not to show laps, as it dries fast. Varnish Finish. Use only good grades of varnish, which will cost at least $2.50 per gallon, and for fine work even better grades should be used. A gallon of varnish covers so much surface it hardly pays to use anything cheaper than $3 varnish in good work. First coat should be applied very thin about one-half turpentine and one-half varnish. Other coats can be used full strength. This will insure good color and will improve with age. Any amount of rubbing can be done that is desired, but three-coat work, with sandpaper after first coat and rubbing after last coat, makes good work for house finish. Wax Finish. Use beeswax cut with turpentine until as thin as linseed-oil; apply with brush. Second coat use as thick as lobbered milk. Apply with soft cloth and rub till dry; the more rubbed the better it will look. This will not show much finish at first, but in a few months the wood will gradually grow richer in color, and one of the most pleasing and restful effects to the eye is obtained. It produces what is called a dead finish. This does not scratch white, and if bruised at any time can be easily repaired with a little of the last coat, and should it grow dusky or too dull looking with age can be brightened up like new by rubbing with soft cloth wrung out of warm water. Front Doors and Exterior Work. For front doors and exterior work use only the best coach varnish, which is made from gums that will stand 550 degrees of heat before melting. This is the only thing that will stand the hot rays of the sun. Use no shellac with this. PAINTING. 413 Formula for Removing Dark Stains from Redwood: Use Crystallized Oxalic Acid. Put in a bottle, pour water over it, and let dissolve. There is no danger of getting the solution too strong, as the water will take up only a certain portion of the acid. By wetting a cloth with this solution all stains can be rubbed off. Caution. Bottles should be marked "Poison." In using be careful that there are no sores on the hands. Fillers. Fillers should never be used in redwood, as most of them contain linseed-oil, which will spoil the work. Caution. Never use anything next to the wood that con- tain linseed-oil, as the acid in the wood seems to turn the oil into a sort of soapy condition that destroys all the fine lustre of the grain. SHELLAC. Lac is a resinous secretion found surrounding the twigs and branches of several trees in India and neighboring districts. The secretion \s formed from the sap of trees, which sap is of a gummy and resinous nature, by the female of the lac insect, coccus lacca. The insect punctures the bark of the tree and commences to secrete the lac, in which it soon becomes completely enveloped; it then lays its eggs inside the deposit of lac and then dies. The young insects when they are born bore their way through the lac and swarm over the branches of the tree. Shellac is the principal commercial variety of lac and is prepared and sold in large quantities. It is prepared from the seed lac by drying the latter product. The dried lac is then placed in large bags made of cotton cloth of medium texture. The bag of lac is held by two men in front of a large fire. The heat of the fire soon melts the lac, which flows out of the bag, the men assisting the flow by twisting the bag so as to squeeze out the contents; the molten lac drops into a trough placed in front of the fire. A cylinder of wood covered with brass is mounted on axles so as to be in a slightly inclined position; an operator dips a ladle into the trough of lac and pours it over the surface of the cylinder with a platen leaf. It rapidly sets, when it is stripped off the cylinder by means of a knife and is ready for the market. The best quality of shellac is known as orange shellac, which is a pale brownish orange color, but quite trans- parent. 414 PAINTING. White shellac is obtained through the method of bleaching orange shellac with oxalic acid, etc. PUMICE. Pumice, as is well known, is of volcanic origin, being a trachytic lava which has been rendered light by the escape of gases when in the molten state. The best stone is almost exclusively obtained from Monte Chirica, on the little island of Lipari, off the coast of Italy. The stone is brought to the surface of two great craters of extinct volcanoes in blocks or baskets by the natives, of whom about 1000 are employed in the industry. The supply is said to be practically inex- haustible. Pumice is not merely used for scouring and cleaning pur- poses, but also for polishing and rubbing down between coats on finishing work for coaches, carriages, and interior woodwork. It is also used for wood filler. ROSIN. When the resinous exudations from various species of pine-trees are distilled with the aid of steam the prod- ucts are a volatile spiritous substance, turpentine, leaving a liquid residue which, when cold, forms a hard, solid mass, known as rosin. Rosin is translucent and amber-colored, brittle, and melts at 212 Fahr. ; at a higher temperature it decomposes into water, spirit, and oil. Rosin is soluble in water, alcohol, turpentine, ether, ben- zine, and petroleum spirit. It is largely used in the prep- aration of cheap varnishes; such varnishes, however, do not possess the durability characteristic of copal or kauri varnishes. Filling Hardwoods. Oak, chestnut, ash, and all woods with large pores must have a coat of filler before being varnished, and unless the filler is well rubbed into all the pores and all the cavities are filled level with the surface of the wood, a satisfactory job of varnishing cannot be obtained. The super- intendent should pay close attention to the work as it is being filled, so as to get a perfect surface to apply the var- nish to. The essential parts of a hardwood filler are a transparent, non- absorbent, mineral base and a proper proportion of linseed-oil and japan to make a good binder. Transparent, for the reason that when cleaned off the lights or growths of wood must show up clear. China clay, whiting, paris white are not good, as they are all opaque; a filler made with such a base leaves a clouded, muddy appearance that is PAINTING. 415 particularly objectionable to the present style of antique oak, the market requiring the greatest possible contrast between the growth and the pore. Non-absorbent, because the sole purpose of a filler is to bear the varnish up over the pore equally as bold as it is over the growth, thus producing an even surface on which to rub or polish Such absorbents as powdered pumice-stone, etc., absolutely fail to produce the required result. Mineral as a mineral is unshrinkable. Corn-starch and all other vegetable matter shrink with time; the varnish drops with it, leaving a depression at each pore. Pinholes. Failure to rub the filler well into the pore produces pinholes, or, more properly speaking, blow-holes. These are more often found in second-growth straight-grained oak, that possessing a deeper pore than most other wood; they are caused by the filler being wiped off instead of rubbed in, and thereby forced to the very bottom of the pore, thus driving out all the air. Failure to get rid of the air in the pore means that as the filler dries it gradually sags down, compressing the air to such a degree that it blows its way out, making a pinhole that is there to stay. Any number of coats that may be applied simply continue to blow out, as the hole is too small for the material to flow in and fill it up each coat forming a cap that drops down until the confined air becomes stronger and blows out. The filler is the foundation of the finish. "As the foundation is, so is the structure," is the old saying. Does it not apply with equal force to a filler finishing? Is it not quite as true that well-filled work requires less varnish to body it lip to the requisite volume for a polished surface? Is it not also equally as certain that it requires more scouring to obtain that surface? Now, as a natural sequence to this, would it not be cheaper to pay a little more per piece, have the filling inspected, rejecting it if not up to the standard, get the foundation right, and save both higher-priced material and time? Thinning. Quite 90 per cent of the complaints of filler are directly traceable to the thinning. This is in a great measure due to the filler salesman, who represents that 7J to 8 pounds of filler to the gallon of liquid is all that is necessary to produce good results. An exhaustive investigation of the five most prominent fillers on the market show the best results and least wastage with the following proportions: For ash and mahogany, 416 PAINTING. 7; walnut, 8; quartered oak, 12; straight-grained oak, 14; and chestnut, 15 pounds of paste filler to the gallon of liquid. Another phase of this trouble, and the most serious abuse to which filler is subjected, has grown out of the habit of breaking up the day's supply of filler in the morning. Neglect to stir the filler whilst in use permits the heavier particles to go to the bottom, resulting in using out too large a portion of the binder. When it grows thick turpentine or benzine is added, but no additional binder is supplied, hence the last of the day's work is not so well filled as that of the morning hours, and the varnish coat must supply the deficiency of binder. STAINS. Stains are liquid preparations of different tints, applied to the surface of the cheaper woods, in order to give them the appearance of the more rare and expensive woods, such as rosewood, mahogany, walnut, etc. Suitable stains to imitate different woods may be prepared as follows: Cherry. Rain-water, 3 quarts; annetto, 4 ounces; boil in a copper kettle till the annetto is dissolved; then put in a piece of potash the size of a walnut; keep on the fire half an hour and it is then ready for use. Mahogany. (1) Put 2 ounces of dragon's blood, bruised, into a quart of oil of turpentine; let stand in a warm place until dissolved, when it is ready for use. (2) Dragon's blood, ^ ounce; alkanet, \ ounce; aloes, I drachm; spirits of wine, 16 ounces. Birch. To finish to represent mahogany, coat with a weak solution of bichromate of potash, then stain with rose-pink Vandyke brown, and burnt Sienna; then shellac, with a little Bismarck brown dissolved in the shellac. This makes a better stain and more lasting than a water stain. Red. Brazil-wood, 11 parts; alum, 4 parts; water, 85 parts; boil together. Blue. Logwood, 7 parts; blue vitriol, 1 part; water, 22 parts ; boil. Black. Logwood, 9 parts; sulphate of iron, 1 part; water, 25 parts; boil. Green. Verdigris, 1 part; vinegar, 3 parts; dissolve. Yellow. French berries, 7 parts; alum, 1 part; water, 10 parts; boil. Purple. Logwood, 11 parts; alum, 3 parts; water, 29 parts boil. PAINTING. 417 Black Walnut. Burnt umber, 2 parts; rose-pink, 1 part; glue, 1 part; water sufficient to mix; heat and dissovle com- pletely. Ebony. Drop-black, 2 parts; rose-pink, 1 part; turpentine sufficient to mix. Satinwood. Alcohol, 2 parts; powdered gamboge, 3 ounces; ground turmeric, 6 ounces; steep and strain through muslin. Rosewood. Alcohol, 1 gallon; camwood, 2 ounces; set in a warm place twenty-four hours, then add aqua fortis, 1 ounce; extract logwood, 3 ounces; when dissolved is ready for use. DATA ON PAINTING. One pound of paint will cover from 3J to 4 square yards of wood for the first coat, and from 4J to 6 square yards for each additional coat; on brickwork, it will cover about 3 and 4 square yards respectively. Colored paints will cover about one-fourth more surface than white paint. Prepared shingle stains will cover about 200 square feet of surface if put on with a brush, or will be sufficient for dipping about 500 smooth shingles or 400 rough ones. One gallon of liquid filler, hard oil finish, or varnish generally, will cover from 350 to 400 square feet of surface for first coat, and from 400 to 500 square feet of surface for subsequent coats. One gallon of ready-mixed paint will cover 250 to 300 square feet of wood surface one coat, or 175 to 225 square feet two coats, or 125 to 150 square feet three coats. White lead and oil will cover about 15 per cent less than the above. BITUMINOUS, ASPHALT, ETC., PAINTS. Bituminous or asphalt paints are prepared by dissolving bitumen in paraffine, petroleum, naphtha, or benzine. P. B. paint is composed of asphaltum, linseed-oil, turpentine, and kauri-gum. Coal-tar paint is composed of pure coal-tar ,or coal-tar mixed with lime or other inert pigment, and mixed with fish or mineral oils. It is also made by mixing coal-tar and benzine; this makes a fair roof paint. Coal-tar paint is often substituted for asphal- tum paint. Graphite paint is prepared by mixing graphite with boiled linseed-oil to which a small percentage of litharge, red lead, manganese, or other metallic salt has been added at the time of boiling. Prince's metallic paint is made from a blue magnetic iron ore, containing about 50 per cent of iron peroxide, 25 per cent 418 PAINTING. limestone, and 25 per cent sulphur. It is mined in Carbon County, Pa. The prepared pigment is said to contain 72 per cent of iron peroxide and 28 per cent of hydraulic cement. It is mixed in oil, and comes in one color, brown. It is one of the best paints for roofs and rough outside work. There are a number of other metallic paints made from mate- rials similar to Prince's and which possess about the same qualities. VARIOUS METHODS OF COLORING OAK. Flemish Oak. Dis- solve I pound of bichromate of potash in one gallon of water. Coat the wood, and when dry, sandpaper down smooth; then coat with best drop-black, ground japan, thinned with tur- pentine. Let stand five minutes and wipe off clean; then coat with pure grain shellac and sandpaper with No. sandpaper; then coat with beeswax, 1 pound to a gallon of turpentine, \ pound of drop-black mixed in the wax; then wipe off clean with cheese-cloth. Weathered Oak. Give the woodwork one coat of strong ammonia. When dry, sandpaper down smooth and stain it with a mixture composed of lampblack, ochre, and 2 pounds of silica to a gallon of stain. Wipe off with cheese-cloth, then give one coat of wax and wipe off clean. If a brownish shade is desired, put in 1 ounce of bichromate of potash and ammonia, or if a greenish shade, put in some green and stain. Verde Finish. One ounce of nigrocene dissolved in J gal- lon of water. Give woodwork one coat; when dry sandpaper, care being taken not to rub off the edges; then fill with a bright green filler, with some white lead in the filler. When thoroughly dry, give one coat of pure grain shellac and then wax, or it should be finished with three coats of varnish and rubbed. This finish leaves the pores of a bright-green color, while the rest of the wood is almost black. Black Oak. One ounce of nigrocene to \ gallon of water. Give the woodwork one -coat; then fill up with a black filler; then one coat of shellac and three coats of varnish rubbed with pumice-stone and water; then oil and wipe clean. Birch. To finish to represent mahogany, coat with a weak solution of bichromate of potash, then shellac, with a little Bismarck brown. HARMONY AND CONTRAST IN COLORS. White contrasts with black and harmonizes with gray. PAINTING. 410 White contrasts with brown and harmonizes with buff. White contrasts with blue and harmonizes with sky-blue. White contrasts with purple and harmonizes with rose. White contrasts with green and harmonizes with pea-green. Cold greens contrast with crimson and harmonize with olive. Cold greens contrast with purple and harmonize with citrine. Cold greens contrast with white and harmonize with blues. Cold greens contrast with pink and harmonize with brown. Cold greens contrast with gold and harmonize with black. Cold greens contrast with orange and harmonize with gray. Warm greens contrast with crimson and harmonize with yellow. Warm greens contrast with maroons and harmonize with orange. Warm greens contrast with purple and harmonize with citrine. Warm greens contrast with red and harmonize with sky-blue. Warm greens contrast with pink and harmonize with gray. W r arm greens contrast with white and harmonize with white. Warm greens contrast with black and harmonize with brown. Warm greens contrast with lavender and harmonize with buff. Greens contrast with colors containing red .and harmonize with colors containing yellow or blue. Orange contrasts with purple and harmonizes with yellow. Orange contrasts with blue and harmonizes with red. Orange contrasts with black and harmonizes with red. Orange contrasts with black and harmonizes with warm green. Orange contrasts with olive and harmonizes with warm brown. Orange contrasts with crimson and harmonizes with white. Orange contrasts with gray and harmonizes with buff. Orange requires blue, black, purple, or dark colors for con- trasts and warm colors for harmony. Citrine contrasts with purple and harmonizes with yellows. Citrine contrasts with blue and harmonizes with orange. Citrine contrasts with black and harmonizes with white. Citrine contrasts with brown and harmonizes with green. Citrine contrasts with crimson and harmonizes with buff. Russet contrasts with green and harmonizes with red. Russet contrasts with black and harmonizes with yellow. Russet contrasts with olive and harmonizes with orange. Russet contrasts with gray and harmonizes with brown. Olive contrasts with orange and harmonizes with green. 420 PAINTING. Olive contrasts with red and harmonizes with blue. Olive contrasts with white and harmonizes with black. Olive contrasts with maroon and harmonizes with brown. Gold contrasts with any dark color, but looks richer with purple, green, blue, black, and brown than with the other colors. It harmonizes with all light colors, but least with yellow. The best harmony is with white. GLASS. All glass is composed of three chemical elements, viz., silica, soda, and some metallic oxide. There are three varieties of glass used in architectural work, namely, crown glass, sheet glass, and plate glass. Crown glass is made by dipping the end of the blow-pipe in the melting-pot and collecting a ball of the molten glass on the end of the tube and blowing the glass into a globe. This globe is again heated while it is rotated rapidly and spreads out into a large flat, called a "table," under the influence of the centrifugal force of rotation. This flat piece of glass is then cut up into panes. Sheet glass is made similarly to crown glass except that the glass as it is blown is rolled on a moulding block, causing the glass to take the form of a long cylinder. The ends of this cylin- der are cut off and the cylinder split lengthwise; the split cylinder is then put in the flattening-kiln, where it is heated and flattened out into a flat sheet of glass. When cooled it is cut into panes. Plate glass is pressed or rolled on a table by a large iron roller, the glass is squeezed out before the advancing roller and pressed into a sheet of the desired size. The thickness of the sheet is gauged by strips of metal on each side of the table. The sheets after being rolled are put into the annealing-oven for several days and then polished by grinding to an even surface and polishing and smoothing with fine emery and felt rubbers. The defects in glass are very apparent and consist of waves, air-bubbles, twists, sand-specks, and patches of color. Sheet glass is of various qualities, weighing from 12 to 42 ounces per square foot. Every j^ inch in thickness adds about 13 ounces to the weight per square foot. Glass is usually sold by the box, containing 50 square feet of glass regardless of the size of the panes; it is sold in three thicknesses and grades, viz., A A, A, and B, of which AA is the best and thickest. On the Pacific Coast it is usually graded by weight as 15-ounce, PAINTING. 421 21-ounce, and 26-ounce glass, and which corresponds to the AA, A, and B grades of the Eastern market. The thickness of the ordinary window glass is known as single strength and double strength. Thus AA double strength would mean the best quality and thickness. The finished plates of polished plate glass varies in thick- ness from i to f inch. GLAZING. All glass should be bedded in a layer of putty spread in the rebate of the sash and the glass pressed down ROLLS OF PAPER REQUIRED TO COVER THE WALLS OF A ROOM. Size of Room. Height of Ceiling. Number of Doors. Number of Windows. Rolls of Paper. Yards of Border. 7X 9 7X 9 7X 9 7X 9 8X10 8X10 8 9 10 12 8 g 1 1 1 6 7 8 10 7 8 11 11 11 11 12 12 8X10 8X10 10 12 9 11 12 12 9X11 9X11 8 9 8 10 14 14 9X11 10 11 14 9X11 10X12 12 g 13 9 14 14 10X12 10X12 10X12 11X12 11X12 11 X12 9 10 12 8 9 10 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 10 11 13 8 9 10 15 15 15 16 16 16 11X12 12X13 12 8 2 2 2 2 13 8 16 17 12X13 12X13 9 10 2 2 2 2 10 11 17 17 12X13 12 2 2 14 17 12X15 12X15. ^ 12X15 12X15. ... 13X15. ... 13X15 13X15 13X15 14X16 14X16 14X16 14X18 14X18 14X18 8 9 10 12 8 9 10 12 9 10 12 9 10 12 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 10 11 12 15 10 11 13 16 12 14 17 13 15 19 18 18 18 18 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 22 22 22 15X16 10 2 2 15 21 15X17 12 2 2 19 22 Deduct one-half roll of paper for each ordinary door or window extra ze, 4 X 7 feet. A double roll of wall-paper contains about 72 square feet. 422 CAST IRON. into this bed so as to lay solid; it should then be secured with a sufficient number of points or "sprigs" and then "front glazed." In glazing the sash care must be taken not to put the putty on heavy enough to project over the wood rebate and thus show from the inside of the sash. All sash should have a coat of paint or oil before being glazed, so the putty will take hold of the wood. PAPER-HANGING. To prepare the walls, make a size of glue and water, then give the walls a coat of a very weak solu- tion of the same. To make a paste, take 2 pounds of fine flour, put in a pail, add cold water, and stir it up together in a thick paste. Take a piece of alum about the size of a small chestnut, pound it fine and throw it into the paste; mix well. Then take about 6 quarts of boiling water and mix with the paste while hot until the whole is brought to a proper consistency. This makes an excellent paste, and is fit for use when cold. The table on page 421 shows how many single rolls of wall- paper are required to cover the walls of a room of the dimen- sions indicated by the figures in the left-hand column, also the number of yards of border required. Cast Iron. Cast iron is the remelted pig iron run in moulds of the desired shape. A cast-iron casting should show a smooth clean surface and have all angles run true and sharp. There should be no "blow" or "sand" holes. Cast iron when broken should show a close-grained texture, and the fracture should have a light-bluish color. The iron should be soft enough so it can be dented by a blow of a hammer on a corner without breaking off pieces. The superintendent should examine all cast iron closely, as very often "blow" or " sand" holes are stopped up with putty. A casting when struck with a hammer should give a clear ring ; if it gives a dull sound it indicates a crack or holes stopped up. Cast-iron columns should be examined as to the thickness of the metal, for if the core in casting has been placed a little out of centre then the column will have thick iron on one side and thin iron on the other. Cast-iron pipes should be tapped with a hammer to sound for cracks, "blow" or "sand" holes, and also examined to see if they are of the required thickness, and that the bead and hub are well formed. CAST IRON. 423 SPECIFICATIONS FOR STRUCTURAL CAST IRON. STRUCTURAL CAST IRON. Except when chilled iron is specified, all castings shall be tough gray iron, free from injurious cold-shuts or blow-holes, true to pattern, and of a workmanlike finish. Sample pieces 1 inch square, cast from the same heat of metal in sand moulds, shall be capable of sustaining on a clear span of 4 feet 8 inches a central load of 500 pounds when tested in the rough bar. DATA REGARDING CAST IRON. Specific gravity, 7.10 to 7.50. Weight per cubic foot, 450 pounds. Ultimate strength: Tensile, 13,000 to 29,000 pounds per square inch; compressive, 85,000 to 125,000 pounds per square inch; shearing, 25,000 pounds per square inch; torsion, 8600 pounds per square inch; transverse, 500 to 4000 pounds per square inch. Working strength: Tensile, 3000 pounds per square inch; compressive, 80,000 pounds per square inch; transverse, 600 pounds per square inch; shearing, 6000 pounds per square inch; torsion, 5000 pounds per square inch. Shrinkage, |- inch per foot. Melting-point, 2000 F. MALLEABLE CAST IRON. Malleable cast iron is cast iron which has been deprived of some of its carbon by heating to a red heat, together with some chemical compound having a strong affinity for carbon, and then allowing it to cool slowly. Such castings are not as brittle as the ordinary cast iron. STRENGTH OF MALLEABLE CAST IRON. Tensile 25,000 to 50,000 pounds per square inch. Elongation 1 to 2 per cent in 4 inches. Elastic limit 15,000 to 21,000. The same care should be taken in examining malleable cast- iron castings as with the ordinary cast iron. The use of cast or malleable iron for structural purposes should be confined to those parts or members which only will have to withstand a compressive strain. The following tables, on pages 424 and 425, gives the strength and safe load for cast-iron columns. 424 CAST IKON. ULTIMATE STRENGTH OF HOLLOW ROUND AND HOLLOW RECTANGULAR CAST-IRON COLUMNS. Ultimate strength in pounds per square inch: ROUND COLUMNS. RECTANGULAR COLUMNS. Square Bearing. Pin and Square. Pin Bearing. Square Bearing. Pin and Square. Pin Bearing. 80000 80000 80000 80000 80000 80000 , , d20 2 , , 3(12/)2 14 _U2/) 2 t , 3(12/)2 , , 9C12Z) 2 , t 3(120 2 length of column in feet; external diameter or least side of rectangle in inches. I d Round Columns. Ultimate Strength in Pounds per Square Inch. Rectangular Columns. Ultimate Strength in Pounds per Square Inch. Square Bearing. Pin and Square. Pin Bearing. Square Bearing. Pin and Square. Pin Bearing. .0 .1 .2 67800 65690 63530 62990 60300 57600 58820 55730 52690 70480 68790 67000 66520 64260 61940 62990 60300 57600 .3 .4 .5 61340 59140 56940 54930 52310 49770 49740 46900 44200 65140 63260 61350 59600 57270 54960 54960 52320 49760 .6 .7 .8 54760 52620 50530 47300 44940 42670 41630 39210 36930 59450 57550 55670 52680 50460 48300 47300 44960 42670 1.9 2.0 2.1 48490 46510 44600 40510 38460 36520 34790 32790 30920 53800 51940 50160 46230 44200 42260 40510 38460 36520 2.2 2.3 2.4 42750 40980 39280 34680 32940 31310 29180 27540 26030 48400 46670 44990 40400 38630 36930 34680 32950 31310 2.5 2.6 2.7 37650 36090 34600 29770 28320 26950 24620 23300 22070 43390 41820 40320 35310 33770 32310 29760 28320 26950 2.8 2.9 3.0 33180 31820 30530 25670 24460 23320 20930 19860 18870 38870 37470 36120 30920 29600 28340 25670 24460 23320 3.1 3.2 3.3 29310 28140 27030 22250 21250 20300 17940 17070 16260 34830 33580 32390 27150 26030 24960 22250 21250 20300 3.4 25970 19410 15500 31240 23940 19410 CAST IRON. 425 SAFE LOADS IN TONS OF 2000 LBS. FOR HOLLOW ROUND CAST-IRON COLUMNS. ide Diam- | % Inches. | *o i o> "s Length of Columns in Feet. onal Area, hes. | a'fcS 13 " 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 _ 53 i! |l Tons Tons Tons Tons Tons Tons Tons Tons Tons 5 t> c r I" 82 6 i 26.2 23.0 20.1 17.5 15.2 13.2 11.5 8.6 26.95 6 J 37.5 33.0 28.8 25 21.7 18.9 16.5 12.4 38.59 6 I 42.7 37.6 32.8 28.5 24.7 21.5 18.8 14.1 43*96 6 1 47.6 41.9 36.5 31.8 27.6 24 21 15 7 49 01 6 li 52.2 4(5.0 40.1 34.8 30.2 26.3 23.0 17.2 53J6 7 i 47.7 43.1 38.5 34.3 30.4 26.9 23.9 21.2 18.9 14.7 45.96 7 1 61.1 55.2 49.3 43.8 38.9 34.4 30.6 27.1 24.2 18.9 58.90 7 67.2 60.8 54.3 48.3 42.8 37.9 33.7 29.9 26.7 20.8 64.77 8 i 57.9 53.3 48.6 44.1 39.7 35.8 32.2 28.9 26.1 17.1 53.29 8 1 74.6 68.7 62.5 56.7 51.1 46.0 41.4 37.3 33.6 22.0 68.64 8 li 89.9 82.8 75.5 68.4 61.7 55.5 49.9 44.9 40.5 26.5 82.71 9 i 68.1 63.6 58.9 54.2 49.6 45.2 41.2 37.5 34.1 19.4 60.65 9 1 88.0 82.3 76.2 70.0 64.1 58.4 53.2 48.4 44.1 25.1 78.40 9 li 106.6 99.6 92.2 84.8 77.6 70.8 64.4 58.7 53.4 30.4 94.94 9 li 123.8 115.7 107.1 98.5 90.1 82.2 74.8 68.1 62.0 35.3 110.26 9 li 139.6 130.5 120.8 111.1 101.6 92.7 84.4 76.8 69.9 39.9 124.36 10 1 101.4 95.9 89.8 83.6 77.4 71.5 65.8 60.5 55.5 28.3 88.23 10 11 123.3 116.5 109.1 101.6 94.1 86.8 79.9 73.4 67.5 34.4 107.23 10 li 143.7 135.8 127.3 118.5 109.7 101.2 93.2 85.6 78.7 40.1 124.99 10 li 162.7 153.8 144.1 134.1 124.2 114.6 105.5 97.0 89.1 45.4 141.65 11 1 114.8 109.4 103.5 97.3 91.0 84.8 80.2 73.1 67.7 31.4 98.03 11 11 139.9 133.3 126.1 118.6 110.9 103.3 97.8 89.4 82.5 38.3 119.46 11 U 163.5 155.9 147.5 138.6 128.7 120.8 114.3 104.1 96.4 44.8 139.68 11 185.7 177.1 167.5 157.5 147.3 137.2 129.8 118.3 109.5 50.9 158.68 11 2 206.6 196.9 186.3 175.1 163.8 152.6 144.4 131.5 121.8 56.6 176.44 12 1 128.0 122.9 117.2 111.0 104.7 98.4 92.2 86.1 80.4 34.6 107.51 12 156.4; 150.1 143.1 135.7 127.9 120.2 112.6 105.2 98.2 42.2 131.41 12 183.3 175.9 167.7 159.0 149.9 140.9 132.0 123.3 115.1 49.5 154.10 12 208.7 200.4 191.0 181.1 170.7 160.4 150.3 140.5 131.1 56.4 175.53 12 2 232.7 223.4 213.0 201.9 190.4 178.9 167.6 156.6 146.1 62.8 195.75 13 1 141.2 136.3 130.7 124.7 118.5 112.1 105.8 99.5 93.5 37.7 117.53 13 172.8 166.8 160.0 152.7 145.0 137.2 129.4 121.8 114.4 46.1 143.86 13 203.0 195.9 187.9 179.3 170.3 161.1 152.0 143.1 134.3 54.2 168.98 13 231.6 223.6 214.5 204.7 194.4 183.9 173.5 163.3 153.3 61.9 192.88 13 2 258.9 249.9 239.7 228.7 217.3 205.5 193.9 182.5 171.3 69.1 215.56 14 1 154.3 149.6 144.3 138.5 132.3 125.9 119.5 113.1 106.8 40.8 127.60 14 H 189.2 183.4 176.9 169.7 162.2 154.4 146.5 138.6 131.0 50.1 156.31 14 li 222.6 215.8 208.1 199.7 190.8 181.7 172.3 163.1 154.1 58.9 183.67 14 li 254.4 246.7 237.9 228.3 218.1 207.6 197.0 186.5 176.2 67.4 210.00 14 2 284.8 276.2 266.4 255.6 244.2 232.4 220.6 208.8 197.2 75.4 235.12 15 1 167.4 162.9 157.8 152.1 146.0 139.7 133.3 126.8 120.4 44.0 137.28 15 11 205.5 200.0 193.7 186.7 179.3 171.5 163.6 155.7 147.9 54.0 168.48 15 li 242.1 235.7 228.2 220.0 211.21 202.1 192.8 183.5 174.2 63.6 198.74 15 if 277.2 269.8 2(51.3 251.9 241.9 231.4 220.7 210.1 199.5 72.9 227.45 15 2 310.8 302.5 293.0 282.5 271.2 259.5 247.5 235.5 223.6 81.7 254.90 If all cast-iron or other hollow columns are filled with concrete after being set it adds to their strength and affords protection from rust and fire. 426 STRUCTURAL IRON AND STEEL. Wrought Iron. Wrought iron, when perfect, is simply pure iron; wrought iron has the advantage over other iron in that it can be welded when heated to nearly a white heat Good iron should be soft and tough, and when broken should show small crystals of a uniform size and color, and fine silky fibres, or if broken gradually should show long silky fibres of a gray-bluish color. Good iron should bend cold 180 degrees around a circle whose diameter is twice the thickness of the piece, for bar iron, and three times the thickness for plates. DATA ON WROUGHT IRON. Specific gravity 7.79. Weight per cubic foot 480 to 485 pounds per cubic foot. Melting-point 2734 to 3000 Fahr. Ultimate tensile strength 30,000 to 70,000 pounds. Ultimate compressive strength 40,000 to 125,000 pounds. Ultimate shearing strength 40,000 pounds. Working strength, tensile, 10,000 to 15,000 pounds per square inch. Working strength, compressive, 36,000 pounds per square inch. Working strength, shearing, 6000 to 9000 pounds per square inch. Structural Iron and Steel. Steel is a compound of iron with from .01 to 1.5 per cent of carbon. It also contains minute quantities of silicon, sulphur, phosphorus, etc. The process of making steel may be classed under two heads: by adding carbon to wrought iron, and by abstracting carbon from cast iron. The former is used for making tool steel and the latter for making large masses of steel for ordinary uses. Good soft steel should bend cold through 180, and close down flat upon itself without cracking. A simple test for iron or steel is to take a small sample, file it smooth on all sides, and place it in dilute nitric or sulphuric acid for about twelve hours, then wash and dry it. The action of the acid will show the structure of the material, from which its quality can be judged. The best steel will show a frosty appearance; ordinary steel, honeycombed; the best iron will show fine fibres, while if the composition or structure of the iron is uneven, the acid will reveal it. STRUCTURAL IRON AND STEEL. 427 All structural steel or iron work should be inspected at the shops, just before being riveted together, and again after the work is finished and ready for painting. When inspecting the work at the shop notice should be taken to see that all members, beams, etc., are perfectly straight, and that all are of the dimensions called for by the drawings. The superintendent, or inspector, should examine each piece as to dimensions, locations of rivets, bolt-holes, etc., and see that they are all located correctly. He should see that the holes for riveting are of the correct size and that when the work is put together the holes come directly opposite each other. As each piece is inspected it should be stamped or marked so that when it is received at the work there will be an indication of shop inspection. As the material is delivered at the work, the superintendent should examine it for the shop inspector's mark, and if there is any which does not bear this mark, when there has been a shop inspection made, it should be examined closely for defects. The superintendent should see that the work has been prop- erly painted, and if not, have a coat of paint put on as soon as possible. He should also see that all columns or other mem- bers have been faced off as required by the specifications. In erecting the work all columns, etc., should be started level, so they will be carried level throughout the structure. As the work is put together, he should see that all holes for bolts or rivets come opposite, and should not allow the drift- pin to be used except for drawing the work together. If the bolt or rivet will not enter he should have the hole reamed out and a larger bolt or rivet used. Where bolts are used in any of the flanges of the members bevelled washers should be used on the bevelled flange. As soon as the work is put together he should see that it receives a coat of paint at once, and have any rust which may appear scraped off. The following, by C. J. Tilden, Assoc. M. Am. Soc. C. E., Assistant Engineer New York Rapid Transit Commission, 242 St. Nicholas Ave., New York City, is very instructive in regard to riveting, etc. RIVETS IN STRUCTURAL STEEL WORK.* A theoretically perfect rivet should fill the hole completely, be of homogeneous material throughout, and have two well-formed heads. The * Condensed from an article in the Harvard Engineering Journal, 428 STRUCTURAL IRON AND STEEL. strength of a riveted joint depends, theoretically, on but two considerations : first, the shearing strength of the rivet material, usually soft steel; and, second, the number of rivets used. When comparatively thin plates are joined by rivets of large diameter, it may happen that the resistance of the metal to crushing is less than the shearing strength of one rivet; in which case the crushing or "bearing" value of the metal determines the value to be given to each rivet in calculating the strength of the joint. The question then arises with what degree of safety may the designing engineer accept these theoretical assumptions, and how are they borne out by the conditions which occur in shop practice? In the first place, the material of a rivet is not homogeneous In a large majority of cases it is probable that test-pieces taken from different parts of a rivet after driving, assuming that such small pieces could be properly tested, would show widely different characteristics, and these totally different from similar tests of the same rivet before driving. A very good idea of the great difference in quality of rivet material after driving may be gained by watching for a few hours a shop- gang engaged in cutting out rivets which have been condemned by the inspector. Sometimes the metal is hard, tough, and fibrous; then again nearly as soft, to all appearances, as lead or pewter; and occasionally the rivet-head will fly off at the first blow of the hammer, apparently almost as hard and brittle as glass. A second noteworthy discrepancy in the design of riveted joints is the failure to take account of the action of the rivet- heads in bringing the two or more surfaces into very close contact, so that a large amount of friction is developed. It is quite possible that this friction may amount to more than the shearing strength of the rivet. In any event it is a very impor- tant factor in the strength of a riveted joint. In the diagram, Fig. 240, are shown some of the more frequent imperfections in rivet-work, resulting from carelessness of the workmen. At a, for comparison, is sketched a perfectly driven rivet. The original form is shown dotted, the " shank" being 3^ or ^ of an inch less in diameter than the hole which it is to fill, and enough longer than the "grip" or length between heads, to allow the formation of the new head, and the squeezing out of the rivet material sufficiently to fill the hole completely Both heads should be concentric with the shank, and the rivet STRUCTURAL IRON AND STEEL. 429 should be perfecly tight, giving a clear, sharp ring when struck with a light hammer. At b is shown a loose rivet which has been "calked," with a cold-chisel, to make it appear tight under the inspector's hammer a favorite trick of careless riveting-gangs, and often very difficult to detect; if suspected, a close examination should be made of the head of the rivet for signs of the calking-tool, espe- cially if the rivet has been generously bespattered with fresh paint or tobacco- juice. Both these commodities, always plen- tiful in the shop, are favorite means of concealment for "scamped" work of this character. A result very similar to calking, but much harder to discover, is sometimes secured by using the riveting-machine, or "bull" as it is familiarly known to the shop men, on the cold rivet. The movable cup of the 'bull" is brought sharply against the rivet-head, securing some- what the effect of a blow, and this is repeated four or five times on each loose rivet. In general, this machine-calking is not very effective, but the writer has known instances where it has been successful. It is well-nigh impossible to tell from the appear- ance of the rivet-head afterwards if this trick has been attempted. A very slight polish on the head of the rivet is about all the evidence that ever appears, and this is readily hidden by a dab of grease or dirt, or the ever-ready tobacco-juice. It is a form of "scamping" that is seldom resorted to, however, as it is more FIG. 240. FIG. 241. work than calking with the cold-chisel, and far less likely to accomplish its purpose. The sketch, 6, also shows the probable result of heating the rivet unevenly. Where the heating is done in an ordinary portable forge, fired with coke, the forge-tender gets into the habit of heating only that part of the rivet which is to be upset to form the head, leaving the remainder comparatively cool. Referring to Fig. 241, for example, from the lower end of the rivet to, perhaps, the point x, the metal is at white heat; above that it cools rapidly until the head is practically "cold," often 430 STRUCTURAL IRON AND STEEL. not even a dull-red color. This uneven heating not only pre- vents the rivet from upsetting throughout its length, and so filling the hole, but is apt to injure the quality of the meta] above the point x, owing to its being worked under the ham- mer at too low a temperature. Careless manipulation of the riveting-machine may result in the condition shown at c, where the head is not concentric with the shank The fault can be detected only by comparison with the other rivets in the joint, showing uneven spacing and irregular lines. The condition shown at d results from too much metal in the shank of the rivet before driving, giving a " soldier-cap " head. The reverse of this is shown at e. It must not be supposed that these defects are the only ones which occur in rivet-work; they are only a few of the more frequent errors of this kind that may be observed in any shop. Combinations of two or more of the forms shown occur not infrequently, and an almost endless variety of changes mav be rung on each one. Of the four types, b and e should be condemned unquestionably whenever found, being not only bad workmanship, but unreliable; c and d probably develop the full strength of the rivet, and may be allowed to pass if strength is the only consideration; but if the work is to be exposed they should be cut out and replaced, as they are sure to look ragged in finished work. As to the actual difference in strength between a perfect rivet, as a, and any of the imperfect ones, it is impossible to judge with any degree of accuracy. In fact, if a test were made it is quite conceivable that a rivet such as b, or even e f might develop greater strength than a. About all that can be said is that this is not likely to happen, but rather the reverse, as a properly driven rivet is more likely to develop its full strength than one which is imperfect in any way. But this is not reducing the question to any scientific basis, and, indeed, it cannot be so reduced. Rigid specifications are required for riveted work, and the work iij the shop is subjected to the most careful inspection, not because a carelessly driven rivet is less strong, by any definitely calculable percentage, than one which is properly driven, but for the simple reason that careful and accurate work is more reliable. The nearest approach to a theoretically perfect rivet is prob- ably the turned bolt which is occasionally used for field con- STRUCTURAL IRON AND STEEL. 431 nections. In such cases it is the practice of some engineers to require the holes to be drilled instead of punched, or "sub- punched and reamed" that is, punched to a diameter about J inch less than that of the bolt to be used and reamed to proper size. The bolt is turned to a driving fit, and the threaded part is of slightly reduced diameter, the shoulder, s, protecting the thread while the bolt is driven home. To keep the nut in place after it is screwed up tight, the projecting threaded end of the bolt is upset against the nut. In spite of the reli- ability of this connection, however, its high cost precludes its general use. Fig. 241 shows a form of rivet which Has certain advantages and disadvantages over the ordinary shape. In this form the shank is slightly increased in diameter (exaggerated in the draw- ing) for a distance of \ to f inch from the head. Directly under the head, at the base of the cone-like enlargement, the shank has the same diameter as the hole into which the rivet is to go that is, from T& to ^ inch larger than the main part of the shank. This is an advantage in the shop, where the rivet is sure to be uniformly heated throughout its length, as it insures the complete filling of the hole up to the rivet-head. In the field, however, where the rivets are likely to be unevenly heated, such a design would be of doubtful advantage. A rivet of this shape might easily appear sound and tight under the inspect- or's hammer, and yet have been very imperfectly driven. TABLES ON RIVETS. On pages 432 and 433 are given tables on the shearing and bearing value of rivets. EXPLANATION OF TABLES. Intransmitting stresses by means of rivets, it is customary to disregard the friction between the parts joined as too uncertain an element to be relied upon to any extent. The rivets must then be proportioned for the entire stress which is to be transmitted from one plate or group of plates to the other, and they must be of sufficient size and number to present ample resistance to shearing and afford sufficient bearing area so as not to cause a crushing of the metal at the rivet-holes. This latter condition, while generally observed for pins, is very often entirely overlooked in riveted work. Its observance, in most cases of riveted girders with single webs, determines the size and number of rivets to be used and frequently makes it necessary to adopt a greater thickness of web than would otherwise be required. Thus, if the web is ^ inch thick, the rivets connecting the same with 432 STRUCTURAL IRON AND STEEL. SHEARING AND BEARING VALUE OF RIVETS. (All Dimensions in Inches.) Diameter of Rivet. Area in Square Inches. Single Shear at 6000 Lbs. Bearing Value for Inches. Fraction. Decimal. i & I & f * 4 i i l .375 .500 .625 .750 .875 1.000 .1104 .1963 .3063 .4418 .6013 .7854 660 1180 1840 2650 3610 4710 1130 1500 1880 1410 1690 2630 3280 3940 4590 , 5250 ' 1880 2340 2810 2250 2810 3380 3940 2250 2630 3000 3280 3750 4500 Diameter of Rivet. Area in Square Inches. Single Shear at 7500 Lbs. Bearing Value for Inches. Fraction. Decimal. i A i A I * f i i 1 .375 .500 .625 .750 .875 1.000 .1104 . 1963 .3068 .4418 .6013 .7854 830 1470 2300 3310 4510 5890 1410 1880 2340 1760 2110 3280 4100 4920 5740 6560 2340 2930 3520 2810 3520 4220 4920 2810 3280 3750 4100 4690 5620 Diameter of Rivet. Area in Square Inches. Single Shear at 10000 Lbs. Bearing Value for Inches. Fraction. Decimal. ir A 1 A i * i * * 1 .375 .500 .625 .750 .875 1.000 .1104 .1963 . 3068 .4418 .6013 .7854 1100 1960 3070 4420 6010 7850 1880 2500 3130 2340 2810 4380 5470 6560 7660 8750 3130 3910 4690 5470 6250 3750 4690 5630 6570 3750 4380 5000 7500 Diameter of Rivet. Area in Square Inche^. Single Shear at 12000 Lbs. Bearing Value for Inches. Fraction. Decimal. i A 1 A i * f i i i .375 .500 .625 .750 .875 1.000 .1104 .1963 .3063 .4418 .6013 .7854 1320 2360 3680 5300 7220 9430 2350 3130 3910 2930 3520 5470 8210 9580 10940 3910 4880 5860 4690 5860 7030 8210 4690 5470 6250 6840 7820 9380 In above tables all bearing values above or to right of upper zie/ag lines are greater than double shear. Values between upper and lower zigzag lines are less than double and greater than single shear. STRUCTURAL IRON AND STEEL. 433 SHEARING AND BEARING VALUE OF RIVETS. (All Dimensions in Inches.) Different Thicknesses of Plate in Inches at 12,000 Lbs. per Square Inch. * A 1 ft f if i ri 1 3000 3750 4220 4690 4500 5060 5630 6190 6750 .... 5250 5910 6560 7220 7880 8530 9190 9840 6000 6750 7500 8250 9000 9750 10500 11250 12000 Different Thicknesses of Plate in Inches at 15,000 Lbs. per Square Inch. * A f ft * H I ! 1 3750 4690 5280 5860 5630 6330 7030 7720 8440 6560 7380 8200 9030 9850 10670 11480 12300 .... 7500 8440 9380 10310 11250 12190 13130 14060 15000 Different Thicknesses of Plate in Inches at 20,000 Lbs. ber Square Inch. * A * g * J H 1 5000 6250 7030 7810 7500 8440 9380 10310 11250 .... 8750 9840 10940 12030 13130 14220 15310 16410 10000 11250 12500 13750 15000 16250 17500 18750 20000 Different Thicknesses of Plate in Inches at 25,000 Lbs. per Square Inch. * A 1 H f tt { H 1 6250 7810 8790 9770 9380 10550 11720 12890 14060 10940 12310 13670 15040 16410 17770 19140 20510 .... 12500 14060 15630 17190 18750 20320 21880 23440 25000 Values below and to left of lower zigzag lines are less than single shear. STRUCTURAL IRON AND STEEL. the flange angles have a bearing value of only 3520 pounds for a f-inch rivet, while their shearing value is =2X3310 = 6620 pounds per rivet, the rivets being in double shear. Conse- quently, while the usual thickness of web of floor-beams for railway bridges is f inch, it sometimes becomes necessary for shallow floor-beams to increase this thickness to inch and even f inch, in order that the pressure of the rivets upon the semi-intrados of the rivet-holes be not excessive between the points of support of floor-beam and of application of the load CONVENTIONAL SIGNS FO.R RIVETING 1 - Shop -* k Field -** Flattened to yj or countersunk and Flattened to M flattened to % not chipped FIG. 242. (in which space the transmission of strain from web to flanges takes place). Fig. 242 shows the signs used by draughtsmen to designate the shape and style of rivets desired in the work. The following requirements for iron and steel construction is taken from the New York Building Code. Sec. 21. STRUCTURAL MATERIAL. Wrought Iron. All wrought iron shall be uniform in character, fibrous, tough, and ductile. It shall have an ultimate tensile resistance of not less than 48,000 Ibs. per square inch, an elastic limit of not less than 24,000 Ibs. per square inch, and an elongation of 20 per cent in eight inches, when tested in small specimens. Steel. All structural steel shall have an ultimate tensile strength of from 54,000 pounds to 64,000 pounds per square inch. Its elastic limit shall be not less than 32,000 pounds per square inch and a minimum elongation of not less than 20 per cent in eight inches. Rivet steel shall have an ultimate strength of from 50,000 to 58,000 pounds per square inch. IRON AND STEEL CONSTRUCTION. 435 Cast Steel. Shall be made of open-hearth steel, containing one-quarter to one-half per cent of carbon, not over eight one-hundredths of one per cent of phosphorus, and shall be practically free from blow-holes. Cast Iron. Shall be of good foundry mixture, producing a clean, tough, gray iron. Sample bars, five feet long, one inch square, cast in sand moulds, placed on supports four feet six inches apart, shall bear a central load of 450 pounds before breaking. Castings shall be free of serious blow-holes, cinder- spots, and cold-shuts. Ultimate tensile strength shall be not less than 16,000 pounds per square inch when tested in small specimens. SPECIFICATIONS FOR IRON AND STEEL CONSTRUCTION. Sec. 110. Skeleton Construction. Where columns are used to support iron or steel girders carrying inclosure walls, the said columns shall be of cast iron, wrought iron, or rolled steel, and on their exposed outer and inner surfaces be con- structed to resist fire by having a casing of brickwork not less than eight inches in thickness on the outer surfaces, nor less than four inches in thickness on the inner surfaces, and all bonded into the brickwork of the inclosure walls. The exposed sides of the iron or steel girders shall be similarly covered in with brickwork not less than four inches in thickness on the outer surfaces and tied and bonded, but the extreme outer edge of the flanges of beams, or plates or angles connected to the beams, may project to within two inches of the outside surface of the brick casing. The inside surfaces of girders may be similarly covered with brickwork, or if projecting inside of the wall, they shall be protected by terra-cotta, concrete, or other fire-proof material. Girders for the support of the inclosure walls shal be placed at the floor line of each story. Sec. 111. Steel and Wrought-iron Columns. No part of a steel or wrought-iron column shall be less than one-quarter of an inch thick. No wrought-iron or rolled-steel column shall have an unsupported length of more than forty times its least lateral dimension or diameter, except as modified by Section 138 of this Code, and also except in such cases as the commissioners of buildings may specially allow a greater unsupported length. 436 IRON AND STEEL CONSTRUCTION. The ends of all columns shall be faced to a plane surface at right angles to the axis of the columns and the connection between them shall be made with splice-plates. The joint may be effected by rivets of sufficient size and number to transmit the entire stress, and then the splice-plates shall be equal in sectional area to the area of columns spliced. When the sec- tion of the columns to be spliced is such that splice-plates cannot be used, a connection formed of plates and angles may be used, designed to properly distribute the stress. No mate- rial, whether in the body of the column or used as lattice-bar or stay-plate, shall be used in any wrought-iron or steel column of less thickness than one- thirty-second of its unsupported width measured between centres of rivets transversely, or one- sixteenth the distance between centres of rivets in the direction of the stress. Stay-plates are to have not less than four rivets, and are to be spaced so that the ratio of length by the least radius of gyration of the parts connected does not exceed forty; the distance between nearest rivets of two stay-plates shall in this case be considered as length. Steel and wrought-iron columns shall be made in one, two, or three-story lengths, and the mate- rials shall be rolled in one length wherever practicable to avoid intermediate splices. Where any part of the section of a column projects beyond that of the column below, the differ- ence shall be made up by filling plates secured to column by the proper number of rivets. Shoes of iron or steel, as de- scribed for cast-iron columns, or built shoes of plates and shapes may be used, complying with same requirements. Sec. 112. Cast-iron Columns. Cast-iron columns shall not have less diameter than five inches or less thickness than three- quarters of an inch; nor shall they have an unsupported length of more than twenty times their least lateral dimensions or diameter, except as modified by Section 138 of this Code, and except the same may form part of an elevator inclosure or stair- case, and also except in such cases as the commissioner of buildings having jurisdiction may specially allow a greater unsupported length. All cast-iron columns shall be of good workmanship and material. The top and bottom flanges, seats, and lugs shall be of ample strength, reinforced by fillets and brackets; they shall be not less than one inch in thickness when finished. All columns must be faced at the ends to a true surface perpendicular to the axis of the column Column joints shall be secured by not less than four bolts each, not less IRON AND STEEL CONSTRUCTION. 437 than three-quarters of an inch in diameter. The holes for these bolts shall be drilled in a template. The core of a column below a joint shall be not larger than the core of the column above and the metal shall be tapered down for a distance of not less than six inches, or a joint plate may be inserted of sufficient strength to distribute the load. The thickness of metal shall be not less than one-twelfth the diameter or the greatest lateral dimension of cross-section, but never less than three-quarters of an inch. Wherever the core of a cast-iron column has shifted more than one-fourth the thickness of the shell, the strength shall be computed assuming the thickness of metal all around equal to the thinnest part, and the column shall be condemned if this computation shows the strength to be less than required by this Code. Wherever blow-holes or imper- fections are found in a cast-iron column which reduces the area of the cross-section at that point more than ten per cent, such column shall be condemned. Cast-iron posts or columns not cast with one open side or back, before being set up hi place, shall have a three-eighths of an inch hole drilled in the shaft of each post or column, by the manufacturer or contractor furnishing the same, to exhibit the thickness of the castings ; and any other similar sized hole or holes which the commissioners of buildings may require shall be drilled in the said posts or columns by the said manufacturer or contractor at his own expense. Iron or steel shoes or plates shall be used under the bottom tier of columns to properly distribute the load on the founda- tion. Shoes shall be planed on top. Sec. 113. Double Columns. In all buildings hereafter erected or altered, where any iron or steel column or columns are used to support a wall or part thereof, whether the same be an exterior or an interior wall, and columns located below the level of the sidewalk which are used to support exterior walls or arches over vaults, the said column or columns shall be either constructed double, that is, an outer and an inner column, the inner column alone to be of sufficient strength to sustain safely the weight to be imposed thereon, and the outer columns shall be one inch shorter than the inner columns, or such other iron or steel column of sufficient strength and protected with not less than two inches of fire-proof material securely applied, except that double or protected columns shall not be required for walls fronting on streets or courts. 438 IRON AND STEEL CONSTRUCTION. Sec. 114. Party-wall Posts. If iron or steel posts are to be used as party posts in front of a party wall, and intended for two buildings, then the said posts shall be not less in width than the thickness of the party- wall, nor less in depth than the thick- ness of the wall to be supported above. Iron or steel posts in front of side, division, or party walls shall be filled up solid with masonry and made perfectly tight between the posts and walls. Intermediate posts may be used, which shall be sufficiently strong, and the lintels thereon shall have sufficient bearings to carry the weight above with safety. Sec. 115. Plates between Joints of Open-back Columns. Iron or steel posts or columns with one or more open sides and backs shall have solid iron plates on top of each, excepting where pierced for the passage of pipes. Sec. 116. Steel and Iron Girders. Rivets in flanges shall be spaced so that the least value of a rivet for either shear or bear- ing is equal or greater than the increment of strain due to the distance between adjoining rivets. All other rules given under riveting shall be followed. The length of rivets between heads shall be limited to four times the diameter. The compression flange of plate girders shall be secured against buckling if its length exceeds thirty times its width. If splices are used, they shall fully make good the members spliced in either ten- sion or compression. Stiffeners shall be provided over supports and under concentrated loads; they shall be of sufficient strength as a column to carry the loads, and shall be connected with a sufficient number of rivets to transmit the stresses into the web plate. Stiffeners shall fit so as to support the flanges of the girders. If the unsupported depth of the web plate exceeds sixty times its thickness, Stiffeners shall be used at intervals not exceeding one hundred and twenty times the thickness of the web. Sec. 117. Rolled-steel and Wrought-iron Beams Used as Girders. When rolled-steel or wrought-iron beams are used in pairs to form a girder, they shall be connected together by bolts and iron separators at intervals of not more than five feet. All beams twelve inches and over in depth shall have at least two bolts to each separator. Sec. 118. Cast-iron Lintels. Cast-iron lintels shall not be used for spans exceeding sixteen feet. Cast-iron lintels or beams shall be not less than three-quarters of an inch in thick- ness in any of their parts. IRON AND STEEL CONSTRUCTION. 439 Sec. 119. Plates under Ends of Lintels and Girders. When the lintels or girders are supported at the ends by brick walls or piers they shall rest upon cut-granite or bluestone blocks at least ten inches thick, or upon cast-iron plates of equal strength by the full size of the bearings. In case the opening is less than twelve feet, the stone blocks may be five inches in thickness, or cast-iron plates of equal strength by the full size of the bearings, may be used, provided that in all cases the safe loads do not exceed those fixed by Section 139 of this Code. Sec. 120. Rolled-steel and Wrought-iron Floor- and Roof- beams. All rolled-steel and wrought-iron floor- and roof-beams used in buildings shall be of full weight, straight and free from injurious defects. Holes for tie-rods shall be placed as near the thrust of the arch as practicable. The distance between tie-rods in floors shall not exceed eight feet, and shall not exceed eight times the depth of floor-beams twelve inches and under. Chan- nels or other shapes, where used as skew-backs, shall have a sufficient resisting moment to take up the thrust of the arch. Bearing plates of stone or irctal shall be used to reduce the pressure on ths wall to the working stress. Beams resting on girders shall be securely riveted or bolted to the same; where joined on a girder, tie-straps of one-half inch net sectional area shall be used, with rivets or bolts to correspond. Anchors shall be provided at the ends of all such beams bearing on walls. Sec. 121. Templates under Ends of Steel or Iron Floor- beams. Under the ends of all iron or steel beams where they rest on the walls, a stone or cast-iron template shall be built into the walls. Templates under ends of steel or iron beams shall be of such dimensions as to bring no greater pressure upon the brickwork than that allowed by Section 139 of this Code. When rolled-iron or steel floor-beams, not exceeding six inches in depth, are placed not more than thirty inches on centres, no templates shall be required. Sec. 122. Framing and Connecting Structural Work. All iron or steel trimmer-beams, headers, and tail-beams, shall be suitably framed and connected together, and the iron or steel girders, columns, beams, trusses, and all other ironwork of all floors and roofs shall be strapped, bolted, anchored, and connected together, and to the walls. All beams framed into and supported by other beams or girders shall be connected thereto by angles or knees of a 440 IRON AND STEEL CONSTRUCTION. proper size and thickness, and have sufficient bolts or rivets in both legs of each connecting angle to transmit the entire weight or load coming on the beam to the supporting beam or girder. In no case shall the shearing value of the bolts or rivets or the bearing value of the connecting angles, provided for in Section 139 of this Code, be exceeded. Sec. 123. Riveting of Structural-steel and Wrought-iron Work. The distance from centre of a rivet-hole to the edge of the material shall be not less than f of an inch for -inch rivets. 7 < I 1 1 f C t ( 5 ( ( ft 8 8 It" " " " t " " J3 tt It It c l 7 tl ( ( 11 tt tt It ft | ft ft Wherever possible, however, the distance shall be equal to two diameters. All rivets, wherever practicable, shall be machine-driven. The rivets in connections shall be proportioned and placed to suit the stresses. The pitch of rivets shall never be less than three diameters of the rivet, nor more than six inches. In the direction of the stress it shall not exceed sixteen times the least thickness of the outside member. At right angles to the stress it shall not exceed thirty-two times the least thickness of the outside member. All holes shall be punched accurately, so that upon assembling a cold rivet will enter the hole without straining the material by drifting. Occasional slight errors shall be corrected by reaming. The rivets shall fill the holes completely; the heads shall be hemi- spherical and concentric with the axis of the rivet. Gussets shall be provided wherever required, of sufficient thickness and size to accommodate the number of rivets necessary to make a connection. Sec. 124. Bolting of Structural-steel and Wrought-iron Work Where riveting is not made mandatory connections may be effected by bolts. These bolts shall be of wrought iron or mild steel, and they shall have U. S. Standard threads. The threads shall be full and clean, the nut shall be truly concentric with the bolt, and the thread shall be of sufficient length to allow the nut to be screwed up tightly. When bolts go through bevel- flanges, bevel-washers to match shall be used so that head and nut of bolt are parallel. When bolts are used for suspenders, the IRON AND STEEL CONSTRUCTION. 441 working stresses shall be reduced for wrought iron to ten thou- sand pounds and for steel to fourteen thousand pounds per square inch of net area, and the load shall be transmitted into the head or nut by strong washers distributing the pressure evenly over the entire surface of the same. Turned bolts in reamed holes shall be deemed a substitute for field-rivets. Sec. 125. Steel and Wrought-iron Trusses. Trusses shall be of such design that the stresses in each member can be calcu- lated. All trusses shall be held rigidly in position by efficient systems of lateral and sway bracing, struts being spaced so that the maximum limit of length to least radius of gyration, estab- lished in Section 111 of this Code, is not exceeded. Any mem- ber of a truss subjected to transverse stress, in addition to direct tension or compression, shall have the stresses causing such strain added to the direct stresses coming on the member, and the total stresses thus formed shall in no case exceed the working stresses stated in Section 139 of this Code. Sec. 126. Riveted-steel and Wrought-iron Trusses. For ten- sion members, the actual net area only, after deducting rivet- holes, one-eighth inch larger than the rivets, shall be considered as resisting the stress. If tension members are made of angle- irons riveted through one flange only, only that flange shall be considered in proportioning areas. Rivets to be proportioned as prescribed in Section 123 of this Code. If the axes of two adjoining web members do not intersect within the line of the chords, sufficient area shall be added to the chord to take up the bending strains. No bolts shall be used in the connections of riveted trusses, excepting when riveting is impracticable, and then the holes shall be drilled or reamed. Sec. 127. Steel and Iron Pin-connected Trusses. The bending stresses on pins shall be limited to twenty thousand pounds for steel and fifteen thousand pounds for iron. All compression members in pin-connected trusses shall be proportioned, using seventy-five per cent of the permissible working stress for col- umns. The heads of all eye-bars shall be made by upsetting or forging. No weld will be allowed in the body of the bar. Steel eye-bars shall be annealed. Bars shall be straight before bor- ing. All pinholes shall be bored true, and at right angles to the axis of the members, and must fit the pin within one-thirty- second of an inch. The distances of pinholes from centre to centre for corresponding members shall be alike, so that, when piled upon one another, pins will pass through both ends with- 442 IRON AND STEEL CONSTRUCTION. out forcing. Eyes and screw-ends shall be so proportioned that upon test to destruction, fracture will take place in the body of the member. All pins shall be accurately turned. Pin-plates shall be provided wherever necessary to reduce the stresses on pins to the working stresses prescribed in Section 139 of this Code. These pin-plates shall be connected to the members by rivets of sufficient size and number to transmit the stresses without exceeding working stresses. All rivets in members of pin- connected trusses shall be machine-driven. All rivets in pin- plates which are necessary to transmit stress shall be also machine- driven. The main connections of members shall be made by pins. Other connections may be made by bolts. If there is a combination of riveted and pin-connected members in one truss, these members shall comply with the requirements for pin-con- nected trusses; but the riveting shall comply with the require- ments of Section 126 of this Code. Sec. 128. Iron and Other Metal Fronts to be Filled In. All cast-iron or metal fronts shall be backed up or filled in with masonry of the thicknesses provided for in Sections 31 and 32. Sec. 129. Painting of Structural Metal-work. All structural metal- work shall be cleaned of all scale, dirt, and rust, and be thoroughly coated with one coat of paint. Cast-iron columns shall not be painted until after inspection by the Department of Buildings. Where surfaces in riveted work come in contact, they shall be painted before assembling. After erection all work shall be painted at least one additional coat. All iron or steel used under water shall be inclosed with concrete. SPECIFICATIONS FOR CONSTRUCTIONAL IRON. 1. CHARACTER AND FINISH. All wrought iron must be tough, ductile, fibrous, and of uniform quality. Finished bars must be thoroughly welded during the rolling, and be straight, smooth, and free from injurious seams, blisters, buckles, cracks, or imperfect edges. 2. MANUFACTURE. No specific process or provision of manu- facture will be demanded, provided the material fulfils the requirements of these specifications. 3. STANDARD TEST-PIECE. The tensile strength, limit of elas- ticity and ductility, shall be determined from a standard test- piece of as near |-square-inch sectional area as possible. The elongation shall be measured on an original length of 8 inches. IRON AND STEEL CONSTRUCTION. 443 4. ELASTIC LIMIT. Iron of all grades shall have an elastic limit of not less than 26,000 pounds per square inch. 5. HIGH TEST OR TENSION IRON. When tested in specimens of uniform sectional area of at least J square inch, taken from members which have been rolled to a section of not more than 4 1 square inches, the iron shall show a minimum ultimate strength of 50,000 pounds per square inch, and a minimum elongation of 18 per cent in 8 inches. 6. Specimens taken from bars of a larger cross-section than 4 \ square inches will be allowed a reduction of 500 pounds for each additional square inch of cection, down to a minimum of 48,000 pounds, and have an elongation of 15 per cent in 8 inches. 7. BENDING TEST. All iron for tension members must bend cold through 90 degrees to a curve whose diameter is not over twice the thickness of the piece, without cracking. At least one sample in three must bend through 180 degrees to this curve, without cracking. When nicked on one side and bent by a blow from a sledge, the fracture must be mostly fibrous. 8. ANGLE AND OTHER-SHAPED IRON. The same-sized speci- mens taken from angle and other-shaped iron shall have a mini- mum ultimate strength of 48,000 pounds per square inch, and a minimum elongation of 15 per cent in 8 inches. 9. Specimens from angle and other-shaped iron must bend cold through 90 degrees to a curve whose diameter is not over twice the thickness of the piece, without cracking. 10. PLATES. The same-sized specimens, taken from plates 8 inches to 24 inches in width, shall show a minimum ultimate strength of 48,000 pounds per square inch, and a minimum elongation of 15 per cent in 8 inches; plates from 24 inches to 36 inches wide shall show a minimum ultimate strength of 46,000 pounds per square inch, and elongate 10 per cent in 8 inches; plates over 36 inches wide shall have a minimum elon- gation of 8 per cent in 8 inches. 11. Samples of plate iron shall stand bending cold through 90 degrees to a curve whose diameter is not over three times its thickness, without cracking. When nicked and bent cold, the fracture must be mostly fibrous. 12. RIVET IRON. Rivet iron shall have the same physical requirements as high-test iron, and, in addition, shall bend cold 180 degrees to a curve whose diameter is equal to the 444 IRON AND STEEL CONSTRUCTION. thickness of the rod tested, without sign of fracture on the convex side. 13. PIN IRON. Specimens taken from pin iron under 4 inches diameter shall have a minimum ultimate strength of 50.000 pounds per square inch, and elongate 15 per cent in 8 inches. Rounds over 4 inches diameter, having a minimum elongation of 10 per cent in 8 inches will be satisfactory. 14. FULL-SIZE TEST. Full-size pieces of flat, round, or square iron, not over 4^ inches in sectional area, shall have an ultimate strength of 50,000 pounds per square inch, and stretch 12 J per cent in the body of the bar. Bars of a larger sectional area than 4J square inches will be allowed a reduction of 1000 pounds per square inch, down to a minimum of 46,000 pounds per square inch, and stretch 10 per cent in the body of the bar. 15. VARIATION IN WEIGHT. The variation in cross-section or weight of rolled material of more than 2J per cent from that specified may be cause for rejection. SPECIFICATIONS FOR CONSTRUCTIONAL STEEL. 1. PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE. Steel may be made by either the open-hearth or Bessemer process. 2. TEST-PIECES. The tensile strength, limit of elasticity and ductility shall be determined from a standard test-piece cut from the finished material and planed or turned parallel; the piece to have as near J square inch sectional area as possible, and elongation to be measured on an original length of 8 inches; two test-pieces to be taken from each heat or blow of finished material, one for tension and one for bending. 3. Every finished piece of steel shall be stamped on one side near the middle with the blow number identifying the melt; and steel for pins shall have the melt number stamped on the ends. Rivet and lacing steel, and small pieces for pin- plates and stiffeners, may be shipped in bundles securely wired together, with the melt number on a metal tag attached. 4. FINISH. Finished bars must be free from injurious seams, flaws, or cracks, and have a workmanlike finish. 5. GRADE OF STEEL. Steel shall be of three grades: SOFT, MEDIUM, HIGH. 6. SOFT STEEL. Specimens from finished material for test, cut to size specified above, shall have an ultimate strength of from IRON AND STEEL CONSTRUCTION. 445 54,000 to 62,000 pounds per square inch; elastic limit one-half the ultimate strength; minimum elongation of 26 per cent hi 8 inches; minimum reduction of area at fracture, 50 per cent. This grade of steel to bend cold 180 degrees flat on itself, with- out sign of fracture on the outside of the bent portion. 7. MEDIUM STEEL. Specimens from finished material for test, cut to size specified above, shall have an ultimate strength of 60,000 to 68,000 pounds per square inch; elastic limit one- half the ultimate strength; minimum elongation 20 per cent in 8 inches ; minimum reduction of area at fracture, 40 per cent. This grade of steel to bend cold 10 degrees to a diameter equal to the thickness of the piece tested, without crack or flaw on the outside of the bent portion. 8. HIGH STEEL. Specimens from finished material for test, cut to size specified above, shall have an ultimate strength of 66,000 pounds to 74,000 pounds per square inch; elastic limit one-half the ultimate strength; minimum elongation 18 per cent in 8 inches; minimum reduction of area at fracture, 35 per cent. This grade of steel to bend cold 180 degrees to a diam- eter equal to three times the thickness of the test-piece, without crack or flaw on the outside of the Lent portion. 9. PIN STEEL. Pins made of either of the above-mentioned grades of steel shall, on specimen test-pieces cut from finished material, fill the physical requirements of the grade of steel from which it is rolled, for ultimate strength, elastic limit, and bending, but the elongation shall be decreased 5 per cent, and reduction of area at fracture 10 per cent from that specified. 10. VARIATION IN WEIGHT. The variation in cross-section or weight of more than 2| per cent from that specified will be sufficient cause for rejection. 11. FULL-SIZE TESTS OF STEEL BARS. Full-size tests of steel used for eye-bars shall not be required to show more than 10 per cent elongation in the body of the bar, and tensile strength not more than 4000 pounds below the minimum tensile strength required in specimen tests of the grade of steel from which it is rolled. 446 IRON AND STEEL CONSTRUCTION. SPECIFICATIONS FOR WORKMANSHIP. 1. INSPECTION. Inspection of work shall be made as it progresses, and at as early a period as the nature of the work permits. 2. All workmanship must be first-class. All abutting sur- faces of compression members, except flanges of plate girders where the joints are fully spliced, must be planed or turned to even bearings so that they shall be in such contact through- out as may be obtained by such means. All finished surfaces must be protected by white lead and tallow. 3. The rivet-holes for splice plates of abutting members shall be so accurately spaced that when the members are brought into position the holes shall be truly opposite before the rivets are driven. 4. Rollers must be finished perfectly round and roller-beds planed. 5. RIVETS. The pitch of rivets in all classes of work shall never exceed 6 in., nor 16 times the thinnest outside plate, nor be less than 3 diameters of the rivet. The rivets used shall generally be f, f , and | in. diameter. The distance be- tween the edge of any piece and the centre of a rivet-hole must never be less than 1J in., except for bars less than 2J in. wide. When practicable it shall be at least 2 diameters of the rivet. Rivets must completely fill the holes, have full heads concen- tric with the rivet, of a height not less than .6 the diameter of the rivet, and in full contact with the'surface, or be countersunk when so required, and machine-driven wherever practicable. 6. PUNCHING. The diameter of the punch shall not exceed by more than ^ in. the diameter of the rivets to be used, and all holes must be clean cuts, without torn or ragged edges. Rivet-holes must be accurately spaced; the use of drift-pins will be allowed only for bringing together the several parts forming a member, and they must not be driven with such force as to disturb the metal about the holes. 7. Built members must, when finished, be true and free from twists, kinks, buckles, or open joints between the component pieces. 8. EYE-BARS AND PINHOLES. All pinholes must be accu- rately bored at right angles to the axis of the members, unless IRON AND STEEL CONSTRUCTION. 447 otherwise shown in the drawings, and in pieces not adjustable for length no variation of more than ^ of an inch will be allowed in the length between centres of pinholes; the diameter of the pinholes shall not exceed that of the pins by more than $$ in., nor by more than ^ in. for pins under 3? in. diameter. Eye- bars must be straight before boring; the holes must be in the centre of the heads, and on the centreline of the bars. When- ever eye-bars are to be packed more than $ of an inch to the foot of their length out of parallel with the axis of the structure, they must be bent with a gentle curve until the head stands at right angles to the pin in their intended positions before being bored. All eye-bars belonging to the same panel, when placed in a pile, must allow the pin at each end to pass through at the same time without forcing. No welds will be allowed in the body of the bar of eye-bars, laterals, or counters, except to form the loops of laterals, counters, and sway-rods; eyes of laterals, stirrups, sway-rods, and counters must be bored. PILOT-NUTS. Pins and lateral bolts must be finished per- fectly round and straight, and the party contracting to erect the work must provide pilot-nuts where necessary to preserve the threads while the pins are being driven. Thimbles or washers must be used whenever required to fill the vacant spaces on pins or bolts. 9. ANNEALING. In all cases where a steel piece in which the full strength is required has been partially heated the whole piece must be subsequently annealed. All bends in steel must be made cold, or if the degree of curvature is so great as to require heating, the whole piece must be subsequently annealed. 10. PAINTING. All surfaces inaccessible after assembling must be well painted or oiled before the parts are assembled. 11. The decision of the engineer shall control as to the inter- pretation of drawings and specifications during the execution of work thereunder, but this shall not deprive the contractor of his right to redress, after the completion of the work, for an improper decision. NOTES ON STEEL AND IRON. 1. The average weight of wrought iron is 480 Ibs. per cubic foot. A bar 1 inch square and 3 feet long weighs, therefore, exactly 10 Ibs. Hence: To find the sectional area, given the weight per foot, multi- ply by 0.3. To find the weight per foot, given the sectional area, multi- i u 10 Pty by 448 IRON AND STEEL CONSTRUCTION. 2. The weight of steel is 2 per cent greater than that of wrought iron. To find sectional area, given weight per foot, divide by 3.4. To find weight per foot, given sectional area, multiply by 3.4. 3. The centre load at which a bar of wrought iron 1 in. square and 12 ins. centre to centre of points of support will give way is very nearly one ton (of 2240 Ibs.). 4. Within the elastic limit the extension and compression of wrought iron is very nearly one ten-thousandth of its length for a stress of one ton (of 2240 Ibs.) per square inch. For cast iron this ratio is one five-thousandth for tension, but becomes variable for compression. 5. The contraction or expansion of wrought iron under changes of temperature is about one ten-thousandth of its length for a variation of 15 Fahr. The stress thus induced, if the ends are held rigidly fixed, will be about one ton (of 2240 Ibs.) per square inch of cross-section. 6. The coefficient of expansion of wrought iron for 100 Fahr. is 0.0006S6. Therefore for a variation in temperature of 125, a bar of wrought iron 100 feet long will expand or contract 1.029 inches. Conversely, a change in length of 1 inch per hundred feet would be produced by a variation in temperature of 121.5 Fahr. 7. The melting-point of iron and steel is about as follows: Wrought iron ............ 3000 Fahr. Cast iron ................. 2000 " Steel .................... 2400 " 8. The welding heat of wrought iron is 2733 Fahr. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES. 1. Thrust of arch per lineal foot 1 ~ in which w=load per square foot, r=rise in arch in inches, and Z=span in feet. 2. Approximately the radius of gyration for a box section is four-tenths the least side. The working strength of iron and steel as given by the Chicago Building Code is as follows: IRON AND STEEL CONSTRUCTION. 449 STRESSES CAST-IRON FIBRE STRAINS LENGTH. Sec. 92. The stresses in materials hereafter used in construc- tion, produced by the calculated strains due to their own weight and applied loads, shall in no case exceed the following: ^ , . f Extreme fibre strains tension. .... 2,500 Ibs. Ciu5tiron: i For columns 10>0 oo Reduced by Gordon's formula. Reduced for eccentric load. No cast-iron column shall have a length to exceed twenty times its diameter or least side. STRESSES IN POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH. Wrought Iron. Steel. Extreme fibre stresses, I beams and shapes 12,000 16,000 Extreme fibre stresses, built beams 10,000 15,000 Tension 12,000 15,000 Shearing 7,500 10,000 Direct-bearing pins and rivets 15,000 20,000 Bending on pins 18,000 22,500 * For columns and compression members 12,000 15,000 * Reduced for ratio of length of column to its least radius of gyration by approved modern formulae. Reduced for eccentric load. 450 IRON AND STEEL CONSTRUCTION. WEIGHTS OF FLAT ROLLED STEEL, PER LINEAL FOOT. One Cubic Foot Weighing 489.6 Lbs. Thick- ness in Inches. 1" H" 14" H" 2" 2i" 2*" 2i" 12" A .638 .797 .957 1.11 1.28 1.44 1.59 1.75 7.65 1 .850 1.06 1.28 1.49 1.70 1.91 2.12 2.34 10.20 A 1.06 1.33 1.59 1.86 2.12 2.39 2.65 2.92 12.75 1.28 1.59 1.92 2.23 2.55 2.87 3.19 3.51 15.30 A 1.49 1.86 2.23 2.60 2.98 3.35 3.72 4.09 17.85 i 1.70 2.12 2.55 2.98 3.40 3.83 4.25 4.67 20.40 & 1.92 2.39 2.87 3.35 3.83 4.30 4.78 5.26 22.95 1 2.12 2.65 3.19 3.72 4.25 4.78 5.31 5.84 25.50 ft 2.34 2.92 3.51 4.09 4.67 5.26 5.84 6.43 28.05 1 2.55 3.19 3.83 4.47 5.10 5.75 6.38 7.02 30.60 H 2.76 3.45 4.14 4.84 5.53 6.21 6.90 7.60 33.15 2. 2.98 3.72 4.47 5.20 5.95 6.69 7.44 8.18 35.70 T! 3.19 3.99 4.78 5.58 6.38 7.18 7.97 8.77 38.25 1 3.40 4.25 5.10 5.95 6.80 7.65 8.50 9.35 40.80 i& 3.61 4.52 5.42 6.32 7.22 8.13 9.03 9.93 43.35 If 3.83 4.78 5.74 6.70 7.65 8.61 9.57 10.52 45.90 Wb 4.04 5.05 6.06 7.07 8.08 9.09 10.10 11.11 48.45 H 4.25 5.31 6.38 7.44 8.50 9.57 10.63 11.69 51.00 A 4.46 5.58 6.69 7.81 8.93 10.04 11.16 12.27 53.55 | 4.67 4.89 5.84 6.11 7.02 7.34 8.18 8.56 9.35 9.78 10.5211.69 11.0012.22 12.85 13.44 56.10 58.65 I 5.10 6.38 7.65 8.93 10.20 11.48 12.75 14.03 61.20 A 5.32 6.64 7.97 9.30 10.63 11.95 13.28 14.61 63.75 1 5.52 6.90 8.29 9.67 11.05 12.43 13.81 15.19 66.30 ii 5.74 7.17 8.61 10.04 11.47 12.91 14.34 15.78 68.85 If 5.95 7.44 8.93 10.42 11.90 13.40 14.88 16.37 71.40 if 6.16 6.38 7.70 7.97 9.24 9.57 10.79 11.15 12.33 12.75 13.8615.40 14.3415.94 16.95 17.53 73.95 76.50 m 6.59 8.24 9.88 11.53 13.18 14.83 16.47 18.12 79.05 2 6.80 8.50 10.20 11.90 13.60 15.30 17.00 18.70 81.60 IRON AND STEEL CONSTRUCTION. 451 WEIGHTS OF FLAT ROLLED STEEL (Continued). PFB LINEAL FOOT. Thick- ness in Inches 3" ar 3*" 3f" 4" W 4*" g02 3~ T T J! T 12 19.92 15.99 .26 10.85 .22 8.39 .20 5 15.17 .42 13 18.39 14.76 .24 10.02 .20 7.74 .18 6 12.64 .35 14 17.08 13.70 .23 9.30 .19 7.19 .17 7 10.84 .30 15 15.94 12.79 .21 8.68 .17 6.71 .16 8 9.48 .26 16 14.94 11.99 .20 8.14 .16 6.29 .15 9 8.43 .23 17 14.06 11.29 .19 7.66 .15 5.92 .14 10 7.59 .21 18 13.28 10.66 .18 7.24 .14 5.59 .13 11 6.90 .19 19 12.58 10.10 .17 6.86 .14 5.30 .12 12 6.32 .18 20 11.95 9.59 .16 6.51 .13 5.03 .12 13 5.83 .16 21 11.38 9.14 .15 6.20 .12 4.79 .11 14 5.42 .15 22 10.87 8.72 .14 5.92 .12 4.58 .11 15 5.06 .14 23 10.39 8.34 .14 5.66 .11 4.38 .10 16 4.74 .13 24 9.96 7.99 .13 5.43 .11 4.19 .10 17 4.46 .12 25 9.56 7.67 .13 5.21 .10 4.03 .09 18 4.21 .12 26 9.19 7.38 .12 5.01 .10 3.87 .09 19 3.99 .11 27 8.85 7.11 .12 4.82 .10 3.73 .09 20 3.79 .11 28 8.54 6.85 .11 4.65 .09 3.59 .08 21 3.61 .10 29 8.24 6.62 .11 4.49 .09 3.47 .08 30 7.97 6.40 .11 4.34 .09 3.36 .08 Safe loads given include weight of beam. Ibs. per square iach. Maximum fibre stress, 16,000 IRON AND STEEL CONSTRUCTION. 465 SAFE LOADS UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED FOR STANDARD AND SPECIAL I BEAMS. In Tons of 2000 Lbs. S r 7" I. -4 6" I. J 5" I. a! 4" I. 4 | 3" I. J Is 6g ^ (B G <3 G <5_a 0)"* w w' y'o> a g s 15 12.25 v, < 9.75 tH 7.5 i-, 5.5 (-, e ag Ibs. o g Ibs. O ^ Ibs. Ibs. o Ibs. O g t * H o **"' w *** o -2 3 T3 G T3 G TS G ^3 G .202 1 M

5 '53 '5 8 >^- >^ & Eg: -*^.S e5 c 53 c* fe fl ~ . J2 .2 M'O> >-< K..M P.S S o 33 fH $ 20.5 ^ 1 15 IH 3 13 25 W m c g Ibs. Ibs. o ^ b^ b^ tr &jf b^ +2.5 ~ r tf 0) fl C o - 0>.C C C If 11.25 !l 9.75 | 8 (H 33 6.5 f-i i 5.25 t a 4 f Lbs. v2 ^ Lbs. J-j Lbs. <2 % Lbs. Lbs. <2 2 Lbs. < 2 5 TJ C l~ o a 1~ T3 C "C a 5 6 8.61 7.18 .42 .35 6.68 5.57 .36 .30 4.62 3.85 .31 .26 3.16 2.63 .26 .22 2.02 1.68 .21 .18 1.16 .97 .16 .13 7 6.15 .30 4.77 .26 3.30 .22 2.26 .19 1.44 .15 .83 .11 8 5.38 .26 4.18 .23 2.89 .19 1.98 .16 1.26 .13 .73 .10 9 4.78 .23 3.71 .20 2.57 .17 1.76 .14 1.12 .12 .64 09 10 4.31 .21 3.34 .18 2.31 .16 1.58 .13 1.01 .11 .58 08 11 3.91 .19 3.04 .16 2.10 .14 1.44 .12 .92 .10 .53 07 12 3.59 .18 2.78 .15 .93 .13 1.32 .11 .84 .09 .48 07 13 3.31 .16 2.57 .14 .78 .12 1.22 .10 .78 .08 .45 06 14 3.08 .15 2.39 .13 .65 .11 1.13 .09 .72 .08 .41 06 15 2.87 .14 2.23 .12 .54 .10 1.05 .09 .67 .07 .39 05 16 2.69 .13 2.09 .11 .44 .10 .99 .08 .63 .07 .36 05 17 2.53 .12 .96 .11 .36 .09 .93 .08 .59 .06 .34 05 18 2.39 .11 .86 .10 .28 .09 .88 .07 .56 .06 .32 04 19 2.27 .11 .76 .09 .22 .08 .83 .07 .53 .06 .31 04 20 2.15 .11 .67 .09 .16 .08 .79 .07 .51 .05 .29 .04 21 2.05 .10 .59 .09 1.10 .07 .75 .06 .48 .05 .28 .04 22 1.96 .10 .52 .08 1.05 .07 .72 .06 .46 .05 .26 .04 23 1.87 .09 .45 .08 1.00 .07 .69 .06 .44 .05 .25 .03 24 1.79 .09 1.39 .08 .96 .06 .66 .05 .42 .04 .24 .03 25 1.72 .08 1.34 .07 .92 .06 .63 .05 .40 .04 .23 .03 Safe loads given include weight of channel. Maximum fibre stress, 16,000 Ibs. per square inch. 468 IRON AND STEEL CONSTRUCTION. PROPERTIES OF 1 2 3 4 5 6 - 7 8 9 5 (Sal ~'i~i Jjgj|! Q " 5p Si O ~Js n "a ^t-^P ' fl-^^ 3 J S-g'S IsJi .S-Sg ^5 2g M oocra'SW o ^^."2^ 'f ats f^Srtrt ISs-jSS ta g M S 6 (7 C' 0.84 24.8 265000 207000 6.36 0.85 0.88 22.6 20.4 241500 217900 188700 170300 7.58 6.86 B13 090 18-9 201300 157300 7.12 0.80 17.1 182500 142600 5.82 0.81 0.82 16.1 15.1 172000 161600 134400 126200 5.96 6.12 B15 0-84 14-2 151700 118500 6-32 0.74 12.1 128600 100400 5.15 0.76 11.2 119400 93300 5.31 B17 0-78 10-4 110400 86300 5-50 0.68 8.7 93100 72800 4.33 0.69 8.0 85300 66600 4.49 B19 0-72 7-3 77500 60500 4.70 0.63 6.1 64600 50500 0.63 5.4 58100 45400 .... B21 0-65 4.8 51600 40300 .... 0.57 3.6 38100 29800 0.58 3.4 36000 28100 0.58 3.2 33900 26500 .... B23 0-59 3-0 31800 24900 0.52 1.9 20700 16200 0.52 1.8 19100 15000 B77 053 1.7 17600 13800 472 IRON AND STEEL CONSTRUCTION. PROPERTIES OF 1 2 3 4 5 6 . ? 8 9 ofi 2 l|| 0> I 1 if 0> 1 SI AH| fe . m >H o E M ^^ 2J. '""^ti^ H ! 1 1 'o <3 2"TD CO Q> 1 3 O <$ "o ."fl "o g *S s.s ^ g ^ r] 3 "o C _3 .a-! "^ ^ r^ ' "*"* ^^ 0) 7} -frJ^.-* C) 3 "^ fl 11 03 O* ^ il s * S fj S^.s .2 ^ c^ 1 1 !~ 1* 4^ g~ SH s 0^^ Is a^ / I' r 55.00 16.18 0.818 3.818 430.2 12.19 5.16 50.00 14.71 0.720 3.720 402.7 11.22 5.23 45.00 13.24 0.622 3.622 375.1 10.29 5.32 C 1 15 40.00 11.76 0.524 3.524 347.5 9.39 5.43 35.00 10.29 0.426 3.426 320.0 8.48 5.58 33-00 9-90 0-400 3-400 312-6 8-23 5-62 40.00 11.76 0.758 3.418 197.0 6.63 4.09 35.00 10.29 0.636 3.296 179.3 5.90 4.17 C 2 12 30.00 8.82 0.513 3.173 161.7 5.21 4.28 25.00 7.35 0.390 3.050 144.0 4.53 4.43 20-50 6.03 0-280 2-940 128-1 391 4-61 35.00 10.29 0.823 3.183 115.5 4.66 3.35 30.00 8.82 0.676 3.036 103.2 3.90 3.42 C 3 10 25.00 7.35 0.529 2.889 91.0 3.40 3.52 20.00 5.88 0.382 2.742 78.7 2.85 3.66 15-00 4-46 0-240 2-600 66-9 2-30 3-87 25.00 7.35 0.615 2.815 70.7 2.98 3.10 20.00 5.88 0.452 2.652 60.8 2.45 3.21 C 4 9 15.00 4.41 0.288 2.488 50.9 1.95 3.40 13-25 3-89 0-230 2-430 47-3 1.77 3-49 21.25 6.25 0.582 2.622 47.8 2.25 2.77 18.75 5.51 0.490 2.530 43.8 2.01 2.82 C 5 8 16.25 4.78 0.399 2.439 39.9 1.78 2.89 13.75 4.04 0.307 2.347 36.0 1.55 2.98 11.25 3-35 0-220 2-260 32 3 1-33 3-11 19.75 5.81 0.633 2.513 33.2 1.85 2.39 17.25 5.07 0.528 2.408 30.2 1.62 2.44 C 6 7 14.75 4.34 0.423 2.303 27.2 1.40 2.50 12.25 3.60 0.318 2.198 24.2 1.19 2.59 9-75 2-85 0-210 2-090 21-1 0-98 2-72 15.50 4.56 0.563 2.283 19.5 1.28 2.07 13.00 3.82 0.440 2.160 17.3 1.07 2.13 C 7 6 10.50 3.09 0.318 2.038 15.1 0.88 2.21 8-00 2-38 0-200 1-920 13-0 0-70 2-34 11.50 3.38 0.477 2.037 10.4 0.82 1.75 C 8 5 9.00 2.65 0.330 1.890 8.9 0.64 1.83 6-50 1.95 0-190 1-750 7-4 O-48 1-95 7.25 2.13 0.325 1.725 4.6 0.44 1.46 C 9 4 6.25 1.84 0.252 1.652 4.2 0.38 1.51 5.25 1.55 0-180 1.580 3-8 0-32 1-56 6.00 1.76 0.362 1.602 2.1 0.31 1.08 C72 3 5.00 1.47 0.264 1.504 1.8 0.25 1.12 4-00 1.19 0-170 1-410 1-6 0-20 1 17 L = safe load in pounds uniformly distributed; Z = span in feet. AT = moment of forces in foot-pounds ; C and C' = coefficients given on oppo- site page. Weights in heavy print are standard, others are special. IRON AND STEEL CONSTRUCTION. CHANNELS. 473 10 11 12 13 - 14 15 16 & S "i-O co Jr! 03 ^"Sd-g afB*8 3 SoSfl -* jHH S3 S.-o^ site f.ss a oa fll m _h a "O iif 2 !& ||| -+^ O * |1| &3s s-g'S-g 113.8 Utt^ rt , Section M o c Neutral Ax 80 pendicular at Centre. i Coefficient of for Fibre 81 Q 16,000 Lbs. In. Use Buildings. Coefficient of for Fibre 81 12,500 Lbs. In. Use Bridges. sol IX Distance of H of Gravity Outside of ' M 0) 2 a .2 1 02 .868 57.4 611900 478000 8.53 0.823 .873 53.7 572700 447400 8.71 0.803 .882 50.0 533500 416800 8.92 0.788 .893 46.3 494200 386100 9.15 0.783 C 1 .908 42.7 455000 355500 9.43 0.789 912 41-7 444500 347300 9-50 0-794 .751 32.8 350200 273600 6.60 0.722 .757 29.9 318800 249100 6.81 0.694 .768 26.9 287400 224500 7.07 0.677 C 3 .785 24.0 256100 200000 7.36 0.678 .805 21-4 227800 178000 7-67 0-704 .672 23.1 246400 192500 5.17 0.695 .672 20.6 220300 172100 5.40 0.651 .680 18.2 194100 151700 5.67 0.620 C 3 .696 15.7 168000 131200 5.97 0.609 718 13-4 142700 111500 6-33 0639 .637 15.7 167600 130900 4.84 0.615 .646 13.5 144100 112600 5.12 0.585 .665 11.3 120500 94200 5.49 0.590 C 4 .674 10-5 112200 87600 5 63 0-607 .600 11.9 127400 99500 4.23 0.587 ,603 11.0 116900 91300 4.38 0.567 .610 10.0 106400 83200 4.54 0.556 C 5 .619 9.0 96000 75000 4.72 0.557 .630 8-1 86100 67300 4-94 0-576 .565 9.5 101100 79000 3.48 0.583 .564 8.6 92000 71800 3.64 0.555 .568 7.8 82800 64700 3.80 0.535 C 6 .575 6.9 73700 57500 3.99 0.528 .586 6-0 66800 52200 4-22 0-546 .529 6.5 69500 54300 2.91 0.546 .529 5.8 61600 48100 3.09 0.517 .534 5.0 53800 42000 3. 28 0.503 C 7 .542 4-3 46200 36100 352 0-517 .493 4.2 44400 34700 2.34 0.508 1 .493 3.5 37900 29600 2.56 0.481 C 8 .498 3-0 31600 24700 2-79 0-489 .455 2.3 24400 19000 1.85 0.463 .454 2.1 22300 17400 1.96 0.458 C 9 .453 1-9 20200 15800 2-06 0-464 .421 1.4 14700 11500 1.07 0.459 .415 1.2 13100 10300 1.19 0.443 C72 .409 1-1 11600 91OO 1-31 0-443 CorC'. M' = Cor C 7 8 The sectional index numbers in the previous tables refer to sections in the Carnegie Steel Co.'s Handbook. 474 IRON AND STEEL CONSTRUCTION. EXPLANATION OF TABLES ON THE PROPERTIES OF STANDARD AND SPECIAL I BEAMS AND CHANNELS. The tables on I beams and channels are calculated for all weights to which each pattern is rolled. Columns 12 and 13 in the tables for I beams and channels give coefficients by the help of which the safe, uniformly dis- tributed load may be readily and quickly determined. To do this, it is only necessary to divide the coefficient given by the span or distance between supports in feet. If a section is to be selected (as will usually be the case) intended to carry a certain load for a length of span already determined on, it will only be necessary to ascertain the coeffi- cient which this load and span will require and refer to the table for a section having a coefficient of this value. The coefficient is obtained by multiplying the load in pounds uni- formly distributed by the span length in feet. In case the load is not uniformly distributed, but is con- centrated at the middle of the span, multiply the load by 2 and then consider it as uniformly distributed. The deflection will be T 8 ff of the deflection for the latter load. For other cases of loading, obtain the bending moment in foot-pounds (the most common cases are given on page 478) ; this multiplied by 8 will give the coefficient required. If the loads are quiescent, the coefficients for fibre stress of 16,000 pounds per square inch for steel may be used; but if moving loads are to be provided for, the coefficient for 12,500 pounds should be taken. Inasmuch as the effects of impact may be very considerable (the stresses produced in an unyield- ing, inelastic material by a load suddenly applied being double those produced by the same load in a quiescent state), it will sometimes be advisable to use still smaller fibre stresses than those given in the tables. In such cases the coefficients can readily be determined by proportion. Thus, for a fibre stress of 8000 pounds per square inch, the coefficient will equal the coefficient for 16,000 pounds fibre stress divided by 2. The section moduli are used to determine the fibre stress per square inch in a beam or other shape, subjected to bending or transverse stresses, by simply dividing the same into the bending moment expressed in inch-pounds. IRON AND STEEL CONSTRUCTION. 475 Column 14 in the table of the " Properties of Beams" gives the distance c. t. c. of beams making the radii of gyration equal for both axes. The length of a beam used as a strut should not exceed 125 times its least radius of gyration. Column 14 in the table of the " Properties of Standard Channels" gives the distance which the channels should be placed back to back to make the radii of gyration equal for both axes. Column 15 in the same table can be used to obtain the radius of gyration for struts consisting of two channels when the distance back to back varies from that given in the table. These tables have all been prepared with great care. No approximations have entered into any of the calculations, so that the figures given may be relied upon as accurate. Examples. I. What section of I beam will be required to carry 40,000 Ibs. uniformly distributed, including its own weight, over a span of 16 ft. between supports, allowing a fibre stress of 16,000 Ibs. per square inch? Answer. The coefficient (C) required = 40,000X16 = 640,000. In table of Properties of I Beams, page 469, look in column 12 for the nearest number corresponding to 640,000, which is 648,200. Therefore the beam to be used is 15 in. 45 Ibs. The tables on pages 463 to 465 for I beams give the loads which a beam will carry safely (distributed uniformly over its length) for the distances between supports indicated. These loads include the weight of the beam, which must be deducted in order to arrive at the net load which the beam will carry. On pages 466 to 467 will also be found the safe loads for channels For beams of heavier sections than those calculated in the tables, a separate column of corrections is given for each size, stating the proper increase of safe load for every additional pound in the weight per foot of beam. The values given are based on a maximum fibre stress of 16,000 pounds per square inch. 476 IRON AND STEEL CONSTRUCTION. GENERAL FORMULAE ON THE FLEXURE OF BEAMS OF ANY CROSS-SECTION. Let A = area of section in square inches, Z = length of span in inches, W = load uniformly distributed in pounds, M = bending moment in inch-pounds, h = height of cross-section, out to out, in inches, n = distance of centre of gravity of section, from top or from bottom, in inches, / = stress per square inch in extreme fibres of beam, either top or bottom, in pounds, according as n relates to distance from top or from bottom of section, D = maximum deflection in inches, / = moment of inertia of section neutral axis through centre of gravity, /" = moment of inertia of section neutral axis parallel to above, but not through centre of gravity, d = distance between these neutral axes, S = section modulus, r = radius of gyration in inches, E = modulus of elasticity for steel 29,000,000; then : S = , r Mn M_ 'I S' Win 81 ~8S' ~_ 5W1 3 for beam supported at both ends and uni- ~384EI formly loaded, j. _ PI 3 for beam supported at both ends and loaded 4SEI with a single load P at middle, ^ Wl 3 for beam fixed at one end and unsupported 8EI at the other and uniformly loaded, IRON AND STEEL CONSTRUCTION. 477 PZ 3 for beam fixed at one end and unsupported 3EI~ at other and loaded with a single load P at the latter end. SPECIAL CASES OF LOADING. I. Beam loaded by a single load P at a point distant b feet from the left hand and a feet from the right-hand support. 1 = length of beam between supports = a + 6. Pressure or reaction at left-hand support = Py and at right- hand support = Py. Maximum bending moment neglecting dead weight of beam occurs at point of application of the load and = -j . P = load given in tables pages 463 to 467 X x-r->. When a = b = $l: P PI Reaction = ; maximum bending moment = and P = load given in tables X^. II. Beam fixed at one end and unsupported at the other, I representing the length of beam from end to support. If loaded by a uniformly distributed load W: Wl Maximum bending moment occurs at support and = -77-. z TF=load given in tables pages 463 to 467 Xi If loaded with a single load P at its extremity: Maximum bending moment occurs at support and = PZ. P = load given in tables X^. When beams have no lateral support the s'afe load is given in the following table: BEAMS WITHOUT LATERAL SUPPORT. Length of Beam. Proportion of Tabular Load Form- ing Greatest Safe Load. 20 times flange width Whole tabular load 30 ' 9/10 40 ' . 8/10 50 ' .. 7/10 60 ' * 6/10 70 ' 5/10 478 IRON AND STEEL CONSTRUCTION. BENDING MOMENTS AND DEFLECTIONS OF BEAMS UNDER VARIOUS SYSTEMS OF LOADING. W = total load. I = length of beam. 7 = moment of inertia. E = modulus of elasticity. (1) Beam fixed atone end and loaded at the other. Safe load = i that given in tables. Maximum bending moment at point of support = Wl. Maximum shear at point of sup- port = W. Wl 3 Deflection = =^ (2) Beam fixed at one end and formly loaded. Safe load = } that given in tables. Maximum bending moment at point of support ~n~- Maximum shear at point of sup- port = W. Deflection = --. (3) Beam supported at both ends, single load in the middle. Safe load = that given in tables. Maximum bending moment at middle of beam = - . Maximum shear at points of sup- port = $W. Wl 3 Deflection = (4) Beam supported at both ends and uniformly loaded. Safe load = that given in tables. Maximum bending moment at mid- t v Wl die 01 beam=-^ . o Maximum shear at points of sup- port = %W. WP Deflection = (5) Beam supported. at both ends, single unsymmetrical load. (6) Beam supported at both end, two symmetrical loads. y, \'i o I ---; *"" 1 Safe load = that given in tables X JT-T- 8ao Maximum bending moment under load -S. Maximum shears: at support ntjar Wb Wa a = r-; at other support =j-. Max. deflec. - Safe load =^=that given in tables XT Maximum bending moment between Maximum shear between load and nearer support = W. Max. deflection = IRON AND STEEL CONSTRUCTION. 479 TROUGH-PLATE FLOORING. The trough and corrugated plate sections shown below are used for floors of bridges and fire- proof buildings, as shown in Fig. 243. The following tables give weights per lineal foot of each rolled section and per square foot of floor surface for thicknesses varying by xg inch; also the section modulus for 1 foot in width and the safe loads per square foot for spans of different lengths, using fibre stresses of 12,000 and 10,000 pounds. FIG. 243. PROPERTIES OF TROUGH SECTION. Section index Thickness of base. M 10 M 11 T^r M 12 A M 13 ft M14 4. Weight per lineal foot Weight per square foot. . . . 16.3 25.00 nub 28.15 19*7 31.31 21 1 .4 34 48 23.2 37 74 Section modulus for 1 ft. in width 11.56 13.06 14.57 16.12 17.67 SAFE LOADS IN POUNDS PER SQUARE FOOT OF FLOOR FOR SPANS OF DIFFERENT LENGTHS. Span in M10 M 11 M 12 M 13 M14 Feet. 12,000 Lbs. 10,000 Lbs. 12,000 Lbs. 10,000 Lbs. 12,000 Lbs. 10,000 Lbs. 12,000 Lbs. 10,000 Lbs. 12,000 Lbs. 10,000 Lbs. 5 3699 3083 4179 3483 4662 3885 5158 4298 5654 4712 6 2569 2141 2902 2418 3238 2698 3582 2985 3927 3272 7 1887 1573 2132 1777 2379 1983 2632 2193 2885 2404 8 1445 1204 1633 1361 1821 1517 2015 1679 2209 1841 9 1142 952 1290 1075 1439 1199 1592 1327 1745 1454 10 925 771 1045 871 1166 972 1290 1075 1414 1178 11 764 637 864 720 963 803 1066 888 1168 973 12 642 535 726 605 809 674 896 747 982 818 13 547 456 618 515 690 575 763 636 836 697 14 472 393 533 444 595 496 658 548 721 601 15 411 343 464 387 518 432 573 478 628 523 16 361 301 408 340 455 379 504 420 552 460 Safe loads given include weight of section. 480 ELECTRICAL TERMS, ETC. Electric Wiring", etc. During the progress of this part of the work, the superintendent must pay close attention, as the conduits are put in place, to see that they are laid properly, and all outlets left at the proper location; he should see that no more bends are put in a line of conduits than are absolutely necessary, and as the conduits are being put together he should see that the inside end of each piece is reamed out so there will be no burr to catch the steel fishing-wire or to tear the covering of the electric wire as it is pulled through. The dif- ferent pieces of the conduit tubes should be screwed together so that they will butt in the centre of the coupling. The quarter-bends in the tubing should not be less than a 3-inch radius. When the wires are run in the tubes the super- intendent should see that no extreme force is required to pull them through and that the covering is in no way scratched or torn. He should see that all splices are well soldered and covered, and should permit no splice to be made in a straight run of wire. The superintendent should provide himself with samples of the wires to be used so as to determine if the proper-sized con- duits are being put in. The conduits should be large enough so that the wires can be easily drawn through them. Electrical Terms, etc. A broken circuit is one in which its conducting elements are disconnected in such a manner as to prevent the current from flowing. A closed or completed circuit is one whose conducting elements are so connected as to allow the current to flow. A circuit is said to be grounded when the earth or ground forms a part of the conducting path, and conducts the current into the earth. AMPERE. A current of water is the rate of flow, or the intensity or strength at which the water flows. We say, for instance, the water flows through a pipe at the rate of 1 gallon per second. Similarly the unit of the electric current is one coulomb per second. This is the ampere or unit rate of flow, or unit of current strength, or simply the unit of current of electricity. In the case of the waterflow, we have no single word to express the strength of the current, but have to speak of the quantity and time. OHM. A pipe of small diameter offers a greater resistance to the flow of water than a pipe of larger dimension. So a wire ELECTRICAL TERMS, ETC. 481 of small diameter offers more resistance to an electric current than a wire of larger diameter. If we double the cross-section of a wire we halve its resistance. If we double the length of a wire, we double its resistance. If we double the cross-section and double the length of a wire, the resistance remains the same. This law may be expressed thus : For a wire of a given substance the resistance is directly proportional to the length, and inversely proportional to the cross-section. The unit of electrical resist- ance is called an ohm. The unit now universally adopted is called the international ohm and is the resistance offered by a column of pure mercury 106.3 centimeters in length and 1 square millimeter in sectional area at 32 Fahr., or the temperature of melting ice. These dimensions in inches would be 41.85 inches in length, and a sectional area of .00155 square inch. In the table on page 482 are given various data respecting the copper wire used in electrical installations. In the first column is the gauge number by American wire-gauge; in the second column is the diameter as measured in mils (one mil one one-thousandth of an inch) ; the third column shows the area of cross-section in circular mils. It is usual to adopt this method for round wire instead of the old way of expressing the area in fractions of a square inch, in which case the diameter is squared and the product multiplied by .7854. If the second operation be omitted, and the diameter, as measured in thou- sandths of an inch, be only squared (or multiplied by itself), the result is expressed in circular thousandths or circular mils. Example. What is the area in circular mils of a wire 2 \ inches in diameter? Answer. 2| inches = 2500 mils. 2500 2 = 2500 X 2500 - 6,250,000 circular mils. The resistance of copper wire being low, a unit of length of 1000 feet is usually taken in tables of resistance, and this unit is considered in the eighth column. The resistance of any length of conductor may be found by the following formula: R=- 1000* Where R= required resistance; L= length of conductor; #1 = resistance per 1000 feet of conductor. 482 RESISTANCE, ETC., OF COPPER WIRE. 1* 1 IO > II !2g OO^-i 1C iH OOCOO5OOO OOOCCiCTP -3 I C ^PlH fi j^ COTji COCO! OO. ) OO O O I 5TfO>OO CON^H^N I 3COOOC5CO I CO-^COOiO I ssiSSisSsi 1 'oSn-B^ u^ouaray >00^ RESISTANCE, ETC., OF COPPER WIRE. 483 CC-HOOOr-. | O OGOCCCQiO I C5 I'-HCOIN COCOINb- "l^i-iN 11CNO5 i^ o>.o^c 5t IS^^^^IS22 < JIN ^^H^-( >-*OkCO5 OOr-iOOfOiO jOiOi-iO I OCOWi-HOO lOCOi-HCOrH iC(N(NI>(N CO--IOIOCO r-HCO(NO5CO lOINOOOSIN I COI^COCOOO iOO5O5C^CC N COOOOCO . 1C-* 1 CO( Mcocgco I GOTt<< CO >-( i i i-i iC O^ C * CO Tt< N CO I (N COC (M^Tj^rtC - OOO iOd eoio^Tft^H H O5 t^-O-* I t^ ^CCGOO^ I O51OINOOO l> tO^CCCOCfl I i-l >-l T-I i-H O COb-'iOfO CO-*t--C COfOINt^O I iCCOO5l O>OS'-i'*O5 I *COCO ICINO5IX IC'* CONi I r-li-1 SI-HO^H I OCSCq I-H I OCO' O500COCOIN 00 *' N' *H' O I (NOJ^'d^' | ^HOJCOOOJ I COOoi^-iiC c^it^oicoo ^t i c^iicc^'-H ^oodic oicc^or** coiccococ^ iC-H--iiNiC I OCO NO 00 I OiC^cOIN -O oo-*-* ?^?5^^S &%%% 484 EQUIVALENTS OF ELECTRICAL UNITS. Rule. To find the resistance of any length of wire, divide that length in feet by 1000, and multiply by the figure giving the resistance of that wire per thousand feet, as found in the table on page 482. VOLT. The unit of electric pressure, or electromotive force, or difference of potential, is called the volt. We speak of an electromotive force of so many volts as we might speak of a head of water of so many feet, or of a steam pressure of so many pounds per square inch. Water may fall from a higher to a lower level, a certain vertical distance, say of 10 feet; so of electricity it is said to fall through a difference of potential of say 10 volts. With a known resistance in ohms and a known strength of current in amperes, the electromotive force in volts is deter- mined by Ohm's law, for, by transposing, E C = - may be written E = CR. WATT. This unit of power is called the volt-ampere, or the watt. One watt equals JT-J-T of a horse-power, or 1 horse-power equals 746 watts. Hence it is expressed in electrical work thus: Horse-power = or, watts = H.P. X 746. As 1 watt is the product of 1 ampere and 1 volt, it can be seen that work can be done at the same rate with great current strength and low electromotive force, or with small current strength and high electromotive force; for instance, 100 amperes X10 volts = 1000 watts, and 10 amperes X 100 volts = 1000 watts. EQUIVALENTS OF ELECTRICAL UNITS. 1 Horse-power = 33, 000 foot-pounds per minute. 1 Kilowatt = 44 ,235 foot-pounds per minute. 1 Horse-power = 746 watts. 1 Kilowatt = 1.34 H.P. 1 B.T.U. (British Thermal Unit) = 772 foot-pounds. EQUIVALENTS OF ELECTRICAL UNITS. 485 OF THE UNIVERSITY OF 1 Watt = 44. 236 foot-pounds per minute. 1 Watt = 2654. 16 foot-pounds per hour. 1 H.P. =42.746 B.T.U. per minute. 1 H.P. =2564.76 B.T.U. per hour. 1 K.W. =0.955 B.T U. per second. 1 K.W. = 57.3 B.T.U. per minute. 1 K.W. =3438 B.T.U. per hour. 1 B.T.U. = 17.452 watt minutes. 1 B.T.U. =0.2909 watt hours. Latent heat of evaporation of water = 966 B.T.U. Latent heat of melting of water = 142 B.T.U. To evaporate 1 pound water from and at 212 = 16. 859 K.W. minutes. To evaporate 1 pound water from and at 2 12 = 0.281 K.W. hours. Weight per cubic foot of water = 62. 42 pounds. Weight per gallon of water = 8. 33 pounds. Watts per Candle-power. 50 Volts. 52 Volts. 100 Volts. 3.1 3.5 4.0 3.1 3.5 4.0 3.1 3.5 8 C.P. . .496 .620 .992 1.240 1.488 1.984 .56 .70 1.12 1.40 1.68 2.24 .64 .80 1.28 1.60 1.92 2.56 .477 .596 .954 1.192 1.431 1.908 .538 .673 1.077 1.346 1.615 2.154 .615 .769 1.231 1.538 1.846 2.461 .248 .310 .496 .620 .744 .992 .280 .350 .560 .700 .840 1.120 10 C.P 16 C.P 20 C.P 24 C.P. . . 32 C.P Series Ry. Lamps. Watts per Candle-power. 104 Volts. 110 Volts. 220V. 500V. 550V. 600V. 4.0 .053 .067 .107 .133 .160 .213 3.1 .238 .298 .477 .596 .715 .954 3.5 .269 .337 .538 .673 .808 1.077 3.1 .225 .282 .451 .564 .676 .902 3.5 .255 .318 .520 .636 .764 1.018 4.0 .145 .182 .291 .363 .436 .582 4.0 4.0 8 C.P 10 C.P. . .064 .080 .128 .160 .192 .256 .058 .073 .116 .145 .175 .233 16 C.P 20 C.P 24 C.P 32 CP. AMPERES PER LAMP. The above table is arranged to show the amperes per lamp for lamps of different candle-powers and efficiencies at various voltages. The upper row of figures shows the voltage, the second shows the watts per candle-power, 486 INCANDESCENT WIRING TABLE. or efficiency, and the figures below show the corresponding amperes per lamp for different candle-powers. This table is made in accordance with the best information obtainable from manufacturers on the efficiency of standard lamps in use. Lamps of other efficiencies are on the market, but those shown are standard for good practice at the present time. INCANDESCENT WIRING TABLE. The table on page 487 is arranged to enable wiremen to select the right sizes of wire for service connections and inside work. The figures at the top indicate distance in feet to centre of distribution, in reality half the length of the cir- cuit; the four columns at the left showing the number of 16- candle-power lamps at various voltages; the other figures showing the sizes of wire, Brown & Sharpe gauge, to be used for distributing the number of lamps stated at the distances indicated and with the loss of 1 volt. For example: To distribute 30 lamps of 110 volts at a dis- tance of 80 feet with a loss of 1 volt. In column of 110- volt lamps find the number 30, then follow the same line of figures to the right until the column headed 80 is reached, and it appears that No. 6 wire must be used. The same table may be used for other losses than 1 volt by dividing the given number of lamps by the number of volts to be lost, then with this product proceed as before in the table. For example: To distribute 30 lamps of 110 volts at a dis- tance of 80 feet with a loss of 2 volts, divide 30 by 2, which gives 15, then find 15 in the column headed 110 volts and follow the same line of figures to the right until column headed 80 is reached, and it is found that No. 8 wire must be used. No wire smaller than No. 14 is shown in the table, as the National Board of Fire Underwriters prohibits the use of a smaller size. Odd sizes smaller than No. 5 are not commercial and are therefore omitted. In calculating the sizes of wire as shown in the incandes- cent wiring table a formula (VI) has been used in which there is a constant 10.7, the number of circular mils in a copper wire which would have a resistance of 1 ohm for 1 foot of length. 1 ampere through 1 ohm resistance loses 1 volt. To determine the size of wire necessary for carrying a given current a given distance in feet, multiply the numbe* of feet by 2 to obtain the INCANDESCENT WIRING TABLE. 487 (NOQOCOCDOlft^TtfCCNC^rH^O 88? a I iHrHOO O 00 00 ?O -i^HOOOOO 888! 88^ i8&3S5$$53 ^3 O M ^ 488 INCANDESCENT WIRING TABLE. TABLE FOR FORMULAS, A, B, AND C. Feet to End of Circuit. FeetX 2X10.70 Feet to End of Circuit. FeetX 2X10.70 Feet to End of Circuit. FeetX 2X10.70 5 107 300 6,420 690 14,766 10 214 305 6,527 700 14,980 15 321 310 6,634 710 15,194 20 428 315 6,741 720 15,408 25 535 320 6,848 730 15,622 30 642 325 6,955 740 15,836 35 749 330 7,062 750 16,050 40 856 335 7,169 760 16,264 45 963 340 7,276 770 16,478 50 1070 345 7,383 780 16,692 55 1177 350 7,490 790 16,906 60 1284 355 7,597 800 17,120 65 1391 360 7,704 810 17,334 70 1498 365 7,811 820 17,548 75 1605 370 7,918 830 17,762 80 1712 375 8,025 840 17,976 85 1819 380 8,132 850 18,190 90 1926 385 8,239 860 18,404 95 2033 390 8,346 870 18,618 100 2140 395 8,453 880 18,832 105 2247 400 8,560 890 19,046 110 2354 405 8,667 900 19,260 115 2461 410 8,774 910 19,474 120 2568 415 8,881 920 19,688 125 2675 420 8,988 930 19,902 130 2782 425 9,095 940 20,116 135 2889 430 9,202 950 20,330 140 2996 435 9,309 960 20,544 145 3103 440 9,416 970 20,758 150 3210 445 9,523 980 20,972 155 3317 450 9,630 990 21,186 160 3424 455 9,737 1000 21,400 165 3531 460 9,844 1010 21,614 170 3638 465 9,951 1020 21,828 175 3745 470 10,058 1030 22,042 180 3852 475 10,165 1040 22,256 185 3959 480 10,272 1050 22,470 190 4066 485 10,379 1060 22,684 195 4173 490 10,486 1070 22,898 200 4280 495 10,593 1080 23,112 205 4387 500 10,700 1090 23,326 210 4494 510 10,914 1100 23,540 215 4601 520 11,128 1110 23,754 220 4708 530 11,342 1120 23,968 225 4815 540 11,556 1130 24,182 230 4922 550 11,770 1140 24,396 235 5029 560 11,984 1150 24,610 240 5136 570 12,198 1160 24,824 245 5243 580 12,412 1170 25,038 250 5350 590 12,626 1180 25,252 255 5457 600 12,840 1190 25,466 260 5564 610 13,054 1200 25,680 265 5671 620 13,268 1210 25,894 270 5778 630 13,482 1220 26,108 275 5885 640 13,696 1230 26,322 280 5992 650 13,910 1240 26,536 285 6099 660 14,124 1250 26,750 290 6206 670 14,338 1260 26,964 295 6313 680 14,552 1270 27,178 INCANDESCENT WIRING TABLE. 489 TABLE FOR FORMULAS, A, B, AND C. Feet to End of Circuit. FeetX 2X10.70 Feet to End of Circuit. FeetX 2X10.70 Feet to End of Circuit. FeetX 2X10.70 1280 27 392 1870 40,018 4200 89,880 1290 27 61 '6 1880 40,232 4250 90,959 1300 27820 1890 40,446 4300 92,020 1310 28,034 1900 40,660 4350 93,090 1320 28,248 1910 40,874 4400 94,160 1330 23,462 1920 41,088 4450 95,230 1340 23,676 1930 41,302 4500 96,300 1350 28,890 1940 41,516 4550 97,370 1360 29,104 1950 41,730 4600 98,440 1370 29,318 1960 41,944 4650 99,510 1380 29,532 1970 42,158 4700 100,580 1390 29,746 1980 42,372 4750 101,650 1400 29,960 1990 42,586 4800 102,720 1410 30,174 2000 42,800 4850 103,790 1420 30,388 2050 43,870 4900 104,860 1430 30,602 2100 44,940 4950 105,930 1440 30,816 2150 46,010 5000 107,000 1450 31,030 2200 47,080 5050 108,070 1460 31,244 2250 48,150 5100 109,140 1470 31,458 2300 49,220 5150 110,210 1480 31,672 2350 50,290 5200 111,280 1490 31,886 2400 51,360 5250 112,350 1500 32,100 2450 52,430 i 5300 113,420 1510 32,314 2500 53,500 5350 114,490 1520 32,528 2550 54,570 5400 115,560 1530 32,742 2600 55,640 5450 116,630 1540 32,956 2650 56,710 5500 117,700 1550 33,170 2700 57,780 5550 118,770 1560 33,384 2750 58,850 5600 119,840 1570 33,598 2300 59,920 5650 120,910 1580 33,812 2850 60,990 5700 121,980 1590 34,028 2900 62,060 5750 123,050 1600 34,240 2950 63,130 5800 124,120 1610 34,454 3000 64,200 5850 125,190 1620 34,668 3050 65,270 5900 126,260 1630 34,882 3100 66,340 5950 127,330 1640 35,096 3150 67,410 6000 128,400 1650 35,310 3200 68,480 1660 35,524 3250 69,550 Miles. 1670 35,738 3300 70,620 i 564,96 1680 35,952 3350 71,690 1 112,992 1690 36,166 3400 72,760 H 169,488 1700 36,380 3450 73,830 2 225,984 1710 36,594 3500 74,900 2* 282,480 1720 36,808 3550 75,970 3 338,976 1730 37,022 3600 77,040 3* 395,472 1740 37,236 3650 78,110 4 451,968 1750 37,450 3700 79,180 4* 508,464 1760 37,664 3750 80,250 5 564,960 1770 37,878 3800 81,320 5* 621,456 1780 38,092 3850 82,390 6 677,952 1790 38,306 3900 83,460 6* 734,448 1800 38,520 3950 84,530 7 790,944 1810 38,734 4000 85,600 7* 847,440 1820 38,948 4050 86,670 8 903,936 1830 39,162 4100 87,740 8* 960,432 1840 39,376 4150 88,810 9 1,016,928 1850 39,590 9* 1,073,424 1860 39,804 10 1,129,920 490 INCANDESCENT WIRING TABLE. ,.. Feet X2X 10.7 X amperes (A ) Tr ,. , 7 = circular mils. Volts lost Feet X2X 10. 7 X amperes CD) ^r. : rj = volts lost. Circular mils /fr . Circular mils X volts lost Feet X2X 10.7 = am P eres - actual length of circuit, multiply this product by the constant 10.7 and it will give the circular mils necessary for 1 ohm resistance, multiply this by the amperes and it gives the circular mils necessary for the loss of 1 volt. Divide this last result by the volts lost and it gives the circular mils necessary. Hence the formula A. By simply transposing the terms we obtain formula B, which can be used to determine the volts lost in a given length of wire of certain size carrying a certain number of amperes. Again, by another change in the terms, we obtain formula C, which shows the number of amperes which a wire of given size and length will carry at a given number of volts lost. The table on pages 488, 489 has been arranged for the pur- pose of saving time in the use of these formula. It shows the result of FeetX2Xl0.7 for various distances over which it may be desired to transmit current. A few examples will assist in showing the use of the formula) and tables. Suppose we wish to distribute 300 16-candle-power 3.5 watt lamps of 110 volts at a distance of 490 feet with a loss of 10 per cent: Using formula A, 490 feet X2X 10.7 (find it in table on page 488) = 10.486. 300 lamps of 110 volts = 152. 7 amperes. (See table, page 485, for amperes per lamp and multiply by 300.) 10 per cent loss on 110-volt system = 12.22 volts. (See table on page 491.) 10,486X152.7 amperes = 1,601, 212 circular mils-j- 12.22 volts lost = 131 ,030 circular mils. Table on page 482 shows the size of wire for this number of circular mils to be 00. To check this and determine exactly the volts lost in this circuit by using No. 00 wire, use formula B, as follows: 10,486X152.7 amperes = 1,601, 212-7-133,079 circular mils = 12.03 volts lost. LOSS OF VOLTAGE. 491 00 COrH W IO rH 00 00 oocN'dd^'cocNrHdddododd rHrHINtNCO^lOCOCOr^GOCSO OS O rH O CO rH CO ^f O CO OCO(NOO^OOCOO5CO-*T*iOI^rHl>CO rH 00 IO CO 00 00 CN CO rHTfOSCOlOt^-COlO C^TtHCOGOOCNCOrH iO O O CO CO t^ O CO iOrHt^.^(NOOOOOCNt>'COt>.OOC5OCNTf<^)J>O5t^ rH rH IN CN CO * 00 OS rH CO * CO t^ rHrHrHC^COCO^lOCOt^OOOrHC^COX rHrHrHC^CNCOCO^lOlOt^-t-OOOSCOt- 13 - ! ! te HJ ii I ! a "S >> N CO lOOrHioco I 88 - T-ICOt^OI^^OON i-Hi-Hr-lCr-it^COt>.O>CiOOC!OOOO COlOCCWrH^r-lOOOOOOOO CO^COOiOdOOOOOOOO COCCC5COOlOCO i _ < spunoj '^ OOOT J8d 8 8 jBg p ^ 888 -g # -g WIRING FORMULA AND RULES. 501 Wooden blocks to which insulators are attached must be covered over their entire surface with at least two coats of water-proof paint. c. Must be at least seven feet above the highest point of flat roofs and at least one foot above the ridge of pitched roofs over which they pass or to which they are attached. d. Must be protected by dead insulated guard irons or wires from possibility of contact with other conducting wires or substances to which current may leak. Especial precautions of this kind must be taken where sharp angles occur, or where wires of any other systems might possibly come in contact with electric-light or power wires. e. Must be provided with petticoat insulators of glass or porcelain. Porcelain knobs or cleats or rubber hooks will not be approved. /. Must be so spliced or joined as to be both mechanically and electrically secure without solder. The joints must then be soldered to insure preservation, and covered with an insulation equal to that on the conductors. g. Must, where they enter buildings, have drip loops outside, and the holes through which the conductors pass must be bushed with non-combustible, non-absorptive, insulating tubes, slant- ing upward toward the inside. h. Telegraph, telephone, and other signal wires must not be placed on the same cross-arm with electric-light or power wires, and when placed on the same pole with such wires, the distance between the two inside pins on each cross-arm must not be less than twenty-six inches. i. The metallic sheaths of cables must be permanently and effectively connected to "earth." Trolley Wires. /. Must not be smaller than No. B. & S. gauge copper or No. 4 B. & S. guage silicon bronze, and must r eadily stand the strain put upon them when in use. k. Must have a double insulation from the ground. In wooden pole construction, the pole will be considered as one insulation. I. Must be capable of being disconnected at the power plant, or of being divided into sections, so that in case of fire on the railway route the current may be shut off from the particular section to prevent its interfering with the work of the firemen. This also applies to feeders. m. Must be safely protected against accidental contact where crossed by other conductors. 502 WIRING FORMULA AND RULES. Ground Return Wires. n. For the diminution of electrolytic corrosion of underground metal-work, ground return wires must be so arranged that the difference of potential between the grounded dynamo terminal and any point on the return circuit will not exceed twenty-five volts. Transformers. a. Must not be placed inside of any building, excepting central stations, unless by special permission of the inspection department having jurisdiction. 6. Must not be attached to the outside walls of buildings, unless separated therefrom by substantial supports. Grounding Low-potential Circuits. The grounding of low- potential circuits under the following regulations is only allowed when such circuits are so arranged that under normal condi- tions of service there will be no passage of current over the ground wire. Direct-current Three-wire Systems. a. Neutral wire may be grounded, and when grounded the following rules must be complied with: 1. Must be grounded at the central station on a metal plate buried in coke beneath permanent-moisture level, and also through all available underground water- and gas-pipe systems. 2. In underground systems, the neutral wire must also be grounded at each distributing-box through the box. 3. In overhead systems the neutral wire must be grounded every 500 feet, as provided in c, e, f, and g. Alternating-current Secondary Systems. b. The neutral points of transformers or the neutral wire of distributing systems may be grounded, and when grounded the following rules must be complied with: 1. Transformers feeding two-wire systems must be grounded at the centre of the secondary coils, as provided in d, e, /, and g. 2. Transformers feeding systems with a neutral wire must have the neutral wire grounded as provided in d, e, /, and g at the transformer, and at least every 250 feet for overhead systems and every 500 feet for underground systems. Ground Connections. c. The ground wire in direct-current three-wire systems must not at central stations be smaller than the neutral wire, and smaller than No. 6 B. & S. gauge elsewhere. d. The ground wire in alternating-current systems must never be less than No. 6 B. & S. gauge, and must always have a WIRING FORMULAE AND RULES. 503 carrying capacity equal to that of the secondary lead of the transformer, or the combined leads where transformers are connected in parallel. e. The ground wire must be kept outside of buildings, but may be directly attached to the building or pole. The wire must be carried as nearly in a straight line as possible, and kinks, coils, and sharp bends must be avoided. /. The ground connections for central stations, transformer sub-stations, and banks of transformers must be made through metal plates buried in coke ; below permanent-moisture level, and connection should also be made to all available under- ground piping systems, including the lead sheaths of under- ground cables. g. For individual transformers and building sendees, the ground connection may be made as in F, or may be made to water or other piping systems running into the buildings. This connection may be made by carrying the ground wire into the cellar and connecting on the street side of meters, main cocks, etc., but connection must never be made to any lead pipes which form part of gas services. INSIDE WORK. ALL SYSTEMS AND VOLTAGES. GENERAL RULES. 14. WIRES. (For special cases, see Rules 18, 24, 35, 38, and 39.) a. Must not be of smaller size than No. 14 B. & S. gauge, except as allowed under Rules 24, v and 45, b. b. Tie wires must have an insulation equal to that of the conductors which they confine. c. Must be so spliced or joined as to be both mechanically and electrically secure without solder. The joints must then be soldered to insure preservation, and covered with an insula- tion equal to that on the conductors. Stranded wires must be soldered before being fastened under clamps or binding-screws, and when they have a conductivity greater than that of No. 10 B. & S. gauge copper wire, they must be soldered into lugs. d. Must be separated from contact with walls, floors, timbers, or partitions through which they may pass by non-combustible, 504 WIRING FORMULA AND RULES. non- absorptive, insulating tubes, such as glass or porcelain except as provided in Rule 24, u. e. Must be kept free from contact with gas, water, or other metallic piping, or any other conductors or conducting material which they may cross, by some continuous and firmly fixed non-- conductor, creating a separation of at least one inch. Devia- tions from this rule may sometimes be allowed by special per- mission. /. Must be so placed, in wet places, that an air space will be left between conductors and pipes in crossing, and the former must be run in such a way that they cannot come in contact with the pipe accidentally. Wires should be run over rather than under pipes upon which moisture is likely to gather, or which by leaking might cause trouble on a circuit. 15. Underground Conductors. a. Must be protected against moisture and mechanical injury where brought into a building and all combustible material must be kept removed from the immediate vicinity. b. Must not be so arranged as to shunt the current through a building around any catch-box. 16. Table of Carrying Capacity of Wires. a. The following table, showing the allowable carrying capacity of copper wires and cables of 98 per cent conductivity, according to the stand- ard adopted by the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, must be followed in placing interior conductors. For insulated aluminum wire the safe carrying capacity is 84 per cent of that given in the following tables for copper wire with the same kind of insulation. The lower limit is specified for rubber-covered wires to prevent gradual deterioration of the high insulations by the heat of the wires, but not from fear of igniting the insulation. The question of drop is not taken into consideration in the tables. The carrying capacity for No. 16 and No. 18 wire is given, but no smaller than No. 14 is to be used, except as allowed under Rules 24, v and 45, b. There is a general agreement among those familiar with the effect of heat on rubber, that, if long life is desired, the tempera- ture should not exceed 150 F. In 1889, Mr. A. E. Kennelly made an elaborate series of careful experiments at the Edison Laboratory, to determine the temperature rise caused in wires under different conditions by currents of various strengths. WIRING FORMULA AND RULES. 505 Table A. Table B. Rubber-covered Weather-proof Wires. Wires. See Rule 41. See Rules 42 to 44. B. & S. Gauge. Amperes. Amperes. Circular Mils. 18 3 5 1,624 16 6 8 2,583 14 12 16 4,107 12 17 23 6,530 10 24 32 10,380 8 33 46 16,510 6 46 65 26,250 5 54 77 33,100 4 65 92 41,740 3 76 110 52,630 2 90 131 66,370 1 107 156 83,690 127 185 105,500 00 150 220 133,100 000 177 262 167,800 0000 210 312 211,600 Circular Mils. 200,000 200 300 300,000 270 400 400,000 330 500 500,000 390 590 600,000 450 680 700,000 500 760 800,000 550 840 900,000 600 920 1,000,000 650 1,000 1,100,000 690 1,080 1,200,000 730 1,150 1,300,000 770 1,220 1,400,000 810 1,290 1,500,000 850 1,360 1,600,000 890 1,430 1,700,000 930 1,490 1,800,000 970 1,550 1,900,000 1,010 1,610 2,000,000 1,050. 1,670 The currents given in Table A are about 60 per cent of the currents which Mr. Kennelly found caused a rise of 75 F., or 506 WIRING FORMULA AND RULES. a final temperature of about 150F., assuming 75 F. as the average indoor temperature. This margin of 40 per cent is to allow for inevitable increase of current, such as that produced by the changing from one size lamp to those of a larger candle- power, the adding of more lamps to a circuit, the overloading of a motor, etc. The currents given in Table A cause a rise of temperature of about 29 F. above the surroundings, but varying somewhat with the size of the wire. It is well to remember in this connection that the heating effect increases about as the square of the current, i.e., if the current is doubled, for instance, the heating effect increases four times. The limiting temperature for weather-proof insulation is about the same as for rubber, but a smaller factor of safety is allowable, as the covering on this class of wire is not greatly depended on for insulation, the insulation of the system being secured by the porcelain or glass supports to which the wire is attached. The currents in Table B, therefore, were obtained by taking 90 per cent of the currents which Mr. Kennelly found caused the wire to reach a temperature of 150 F., when the surrounding air was at 75 F. This allows a margin of only 10 per cent instead of the 40 per cent considered necessary in Table A. It is interesting to note that, for any given size of wire, a current about three times as great as that given in Table A causes all ordinary insulations to begin to smoke. Owing to the cooling effect of air-currents, the safe carrying capacity of outdoor conductors may be several times greater than the above, without causing any dangerous rise of tempera- ture. As the conditions will vary so widely, and as such out- door conductors are not at all liable to cause fire, no table has been made for them. The following table shows, to the nearest one-hundredth of an ampere, the current consumed by incandescent lamps of various candle-powers, at the voltages in most common uses This table is figured on the basis of an efficiency of 3.6 watt. per candle-power for the 52-, 104-, and 110-volt lamps, and 4.0 watts per candle-power for the 220- volt lamps. 17 Switches, Cut-outs, Circuit-breakers etc. (For construc- tion requirements, see Rules 51, 52, and 53.) a. Must, whenever called for, unless otherwise provided (for exceptions see Rules 8, c and 22, c), be so arranged that the cut-outs will protect, and the opening of the switches or WIRING FORMULA AND RULES. 507 Volt- age. 8 C.P. 10 C.P. 16 C.P. 20 C.P. 24 C.P. 32 C.P. 50 C.P. 52 .55 .69 1.11 1.38 1.66 2.22 3.46 104 .28 .35 .55 .69 .83 1.11 1.73 110 .26 .33 .52 .65 .78 1.05 1.64 220 .15 .18 .29 .36 .44 .58 .91 circuit-breakers will disconnect, all of the wires; that is, in a two-wire system the two wires, and in a three-wire system the three wires, must be protected by the cut-out and disconnected by the operation of the switch or circuit-breaker. b. Must not be placed in the immediate vicinity of easily ignitable material or where exposed to inflammable gases or dust or to combustible flyings. c. Must, when exposed to dampness, be either inclosed in a water-proof box or mounted on porcelain knobs. CONSTANT-CURRENT SYSTEMS. PRINCIPALLY SERIES ARC LIGHTING. 18. WIRES. a. Must have an approved rubber insulating covering. (See Rule 41.) b. Must be arranged to enter and leave the building through an approved double-contact service switch (see Rule 51, b}, mounted in a non-combustible case, kept free from moisture, and easy of access to police or firemen. c. Must always be in plain sight, and never incased, except when required by the inspection department having jurisdic- tion. d. Must be supported on glass or porcelain insulators which separate the wire at least one inch from the surface wired over, and must be kept rigidly at least eight inches from each other, except within the structure of lamps, on hanger-boards, or in cut-out boxes or like places, where a smaller distance is necessary. e. Must, on side walls, be protected from mechanical injury by a substantial boxing, retaining an air space of one inch around the conductors, closed at the top (the wires passing through bushed holes), and extending not less than seven feet from the floor. When crossing floor-timbers in cellars or rooms, 508 WIRING FORMULAS AND RULES. where they might be exposed to injury, wires must be attached by their insulating supports to the under side of a wooden strip, not less than one-half of an inch in thickness. 19. SERIES ARC LAMPS. (For construction requirements, see Rule 57.) a. Must be carefully isolated from inflammable material. b. Must be provided at all times with a glass globe, sur- rounding the arc and securely fastened upon a closed base. Broken or cracked globes must not be used. c. Must be provided with a wire netting (having a mesh not exceeding one and one-fourth inches) around the globe, and an approved spark-arrester (see Rule 58), when readily inflam- mable material is in the vicinity of the lamps, to prevent the escape of sparks of melted copper or carbon. It is recom- mended that plain carbons, not copper-plated, be used for lamps in such places. d. Where hanger-boards (see Rule 56) are not used, lamps must be hung from insulating supports other than their con- ductors. 20. INCANDESCENT LAMPS IN SERIES CIRCUITS. a. Must have the conductors installed as required in Rule 18, and each lamp must be provided with an automatic cut-out. 6. Must have each lamp suspended from a hanger-board by means of a rigid tube. c. No electromagnetic device for switches and no multiple- series or series-multiple system of lighting will be approved. d. Must not, under any circumstances, be attached to gas fixtures. CONSTANT-POTENTIAL SYSTEMS. GENERAL RULES ALL VOLTAGES. 21. AUTOMATIC CUT-OUTS. Fuses and Circuit-breakers. (For construction requirements, see Rules 52 and 53.) (See also Rule 17.) a. Must be placed on all service wires, either overhead or underground, as near as possible to the point where they enter the building, and inside the walls, and arranged to cut off the entire current from the building. b. Must be placed at every point where a change is made WIRING FORMULA AND RULES. 509 in the size of wire, unless the cut-out in the larger wire will protect the smaller. (See Rule 16.) c. Must be in plain sight, or inclosed in an approved box (see Rule 54), and readily accessible. They must not be placed in the canopies or shells of fixtures. d. Must be so placed that no set of incandescent lamps requiring more than 660 watts, whether grouped on one fix- ture or on several fixtures or pendants, will be dependent upon one cut-out. Special permission may be given in writing by the inspection department having jurisdiction for departure from this rule in the case of large chandeliers, stage borders, and illuminated signs. e. The rated capacity of fuses must not exceed the allow- able carrying capacity of the wire as given in Rule 16. Cir- cuit-breakers must not be set more than 30 per cent above the allowable carrying capacity of the wire unless a fusible cut- out is also installed in the circuit. 22. SWITCHES. a. Must be placed on all service wires, either overhead or underground, in a readily accessible place, as near as possible to the point where the wires enter the building and arrange to cut off the entire circuit. b. Must always be placed in dry, accessible places, and should be grouped as far as possible. Knife switches must be so placed that gravity will tend to open rather than to close them. c. Must not be single-pole when the circuits which they control supply devices which require over 660 watts of energy, or when the difference of potential is over 300 volts. d. Where flush switches are used, whether with conduit sys- tems or not, they must be inclosed in boxes constructed of or lined with fire-resisting material. No push-buttons for bells, gas-lighting circuits, or the like shall be placed in the same wall plate with switches controlling electric-light or power wiring. e. Where possible, at all switch or fixture outlets, a seven- eighths-inch block must be fastened between studs or floor- timbers, flush with the back of lathing, to hold tubes and to support switches or fixtures. When this cannot be done, wooden base blocks not less than three-fourths of an inch in thickness, securely screwed to lathing, must be provided for switches, and also for fixtures which are not attached to gas- pipes or conduit tubing. 510 WIRING FORMULAE AND RULES. 23. ELECTRIC HEATERS. a. Must, if stationary, be placed in a safe situation, isolated from inflammable materials, and must be treated as sources of heat. b. Must each have a cut-out and an indicating switch. (See Rule 17, a.) c. The attachments of feed wires to the heaters must be in plain sight, easily accessible, and protected from interfer- ence, accidental or otherwise. d. The flexible conductors for portable apparatus, such as irons, etc., must have an approved insulating covering. (See Rule 45, g.) e. Must each be provided with a name-plate, giving the maker's name and the normal capacity in volts and amperes. LOW-POTENTIAL SYSTEMS, 550 VOLTS OR LESS. Any circuit attached to any machine or combination of machines which develops a difference of potential between any two wires of over 10 volts and less than 550 volts shall be considered as a low- potential circuit and as coming under this class, unless an ap- proved transforming device is used which cuts the difference of potential down to 10 volts or less. The potential difference on the primary circuit must not exceed 3500 volts. Before pressure is raised above 300 volts on any previously exist- ing system of wiring, the whole must be strictly brought up to all of the requirements of the rules at date. 24. WIRES. GENERAL RULES. (See also Rules 14, 15, and 16.) a. Must be so arranged that under no circumstances will there be a difference of potential of over 300 volts between any bare metal parts in any distributing switch or cut-out cabinet or equiva- lent centre of distribution. b. Must not be laid in plaster, cement, or similar finish, and must never be fastened with staples. c. Must not be fished for any great distance, and only in places where the inspector can satisfy himself that the rules have been complied with. d. Twin wires must never be used, except in conduits or where flexible conductors are necessary. /. When run immediately under roofs or in proximity to water tanks or pipes will be considered as exposed to moisture. WIRING FORMULA AND RULES. 511 SPECIAL RULES FOR OPEN WORK. IN DRY PLACES. g. Must have an approved rubber or "slow- burning weather-proof" insulation. (See Rules 41 and 42.) h. Must be rigidly supported on non-combustible, non-absorp- tive insulators, which will separate the wires from each other and from the surface wired over in accordance with the following table: VnUawo Distance from Distance between oltage ' Surface. Wires. to 300 | inch 2 inch 300 to 550 1 " 4 " Rigid supporting requires, under ordinary conditions, where wiring along flat surfaces, supports at least every four and one- half feet. If the wires are liable to be disturbed, the distance between supports should be shortened. In buildings of mill con- struction, mains of Xo. 8 B. & S. gauge wire or over, where not liable to be disturbed, may be separated about four inches and run from timber to timber, not breaking around, and may be supported at each timber only. This rule will not be interpreted to forbid the placing of the neutral of an Edison three-wire system in the centre of a three- wire cleat where the difference of potential between the outside wires is not over 300 volts, provided the outside wires are sepa- rated two and one-half inches. In damp places, such as breweries, sugar-houses, packing- houses, stables, dye-houses, paper-mills, pulp-mills, or other buildings especially liable to moisture or to acid or other fumes which might injure the wires or their insulation: i. Must have an approved rubber insulating covering. (See Rule 41.) /. Must be rigidly supported on non-combustible, non-absorp- tive insulators which separate the wire at least one inch from the surface wired over, and must be kept apart at least two and one-half inches for voltages up to 300, and four inches for higher voltages. k. Must have no joints or splices. FOR MOULDING WORK. ?. Must have an approved rubber insulating covering. (See Rule 41.) 512 WIRING FORMULA AND RULES. m. Must never be placed in moulding in concealed or damp places, or where the difference of potential between any two wires in the same moulding is over 300 volts. FOR CONDUIT WORK. n. Must have an approved rubber insu- lating covering. (See Rule 47.) o. Must not be drawn in until all the mechanical work on the building has, as far as possible, been completed. p. Must, for alternating-current systems, have the two or more wires of a circuit drawn into the same conduit. FOR CONCEALED KNOB AND TUBE WORK. q. Must have an approved rubber insulating covering. (See Rule 41.) r. Must be rigidly supported on non-combustible, non-absorp- tive insulators which separate the wire at least one inch from the surface wired over. Must be kept at least ten inches apart, and, when possible, should be run singly on separate timbers or stud- dings. Must be separated from contact with the walls, floor- timbers, and partitions through which they may pass by non- combustible,- non-absorptive insulating tubes, such as glass or porcelain. s. When from the nature of the case it is impossible to place concealed wiring on non-combustible supports of glass or porce- lain, an approved armored cable with single or twin conductors (see Rule 48) may be used, where the difference of potential between conductors is not over 300 volts, provided i't is installed without joints between outlets, and that the cable armor prop- erly enters all fittings and is rigidly secured in place; or, if the difference of potential between wires is not over 300 volts, and if the wires are not exposed to moisture, they may be fished on the loop system if separately incased throughout in approved flexible conduits. t. Conduit used for mixed "concealed knob and tube" and " conduit" work must be continuous from outlet to outlet, and must comply throughout with rules for conduit work. (See Rules 24, n to 24, p, and 25.) u. Must, at outlets for combination fixtures, be bushed with approved flexible insulating tubes, extending in continuous lengths from the last porcelain support to one inch beyond the outlet, except that an approved outlet insulator may be used. At outlets where there are no gas-pipes, either this class of con- struction or porcelain bushing tubes may be used. v. Must have an approved rubber insulating covering (see Rule 46), and must not be smaller than No^ 18 B. & S. gauge. WIRING FORMULA AND RULES. 513 w. Supply conductors, and especially the splices to fix- ture wires, must be kept clear of the grounded part of gas- pipes, and where shells or outlet boxes are used, they must be made sufficiently large to allow the fulfilment of this require- ment. x. Must, when fixtures are wired outside, be so secured as not to be cut or abraded by the pressure of the fastenings or motion of the fixture. 25. INTERIOR CONDUITS. a. No conduit tube having an internal diameter of less than five-eighths of an inch shall be used. With lined conduit, this measurement is to be taken inside the metal tube. b. Must be continuous from one junction box to another, or to fixtures, and the conduit tube must properly enter all fittings. c. Must first be installed as a complete conduit system, without the conductors. d. Must be equipped at every outlet with an approved out- let box or plate. e. Metal conduits, where they enter the junction boxes, and at all other outlets, etc., must be supplied with a capping of approved material, fitted so as to protect the wire from abrasion. /. The metal of the conduit must be permanently and effectually grounded. 26. FIXTURES. (See also Rules 22, e, and 24, v to 24, x.} a. Must, when supported from the gas-piping or any grounded metal-work of a building, be insulated from such piping or metal-work by means of approved insulating joints (see Rule 59) placed as close as possible to the ceiling. b. Must have all burrs, or fins, removed before the con- ductors are drawn into the fixtures. c. Must be tested for "contacts" between conductors and fixtures, for "short circuits" and for ground connections, before they are connected to their supply conductors. 27. SOCKETS. (For construction requirements, see Rule 55.) a. In rooms where inflammable gases may exist, the incan- descent lamp and the socket must be inclosed in a vapor-tight globe and supported on a pipe-hanger, wired with approved rubber-covered wire (see Rule 41) soldered directly to the cir- cuit. b. In damp or wet places, or over especially inflammable material, water-proof sockets must be used. 514 HEATING. 28. FLEXIBLE CORD. a. Must have an approved insulation and covering. (See Rule 45, c.) b. Must not be used where the difference of potential between the two wires is over 300 volts. c. Must not be used as a support for clusters. d. Must not be used except for pendants, portable lamps, or motors, and portable heating apparatus. e. Must not be used in show windows. /. Must be protected by insulating bushings where it enters the socket. g. Must be so suspended that the entire weight of the socket and lamp will be borne by knots under the bushing in the socket and above the point where the cord comes through the ceiling block or rosette, in order that the strain may be taken from the joints and binding screws. 29. ARC LIGHTS ON CONSTANT-POTENTIAL CIRCUITS. a. Must have a cut-out (see Rule 17, a) for each lamp or each series of lamps. 6. All resistances or regulators must be inclosed in non- combustible material and must be treated as sources of heat. Incandescent lamps must not be used for this purpose. c. Must be supplied with globes and protected by spark- arresters and wire netting around the globe, as in the case of series arc lamps. (See Rules 19 and 58.) 30. ECONOMY COILS. a. Economy and compensator coils for arc lamps must be mounted on non-combustible, non-absorp- tive insulating supports, such as glass or porcelain, allowing an air space of at least one inch between frame and support, and must, in general, be treated as sources of heat. Soldering Fluid. The following formula for soldering fluid for electric wires is recommended by the National Board of Fire Underwriters, in the "National Electrical Code": Saturated solution of zinc chloride 5 parts. Alcohol 4 parts. Glycerine 1 part. Heating". During the progress of this part of the work, the superintendent must pay strict attention to the running of pipes, location of valves, registers, radiators, etc. HEATING. 515 If the system to be used is a simple hot-air system, he must see that all hot-air pipes are run as direct as possible to their respective outlets; there should be as few bends or angles as possible, and where a turn is made it should be done with an easy elbow and not with a square turn, as is often done. He should see that the pipes are so run that there will be no woodwork close enough to them to cause danger from fire. LOCATION OF REGISTERS. The bottom register when placed in the wall of a room should be just high enough to clear the base, and the one at the ceiling just low enough to clear the cornice or border. A more evenly heated room will be the result if the registers are placed in an outside wall than if placed in an inside wall, but this point is often ignored, as it requires more pipe, and the hot-air pipes in the wall have to be covered to prevent the escape of the heat. He should see that the outlets of all hot-air or vent pipes are so arranged that the register plate can be fastened on with- out any trouble, and he should also see that the flange of the outlet projects just far enough to receive the plaster; work- men are usually very careless regarding this point and often leave the flange project too far, and the plasterer will work to it and thus make a crooked job of plastering. STEAM OR HOT-WATER SYSTEMS. When either of the aboves systems are used the superintendent must see that the pipes are run and given the proper fall from the radiators, to carry back to the boiler the condensed steam, or the cold water. In a one-pipe system, which is the simplest form of steam heating, there is but one line of pipe from the boiler to the radiators and this pipe must be given fall enough to carry back the con- densed steam. In the two-pipe system there are two lines of pipes, and the steam or hot water makes a circuit through the radiator and back to the boiler in the return pipe. The superintendent must see that valves are placed where called for, or shown on the drawings, and he should see that all valves used are the full capacity or of equal area of the pipe which they control. In taking branch lines from the main they should always be taken from the top of the pipe so that all drippings or con- densation can run back without trapping the pipe. All radiator connections, and all T or branch outlets, should 516 HEATING. be plugged or capped as soon as put in place to prevent any dirt from getting in the pipe and possibly damaging the valves. In running all pipes care must be taken to provide for expan- sion and contraction, and suitable provision made so there will be no danger of breaking a pipe or connection. After the piping is all in place it should be tested before being covered up; this should be done by filling the pipes full of water and applying pressure with a force-pump to 100 or 150 pounds, then if possible a steam test should be made before covering the pipes. All hot-water or steam pipes should be kept clear of all woodwork or other combustible material by about 4 inches. PRESSURE OF SYSTEMS. The high-pressure system is applied with steam at any pressure over 10 pounds. The low-pressure system is operated with a pressure of from 2 to 5 pounds. LOCATION OF RADIATORS. Radiators should always be placed at outside walls, and near or under the window, so as to counter- act the entrance of the cold air at the window. This will give a more even temperature in the room than if the radiator were located at the other side of the room. In piping for a hot-water system all bends and angles should be made as easy as possible so as to prevent friction. DATA FOR HOT-WATER HEATING. TABLE OF RATIOS. -T. ir One Square Foot of Radiating Dwellings. Surface will Heat Living-rooms, one side exposed 30 cubic feet. ' ' , two sides exposed 28 " , three sides exposed 28 Sleeping-room From 30 to 40 Hall-room " 20 " 30 Bath-room " 20" 30 " Public Buildings. School-rooms " 30" 50 " " Offices " 30" 50 " " Factories " 50 ' 70 " " Stores " 60" 70 " " Auditoriums " 80 'MOO " " Churches " 80 100 " ' HEATING. 517 The above ratios are for direct heating and an average tempera- ture of 163 Fahr. in the water. If indirect radiators are used, allow not less than 50 per cent more surface and for direct-indirect 25 per cent more. Due care must be exercised to provide for any special condi- tions, such as exposure of buildings, material of construction, location and length and size of mains governing plant under con- sideration. Allowances should also be made for loose construction of doors and windows, which admit large volumes of cold air, and pro- vide for outside doors which are used frequently and open di- rectly into the room. In estimating the radiating surface, it should be borne in mind that a large surface at a comparatively low temperature gives a much pleasanter atmosphere than a small surface at a high temperature. LIST OF SIZES OF HOT-WATER MAINS. Radiation. 75 square feet 1 inch pipe. 75 to 125 " " 1" " 125 " 175 " " 1J " " 175 " 300 " " 2 " " 300" 475 " " 2% " " 475 " 700 " " 3 " " 700" 950 " ." 3 " " 950 " 1200 " " 4 " " 1200 " 1575 " " 4J " 1575 " 1975 " " 5 " " 1975 " 2375 " " 5 " " 2375 " 2S50 " " 6 " " Inch Mains. Branches. 1 will supply two f in. -i i < c ft ''1 " 1J " " " li" 2 " " " 1%" 2% " " " 1J " and one U in., or one 2 in. and one 1 Jin. 3 " " one 2^ " and one 1 in., or two 2 in. and one 1J in. 3i " " two 2 " or one 3 in. and one 2 in., or three 2 in. 4 " " one 3J " and one 2 in., or two 3 in., or four 2 in. 4J " " " 3| " and one 3 in., or one 4 in. and one 2 in. 5 " " "4 " and one 3 in., or one 4 J in. and one 2| in. 6 " " two 4 ' ' and one 3 in., or four 3 in. or ten 2 in. 7 ' ' " one 6 ' ' and one 4 in., or two 4 in. and one 2 in. 8 " ' ' two 6 ' ' and one 5 in., or five 4 in. and two 2 in. 518 HEATING BY STEAM. APPROXIMATE NUMBER OF CUBIC FEET OF AIR ONE SQUARE FOOT OF RADIATION WILL HEAT. (NASON.) One Square Foot of Radiating Surface will Heat with In Dwellings, Schoolrooms, Offices, etc. Cubic Feet. In Halls, Stores, Lofts, Factories, etc. Cubic Feet. In Churches, Large Audi- toriums, etc. Cubic Feet. Direct-steam radiation. . 60 to 80 75 to 100 150 to 200 Indirect-steam radiation High temperature, direct hot- water radiation Low temperature, direct hot- water radiation High temperature, indirect hot- water radiation Low temperature, indirect hot- water radiation 40 to 50 50 to 70 30 to 50 30 to 60 20 to 40 50 to 70 65 to 90 35 to 65 35 to 75 25 to 50 100 to 140 130 to 180 70 to 130 70 to 150 50 to 100 The above proportions will give a temperature in the buildings described of 70 Fahr., the thermometer being at zero in the outside atmosphere. While there is no iron-clad rule for computing the proper amount of radiation for heating buildings owing to the variable conditions that enter into the calculation, the above table will prove valuable if allowances are made for extreme cases. It is well to remember that small rooms, rooms with large window surfaces or exposed sides, and rooms with exception- ally thick walls or fire-proof tiling require more radiating surface in proportion to space than is ordinarily needed. Frame build- ings require more radiation than stone, and stone more than brick. The following rules regarding heating by steam are given by Babcock & Wilcox : Heating by Steam. In heating buildings by steam, the amount of boiler and heating pipes depends largely on the kind of building and its location. Wooden buildings require more than stone, and stone more than brick. Iron fronts require still more, and glass in windows demands twenty times as much heat as the same surface in brick walls. Also if the heating be done by indirect radiation from 50 to 100 per cent more sur- face will be required than when direct radiation is used. -No rules can be given which will not require a liberal application of "the coefficient of common sense." Radiating surface may be calculated by the rule: Add together the square feet of glass in the windows, the number of cubic feet of air required to be changed per minute, and one-twentieth the HEATING BY STEAM. 519 surface of external wall and roof; multiply this sum by the differ- ence between the required temperature of the room and that of the external air at its lowest point and divide the product by the differ- ence in temperature between the steam in the pipes and the required temperature of the room. The quotient is the required radiating surface in square feet. Each square foot of radiating surface may be depended upon in average practice to give out three heat-units per hour for each degree of difference in tempera- ture between the steam inside and the air outside, the range under different conditions being about 50 per cent above or below that figure. In indirect heating the efficiency of the radiating surface will increase, and the temperature of the air will diminish, when the quantity of the air caused to pass through the coil increases. Trius one square foot radiating surface, with steam at 212, has been found to heat 100 cubic feet of air per hour from zero to 150, or 300 cubic feet from zero to 100 in the same time. The best results are attained by using indirect radiation to supply the necessary ventilation, and direct radiation for the balance of the heat. The best place for a radiator in a room is beneath a window. Heated air cannot be made to enter a room unless means are provided for permitting an equal amount to escape. The best place for such exit openings is near the floor. Small pipes are more effective than large. When the diameter is doubled, 20 per cent additional surface should be allowed, and for three times the diameter 30 per cent additional is required. For indirect radiation that surface is most efficient which secures the most intimate contact of the current of air with the heated surface. Rooms on windward side of house require more radi- ating surface than those on sheltered side. Where the condensed water is returned to the boiler, or where low pressure of steam is used, the diameter of mains leading from the boiler to the radiating surface should be equal, in inches, to one-tenth the square root of the radiating surface, mains in- cluded, in square feet. Thus a 1-inch pipe will supply 100 square feet of surface, itself included. Return pipes should be at least f inch in diameter, and never less than one-half the diam- eter of the main longer returns requiring larger pipes. A thorough drainage of steam-pipes will effectually prevent all cracking and pounding noises therein. 520 HEATING BY STEAM. The amount of air required for ventilation is from 4 to 16 cubic feet per minute for each* person, the larger amount being for prisons and hospitals. From J to 1 cubic foot per minute should be allowed for each lamp or gas-burner employed. One square foot of boiler surface will supply from 7 to 10 square feet of radiating surface, depending upon the size of boiler and the efficiency of its surface, as well as that of the radiating surface. Small boilers for house use should be much larger proportionately than large plants. Each horse-power of boiler will supply from 240 to 380 feet of 1-inch steam-pipe, or from 80 to 120 square feet of radiating surface. Cubic feet of space has little to do with amount of steam or surface required, but is a convenient factor for rough calcula- tions. Under ordinary conditions one horse-power will heat, approximately, in Brick dwellings, in blocks, as in cities. . . 15,000 to 20,000 cu. ft. Brick stores, in blocks 10,000 to 15,000 cu. ft. Brick dwellings, exposed all round 10,000 to 15,000 cu. ft. Brick mills, shops, factories, etc 7,000 to 10,000 cu. ft. Wooden dwellings, exposed 7,000 to 10,000 cu. ft. Foundries and wooden shops 6,000 to 10,000 cu. ft. Exhibition buildings, largely glass, etc. 4,000 to 15,000 cu. ft. The system of heating mills and manufactories by means of pipes placed overhead is being largely adopted, and is recom- mended by the Boston Manufacturers' Mutual Fire Insurance Company, in preference to radiators near the floor, particularly for rooms in which there are shafting and belting to circulate the air. In heating buildings care should be taken to supply the necessary moisture to keep the air from becoming "dry" and uncomfortable. The capacity of air for moisture rises rapidly as it is heated, it being four times as great at 72 as at 32. For comfort, air should be kept at about "50 per cent saturated." This would require one pound of vapor to be added to each 2,500 cubic feet heated from 32 to 70. A much-needed attachment has recently been introduced, which acts automatically upon the steam-valves of the radiators, or upon the hot-air registers and ventilators, and maintains the temperature in a room to within one-half a degree of any standard desired. HEATING BY STEAM. 521 A "separator" acting by centrifugal force has been recently tested, and is very efficient, in trapping out all the water en- trained in steam. It will be found valuable, particularly where the steam has to be carried a long distance from the boiler, and for the purpose of preventing "hammering" of water in the pipes. RESISTANCE TO FLOW BY BENDS, VALVES, ETC. Mr. Briggs states in "Warming Buildings by Steam," that the resist- ance at the entrance to a pipe consists of two parts, namely, v 2 the head, , which is necessary to create the velocity of flow and the head, 0.505, which overcomes the resistance to en- "JgF trance offered by the mouth of the pipe. The total loss of head v 2 at entrance then equals the sum of these, or 1.505 , in which v= velocity of flow of steam in the pipe, in feet per second, and g= acceleration due to gravity, or 32.2. The Babcock & Wilcox Company state in "Steam" that the resistance at the opening and that at a globe valve are each about the same as that caused by an additional length of straight pipe, as computed by the formula A , ,.,. ,, ,, . . 1 14 X diameter of pipe Additional length of pipe = S , 1+ (3. 6 ^diameter) ' from which has been computed the following table: Diameter in inches 2 7 2* in 3 13 3* 16 4 20 5 28 6 36 7 44 8 10 12 15 18 20 22 24 Additional length, feet 53 70 88 115 143 162 181 200 The resistance to flow at a right-angled elbow is about equal to f that of a globe valve. The above values are to be considered as being only approxi- mations to the truth. Example. Find the discharge from a steam-pipe when the given length = 120 feet and the diameter =8 inches, the pipe containing 6 right-angled elbows and two globe valves, the pressure at the two ends being respectively 105 and 103 pounds per square inch gauge. 522 HEATING BY STEAM. The resistance to entrance, from the above table, for 8-inch pipe =53 feet; the resistance of 6 elbows = 6 X 53 Xf = 212 feet; the resistance of two globe valves = 2X53 = 106 feet; making a total resistance = 53 + 212+ 106 =371 feet of additional length of pipe. Therefore the steam would encounter the same resist- ance flowing through a straight 8-inch pipe whose length equals 120 + 371, or 491 feet, as it would in flowing through the given pipe with its various resistances. Then in the formula W = L=491 feet; p =105 pounds per square inch; p 2 = 103 pounds per square inch; d=8 inches; c, for an 8-inch pipe, =60.7; and w, from table of Properties of Saturated Steam, =0.27. Substituting in formula we get 491 The pipe, then, under the stated conditions, would dis- charge approximately 364 pounds of steam per minute, or 21,800 pounds per hour; which, on the basis of 30 pounds per horse-power hour, would have a capacity of 728 boiler horse-powers. Since one pound of steam at 104 pounds gauge has a volume of 3.7 cubic feet, the pipe would discharge 1,350 cubic feet per minute, or 81,000 cubic feet per hour. NON-CONDUCTING COVERINGS FOR STEAM-PIPES. A bare pipe carrying steam, and made of iron, steel, or other conducting mate- rial, loses heat by convection to the surrounding air and by radiation to the surrounding objects, both of which cause a loss of steam by condensation. This loss is lessened in practice by covering the outer surface of the steam-pipe with a material that will offer a greater resist- ance to the flow of heat than that offered by the material of the pipe. A good material for this purpose should not suffer serious deterioration from the heat or vibration to which it would be subjected in practice; and in aii cases where damage from fire might result, it should never consist of combustible matter. Under the conditions of practice, especially jn places where il HEATING BY STEAM. 523 may become damp, a good pipe covering should consist of mate- rials that will not rapidly deteriorate, and should contain nothing that will seriously corrode the pipe. Since air does not take up heat by radiation, but receives heat by contact with a hot body only, it would appear that the greater the porosity of a material that is, the greater the per- centage of volume of finely divided air it contains the greater will be its non-conducting qualities. This is noticeably the case in the commercial pipe coverings that consist substantially of the same materials, when these materials contain different per- centages of still air. In every case the more porous the mate- rial, other things being equal, the greater will be its non-con- ducting properties. The following table contains averages made up from results obtained by a number of carefully conducted tests, and repre- sent approximately what may be expected when these materials are properly applied as steam-pipe coverings in practice. The table gives the quantity of heat transmitted through covered steam-pipes, when that transmitted through a naked pipe is taken as 100, the covering, except where otherwise indicated, being one inch thick. ~K i'nri nt rwarinn Relative Amount of Covering. Heat Transmitted . Naked pipe 100 Hair-felt, asbestos lined and canvas covered 16 to 18 Wool felt, " " " " " 20 " 22 Two layers of asbestos paper 70 " SO Four " " " " 45 " 55 Asbestos mixed with some plaster of Paris 28 l ' 34 Magnesia mixed with a little asbestos fibre, canvas cov- ered 18 " 20 Best mineral wool, lined and canvas covered 18 " 20 Pipe painted with black asphaltum about 105 " " " white glossy paint " 95 For coverings having values less than 25 in the above table, the values for thicknesses of covering of 1 and 2 inches (those in the table being for 1 inch, as noted) may be approximately obtained by multiplying respectively by 0.78 and 0.58. Thus a pipe covered with magnesia and canvas covered would trans- mit an amount, if 1$ inches thick, = (18 to 20) X 0.78 = 14 to 15.5; and if 2 inches thick an amount = (18 to 20) X 0.58 = 10.5 to 11.5, 524 STEAM. that transmitted by a similar bare pipe being 100 in the same length of time. The following table gives the result of tests made by G. B. Dunford, of Hamilton, Ont., of various materials in regard to their quality as a non-conductor of heat. Combination of asbestos, hair-felt, air space, and wood 100 per cent. Asbestos and hair-felt chopped and mixed with lime putty 87 " " A plastic cement manufactured by parties at Troy, N. Y., with inch hair-felt outside . . 86 . 6 ' ' " Paper pulp mixed with lime putty, 1 inch, cov- ered with sheeting of wood pulp 85 " ' ' Mineral wool cased with wood 81 " " Mineral wool cased with sheet iron 79 " " Charcoal . 60 " " Sawdust 41 " " Loam and chopped straw sealed with wood. ... 32 " " Asbestos 29 " " Coal ashes 24 " " Airspace..... 20 " " Fire-brick 15 '" " Redbrick 12 " " Sand 9.3 " " Steam. Under the ordinary atmospheric pressure of 14.7 pounds per square inch, water boils at 212 F., passing off as steam, the temperature at which it boils varying with a variation in the pressure. DRY STEAM is steam not containing any free moisture. It may be either saturated or superheated. WET STEAM is steam containing free moisture in the form of spray or mist, and has the same temperature as dry satu- rated steam of the same pressure. SATURATED STEAM is steam in its normal state, that is, steam whose temperature is that due its pressure; by which is meant steam at the same temperature as that of the water from which it was generated and upon which it rests. SUPERHEATED STEAM is steam at a temperature above that due to its pressure. A BRITISH THERMAL UNIT is the quantity of heat required STEAM. 525 to raise one pound of water at 39. 1 F. through one degree of temperature. THE TOTAL HEAT OF THE WATER is the number of British thermal units needed to raise one pound of water from 32 F. to the boiling-point under the given pressure. THE LATENT HEAT OF STEAM is the number of British thermal units required to convert one pound of water, at 'the boiling- point into steam of the same temperature. THE TOTAL HEAT OF SATURATED STEAM is the number of heat- units required to raise a pound of water from 32 F. to the boiling-point, at the given pressure, plus the number required to evaporate the water at that temperature. THE SPECIFIC HEAT OF STEAM is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of steam through one degree of temperature. In British units and near the satura- tion temperature it equals, at constant pressure, 0.48. THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF STEAM at any temperature and pressure, as compared with air of same temperature and pres- sure, is approximately 0.622. One cubic inch of water evapo- rated into steam at 212 F. becomes 1646 cubic inches, that is, nearly 1 cubic foot. Water in contact with saturated steam has the same tem- perature as the steam itself. Water introduced into super- heated steam will be vaporized until the steam becomes satu- rated and its temperature becomes that due its pressure. Cold water, or water at a lower temperature than that of the steam, introduced into saturated steam will condense some of it, thus lowering both the temperature and pressure of the rest until the temperature again equals that due its pressure. USEFUL RULES AND INFORMATION. Steam, A cubic inch of water evaporated under ordinary atmospheric pressure is con- verted into 1 cubic foot of steam (approximately). The specific gravity of steam (at atmospheric pressure) is 0.411 that of air at 34 Fahr., and 0.0006 that of water at the same temperature. 27,222 cubic feet of steam weigh 1 pound; 13,817 cubic feet of air weigh 1 pound. Locomotives average a consumption of 3,000 gallons of water per 100 miles run. The best-designed boilers, well set, with good draft and skil- ful firing, will evaporate from 7 to 10 pounds of water per pound of first-class coal. 526 STEAM. In calculating horse-power of tubular or flue boilers, consider 15 square feet of heating surface equivalent to one nominal horse-power. On 1 square foot of grate can be burned on an average from 10 to 12 pounds of hard coal, or 18 to 20 pounds of soft coal, per hour, with natural draft. With forced draft nearly double these amounts can be burned. Steam-engines, in economy, vary from 14 to 60 pounds of feed- water and from 1J to 7 pounds of coal per hour per indicated horse-power. See table below for duty of high-grade engines. Condensing-engines require from 20 to 30 gallons of water, at an average low temperature, to condense the steam represented by every gallon of water evaporated in the boilers supplying engines approximately for most engines, we say, from 1 to 1| gallons condensing water per minute per indicated horse-power. Surface condensers should have about 2 square feet of tube (cooling) surface per horse-power for a compound steam-engine. Ordinary engines will require more surface according to their economy in the use of steam. It is absolutely necessary to place air-pumps below condensers to get satisfactory results. RATIO OF VACUUM TO TEMPERATURE (FAHRENHEIT) OF FEED- WATER. 00 inches vacuum 212 11 " " 190 18 ".'.' " 170 22 " " 150 25* " " 135 27J " " 112 28 " " 92 29 " " 72 29J " " 52 WEIGHT AND COMPARATIVE FUEL VALUE OF WOOD. 1 cord air-dried hickory or hard maple weighs about 4500 pounds, and is equal to about 2000 pounds coal. 1 cord air-dried white oak weighs about 3850 pounds, and is equal to about 1715 pounds coal. 1 cord air-dried beech, red oak, or black oak weighs about 3250 pounds, and is equal to about 1450 pounds coal. * Usually considered the standard point of efficiency condenser and air- pump being well proportioned. STEAM. 527 1 cord air-dried poplar (whitewood), chestnut, or elm weighs about 2350 pounds, and is equal to about 1050 pounds coal. 1 cord air-dried average pine weighs about 2000 pounds, and is equal to about 925 pounds coal. From the above it is safe to assume that 1\ pounds of dry- wood is equal to 1 pound average quality of soft coal, and that the full value of the same weight of different woods is very nearly the same that is, a pound of hickory is worth no more for fuel than a pound of pine, assuming both to be dry. It is important that the wood be dry, as each 10 per cent of water or moisture in wood will detract about 12 per cent from its value as fuel. PIPE DATA. S'o g gi ro J ^2 4> a o * 'SI <0 .2 "08 SdJa fcfc 1 c o | jj ll 1 M i! a> C rH O^*-< a; be III cc S o s*^ S| SI S *J s^; il SM IS gp< 111 |s^ fi^ V bl *= 0} o a ll jl a i i ^ i .3048 2.652 4.502 .221 .0102 1 0.84 14 i .5333 3.299 3.637 .274 .0230 i 1.126 14 i .8627 4.134 2.903 .344 .0408 1 1.670 HI H 1.496 5.215 2.301 .434 .0638 1 2.258 HI il 2.038 5.969 2.010 .497 .0918 11 2.694 HI 2 3.355 7.461 1.611 .621 .1632 2 3.667 111 21 4.783 9.032 1.328 .752 .2550 21 5.773 8 3 7.368 10.99 1.091 .916 .3673 3 7.547 8 31 9.837 12.56 .955 1.044 .4998 31 9.055 8 4 12.730 14.13 .849 1.178 .6528 4 10.728 8 41 15.939 15.70 .765 1.309 .8263 4112.492 8 5 19.990 17.47 .629 1.656 1 . 0200 5 14.564 8 6 28.889 20.81 .577 1.733 1 . 5500 6 18.767 8 DUTY OF STEAM-ENGINES. A well-known engineer of high authority gives the following comparative figures, showing the economy of high-grade steam-engines in actual practice : Type of Engine. Non-condensing Condensing Compound jacketed Triple-expansion jacketed. 2 3 Bj B-a i 210 100 100 100 2 > 3 o W aoo 10.5 9.4 9.4 9.4 00 o:^ 2.75 2.12 1.81 1.44 528 STEAM. The effect of a good condenser and air-pump should be to make available about 10 pounds more mean effective pressure with the same terminal pressure; or to give the same mean effective pressure with a correspondingly less terminal pressure. When the load on the engine requires 20 pounds M.E.P., the condenser does half the work; at 30 pounds, one- third of the work; at 40 pounds, one-fourth, and so on. It is safe to assume that practically the condenser will save from one-fourth to one- third of the fuel, and it can be applied to any engine, cut-off, or throttling where a sufficient supply of water is available. DATA FOR STEAM HEATING. Under ordinary conditions, one square foot of direct radiating surface will heat approximately in Bathroom, living-room, with two or three expo- sures and large amount of glass 40 cu. ft. Living-room, one or two exposures, with large amount of glass 50 cu. ft. Living-room, one exposure, amount of glass . . 60 cu. ft. Sleeping-rooms . 55 to 70 cu. ft. Halls 50 to 70 cu. ft. Schoolrooms 60 to 80 cu. ft. Churches and auditoriums of large cubic con- tents and high ceilings 65 to 103 cu. ft. Lofts, workshops, and factories 75 to 150 cu. ft. If indirect radiators are used, allow not less than 50 percent more surface than for direct, and for direct indirect, 25 per cent more. In estimating the radiating surface make due allowance for exposure of building, material of construction, location, length and size of main location and capacity of boiler, also loose con- struction of doors and windows. COMPARISON OF THERMOMETRIC SCALES. To convert the degrees of Centigrade into those of Fahrenheit, multiply by 9 divide by 5, and add 32. To convert degrees of Centigrade into those of Reaumur, mul- tiply by 4 and divide by 5. To convert degrees of Fahrenheit into those of Centigrade, deduct 32, multiply by 5, and divide by 9. To convert degrees of Fahrenheit into those of Reaumur, deduct 32, divide by 9, and multiply by 4. To convert degrees of Reaumur into those of Centigrade, multiply by 5 and divide by 4. STEAM. 529 LIST OF SIZES OF STEAM MAINS. Radiation. One-pipe Work. Two-pipe Work. 40 to 50 squ 100 to 125 125 to 250 250 to 400 400 to 650 650 to 900 900 to 1250 1250 to 1600 1600 to 2050 2050 to 2500 2500 to 3600 3600 to 5000 5000 to 6500 6500 to 8100 8100 to 10000 are fe 2t 1 inc H 1* f 3* 1* 6 7 8 9 10 5h f X i inc 1 X i ' liXl HXH ' 2 XH ' 2}X2 3 X2 3^X3 4 X3* 4}X4 5 X4* 6 X5 7 X6 8 X6 9 X6 h TABLE OF EXPANSION OF WROUGHT-IRON PIPE. Temperature of the Air when the Pipe is Fitted. Length of Pipe when Fitted. Length of Pipe when Heated. 160 Degrees. 180 Degrees. 200 Degrees. Degrees Fahr. Feet. Feet. In. Feet. In. Feet. In. 1.60 1.34 1.09 32 64 100 100 100 100 100 100 1.28 1.02 .77 100 100 100 1.44 1.18 .93 100 100 100 To convert degrees of Reaumur into those of Fahrenheit, multiply by 9, divide by 4, and add 32. In De Lisle's thermometer, used in Russia, the graduation begins at boiling-point, which is marked zero, and the freezing- point is 150. The following rules regarding the installation of heating apparatus are taken from the New York Building Code: HEATING APPARATUS, DRYING-ROOMS, GAS- AND WATER-PIPES. Sec. 84. Heating-furnace sand Boilers. A brick-set boiler shall not be placed on any wood or combustible floor or beams. Wood or combustible floors and beams under and not less than three feet in front and one foot on the sides of all portable boilers 530 RULES FOR HEATING APPARATUS, ETC. shall be protected by a suitable brick foundation of not less than two courses of brick well laid in mortar on sheet iron; the said sheet iron shall extend at least twenty-four inches outside of the foundation at the sides and front. Bearing lines of bricks, laid on the flat, with air-spaces between them, shall be placed on the foundation to support a cast-iron ash-pan of suitable thickness, on which the base of the boiler shall be placed, and shall have a flange, turned up in the front and on the sides, four inches high; said pan shall be in width not less than the base of the boiler and shall extend at least two feet in front of it. If a boiler is supported on a cast-iron base with a bottom of the required thickness for an ash-pan, and is placed on bearing lines of brick in the same manner as specified for an ash-pan, then an ash-pan shall be placed in front of the said base and shall not be required to extend under it. All lath-and- plaster and wood ceilings and beams over and to a distance of not less than four feet in front of all boilers shall be shielded with metal. The distance from the top of the boiler to said shield shall be not less than twelve inches. No combustible partition shall be within four feet of the sides and back and six feet from the front of any boiler, unless said partition shall be covered with metal to the height of at least three feet above the floor, and shall extend from the end or back of the boiler to at least five feet in front of it; then the distance shall be not less than two feet from the sides and five feet from the front of the boiler. All brick hot-air furnaces shall have two covers, with an air-space of at least four inches between them; the inner cover of the hot-air chamber shall be either a brick arch or two courses of brick laid on galvanized iron or tin, supported on iron bars ; the outside cover, which is the top of the furnace, shall be made of brick or metal supported on iron bars, and so constructed as to be perfectly tight, and shall be not less than four inches below any combustible ceiling or floor-beams. The walls of the furnace shall be built hollow in the following manner: One inner and one outer wall, each four inches in thick- ness, properly bonded together with an air-space of not less than three inches between them. Furnaces must be built at least four inches from all woodwork. The cold-air boxes of all hot-air furnaces shall be made of metal, brick, or other incom- bustible material, for a distance of at least ten feet from the furnace. All portable hot-air furnaces shall be placed at least two feet from any wood or combustible partition or ceiling, RI T LES FOR HEATING APPARATUS, ETC. 531 unless the partitions and ceilings are properly protected by a metal shield, when the distance shall be not less than one foot. Wood floors under all portable furnaces shall be protected by two courses of brickwork well laid in mortar on sheet iron. Said brickwork shall extend at least two feet beyond the furnace in front of the ash-pan. Sec. 85. Registers. Registers located over a brick furnace shall be supported by a brick shaft built up from the cover of the hot-air chamber; said shaft shall be lined with a metal pipe, and all wood beams shall be trimmed away not less than four inches from it. Where a register is placed on any wood- work in connection with a metal pipe or duct the end of the said pipe or duct shall be flanged over on the woodwork under it. All registers for hot-air furnaces placed in any woodwork or combustible floors shall have stone or iron borders firmly set in plaster of Paris or gauged mortar. All register-boxes shall be made of tin plate or galvanized iron with a flange on the top to fit the groove in the frame, the register to rest upon the same; there shall be an open space of two inches on all sides of the register-box, extending from the under side of the border to and through the ceiling below. The said opening shall be fitted with a tight tin or galvanized-iron casing, the upper end of which shall be turned under the frame. When a register-box is placed in the floor over a portable furnace, the open space on all sides of the register-box shall be not less than three inches. When only one register is connected with a furnace said register shall have no valve. Sec. 86. Drying-rooms. All walls, ceilings, and partitions inclosing drying-rooms, when not made of fire-proof material, shall be wire-lathed and plastered, or covered with metal, tile, or other hard incombustible material. Sec. 87. Ranges and Stoves. Where a kitchen range is placed from twelve to six inches from a wood stud-partition, the said partition shall be shielded with metal from the floor to the height of not less than three feet higher than the range; if the range is within six inches of the partition, then the studs shall be cut away and framed three feet higher and one foot wider than the range, and filled in "to the face of the said stud-par- tition with brick or fire-proof blocks, and plastered thereon. All ranges on wood or combustible floors and beams that are not supported on legs and have ash-pans three inches or more above their base, shall be set on suitable brick foundations, 532 RULES FOR HEATING APPARATUS, ETC. consisting of not less than two courses of brick well laid in mor- tar on sheet iron, except small ranges such as are used in apart- ment houses that have ash-pans three inches or more above their base, which shall be placed on at least one course of brick- work on sheet iron or cement. No range shall be placed against a furred wall. All lath-and-plaster or wood ceilings over all large ranges, and ranges in hotels and restaurants, shall be guarded by metal hoods placed at least nine inches below the ceiling. A ventilating-pipe connected with a hood over a range shall be at least nine inches from all lath-and-plaster or wood work, and shielded. If the pipe is less than nine inches from lath-and-plaster and wood work, then the pipe shall be covered with one inch of asbestos plaster on wire mesh. No ventilating- pipe connected with a hood over a range shall pass through any floor. Laundry-stoves on wood or combustible floors shall have a course of bricks, laid on metal, on the floor under and extended twenty-four inches on all sides of them. All stoves for heating purposes shall be properly supported on iron legs resting on the floor three feet from all lath-and-plaster or wood work ; if the lath-and-plaster or wood work is properly protected by a metal shield, then the distance shall be not less thar eighteen inches. A metal shield shall be placed under anc twelve inches in front of the ash-pan of all stoves that are placed on wood floors. All low gas-stoves shall be placed or iron stands, or the burners shall be at least six inches above th( base of the stoves, and metal guard-plates placed four inches below the burners, and all wood work under them shall be covered with metal. PAET V. ' x \ . ' / S. ) DRAWING. LAYING OUT WORK. MEN- SUB ATIOK GEOMETRICAL MENSURA- TION. VARIOUS ENGINEERING FOR- MULAS. Drawing. To BISECT A RIGHT ANGLE. Take a as centre, Fig. 242, and any radius, and draw the arc be. Now, with be as centres and the same radius, draw the arcs bisecting be in 1 and 2; draw lines from a through 1 and 2. FIG. 242. FIG. 213. To DRAW A TRIANGLE WHEN THE LENGTHS OF THE SIDES ARE GIVEN. Draw the length of one side, as ab, Fig. 243; then, with a as centre and the length of one of the other sides, describe an arc, as shown; then, with b as centre, describe an arc, as shown, using the length of the third side as radius; then connect this intersection and ab. To DRAW THE FIVE-POINT STAR (Fig. 245). Draw the cir- cumference and divide it into 5 equal parts, 1, 2, 3, etc.; connect 1 and 3, 3 and 5, 5 and 2, 2 and 4, and 4 and 1. To DRAW A SQUARE WHEN THE DIAGONAL is GIVEN. Draw the diagonal, ab, Fig. 244; bisect it at c and draw the line de at right angles to ab; then with ac as radius and c as centre strike 533 534 DRAWING. a circle; then connect ad, db, be, and ea, which is the square required. FIG. 244. FIG. 245. To FIND A SQUARE TWICE THE AREA OF A GIVEN SQUARE. Draw the given square, as abed, Fig. 246; then, with the diagonal, cb, as one side, draw the square cbef, which will be twice the area of the first square. To DRAW A SQUARE HAVING THE AREA OF Two GIVEN SQUARES. Draw one side of each of the given squares so as to form a right angle, as ab and be, Fig. 247; connect ac, and, with FIG. 247. FIG. 248. this line as one side, draw the square, 3, which is equal in area to 1 and 2. The above rule applies to circles as well as squares; ab and AC, Fig. 248, represent the diameters of the smaller circles, and CB the diameter of a circle which is equal in area to the two small ones. To DRAW A TRIANGLE WHEN THE LENGTH OF ONE SIDE is GIVEN. Draw the side or base, as ab, Fig. 249; then, with ab DRAWING. 535 as radius, strike the arc ac\ then with the same radius and a as centre, find point d; connect ad and db. To DRAW AN EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE WHEN THE PERPENDIC- ULAR is GIVEN. Draw ab for the perpendicular, Fig. 250; then draw cd and gh at right angles to ab ; then, with any radius and FIG. 249. a as centre, draw the semicircle, cefd; then, with c as centre, find the point e; then, with d as centre, find the point /; then draw the line ah through the point /; then draw the line ag through e. To DRAW AN ANGLE OF 60 OR 30. Draw the line ab, Fig. 251, and with any point on ab, as c, for centre and ca as radius, draw the arc al, 2d. With a as centre and same radius find point 1 ; draw line from a through 1 ; lac = 60; with d as centre and same radius find point 2; 2ad=30. To DRAW A REGULAR POLYGON OF ANY NUMBER OF SIDES, WHEN THE LENGTH OF ONE SIDE is GIVEN. Take the length of the side for a base, as ab, Fig. 252; then with ab as radius and a as centre, draw the semicircle, db] then divide the semicircle into as many equal parts as there are sides to the polygon, in this case 7; then, as we have one side, ab, we skip the first division and 1 connect a and 2; then from the centre of a2 and ab draw lines at right angles until they meet at c, which is the centre of the poly- gon. Then, with c at centre and ca as radius, draw the circle; then draw lines from a through points 3, 4, 5, and 6, striking the circ e at h, g, f, and e; now connect 2h, hg, gf, fe, and eb. To DRAW AN OCTAGON. When you have the distance from FIG. 252. 536 DRAWING. one side to the other given, to draw the octagon, first draw a square, Fig. 253, of that size; then draw diagonal lines from each corner, as aa, aa; then take the distance from the centre to the outside, as shown by the dotted line, and measure the same distance from the centre on the lines, aa; then draw f N FIG, 253. FIG. 254. lines from this point at right angles to aa and you have the octagon. To DRAW AN OCTAGON WHEN THE SIDE OR BASE is GIVEN. Draw the line, ab, for the base, Fig. 254, and from a and b draw two indefinite perpendicular lines; then take the distance from a to b and describe the two half-circles; then, using the same radius, from point c find point d on the perpendicular, from which draw a horizontal line connecting at e; then, with the same raidus, find point /, from which draw a horizontal line connecting at g, thus forming the square, d, e, f, g. Then from g draw the line gh, equal in length to gb; then the line ei, then ej, dk, dl, and fm all equal to gb] then connect bh, hi, ij, jk, kl, Im, and ma. To DIVIDE A CIRCLE INTO CONCENTRIC RINGS HAVING EQUAL AREAS. Divide the radius, ac, Fig. 255, into as many parts as areas required, as 1, 2, 3, etc. With ac as a diameter draw the semicircle a, 4, 5, 6,. c; draw lines from points 1, 2, 3 at right angles to ac, meeting the semicircle at 4, 5, 6; with c as centre and c4, c5, and cG as radii draw the concentric circles. To DRAW ANY NUMBER OF TANGENTIAL ARCS OF CIRCLES HAVING A GIVEN DIAMETER. Draw a polygon of as many sides as arcs required (four and six). With each angle as centre and half of one side as radius draw the arcs, as shown in Figs. 256 and 257. To DRAW AN ELLIPSE. Draw the rectangle abed, Fig. 258. ab represents the long diameter and ac half the short diam- DRAWING. 537 eter; divide ab into two equal parts, as ae and eb; then divide ae and ac into the same number of equal parts, as 1, 2, 3, etc.; FIG. 256. FIG. 255. FIG. 257. then draw lines from c to 5, 6, 7, etc. ; then draw lines from e to 1, 2, 3, etc.; then draw the curved line through the intersections, as shown. FIG. 258 To DRAW AN ELLIPSE WITH A STRING. Draw the long diam- eter, Fig. 259, as ab; then half the short diameter, as cd; then, with c as centre and ad as radius, describe arcs bisecting ab at 1 and 2, at which points drive a nail to fasten the string ; then fasten the string at 1 and stretch to c, at which point place a pencil inside the string and carry the string to 2 and make fast; then keep the string tight and run the pencil along on the inside of the string and the mark will be the ellipse; 3 and 4 show position of pencil and string on the curve. To DRAW AN ELLIPSE WITH THE SQUARE. Take a strip of wood, as shown in Fig. 2GO, say |"Xl", to use as a rule; then drive a nail through the stick about an inch from one end, as 1 ; then make the distance between 1 2 equal one-half the short 538 DRAWING. diameter of the ellipse and 2 3 equal to one-half the long diam- eter; drive another nail at 3 and at 2 make a hole for a pencil, FIG. 259. FIG. 260. place the pencil in the hole and slide the stick from a perpen- dicular position to a horizontal one, keeping the nails against the inside of the square, and the pencil will describe an ellipse. WHEN THE Two AXES ARE GIVEN, TO DRAW A CURVE AP- PROXIMATING AN ELLIPSE. With cd as the major axis and ag the minor axis, Fig. 261, draw lines connecting ad andac; then, with b as centre and ba as radius, draw the semicircle, finding points e and /, from which points draw lines at right angles to ad and ac, intersecting at g; then, with ga as radius and g as centre strike arc 1 2; then, with i as centre and i2 as radius, strike arc 2d and repeat same for other side. / \ \ b / \ N^ h\ /i \ / \ / . - ' f. . "**] / FIG. 261. To DRAW AN ELLIPSE WITH THE TRAMMEL. Tack a frame to the floor or drawing-board, as shown by 1, 2, 3, Fig. 262, leaving a space between the strips of three-eighths of an inch; then, on the trammel, make de equal to the semi-minor axis and df equal to the semi-major axis; then put a f-inch pin in the trammel at e and / and place the same on the frame with DRAWING. 539 the pins in the slot; then draw the trammel around and d will describe the ellipse. FIG. 262. To DRAW AN OVAL. With ab as the short diameter and ag as radius, Fig. 263, draw a circle; then draw the line cd at right angles to ab through the centre g; then draw the lines af and be through d; then, with b as centre and ba as radius, draw the arc ae; then, with a as centre and same radius, draw the arc b/; then, with b as centre and de as radius, draw the arc ef. UPON A GIVEN LINE, ab, TO DRAW AN OVAL. Bisect ab at c, Fig. 264, and draw at right angles cd', with b as centre and ba as b FIG. 264. radius draw the arc ad. Bisect the quarter circle ae in / and through / draw bg, which gives ag as the first part of the curve. Now bisect cd in h and draw hd; then the intersection i is the centre and ig the radius for the second part of the curve. Bisect el in m and through m draw in, which gives gn as the second part of the curve. Bisect ch in o and draw od; the intersection 540 DRAWING. p is the centre and pn the radius for the third part of the curve. From p draw pet through e and nt is the third part of the curve; with e as centre and radius et draw the curve to the line cd. Repeat the operation for the other half of the curve. On the diameter ah draw a semicircle, thus completing the oval. To DRAW AN INVOLUTE OF A SQUARE. With the square as 1, 2, 3, 4, first continue the sides, as shown by the dotted lines, Fig. 265; then, with 1 as centre and 1 4 as radius, draw arc 4 5; then, with 2 as centre and 2 5 as radius, draw arc 5 6; then, with 3 as centre and 3 6 as radius, draw arc 6 7; then, with 4 as centre and 4 7 as radius, draw arc 7 8, etc. To DRAW A SPIRAL COMPOSED OF SEMICIRCLES WHOSE RADII SHALL BE IN GEOMETRICAL PROGRESSION. Draw an indefinite line, as ab; Fig. 266. With 1 as centre and 1 2 as radius, draw first semicircle 2 3; then, with 2 as centre and 2 3 as radius, draw semicircle 3 4; then, with 3 as centre and 3 4 as radius, draw semicircle 4 5, etc. FIG. 266. To DRAW A SPIRAL COMPOSED OF SEMICIRCLES, THE RADII BEING IN ARITHMETICAL PROGRESSION. Draw an indefinite line, as ab, Fig. 267; then take any point as centre and the radius of the small semicircle, as 1 2; with 2 as centre draw the semi- circle 1 3; then, with 1 as centre and 1 3 as radius, draw the semicircle 3 4; then, with 2 as centre and 4 2 as radius, draw the semicircle 4 5, etc. To DRAW A SPIRAL OF ONE TURN. First draw a circle, Fig. 268, as large as the spiral is to be; then divide it into any number of equal parts (in this case twelve), as lines abc, etc.; then divide any one of these lines into as many equal parts as the circle is divided; then with centre c and radius ell draw DRAWING. 541 lie; then, with same centre and radius clO, draw arc 10/; then, with same centre and radius c9, draw arc 9gr and continue until all the points are found; through these intersections draw the curves. FIG. 267. FIG. 268. To DRAW A SPIRAL OF ANY NUMBER OF TURNS (IN THIS CASE Two). Draw a circle the size of the spiral, Fig. 269, then divide it off into any number of equal spaces, say 12, as a, e, d, etc.; then divide any radius, as ac, into as many equal parts aa there are turns to the spiral; then divide these spaces into as many equal parts as the circle, as 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.; then, with c as centre and c2 as radius, draw arc intersecting ec\ then, with c as centre and c3 as radius, draw arc intersecting dc, etc.; continue up to 542 DRAWING. 12; then commence with c as centre and c+2 as radius and draw arc to ec\ then through these points draw the curve. FIG. 269. Fig. 270 shows how to draw a tapering scroll composed of semicircles; these scrolls are used in laying out vines and other ornamentation. FIG. 270. To DRAW A SCROLL FOR A STAIR RAILING. Draw the eye of the scroll, as the circle acbd, Fig. 271; draw the diameters ab and cd; connect c and b; bisect co at e and draw el parallel to ab; draw a line from 6 parallel to cd, as 6k; bisect eo at 3 and draw 3 2; make o4 equal to o3 and draw ?5 parallel to ab; bisect o7 and draw 1 2; with 1 as centre and I/ as radius draw arc fg; with 2 as centre and 2g as radius draw arc gh; with 3 as centre draw arc hi, etc. To draw the inner curve take 7 as centre and 7/ as radius and draw arc fm; with 6 as centre and 6m as radius draw arc "mn. DRAWING. 543 To DRAW A SPIRAL WHEN ITS GREATEST DIAMETER is GIVEN (IN THIS CASE ONE OF THREE TURNS). Divide the diameter FIG. 271. op, Fig. 272, into eight equal parts, as 1, 2, 3, etc.; with 4 5 as diameter draw the circle acbd for the eye of the spiral. Draw the two diameters ab and cd and divide them into twice as many equal parts as there are turns to the spiral, as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, etc., in the enlarged eye. Now, with 1 as centre and 16 as radius draw the arc &/ to strike a horizontal line from 2 through 1; with 2 as centre and 2/ as radius draw arc fg to strike a perpendicular line from 3 through 2; with 3 as centre and 3g as radius draw arc gh to strike a line from 4 through 3, and so continue until the spiral is completed. In a spiral of one turn the diameter of the eye is about three- tenths of the length of the greatest diameter; in one of two turns, about one-sixth; in one of three turns, about one-eighth; in one of four turns, about one-tenth. To DRAW AN IONIC VOLUTE. Let ab be the vertical measute of the volute, Fig. 273; divide ab into seven equal parts and from point 4 draw a line at right angles to ab; at any point on this line draw a circle whose diameter is equal to one of the divisions on ab. Draw the square abed; bisect each of its sides and draw the square e!2, ll/; draw the diagonals ell, /12; 544 FIG. 272. FIG, 273. DRAWING. 545 divide the diagonal 121 into three equal parts and draw 8 7 and 4 3 and continue the lines as shown, making hg equal to one- half ^7; with 1 as centre and la as radius draw arc ab to meet a line through 1 and 2; with 2 as centre and 26 as radius draw arc be to meet a line through 23; with 3 as centre and 3c as radius draw arc cd to meet a line through 4 3, etc. The centres to draw the inner curve are shown by the dots on the diagonals, which is the centre of the space between the angles of the squares. To DRAW A PARABOLA WHEN THE ABSCISSA ab AND THE OR- DINATE ac ARE GIVEN. Draw the rectangle abed, Fig. 274, and 1 2 3 * FIG. 274. divide cd and db into the same number of equal parts; draw- lines from b to meet points 1, 2, 3, etc., on cd', then draw lines from points on db parallel to ab; draw line 1 until it intersects 16; draw line 2 until it intersects 26, etc.; these intersections are points on the line of the curve. To DRAW AN HYPERBOLA WHEN THE DIAMETER, ab, THE ABSCISSA, be, AND THE DOUBLE ORDINATE, de, ARE GIVEN. Com- plete the rectangle bcdf, Fig. 275, and divide fd and dc into the same number of equal spaces, as 1, 2, 3, etc. ; from 6 draw 61, 62, etc., and from a draw the intersecting lines al, a2, etc. ; through the intersections of these lines draw the curve bd. Repeat for the other half of the curve. To DRAW A CYCLOID. Draw the rolling circle, as 6, 1, 2, 3, etc., Fig. 276, and divide the semicircle into any number of equal parts, as 1, 2, 3, etc. ; make the spaces on ab equal to those on the semicircle; draw a line from d parallel to ab; draw lines from the points on ab perpendicular to meet the line ed at ooo, 546 DRAWING. which are the centres of the rolling circle in its several positions; with these points as centres and the radius of the rolling circle 2 3 4 -- - FIG. 275. draw the arcs 12c, lie, lOc. From 1 2, etc., the points on the semicircle, draw lines parallel to ab to meet the arcs 12c, lie, FIG. 277. etc., at cc, etc.; draw the curve through points c, c, c, etc. Foi the other half of the. curve reverse and proceed as above. DRAWING. 547 To DRAW AN EPICYCLOID ; ALSO TO DRAW A HYPOCYCLOID. Draw the curve of the directing circle, as ab, Fig. 277, and the curve of the rolling circle, as 6, 1, 2, etc.; divide the semicircle bd into any number of equal parts, as 1, 2, 3, etc.; make the spaces on ab equal to those on the semicircle bd, spacing from FIG. 278. 6; with the centre of the directing circle as a centre, draw an arc from c, giving the line of centres of the rolling circle. Draw lines from the centre of the directing circle radiating through FIG. 279. the points k, j, i, etc., thus finding the centres of the rolling cir- cle in its several different positions, as o, o, o, etc. ; with these points as centres and radius of the rolling circle draw the arcs k, c, /, c, etc. ; with the centre of the directing circle as centre 548 THE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE. draw arcs from 1, 2, 3, etc., to meet the arcs from e, f, g, etc.; the intersections of these arcs are points on the curve, as shown ; draw the curve through the points c, c, c, etc. To draw the hypocycloid, see Fig. 278. When the diameter of the rolling circle is equal to the radius of the directing circle the hypo- cycloid becomes a straight line. To DESCRIBE THE INVOLUTE OF A CIRCLE. Divide the given circle, Fig. 279, into any number of equal spaces, as 1,2, 3, etc. ; draw a line from 2 tangent to the circle and equal in length to the arc 1 2; draw line from 3 tangent to the circle and equal in length to the arc 3 1. Repeat at each of the points and draw the curve through the points a, b, c, d, etc. The Orders of Architecture. Order of Architec- ture is the term applied to any of the systems used by the archi- tects of the Classic period to proportion the various parts and details of their buildings. There are five of these orders the Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, Tuscan, and Composite. Each order has its distinguishing features, as will be seen by the following figures. The Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders were originated by the Greeks, while the Tuscan and Composite orders are modifi- cations or improvements made by the Romans. Each order consists principally of three divisions the Stylo- bate, which forms the base or foundation; the Column, which is the shaft which supports the superstructure and which is usu- ally composed of a base, shaft, and capital; and the Entablature, which is the superstructure proper. It consists of three princi- pal divisions the Architrave, Frieze, and Cornice. THE DORIC ORDER. The Doric order, Fig. 280, is the most ancient of all the orders, and is also the most simple; it has few members and little ornamentation. Fig. 281 shows the Roman modification of this order. THE IONIC ORDER. Fig. 282 shows the Grecian Ionic order, and Fig. 283 the Roman modification. The distinguishing feature of this order is the capital of the column, which consists of a contracted echinus and a small torus, over which the spirals or volutes are turned. THE CORINTHIAN ORDER. This order, shown by Fig. 284, is the most elaborate of the three Grecian orders; the column is more slender than the preceding orders and the capital has more enrichment. The ornament on the Corinthian capital consists of a number of caules, or husks, out of which the cauli- THE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE. 549 culi, or twisted stems, spring, forming small spirals or volutes at the sides and angles of the abacus. Fig. 285 shows the Roman modification of the order. FIG. 280. FIG. 281. THE TUSCAN ORDER. This is the most simple of the Roman orders, as is shown by Fig. 286. In the Roman orders the pedestal is always one-third and the entablature one-fourth the height of the column. THE COMPOSITE ORDER. This order, shown by Fig. 287, was invented by the Romans to secure something more elab- THE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE. Name of Order. Grecian Doric. Grecian Ionic. Grecian Corinthian. Orders of Architecture. Entablature. H. P. H. P. H. P Cornice. . \ Cymatium "1 Corona \ Bed-mould j 23 55* 37| M 48* 81 Frieze 42g 28A 471 501 27^0 44 ~52*~ 31* Architrave. Tsenia 42$ 28^ 28 30 Column. Capital. . . ( I Abacus Echinus. . . . Necking. . . . '27*' 32 :* 34 85*' 47 Shaft. Astragal. . . . Cincture. . . . ; 5 diameters, 21 minutes. ; 30 i a a 1 J TJ 25 30 25 30 1 1 jte a i 00 Base of \ Column, j Base mould. Plinth No base 11 47 r e o 22* 46$ o o ^ m Cap j Corona. Bed-mould. Base mould. Plinth I Stylobate of 3 steps, 50is minutes. No pedestal Die. Base. . . . ] THE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE, 551 Roman Doric. Roman Ionic. Roman Corinthian. Composite. Tuscan. H. P. H. P. H. P. H. p. H. P. 45 86* 52* 76$ 60 88* 60 85 40 68* 45 25 45 25 45 25 45 25 35 23* 30 25 37* 25 45 25 45 25 30 23* jqi 33 j 45 45 36i 30 25 70 70 30 25 25 25 25 23* I j j a 3 a g .* H" CO H rH | i g ri i s a I a 1 a | .2 .2 1 1 t - 00 oo 00 o 30 30 30 30 30 42* 30 32 42 32* 41$ 32* 411 30 41} 15 57* 16$ 58$ 25 551 25 55 15 51} 42* 42 41$ 41$ 411 1 1 "S i j a i p t*c a H a CO 3 00 e 03 -2 -2 -2 -2 g a i a rt .2 ^ ""O T3 a ^ "T3 (N <& and divide it in half by a perpendicular line, which continue up indefinitely; then divide ab into as many spaces as you desire boards, as 1, 2, 3, etc. Then draw a line from a, striking point 1, and continue until it bisects the perpen- dicular, which is the centre, and this point and a and this point and 1 is the radius for the first board; then draw a line from 1 through 2 and con- tinue to the perpendicular, thus giving the centre and radius for second board; then draw the line 2 6 and repeat the operation, etc. This rule applies to any shape roof of a circular base. To GET THE LENGTH AND CUT OF CRIPPLE-RAFTERS IN A CURVE ROOF. Draw the plates, as ab and be, Fig. 298, and the seat of the hip, as ac. Now draw the rise and profile of the common rafter, as ce and eb; lay off the seats of the cripples, as 12, 34, etc., making 1 3 the thickness of the cripple rafter. Now continue these lines from where they strike the seat of the hip parallel to ab until they strike the profile of the common rafter; then 64 will be the length of the cripple, 4 will be the 560 LAYING OUT WORK, ETC. long length and 2 the short length, or 4 will be the line of the cut on one side and 2 the line of the cut on the other side. To GET THE CUT OF BRACES WHERE THEIR DIAGONAL is PLUMB WHEN IN POSITION. (As shown in Fig. 299.) Take the run of the brace, multiplied by 0.70711, on the blade of the square and the rise on the tongue, and the angle formed by a line drawn between these two points and the blade of the square is the bevel to cut the brace, applied on all four sides. FIG. 299. FIG. 300. Example. Find the cut of a brace 6 feet run and 6 feet rise. The run, 6 feet, by 0.70711 =4.24266. Now draw a line from 4.24+ on the blade to 6 on the tongue, and the bevel on the blade is the bevel to cut the brace, as shown in Fig. 300. ( For the top multiply the rise by 0.70711 and proceed as above. To LAY OUT THE PLANCHER FOR A CONICAL ROOF. The following diagram, Fig. 301, will show how to lay out the plancher for a conical roof: a and b is the radius for the plancher, and cd, which is drawn at right angles to the rafter until it strikes the centre line, ad, is the radius for the facia, if it is put on square to the rafter. To FIND THE PROFILE OF HIP- AND VALLEY-RAFTERS FOR CONCAVE OR CONVEX ROOFS. In Fig. 302, bcde represents a quarter section of the floor plan; be is the seat of the com- mon rafter and ce is the seat of the hip. Now draw the profile of the common rafter, as ac; then divide the base, be, into any number of spaces, 1, 2, 3, etc., and through these spaces draw lines at right angles to be, continuing then to the profile of the common rafter, ac, and the seat of the hip, ec; then from these intersections on the seat of the hip con- tinue the lines at right angles to the seat of the hip, making the line 1 1 on the hip equal to 1 1 on the common LAYING OUT WORK, ETC. 561 FIG. 301. rafter, and 2 2 on the hip equal to 2 2 on the common rafter, 3 3 equal to 3 3, etc The points thus found by these lines are points on the profile of the hip; connect cl, 1 2, etc., as shown, thus giving profile of hip. To LAY OUT THE JOINTS IN AN ELLIP- TIC ARCH. Draw the arch abc, Fig. 303, and divide the curve into equal spaces, as 1, 2, 3, etc., making as many spaces as joints required in the arch; draw lines from the foci dd to the points on the curve and bisect the angle thus formed, as shown. The lines bisecting this angle are the lines of the joints. Repeat the operation for each joint. To LAY OFF AN OCTAGON BAY WHEN THE LENGTH OF ONE SIDE is GIVEN. First draw a line to represent the side of the house, as ab, Fig. 304; then with the trammel set the length of the side, place the foot at a and find point d; make the distance from d to c five-twelfths of ad; then, with the foot of the compasses at c, find point b; with the foot at b, strike the arc cf; with the foot at d, find point 1 ; with the foot at a, strike the arc de; with the foot at c, find point 2; then connect ae, ef, and fb. To LAY OUT A HEXAGON BAY WINDOW WHEN THE LENGTH OF ONE SIDE is GIVEN. Draw the line ac as side of the FIG. 302. house, Fig. 305; then, with a as centre and the given side as radius, strike arc db; then, with b as FIG. 303. FIG. 304. centre, find point c; then, with c as centre, strike arc eb; now with b as centre, strike semicircle adec; now connect ad, de, and ec. 562 LAYING OUT WORK, ETC. To find the side of an octagon bay when the length on the house is given: Divide the distance on the house by 2 5 /i 2 , and the answer will be the length of the side. FIG. 305. To find the distance on the house when the side is given: Multiply the side by 2&/i 2 , and the answer will be the diameter of the octagon. To STRIKE AN OGEE FOR A BRACKET. Lay off the width and length of the bracket, as ac and ab, Fig. 306; then draw the line shown at the back of bracket an inch, or more if desired, from the edge of board; then draw the diagonal cd; then divide FIG. 306. FIG. 307. cd into two equal parts at 3; then, with 3 as centre and 3c as radius, strike arc -at 1 ; then, with c as centre and same radius, strike arc intersecting at 1 ; then, with 1 as centre, strike arc c3; then, with 3d as centre, strike arcs intersecting at 2; then, with 2 as centre, strike arc 3d. ANOTHER WAY TO LAY OFF A BRACKET. With fg as edge of board and fb as end or top of bracket, Fig. 307, draw the dotted line, as shown; then draw the diagonal ab and divide it into two equal parts at e; then, with eb as centres and eh as radius, strike arcs intersecting at c; then, with same radius and c as centre, strike arc be; then, with same radius and ae as LAYING OUT WORK, ETC. 563 centres, strike arcs intersecting at d\ then; with d as centre, strike arc ea. FIG. 308. To LAY OUT THE VENTILATING HOLE OF A PRIVY DOOR. bac represents the top edge of the door, Fig. 308; with a as centre and the desired radius, draw the semicircle b I 2 c; now, with be as radius and b and c as centres, draw arcs intersecting at e; then, with same radius and a as centre, draw arcs at d and /; now, with ac as radius and e as centre, draw arcs intersecting these at d and /, and with same radius and these intersections as centres, draw the arcs \e and 2e. To LAY OUT A PRIVY SEAT. Draw two lines at right angles to each other, as 2 4 and 3 8, Fig. 309; make 2 4 about JBenci FIG. 310. 8 inches long; with 1 as centre and 1 4 as radius, draw a circle; now draw lines from 2 and 4 through 7; then, with 2 4 as radius and 2 4 as centre, draw the arcs 4 6 and 2 5; now, with 7 as centre and 7 6 as radius, draw the arc 5 6, completing the oval; now find the centre of the line 3 8, as 9, and with this 564 LAYING OUT WORK, ETC. point as centre and 2 7 as radius, draw the circle aaaa; saw out to the oval line and round off to the circle. To LAY OUT A HOLE IN A ROOF FOR A STOVEPIPE OR FLAG- STAFF. Draw a section of the pipe or staff, as c, and lay off the slope of the roof, as ab, and the run as db, Fig. 310; now, with ab and db as axis, draw an ellipse, as shown at Fig. 311, which will be the shape and size of the hole. Fig. 312 shows a diagram to obtain cuts or degrees on a square; FIG. 312. for instance, if angle of 30 is desired 7 and 12 on the square will give it. To MITRE A CIRCLE AND STRAIGHT MOULDING. Draw a full-size plan of the two mouldings, as shown in Fig. 313; draw abc, as shown, in the centre of the space between the two outside lines; connect d and b and b and c; bisect db and be and draw lines at right angles to them to meet at /; then fd is the radius of the mitre joint. To FIND MITRES ON THE STEEL SQUARE. 12X12 equals square mitre; 7X4 equals triangle mitre; 13fXlO equals LAYING OUT WORK, ETC. 565 pentagon mitre; 4X7 equals hexagon mitre; 12^X6 equals heptagon mitre; 7X17 equals octagon mitre; 22^X9 equals nonagon mitre; 9^X3 equals decagon mitre. All plumb lines radiate from the centre of the earth, showing FIG 313. that if it were possible to make walls perfectly plumb they would not be parallel. All level lines are at right angles to an imaginary line from the centre of the level to the centre of the earth. If a line FIG. 314. is drawn parallel to the earth's surface it has a curve of eight inches to the mile. 566 TO LAY OUT ARCHES. Figo 314 shows some of the various methods of splicing or joining timber. To Lay Out Arches. LANCET GOTHIC ARCH. A lancet Gothic arch is one whose radius is greater than its width, as shown in Figo 315. FIG. 315. To DRAW THE GOTHIC ELLIPTICAL ARCH. Divide the span ab into three equal parts at c and d, Fig. 316; with be as radius FIG. 316. and a, c, d, b as centres, draw the arcs, as shown, finding points e and /; now, from e and / draw lines through c and d, as shown; with c and d as centres and ac as radius draw arcs ag and hb f FIG. 317. and with e and / as centres and eh as radius draw arcs gi and ih, completing the curve of the arch. TO LAY OUT ARCHES. 567 To DRAW THE LANCET GOTHIC ARCH WHEN THE SPAN AND RISE ARE GIVEN. On the base line, Fig. 317, mark the span ab and from the centre draw the rise cd; now connect ad and db, and from the centre of these lines draw a line at right angles to strike the base line, as gf and eh', now g is the centre and gb the radius to draw the arc db, and h the centre and same radius to draw the arc ad, GOTHIC ARCH. The most common Gothic arch is one whose radius is equal to its width, as shown in Fig. 318, FIG. 318. All Gothic arches are easily struck from the centre, usually shown on the drawings. To PRAW A FLAT-POINTED ARCH TO A GIVEN WIDTH AND RISE. -Praw the width, as AB, Fig. 319, and the height, as OC, while CD is a line tangent to the upper circle; now draw C3 at right angles to DC, and from A draw the perpendicular AD; now find point 7, A i FIG. 319. making A I equal to AD; now find point E, making CE equal to AD, and connect 7 and E; now bisect the line El, as shown, 568 TO LAY OUT ARCHES. and draw a line to meet C3; now from 3 draw a line through point I as 3D, and / and 3 will be the centres to strike the arch; then transfer the points across to 2 and 4 for the centres for the other half. DROP ARCH. A drop arch is one whose radius is less than its width, as shown in Fig, 320. Another form of drop arch is shown in Fig, 321. \ 1 / Centre Centre FIG. 320. Fio. 321. THREE-CENTRE ARCH. With ab as width of arch and e as centre, Fig. 322, take ea as radius and strike semicircle ab; then, with a as centre and ab as radius, strike arc 6c; then, with 6 as centre and same radius, strike arc ad; then, with c as centre and cf as radius, strike arc gf; then, with d as centre and same radius, strike arc gh, thus completing the arch. TO LAY OUT ARCHES. 569 FOUR-CENTRE ARCH. To strike a four-centre arch divide the width into four equal spaces, as 1, 2, 3, Fig. 323; then, with 1 as centre and la as radius, strike semicircle a2; then, with 3 as centre and same radius, strike semicircle 26; then, with oh as radius and a as centre, strike arc be; then, with same radius and b as centre, strike arc ad; then, with c as centre and ce as radius, strike arc ge; then, with same radius and d as centre, strike arc fg, completing the arch. To DRAW THE TUDOR OR GOTHIC ARCH. Let ab be the span and cd the rise, Fig. 324; with ab as radius and c as centre FIG. 324. draw an arc through the perpendicular at e, connect c and e t make ag and bh equal to c/; now, with ab as radius and g and h as centres, find points 1 1 and 2 2 on the base line; drive a nail in each of these points to attach a string; fasten the string at 2 and carry it around the pencil at c and make fast at point 1 on the opposite side; now draw the pencil from c to a, keeping the string tight, and it will describe the arch; then reverse the string for other side. AT POINT c ON THE LINE ab TO DRAW Two ARCS OF CIRCLES TANGENT TO ab AND THE Two PARALLELS ah AND be FORMING AN ARCH. Make ad, Fig. 325, equal to ac and be equal to be; draw cf at right angles to ab and dg at right angles to ah; with g as centre and radius gd draw the arc dc ; draw ef at right angles to be; with / as centre and fc as radius draw the arc ce, com- pleting the arch. To SPACE THE KERFING OF MOULDINGS, ETC. Strike a circle of the same dimensions as that which it is desired to spring the moulding around; take a piece of the moulding and make a kerf in it and place the moulding across the circle as shown by Fig. 326, with the kerf at the centre; now hold that part 570 TO LAY OUT ARCHES. of the moulding marked A solid and bend the part marked B until the kerf or saw cut comes together. The distance the piece FIG. 325. FIG. 326. of moulding B has moved on the circle will be the distance apart to space the kerfs. To LAY OUT AN ARCH OR CURVE SIMILAR TO AN ELLIPSE, BUT WHOSE AXES DO NOT STAND AT RlGHT ANGLES. Draw a parallelogram whose sides equal the axis, as A,B,C, and D, Fig. 327; now draw the two centre lines EF and GH; FIG. 327. divide AE and BF into any number of equal parts, as 1,2, 3, etc.; then divide El and IF into the same number of parts and draw lines radiating from G to points 1, 2, 3, etc.; then draw lines radiating from H through points 6, 7, 8 etc., to strike the lines radiating from G, and through these intersec- tions draw the curve as shown. WHEN ANY THREE POINTS ARE GIVEN, TO DRAW A CIRCLE WHOSE CIRCUMFERENCE SHALL STRIKE EACH OF THE THREE POINTS. With a, b, and c as the points, Fig. 328, join a and b TO LAY OUT ARCHES. 571 and a and c together, and draw lines at right angles from the centre of ab and ac, bisecting at d, which is the centre of the circle, and da the radius. FIG. 328. To FIND THE CENTRE OF A CIRCLE. Take any three points on the circumference and join them, as a, b, c, Fig. 329; then FIG. 329. FIG. 330. draw lines at right angles from the centre of ab and ac and the bisecting point d is the centre. To FIND THE DIAMETER OR RADIUS OF A CIRCLE WHEN THE CHORD AND RISE OF AN ARC ARE GIVEN. Draw the chord as d FIG. 331. ab, then the rise de, Fig. 330; then connect ad and db-, then draw lines Ic and 2c at right angles, and from the centre of 572 TO LAY OUT ARCHES. ad and db, until they intersect at c, which is the centre and cd the radius. To DRAW AN ARC BY INTERSECTING LINES WHEN THE CHORD AND RISE ARE GIVEN. Draw the chord as ab, Fig. 331; then draw cd equal to twice the rise, divide ac and cb into the same number of equal spaces and draw the lines as shown. 1 d 1 12 32* 3 FIG. 332. To DRAW AN ARC BY BENDING A LATH OR STRIP. Let ab be the span and cd the rise, Fig. 332; with cd as radius and d as centre, draw the quarter-circle ce\ now divide ce and ed into the same number of equal parts, as 1, 2, 3, etc.; now divide db and da into as many equal parts as de; now con- nect 1, 2, 3 on the quarter-circle and 1, 2, 3 on de, as shown; now draw lines from the points on ad and db, at the same angle and equal in length to the ones on the quarter- circle, as 1 1, 2 2, etc.; drive nails in these points and bend the strips around. WHEN THE SPAN AND RISE OF AN ARC ARE GIVEN, TO DRAW THE CURVE. Draw the span ab and rise c, Fig. 333; then, with FIG. 333. a and b as centres and ab as radius, draw arcs ae and bf; now draw lines from a and 6 through c until they strike ae and bf, as al and 61; divide al on ae and 61 on bf into any number of equal spaces, as 1,2, 3, etc. ; make 5, 6, 7 equally distant TO LAY OUT ARCHES. 573 and draw the lines as shown; draw the curve through the intersections as shown. WHEN THE CHORD AND RISE OF AN ARC ARE GIVEN, TO DRAW THE ARC. Take two strips and joint the edges FIG. 334. straight and make a frame, as shown in Fig. 334; be is the chord and ad the rise of the arc. Drive a nail in the floor or drawing-board on the outside edge of the frame at b and FIG. 335. another one at c; then place the pencil at the point of the frame, a, and slide the frame around, keeping it tight against the nails, when the pencil will describe the curve, as shown in Fig. 335. WHEN THE CHORD AND RISE OF AN ARC ARE GIVEN, TO FIND THE RADIUS. Square one-half the chord, divide this product by the rise and to this answer add the rise and divide by 2; the answer is the radius. In Fig. 336, one-half the chord is 4, which squared equals 16, a ' which divided by the rise equals 5J, to which add the rise, equals 8, which divided by 2 equals 4, the radius. LAYING OUT MANSARD AND GAMBREL ROOFS. To propor- tion a mansard or gambrel roof, draw a half-circle to a scale using the width of the building as the diameter, then draw the two slopes of the roof so that they intersect on the circle, as shown by Fig. 337. FIG. 336. 574 TO LAY OUT ARCHES. LAYING OUT CIRCLE HEADS IN CIRCLE WALLS. This can be done with lines and circles, but the quickest way for the work- FIG. 337. FIG. 338. man is to cut out the head-piece to the desired circle for the frame; then make two templates equal to the circle of the wall and tack them on the drawing-board or floor, as shown by Fig. 338; now with a couple of straight-edges and pencil mark out the circle of the wall by sliding the strips over the tem- plates. To LAY OUT ENTASIS OF COLUMNS, ETC. Draw length of column, as AB, Fig. 339; then AC, the radius of the column at the bottom, and DB, the radius of the column at the top; now describe the quarter-circle CE, and let fall the perpendicular DF. Divide the length of the column into spaces equal to the bottom radius, spacing from E as G, H, I, and J; divide the arc CF into the same number of equal spaces; now draw lines from the points on the centre line and at right angles to it, as "6, G7, etc., and draw perpendicular lines from points 1, 2, etc., on the arc to strike the lines from the FIG. 339. centre line, as shown at 6, 7, 8, etc., and through these points draw the curve. Fig. 339 is drawn with con- siderable swell, so that the lines can be seen more plainly. TO LAY OUT ARCHES. 575 Names of Parts of an Entablature. ? Cymatium J< Abacus -Echinus r. Annulets or Fillets -Callarinoor Neck < Astragal or Necking fe Cincture Apophyga -< Torus ^ Cavetto or Scotia - Torus Plinth -Sub-Plinth FIG. 340. Names of Parts of a Column. 576 MENSURATION TABLES, ETC. MENSURATION TABLES, ETC. LINEAR MEASURE. 1 hair's breadth = ^ inch. 3 barleycorns (lengthwise) . . = 1 inch. 7 . 92 inches = 1 link. 12 inches = 1 foot = . 3048 metre. 3 feet = 1 yard = . 91438 metre. 5| yards = 1 rod, perch, or pole. 4 poles or 100 links = 1 chain. 10 chains = 1 furlong. 8 furlongs = 1 mile = 1 . 6093 kilometres = 5280 ft. 3 miles (nautical) = 1 league. 1 line = rg inch. 1 nail (cloth measure) = 2f inches. 1 palm = 3 inches. 1 hand (used for height of horses) = 4 inches. 1 span = 9 inches. 1 cubit = 18 inches. 1 pace (military) = 1\ feet. 1 pace (common) = 3 feet. 1 Scotch ell. = 37 .06 inches. 1 vara (Spanish) = 33 . 3 inches. 1 English ell = 45 inches. 1 fathom = 6 feet. 1 cable's length =120 fathoms. 1 "knot" =6082.66 feet. 1 degree of equator = 69 . 1613 statute miles. 1 degree of meridian = 69 . 046 statute miles 1 degree of equator = 60 geographical miles. 1 degree of meridian = 59 . 899 geographical miles. 1 . 1527 statute miles = 1 geographical mile. 6086 . 07 feet. . = Iminute of longitude = nautical mile. SQUARE OR SURFACE MEASURE. 144 square inches = 1 square foot. 9 square feet =1 square yard = 1296 square inches. 100 square feet =lsquare (builders' mea'sure). MENSURATION TABLES, ETC. 577 LAND MEASURE. 30 1 square yards =1 square rod. 40 square rods =1 square rood = 1210 square yards. 4 square roods =1 acre = 4840 square yards. 640 acres =1 square mile. 208.71 feet square =1 acre. 1 square mile ==1 section of land. 160 acres. = | section of land. CUBIC MEASURE. 1728 cubic inches =1 cubic foot. 27 cubic feet =1 cubic yard. 128 cubic feet =1 cord. 40 eubic feet =1 American shipping ton. 42 cubic feet =1 British shipping ton. 108 cubic feet =1 stack of wood. 24 . 75 cubic feet of stone =1 perch. Note. Custom has made the number of feet in a perch vary in different localities. For instance, in Philadelphia a perch is 22 cubic feet, while in some of the New England States it is 16.5 cubic feet. A ton, in computing the tonnage of vessels, is 100 cubic feet of their internal space. AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT (ORDINARY COMMERCIAL WEIGHT). 16 drams = 1 ounce, oz. 16 ounces = 1 pound, Ib. 28 Ibs. (old) = 1 quarter, qr. 4 quarters (old) ) , . , . ii^JJ > = 1 hundredweight. 100 Ibs., pounds } 20 hundredweight . . . = 1 ton. 100 pounds = 1 cental. 175 troy pounds = 144 avoirdupois. 1 troy pound =5760 grains. 1 avoirdupois pound = 7000 grains. Avoirdupois weight is used to weigh all coarse articles, as hay, meat, fish, potash, groceries, flax, butter, cheese, etc., and metals, except precious metals. Formerly the usual custom was to allow 112 pounds for a hundredweight and 28 pounds for a 578 MENSURATION TABLES, ETC. quarter, but this practice has very nearly passed away. The custom-house still adheres to the old usage. APOTHECARIES' MEASURE LIQUID. 60 minims or drops, m.,=l fluid drachm. 8 fluid drachms =1 fluid ounce. 16 fluid ounces =1 pint (octarius). 8 pints . . =1 gallon (congius). These apothecarie ' weights and measures are used by apoth- ecaries and physicians in compounding medicines, but drugs and medicines are bought and sold by avoirdupois weight. The standard avoirdupois pound is the weight of 27.7015 cubic inches of distilled water weighed in air at 39. 1, the barom- eter at 30 inches. APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT DRY. 20 grains. . = 1 scruple. 3 scruples = 1 dram. 8 drams. . = 1 ounce. 12 ounces =1 pound. LIQUID OR WINE MEASURE. 4 gills =1 pint, pt. 2 pints =1 quart, qt. 4 quarts =1 gallon, gal. 42 gallons =1 tierce. 1 tierces or 63 gallons. ... =1 hogshead, hhd. 84 gallons =1 puncheon. 1 puncheons or 126 gallons = 1 pipe. 2 pipes =1 tun. 231 cubic inches =1 gallon. 10 gallons =1 anker. 18 " =1 runlet. 31J " =1 barrel. This measure is used to measure water, wine, spirits, cider, oil, honey, etc. In London the gill is usually called a quartern. MENSURATION TABLES, ETC. 579 ALE OR BEER MEASURE. 2 pints =1 quart. 4 quarts. . . . = 1 gallon. 9 gallons. . .. = 1 firkin. 2 firkins. . . . = 1 kilderkin. 2 kilderkins =1 barrel. 1 barrels. . .. = 1 hogshead. 1J hogsheads =1 puncheon. 1J puncheons = 1 butt. Used to measure beer, ales, porter, etc. An ale gallon meas- ures 282 cubic inches. ENGLISH WINE MEASURE. 18 U. S. gallons. ... =1 runlet. 25 English gallons ) v =1 tierce. 42 U. S. gallons | 1\ English gallons. . = 1 firkin of beer. 4 firkins =1 barrel. 52i English gallons ) > TT a C =1 hogshead. 63 U. S. gallons j DRY MEASURE. 2 pints. . . =1 quart . . = 67.2 cubic inches. 4 quarts. =1 gallon . . = 288.8 2 gallons. =1 peck. . .. = 537.6 " " 4 pecks. . =1 bushel.. =2150.42 " " 36 bushels = 1 chaldron = 57.244 " feet. 4 bushels (in England) = 1 coon. 2 coons " =1 quarter. 5 quarters ' ' =1 wey. 2weys " " =llast. A gallon, dry measure, measures 268f cubic inches. SURVEYORS' SQUARE MEASURE. 625 square links = 1 square rod, sq. rd. 16 " rods =1 " chain, sq. ch. 10 {t chains = 1 acre, A. 640 acres = 1 square mile, sq. mi. 36 square miles or 6 miles square = 1 township, tp. 580 MENSURATION TABLES, ETC. SURVEYORS' LONG MEASURE. 7.92 inches . . = 1 link. 25 links. . . . = 1 pole. 100 links =1 chain. 10 chains. . = 1 furlong. 8 furlongs = 1 mile. Used by surveyors, civil engineers, etc., in measuring distances. MEASURE OF TIME. 60 seconds, sec =1 minute, min. 60 minutes =1 hour, hr. 24 hours. . =1 day, dy 7 days =1 week, wk. 2 weeks =1 fortnight. 4 weeks =1 month, mo. 13 months 1 day 6 hrs. = 1 Julian year. 365 days 6 hours =1 Julian year. 366 days =1 leap year. 12 calendar months . . = 1 year. Used for computing time. CIRCULAR MEASURE. 60 seconds, ". . =1 minute, '. 60 minutes. . . . = 1 degree, . 30 degrees. . . . = 1 sign, s. 90 degrees. . . . = 1 quadrant. 12 signs = a circle. 4 quadrants ) r - . , r = a circumference of a circle. 360 degrees . . j Used in measuring latitude, longitude, etc. TROY WEIGHT. Used in Weighing Gold or Silver. 24 grains =1 pennyweight. 20 penny weights = 1 ounce. 12 ounces =1 pound. A carat of the jewellers, for precious stones, is, in the United States, 3.2 grains; in London, 3.17 grains; in Paris 3.18 grains are divided into 4 jewellers' grains. In troy, apothecaries', and avoirdupois weights the grain is the same. MENSURATION TABLES, ETC. 581 MEASURES OF VALUE. U. S. Standard. 10 mills. . = 1 cent. 10 cents. . = 1 dime. 10 dimes =1 dollar. 10 dollars = 1 eagle. The standard of gold and silver is 900 parts of pure metal and 100 parts of alloy to 1000 parts of coin. WEIGHT OF COIN. Double eagle =516 troy grains. Eagle =258 troy grains. Dollar (gold) = 25.8 troy grains. Dollar (silver) =412.5 troy grains. Half dollar =192 troy grains. 5-cent piece (nickel) = 77.16 troy grains. 3-cent piece (nickel) = 30 troy grains. Cent (copper) = 48 troy grains. NUMBER OF ENGLISH OR UNITED STATES YARDS IN MILES OF DIFFERENT NATIONS. Name. Yards. Name. Yards. Arabian 2,148 Luthenian 9,784 Bohemian 10,187 Oldenburg 10,820 Brebant 6,082 Persian (paisang) 6,082 Burgundy 6,183 Polish (long) 8,101 Chinese (His) 682 Polish (short) 6,095 Dutch (Ure) 6,395 Portuguese (leguos). . . . 6,760 Danish 8,244 Prussian 8,498 English (U. S.) 1,760 Roman (modern) 2,035 English (geographical) . . 2,025 Roman (ancient) 1,613 Flemish 6,869 Russian (verst) 1,167 German (geographical) . 8,100 Saxon 9,905 Hamburg 8,244 Scotch 1,984 Hanover 11,559 Silesian 7,083 Hesse 10,547 Spanish (leguas) 4,630 Hungarian 9,113 Spanish (com.) 7,416 French (art leagues) . . . 4,860 Swiss 9,166 French (marine) 6,075 Swedish 11,704 Legal Le'g'e (2000 toises) 4,263 Turkey 1,821 Irish 3,338 Tuscan 1,808 Italian 2,025 Vienna (post mile) 8,296 582 MENSURATION TABLES, ETC. TABLE OF MISCELLANEOUS WEIGHTS. 14 pounds =1 stone (horseman's weight). 56 pounds =1 firkin of butter. 64 pounds =1 firkin of soft soap. 112 pounds =1 barrel of raisins. 256 pounds =1 pack of soft soap. 196 pounds =1 barrel of flour. 200 pounds =1 barrel of beef, pork, or fish, 280 pounds =1 barrel of salt, New York. 22 stones (301 Ibs.) =1 sack of wool. 17 stones 2 Ibs. (240 Ibs.) =1 pack of wool. 60 pounds =1 truss of hay (new). 50 pounds =1 truss of hay (old). 40 pounds =1 truss of straw. 400 pounds =1 bale of cotton. 100 pounds =1 quintal of fish. NUMBER OF POUNDS TO BUSHEL. Recognized by the laws of the United States. Wheat 60 Dried apples 24 Shelled corn 56 Onions 57 Corn in ear. . 70 Salt 50 Rye 56 Stone coal 80 Oats 32 Coke 46 Barley 48 Malt 84 Irish potatoes 60 Bran 30 Sweet potatoes 50 Plastering hair 88 White beans 60 Turnips 57 Castor-beans 46 Unslacked lime 80 Clover-seed 60 Corn-meal 50 Timothy-seed 45 Fine salt .62 Flaxseed 56 Hungarian grass-seed 48 Hempseed 44 Ground peas 24 Peas 60 Onion-sets 14 Blue-grass seed 14 Onion tops 25 Buckwheat 52 Onion bottoms 35 Dried peaches , , , 33 METRIC SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 583 METRIC SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. The Metric System was legalized in the United States on July 28, 1866, when Congress enacted as follows: "The tables in the schedule hereto annexed shall be recog- nized in the construction of contracts, and in all legal pro- ceedings, as establishing, in terms of the weights and measures now in use in the United States, the equivalents of the weights and measures expressed therein in terms of the metric system, and the tables may lawfully be used for computing, deter- mining, and expressing in customary weights and measures the weights and measures of the metric system." MEASURE OF LENGTH 10,000 metres = 1 myriametre. 1,000 " =1 kilometre. 100 " =1 hectometre. 10 " =1 decametre. 1 metre = 1 metre. .1 " =1 decimetre. .01 " =1 centimetre. .001" =1 millimetre. MEASURE OF SURFACE. 10,000 sq. metres = 1 hectare. 100 " " =1 are. 1 " " =1 centare. Hectare = 2.471 acres. Are = -119. 6 square yards. Centare = 1550 sq. ins. MEASURE OF LENGTH. Myriametre = 6. 2137 miles. Kilometre =0.62137 mile = 3280 feet 10 inches. Hectometre = 328 feet 1 inch. Decametre =393.7 inches. Metre =39.37 inches. Decimetre = 3.937 inches. Centimetre = .3937 inch. Millimetre .0394 inch. MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 1,000 litres =1 kilolitre or 1 cubic metre. 100 " =*1 hectolitre or 0.1 cubic metre. 10 " =1 decalitre or 10 cubic decimetres. 1 litre = 1 litre or 1 cubic decimetre. .1 " =1 decilitre or 0.1 cubic decimetre. .01 " =1 centilitre or 10 cubic centimetres. ,001 " =1 millilitre or 0.1 cubic centimetre, 584 EQUIVALENTS OF DENOMINATIONS IN USE. EQUIVALENTS OF DENOMINATIONS IN USE. DRY MEASURE. 1 kilolitre = 1 . 308 cu. yds. 1 hectolitre =2 bu., 3.35 pks. 1 decalitre =9.08 quarts. 1 litre = .908 quart. 1 decilitre =6.1022 cu. in. 1 centilitre = .6102 cu. in. 1 millilitre = .061 cu. in. LIQUID MEASURE. 1 kilolitre =264.17 gal. 1 hectolitre = 26.417 " 1 decalitre = 2.6417 " 1 litre = 1 . 0567 qt. 1 decilitre = .845 gill. 1 centilitre = .368 fluid oz. 1 millilitre = .27 fluid dm. gr. ft 1,000,000 grains 100,000 " : 10,000 " : 1,000 " = 100 " -. 10 " = 1 .1 .01 ' .'001 ' 1 millier 1 quintal 1 myriagram 1 kilogram 1 hectogram 1 decagram 1 gram 1 decigram 1 centigram 1 milligram WEIGHTS. = 1 miljier or tonneau. = 1 quintal. = 1 myriagram. = 1 kilogram. = 1 hectogram. = 1 decagram. = 1 gram. = 1 decigram. = centigram. = milligram. = 2,204.6 = 220.46 22.046 " 2 . 2046 " 3 . 5274 ounces .3527 ounce 15.432 grains 1.5432 .1543 grain .0154 " Ibs. avoirdupois. In the metric system the meter is the base of all weights and measures which it employs. The meter is one-ten- millionth part of the distance measured on a meridian of the earth from the equator to the pole, and equals about 39.37 inches or nearly 3 ft. 3| inches. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 585 COMMON WEIGHTS AND MEASURES AND THEIR METRIC EQUIVALENTS. An inch =2.54 centimetres. A foot =.3048 metre. A yard= .9144 metre. A rod = 5 . 029 metres. A mile = 1 . 6093 kilometres. A square inch =6. 452 square centimetres. A square foot = .0929 sq. m. A square yard = .8361 sq. m. An acre = . 4047 hectare. A square mile =259 hectares. A cubic foot= .02832 cu. m. A cubic yard = . 7646 cu. m. A cord =3. 624 steres. A liquid quart = . 9465 litre. A gallon =3 . 786 litres. A dry quart = 1 . 101 litres A peck =8. 811 litres. A bushel =35 . 24 litres. An ounce avoirdupois = 28 . 35 grams. A pound avoirdupois = . 4336 kilogram. A ton = .9072 tonneau. A grain troy = .0648 gram. An ounce troy =31 . 104 grms. A pound troy == . 3732 kgrm. 586 METRIC CONVERSION TABLES. INTERCHANGEABLE TABLES BETWEEN UNITED STATES AND METRIC SYSTEMS. 1 Metre ==39.37 Inches. (Act of Congress.) LONG MEASURE. 64ths of an Millimetres Inches Centimetres Number. Inch to to 64ths to to Millimetres. of an Inch. Centimetres. Inches. 1 0.3969 2.5197 2.54 0.3937 2 0.7938 5.0394 5.08 0.7874 3 1 . 1906 7 . 5590 7.62 1.1811 4 1 . 5875 10.0787 10.16 1.5748 5 1.9844 12.5984 12.70 1.9685 6 2.3813 15.1181 15.24 2.3622 7 2.7781 17.6378 17.78 2.7559 8 3.1750 20.1574 20.32 3.1196 9 3.5719 22.6771 22.86 3.5433 Metres Feet Kilometres Miles Number. to to to to Feet. Metres. Miles. Kilometres. 1 3 . 2808 0.3048 0.62137 1 . 60935 2 6.5617 0.6096 1.24274 3.21869 3 9.8425 0.9144 1.86411 4.82804 4 13.1233 1.2192 2.48548 6.43739 5 16.4042 1 . 5240 3 . 10685 8.04674 6 19 . 6850 1.8288 3 . 72822 9 . 6560S 7 22.9658 2.1336 4.34959 11.26543 8 26.2467 2.4384 4.97096 12.87478 9 29.5275 2.7432 5.59233 14.48412 SQUARE MEASURE. Num- Square Inches to Square Centimet's Square Feet to Square Metres to Square Yards to Square Metres to ber. Square Centi- metres. to Square Inches. Square Metres. Square Feet. Square Metres. Square Yards. 1 6.4516 0.155 0.0929 10.7639 0.8361 1.196 2 12.9032 0.310 0.1858 21 . 5278 1 . 6722 2.392 3 19.3548 0.465 . 2787 32.2917 2.5084 3.588 4 25.8064 0.620 0.3716 43.0556 3.3445 4.784 5 32.2581 0.775 . 4645 53 . 8194 4.1806 5.980 6 38.7097 0.930 . 5574 64.5833 5.0167 7.176 7 45.1613 1.085 . 6503 75.3472 5.8528 8.372 8 51.6129 1.240 0.7432 86.1111 6.6890 9.568 9 58.0645 1.395 0.8361 96.8750 7.5251 10.764 METRIC CONVERSION TABLES. 587 INTERCHANGEABLE TABLES BETWEEN UNITED STATES AND METRIC SYSTEMS. SQUARE MEASURE. Square Square Num- ber. Acres to Hectares. Hectares to Acres. Miles to Square Kilo- Kilo- metres to Square Square Miles to Hectares. Hectares to Square Miles. metres. Miles. 1 0.4047 2.471 2.59 0.3861 259.00 0.00386 2 0.8094 4.942 5.18 0.7722 518.00 0.00772 3 1.2141 7.413 7.77 1.1583 777.01 0.01158 4 1.6188 9.884 10.36 1 . 5444 1036.01 0.01544 5 2.0235 12.355 12.95 1.9305 1295.02 0.01930 6 2.4282 14.826 15.54 2.3166 1554.02 0.02317 7 2.8329 17.297 18.13 2.7027 1813.03 0.02703 8 3.2376 19 . 768 20.72 3.0887 2072.03 0.03089 9 3 . 6422 22.239 23.31 3.4748 2331.04 0.03475 1 Kilogram = 2.2046 Pounds. (Act of Congress.) WEIGHTS. Num- ber. Kilo- grams to Ounces Troy. Troy Ounces to Grams. Grains to Milli- grams. Grams to Grains. Gross Tons to Metric Tons. Metric Tons to Gross Tons. 1 32.1507 31.1035 64.8004 15.432 1.0161 0.9842 2 64.3015 62.2070 129.6008 30 . 864 2.0321 1.9684 3 96.4522 93.3104 194.4012 46.296 3.0482 2.9526 4 128.6030 124.4139 259 . 2017 61 . 728 4.0642 3.9368 6 160.7537 155.5174 324.0021 77.160 5.0803 4.9210 6 192.9045 186.6209 3S8.8025 92 . 592 6.0963 5.9052 7 225.0552 217.7244 453.6029 108.024 7.1124 6.8894 8 257.2059 24S.8278 518.4033 123.456 8. 1285 7.8736 9 289.3567 279.9313 583.2037 138.888 9 . 1445 8.8578 Kilo- Avoir- Kilo- Num- ber. Avoir- dupois Ounces to grams to Ounces Avoir- dupois Pounds to Kilo- grams to Pounds Avoir- x Net Tons to Metric Tons. Metric Tons to Net Tons. dupois. grams. dupois. 1 28.3495 35.274 0.4536 2.2046 0.9072 1 . 1023 2 56.6990 70.548 0.9072 4.4092 1.8144 2.2046 3 85.0485 105.822 1.3603 6.6138 2.7216 3 . 3069 4 113.3980 141.096 1.8144 8.8184 3 . 6288 4.4092 5 141.7475 176.370 2.2680 11.0230 4.5360 5.5115 6 170.0970 211.644 2.7216 13.2276 5.4432 6.6138 7 198.4464 246.918 3.1752 15.4322 6.3504 7.7161 8 226.7959 282.192 3 . 6288 17.6368 7.2576 8.8184 9 255.1454 317.466 4.0824 19.8414 8.1647 9.9207 588 METRIC CONVERSION TABLES. INTERCHANGEABLE TABLES BETWEEN UNITED STATES AND METRIC SYSTEMS. , . _ j 1.0567 Quarts Liquid Measure. { " 1 0.908 Quart Dry Measure. ) LIQUID AND DRY MEASURE. (Act of Congress.) Litres to Quarts. Quarts to Litres. Litres to Gallons Num- Gallons, to Litres, ber. Liquid. Liquid. Liquid Dry. Liquid. Dry. 1 1.0567 0.908 . 9463 1.1013 0.2642 3.7854 2 2.1134 1.816 1.8927 2.2026 . 5284 7.5707 3 3.1701 2.724 2.8390 3.3040 0.7925 11.3561 4 4.2268 3.632 3 . 7854 4.4053 1.0567 15.1415 5 5.2835 4.540 4.7317 5 . 5066 1.3209 18.9268 6 6.3402 5.448 5.6781 6.6079 1.5851 22.7122 7 7.3969 6.356 6.6244 7.7093 1.8492 26.4976 8 8.4536 7.264 7 . 5707 8.8106 2.1134 30.2830 9 9.5103 8.172 8.5171 9.9119 2.3776 34.0683 Number. Cubic Metres to Gallons, Liquid. Gallons to Cubic Metres, Liquid. Hectolitres to Bushels, Dry. Bushels to Hectolitres, Dry. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 264.17 528.34 792.51 1056.68 1320.85 1585.02 1849.19 2113.36 2377.53 0.0038 0.0076 0.0114 0.0151 0.0189 0.0227 0.0265 0.0303 0.0341 2.8375 5.6750 8.5125 11.3500 14.1875 17.0250 19.8625 22 . 7000 25 . 5375 0.3524 . 7048 1.0573 1.4097 1.7621 2.1145 2.4670 2.8194 3.1718 CUBIC, HORSE-POWER, AND TON MEASURES. Num- ber. Cubic Cen- timetres to Cubic Inches. Cubic Inches to Cubic Cen- timetres. Cubic Metres to Cubic. Feet. Cubic Feet to Cubic Metres. Cubic Metres to Cubic Yards. Cubic Yards to Cubic Metres. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0.061 0.122 0.183 0.244 0.305 0.366 0.427 0.488 0.549 16.3934 32 . 7869 49.1803 65.5738 81.9672 98.3607 114.7541 131.1475 147.5410 35.316 70 . 632 105.948 141.264 176.580 211.896 247.212 282 . 528 317.844 0.0283 0.0566 0.0849 0.1133 0.1416 . 1699 . 1982 0.2265 0.2548 1.308 2.616 3.924 5.232 6.540 7.848 9.156 10.464 11.772 0.7645 1 . 5291 2.2936 3.0581 3.8226 4 . 5872 5.3517 6.1162 6.8807 METRIC CONVERSION TABLES. 589 INTERCHANGEABLE TABLES BETWEEN UNITED STATES AND METRIC SYSTEMS. Num- ber. Horse- power Metric to U.S. Horse- power U. S. to Metric. Foot- pounds to Kilogram- metres. Kilogram- metres to Foot- . pounds. Gross Tons per Sq. Ft. to Metric Tons per Sq. Metre. Metric Tons per Sq. Metre to Gross Tons per Sq. Foot. 1 0.986 1.014 0.1383 7.2329 10.937 0.091 2 1.973 2.028 0.2765 14.4659 21.873 0.183 3 2.959 3.042 0.4148 21.6988 32.810 0.274 4 3.945 4.056 0.5530 28.9317 43.747 0.366 5 4.932 5.069 0.6913 36.1646 54.684 0.457 6 5.918 6.083 0.8295 43.3976 65.620 0.549 7 6.904 7.097 0.9678 50.6305 76.557 0.640 8 7.890 8.111 1.1061 57.8634 87.494 0.731 9 8.877 9.125 1.2443 65.0963 98.431 0.823 MISCELLANEOUS. Number. Kilo, per Metre to Pounds per Pounds per Foot to Kilo, per Kilo, per Square Metre to Pounds per Pounds per Square Foot to Kilo, per Foot. Metre. Square Foot. Square Metre. 1 0.6720 1.4882 0.2048 4.8825 2 1.3439 2.9764 0.4096 9.7649 3 2.0159 4.4645 0.6144 14.6474 4 2.6879 5.9527 0.8193 19.5299 5 3 . 3598 7.4409 1.0241 24.4123 6 4.0318 8.9291 1.2289 29.2948 7 4.7037 10.4172 1.4337 34.1773 8 5.3757 11.9054 1.6385 39.0597 9 6.0477 13.3936 1.8433 43.9422 Number. Kilo, per Cubic Metre to Pounds per Cubic Foot. Pounds per Cubic Foot to Kilo, per Cubic Metre. Kilo, per Square Cen- timetre to Pounds per Square Inch. Pounds per Square Inch to Kilo, per Square Cen- timetre. 1 0.0624 16.0192 14.2232 0.0703 2 . 1248 32.0385 28.4465 0.1406 3 0.1873 48.0577 42.6697 0.2109 4 0.2497 64.0769 56.8929 0.2812 5 0:3121 80.0962 71.1161 0.3515 6 . 3745 96.1154 85.3394 0.4218 7 0.4370 112.1346 99.5626 0.4922 8 0.4994 128.1539 113.7858 0.5625 9 0.5618 144.1731 128.0090 0.6328 590 SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, ETC. SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS, LOGARITHMS, RECIPROCALS, CIRCUMFERENCES, AND CIRCULAR AREAS OF NOS. FROM 1 TO 1000. No. Square Cube. Square Root. Cube Root. Log. 1000 X Recip. No. = Diameter. Circum. Area. 1 1 1 1 . 0000 1.00000.00000 1000.000 3.142 0.7854 2 4 8 1.4142 .259910.30103 500.000 6.283 3.1416 3 9 27 1 . 7321 .4422'0. 47712 333.333 9.425 7.0686 4 16 64 2.0000 . 5874 . 60206 250.000 12.566 12.5664 5 25 125 2.2361 .7100 0.69897 200.000 15.708 19.6350 6 36 216 2.4495 .8171 0.77815 166.667 18.850 28.2743 7 49 343 2 . 6458 .9129 0.84510 142.857 21.991 38 . 4845 8 64 512 2 . 8284 2.0000 . 90309 125 . 000 25.133 50.2655 9 81 729 3 . 0000 2.0801 0.95424 111.111 28.274 63.6173 10 100 1000 3.1623 2.1544 1.00000 100.000 31.416 78.5398 11 121 1331 3.3166 2.2240 1.04139 90 . 9091 34.558 95.0332 12 144 1728 3.4641 2.2894 1.07918 83.3333 37.699 113.097 13 169 2197 3 . 6056 2.3513 1.11394 76.9231 40 . 841 132.732 14 196 2744 3.7417 2.4101 1.14613 71.4286 43.982 153.938 15 225 3375 3.8730 2.4662 1 . 17609 66.6667 47.124 176.715 16 256 4096 4 . 0000 2.5198 1.20412 62 . 5000 50.265 201.062 17 289 4913 4.1231 2.5713 1 . 23045 58 . 8235 53.407 226.980 18 324 5832 4 . 2426 2 . 6207 1 . 25527 55.5556 56.549 254.469 19 361 6859 4.3589 2 . 6684 1 . 27875 52.6316 59.690 283.529 20 400 8000 4.4721 2.7144 1.30103 50.0000 62.832 314.159 21 441 9261 4.582C 2.7589 1 . 32222 47.6190 65.973 346.361 22 484 10648 4.6904 2 . 8020 1.34242 45 . 4545 69.115 380.133 23 529 12167 4.7958 2 . 8439 1.36173 43 . 4783 72.257 415.476 24 576 13824 4 . 8990 2 . 8845 1.38021 41 . 6667 75 . 398 452.389 25 625 15625 5.0000 2 . 9240 1.39794 40.0000 78 . 540 490 . 874 26 676 17576 5.0990 2 . 9625 1.41497 38.4615 81.681 530 . 929 27 729 19683 5.1962 3.0000 1.43136 37.0370 84.823 572 . 555 28 784 21952 5.2915 3 . 0366 1.44716 35.7143 87 . 965 615.752 29 841 24389 5.3852 3.0723 1.46240 34 . 4828 91.106 660 . 520 30 900 27000 5 . 4772 3 . 1072 1.47712 33.3333 94.248 706.858 31 961 29791 5 . 5678 3.1414 1.49136 32.2581 97.389 754.768 32 1024 32768 5 . 6569 3.1748 1.50515 31.2500 100.531 804 . 248 33 1089 35937 5 . 7446 3 . 2075 1.51851 30.3030 103 . 673 855.299 34 1150 39304 5.8310 3 . 2396 1.53148 29.4118 106.814 907 . 920 35 1225 42875 5.9161 3.2711 1.54407 28.5714 109.956 962.113 36 1296 46656 6.0000 3.3019 1 . 55630 27.7778 113.097 1017.88 37 1369 50653 6.0828 3 . 3322 1 . 56820 27.0270 116.239 1075.21 38 1444 54872 6.1644 3 . 3620 1 . 57978 26.3158 119.381 1134.11 39 1521 59319 6 . 2450 3.3912 1.59106 25.6410 122.522 1194.59 40 1600 64000 6.3246 3 . 4200 1 . 60206 25 . 0000 125 . 66 1256.64 41 1681 68921 6.4031 3 . 4482 1.61278 24.3902 128.81 1320.25 42 1764 74088 6.4807 3 . 4760 1 . 62325 23 . 8095 131.95 1385.44 43 1849 79507 6 . 5574 3 . 5034 1 . 63347 23 . 2558 135.09 1452.20 44 1936 85184 6.6332 3 . 5303 1.64345 22.7273 138.23 1520.53 45 2025 91125 6.7082 3 . 5569 1 . 65321 22.2222 141.37 1590.43 46 2116 97336 6.7823 3 . 5830 1 . 66276 21.7391 144.51 1661.90 47 2209 103823 6 . 8557 3 . 6088 1.67210! 21.2766 147.65 1734.94 48 2304 110592 6 . 9282 3 . 6342 1 . 68124 j 20 . 8333 150.80 1809.56 49 2401 117649 7.0000' 3. 6593J 1.69020 20.4082 153.94 1885.74 SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, ETC. 591 SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS, LOGARITHMS, RECIPROCALS, CIRCUMFERENCES, AND CIRCULAR AREAS OF NOS. FROM 1 TO 1000 (Continued). No. Square Cube. Square Root. Cube Root. Log. 1000 X Recip. No. = Diameter. Circum. Area. 50 2500 125000 7.0711 3.6840 1.69897 20.0000 157.08 1963.50 51 2601 132651 7.1414 3.7084 1.70757 19.6078 160.22 2042.82 52 2704 140608 7.2111 3.7325 1.71600 19.2308 163.36 2123.72 53 54 2809 2916 148877 157464 7.2801 7.3485 3.7563 3 . 7798 1 . 72428 1 . 73239 18.8679 18.5185 166.50 169.65 2206.18 2290.22 55 3025 166375 7.4162 3.8030 1.74036 18.1818 172 . 79 2375.83 56 3136 175616 7.4833 3.8259 1.74819 17.8571 175.93 2463 . 01 57 3249 185193 7 . 5498 3 . 8485 1 . 75587 17.5439 179.07 2551.76 58 59 3364 3481 195112 205379 7.6158 7.6811 3.8709 3 . 8930 1 . 76343 1 . 77085 17.2414 16.9422 182.21 185.35 2G42 . 08 2733.97 60 3600 216000 7.7460 3.9149 1.77815 16.6667 188.50 2827.43 61 3721 226981 7.8102 3.9365, 1.78533 16.3934 191.64 2922 . 47 62 63 3844 3969 238328 250047 7.8740 7.9373 3.9579 1.79239 3 . 9791 1 . 79934 16.1290 15.8730 194.78 197.92 3019.07 3117.25 64 4096 262144 8.0000 4.0000 1.80618 15.6250 201.06 3216.99 65 4225 274625 8.0623 4.0207 1.81291 15.3846 204.20 3318.31 66 4356 287496 8.1240 4.0412 1.81954 15.1515 207 . 35 3421.19 67 4489 300763 8.1854 4.06151 1.82607 14.9254 210.49 3525 . 65 68 4624 314432 8.2462 4.0817 1.83251 14.7059 ^13.63 3631.68 69 4761 328509 8.3066 4.1016 1.83885 14.4928 216.77 3739.28 70 4900 343000 8 . 3666 4.1213 1.84510 14.2857 219.91 3848.45 71 5041 357911 8.4261 4.1408' 1.85126 14.0845 223 . 05 3959.19 72 5184 373248 8.4853 4.1602 1.85733 13.8889 226.19 4071.50 73 5329 389017 8.5440 4.1793! 1.86332 13 . 6986 229 . 34 4185.39 74 5476 405224 8.6023 4.1983 1.86923 13.5135 232.48 4300.84 75 5625 421875 8.6603 4.2172 1 . 87506 13 . 3333 235.62 4417.86 76 5776 438976 8.7178 4.2358 1.88081 13.1579 238.76 4536.46 77 5929 456533 8.7750 4.2543! 1.88649 12 . 9870 241.90 4656 . 63 78 6084 474552 8.8318 4.2727 1.89209 12.8205 245 . 04 4778.36 79 6241 493039 8 . 8882 4.2908 1.89763 12.6582 248.19 4901.67 80 6400 512000 8 9443 4 . 3089 1 . 90309 12.5000 251.33 5026.55 81 6561 531441 9.0000 4. 3267 i 1.90849 12.3457 254.47 5153.00 82 6724 551368 9.0554 4.3445 1.913S1 12.1951 257.61 5281.02 83 6889 571787 9.1104 4.3621' 1.91908 12.0482 260 . 75 5410.61 84 7056 592704 9.1652 4. 3795 ( 1.92428 11.9048 263 . 89 5541.77 85 7225 614125 9.2195 4 . 3968 1 . 92942 11.7647 267.04 5674.50 86 7396 636056 9.2736 4.4140 1.93450 11.6279 270.18 5808 . 80 87 7569 658503 9 . 3274 4.4310 1 . 93952 11.4943 273 . 32 5944.68 88 7744 681472 9.3808 4.4480 1 . 94448 11.3636 276 . 4f 6082.12 89 7921 704969 9.4340 4.4647 1.94939 11.2360 279.60 6221.14 90 8100 729000 9 . 4868 4.4814 1.95424 11.1111 282.74 6361.73 91 8281 753571 9 . 5394 4.4979 1 . 95904 10.9890 285 . 88 6503.88 92 8464 778688 9.5917 4.5144 1 . 96379 10.8696 289.03 6647 . 61 93 8649 804357 9.6437 4.5307 1.96848 10.7527 292.17 6792.91 94 8836 830584 9.6954 4.5468 1.97313 10.6383 295.31 6939.78 95 9025 857375 9 . 746$ 4.5629 1.97772 10.5263 298.45 7088 . 22 96 9216 884736 9 . 7980 4 . 5789 1 . 98227 10.4167 301.59 7238.23 97 9409 912673 9.848S 4.5947 1.98677 10.3093 304.73 7389.81 98 9604 941192 9 . 8995 4.6104 1.99123 10.20411 307.88 7542 . 96 99 9801 97029E 9 . 949S 4.6261 1.99564 10.1010 311.02 7697.69 592 SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, ETC. SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS, LOGARITHMS, RECIPROCALS, CIRCUMFERENCES, AND CIRCULAR AREAS OF NOS. FROM 1 TO 1000 (Continued). No. Square Cube. Square Root. Cube Root. Log. 1000 X Recip. No. = Diameter. Circum. Area. 10Q 10000 1000000 10.0000 4.6416 2 . 00000 10 . 0000 314.16 7853 . 98 101 10201 1030301 10.0499 4.6570 2.00432 9.90099 317.30 8011.85 102 10404 1061208 10.0995 4.6723 2.00860 9.80392 320 . 44 8171.28 103 10609 1092727 10 . 1489 4 . 6875 2.01284 9 . 70874 323.58 8332 . 29 104 10816 1124864 10.1980 4.7027 2.01703 9.61538 326.73 8494.87 105 11025 1157625 10.2470 4.7177 2.02119 9.52381 329.87 8659.01 106 11236 1191016 10.2956 4.7326 2.02531 9 . 43396 333.01 8824.73 107 11449 1225043 10.3441 4 . 7475 2 . 02938 9.34579 336.15 8992 . 02 108 11664 1259712 10.3923 4.7622 2.03342 9.25926 339.29 9160.88 109 11881 1295029 10 . 4403 4.77G9 2.03743 9.17431 342.43 9331.32 110 12100 1331000 10.4881 4.7914 2.04139 9.09091 345 . 58 9503.32 111 12321 1367631 10.5357 4.8059 2.04532 9.00901 348 . 72 9676.89 112 12544 1404928 10.5830 4.8203 2.04922 8 . 92857 351.86 9852.03 113 12769 1442897 10.6301 4.8346 2 . 05308 8 . 84956 355 . 00 10028.7 114 12996 1481544 10.6771 4.8488 2.05690 8.77193 358.14 10207.0 115 13225 1520875 10.7238 4.8629 2.06070 8.69565 361.28 10386.9 116 13456 1560896 10.7703 4.8770 2.06446 8 . 62069 364.42 10568.3 117 13689 1601613 10.8167 4.8910 2.06819 8.54701 367 . 57 10751.3 118 13924 1643032 10.8628 4.9049 2.07188 8.47458 370.71 10935 . 9 119 14161 1685159 10.9087 4.9187 2.07555 8 . 40336 373.85 11122.0 120 14400 1728000 10.9545 4 . 9324 2.07918 8 . 33333 376 . 99 11309.7 121 14641 1771561 11.0000 4.9461 2.08279 8.26446 380.13 11499.0 122 14884 1815848 11.0454 4 . 9597 2 . Q8636 8.19672 383.27 11689.9 123 15129 1860867 1 1 . 0905 4.9732 2.08991 8.13008 386 . 42 11882.3 124 15376 1906624 11.1355 4.9866 2.09342 8 . 06452 389.56 12076.3 125 15625 1953125 11.1803 5 . 0000 2.09691 8.00000 392 . 70 12271.8 126 15876 2000376 11.2250 5.0133 2.10037 7.93651 395 . 84 12469.0 127 1^129 2048383 11.2694 0.0265 2 . 10380 7.87402 398.98 12667.7 128 16384 2097152 11.3137 5.0397 2.10721 7.81250 402.12 12868.0 129 16641 2146689 11.3578 5.0528 2.11059 7.75194 405.27 13069.8 130 16900 2197000 11.4018 5 . 0658 2.11394 7.69231 408.41 13273.2 131 17161 2248091 11.4455 5.0788 2.11727 7 . 63359 411.55 13478.2 132 17424 2299968 11.4891 5.0916 2.12057 7.57576 414.69 13684.8 133 17689 2352637 11.5326 5.1045 2 . 1 2385 7.51880 417.83 13892.9 134 17956 2406104 11.5758 5.1172 2.12710 7 . 46269 420 . 97 14102.6 135 18225 2460375 11.6190 5.1299 2.13033 7.40741 424.12 14313.9 136 18496 2515456 11.6619 5.1426 2.13354 7 . 35294 427.26 14526.7 137 18769 2571353 11.7047 5.1551 2.13672 7 . 29927 430 . 40 14741.1 138 19044 2628072 11.7473 5.1676 2.13988 7.24638 433.54 14957.1 139 19321 2685619 11.7898 5.1801 2.14301 7.19424 436.68 15174.7 140 19600 2744000 11.8322 5.1925 2.14613 7.14286 439.82 15393.8 141 19881 2803221 11.8743 5.2048 2.14922 7 . 09220 442 . 96 15614.5 142 20164 2863288 11.9164 5.2171 2.15229 7 . 04255 446.11 15836.8 143 20449 2924207 11.9583 5 . 2293 2.15534 6.99301 449 . 25 16060.6 144 20736 2985984 12.0000 5.2415 2.15836 6.94444 452.39 16286.0 145 21025 3048625 12.0416 5.2536 2.16137 6.89655 455 . 53 16513.0 146 21316 3112136 12.0830 5 . 2656 2.16435 6 . 84932 458 . 67 16741.5 147 21609 3176523 12.1244 5.2776 2.16732 6.80272 461 . 81 16971.7 148 21904 3241792 12.1655 5.2896 2.17026 6.75676 464.96 17203.4 149 22201 3307949 12 . 2066 5.3015 2.17319 6.71141 468.10 17436.6 SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, ETC. SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS, LOGARITHMS, RECIPROCALS, CIRCUMFERENCES, AND CIRCULAR AREAS OF NOS. FROM 1 TO 1000 (Continued). No. Square Cube. Square Root. Cube Root. Log. 1000 X Recip. No. = Diameter. Circum. Area. 150 22500 3375000 12.2474 5.3133 2.17609 6.66667 471.24 17671.5 151 22301 3442951 12.2882 5.3251 2.17898 6.62252 474.38 17907.9 152 23104 3511808 12.3288 5.3368 2.18184 6.57895 477.52 18145.8 153 23409 3581577 12.3693 5.3485 2 . 18469 6.53595 480.66 18385.4 154 23716 3652264 12.4097 5.3601 2.18752 6.49351 483.81 18626.5 155 24025 3723875 12.4499 5.3717 2.19033 6.45161 486.95 18869.2 156 24336 3796416 12.4900 5.3832 2.19312 6.41026 490.09 19113.4 157 24649 3869893 12.5300 5.3947 2.19590 6.36943 493.23 19359.3 158 24964 3944312 12.5698 5.4061 2.19866 6.32911 496.37 19606.7 159 25281 4019679 12.6095 5.4175 2.20140 6.28931 499.51 19855.7 160 25600 4096000 12.6491 5.4288 2.20412 6.25000 502.65 20106.2 161 25921 4173281 12.6886 5.4401 2 . 20683 6.21118 505.80 20358.3 162 26244 4251528 12.7279 5.4514 2.20952 6.17284 508.94 20612.0 163 26569 4330747 12.7671 5 . 4626 2.21219 6.13497 512.08 20867.2 164 26896 4410944 12.8062 5.4737 2.21484 6.09756 515.22 21124.1 165 27225 4492125 12.8452 5.4848 2.21748 6.06061 518.36 21382.5 166 27556 4574296 12.8841 5 . 4959 2.22011 6.02410 521.50 21642.4 167 27889 4657463 12.9223 5 . 5069 2 . 22272 5 . 98802 524.65 21904.0 168 28224 4741632 12.9615 5.5178 2.22531 5.95238 527.79 22167.1 169 28561 4826809 13.0000 5.5288 2 . 22789 5.91716 530.93 22431.8 170 28900 4913000 13 . 0384 5 . 5397 2 . 23045 5.88235 534.07 22698.0 171 29241 5000211 13.0767 5.5505 2.23300 5.84795 537.21 22965 . 8 172 29584 5088448 13.1149 5.5613 2.23553 5.81395 540.35 23235 . 2 173 29929 5177717 13 1529 5.5721 2.23805 5.78035 543 . 50 23506.2 174 30276 5268024 13.1909 5.5828 2.24055 5.74713 546.64 23778.7 175 30625 5359375 13.2288 5.5934 2.24304 5.71429 549.78 24052.8 176 30976 5451776 13 . 2665 5.6041 2.24551 5.68182 552.92 24328.5 177 31329 5545233 13.3041 5.6147 2.24797 5.64972 556.06 24605.7 178 31684 5639752 13.3417 5.6252 2.25042 5.61798 559.20 24884.6 179 32041 5735339 13.3791 5.6357 2.25285 5.58659 562.35 25164.9 180 32400 5832000 13.4164 5.6462 2 . 25527 5.55556 565.49 25446.9 181 32761 5929741 13.4536 5 . 6567 2.25768 5.52486 568.63 25730.4 182 33124 6028568 13 . 4907 5.6671 2.26007 5.49451 571.77 26015.5 183 33489 6128487 13 . 5277 5 . 6774 2 . 26245 5.46448 574.91 26302.2 184 33856 6229504 13.5647 5.6877 2.26482 5.43478 578.05 26590.4 185 34225 6331625 13.6015 5 . 6980 2.26717 5.40541 581 . 19 26880.3 186 34596 6434856 13 . 6382 5.7083 2.26951 5.37634 584.34 27171.6 187 34969 6539203 13 . 6748 5.7185 2.27184 5.34759 587.48 27464.6 188 35344 6644672 13.7113 5.7287 2.27416 5.31915 590.62 27759.1 189 35721 6751269 13.7477 5.7388 2.27646 5.29101 593.76 28055.2 190 36100 6859000 13.7840 5.7489 2.27875 5.26316 596.90 28352.9 191 36481 6967871 13.8203 5.7590 2.28103 5.23560 600.04 28652.1 192 36864 7077888 13 . 8564 5.7690 2.28330 5.20833 603.19 28952.9 193 37249 7189057 13.8924 5.7790 2.23556 5.18135 606.33 29255 . 3 194 37636 7301384 13 . 9284 5.7890 2.28780 5.15464 609.47 29559.2 195 38025 7414875 13,9642 5 . 7989 2 . 29003 5.12821 612.61 29864 . 8 196 38416 7529536 14.0000 5.8088 2.29226 5.10204 615.75 30171.9 197 38809 7645373 14.0357 5.8186 2.29447 5.07614 618.89 30480.5 198 39204 7763392 14.0712 5.8285 2.29667 5.05051 622 . 04 30790 . 7 199 39601 7880599 14.1067 5.8383! 2.29885 5.02513 625.18 31102.6 594 SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, ETC. SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS, LOGARITHMS, RECIPROCALS, CIRCUMFERENCES, AND CIRCULAR AREAS OF NOS. FROM 1 TO 1000 (Continued). No Square Cube. Square Root. Cube Root. Log. 1000 X Recip. No. = Diameter. Circum. Area. 200 40000 8000000 14.1421 5.8480 2.30103 5.00000 628.32 31415.9 201 40401 8120601 14.1774 5.8578 2.30320 4.97512 631.46 31730.9 202 40804 8242408 1 4 . 2 1 27 i 5 . 8675 2.30535 4.95050 634 . 60 32047 . 4 203 41209 8365427 14.2478 5.8771 2.30750 4.92611 637.74 S2365.5 204 41616 8489664 14.2329 5.8868 2.30963 4.90196 640.89 32685.1 205 42025 8615125 14.3178 5.8964 2.31175 4.87805 644.03 33006 . 4 206 42436 8741816 14.3527 5.9059 2.31387 4.85437 647.17 33329.2 207 42349 8869743 14.3875 5.9155 2.31597 4.830C2 650.31 33653 . 5 208 43264 8998912 14.4222 5 . 9250 2.31806 4.80769 653 . 45 33979.5 209 43681 9129329 14.4568 5.9345 2.32015 4.78469 656.59 34307.0 210 44100 9261000 14.4914 5.9439 2.32222 4.76190 659.73 34636.1 211 44521 9393931: 14. 5258 5.9533 2 . 32428 4.73934 662 . 88 34966.7 212 44944 952312814.5602 5 . 9627 2.32634 4.71698 666.02 35298.9 213 45369 9663597 14.5945 5.9721 2.32838 4.69484 669.16 35632 . 7 214 45796 9800344 14.6287 5.9814 2.33041 4.67290 672.30 35968.1 215 46225 9938375 14.6629 5.9907 2.33244 4.65116 675.44 36305.0 216 46656 10077696 14.6969 6.0000 2 . 33445 4.62963 678.58 36643.5 217 47089 1 218313 14.7309 6.0092 2.33646 4.60829 681.73 36983.6 218 47524 10360232 14.7648 6.0185 2.33846 4.58716 684.87 37325.3 219 47961 10503459 14.7986 6.0277 2.34044 4.56621 688.01 37668.5 220 48400 10648000 14.8324 6.036S 2 . 34242 4.54545 691 . 15 38013.3 221 48841 10793861114.8661 6.0459 2.34439 4.52489 694.29 38359.6 222 49284 10941048'14.8997 6.0550 2.34635 4.50450 697 . 43 38707.6 223 49729 11089567:14.9332 6.0641 2.34830 4.48431 700.58139057.1 224 50176 11239424 14.9666 6.0732 2.35025 4.46429 703 . 72 39408 . 1 225 50625 11390625 15.0000 6.0822 2.35218 4.44444 706 . 86 39760.8 228 51076 11543176 15.0333 6.0912 2.35411 4.42478 710.00 40115.0 227 51529 11697083:15.0665 6.1002 2.35603 4 . 40529 713.14 40470 . 8 228 51984 11852352 15.0997 6.1091 2.35793 4.38596 716.28 40828.1 229 52441 12008989 15.1327 6.1180 2.35984 4.36681 719.42 41187.1 230 52900 12167000 15.1658 6.1269 2.36173 4.34783 722.57 41547.6 231 53361 12326391 15.1987 6.1358 2.36361 4 . 32900 725.71 41909.6 232 53824 12487168 15.2315 6.1446 2.36549 4.31034 728.85 42273.3 233 54289 12649337 15.2643 6.1534 2.36736 4.29185 731.99 42638.5 234 54756 12812904 15.2971 6.1622 2.36922 4.27350 735.13 43005.3 235 55225 12977875 15.3297 6.1710 2.37107 4.25532 738 . 27 43373.6 236 55696 13144256 15.3623 6.1797 2.37291 4.23729 741.42 43743.5 237 56169 13312053 15.3948 6.1885 2.37475 4.21941 744.56 44115.0 238 56644 13481272 15.4272 6.1972 2.37658 4.23168 747 . 70 44488.1 239 57121 13651919 15.4596 6.2058 2.37840 4.18410 750.84 44862.7 240 57600 13824000 15.4919 6.2145 2.38021 4.16667 753.98 45238.9 241 58081 13997521 15.5242 6.2231 2.38202 4.14938 757.12 45616.7 242 58564 14172488 15.5563 6.2317 2.38382 4.13223 760 . 27 45996.1 243 59049 14348907 15.5885 6.2403 2.38561 4.11523 763.41 46377.0 244 59536 14526784 15.6205 6.2488 2.38739 4.09836 766.55 46759.5 245 60025 14706125 15.6525 6.2573 2.38917 4.08163 769.69 47143.5 246 60516 14886936 15.6844 6.2658 2.39094 4.06504 772.83 47529 . 2 247 61009 15069223 15.7162 6 . 2743 2.39270 4.04858 775.97 47916.4 248 61504 15252992 15.7480 6.2S2S 2.39445 4.03226 779.12 48305 . 1 249 62001 15438249 1 5 . 7797 6.2912 2.39620 4.01606 782.26 48695.5 SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, ETC. 595 SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS, LOGARITHMS, RECIPROCALS, CIRCUMFERENCES, AND CIRCULAR AREAS OF NOS. FROM 1 TO 1000 (Continued). No. Square Cube. Square Root. Cube Root. Log. 1000 X Recip. No. == Diameter. Circuna. Area. 250 62500 15625000 15.8114 6.2996 2.39794 4.00000 785.40 49087 . 4 251 63001 15813251 15.8430 6.3080 2.39967 3 . 98406 788 . 54 49480.9 252 63504 16003008 15.8745 6.3164 2.40140 3.96825 791.68 49875.9 253 64009 16194277 15 . 9060 6.3247 2.40312 3.95257 794.82 50272.6 254 64516 16387064 15.9374 6.3330 2.40483 3.93701 797.96 50670 . 7 255 65025 16581375 15.9687 6.3413 2.40654 3.92157 801.11 51070.5 256 65536 16777216 16.0000 6.3496 2.40824 3.90625 804.25 51471.9 257 66049 16974593 16.0312 6.3579 2 . 40993 3.89105 807 . 39 51874.8 258 66564 17173512 16 . 0624 6.3661 2.41162 3 . 87597 810.53 52279.2 259 67081 17373979 16.0935 6.3743 2.41330 3.86100 813.67 52685.3 260 67600 17576000 16.1245 6.3825 2.41497 3.84615 816.81 53092 . 9 261 68121 17779581 16.1555 6.3907 2.41664 3.83142 819.96 53502.1 282 68644 17984723 16.1864! 6.3988! 2.41830 3.81679 823.10 53912.9 263' 69169 18191447 16.2173 6.4070 2.41996 3.80228 826.24 54325 . 2 264 69696 18399744 16.2481 6.4151 2.42160 3.78788 829.38 54739 . 1 265 70225 18609625 16.2788 6.4232 2.42325 3 . 77358 832.52 55154.6 286 70756 18821096 16.3095 6.4312 2.42488 3.75940 835.66 55571.6 267 71239 19034163 16.3401 6.4393 2.42651 3 . 74532 838.81 55990.3 268 71824 19248832 16.3707 6.4473 2.42313 3.73134 841.95 56410.4 269 72361 19465109 16.4012 6.4553 2.42975 3.71747 845.09 56832.2 270 72900 19683000 16.4317 6.4633 2.43136 3.70370 848.23 57255.5 271 73441 19902511 16.4621 6.4713i 2.43297 3 . 69004 851.37 57680.4 272 7398420123648 16.4924 6.4792 2.43457 3.67647 854.51 58106.9 273 74529 20346417 16.5227 6.4872 2.43616 3 . 66300 857.66 58534.9 274 75076 20570824 16.5529 6.4951 2.43775 3 . 64964 860.80 58964.6 275 75625 20796875 16.5831 6 . 5030 2 . 43933 3.63636 863.94 59395.7 276 76176 21024576 16.6132 6.5108 2.44091 3.62319 867.08 59828.5 277 76729 21253933 16.6433 6.5187 2.44248 3.61011 870.22 60262.8 278 77234 21484952 16.6733 6.5235 2.44404 3.59712 873 . 36 60698.7 279 77841 21717639 16.7033 ( 6.5343 2.44560 3 . 58423 876.50 61136.2 280 78400 21952000 16.7332 1 6.5421 2.44716 3.57143 879.65 61575.2 281 78961 22183041 16.7631 6.5499 2.44871 3.55872 882.79 62015.8 282 7952422425768 16.7929 6.5577 2.45025 3.54610 8S5.93 62458.0 283 80089 22665187 16.8228 6.5654 2.45179 3.53357 889.07 62901.8 284 80656 22906304 16.8523! 6.5731 2.45332 3.52113 892.21 63347.1 285 81225 23149125 16.8819 6.5808 2.45484 3.50877 895 . 35 63794.0 286 287 288 81796 23393656 8236923639903 82944 23887872 16.9115 16.9411 16.9706 6.5885 6 . 5962 6.6039 2.45637 2 . 45788 2.45939 3 . 49650 3 . 48432 3 . 47222 898.50 901.64 904.78 64242 .4 64692.5 65144.1 289 83521 24137569 17.0000 6.6115 2.46090 3.46021 907.92 65597 . 2 290 84100 24389000 17.0294 6.6191 2 . 462 40 3.44828 911.06 66052.0 291 84681 24642171 17.0587 6.6267 2 . 46389 3.43643 914.20 66508.3 292 8526424897088 17.0880 6 . 6343 2.46538 3 . 42466 917.35 66966 . 2 293 8584925153757 17.1172 6.6419 2 . 46687 3.41297 920.49 67425 . 6 294 86436 25412184 17.1464 6 . 6494 2 . 46835 3.40136 923 . 63 67886.7 295 87025 25672375 17.1756 6.6569 2 . 46982 3.38983 926.77 68349.3 296 8761625934336 17.2047 6 . 6644 2.47129! 3.37838 929.91 68813.5 297 88209 26198073 17.2337 6.6719 2.47276 3.36700 933.05 69279 . 2 298 88804 28463592 17.2627 6 . 6794 2.47422 3.35570 936.19 69746.5 2391 89401 25730899 17.2916 6.68691 2.47567 3.34448 939.34 70215.4 596 SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, ETC. SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS, LOGARITHMS, RECIPROCALS, CIRCUMFERENCES, AND CIRCULAR AREAS OF NOS. FROM 1 TO 1000 (Continued). No. Square Cube. Square Root. Cube Root. Log. 1000 X Recip. No. = Diameter. Circum. Area. 300 90000 27000000 17.3205 6.6943 2.47712 3.33333 942.48 70685.8 301 90601 27270901 17.3494 6.7018 2.47857 3.32226 945 . 62 71157 9 302 91204 27543608 17.3781 6.7092 2.48001 3.31126 948.76 71631.5 303 91809 27818127 17.4069 6.7166 2.48144 3.30033 951.90 72106.6 304 92416 28094464 17.4356 6.7240 2.48287 3.28947 955.04 72583.4 305 93025 28372625 17.4642 6.7313 2.48430 3.27869 958.19 73061.7 306 93636 28652616 17.4929 6.7387 2.48572 3.26797 961.33 73541.5 307 94249 28934443 17.5214 6.7460 2.48714 3.25733 964.47 74023.0 308 94864 29218112 17.5499 6.7533 2.48855 3.24675 967.61 74506.0 309 95481 29503629 17.5784 6.7606 2.48996 3.23625 970.75 74990.6 310 96100 29791000 17.6068 6.7679 2.49136 3.22581 973.89 75476.8 311 96721 30080231 17.6352 6.7752 2.49276 3.21543 977.04 75964.5 312 97344 30371328 17.6635 6.7824 2.49415 3.20513 980.18 76453.8 313 97969 30664297 17.6918 6.7897 2.49554 3.19489 983.32 76944.7 314 98596 30959144 17.7200 6.7969 2.49693 3.18471 986.46 77437.1 315 99225 31255875 17.7482 6.8041 2.49831 3.17460 989.60 77931.1 316 99856 31554496 17.7764 6.8113 2.49969 3.16456 992.74 78426.7 317 100489 31855013 17.8045 6.8185 2.50106 3.15457 995.88 78923.9 318 101124 32157432 17.8326 6.8256 2.50243 3.14465 999.03 79422.6 319 101761 32461759 17.8606 6.8328 2.50379 3.13480 1002.2 79922.9 320 102400 32768000 17.8885 6.8399 2.50515 3 . 12500 1005.3 80424.8 321 103041 33076161 17.9165 6.8470 2.50651 3.11527 1008.5 80928.2 322 103684 33386248 17.9444 6.8541 2.50786 3.10559 1011.6 81433.2 323 104329 33698267 17.9722 6.8612 2.50920 3 . 09598 1014.7 81939.8 324 104976 34012224 18.0000 6.8683 2.51055 3.08642 1017.9 82448.0 325 105625 34328125 18.0278 6.8753 2.51188 3.07692 1021.0 82957.7 326 10G276 34645976 18.0555 6.8824 2.51322 3.06749 1024.2 83469.0 327 106929 34965783 18.0831 6.8894 2.51455 3.05810 1027.3 83981.8 328 107584 35287552 18.1108 6.8964 2.51587 3.04878 1030.4 84496.3 329 108241 35611289 18.1384 6.9034 2.51720 3.03951 1033.6 85012.3 330 108900 35937000 18.1659 6.9104 2.51851 3.03030 1036.7 85529.9 331 109561 36264691 18.1934 6.9174 2.51983 3.02115 1039.9 86049.0 332 110224 36594368 18.2209 6.9244 2.52114 3.01205 1043.0 86569.7 333 110889 36926037 18.2483 6.9313 2.52244 3.00300 1046.2 87092.0 334 111556 37259704 18.2757 6.9382 2.52375 2.99401 1049.3 87615.9 335 112225 37595375 18 . 3030 6.9451 2.52504 2 . 98507 1052.4 88141.3 336 112896 37933056 18.3303 6.9521 2.52634 2.97619 1055.6 88668.3 337 113569 38272753 18.3576 6.9589 2 . 52763 2 . 96736 1058.7 89196.9 338 114244 38614472 18.3848 6.9658 2.52892 2.95858 1061.9 89727.0 339 114921 38958219 18.4120 6.9727 2 . 53020 2.94985 1065.0 90258.7 340 115600 39304000 18 . 4391 6.9795 2.53148 2.94118 1068.1 90792.0 341 116281 39651821 18 . 4662 6.9864 2.53275 2.93255 1071.3 91326.9 342 116964 40001688 18 . 4932 6.9932 2 . 53403 2.92398 1074.4 91863.3 343 117649 40353607 18.5203 7.0000 2.53529 2.91545 1077.6 92401.3 344 118336 40707584 18.5472 7.0068 2.53656 2.90698 1080.7 92940 . 9 345 119025 41063625 18.5742 7.0136 2.53782 2.89855 1083.8 93482.0 346 119716 41421736 18.6011 7.0203 2 . 53908 2.89017 1087.0 94024 . 7 347 120409 41781923 18.6279 7.0271 2.54033 2.88184 1090 . 1 94569.0 348 121104 42144192 18.6548 7.0338 2.54158 2.87356 1093 . 3 95114.9 349 121801 42508549H8.6815 7.0406 2.54283 2.86533 1096.4 95662.3 SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, ETC. 597 SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS, LOGARITHMS, RECIPROCALS, CIRCUMFERENCES, AND CIRCULAR AREAS OF NOS. FROM 1 TO 1000 (Continued). No. Square Cube. Square Root. Cube Root. Log. 1000 X Ilecip No. = Diameter. Circum. Area. 350 122500 42875000 18.7083 7.0473 2.54407 2.85714 1099.6 96211.3 351 123201 43243551 18 . 7350 7.0540 2.54531 2.84900 1102.796761.8 352 123904 43614208 18.7617 7.0607 2 . 54654 2.84091 1105.897314.0 353 124609 43986977 18.7883 7.0674 2.54777 2.83286 1109.0!97867.7 354 125316 44361864 18.8149 7.0740 2.54900 2.82486 1112.1 98423.0 355 126025 44738875 18.8414 7.0807 2 . 55023 2.81690 1115.3 98979.8 356 126736 45118016 18.8680 7.0873 2.55145 2.80899 1118.4 99538.2 357 127449 45499293 18.8944 7.0940 2.55267 2.80112 1121.5 100098 358 128164 45882712 18.9209 7.1006 2 . 55388 2 . 79330 1124.7 100660 359 128881 46268279 18.9473 7.1072 2.55509 2.78552 1127.8 101223 360 129600 46656000 18 . 9737 7.1138 2.55630 2.77778 1131.0 101788 361 130321 47045881 19.0000 7.1204 2.55751 2.77008 1134.1 102354 362 131044 47437928 19.0263 7.1269 2 . 55871 2 . 76243 1137.3 102922 363 131769 47832147 19.0526 7.1335 2.55991 2.75482 1140.4 103491 364 132496 48228544 19.0788 7.1400 2.56110 2.74725 1143.5 104062 365 133225 48627125 19.1050 7.1466 2 . 56229 2.73973 1146.7 104635 366 13395649027896 19.1311 7.1531 2.56348 2.73224 1149.8 105209 367 134689 [49430863 19.1572 7 . 1596 2.56467 2.72480 1153.0 105785 368 135424 49836032 19.1833 7.1661 2.56585 2.71739 1156.1 106362 369 136161 50243409 19 . 2094 7.1726 2.56703 2.71003 1159.2 106941 370 136900 50653000 19 . 2354 7.1791 2.56820 2.70270 1162.4 107521 371 13764151064811 19.2614 7 . 1855 2 . 56937 2 . 69542 1165.5 108103 372 13838451478848 19.2873 7.1920 2.57054 2.68817 1168.7 108687 373 139129151895117 19.3132 7.1984 2.57171 2.68097 1171.8 109272 374 139876152313624 19.3391 7.2048 2.57287 2 . 67380 1175.0 109858 375 140625 52734375 19.3649 7.2112 2.57403 2 . ^6667 1178.1 110447 376 141376 53157376 19.3907 7.2177 2.57519 2.65957 1181.2 111036 377 142129 53582633 19.4165 7 . 2240 2.57634 2 . 65252 1184.4 111628 378 142884 54010152 19.4422 7.2304 2.57749 2.64550 1187.5 112221 379 143641 54439939 19.4679 7.2368 2.57864 2 . 63852 1190.7 112815 380 144400 54872000 19.4936 7 . 2432 2.57978 2.63158 1193.8 113411 381 145161 55306341 19.5192 7 . 2495 2.58093 2 . 62467 1196.9 114009 382 145924 55742968 19.5448 7.2558 2.58206 2.61780 1200.1 114608 383 146689 56181887119.5704 7 . 2622 2 . 58320 2.61097 1203.2 115209 384 147456 56623104 19.5959 7.2685 2.58433 2.60417 1206.4 115812 385 148225 57066625 19.6214 7 . 2748 2.58546 2.59740 1209.5 116416 386 148996 57512456 19.6469 7.2811 2 . 58659 2 . 59067 1212.7 117021 387 149769 57960603 19.6723 7 . 2874 2.58771 2 . 58398 1215.8 117628 388 150544 58411072 19.6977 7 . 2936 2.58883 2.57732 1218.9 118237 389 151321 58863869 19.7231 7 . 2999 2 . 58995 2 . 57069 1221.1 118847 390 152100 59319000 19.7484 7.3061 2.59106 2.56410 1225.2 119459 391 152881 59776471 19.7737 7.3124 2.59218 2.55755 1228.4 120072 392 153664 60236288 19.7990 7.3186 2.59329 2.55102 1231.5 120687 393 154449 60698457 19.8242 7.3248 2 . 59439 2.54453 1234.6 121304 394 155236 61162984 19.8494 7.3310 2.59550 2.53807 1237.8 121922 395 156025 61629875 19.8746 7.3372 2.59660 2.53165 1240.9 122542 396 156816 62099136 19.8997 7.3434 2.59770 2 . 52525 1244.1 123163 397 157609 62570773 19.9249 7 . 3496 2 . 59879 2.51889 1247.2 123786 398 158404 63044792 19.9499 7.3558 2.59988 2.51256 1250.4 124410 399 159201 63521199 19.9750 7.3619 2.60097 2.50627 1253.5 125036 598 SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, ETC. SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS, LOGARITHMS, RECIPROCALS, CIRCUMFERENCES, AND CIRCULAR AREAS OF NOS. FROM 1 TO 1000 (Continued). No. = Diameter. No. Square Cube. Square Root. Cube Root. Log. 1000 X Recip. Circum. Area. 400 160000 64000000 20 . 0000 7.3681 2 . 60206 2 . 50000 1256 6 125664 401 160801 64481201 20.0250 7 . 3742 2.60314 2 . 49377 1259.8 126293 402 161604 64964808 20 . 0499 7.3803 2.60423 2.48756 1262.9 126923 403 162409 65450827 20 . 0749 7.3864 2.60531 2.48139 1266.1 127556 404 163216 65939264 20.0998 7 . 3925 2 . 60638 2.47525 1269.2 128190 405 164025 66430125 20.1246 7.3986 2 . 60746 2.46914 1272 3 128825 406 164836 66923416 20.1494 7 . 4047 2.60853 2 . 46305 1275.5 129462 407 165649 67419143 20.1742 7.4108 2 . 60959 2 . 45700 1278.6 130100 408 166464 67917312 20 . 1990 7.4169 2.61066 2 . 45098 1281 8 130741 409 167281 68417929 20 . 2237 7.4229 2.61172 2.44499 1284.9 131382 410 168100 68921009 20 . 2485 7 . 4290 2.61278 2.43902 1288.1 132025 411 168921 69426531 20.2731 7 . 4350 2.61384 2.43309 1291 2 132670 412 169744 69934523 20 . 2978 7.4410 2.61490 2.42718 1294.3 133317 413 170569 70444997 23 . 3224 7 . 4470 2.61595 2.42131 1297.5 133965 414 171396 70957944 20 3470 7 . 4530 2.61700 2.41546 1300.6 134614 415 172225 71473375 20.3715 7.45CO 2.61805 2 . 40964 1303.8 135265 416 173056 71991296 20.3961 7.4650 2.61909 2 . 40385 1306.9 135918 417 173889 72-11713 20 . 4206 7.4710 2.62014 2 . 39808 1310.0 136572 418 174724 73034632 20 . 4450 7.4770 2.62118 2.39234 1313.2 137228 419 175561 73560059 20 . 4695 7.4829 2.62221 2 . 38664 1316.3 137885 420 176400 74088090 20 . 4939 7.4889 2 . 62325 2 . 38095 1319.5 138544 421 177241 74618461 20.5183 7 . 4948 2.62428 2.37530 1322.6 139205 422 178084 75151448 20 . 5426 7.5007 2.62531 2 . 36967 1325.8 139867 423 178929 75686967 20 . 5670 7 . 5067 2 . 62634 2.36407 1328.9 140531 424 179776 76225024 20.5913 7 5126 2.62737 2 . 35849 1332.0 141196 425 180625 76765625 20.6155 7.5185 2.62839 2.35294 1335.2 141863 426 181476 77308776 20 . 6398 7 . 5244 2.62941 2 . 34742 1338.3 142531 427 182329 77854483 20 6640 7.5302 2.63043 2.34192 1341.5 143201 428 183184 78402752 20 . 6882 7.5361 2.63144 2 . 33645 1344.6 143872 429 184041 78953589 20.7123 7.5420 2.63246 2.33100 1347.7 144545 430 184900 79507000 20 . 7364 7 . 5478 2 . 63347 2.32558 1350.9 145220 431 185761 80062991 20 . 7605 7.5537 2.63448 2.32019 1354.0 145896 432 186624 80621568 20 . 7846 7 . 5595 2 . 63548 2.31482 1357.2 146574 433 187489 81182737 20 . 8087 7 . 5654 2.63649 2.30947 1360.3 147254 434 188356 81746504 20 . 8327 7.5712 2 . 63749 2.30415 1363.5 147934 435 189225 82312875 20 . 8567 7 . 5770 2 . 63849 2 . 29885 1366.6 148617 436 190096 82881856 20 . 8806 7 . 5828 2.63949 2 . 29358 1369.7 149301 437 190969 83453453 20 . 9045 7 . 5886 2.64048 2 . 28833 1372.9 149987 438 191844 84027672 20 . 9284 7 . 5944 2.64147 2.28311 1376.0 150674 439 192721 84604519 20.9523 7.6001 2.64246 2 . 27790 1379.2 151363 440 193600 85184000 20 . 9762 7.6059 2 . 64345 2.27273 1382.3 152053 441 194481 85766121 21.0000 7.6117 2 . 64444 2 . 26757 1385.4 152745 442 195364 86350888 21.0238 7.6174 2.64542 2 . 26244 1388.6 153439 443 196249 86938307 21.0476 7 . 6232 2 . 64640 2 . 25734 1391.7 154134 434 197136 87528384 21.0713 7 . 6289 2.64738 2.25225 1394.9 154830 445 198025 88121125 21.0950 7.6346 2 . 64836 2.24719 1398.0 155528 446 198916 88716536 21.1187 7.6403 2 . 64933 2.24215 1401.2 156228 447 199809 89314623 21 . 1424 7 . 6460 2.65031 2.23714 1404.3 156930 448 200704 89915392 21.1660 7.6517 2.65128 2.23214 1407.4 157633 449 201601 90518849 21 . 1896 7 . 6574 2 . 65225 2.22717 1410.6 158337 SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, ETC. 599 SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS, LOGARITHMS, RECIPROCALS, CIRCUMFERENCES, AND CIRCULAR AREAS OF NOS. FROM 1 TO 1000 (Continued). No. Square Cube. Square Root. Cube Root. Log. 1000 X Recip. No. = Diameter. Ciroum. Area. 450 202500 91125000 21.2132 7.6631 2.65321 2 . 22222 1413.7 159043 451 203401 91733851 21.2368 7.6688 2.65418 2.21730 1416.9 159751 452 204304 9234540821.2603 7.6744 2.65514 2.21239 1420.0 160460 453 205209 9295967721.2838 7.6801 2.65610 2.20751 1423.1 161171 454 206116 93576664 21.3073 7.6857 2.65706 2.20264 1426.3 161883 455 207025 94196375 21.3307 7.69142.65801 2.19780 1429 . 4 162597 456 207936 9481881621.3542 7.69702.65896 2.19298 1432.6 163313 457 208849 9544399321.3776 7.70262.65992 2.18818 1435.7 164030 458 209764 9607191221.4009 7.70822.66087 2.18341 1438.9 164748 459 210681 96702579 21.4243 7.71382.66181 2.17865 1442.0 165468 460 211600 97336000 21.4476 7.71942.66276 2.17391 1445.1 166190 461 (212521 97972181 21.4709 7.72502.66370 2.16923 1448.3 166914 462 213444 9861112821.4942 7.73062.66464 2.16450 1451.4 167639 463 214369 9925284721.5174 7.73622.66558 2.15983 1454.6 168365 464 215296 99897344 21.5407 7.74182.66652 2.15517 1457.7 169093 465 216225 100544625 21.5639 7.74732.66745 2.15054 1460.8 169823 466 217156 10119469621.5870 7 . 7529 2 . 66839 2.14592 1464.0 170554 467 218089 10184756321.6102 7 . 7584 2 . 66932 2.14133' 1467.1 171287 468 219024 102503232 21.6333 7 . 7639 2.67025 2.13675 1470.3 172021 469 219961 103161709 21 . 6564 7 . 7695 2.67117 2. 1322 J 1473.4 172757 470 220900 103823000 21.6795 7 . 7750 2.67210 2.12766 1476.5 173494 471 221841 104487111 21.7025 7.7805 2.67302 2.12314 1479.7 174234 472 222784 105154048 21.7256 7 . 7860 2 . 67394 2.11864 1482.8 174974 473 223729 105823817 21.7486 7.7915 2 . 67486 2.11417 1486.0 175716 474 224676 106496424 21.7715 7.7970 2.67578 2.10971 1489.1 176460 475 225625 107171875 21 . 7945 7.8025 2.67669 2.10526 1492.3 177205 476 226576 107850176 21.8174 7 . W9 2 . 67761 2.10084 1495.4 177952 477 227529 108531333 21.8403 7.8134 2 . 67852 2.09644 1498.5 178701 478 228484 109215352 21.8632 7.8188 2 . 67943 2 . 09205 1501.7 179451 479 229441 109902239 21.8861 7.8243 2.68034 2 . 08768 1504.8 180203 480 230400 110592000 21 . 9089 7 . 8297 2.68124 2.08333 1508.0 180956 481 231361 111284641 21.9317 7.8352 2.68215 2.37900 1511.1 181711 482 232324 111980168 21 . 9545 7.8406 2 . 68305 2.07469 1514.3 182467 483 233289 112678587 21.9773 7 . 8460 2 . 68395 2.07039 1517.4 183225 484 234256 113379904 22.0000 7.8514 2 . 68485 2.06612 1520.- 183984 485 235225 114084125 22 . 0227 7.8568 2 . 68574 2.06186 1523.7 184745 486 236196:114791256 22.0454 7 . 8622 2.68664 2.05761 1526.8 185508 487 237169 115501303 22.0681 7.86762.68753 2.05339 1530.0 186272 488 238144 116214272 22.0907 7 . 8730 2 . 68842 2.04918 1533.1 187038 490 239121 116930169 22.1133 7.8784 2.68931 2.04499 1536.2 187805 490 240100 117649000 22.1359 7 . 8837 2.6902o! 2.04082 1539.4 188574 491 241081 118370771 22 . 1585 7.889l!2.69108| 2.03666 1542.5 189345 492 242064 119095488 22.1811 7.89442.69197J 2.03252 1545.7 190117 493 243049 119823157 22 . 2036 7 . 8998 2 . 69285 2 . 02840 1548.8 190890 494 244036 120553784 22.2261 7.9051 2 . 69373 2.02429 1551.9 191665 495 245025 121287375 22 . 2486 7.910.1 2 . 69461 2 02020 1555.1 192442 496 2460 ie 12202393? 22.27111 7.91582.69548! 2.01613 1558.2 193221 497 24700 122763473 22.2035' 7.9211 2.69636 2.01207 1561.4 194000 498 248004 1 23505992 22 . 3 1 59 7 . 9264 2 . 69723 2 . 00803 1564.5 194782 499 249001 124251499122.3383 7. 9317 12 69810 2. 00401 1 1567.71 195565 600 SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, ETC. SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS, LOGARITHMS, RECIPROCALS, CIRCUMFERENCES, AND CIRCULAR AREAS OF NOS. FROM 1 TO 1000 (Continued}. No. Square Cube. Square Root. Cube Root. Log. 1000 X Recip. No. = Diameter. Circum. Area. 500~ 250000 125000000 22.3607 7.9370 2.69897 2.00000 1570.8 196350 501 251001 125751501 22.3830 7.94232.69984 .99601 1573.9 197136 502 252004 126506008 22.4054 7.9476 2.70070 .99203 1577 . 1 197923 503 253009 127263527 22.4277 7.9528 2.70157 . 98807 1580.2 198713 504 254016 128024064 22.4499 7.9581 2.70243 .98413 1583.4 199504 505 255025 128787625 22.4722 7.9634 2. 70329 ' .98020 1586.5 200296 506 256036 129554216 22.4944 7.9686 2.70415 .97629 1589 . 7 201090 507 257049 130323843 22.5167J 7.9739 2.70501 .97239 1592.8 201886 508 258064 131096512 22.5389 7.9791 2.70586 .96850 1595 . 9 202683 509 259081 131872229 22.5610 7.9843 2 . 70672 . 96464 1599.1 202482 510 260100 132651000 22 . 5832 7.9896 2 . 70757 . 96078 1602.2 204282 511 261121 133432831 22.6053 7.9948 2.70842 .95695 1605.4 205084 512 262144 134217728 22.6274 8.0000 2.70927, .95312 1608.5 205887 513 263169 135005697 22.6495 8.0052 2.71012 .94932 1611.6 206692 514 264196 135796744 22.6716 8.0104 2.71096 . 94553 1614.8 207499 515 265225 136590875 22 . 6936 8.0156 2.71181 .94175 1617.9 208307 516 266256 137388096 22.7156 8 . 0208 2.71265 .93798 1621.1 209117 517 267289 138188413 22 . 7376 8.0260 2.71349 .93424 1624.2 209928 518 268324 138991832 22.7596 8.0311 2.71433 93050 1627.3 210741 519 269361 139798359 22.7816 8.0363 2.71517 . 92678 1630.5 211556 520 270400 140608000 22.8035 8.0415 2.71600 . 92308 1633 . 6 212372 521 271441 141420701 22.8254 8.0466 2.71684 .91939 1636.8 213189 522 272484 142236548 22.8473 8.0517 2.71767 .91571 1639.9 214008 523 273529 143055667 22.8692 8.0569 2.71850 .91205 1643.1 214829 524 274576 143877824 22.8910 8 . 0620 2.71933 . 90840 1646.2 215651 '25 275625 144703125 22.9129 8.0671 2 72016 1 .90476 1649.3 216475 526 276676 145531576 22. 9347 8.0723 2.72099 .90114 1652.5 217301 527 277729 146363183 22 9565 8.0774 2.72181 .89753 1655.6 218128 523 278784 147197952 22.9783 8.0825 2.72263 .89394 1658.8 218956 529 279841 148035889 23.0000 8.0876 2 . 72346 .89036 1661.9 219787 530 280900 148877000 23.0217 8.0927 2.72428 88679 1665.0 220618 531 281961 149721291 23 . 0434 8.0978 2 . 72509 . 88324 1668.2 221452 532 283024 150568768 23 . 0651 8.1028 2.72591 . 87970 1671.3 222287 533 214089 151419437 23 . 0868 8.1079 2 . 72673 .87617 1674.5 223123 534 285156 152273304 23.1084 8.1130 2.72754 .87266 1677.6 223961 535 28622T 153130375 23 . 1301 8.1180 2.72835 .86916 1680.8 224801 536 287296 153990656 23.1517 8.1231 2.72916 .86567 1683.9 225642 537 2S8369 154854153 23.1733 8.1281 2 . 72997 . 86220 1687.0 226484 538 289444 155720872 23 . 1948 8.1332 2 . 73038 1 . 85874 1690.2 227329 539 290521 156590819 23.2164 8.1382 2.73159 1 . 85529 1693.3 228175 540 291600 157464000 23 . 2379 8.1433 2.73239 1.85185 1696.5 229022 541 292681 158340421 23.2594 1 8.1483 2.73320 1.84843 1699.6 229871 542 293764 159220088 23.2809 8.1533 2 . 73400 1 . 84502 1702.7 230722 543 294849 160103007 23.3024 8.1583|2.73480 1.84162 1705.9 231574 544 295936 160989184 23 . 3238 8.1633 2.73560 1.83824 1709.0 232428 545 297025 161878625 23 . 3452 8.1683 2 . 73640 1.83486 1712.2 233283 546 298116 162771336 23.3666! 8.1733 2 73719 1.83150 1715.3 234140 547 548 2992091163667323 23 . 3880 8 . 1783 300304! 1 64566592 23 . 4094 8 . 1833 2.73799 1.82815 2.73878 1.82482 1718.5 1721.6 234998 235858 549 301401 i 165469149 23 . 4307i 8 . 1882 2.73957 1.82149 1724.7 236720 SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, ETC. 601 SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS, LOGARITHMS, RECIPROCALS, CIRCUMFERENCES, AND CIRCULAR AREAS OF NOS. FROM 1 TO 1000 (Continued). No. Square Cube. 166375000 167284151 168196608 169112377 170031464 Square Root. Cube Root. Log. 1000 X Recip. No. = Diameter. Circum. Area. 550 551 552 553 554 302500 303601 304704 305809 306916 23 . 4521 23 . 4734 23 . 4947 23 . 5160 23 . 5372 8.1932 8.1982 8.2031 8.2081 8.2130 2.74036 2.74115 2.74194 2 . 74273 2.74351 .81818 .81488 .81159 .80832 .80505 1727.9 1731.0 1734.2 1737.3 1740.4 237583 238448 239314 240182 241051 555 556 557 558 559 308025 309136 310249 311364 312481 170953875 171879616 172808693 173741112 174676879 23 . 5584 23 . 5797 23 . 6008 23 . 6220 23 . 6432 8.2180 8.2229 8.2278 8.2327 8.2377 2 . 74429 2.74507 2 . 74586 2.74663 2.74741 .80180 . 79856 .79533 .79211 .78891 1743 . 6 1746.7 1749.9 1753.0 1756.2 241922 242795 243669 244545 245422 560 561 562 563 564 313600 314721 315844 316969 318096 175616000 176558481 177504328 178453547 179406144 23 . 6643 23 . 6854 23 . 7065 23 . 7276 23.7487 8 . 2426 8.2475 8.2524 8 . 2573 8.2621 2.74819 2.74896 2 . 74974 2.75051 2.75128 .78571 .78253 .77936 .77620 . 77305 1759.3 1762.4 1765.6 1768.7 1771.9 246301 247181 248063 248947 249832 565 566 567 568 569 319225 320356 321489 322624 323761 180362125 181321496 182284263 183250432 184220009 23 . 7697 23 . 7908 23.8118 23 . 8328 23 . 8537 8.2670 8.2719 8.2768 8 2816 8.2865 2.75205 2.75282 2.75358 2.75435 2.75511 . 76991 . 76678 . 76367 . 76056 . 75747 1775.0 1778.1 1781.3 1784.4 1787.6 250719 251607 252497 253388 254281 570 571 572 573 574 324900 326041 327184 328329 329476 185193000 186169411 187149248 188132517 189119224 23 . 8747 23 . 8956 23.9165 23 . 9374 23 . 9583 8.2913 8 . 2962 8.3010 8.3059 8.3107 2.75587 2.75664 2 . 75740 2.75815 2.75891 1 . 75439 1.75131 1 . 74825 1 . 74520 1.74216 1790.7 1793.9 1797.0 1800.1 1803.3 255176 256072 256970 257869 258770 575 576 577 578 579 330625 331776 332929 334084 335241 190109375 191102976 192100033 193100552 194104539 23 . 9792 24.0000 24.0208 24.0416 24.0624 8.3155 8 . 3203 8.3251 8 . 3300 8 . 3348 2.75967 2 . 76042 2.76118 2.76193 2 . 76268 1.73913 1.73611 1.73310 1.73010 1.72712 1806.4 1809 . 6 1812.7 1815.8 1819.0 259672 260576 261482 262389 263298 580 336400 195112000 581)337561 196122941 5823387241197137368 SSS^SgSSg; 198155287 584 341056 199176704 24.0832 24.1039 24.1247 24.1454 24.1661 8.3396 8 . 3443 8.3491 8 . 3539 8 . 3587 2 . 76343 2.76418 2 . 76492 2 . 76567 2 . 76641 .72414 .72117 .71821 .71527 .71233 1822.1 1825.3 1828.4 1831.6 1834.7 264208 265120 266033 266948 267865 585 586 587 588 589 342225 343396 344569 345744 346921 200201625 201230056 202262003 203297472 204336469 24.1868 24 . 2074 24.2281 24 . 2487 24 . 2693 8 . 3634 8 . 3682 8.3730 8 . 3777 8 . 3825 2.76716 2 . 76790 2 . 76864 2 . 76938 2.77012 1 . 70940 1 . 70649 1 . 70358 1 . 70068 1 . 69779 1837.8 1841.0 1844.1 1847.3 1850.4 268783 269701 270624 271547 272471 590348100 591 349281 592 350464 593351649 594352836 205379000 206425071 207474688 208527857 209584584 24 . 2899 24.3105 24.3311 24.3516 24.3721 8 . 3872 8.3919 8 . 3967 8.4014 8.4061 2 . 77085 2.77159 2 . 77232 2.77305 2.77379 1 . 69492 1 . 69205 1.68919 1 . 68634 1 . 68350 1853.5 1856.7 1859.8 1863.0 1866.1 273397 274325 275254 276184 277117 595 354025 596355216 597 356409 598357604 599 358801 210644875 211708736 212776173 213847192 214921799 24 . 3926 24.4131 24.4336 24 . 4540 24.4745 8.4108 8.4155 8 . 4202 8 . 4249 8.4296 2.77452 2.77525 2 . 77597 2 . 77670 2 . 77743 1 . 68067 1 . 67785 1 . 67504 1 . 67224 1 . 66945 1869.3 1872.4 1875.5 1878.7 1881.8 278051 278986 279923 280862 281802 602 SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, ETC. SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS, LOGARITHMS, RECIPROCALS, CIRCUMFERENCES, AND CIRCULAR AREAS OF NOS. FROM 1 TO 1000 (Continued). No. Square Cube. Square Root. Cube Root. Log. 1000 X Recip. No. = Diameter. Circum. Area. 600 360000 216000000 24.4949 8.43432.77815 1 . 66667 1885.0 282743 601 361201 217081801 24.5153 8.43902.77887 1 . 66389 1888 . 1 283687 602 362404 218167208 24.5357 8.4437 2.77960 1.66113 1891.2 284631 603 363609 219256227 24.5561 8.4484 2.78032 1 . 65837 1894.4 285578 604 364816 220348864 24.5764 8.45302.78104 1 . 65563 1897.5 286526 605 366025 221445125 24.5967 8.4577 2.78176 1 . 65289 1900.7 287475 606 367230 222545016 24.6171 8.4623 2.78247 1.65017 1903.8 288426 6071368449 223648543 24.6374 8.4670 2.78319 1 . 64745 1907.0 289379 608 369664 224755712 24.6577 8.47162.78390 1 . 64474 1910.1 290333 609 370881 225866529 24.6779 8.47632.78462 1.64204 1913.2 291289 610 372100 226981000 24.6982 8.48092.78533 1.63934' 1916. 4 292247 611|373321 228099131 24.7184; 8.48562.78604 1.63666 1919.5 293206 612374544 229220928 24.7386 8.4902 2.78675 1.63399 1922.7 294166 613375769 230346397 24.7588! 8.4948 2 . 78746 1.63132,1925.8 295128 614 376996 231475544 24.7790 8.4994 2.78817 1.62866 1928.9 296092 615 378225 232608375 24.7992 8.5040 2 . 78888 1 . 62602 1932.1 297057 616 379456 233744896 24.8193 8.5086 2.78958 1.62338; 1935. 2 298024 617)380689 234885113 24.8395 8 5132 2 . 79029 1.62075:1938.4 298992 618,381924 236029032 24.8596 8.5178 2.79099 1.61812 1941.5 299962 619 383161 237176659 24.8797 8.52242.79169 1.61551 1944.7 300934 620 384400 238328000 24.8998 8.52702.79239 1.61290 1947.8 301907 621 385641 239483061 24.9199 8.53162.79309 1.61031 1950.9 302882 622386884 240641848 24.9399; 8.5362 2.79379 1.60772 1954.1 303858 623388129 241804367 24.9600 8.54082.79449 1.60514,1957.2 304836 624 389376 242970624 24.9800 8.54532.79518 1.60256 1960.4 305815 625 390625 244140625 25 . 0000 8.54992.79588 1.60000 1963.5 306796 626391876 245314376 25.0200 8.5544 2.79657 1.59744 1966.6 307779 627 393129 246491883 25 . 0400 8 . 5590 2.79727 1.59490 1969.8 308763 628 394384 247673152 25.0599 8.5635 2.79796 1.59236 1972.9 309748 629 395641 248858189 25.0799 8.5681 2.79865 1.58983 1976.1 310736 630 396900 250047000 25.0998 8.5726 2 . 79934 1.5873011979.2 311725 631 398161 251239591 25.1197 8.57722.80003 1.58479 1982.4 312715 632 399424 252435968 25.1396 8.5817 2.80072 1.58228jl985.5 313707 633 400689 253636137 25.1595 8.5862 2.80140 1.57978 1988.6 314700 634 401956 254840104 25 . 1794 8.59072.80209 1.57729 1991.8 315696 635 403225 256047875 25.1992 8.59522.80277 1.57480 1994.9 316692 636 404496 257259456 25.2190! 8.5997 2.80346 1.57233 1998.1 317690 637 405769 258474853 25.2389 8.60432.80414 1 . 56986 2001.2 318690 638 639 407044 408321 259694072 260917119 25 . 2587 25.2784 8.6088 8.6132 2.80482 2.80550 1.56740 1.56495 2004.3 2007.5 319692 320695 640 409600 262144000 25.2982 8.6177 2.80618 1 . 56250 2010.6 321699 641 410881 263374721 25.3180 8.6222 2.80686 1.56006 2013.8 322705 642 412164 264609288 25.3377 8.6267 2.80754 1.55763 2016.9 323713 643 413449 265847707 25.3574 8.6312 2.80821 1.55521 2020.0 324722 644 414736 267089984 25.3772 8.6357 2.80889 1.552802023.2 325733 645 416025 268336125 25 . 3969 8.6401 2.80956 1.55039 2026.3 326745 646 417316 269586136 25.4165 8.6446 2.81023 1.547992029.5 327759 647 418609 270840023 25.4362 8.6490 2.81090 1.5456012032.6 328775 648 419904 272097792 25 . 4558 8.6535 2.81158 1.54321 2035 . 8 329792 649 421201 273359449 25.4755 8 . 6579 2.81224 1.540832038.9 330810 SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, ETC. 603 SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS, LOGARITHMS, RECIPROCALS, CIRCUMFERENCES, AND CIRCULAR AREAS OF NOS. FROM 1 TO 1000 (Continued). No. = Diameter. No. Square Cube. Square Root. Cube Root. Log. 1000X Recip. Circum. Area. 650 422500 274625000 25.4951 8.6624 2.81291 . 53846 2042.0 331831 651 423801 275894451 25.5147 8.6668 2.81358 .53610 2045.2 332853 652 425104 277167808 25.5343 8.6713 2.81425 .53374 2048.3 333876 653 426409 278445077 25 . 5539 8.6757 2.81491 .53139 2051.5 334901 654 427716 279726264 25 . 5734 8.6801 2.81558 .52905 2054.6 335927 655 429025 281011375 25.5930 8.6845 2.81624 1.52672 2057.7 336955 656 430336 282300416 25.6125 8.68902.81690 1.52439! 2060.9 337985 657 431649 283593393 25 . 6320 8.69342.81757 1.52207| 2064.0 339016 658 432964 234890312 25.6515 8.69782.81823 .51976! 2067.2 340049 659 434281 286191179 25.6710 8.70222.81889 .51745 2070.3 341084 660 435600 287496000 25 . 6905 8.70662.81954 .51515 2073.5 342119 661 436921 288804781 25.7099 8.71102.82020 .51286 2076.6 343157 662 438244 290117523 25 . 7294 8.71542.82086 .51057 2079.7 344196 663 439569 291434247 25.7488 8.71982.82151 .50830 2082.9 345237 664 440896 292754944 25 . 7682 8.7241 2.82217 .50602 2086.0 346279 665 442225 294079625 25.7876 8.7285 2 . 82282 .50376 2089.2 347323 666 443556 295408298 25 . 8070 8.73292.82347 .50150 2092.3 348368 667 444889 296740963 25 . 8263 8.73732.82413 . 49925 2095.4 349415 668 446224 29807763225.8457 8.741612.82478 . 49701 2098.6 350464 669 447561 299418309 25.8650 8.7460 2.82543 .49477 2101.7 351514 670 448900 300763000 25.8844 8.7503 2.82607 .49254 2104.9 352565 671 450241 302111711 25 . 9037 8.7547 2.82672 .49031 2108.0 353618 672 451584 303464448 25.9230 8.7590 2.82737 .48810 2111.2 354673 673 452929 304821217 25 . 9422 8.7634 2.82802 . 48588 2114.3 355730 674 454276 306182024 25.9615 8.7677 2.82866 . 48368 2117.4 356788 675 455625 307546875 25.9808 8.7721 2.82930 .48148 2120.6 357847 676 456976 308915776 26 . 0000 8-7764 2.82995 . 47929 2123.7 358908 677 458329 310238733 26.0192 8.7807 2.83059 .47711 2126.9 359971 678 459684 31166575226.0384 8.7850 2.83123 . 47493 2130.0 361035 679 461041 313046839 26.0576 8.7893 2.83187 .47275 2133.1 362101 680 462400 314432030 26.0768 8.7937 2.83251 . 47059 2136.3 363168 681 463761 315821241 26.0960 8.7980 2.83315 . 46843 2139.4 364237 682 465124 317214568 26.1151 8.8023 2.83378 . 46628 2142.6 365308 683 : 466489 318611987 26.1343 8.8066 2.83442 .46413 2145.7 366380 684 467856 320013504 26.1534 8.8109 2.83506 .46199 2148.9 367453 685 469225 321419125 26.1725 8.8152 2 83569 .45985 2152.0 368528 686 470596 32282885625.1916 8.8194 2.83632 .45773 2155.1 369605 687 471969 324242703 26.2107 8.8237 2 . 83696 . 45560 2158.3 370684 688 473344 325660672 26 . 2298 8.8280 2.83759 .45349 2161.4 371764 689 474721 327082769 26 . 2488 8.8323 2 . 83822 .45138 2164.6 372845 690 476100 328509000 26 . 2679 8.8366 2.83885 . 44928 2167.7 373928 691 477481 329939371 26.2869 8.8408 2.83948 .44718 2170.8 375013 692 '478864 331373888 26 . 3059 8.8451 2.84011 . 44509 2174.0 376099 693 480249 332812557 26 . 3249 8.8493 2.84073 . 44300 2177.1 377187 694 481636 334255384 26 . 3439 8.8536 2.84136 .44092 2180.3 378276 695 483025 335702375 26 . 3629 8.8578 2.84198 .43885 2183.4 379367 696 '484416 33715353626.3818 8.8621 2 . 84261 . 43678 2186.6 380459 697 485809 33860887326.4008 8 . 8663 2.84323 .43472 2189.7 381554 698 1 487204 34006839226.4197 8 . 8706 2 . 84386 .43267 2192.8 382649 699 ! 488601 341532099 26.4386 8.87482.84448 .430621 2196.6 383746 604 SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, ETC. SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS, LOGARITHMS, RECIPROCALS, CIRCUMFERENCES, AND CIRCULAR AREAS OF NOS. FROM 1 TO 1000 (Continued). No. Square Cube. Square Root Cube Root. Log. 1000X Recip. No. = Diameter. Circum. Area, 700 490000 343000000 26.4575 8.8790 2.84510 1.42S57 2199.1 384845 701 491401 344472101 26.4764 8.8833 2.84572 1 . 42653 2202.3 385945 702 492804 345948408 26.4953 8.8875 2.84634 1.42450 2205.4' 387047 703 494209 347428927 26.5141! 8.8917i2.84696 1.42248 2208.5 388151 704 495616 348913664 26.5330 8.8959 2.84757 1.42046 2211.7 38S256 705 497025 350402625 26.5518 8.9001 2.84819 1.41844 2214.8 390363 706 498436 351895816 26.5707 8.9043 2.84880 1.41643 2218.0 391471 707 499849 353393243 26 . 5895 8 . 9085 2 . 84942 1.41443 2221.1 392580 708 501264 354894912 26.6083 8.912712.85003 1.41243 2224.3 393692 709 502681 356400829 26.6271 8.9169 2.85065 1.41044 2227.4 394805 710 504100 357911000 26.6458 8.9211 2.85126 1.40845 2230.5 395919 711 505521 359425431 26.6646 8.9253 2.85187 1 . 40647 2233 . 7 397035 712 506944 360944128 26.6833 8.9295 2.85248 1 . 40449 2236.8 398153 713 508369 36246709726.7021 8.9337 2 . 85309 1 . 40253 2240.0 39C272 714 509796 363994344 26.7208 8.9378 2.85370 1.40056 2243 . 1 400393 715 511225 365525875 26 . 7395 8 . 9420 2.85431 1 . 39860 2246.2 401515 716 512656 367061696 26.7582 8.9462 2.85491 1.39665 2249.4 402639 717 514089 368601813 28.7769, 8.9503 2.85552 1 . 39470 2252.5 403765 718 515524 370146232 26.7955; 8.9545 2.85612 1.39276 2255.7 404892 719 516961 371694959 26.8142 8.9587 2.85673 1 . 39082 2258.8 406020 720 518400 373248000 26.8328 8 . 9628 2.85733 1.38889 2261 . 9 407150 721 519841 374805361 26 8514 8.9670 2.85794 1 . 38696 2265 . 1 408282 722 521284 376367048 26.8701 1 8.9711 2.85854 1.38504 2268 . 2 409416 723 522729 377933067 26.8887 8.9752 2.85914 1.38313 2271.4 410550 724 524176 379503424 26 . 9072 8.9794 2 85974 1.38122 2274.5 411687 725 525625 381078125 26.9258 8.9835 2 . 86034 1.37931 2277.7 412825 726 527076 382657176 26.9444 8 . 9876 2.86094 1.37741 2280.8 413965 727 528529 384240583 26.9629 8.9918 2.86153 1.37552 2283 . 9 415106 728 529984 385828352 26.9815 8.9959 2.86213 1 . 37363 2287.1 416248 729 531441 387420489 27.0000 9.0000 2.86273 1.37174 2290.2 417393 730 532900 389017000 27.0185 9.0041 2.86332 1.36986 2293 . 4 418539 731 534361 390617891 27.0370 9.0082 2.86392 1.36799 22G6.5 419686 732 535824 392223168 27 . 0555 9.0123 2.86451 1.36612 2299.7 420835 733 537289 393832837 27.0740 9.016412.86510 1.36426 2302 . 8 421986 734 538756 395446904 27 . 0924 9.0205 2.86570 1.36240 2305.9 423138 735 540225 397065375 27.1109 9 . 0246 2.86629 1 . 36054 2309.1 424293 736 737 541696 543169 398688256 400315553 27.1293 27 1477 9.0287 9-0328 2.86688 2.86747 1 . 35870 1.35685 2312.2 2315.4 425448 426604 738 544644 401947272 27.1662 9.0369 2.86806 1.35501 2318.5 427762 739 546121 403583419 27.1846 9.0410 2.86864 1.35318 2321.6 428922 740 547600 405224000 27 . 2029 9 . 0450 2.86923 1.35135 2324.8 430084 741 549081 406869021 27.2213 9.0491 2 . 86982 1.34953 2327 . 8 431247 742 550564 408518488 27 . 2397 9.0532 2.87040 1.34771 2331.1 432412 743 552049 410172407 27.2580 9.0572 2.87099 1.34590 2334 . 2 433578 744 553536 411830784 27.2764 9.0613 2.87157 1.34409 2337.3 434746 745 555025 413493625 27.2947 9 . 0654 2.87216 1.34228 2340.5 435916 746 556516 415160936 27.3130 9 . 0694 2 . 87274 1 . 34048 2343 . 6 437087 747 558009 416832723 27.3313 9.0735 2.87332 1.33869 2346.8 438259 748 559504 418508992 27 . 3496 9.077512.87390 1 . 33690 2349.9 439433 749 561001 420189749 27 3679 9.081612.87448 1.33511 2353 . 1 440609 SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, ETC. 605 SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS, LOGARITHMS, RECIPROCALS, CIRCUMFERENCES, AND CIRCULAR AREAS OF NOS. FROM 1 TO 1000 (Continued). No. = Diameter. No. Square Cube. Square Root. Cube Root. Log. 1000 X Recip. Circum. Area. 750 562500 421875000 27.3861 9 . 0856 2.87506 1 . 33333 2356.2 441786 751 564001 423564751 27 . 4044 9 . 0896 2 87564 1.33156 2359.3 442965 752 565504 425259008 27.4226 9.0937 2.87622 1 . 32979 2362.5 444146 753 567009 426957777 27 4408 9.0977 2.87680 1 . 32802 2365 . 6 445328 754 568516 428661064 27.4591 9.1017 2.87737 1.32626 2368.8 446511 755 570025 430368875 27.4773 9 . 1057 2 . 87795 1 . 32450 2371.9 447697 756 571536 432081216 27 . 4955 9.10982.87852 1.32275 2375.0 448883 757 573049 433798093 27.5136 9.113812.87910 1.32100 2378 . 2 450072 758 574564 435519512 27.5318 9.117812.87967 1.31926 2381.3 451262 759 576081 437245479 27 . 5500 9.1218 2 . 88024 1.31752 2384.5 452453 760 577600 438976000 27 . 5681 9.1258 2.88081 1.31579 2387 . 6 453646 761 579121 440711081 27 . 5862 9.12982.88138 1.31406 2390 . 8 454841 762 580644 442450728 27 . 6043 9.13382.88196 1.31234 2393 . 9 456037 763 582169 444194947 27 . 6225 9.13782.88252 1.31062 2397.0 457234 764 583696 445943744 27.6405 9.1418 2.88309 1 . 30890 2400.2 458434 765 585225 447697125 27 . 6586 9.1458 2.88366 1.30719 2403.3 459635 766 586756 449455096127.6767 9.14982.88423 1.30548 2406.5 460837 767 588289 4512 17663 '27. 6948 9.15372.88480 1 . 30378 2409 . 6 462042 768 589824 452984832 27.7128 9.1577 2.88536 1 . 30208 2412.7 463247 769 591361 454756609 27.7308 9.1617 2 . 88593 1.30039 2415.9 464454 770 592900 456533000 27 . 7489 9.1657 2 . 88649 1 . 29870 2419.0 465663 771 594441 458314011 27.7669 9.1696 2 . 88705 1 . 29702 2422 . 2 466873 772 595984 460099648 27.7849 9.1736 2.88762 1.29534 2425.3 468085 773 597529 461889917 27 8029 9. 1775 '2. 88818 1 . 29366 2428.5 469298 774 599076 463684824 27.8209 9.1815 2.88874 1.29199 2431.6 470513 775 600625 465484375 27.8388 9.1855 2.88930 1 . 29032 2434.7 471730 776 602176 467288576 27 . 8568 9.18942.88986 1 . 28866 2437.9 472948 777 603729 469097433 27.8747 9.19332.89042 1 . 28700 2441.0 474168 778 605284 470910952 27.8927 9.19732.89098 1.28535 2444 . 2 475389 779 606841 472729139 27.9106 9.2012 2.89154 1.28370 2447.3 476612 780 608400 474552000 27.9285 9 . 2052 2.89209 1 . 28205 2450.4 477836 781 609961 476379541 27.9464 9.2091 2.89265 1.28041 2453 . 6 479062 782 i 61 1524 478211768 27.9643 9.21302.89321 1 . 27877 2456 . 7 480290 783 613089 480048687 27.9821 9.21702.89376 1.27714 2459. S 481519 784 614656 481890304,28.0000 9.2209 2.89432 1.27551 2463. C 482750 785 616225 48373662528.0179 9 . 224S 2 . 89487 1 . 27389 2466.2 483982 786 617796 48558765628.0357 9 . 2287 2.89542 1.27226 2469 . 3 485216 787 619369 487443403 28 . 0535 9.232C 2.89597 1.27065 2472.4 486451 788 620944 489303872^28.0713 9.236 2 . 89653 1 . 26904 2475.6' 487688 789 622521 491169069 28.0891 9 . 2404 2 . 89708 1 . 26743 2478.7 488927 790 62410C 493039000 ! 28.1069 9.244J > 2 . 89763 1 . 26582 2481.9 490167 791 625681 494913671 28.1247 9 . 2482 ! 2.89818 1.26422 2485.0 491409 792 793 627264 62884 496793088 j 28. 1425 498677257|28.1603 9.2521 2.89873 9. 2560 i 2. 89927 1.26263 2488.1 492652 1. 26103 i 2491.3 493897 794 630436 500566184^8. 178C 9.25992.89982 1 . 2594 2494.4 495143 795 63202550245987^ .28.1957 9 . 2638 2 . 90037 1 . 2578( 2497 6^ 496391 796 633616 504358336 28 . 213 9.2677 2.90091 1 . 2562S 2500.7 497641 797 635209 i 506261573!28.231S 9.27162.90146 1.25471 2503 8 498892 798 636804508169592 28. 248< 9 . 2754 2 . 9020C 1 25313' 2507 50 "145 799 638401 510082399128. 266( 9 . 2793 2 . 9025 1.25156 2510.1 501399 606 SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, ETC. SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS, LOGARITHMS, RECIPROCALS, CIRCUMFERENCES, AND CIRCULAR AREAS OF NOS. FROM 1 TO 1000 (Continued). No. Square Cube. Square Root. Cube Root. Log. 1000 X Recip. No. = Diameter. Circum. Area. 800 801 640000 641601 512000000 5139224011 28.2843 28.3019 9 . 2832 9 . 2870 2.90309 2.90363 1 . 25000 1 . 24844 2513.3 2516.4 502655 503912 802 643204 51584960828.3196 9 . 2909 2.90417 1 . 24688 2519.6 505171 803 644809 517781627128.3373 9 . 2948 2.90472 1 . 24533 2522.7 506432 804 646416 519718464 28.3549 9 . 2986 2.90526 1 . 24378 2525.8 507694 805 648025 521660125 28 . 3725 9.3025 2 . 90580 1.24224 2529.0 508958 806 649636 523606616 28.3901 9.3063 2.90634 1 . 24069 2532.1 510223 807 651249 525557943 28 . 4077 9.3102 2 . 90687 1.23916 2535.3 511490 808 652864 527514112 28 . 4253 9.3140 2 . 90741 1 . 23762 2538.4 512758 809 654481 529475129 28 . 4429 9.3179 2.90795 1 . 23609 2541.5 514028 810 656100 531441000 28 . 4605 9.3217 2.90849 1 . 23457 2544.7 515300 811 657721 533411731 28 . 4781 9.3255 2 . 90902 1 . 23305 2547.8 516573 812 659344 535387328 28 . 4956 9.3294 2.90956 1.23153 2551.0 517848 813 660969 537367797 28.5132 9.3332 2.91009 1.23001 2554.1 519124 814 662596 539353144 28.5307 9.3370 2.91062 1 . 22850 2557.3 520402 815 664225 541343375 28.5482 9 . 3408 2.91116 1 . 22699 2560.4 521681 816 665856 543338496 28 . 5657 9.3447 2.91169 1 . 22549 2563.5 522962 817 667489 54533851328.5832 9 . 3485 2.91222 1.22399 2566.7 524245 818 669124 547343432 28 . 6007 9.3523 2.91275 1 . 22249 2569.8 525529 819 670761 549353259 28.6182 9.3561 2.91328 1.22100 2573 . 526814 820 672400 551368000 28 . 6356 9.3599 2.91381 1.21951 2576.1 528102 821 674041 553387661 28.6531 9.3637 2.91434 1.21803 2579.2 529391 822 675684 555412248 28 . 6705 9.36752.91487 1.21655 2582.4! 530681 823 677329 557441767 28 . 6880 9.3713;2.91540 1 . 21507 2585.5 531973 824 678976 559476224 28 . 7054 9.3751 2.91593 1.21359 2588 . 7 533267 825 680625 561515625 28 . 7228 9 . 3789 2.91645 1.21212 2591.8 534562 826 682276 56355997628.7402 9.3827|2.91698 1.21065 2595.0 535858 827 683929 56560928328.7576 9.38652.91751 1.20919 2598.1 537157 828 685584 567663552 28 . 7750 9.3902 2.91803 1.207731 2601.2 538456 829 687241 56972278928.7924 9 . 3940 2.91855 1.20627 2604.4 539758 830 688900 571787000 28 . 8097 9.3978 2.91908 1.20482 2607.5 541061 831 690561 573856191 '28. 8271 9.40162.91960 1 . 20337 2610.7 542365 832 692224 57593036828.8444 9.4053 2.92012 1.20192 2613.8 543671 833 693889 578009537128.8617 9. 4091 12.92065 1.200481 2616.9 544979 834 695556 580093704 28.8791 9.4129 2.92117 1 . 19904 2620.1 546288 835 697225 582182875 28 . 8964 9.4166 2.92169 1 . 19760 2623.2 547599 836 698896 584277056 28.9137 9 . 4204 2.9222 1.19617 2626.4 548912 837 700569 586376253 28.9310 9.4241 2.92273 1 . 19474 2629 . 5 550226 838 839 702244 703921 588480472 590589719 28 . 9482 28 . 9655 9.4279 9.4316 2.92324 2.9237 1.19332 1.19189 2632.7 2635.8 551541 552858 840 705600 592704000 28 . 9828 9.4354 2 . 9242S 1 . 19048 2638 . 9 554177 841 707281 594823321 29 . 0000 9.4391 2.9248 1 . 18906 2642 . 1 555497 842 708964 596947688 29.0172 9. 4429 j 2. 9253 1 . 18765 2645 . 2 556819 843 710649 599077107 29 . 0345 9 . 4466 2 . 9258 1 . 18624 2648 . 4 558142 844 712336 601211584 29.0517 9 . 4503 2 . 9263 1 . 18483 2651.5 559467 845 714025 603351125 29 . 0689 9.4541 2 . 9268 1 . 18343 2654.6 560794 846 715716 60549573(3 29.0861 9.4578 2 . 9273 1 . 18203 2657 . 8 562122 847 717409 607645423 29 . 1033 9.4615 2 . 9278 1.18064 2660.9 563452 848 719104 609800192 29.1204 9.46522.9284 1.17925 2664.1 564783 849 720801 611960049 29 . 1376 9.469012.9289 1.17786 2667.2 566116 SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, ETC. 607 SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS, LOGARITHMS, RECIPROCALS, CIRCUMFERENCES, AND CIRCULAR AREAS OF NOS. FROM 1 TO 1000 (Continued). No. i Square Cube. Square Root. Cube Root. Log 1000 X Recip No. = Diameter. Circum. Area. 850 ' F22500 614125000 29.1548 9.4727 2.92942 1 . 17647 2670.4 567450 851 ' r24201 616295051 29.1719 9.4764 2 . 92993 1 . 17509 2673 . 5 568786 852 ' f25904 618470208 29 . 1890 9.4801 2 . 93044 1.17371 2676.6 570124 853 1727609 620650477 29 . 2062 9.48382.93095 1 . 17233 2679.8 571463 854 29316 622835864 29 . 2233 9.4875 2.93146 1 . 17096 2682.9 572803 855 31025 625026375 29.2404 9.4912 2.93197 1 . 16959 2686 . 1 574146 856 32736 627222016 29 . 2575 9.4949 2 . 93247 1 . 16822 2689.2 575490 857 34449 629422793 29 . 2746 9. 4986! 2. 93298 1 . 16686 2692 . 3 576835 858 36164 631623712 29.2916 9 . 5023 2 . 93349 1 . 16550 2695.5 578182 859 37881 633839779 29 . 3087 9.5060 2.93399 1.16414 2698.6 579530 860 39600 636056000 29.3258 9.5097 2.93450 1.16279 2701.8 580880 861 41321 638277381 29 . 3428 9.51342.93500 1.16144 2704.9 582232 862 743044 640503928 29 . 3598 9.5171 2.93551 1 . 16009 2708 . 1 583585 863 744769 642735647 29.3769 9.52072.93601 1 . 15875 2711.2 584940 864 746496 644972544 29 . 3939 9 . 5244 2.93651 1.15741 2714.3 586297 865 748225 647214625 29.4109 9.5281 2 . 93702 1 . 15607 2717.5 587655 866 749956 64946189629.4279 9.5317 2.93752 1.15473 2720.6 589014 867 751689 651714363 29.4449 9.53542.93802! 1.15340 2723.8 590375 868 753424 653972032 29.4618 9.5391 2.93852 1.15207 2726.9 591738 869 755161 65623490929.4788 9.5427 2 . 93902 1.15075 2730.0 593102 870 756900 65850300029.4958 9.5464 ! 2.93952 1 . 14943 2733.2 594468 871 758641 660776311 29.5127 9.5501 2 . 94002 1.14811 2736.3 595835 872 760384 66305484829.5296 9.5537 2 . 94052 1 . 14679 2739 . 5 597204 873 762129 665338617 29.5466 9.55742.94101 1 . 14548 2742 . 6 598575 874 763876 66762762429.5635 9.56102.94151 1.14416 2745.8 599947 875 765625 669921875 29.5804 9 . 5647 2.94201 1 . 14286 2748.9 601320 876 767376 672221376 29.5973 9.5683 2 . 94250 1.14155 2752.0 602696 877 769129 674526133 29.6142 9.57192.94300 1 . 14025 2755 . 2 604073 878 770884 67683615229.6311 9 . 5756 2.94349 1 . 13895 2758.3 605451 879 772641 67915143929.6479 9.5792 2.94399 1.13766 2761.5 606831 880 774400 681472000 29 . 6648 9. 5828 '2. 94448 1.13636 2764.6 608212 881 776161 683797841 29.6816 9 . 5865 2 . 94498 1.13507 2767.7 609595 882 777924 686128968 29 . 6985 9.5901 2.94547 1.13379 2770 . 9 610980 883 77968 688465387 29.7153 9 . 5937 2.94596 1 . 13250 2774.0 612366 884 78145e 69080710429.732 9.59732.94645 1.13122 2777.2 613754 885 78322S 69315412529.748 9.6010'2.94694 1.12994 2780 . 3 615143 886 784996 695506456 29.765 9 . 604f 2 . 94743 1 . 12867 2783 . 5 616534 887 786769 697864103 29.782 9.60822.94792 1 . 1274C 2786.6 617927 888 788544 700227072 29.799 9.611 I 2. 94841 1.12613 2789 . 7 619321 889 790321 702595369 29.816 9.61542.9489C 1 . 1248C 2792.9 620717 890 79210( ) 704969000 29. 832 9.61902.9493 1.1236C 2796 . 622114 891 7938811707347971 29.849 9 . 6226 2 . 9498 1.12232 2799.2 623513 892 79566470973228829.866 D! 6285 52.95036 1.1210* 2802 . 3 624913 893 797449 712121957 29.883 9 . 629* 1 2 . 9508 1.11982 2805 . 4 626315 894 799236 71451698 429.899 9.633^ 12.9513^ 1.11857 2808.6 627718 895 801025 716917375 29.916 9 . 637( )2.951Si 1.11732 1 2811.7 629124 896 802816 719323136 29.933 9 . 640( 52.95231 1.11607 2814.91 630530 897 804609 721734273 29.950 9 . 644! 22.9527< 1.11483 2818. Oi 631938 898 806404 724150792 29.966 9.647 7 2 . 9532* 1.11359 2821.2 633348 899 808201 726572699 29.983 9.651. 32.95376 1.11235 2824.5 634760 608 SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, ETC. SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS, LOGARITHMS, RECIPROCALS, CIRCUMFERENCES, AND CIRCULAR AREAS OF NOS. FROM 1 TO 1000 (Continued). No. Square Cube. Square Root. Cube Root. Log. 1000 X Recip. No. = Diameter. Circum. Area. 900 810000 729000000 30.0000 9.6549 2.95424 1.11111 2827 . 4 636173 901 811801 731432701 30.0167 9.6585 2.95472 1 . 10988 2830.6 637587 902 813604 733870808J30.0333 9.66202.95521 1 . 10865 2833 7 639003 903 815409 736314327 30.0500 9.66562.95569 1 . 10742 2836.9 640421 904 817216 738763264 30.0666 9.6692 2.95617 1 . 10619 2840.0 641840 905 819025 741217625 30 . 0832 9.6727 2 . 95665 1 . 10497 2843 . 1 643261 906 820836 743677416 30.0998 9. 6763 12.95713 1 . 10375 2846.3 644683 907 822649 746142643 30.1164 9.67992.95761 1 . 10254 2849 . 4 646107 908 824464 748613312 30.1330 9 . 6834 2 . 95809 1.10132 2852 . 6 647533 909 826281 751089429 30.1496 9.6870 2.95856 1.10011 2855 . 7 648960 910 828100 753571000 30.1662 9 . 6905 2 . 95904 1.09890 2858.8 650388 911 829921 756058031 '30. 1828 9.69412.95952 1 . 09769 2862.0 651818 912 831744 75855052830.1993 9.69762.95999 1 . 09649 2865.1 653250 913 833569 761048497 30 . 2159 9.7012;2.96047 1.09529 2668.3 654684 914 835396 76355194430.2324 9.70472.96095 1 . 09409 2871 . 4 656118 915 837225 766060875 30.2490 9.70822.96142 1 . 09290 2874.6 657555 916 1839056 768575296:30.2655 9.7118<2.96190 1.09170 2877.7 658993 917 840889 771095213!30.2820 9.715312.96237 1.09051 2880 . 8 660433 918 842724 773620632 30 . 2985 9.7188 2.96284 1 . 08932 2884.0 661874 919 844561 776151559 30.3150 9.7224 2.96332 1.08814 2887.1 663317 920 846400 778688000 30.3315 9.7259 2 . 96379 1.08696 2890.3 664761 921 848241 781229961 30 . 3480 9 . 7294 2 . 96426 1 . 08578 2893 . 4 666207 922 850084 78377744830.3645 9 . 7329 2 . 96473 1.08460 2896.5 667654 923 851929 78f>330467 30 . 3809 9.7364 2.96520 1.08342 2899 . 7 669103 924 853776 788889024:30.3974 9.7400 2 . 96567 1 . 08225 2902.8 670554 I 925 855625 791453125 30.4138 9.7435 2.96614 1.08108 2906.0 672006 926 857476 794022776 30.4302 9.7470 2.96661 1.07991 2909.1 673460 927 859329 796597983 30 . 4467 9.7505 2 . 96708 1.07875 2912.3 674915 928 861184 799178752 30.4631 9 7540 2.96755 1.07759 2915.4 676372 929 863041 801765089 30.4795 9.7575 2.96802 1.07643 2918.5 677831 930 864900 804357/00 30 . 4959 9.7610 2.96848 1 . 07527 2921.7 679291 931 866761 806954491 30.5123 9.7645 2 . 96895 1.07411 2924.8 680752 932 868624 809557568 30 . 5287 9.7680 2.96942 1.07296 2928 . 682216 933 870489 812166237 30 . 5450 9.7715 2 . 96988 1.07181 2931.1 683680 934 872356 814780504 30.5614 9.7750 2.97035 1.07066 2934.2 685147 935 874225 817400375 30.5778 9.7785 2 . 97081 1.06952 2937.4 686615 936 876096 820025856 30.5941 9.7819 2.97128 1 . 06838 2940.5 688084 937 877969 822656953 30.6105 9 . 7854 2.97174 1 . 06724 2943 . 7 689555 938 879844 825293672 30.6268 9.7889 2.97220 1.06610 2946.8 691028 939 881721 827936019 30.6431 9.7924 2 . 97267 1 . 06496 2950.0 692502 940 883600 830584000 30.6594 9 . 7959 2.97313 1 . 06383 2953 . 1 693978 941 885481 833237621 30 . 6757 9 . 7993 2 . 97359 1.06270 2956.2 695455 942 887364 835896888 30.6920 9.8028 2 . 97405 1.06157 2959.4 696934 943 889249 838561807 30 . 7083 9 . 8063 2.97451 1.06045 2962 . 5 698415 944 891136 841232384 30.7246 9.8097 2.97497 1.05932 2965.7 699897 945 893025 843908625 30.7409 9.8132 2 . 97543 1.05820 2968.8 701380 946 894916 846590536 30.7571 9.8167 2.97589 1.05708 2971.9 702865 947 896809 849278123 30 . 7734 9.8201 2 . 97635 1 . 05597 2975 . 1 704352 948 898704 851971392 30 . 7896 9 . 8236 2.97681 1 . 05485 2978.2 705840 949 900601 854670349 30 . 8058 9 . 8270 2 . 97727 1 . 05374 2941 . 4 707330 SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, ETC. 609 SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS, LOGARITHMS, RECIPROCALS, CIRCUMFERENCES, AND CIRCULAR AREAS OF NOS. FROM 1 TO 1000 (Continued). No. 950 951 952 953 954 Square 902500 904401 906304 908209 910116 Cube. Square Root. Cube Root Log. 1000 X Recip. No. = Diameter. Circum. Area. 708822 710315 711809 713306 714803 85737500030.8221 86008535130.8383 86280140830.8545 86552317730.8707 86825066430.8869 9.8305 9 . 8339 9.8374 9.8408 9 . 8443 2.97772 2.97818 2 . 97864 2 . 97909 2.97955 1 . 05263 1.05152 1 . 05042 1 . 04932 1 . 04822 2984.5 2987.7 2990.8 2993 . 9 2997.1 955 912025 956 913936 957 915849 958 917764 959 919681 87098387530.9031 87372281630.9192 87646749330.9354 87921791230.9516 88197407930.9677 9 . 8477 9.8511 9.8546 9.8580 9.8614 2 . 98000 2.98046 2.98091 2.98137 2.98182 1 04712 1.04603 1 . 04493 1.04384 1.04275 3000 . 2 3003.4 3006.5 3009.6 3012.8 716303 717804 719306 720810 722316 960 961 962 963 964 921600 923521 925444 927369 929296 88473600030.9839 887503681 31.0000 89027712831.0161 89305634731.0322 89584134431.0483 9.8648 9.8683 9.8717 9.8751 9.8785 2.98227 2.98272 2.98318 2.98363 2.98403 1.04167 1 . 04058 1.03950 1 . 03842 1.03734 3015.9 3019.1 3022.2 3025.4 3023.5 723823 725332 726842 728354 729867 965 966 967 968 969 931225 933156 935089 937024 938961 89863212531.0644 90142869631.0805 90423106331.0966 90703923231.1127 909853209 31 . 1238 9.8819 9.8854 9.8888 9 . 8922 9.8956 2 98453 2.98498 2 . 98543 2.98588 2.98632 1 03627 1.03523 1.03413 1.03306 1.03199 3031.6 3034.8 3037.9 3041 . 1 3044.2 731382 732899 734417 735937 737458 970 971 972 973 974 940900 942841 944784 946729 948676 912673000 915498611 918330048 921167317 924010424 31 . 1448 31.1609 31.1769 31.1929 31.2090 9 . 8990 9.9021 9.9058 9.9092 9.9126 2.98677 2.98722 2.98767 2.98811 2.98856 1.03093 1.02987 1.02881 1.02775 1.02669 3047 . 3 3050.5 3053.6 3056.8 3059.9 738981 740506 742032 743559 745088 975 976 977 978 979 950625 952576 954529 956484 958441 928859375 929714176 932574833 935441352 938313739 31.2250 31.2410 31.2570 31.2730 31.2890 9.9160 9.9194 9.9227 9.9261 9 . 9295 2.98900 2.98945 2.98989 2.99034 2.99078 1 . 02564 1 . 02459 1.02354 1.02219 1.02145 3063 . 1 3066 . 2 3069.3 3072.5 3075.6 746619 748151 749685 751221 752758 980 981 982 983 984 960400 962361 964324 966289 968256 941192000 944076141 946966168 949862087 952763904 31.3050 31.3209 31.3369 31.3528 31.3688 9 . 9329 9.9363 9.9396 9.9430 9.9464 2.99123 2.99167 2.99211 2.99255 2.99300 1 . 02041 1.01937 1.01833 1.01729 1.01626 3078.8 3081.9 3085 . 3088.2 3091.3 754296 755837 757378 758922 760466 985 986 987 988 989 970225 972196 974169 976144 978121 955671625 958585256 961504803 964430272 967361669 31.3847 31.4006 31.4166 31.4325 31.4484 9 . 9497 9.9531 9.9565 9.T598 9.9632 2.99144 2.99388 2 99432 2.99476 2.99520 1.01523 1.01420 1 01317 1.01215 1.01112 3094.5 3097 . 6 3100.8 3103.9 3107.0 762013 763561 765111 766662 768214 990 991 992 993 994 980100 982081 984064 986049 988036 970299000 973242271 976191488 979146657 982107784 31.4643 31 . 4802 31.4960 31.5119 31.5278 9.96662.99564 9.96992.99607 9.97332.99651 9.97662.99695 9.98002.99739 1.01010 1.00908 1.00306 1 . 00705 1.00604 3110.2 3113.3 3116.5 3119.6 3122.7 739769 771325 772882 774441 776002 995 996 997 998 999 990025 992016 994009 996004 998001 985074875 988047936 991026973 994011992 997002999 31.5436 31.5595 31.5753 31.5911 31.6070 9.9833 9.9866 9.9900 9.9933 9.9967 2 . 99782 2.99326 2 . 99870 2 99913 2 . 99957 1.00503 1 . 00402 1 . 00301 1 . 00200 1.00100 3125.9 3129.0 3132.2 3135.3 3138.5 777564 779128 780693 782260 783828 610 DECIMALS OF A FOOT DECIMALS OF A FOOT FOR EACH A OF AN INCH. Inch. 0" 1" 2" 3" 4" 5" 6" 7" 8" 9" 10" 11" .0833 ! . 1667 2500 .3333 4167 .5000 .5833 .6667 .7500 .8333 .9167 i .0013 .0846 .1680 2513 .3346 4180 .5013 .5846 .6680 .7513 .8346 .9180 i 0026 .0859.1693 2526 .3359 4193J.5026 .5859 .6693 .7526 .8359 .9193 A 0039 .0872 .1706 2539 .3372 4206 ; . 5039 .5872 .6706 .7539 .8372 .9206 ft .0052 .0885 .1719 2552 .3385 4219 .5052 .5885 .6719 .7552 .8385 .9219 .0065 .0898 .1732 2565 .3398 4232 .5065 .5898 .6732 .7565 .8398 .9232 .0078 .0911 .1745 2578 .3411 4245 .5078 .5911 .6745 .7578 .8411 .9245 .0091 .0924 .1758 2591 .3424 4258 .5091 .5924 .6758 .7591 .8424 .9258 i .0104 .0937 .1771 2604 .3437 4271 .5104 .5937 .6771 .7604 .8437 .9271 A .0117 .0951 .1784 .2617 .3451 .4284 .5117 .5951 .6784 .7617 .8451 .9284 .0130 .0964 .1797 .2630 .3464 .4297 .5130 .5964 .6797 .7630 .8464 .9297 .0143 .0977 .1810 .2643 .3477 .4310 .5143 .5977 .6810 .7643 .8477 .9310 .0156 .0990 .1823 .2656 .3490 .4323 .5156 .59SO .6823 .7656 .8490 .9323 if .0169 .1003 .1836 .2669 .3503 .4336 .5169 .6003 .6836 .7669 .8503 .9336 A .0182 .1016 .1849 .2682 .3516 .4349 .5182 .6016 .6849 .7682 .8516 .9349 if .0195'. 1029L 1862 .2695 .3529 .4362 .5195 .602S .6862 .7695 .8529 .9362 i .0208 .1042 .1875 .2708 .3542 .4375 .5208 .6042 .6875 .7708 .8542 .9375 H .0221 .1055 .1888 .2721 .3555 .4388 .5221 .6055 .6888 .7721 .8555 .9388 55 .0234 .1068 .1901 .2 34 .3568 .4401 .5234 .6068 .6901 .7734 .8568 .9401 if .0247 .1081 .1914 .2747 .3581 .4414 .5247 .6081 .6914 .7747 .8581 .9414 X .0260 .1094 .1927 .2760 .3594 .4427 .5260 .6094 .6927 .7760 .8594 .9427 41 .0273 .1107 .1940 .2773 .3607 .4440 .5273 .6107 .6940 .7773 .8607 .9440 ii .0286 .1120 .1953 .2786 .3620 .4453 .5286 .6120 .6953 .7786 .8620 .9453 64 .0299 .1133 .1966 .,2799 .3633 .4466 .5299 .6133 .6966 .7799 .8633 .9466 1 .0312 .1146 .1979 .2812 .3646 .4479 .5312 .6146 .6979 .7812 .8646 .9479 Aft .0326 .1159 .1992 .2826 .3659 .4492 .5326 .6159 .6992 .7826 .8659 .9492 ff .0339 .1172 .2005 .2839 .3672 .4505 .5339 .6172 .7105 .7839 .8672 .S505 M .0352 .1185 .2018 .2852 .3685 .4518 .5352.6185 .7018 .7852 .8685 .9518 Tff .0365 .1198 .2031 .2865 .3698 .4531 .5365 .6198 .7031 .7865 .8698 .9531 .0378 .1211 .2044 .2878 .3711 .4544 .5378 .6211 .7044 .7878 .8711 .9544 .0391 .1224 .2057 .2891 .3724 .4557 .5391 .6224 .7057 .7891 .8724 9557 .0404 .1237 .2070 .2904 .3737 .4570 .5404 .6237 .7070 .7904 .8737 9570 i .0417 .1250 .2083 .2917 .3750 .4583 .5417 .6250 .7083 .7917 .8750 9583 .0430 .1263 .2096 .2930 .3763 .4596 .5430 .6263 .7096 .7930 .8763 9596 .0443 .1276 .2109 .2943 .3776 .4609 .5443 .6276 .7109 .7943 .8776 9609 .0456 .1289 .2122 .2956 .3789 .4622 .5456 .6289 .7122 7956 .8789 9622 A .0469 .1302 .2135 .2969 .3802 .4635 .5469 .6302 .7135 7969 .8802 9635 fj .0482 .1315 2148 ,2982 .3815 .4648 .5482 .6315 .7148 7982 8815 9648 II .0495 .1328 2161 .2995 .3828 4661 .5495 .6328 .7161 7995 8828 .9661 If .0508 .1341 2174 .3008 .3841 .4674 .5508 .6341 .7174 8008 .8841 .9674 f .0521 .1354 2188 .3021 .3854 .4688 .5521 6354 .7188 8021 .8854 .9688 .0534 .1367 2201 .3034 .3867 .4701 .5534 6367 .7201 8034 .8867 .9701 .0547 .1380 2214 3047 .3880 .4714 .5547 6380 .7214 8047 8880-9714 .0560 .1393 2227 3060 .3893 .4727 .5560 6393 .7227 8060 .8893 9727 ii .0573 1406 2240 3073 .3906 .4740 .5573 6406 .7240 8073 .8906 9740 If 0586 1419 2253 3086 .3919 .4753 .5586 6419 .7253 8086 .8919 9753 ! 3 T 0599 1432 2266 3099 .3932 .4766 5599 6432 .7266 8099 .8932 9766 B 0612 1445 2279 3112 .3945 .4779 5612 6445 7279 8112 .8945 9779 i 0625 1458 2292 3125 .3958 .4792 5625 6458 7292 8125 8958 9792 FOR EACH 1/64 OF AN INCH. 611 DECIMALS OF A FOOT FOR EACH & OF AN INCH (Continued). Inch. 0" 1" 2" 3" 4" 5" 6" 7" 8" 9" 10" 11" 1 .0638 .0651 .0664 .0677 .1471 .1484 .1497 .1510 .2305 .2318 .2331 .2344 .3138 .3151 .3164 .3177 .3971 .3984 .3997 .4010 .4805 .4818 .4831 .4844 .5638 .5651 .5664 .5677 .6471 .6484 .6497 .6510 .7305 .7318 .7331 .7344 .8138 .8151 .8164 .8177 .8971 .8984 .8997 .^010 .9805 .9818 .9831 .9844 tt .0690 .0703 .0716 .0729 .1523 .1536 .1549 .1562 .2357 .2370 .2383 .2396 .3190 .3203 .3216 .3229 .4023 .4036 .4049 .4062 .4857 .4870 .4883 .4896 .5690 .5703 .5716 .5729 .6523 .6536 .6549 .6562 .7357 .7370 .7383 .7396 .8190 .8203 .8216 .8229 .9023 .9036 .9049 .9062 .9857 .9870 .9883 .9896 1 .0742 .0755 .0768 .0781 .1576 .1589 .1602 .1615 .2409 .2422 .2435 .2448 .3242 .3255 .3268 .3281 .4076 .4039 .4102 .4115 .4909 .4922 .4935 .4948 .5742 .5755 .5768 .5781 .6576 .6589 .6602 .6615 .7409 .7422 .7435 .7448 .8242 8255 .8268 .8281 .9076 .9089 .9102 .9115 .9909 .9922 .9935 .9948 1 .0794 .0807 .0820 .1628 .1641 .1654 .2461 .2474 .2487 .3294 .3307 .3320 .4128 .4141 .4154 .4961 .4974 .4987 .5794 .5807 .5820 .6628 .6641 .6654 .7461 .7474 .7487 .8294 .8307 .8320 .9128 .9141 .9154 .9961 .9974 .9987 1.0000 DECIMALS OF AN INCH FOR EACH fads. Aths. Decimal. Frac- tion. &ds. Aths. Decimal. Frac- tion. 1 .015625 33 .515625 1 2 .03125 17 34 .53125 3 .046875 35 . 546875 2 4 .0625 A 18 36 .5625 A 5 .078125 37 .578125 3 6 .09375 19 38 . 59375 7 . 109375 39 .609375 4 8 .125 f 3D 40 .625 I 9 . 140625 41 . 640625 5 10 . 15625 21 42 . 65625 11 .171875 43 .671875 6 12 .1875 A 22 44 .6875 tt 13 .203125 45 .703125 7 14 .21875 23 46 .71875 15 .234375 47 .734375 8 16 .25 i 24 48 .75 f 17 .265625 49 .765625 9 18 .28125 25 50 .78125 19 . 296875 51 .796875 10 20 .3125 A 26 52 .8125 H 21 .328125 53 .828125 11 22 .34375 27 54 .84375 23 .359375 55 .859375 12 24 .375 I 28 56 .875 25 .390625 57 . 890625 13 26 .40625 29 58 . 90625 27 .421875 59 .921875 14 28 .4375 A 30 60 .9375 if 29 .453125 61 .953125 15 30 .46875 31 62 . 96875 31 .484375 63 .984375 16 32 .5 | 32 64 1. l 612 GEOMETRICAL MENSURATION: DEFINITIONS. GEOMETEICAL MENSURATION. Definitions. A point is a position without dimensions. A line has one dimension length. A surface has two dimensions length and breadth. A solid has three dimensions length, breadth, and thickness. A right angle is one whose two sides make an angle of 90 with each other; an acute angle is less than a right angle; an obtuse angle is more than a right angle. A plane figure is a plane bounded on all sides by lines. If the lines are straight the space which they contain is called a polygon. Polygons are named according to the number of their sides, as: A triangle is a plane figure of three sides; a quadrilateral is a plane figure of four sides; a pentagon is a plane figure of five sides; a hexagon is a plane figure of six sides; a heptagon is a plane figure of seven sides; an octagon is a plane figure of eight sides; a nonagon is a plane figure of nine sides; a decagon is a plane figure of ten sides; an undecagon is a plane figure of eleven sides; a dodecagon is a plane figure of twelve sides. A circle is a plane bounded by a curved line all points of which are equally distant from the centre. A trapezium is a polygon of four sides of which no two sides are parallel. A trapezoid is a polygon of four sides of which two are parallel. A parallelogram is a polygon bounded by two pairs of parallel sides. A rhomboid is a parallelogram whose sides are not equal and its angles not right angles. A rhombus is a parallelogram whose sides are all equal, but whose angles are not right angles. A rectangle is a parallelogram whose angles are right angles. A square is a rectangle whose sides are all equal. Polygons whose sides are all equal are called regular. An equilateral triangle has all its sides and angles equal; an isosceles triangle has two of its sides and two of its angles equal; a scalene triangle has all its sides and angles unequal. A quadrilateral is a plane figure bounded by four straight lines. A diameter is any line drawn through the centre of a figure and terminated by the opposite boundaries. TO FIND AREAS, ETC. 613 Wedge. Solidity of a wedge =area of baseX height Solidity of a frustum of a wedge = height X sum of the areas of the two ends. Prismoidal Formula. A prismoid is a solid bounded by six plane surfaces only two of which are parallel. To find the contents of a prismoid, add together the areas of the two parallel surfaces and four times the area of a section taken midway between and parallel to them, and multiply the sum by one-sixth of the perpendicular distance between the parallel surfaces. Cycloid and Epicycloid. The cycloid is the curve described by any point in the circumference of a circle when the circle rolls along a straight line. An epicycloid is the curve described by point in the circum- ference of a circle when the circle rolls along the outside of another circle. A hypocycloid is the path described by any point in the circumference of a circle when the circle rolls along the inside of another circle. An involute is the curve described by the end of a string when unwinding the string from around a cylinder. Area of cycloid = area of generating circle X 3. To Find Areas, etc. Area of a square, a rectangle, a rhombus, or a rhomboid equals the height multiplied by the breadth. Area of a triangle equals the base multiplied by one-half the height. Area of a trapezium equals the diagonal multiplied by half the sum of the two perpendiculars. Area of trapezoid equals one-half the sum of the two parallel sides multiplied by the distance between them. Area of an irregular polygon is found by dividing it into triangles and adding together the areas of the triangles. To find the area of a regular polygon when the length of one side is given: Multiply the square of the side by the mul- tiplier opposite to the name of the polygon in column A of the following table. To compute the radius of a circumscribing circle when the length of one side is given: Multiply the length of a side of the polygon by the number in column B. To compute the length of a side of a polygon that is contained in a given circle when the radius of the circle is given: Multiply 614 REGULAR POLYHEDRONS. Name of Polygon No. of Sides. A Area. B Radius of Circum- scribed Circle. C Length of the Side. D Radius of In- scribed Circle. Angle Con- tained between Two Sides. Triangle. 3 433013 5773 1.732 . 2887 60 4 1 7071 1 4142 5 90 Pentagon. 5 1 720477 8506 1 . 1756 6882 108 Hexagon 6 7 2.598076 3 633912 1524 1 8677 0.866 1 0383 120 128 57 Octagon Nonagon Decagon 8 9 10 4 . 828427 6.181824 7 694209 .3066 .4619 .618 . 7653 0.684 0.618 1.2071 1 . 3737 1 . 5383 135 140 144 Undecagon Dodecagon 11 12 9.36564 11.196152 .7747 1.9319 . 5634 0.5176 1 . 7028 1.866 147.27 150 the radius of the circle by the number opposite the name of the desired polygon in column C. To compute the radius of a circle that can be inscribed in a given polygon when the length of a side is given: Multiply the length of a side of the polygon by the number opposite the name of the polygon in column D. Regular Polyhedrons. DEFINITION. A regular body is a solid contained within a certain number of similar and equal plane faces, all of which are equal regular polygons. The whole number of regular bodies which can possibly be found is five. 1. The tetrahedron, or pyramid. 2. The hexahedron, or cube, which has six square faces. 3. The octahedron, which has eight triangular faces. 4. The dodecahedron, which has twelve pentagonal faces. 5. The icosahedron, which has twenty triangular faces. To find the volume of a regular polyhedron when the radius of the circumscribing sphere is given: Multiply the cube of the radius of the sphere by the multiplier opposite to the body in column 1 of the following table. Or when the radius of the inscribed sphere is given : Multiply the cube of the radius of the inscribed sphere by the multi- plier opposite the body in column 2 of the following table. Or when the surface is given : Cube the surface given, extract the square root, and multiply the root by the multiplier opposite the body in column 3 of the following table. Side is length of linear edge of any side of the figure. To find radius of circumscribed circle when side is given: Multiply the side by the multiplier opposite the body in column 4 of the following table. THE CIRCLE. 615 To find the radius of inscribed circle when side is given: Mul- tiply the side by the multiplier opposite the body in column 5 of the following table. To find the area of surface when side is given: Multiply the side by the multiplier opposite the body in column 6 of the following table. To find the volume when the side is given: Multiply the side by the multiplier opposite the body in column 7 of the following table. 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 73 K*)* 4 "" 1 ' 02 " W 'E x'STS ^ si -n i >J fe Name. ^ . d" B Q. " 1 "'o ^ MO OGQ r |8 4 Tetrahedron. 0.5132 12.85641 0.0517 0.6124 0.2041 1 . 7320 0.1178 6 Hexahedron. 1 . 5396 8 . 0000 0.06804 0.866 0.5 6. 1. - 8 Octahedron 1 . 33333 6.9282 0.07311 0.7071 0.4082 3.4641 0.4714 12 Dode'cahe- dron 2.78517 5 . 5503 0.08169 1.4012 1.1135 20.6458 7.6631 20 Icosahedron. 2.53615 5.05406 0.0856 0.951 0.7558 86.602 2.1817 Parabola, A parabola is one of the conic sections made by cutting the cone parallel to its slant. A hyperbola is a section of a cone cut by a plane at a greater angle through the base than is made by the side of the cone. To fina the area of a parabola multiply the base by two- thirds the height. Names of the parts of a circle (Fig. 341). A Segment. B Sector. C Quadrant. 14 Radius. 23 Diameter. 43 Chord. 56 Tangent. FIG. 341. The Circle. A circle is a plane figure bounded by a curve all points of which are equally distant from a point within, called the centre. The circumference is the curve which bounds the circle. The radius is a straight line drawn from the centre to the circumference. 616 THE CIRCLE. The diameter is a straight line drawn through the centre to the circumference on either side. An arc is any part of the circumference. A chord is a straight line connecting two points on the circum- ference. A segment is that part of the circle contained between the arc and its chord. A sector is the space included between an arc and two radii drawn to the centre. A tangent is a straight line which in passing a curve just touches it. Diameter of a circle X 3. 141 6= the circumference. Radius of a circle X 6.283185 = the circumference. Square of the radius of a circle X 3. 141 6= area. Square of the diameter of a circle X 0.7854= area. Square of the circumference of a circle X 0.07958= area. Half the circumference of a circle X by half the diameter = area. Circumference of a circle XO. 159155 =radius. Square root of the area of a circle X 0.5641 9= radius. Circumference of a circle X 0.31831 = diameter. Square root of the area of a circle X 1.1 2838= diameter. Area of a circle -f- 0.7854 and square root of the product =the diameter. Diameter of a circle X 0.86= side of inscribed equilateral triangle. Diameter of a circle XO. 7071 = side of inscribed square. Circumference of a circle X 0.225= side of an inscribed square. Circumference of a circle X 0.285= side of an equal square. Diameter of a circle X 0.8862= side of an equal square. Side of a square X 1.1 28397 = diameter of circle of equal area. To find the area of a circular ring formed by two concentric circles: Multiply the sum of the two diameters by their difference and the product by 0.7854. Any circle whose diameter is double that of another contains four times the area of the other. The areas of all circles are to one another as the squares of their like dimensions. The area of a circle is equal to the area of a triangle whose base equals the circumference and perpendicular equals the radius. ARC, SEGMENT, ETC., OF CIRCLES. 617 TABLE GIVING AREA OF CIRCLES (IN SQUARE FEET). D in. 1 in. 2 in. 3 in. 4 in. 5 in. Ft. 1. . .. 7854 922 1 07 1 23 1 40 1.58 2 3 14 3 41 3 69 3 98 4 28 4 59 3 7 07 7.47 7.88 8.30 8.73 9.17 4 12 58 13 10 13 64 14 19 14 75 15 32 5 19 64 20 39 20 97 21 65 22 34 23 04 6 28 27 29 06 29 87 30.68 31.50 32.34 7. . . 38 48 39 41 40 34 41 28 42 24 43 20 g 50 27 51 32 52 37 53 46 54 54 55 64 9. . . 63 62 64 80 66 00 67 20 68 42 69.64 10 . . 78 54 79 85 81 18 82 52 83 86 85 22 11 95 03 96 48 97 93 99.40 100.88 102.37 12. . . 113 10 114 67 116 26 117 86 119 47 121 09 13 . 132 73 134 44 136 16 137 89 139 63 141 38 14. . . 153 94 155 78 157 63 159 49 161 36 163 24 15 16 176.72 201 06 178.68 203 16 180.66 205 27 182.65 207 39 184.66 209 . 53 186.67 211.67 17 . . 226 98 229 21 231 45 233 71 235 97 238 24 18 254 47 256 83 259 20 261 59 263 98 266 39 19. . . 2 S3 53 236 06 238 52 291 04 293 56 296 11 20. . - 314.16 316.78 319.42 322.06 324.72 327.39 D 6 in. 7 in. 8 in. 9 in. 10 in. 11 in. Ft. 1 . . 1 77 1 97 2 18 2 41 2 64 2 89 2 3. . . 4.91 9 62 5.24 10 08 5.59 10 56 5.94 11 04 6.30 11 54 6.68 12 05 4. 15 90 16 50 17 10 17 72 18 35 18 99 5. ... 23 76 24 48 25 22 25 97 26 73 27 49 6 . . 33 18 34 04 34 91 35 78 36 67 37 57 7 8. . . 44.18 56 75 45.17 57 86 46.16 58 99 47.17 60 13 48.19 61 28 49.22 62 44 9 70 88 72 13 73 39 74 66 75 94 77 24 10 86 59 87 97 89 36 90 76 92 17 93 60 11 . 103 87 105 38 106 90 108 43 109 98 111 53 12 122 72 124 36 126 01 127 68 129 35 131 04 13 14 143.14 165 13 144.91 167 03 146.69 168 95 148.49 170 87 150.29 172 81 152.11 174 76 15 16 188.69 213 83 190.73 215 99 192.77 218 17 194.83 220 35 196.89 222 55 198.97 224 76 17 18 . . 240.53 268 80 242.82 271 23 245 . 13 273 67 247.45 276 12 249.78 278 58 252.12 281 05 19 20 298.64 330 . 06 301.21 332.75 303 . 77 335.45 306.36 338.16 308 . 94 340.88 311.55 343.62 12 Chord, 34 Rise, versed sine. 142 Arc. A A Segment. Arc, Segment, etc., of Circles (Fig. 342). To find the radius of an arc when the chord and rise are given : Rule. Square one-half the chord, also square the rise; divide their sum by twice the rise and the answer will be the radius. 618 ARC, SEGMENT, ETC., OP CIRCLES. To find the rise of an arc when the chord and radius are given : Rule. Square the radius; also square one-half the chord; sub- tract the latter from the former and take the square root of the remainder. Subtract the result from the radius and the re- mainder will be the rise. To find the chord of an arc when the chord of half the arc and the rise are given: From the square of the chord of half the arc subtract the square of the versed sine, or rise, and take twice the square root of the remainder. To find the chord of an arc when the diameter and rise are given: Multiply the rise by 2 and subtract the product from the diameter; then subtract the square of the remainder from the square of the diameter and take the square root of that remainder. To find the chord of half an arc when the chord of the arc and the rise are given: Take the square root of the sum of the squares of the rise and of half the chord of the arc. To find the chord of half an arc when the diameter and rise are given : Multiply the diameter by the rise and take the square root of their product. To find the diameter when the chord of half an arc and the rise are given: Divide the square of the chord of half the arc by the rise. To find the rise when the chord of half an arc and the diam- eter are given: Divide the square of the chord of half the arc by the diameter. To find the rise when the chord of an arc and the diameter are given : From the square of the diameter subtract the square of the chord and extract the square root of the remainder; subtract this root from the diameter and take half the remain- der. To find the length of an are of a circle when the number of degrees and the radius are given: Multiply the radius of the circle by 0.01745 and the product by the degrees in the arc. To find the length of an arc of a circle when the length is given in degrees, minutes, and seconds: Multiply the number of degrees by 0.01745329 and the product by the radius, and multiply the number of minutes by 0.00029 and that product by the radius, and multiply the number of seconds by 0.00000448 times the radius; add together the three results and the prod- uct will be the length of the arc. ELLIPSE. 619 To find the area of a sector of a circle when the degrees of the arc and the radius are given: Multiply the number of degrees in the arc by the area of the whole circle and divide by 360. To find the area of a sector of a circle when the length of the arc is given in degrees and minutes and the radius is given: Reduce the length of the arc to minutes, multiply by the area of the whole circle, and divide by 21,600. To find the area of a sector of a circle when the length of the arc and the radius are given : Multiply the length of the arc by half the length of the radius and the product is the area. To find the area of a sector: Multiply one-half of the length of the arc by the radius, or divide the number of degrees in the arc of the sector by 360. Multiply the result by the area of the circle of which the sector is a part. To find the area of a segment of a circle : Find^ the area of the sector of which the segment is a part, and from this area sub- tract the area of the triangle formed by the two radii and the chord of the segment. Ellipse. An ellipse is a plane figure bounded by a curved line, to any point of which the sum of the distances from two fixed points within, called the foci, is equal to the sum of the distances from the foci to any other point on the curve. In Fig. 343, A and B are the foci and C and D any two points on the perimeter. AC + CB=AD + DB, and both these sums are equal to the major axis-EJF. The long diameter EF is called the major axis, and the short diameter GD the minor axis. The foci is located from D or G as a centre, making DA or DB equal to one-half the length of the long diameter. There is no exact method of finding the circumference or perimeter of an ellipse, but to approximate close enough for all practical purposes multiply the major axis by 1.82 and the minor axis by 1.315. The sum of the results will be the perimeter. To find the area of an ellipse: Multiply the product of its two diameters by 0.7854. When the length of the perimeter and one axis on an ellipse are given, to approximate the length of the other axis, divide the length of the perimeter by 1.6 and from this quotient sub- tract the length of the given axis. 620 VARIOUS GEOMETRICAL FIGURES. The Frustum of a Pyramid or Cone. If a pyramid or cone is cut by a plane parallel to the base, so as to form two parts, the lower part is called the frustum of the pyramid or cone. The upper end of the frustum is called the upper base and the lower end the lower base. The altitude is the perpen- dicular distance between the bases. To find the convex area of a frustum of a pyramid or cone, multiply one-half the sum of the circumferences of the bases by the slant height. To find the entire area, add the area of the two bases. To find the volume of the frustum of a pyramid or cone : Add the areas of the upper base, the lower base, and the square root of the product of the areas of the two bases; multiply this sum by one-third of the length. Cylinder. A cylinder is a solid whose ends are equal and similar curved figures. To find the area of the convex surface of a cylinder: Multiply the circumference of the base by the height; and to find the entire area add the areas of the two ends. To find the volume or solid contents of a cylinder: Multiply the area of the base by the height. Pyramid and Cone. A pyramid is a solid whose base is a polygon, and whose sides are triangles uniting at a common point called the vertex. A cone is a solid whose base is a circle and whose convex sur- face tapers uniformly to a point called the vertex. The altitude of a pyramid or cone is the perpendicular dis- tance from the vertex to the base. The slant height of a pyramid is a line drawn from the vertex perpendicular to one of the sides of the base The slant height of a cone is any straight line drawn from the vertex to the cir- cumference of the base. To find the convex area of a pyramid or cone: Multiply the circumference of the base by one-half of the slant height. To find the volume of a pyramid or cone : Multiply the area of the base by one-third of the altitude. Sphere. A sphere is a solid bounded by a uniformly curved surface every point of which is equally distant from a point within called the centre. The square of the diameter of a sphere X 3. 141 6= its sur- face. Circumference of a sphere X by its diameter = its surface. MISCELLANEOUS MENSURATION. 621 Square of the circumference of a sphere X 0.3 183= its surface. Surface of a sphere X by of its diameter = its solidity. Cube of the diameter of a sphere X 0.5236= solidity. Cube of the radius of a sphere X 4. 1888= solidity. Cube of the circumference of a sphere X 0.016887 =solidity. Square root of the surface of a sphere X 0.5236= solidity. Square root of the surface of a sphere XI. 772454= the cir- cumference. Cube root of the solidity of a sphere X 1.2407= the diameter. Cube root of the solidity of a sphere X 3.8978= the circum- ference. Radius of a sphere X 1.1 547= side of inscribed cube. Square root of ( of the square of) the diameter of a sphere =side of inscribed cube. To find the solidity of a segment of a sphere: To three times the square of the radius of its base add the square of its height; multiply this sum by the height and the product by 0.5236. SPHERICAL ZONE. A spherical zone is the part of a sphere included between two parallel planes. To find the solid contents of a spherical zone: To the sum of the squares of radii of the two ends add one-third of the square of the height of the zone; multiply this sum by the height, and this product by 1.5708. Miscellaneous Mensuration. To find the contents of a barrel or cask, multiply the square of the mean diameter by the length (both in inches) and this product by 0.0034; the answer will be the contents in gallons. To find the mean diameter of a barrel or cask, add to the head diameter two- thirds, or, if the staves are but little curved, six-tenths, of the difference between the head and bung diameters. To FIND THE CONTENTS OF A ROUND TAPERING STICK OF TIMBER. Multiply the diameter of one end by the diameter of the other end, and to this product add one-third of the square of the difference of the diameters; then multiply this answer by 0.7854, which gives the mean area between the two ends, which multiplied by the height gives the cubical contents. To FIND THE CONTENTS OF TAPERING TIMBER. Multiply the side of the large end by the side of the small end and to the product add one-third of the square of the difference of the sides, which gives the mean area between the two ends, which multiplied by the length gives the cubical contents. 622 VARIOUS FORMULAE. To FIND THE WEIGHT OF GRINDSTONES. Multiply the square of the diameter (in inches) by the thickness (in inches), then by the decimal 0.06363; the product will be the weight of the stone in pounds. SIZE OF BOXES. A box 4"X4" square and 4|" deep will hold one quart; a box 7"X4" square and 4f" deep will hold half a gallon; a box 8" X 8" square and 4J" deep will hold one gallon; a box 8"X8" square and 8f" deep will hold one peck; a box 16"X8f" square and 8" deep will hold half a bushel; a box 24"X"16 square and 14" deep will hold half a barrel; a box 24" XI 6" square and 28" deep will hold one barrel, or three bushels. To FIND THE SOLID CONTENTS OF AN IRREGULAR BODY. Immerse it in a vessel partly filled with water; then the con- tents of that part of the vessel filled by the rising water will be the cubical contents of the body. Various Formulae. To find the horizontal thrust of an arch: TT . load on arch X span Horizontal thrust = = : 5 . . \. z . 8 X rise of arch in feet When tension rods are used the diameter of the rod can be found as follows: total load on arch X span Diameter of rod in inches =5-^ - c *. * : *- ef 8 X rise of arch in feet X 7854 If two rods are used substitute 16 in place of 8 in the formula, if three rods, 24. To find the distance from the intrados to the extrados of an arch, in feet: 24- 4 /radius + half s P an V 4 Strength of stone lintels: Distributed breaking load _2X breadth in inches X square of depth in inches span in feet C for granite, 100; marble, 120; limestone, 83; sandstone, 70; slate, 300; bluestone flagging, 150. Concentrated load at centre = one-half distributed load. To find the power of a screw with lever: The power multi- VARIOUS FORMULA. 623 plied by the circumference which it describes is equal to the weight multiplied by the distance between threads. To find the power of a lever: Rule. As the distance between the weight and the fulcrum is to the distance between the power and the fulcrum, so is the power to the weight. To find the power of pulleys or set of blocks: Rule. As one is to twice the number of movable pulleys, so is the power to the weight. STRENGTH OF WOODEN BEAMS. To find the strength of a beam fixed at one end and load at other: breadth X square of depth X A Safe load m pounds = 4 X length in feet To find the strength of a beam fixed at one end and load uni- formly distributed: breadth X square of depth X A Safe load in pounds = 2x i engt h in feet ' To find the strength of a beam supported at both ends and loaded at the centre: breadth X square of depth X A Safe load in pounds = : ? - . span in feet To find the strength of a beam supported at both ends and uniformly distributed load: , 2 X breadth X square of depth X A Safe load in pounds = ? -= . span in feet To find the strength of a beam supported at both ends and with a concentrated load at any point but the centre: , breadth X square of depth X span X A Safe load in pounds = 4x#XC ~~ " To find the strength of a beam supported at both ends and loaded with concentrated loads at two points equally dis- tant from the supports: Safe load in pounds at each point = breadth Xsquare of depth XA^ 4 XC 624 VARIOUS FORMULAE. In the last two formulae (7 = the distance from the weight to the nearest support and J5 = the distance from the weight to the other support. The values of the constant A in the above formula are as follows : Ash Ill Beech 100 Birch 90 Cedar 55 Hemlock.. 66 White oak 75 White pine 80 Yellow pine 100 Spruce 90 FLITCH-PLATE GIRDERS. To find the strength of flitch-plate girders in which the thickness of the iron plate is about -fa of the breadth of the beam (which is about the correct proportion). Beams supported g,t both ends: The safe load at centre in pounds (FB + 75QT). Li 2Z> 2 Safe distributed load in pounds =-j-(FB + 750 T) To find the depth of beam : For distributed load D = |/ WL 2FB+15MT For load at centre In the above formula D = depth of beam. B = total thickness of wood. L = clear span in feet. T = thickness 1 of iron plate. ( 100 pounds for hard pine, ~ 1 73 pounds for spruce. W = total load on girder. VARIOUS FORMULA. 625 HOGOHAINS, OR BELLY -ROD TRUSS. Stresses in a beam with one strut, Fig. 344, with concentrated load at centre. To o. Fio. 344. find the stress in AC or DC, divide the length of the line AC by the length of the line BC and then multiply this result by one-half the concentrated load. To find the stress in the beam AD, divide the length of the line AB by the length of the line BC and multiply by one-half the concentrated load. When the load is distributed over the entire beam, use f of the entire load for the load on the strut, or concentrated at centre. The length of the members in the above rules must be taken in the same unit of measurement. The rules may be expressed by the following formulae, in which W= weight. AC W Stress in AC or DC= -579 X-^-= tensile strength; ./JO Stress in AD = i^X -^ compression. Stresses in beams with two struts and load concentrated over the struts, Fig. 345. w w D c Fio. 345. To obtain the stress in AC or ED, divide the length of AC by the length of BC and multiply this result by the load at W. To find the stress in AE or DC, divide the length of the line A B by the length of the line BC and multiply this result by the load at W. When a beam has two struts placed one-third of its dis- tance from each end, and has a uniformly distributed load, the weight on each strut is ^ of the total load. 626 VARIOUS FORMULA. The above rules may be expressed in formulae as follows: Stress in AC or ED=^X W: JjL Stress in EA or DC = ~ X W. -DC ROOF-TRUSSES. To find the strain on roof-trusses with a single rod. The strains on a truss built as shown in Fig. 346 are found as follows : Three-tenths of the distributed weight by half the length of the chord divided by the length of ab equals the tensile strain on the chord ; five-eighths of weight equals tensile strain on the rod; three-tenths of the distributed weight by the length of the rafter divided by the length of ab equals the compression in the rafter. For concentrated weight at the centre: One-half the FIG. 346. weight by half the length of the chord divided by the length of ab equals the strain on the chord; the strain on the rod is equal to the weight; one-half the weight by the length of the rafter divided by the length of ab equals the compression in the rafter. To FIND THE STRAIN ON ROOF-TRUSS WITH Two RODS. The strains on a truss built as shown in Fig. 347 are as follows : The distributed weight by 0.367 by one-third the length of the chord, Straining Beam Bolt FIG. 347. or cb, divided by the length of ab, equals the strain on the chord or the compression of top piece; the weight by 0.367 equals the strain on the rods; the distributed weight by 0.367 by the length of the rafter divided by the length of ab equals the compression in the rafter. When the weight is concentrated at 1 and 2 : The weight by one-third the length of the chord, or cb, divided by the length of ab, equals the strain on the chord or the compression of the top piece; the weight equals the strain on the rods; the STRESS IN MEMBERS OF ROOF-TRUSSES 627 weight by the length of the rafter divided by the length of ab equals the compression of the rafter. The diameter of a single rod to carry a given weight may be found by dividing the weight by 9425, and the square root of the product will be the diameter of the rod, allowing 12,000 pounds per square inch in the rod. When two rods carry a given weight, take half the weight and proceed as above. TABLES FOR FINDING STRESSES IN MEMBERS FOR ROOF- TRUSSES OF THE DIFFERENT TYPES AND PITCHES AS GIVEN BELOW AND OF ANY SPAN. Rule. To find the stress in any member, multiply the coefficient given for that member by total dead load carried by truss (=span in feet X dis- tance between trusses in feetX weight per square foot). If the truss is acted upon by wind forces of other unsymmetrical loading, the stresses in the members must be calculated accordingly and combined with the dead- load stresses as found below Member of Truss Pitch (Depth to Span). Note. Heavy lines denote compression and light lines tension members. Loads are considered as concentrated at the joints. * 30 i } Fig. 348. AO Bb Ca Cc ab be Fig. 349. Aa Bb Cc Da Dd ab be cd Fig. 350. Aa Bb Cc Dd Ea i ab bf to % % .675 .537 .563 .375 .208 .188 .750 .589 .568 .625 .375 .155 .155 .250 .788 .718 .649 .580 .655 .562 .375 .104 .093 .208 .093 .104 .187 280 .750 .625 .650 .433 .217 .217 .833 .666 .666 .721 .433 .167 .167 .288 .874 .812 .750 .687 .758 .650 .433 .108 .108 .216 .108 .108 .217 .325 .838 .726 .750 .500 .224 .250 .930 .757 .783 .833 .500 .180 .180 .333 .978 .922 .866 .810 .875 .750 .500 .112 .125 .224 .125 .112 .250 .375 1.010 .917 .938 .625 .232 .313 1.120 .928 .995 1.042 .625 .202 .202 .417 1.178 1.131 1.085 1.038 1.094 .538 .625 .116 .156 .232 .156 .116 .313 .469 C FIG. 348. ^/\ C / > / ^\/ D FIG. 349. 5rf\W* J^a\/f\/ E FIG. 350. 628 STRESSES IN PRATT AND WHIFFLE TRUSSES. Explanation of Tables on Maximum Stresses in Pratt and Whipple Trusses (Pages 628 to 630, inclusive). These tables give the stress in each member of a Pratt (single quadrangular) or Whipple (double quadrangular) truss, for any number of panels not exceeding twelve in the former and twenty in the latter case, on the assumption that the load is uniform per foot and the panels are all of the same length. The stresses are given in terms of the truss-panel dead and moving loads, represented re- spectively by W and L. These are obtained by multiplying the dead load per foot of bridge, in the case of W, and the moving or live load per foot of bridge, in the case of L, by half the .panel length. The letters W and L are placed at the top of column in tables, and not next to the figures to which they belong, for want of space. The stress in aB. for example, in a twelve-panel Pratt truss, = 5.5TF+5.5L, and in c = 4.5TF + f|L, both multiplied by the quotient specified in the last column. Tho system of lettering employed is shown by Figs. 351 and 352, on page 627, and, it is believed, is the best in use. By making a sketch of the truss under consideration and lettering the vertices in the manner shown, the truss members to which reference is had in the tables can be readily identified. The dead load is assumed as concentrated at the lower ver- tices of the trusses for through bridges and at the upper ver- tices for deck bridges. For through bridges of very large span, the stresses thus obtained for the posts must be increased by the truss-panel weight of the upper portion of the truss, includ- ing the lateral bracing; but in small spans, the increase of stress on this account is so inconsiderable that it is usually neglected. Note. In order to calculate the stresses in a Whipple or double quadrangular truss by statical methods, it is necessary to consider the truss as the combination of two Pratt trusses or single systems of bracing and assume that each of these two systems is strained in the same manner as if one were inde- pendent of the other. If the number of panels is odd, each of the two systems is unsymmetrical, which has the effect of mak- ing the stress in the middle panel of the lower chord slightly smaller than the stress in the corresponding panel of the top chord. The difference is, however, frequently neglected, and the stress in middle panel of bottom chord assumed the same as in middle papel of top chord. ILLUSTRATION OF APPLICATION OF TABLES. 629 Each of the two systems is assumed to carry one-half of the panel load at the top of the inclined end posts. FIG. 351. Pratt or Single Quadrangular Truss. BCD EFGHIKLMNOP \ XX \x/y abcdefghi k I m n o p FIG. 352. Whipple or Double Quadrangular Truss. Illustration of Application of Tables, also of the Use of Table of Natural Sines, Tangents, and Se- cants. A Pratt truss of 135 feet span and 18 feet depth is divided into nine panels of 15 feet each. Required the stress in first main tie Be, and in middle panel DE of top chord, for a dead load of 1200 pounds and a moving load of 3000 pounds per lineal foot of bridge. I OAA T7=|^-X15=9000 pounds; X 15 =22,500 " ; Zi Length 18 The factor , or panel length divided by depth of truss, is lo the tangent of the angle, for which the length Be, divided by depth of truss, is the secant. By table of natural sines, tangents, and secants, for tangent = r^ = 0.833, the secant = 1.302"; there- fore Bc= 97,000X1.30 = 126,100 pounds] 315,000 X = 262,50G lo 630 STRESSES IN TRUSSES. MAXIMUM STRESSES UNDER DEAD AND MOVING LOADS IN PRATT OR SINGLE QUADRANGULAR TRUSSES, WITH IN- CLINED END POSTS AND EQUAL PANELS, FOR THROUGH AND DECK BRIDGES. dead load and L = moving load per truss and per panel. Member. 12-panel Truss. 11-panel Truss. 10-panel Truss. 9-panel Truss. 8-panel Truss. Mul- tiply by W + L W + L W + L W + L W + L 1- aB 5.5 + 5.5 5 + 5 4.5 + 4.5 4 + 4 3.5 + 3.5 S-l* Be 3.5 + 3.6 3 + 2% 1 >>" Cd 3 5 + 45 /j2 3 _(_ sty^ 2.5 + 2.8 2 + 2% 1.5 + 1% -Sxj S De 2 5-|-3(W 2 + 28/n 1.5 + 2.1 1 + 15/9 5 -f_ KJg O -^ Ef I '5-|_2j Dd, Ee 25 + 3% 2 2 + 28/u 1.5 + 2.1 1+15/9 0.5 + i% "3 Ee, Ff i:5+28/ 12 1 + 21/11 0.5 + 1.5 + i% -0.5 + % p Ff, Gg -0.5 + 1.0 Gg -0.5 + 15/12 Member. 7-panel Truss. 6-panel Truss. 5-panel Truss. 4-panel Truss. 3-panel Truss. Multiply by W + L W + L W + L W + L W + L ^ >, aB 3 + 3 2.5 + 2.5 2 + 2.0 1.5 + 1.5 1 + 1 -a.&5 "5 Be 2-1-15^ 1 5-j-io^ 1 + 1.2 0.5 + i 0+i "yj S-S5 j Cd 1 _|_ 1 Qlj 0^5 + 1.0 + 0.6 -0.5 + } fl rt'> "^3 De + % -0.5 + 0.5 -1+0.2 i^ ^" Ef -1+% '** abc 3 + 3 2.5 + 2.5 2 + 2 1.5 + 1.5 1 + 1 ^8 BC,cd 5 + 5 4.0 + 4.0 3 + 3 2.0 + 2.0 1 + 1 slag CDE, de 6 + 6 4.5 + 4.5 i^"^"^ Thro. Deck ^ Cc 2 + 1% 1.5 + io/e 1 + 1.2 0.5 + 1 ^> Cc, Dd 1 + 1% 0.5 + 1.0 + 0.6 -0.5 + } 3 Dd + % -0.5 + 0.5 S STRESSES IN TRUSSES. 631 AXIMUM STRESSES UNDER DEAD AND MOVING LOADS IN WHIFFLE OR DOUBLE QUADRANGULAR TRUSSES, WITH IN- CLINED END POSTS AND EQUAL PANELS, FOR THROUGH AND DECK BRIDGES. TT = dead load and L Amoving load per truss and per panel. 20-panel Truss. 19-panel Truss. 18-panel Truss. 17-panel Truss. 16-panel Truss. aB Be Bd Ce I Gi Hk II Km Ln Mo W + L 9.5 + 9.5 4.5 + 90-5/20 4.0 + 80-5/20 3.5 + 72-5/20 [.5 + 42-5/,o [.0 + 35-5/20 ).i+3o-y2o -0.5 + 20 '%o -1.0 + 15-5/20 29.5+ 9.5 14+14 22 + 22 29 + 29 35 + 35 40 + 40 44 + 44 47 + 47 49 + 49 50 + 50 34.5 + -5/2o 4.0 + 80-5,20 3.0 + 63-5/jo 1.0 + 3r,-5/, 0.5 + 30-5/20 + 24-5/20 -0.5 + 20-5/2Q W + L 19+9 29 + 9 42/ 19 +48-5/ 10 34/ 19 +42-5/ 1() W+L 8.5 + 8.5 2.5 + 48 -5^ 2 8.5+ S.5 12.5 + 12.5 19.5 + 19.5 25.5 + 25.5 30.5 + 30.5 34.5 + 34.5 37.5 + 37.5 39.5 + 39.5 40.5 + 40.5 IK = H1 3 4 . + 72-5/ ]8 2.'5+48-5/JJ -0.5 + 15-5,48 W + L 18 + 8 56/17 + 5 -5/1 7 46/ 17 +48-5/ 17 39/ 17 +42-5/ 17 VlT 5 /17 s-y 17 28 + 8 39/ ]7 +42-5/ 17 W + L 1 75 + 7.5 1.5 + 30-5J 6 0:5 + 20-y}J -1.0 + -1.5 + 27.5 + 7.5 11 + 11 17+17 22 + 22 26 + 26 29 + 29 31 + 31 32 + 32 HI = GH 3 3.5 + 56 -5^ 1 Multiply by: Length of member divided by depth of truss. 2 Multiply by: Panel length divided by depth of truss. 3 Multiply by: Unity. 632 STRESSES IN TRUSSES. MAXIMUM STRESSES UNDER DEAD AND MOVING LOADS I WHIPPLE OR DOUBLE QUADRANGULAR TRUSSES, WITH II CLINED END POSTS AND EQUAL PANELS, FOR THROUGJ AND DECK BRIDGES (Continued). TF" = dead load and L= moving load per truss and per panel. Member. 15-panel Truss. 14-panel Truss. 13-panel Truss. 12-panel Truss. 11-panel Truss. aB Be Bd Ce Df Gi Hk II Km abc cd BC,de CD,ef DE,fg EF,gh FG, hi GHI Thro. Deck Cc Dd Cc, Ee Dd, Ff Ee, Gg Ff, Hh %' h W + L W+L i 6.5 + 6.5 f 42/ 15 + 42 -5/ 15 ! 2.5 + 35 '%J 12/ 15 + 20-5/ 15 0.0+12'5/ 14 -0.5+ 8'5^ 4 8-5 /15 1.0+ 6> 5/u 2 6.5+ 6.5 9.5+ 9.5 14.5 + 14.5 18.5 + 18.5 21.5 + 21.5 23.5 + 23.5 24.5 + 24.5 GH = FG 357/ 15 + 357^5 3 48/ 15 +48-5^ g 42/ 15+ 42-5/l5 -0.5+ 17 /i3 + 2 |i3 - ^3+ 8 ' 5 /13 - 9 /l3+ 6-5 /13 26 + 6 %* + ^ 3 /13 + 17 217/J3 + 217/J3 GH=FG >5 /i3 W+L 1 5.5 + 5.5 5 /i2 0.0 + -0.5 + -1.0 + 2 5.5+ 5.5 8.0+ 8.0 12.0+12.0 15.0+15.0 17.0+17.0 18.0+18.0 1.0+15-5/ t2 0.0+ 8-5/ 12 -0.5+ e-% 2 W + L 20/,,+20-iy 13/ n +15-5/ ~ 9 /4l+ S ' E 2-E 2 5 + 5 79 /ll+ 7 167 /4i+ 1G7 /i: 1 4il + 159 /i: 1 e/ 1 + 15-/ 1 |/;;+ 1 l|; 1 Multiply by: Length of member divided by depth of truss. 2 Multiply by: Panel length divided by depth of truss. 3 Multiply by: Unity. RESISTANCE TO SHEARING. 633 Resistance to Shearing. By shearing is meant the separating and pushing of one part of a piece by the other. To find the working shearing strength of wood: Find the area to be sheared in inches and multiply by the strength given in table on page 317. For the compression and tensile strength proceed in like manner. PART VI. HYDRAULICS AND DATA ON WATER. STRENGTHS, WEIGHTS, ETC., OF MA- TEEIALS. YAKIOUS MATERIALS AND DATA. Hydraulics. TABLE SHOWING CAPACITIES OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS, ALSO USEFUL DATA REGARDING SAME. Size o;,.* Econom- Horse- Diam- Pump (Diam- eter Dis- charge Pipe). oiise Pipe for Suction, Inches. ical Capacity, Gallons per Minute. Power Required for each Foot Elevation. eter and Face of Pulley in Inches. H 2 70 .058 6X 6 If 2 90 .075 7X 8 2 3 120 .10 8X 8 2* 3 180 .15 8X 8 3 4 260 .22 8X 8 4 5 470 .30 10X10 5 6 735 .45 12X12 6 8 1050 .59 15X12 8 10 2000 1.00 20X12 10 12 3000 1.52 24X12 12 15 4200 2.00 30X14 15 18 7000 3.50 40X15 15 18 7000 3.50 30X15 18 20 10000 4.50 40X16 18 20 10000 4.50 30X16 20 22 12000 5.40 36X20 22 24 13000 5.50 48X20 24 24 15000 6.50 48X36 CAPACITY OF SAND AND DREDGING CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS. No. Pump (Diam- eter Dis- charge Opening) Diam- eter Suction. Cubic Yards Material per Hour, 10 to 20 Per Cent of Solids. Horse- power Re- quired for each 10 Feet Ele- vation. Will Pass Solids: Diam- eter, Inches. Diam- eter and Face of Pulley. 10 Per Cent. 15 Per Cent. 20 Per Cent. 4 4 14 21 28 4 2 12X12 6 6 30 45 60 8 4* 20X12 8 8 60 90 120 15 6 24X14 10 10 90 135 180 25 8 30X15 12 12 125 190 250 30 10 36X20 15 15 210 315 420 50 10 42X24 18 18 300 450 600 70 10 48X30 634 HYDRAULICS. 635 REVOLUTION TABLE Speeds at which Standard Pumps should Run to Raise Water to Different Heights. No. 5 Ft. 10 Ft. 15 Ft. 25 Ft. 35 Ft. 50 Ft. 70 Ft. 100 Ft, H 428 604 739 955 1131 1351 1599 1911 1* 348 491 601 777 920 1099 1301 1554 2 302 426 522 674 798 953 1128 1348 2* 302 426 522 674 798 953 1128 1348 3 302 426 522 674 798 953 1128 1348 4 285 402 493 637 754 901 1066 1274 5 256 362 443 572 678 810 958 1145 6 214 302 368 478 566 675 800 955 8 183 259 317 409 485 579 685 819 10 168 238 291 376 445 532 629 752 12 133 188 230 298 352 421 498 595 15 105 148 181 234 277 331 391 468 15 151 213 261 337 399 477 564 674 18 105 148 181 234 277 331 391 468 18 151 213 261 337 399 477 564 674 20 142 202 245 317 376 450 532 635 24 95 134 163 212 252 300 355 424 If water is to be forced through long pipes or through many elbows, speed must be increased to correspond. Weir-dam Measurement for Flow of Water in Streams. Cut a notch in a board deep enough to pass all the water and about two-thirds the width of the stream, Fio. 353. as shown by Fig. 353. Bevel the edges of the notch, then secure it in the position shown in the above view. Drive a stake 636 WEIR-DAM MEASUREMENT OF WATER. in the bottom of the stream about 4 or 5 feet from the board (shown as distance A in the view). The top of the stake must be exactly level with the, bottom of the notch in the board. After the water has come to an even flow and reached its greatest depth, a careful measurement can be made of the depth of the water over the top of the stake. This measurement gives the true depth of water passing over notch. On the down- ward side, the water must have a drop of 10 to 15 inches after leaving the board to enable you to get the true flow. The nature of the channel above the board should be such that the water will not rush over the board, but should be wide and deep enough to allow it to flow over quietly. The Weir-dam table given below shows the number of cubic feet of water passing per minute over the notch for each inch in breadth. The figures in the first vertical column are the inches depth of water over the weir. The figures on first horizontal line show fractional parts of inches depth. The table shows cubic feet that will pass per minute per inch of width of notch in board. Example. Suppose the notch in the board is 20 inches wide and the water is 5^ inches above top of stake. In the table TABLE FOR WEIR-DAM MEASUREMENT, Giving cubic feet of water per minute that will flow over a weir 1 inch wide and up to 25 inches deep. Inch. I i i * I * 1 1 .40 .47 .55 .65 .74 .83 .93 1.03 2 1.14 1.24 1.36 1.47 1.59 1.71 1.83 1.96 3 2.09 2.23 2.36 2.50 2.63 2.78 2.92 3.07 4 3.22 3.37 3.52 3.68 3.83 3.99 4.16 4.32 5 4.50 4.67 4.84 5.01 5.18 5.36 5.54 5.72 6 5.90 6.09 6.28 6.47 6.65 6.85 7.05 7.25 7 7.44 7.64 7.84 8.05 8.25 8.45 8.66 8.86 8 9.10 9.31 9.52 9.74 9.96 10.18 10.40 10.62 9 10.86 11.08 11.31 11.54 11.77 12.00 12.23 12.47 10 12.71 12.95 13.19 13.43 13.67 13.93 14.16 14.42 11 14.67 14.92 15.18 15.43 15.67 15.96 16.20 16.46 12 16.73 16.99 17.26 17.52 17.78 18.05 18.32 18.58 13 18.87 19.14 19.42 19.69 19.97 20.24 20.52 20.80 14 21.09 21.37 21.65 21.94 22.22 22.51 22.79 23.08 15 23.38 23.67 23.97 24.26 24.56 24.86 25.16 25.46 16 25.76 26.06 26.36 26.66 26.97 27.27 27.58 27.89 17 28.20 28.51 28.82 29.14 29.45 29.76 30.08 30.39 18 30.70 31.02 31.34 31.66 31.98 32.31 32.63 32.96 19 33.29 33.61 33.94 34.27 34.60 34.94 35.27 35.60 20 35.94 36.27 36.60 36.94 37.28 37.62 37.96 38.31 21 38.65 39.00 39.34 39.69 40.04 40.39 40.73 41.09 22 41.43 41.78 42.13 42.49 42.84 43.20 43.56 43.92 23 44.28 44.64 45.00 45.38 45.71 46.08 46.43 46.81 24 47.18 47.55 47.91 48.28 48.65 49.02 49.39 49.76 MEASUREMENTS OF LARGE STREAMS. 637 5 inches show that 5.18 cubic feet flow over 1 inch of width. Multiply this by 20 (width of notch), and you will have 103.6, which represents the cubic feet of water passing over the weir, or amount in the stream. This multiplied by 7 will give the gallons. A " miners' inch" of water is approximately equal to a supply of 12 United States gallons per minute. Measurements of Large Streams. Where measure- ment by weir is impracticable, the amount of water can be cal- culated by ascertaining the average velocity of the current and the cross-section of the stream. Select a place in the stream where there is a moderate cur- rent, or smooth, even flow of water, and measure the depth of the water at from 6 to 12 points across the stream at equal FIG. 354. distances between. Add all the depths in feet together, and divide by the number of measurements made; this will be the average depth of the stream, which, multiplied by its width, will give its area or cross-section. Multiply this by the velocity of the stream in feet per minute, and the result will be the discharge in cubic feet per minute of the stream. Miners' Inch Measurement. The miners' inch is another method of measuring flow of water, and is commonly 638 PRESSURE OF WATER. used by the hydraulic companies in the western part of the United States. The standard opening is 50 inches long by 2 inches wide in a li-inch board, top of said opening being 6 inches from level of water in stream, as shown by Fig. 354. This is equivalent to 100 miners' inches, and will discharge 157 cubic feet per minute, commonly taken as 150 cubic feet. If there is not 150 cubic feet in the stream, it will be necessary to close part of the longitudinal 2-inch opening, so that the water will stand 6 inches above the upper edge of the slot at all times. The length of the opening multiplied by two gives the number of miners' inches. PRESSURE OF WATER. Pressure Pressure Pressure Pressure Head in Pounds Head in Pounds Head in Pounds Head in Pounds in per in per in per in per Feet. Square Feet. Square Feet. Square Feet. Square Inch. Inch. Inch. Inch 1 0.43 34 14.74 67 29.05 100 43.35 2' 0.87 35 15.17 68 29.48 101 43.78 3 1.30 36 15.61 69 29.91 102 44.22 4 1.73 37 16.04 70 30.35 103 44.65 5 2.17 38 16.47 71 30.78 104 45.08 6 2.60 39 16.91 72 31.21 105 45.52 7 3.03 40 17.34 73 31.65 106 45 95 8 3.47 41 17.77 74 32.08 107 46.39 9 3.90 42 18.21 75 32.51 108 46.82 10 4.34 43 18.64 76 32.95 109 47.25 11 4.77 44 19.07 77 33.38 110 47.69 12 5.20 45 19.51 78 33.81 111 48.12 13 5.64 46 19.94 79 34.25 112 48.55 14 6.07 47 20.37 80 34.68 113 48 99 15 6.50 48 20.81 81 35.11 114 49.42 16 6.94 49 21.24 82 35.55 115 49.85 17 7.37 50 21.68 83 35.98 116 50.29 18 7.80 51 22.11 84 36.41 117 50.72 19 8.24 52 22.54 85 36.85 118 51.15 20 8.67 53 22.98 86 37.28 119 51.59 21 9.10 54 23.41 87 37.72 120 52.02 22 9.54 55 23.84 88 38.15 121 52.45 23 9.97 56 24.28 89 38.58 122 52.89 24 10.40 57 24.71 90 39.02 123 53.32 25 10.84 58 25.14 91 39.45 124 53.75 26 11.27 59 25.58 92 39.88 125 54.19 27 11.70 60 26.01 93 40.32 126 54.62 28 12.14 61 26.44 94 40.75 127 55.06 29 12.57 62 26.88 95 41.18 128 55.49 30 13.01 63 27.31 96 41.62 . 129 55.92 31 13.44 64 27.74 97 42.05 130 56.36 32 13.87 65 28.18 98 42.48 131 56.79 33 14.31 66 2S.61 99 42.92 , 132 57.22 PRESSURE OF WATER. 639 PRESSURE OF WATER (Continued'). Head Pressure in Pounds Head Pressure in Pounds Head Pressure in Pounds Head Pressure in Pounds in Feet. per Sq. Inch. in Feet. per Sq. Inch. in Feet. perSq. Inch. in Feet. per Sq. Inch. 133 57.66 175 75.86 217 94.06 259 112.27 134 58.09 176 76.30 218 94.50 260 112.71 135 58.52 177 76.73 219 94.93 261 113.14 136 58.96 178 77.16 220 95.37 262 113.57 137 59.39 179 77.60 221 95.80 263 114.01 138 59.82 180 78.03 222 96 . 23 264 114.44 139 60.26 181 78.46 223 96.67 265 114.87 140 60.69 182 78.90 224 97.10 266 115.31 141 61.12 183 79.33 225 97.53 267 115.74 142 61.56 184 79.77 226 97.97 268 116.17 143 62.00 185 80.20 227 98.40 269 116.61 144 62.43 186 80.63 228 98.83 270 117.04 145 62.86 187 81.07 229 99.27 271 117.47 146 63.29 188 81.50 230 99.70 272 117.91 147 63.73 189 81.93 231 100.13 273 118.34 148 64.16 190 82.37 232 100.56 274 118.77 149 64.59 191 82.80 233 101.00 275 119.21 150 65.03 192 83 . 23 234 101.43 276 119.64 151 65.46 193 83.67 235 101.86 277 120.07 152 65.89 194 84.10 236 102.30 278 120.51 153 66.33 195 84.53 237 102.73 279 120.94 154 66.76 196 84.97 238 103.16 2SO 121.38 155 67.19 197 85.40 239 103.60 281 121.81 156 67.63 198 85.83 240 104.03 282 122.24 157 68.06 199 86.27 241 104.46 283 122.68 158 68.49 200 86.70 242 104.90 284 123.11 159 68.93 201 87.13 243 105.33 285 123.54 160 69.36 202 87.56 244 105.76 286 123.98 161 69.79 203 88.00 245 106.20 287 124.41 162 70.23 204 88.43 246 106.63 288 124.84 163 70.66 205 88.85 247 107.06 289 125 28 164 71.10 206 89.30 248 107.50 290 125.71 165 71.53 207 89.73 249 107.93 291 126 14 166 71.96 208 90.15 250 108.37 292 126.58 167 72.40 209 90.60 251 108.80 293 127.01 168 72.83 210 91.03 252 109.23 294 127.44 169 73.26 211 91.46 253 109.67 295 127.88 170 73.70 212 91.90 254 110.10 296 128 31 171 74.13 213 92.33 255 110.53 297 128 . 74 172 74.56 214 92.76 256 110.97 298 129 . 18 173 75.00 215 93 . 20 257 111.40 299 129.61 174 75.43 216 93.63 258 111.83 300 130.05 640 VELOCITY OF WATER. VELOCITY OF WATER. Table giving velocity of water in feet per second, and the cubic feet of water per minute, to develop one horse-power at 80 per cent duty under heads from 1 to 108 feet. Head Veloc- ity. Cubic Feet. Head Veloc- ity. Cubic Feet. Head Veloc- ity. Cubic Feet, 1 8.02 661 . 765 37 48.78 17.886 73 68.53 9.065 2 11.34 330 . 883 38 49.44 17.415 74 69.00 8.943 3 13.89 220.589 39 50.09 16.968 75 69.46 8.822 4 16.04 165.441 40 50.72 16.544 76 69.92 8.707 5 17.92 132.353 41 51.35 16.141 77 70.38 8.594 6 19.65 110.294 42 54.98 15.756 78 70.84 8.484 7 21.22 94.538 43 52.59 15.390 79 71.29 8.377 8 22.68 82.720 44 53.20 15.040 80 71 . 74 8.272 9 24.06 73 . 529 45 53.80 14.706 81 72.19 8.170 10 25.36 66.177 46 54.40 14.368 82 72.63 8.070 11 26.60 60.160 47 54.99 14.080 83 73.07 7 973 12 27.78 55.147 48 55.57 13.787 84 73.51 7.878 13 28.92 50.905 49 56.14 13 . 505 85 73.95 7.785 14 30.01 47.269 50 56.71 13.236 86 74.38 7.695 15 31.06 44.118 51 57.27 12.976 87 74.81 7.606 16 32.08 41 . 360 52 57.84 12.726 88 75.24 7.520 17 33.07 38 . 927 53 58.39 12.486 89 75.67 7.436 18 34.03 36.765 54 58.93 12.255 90 76.09 7.353 19 34.96 34 . 830 55 59.48 12.032 91 76.51 7.272 20 35.87 33 . 088 56 60.01 11.817 92 76.93 7.193 21 36.75 31.513 57 60.56 11.610 93 77.35 7.116 22 37.61 30.080 58 61.08 11.410 94 77.76 7.040 23 38.46 28.772 59 61.61 11.216 95 78.18 6.966 24 39.29 27 . 574 60 62.12 11.029 96 78.59 6.893 25 40.10 26.471 61 62.71 10.849 97 79.00 6.822 26 40.89 25.453 62 63.15 10.674 98 * 79.40 6.753 27 41.67 24.510 63 63.66 10.504 99 79.81 6.685 28 42.44 23 . 634 64 64.16 10.340 100 80.22 6.618 29 43.19 22.819 65 64.66 10.181 101 80.61 6.552 30 43.93 22.059 66 65.16 10.027 102 81.01 6.487 31 44.65 21 . 347 67 65.65 9.877 103 81.40 6.425 32 45.37 20.680 68 66.14 9.732 104 81.80 6.363 33 46.07 20.053 69 66.62 9.591 105 82.19 6.303 34 46.77 19.464 70 67.11 9.454 106 82.58 6.243 35 47.45 18.908 71 67.58 9.321 107 82.97 6.185 36 48.12 18.382 72 68.06 9.191 108 83.35 6.127 FLOW OF WATER THROUGH NOZZLES. 641 TABLE SHOWING FLOW OF WATER THROUGH NOZZLES. Quantity and Horse-power. Diameters of Nozzles. 1 1 1 Inch. 1.5 Inches. 2 Inches. 2.5 Inches. 3 Inches. 1 CQ 1 || 1 PH v 1 || -power. ll I ll power. 1 fl ll o || o fl '.3 <3 1 'if i o K o a W O a n o a w o a w o a w 5 17.95 .091 .051 .205 .113 .364 .204 .56 .315 .820 .452 10 25.38 .129 .146 .290 .329 .516 .584 .805 .915 1.16 1.32 15 31.08 .158 .269 .355 .505 .632 1.08 .985 1.68 1.42 2.42 20 35.89 .182 .414 .410 .931 .728 1.66 .14 2.58 1.64 3.72 25 40.13 .204 .578 .458 1.30 .816 2.31 .27 3.61 1.83 5.20 30 43.95 .228 .760 .513 1.71 .912 3.04 .42 4.75 2.05 6.84 35 47.47 .241 .958 .542 2.15 .964 3.83 .51 5.98 2.17 8.60 40 50.75 .257 1.17 .579 2.63 1.03 4.68 .61 7.31 2.32 10.52 45 53.83 .273 1.40 .614 3.14 1.09 5.60 .71 8.23 2.46 12.56 50 56.75 .288 1.64 .648 3.68 1.15 6.56 .79 10.22 2.59 14.72 60 62.16 .385 2.15 .709 4.84 1.26 8.60 1.97 13.43 2.84 19.36 70 67.14 .341 2.71 .766 6.10 1.36 10.84 2.13 16.93 3.06 24.40 80 71.78 .364 3.31 .819 7.45 1.46 13.24 2.27 20.69 3.28 20.80 90 76.13 .386 3.95 .864 8.88 1.54 15.80 2.44 24.68 3.46 35.52 100 80.25 .407 4.63 .916 10.41 1.63 18.52 2.54 28.90 3.66 41.64 125 89.72 .455 6.47 .02 14.55 1.82 25.88 2.81 40.40 4.08 58.20 150 175 98.28 106.1 .499 .539 8.50 10.70 .12 .21 19.12 24.07 2.00 2.16 34.00 42.80 3.H53.12 3.3666.86 4.48 4.84 76.48 96.28 200 250 113.5 127.1 .576 .644 13.1 18.3 .29 .45 29.43 41 . 13 2.3052.4 2.5873.2 3.5081.75 4.021114.2 5.10 5.80 117.7 164.5 300 350 400 139.0 150.1 160.5 .705 .762 .814 24.0 30.3 37.0 .59 .71 .83 54.07 68.15 83.25 2.8296.0 3.05 121.2 3.26148.0 4.40 150.2 4.76189.3 5.09231.2 6.36 6.84 7.32 216.3 272.6 323.0 450 170.2 .864 44.2 .94 99.34 3.46 176.8 5.401276.0 7.76 397.4 500 179.4 910 51.7 2.05 116.5 3.64^206.8 5.60323.2 8.20 406.0 550 188.2 .955 59.7 2.10 134.2 3.82238.8 5.96 372 . 7 8.40 536.8 600 196.6 .999 68.0 2.23 152.9 3.99272.0 6.23 475.0 8.92 611.0 700 212.3 1.06 85.7 2.46 192.8 4.36342.8 6.79 535 . 5 9.84 771.2 800 226.9 1.15 104.7 2.58 235 . 5 4.60418.8 7.19 654.0 10.32 942.0 900 240.7 1.22 124.9 2.75 281.0 4 . 88 499 . 6 7.63 780.5 11.00 1124 1000 253.8 1.29 146.2 2.89 329.0 5.16 584.8 8.04 914.0 11.56 1316 i 642 FIRE STREAMS. FIRE STREAMS. Pressures required at nozzle and at pump, with quantity and pressure of water necessary to throw water various distances through different-sized nozzles using 2^-inch rubber hose and smooth nozzles. G. A. ELLIS, C.E. Size of Nozzles. 1 Inch. H Inch. Pressure at nozzle 40 60 80 100 40 60 80 100 * Pressure at pump or hydrant with 100 ft. 2^-inch rubber hose. 48 73 97 121 54 81 108 135 Gallons per minute 155 189 219 245 196 240 277 310 Horizontal distance thrown . . 109 142 168 186 113 148 175 193 Vertical dist. thrown . . . 79 108 131 148 81 112 137 157 Size of Nozzles. 11 Inch. If Inch. Pressure at nozzle 40 60 80 100 40 60 80 100 * Pressure at pump or hydrant with 100 ft. 2^-inch rubber hose. 61 92 123 154 71 107 144 180 Gallons per minute Horizontal distance 242 297 342 383 293 358 413 462 thrown 118 156 186 207 124 166 200 224 Vertical dist. thrown. . . 82 115 142 164 85 118 146 169 * For greater lengths of 2}- hose the increased friction can readily be obtained by noting the differences between the above given "pressure at nozzle'' and "pressure at pump or hydrant with 100 feet of hose." For instance, if it requires at hydrant or pump 8 Ibs. more pressure than it does at nozzle to overcome the friction when pumping through 100 feet of 2^-inch hose (using 1-inch nozzle, with 40 Ibs. pressure at said nozzle), then it requires 16 Ibs. pressure to overcome the friction in forcing through 200 feet of same size hose. FLOW OF WATER THROUGH IRON PIPES. 643 FABLE SHOWING FLOW OF WATER PER SECOND THROUGH CLEAN IRON PIPES. Fall in "eet per 100 Feet of Pipe. .10 .12 .14 .16 .18 , .20 .22 .24 .26 .28 .30 .35 .40 .50 .60 .70 .80 .90 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00 12.00 14.00 15.98 18.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 Diameters. lln. Cu. Ft. 2 In. Cu. Ft. 3 In. Cu. Ft. 4 In. Cu. Ft. 6 In. Cu. Ft. 8 In. Cu. Ft. 10 In. Cu. Ft. 11 In. Cu. Ft. 12 In. Cu. Ft. ' i .' i2o 1.221 .320 .394 .490 .580 .653 .722 .788 .854 .996 2.136 2.397 2.636 2.858 3.062 3.232 3.419 3.760 4.016 4.390 4.679 5.251 6.086 7.022 8.244 1.265 1.402 1.489 1.634 1.728 1.846 1.940 2.026 2.117 2.207 2.297 2.466 2.662 3.020 3.310 3.601 3.856 4.072 4.305 4.728 5.094 5.482 5.839 6.160 7.630 8.860 9.967 .878 .960 1.047 1.110 1.194 1.265 1.325 1.377 1.423 1.470 1.587 1.683 1.865 2.059 2.222 2.383 2.514 2.662 2.932 3.210 3.450 3.679 3.856 4.762 5.563 6.704 .573 .611 .639 .659 .703 .737 .768 .808 .876 .931 1.045 1.575 1.262 1.344 1.424 1.496 1.644 1.782 1.916 2.033 2.155 2.667 3.145 3.513 3.847 4.196 ' ! 298 .314 .330 .346 .359 .377 .395 .444 .496 .548 .589 .631 .672 .721 .784 .858 .922 .975 1.022 1.263 1.484 1.665 1 . 929 1.976 2.144 2.274 2.399 ' .'0630 .0692 .0749 .0839 .0915 .0992 .1080 .1119 .1190 .1313 .1413 .1507 .1590 .1717 .2081 .2469 .2785 .3049 .3331 .3559 .3816 .4043 .4440 .4977 .5131 .5436 .5832 .6523 .1235 .1298 .1335 .1465 .1562 .1771 .1923 .2146 . 2339 .2460 .2582 .2893 .3036 .3237 .3412 .3607 .4503 .5331 .5954 .6390 .6967 .7506 .7960 .9464 .9270 1 . 0060 1.0810 .,!!.. .'02584 .02924 .03274 . 03492 .03776 .04081 .04321 . 04843 .05150 .05456 .05740 .06111 .07399 . 08734 .1095 .1200 .1288 .1375 .1442 .1523 .1634. .1748 .1855 .1955 .2047 .2276 .2483 .2833 .'66567 .00617 .00677 .00781 .00841 .00886 .00961 .00990 .01245 .01492 .01666 .01857 .01988 .02141 . 02283 .02424 .02676 .02890 .03081 .03276 .03458 .03897 .04316 .04987 . 05648 .06320 . 06943 To find the velocity in feet per second necessary to carry a given quan- ity of water in a pipe of given diameter, divide the quantity in cubic feet ier second by the area of the pipe in square feet; the quotient will give he velocity. 644 FLOW OF WATER THROUGH IRON PIPES. TABLE SHOWING FLOW OF WATER PER SECOND THROUGH CLEAN IRON PIPES. Diameter. Fall in Feet per 100 Feet 14 15 16 18 20 22 24 26 30 36 40 48 of Pipe. In. In. In. In. In. In. In. In. In. In. In. In Cu. Cu. Cu. Cu. Cu. Cu. Cu. Cu. Cu. Cu. Cu. Cu. Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft. .02 10.29 13.88 22.98 !o3 7 78 12.70 17.00 27 89 !o4 8.99 14 56 19! 68 32^93 05 7 48 1024 16 35 22 08 37^00 !06 3.61 4.61 6.10 7.61 ; 10. 97 18.02 24^43 40^21 .07 2.25 3.10 4.07 5.25 6.64 8.27 11.90 19.76 26.27 43.67 .08 1.71 '2.05 2.43 3.27 4.35 5.62 7.13 8.70 12.84 20.85 28.14 46.81 .09 1.83 2.19 2.59! 3.49 4.68 6.01 7.56 9.36 13.48 22.30 29.80 49.06 .10 1.91 2.30 2.72 3.66 4.92 6.32 7.95 9.81 14.21 23.47 31.46 52.15 .11 2.02 2.43 2.88 3.88 5.15 6.62 8.34 10.44 15.05 24.91 33.25 54.95 .12 2.11 2.54 3.02 4.06 5.40 6.94 8.75 10.87 15.81 26.12 34.68 57.36 .13 2.18 2.65 3.18 4.23 5.62 7.24 9.14 11.41 16.47 27.20 36.21 60.07 .14 2.27 2.75 3.28 4.40 5.82 7.51 9.47 11.80 17.18 28.24 37.57 62.02 .15 2.35 2.84 3.39 4.61 6.05 7.78 9.80 12.26 17.94 29.19 39.18 64.47 .16 2.44 2.94 3.49 4.75 6.27 8.03 10.13 12.70 18.58 30.29 40.54 66.53 .17 2.54 2.98 3.62 4.90 6.48 8.36 10.57 13.13 19.21 31.42 41.88 68.50 .18 2.59 3.11 3.69 5.03 6.65 8.55 10.77 13.46 19.66 32.48 43.07 70.62 .19 2.67 3.21 3.81 5.17 6.92 8.85 11.10 13.84 20.32 33.40 44.28 72.75 20 2.72 3.29 3.92 5.30 7.05 9.07 11.43 14.23 20.79 34.49 45.20 74.44 .22 2.88 3.47 4.12 5.63 7.42 9.55 12.05 14.98 21.80 36.15 48.12 78.29 .24 3.02 3.63 4.32 5.87 7.79 10.01 12.61 15.69 22.83 37.74 50.48 81.68 .26 3.15 3 79 4.51 6.18 8.14 10.48 13.23 16.42 23.93 39.40 52.67 85.20 .'28 3.29 3.95 4.68 6.38 8.48 10.91 13.79 17.07 24.86 40.86 55.04 88.46 *30 3 42 4.11 4.87 6.64 8.77 11.29 14.25 17.75 25.87 42.28 56.33 91.73 !35 3.62 4.46 5.31 7.17 9.49 12.25 15.50 19.25 27.96 45.95 61.09 100.40 .40 .50 60 3.99 4.46 4.91 4.78 5.37 5.91 5.67 6.39 7.02 7.65 8.66 9.54 10.16 11.43 12.59 13.12 14.78 16.20 16.62 18.71 20.42 20.62 23.13 25.30 29.84 33.55 36.79 48.83 54.89 59.95 65.41 73.09 80.32 105.89 119.34 130.88 70 5^37 6.45 7.66 10.33 13.66 17.53 22.05 27.12 39.66 65.17 86.70 148.09 '.80 5.77 6.90 8.16 11.09 14.66 18.78 23.6129.20 42.39 69.80 92.58 153.49 f\{\ C 1 1 7 31 8 64 11 71 15 54 19.93 25.07 31.00 45.23 74.33 98.00 .yu 1.00 0. 1 i 6 44 / .0 1 7 70 9! 10 12.37 16^47 21.06 26.42 32.73 47.71 78.46 103.99 L20 7.00 8.39 9.95 13.65 17.99 23.07 29.0336.18 52.91 82.84 1 40 7.60 9.15 10.87 14.75 19.49 24.68 31.49 39.31 57.65 1.60 8.17 9.81 11.63 15.84 21.03 26.97 33.9042.35 1 f\ A*7 i 1 1 1 1 3 ity in Feet Loss of Head Cubic Feet Loss of Head Cubic Feet Loss of Head Cubic Feet Loss of Head Cubic Feet Pf!" in per in per in per in per bee. Feet. Min. Feet. Min. Feet. Min. Feet. Min. 2.0 .264 53 .237 65.4 .216 79.2 .198 94 2.2 .312 58.3 .281 72 .255 87.1 .234 103 2.4 .365 63.6 .327 78.5 .297 95.0 .273 113 2.6 .420 68.9 .378 85.1 .344 103 .315 122 2.8 .480 74.2 .432 91.6 .392 111 .360 132 3.0 .544 79.5 .488 98.2 .444 119 .407 141 3.2 .609 84.8 .549 105 .499 127 .457 151 3.4 .680 90.1 .612 111 .557 134 .510 160 3.6 .755 95.4 .679 118 .617 142 .566 169 3.8 .831 101 .749 124 .680 150 .624 179 4.0 .913 106 .822 131 .747 158 .685 188 4.2 .998 111 .897 137 .816 166 .749 198 4.4 .086 116 .977 144 .888 174 .815 207 4.6 .177 122 1.059 150 .963 182 .883 217 4.8 .27 127 .145 157 1.040 190 .954 226 5.0 .37 132 .23 163 1.122 198 .028 235 5.2 .47 138 .32 170 1.20 206 .104 245 5.4 .57 143 .41 177 I 1 . 28 214 .183 254 5.6 .68 148 .51 183 1.37 222 .26 264 5.8 .80 154 1.61 190 1.46 229 .34 273 6.0 .92 159 1.71 196 1.56 237 1.43 283 7.0 2.52 185 2.28 229 2.07 277 1.91 330 The following tables give the friction head in pipe 13 to 36 inches' diam- eter, per 100 feet length with velocities of water from 2 to 7 feet per second. INSIDE DIAMETER OF PIPE IN INCHES. Volrr> 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 V eioc- ity in Tr* -.4. Loss of Cubic Loss of Cubic Loss of Cubic Loss of Cubic .feet Head Feet Head Feet Head Feet Head Feet per Sec. in Feet. per Min. in Feet. M?n. in Feet. per Min. in Feet. per Min. 2.0 .183 110 .169 128 .158 147 .147 167 2.2 .216 121 .200 141 .187 162 .175 184 2.4 .252 133 .234 154 .218 176 .205 201 2.6 .290 144 .270 167 .252 191 .236 218 2.8 .332 156 .308 179 .288 206 .270 234 3.0 .375 166 .349 192 .325 221 .306 251 3.2 .422 177 .392 205 .366 235 .343 268 3.4 .471 188 .438 218 .408 250 .383 284 3.6 .522 199 .485 231 .452 265 .425 301 3.8 .576 210 .535 243 .499 280 .468 318 4.0 .632 221 .587 256 .548 294 .513 335 4.2 .691 232 .641 269 .598 309 .561 352 4.4 .751 243 .698 282 .651 324 .611 368 4.6 .815 254 .757 295 .707 339 .662 385 4.8 .881 265 .818 308 .763 353 .715 402 5.0 .949 276 .881 321 .822 368 .770 419 5.2 .020 287 .947 333 .883 383 .828 435 5.4 .092 298 1.014 346 .947 397 .888 452 5.6 .167 309 1.083 359 1.011 412 .949 469 5.8 .245 321 1.155 372 1.078 427 1.011 486 6.0 .325 332 1.229 385 1.148 442 1.076 502 7.0 1.75 387 1.630 449 1.520 515 1.430 586 LOSS OF HEAD BY FRICTION. 647 LOSS OF HEAD BY FRICTION (Continued). INSIDE DIAMETER OF PIPE IN INCHES. 18 20 22 24 Veloc- ity in Feet Loss of Head Cubic Feet Loss of Head Cubic Feet Loss of Head Cubic Feet Loss of Head Cubic Feet per Sec. in Feet. per Min. in Feet. per Min. in Feet. per Min. in Feet. per Min. 2.0 .132 212 .119 262 .108 316 .098 377 2 2 .156 233 .140 288 .127 348 .116 414 2.4 .182 254 .164 314 .149 380 .136 452 2 6 .210 275 .189 340 .171 412 .157 490 2.8 .210 297 .216 366 .195 443 .180 528 3 .271 318 .245 393 .222 475 .204 565 3.2 .305 339 .275 419 .249 507 .229 603 3 4 .339 360 .306 445 .278 538 .255 641 3.6 .377 382 .339 471 .308 570 .283 678 3.8 .416 403 .374 497 .340 601 .312 716 4.0 .456 424 .410 523 .373 633 .342 754 4.2 .499 445 .449 550 .408 665 .374 791 4.4 .542 466 .488 576 .444 697 .407 829 4.6 .588 483 .529 602 .'482 728 .441 867 4.8 .636 509 .572 628 .521 760 .476 905 5.0 .685 530 .617 654 .561 792 .513 942 5.2 .736 551 .662 680 .602 823 .552 980 5.4 .788 572 .710 707 .645 855 .591 1018 5.6 .843 594 .758 733 .690 887 .632 1055 5.8 .899 615 .809 759 .735 918 .674 1093 6.0 .957 636 .861 785 .782 950 .717 1131 7.0 1.270 742 1.143 916 1.040 1109 .953 1319 INSIDE DIAMETER OF PIPE IN INCHES. IT 1 26 28 30 36 veloc- ity in Feet Loss of Head Cubic Feet Loss of Head Cubic Feet Loss of Head Cubic Feet Loss of Head Cubic Feet per Sec. in Feet. per Min. in Feet. per Min. in Feet. per Min. in Feet. iSfn. 2.0 .091 442 .084 513 .079 589 .066 848 2 2 .108 486 .099 564 .093 648 .078 933 2.4 .126 531 .116 616 .109 707 .091 1018 2 6 .145 575 .134 667 .126 766 .104 1100 2.8 .165 619 .153 718 .144 824 .119 1188 3 .188 663 .174 770 .163 883 .135 1273 3.2 .211 708 .195 821 .182 942 .152 1357 3.4 .235 752 .218 872 .204 1001 .169 1442 3.6 .261 796 .242 923 .226 1060 .188 1527 3.8 .288 840 .267 974 .249 1119 .207 1612 4.0 .315 885 .293 1026 .273 1178 .228 1697 4.2 .345 929 .320 1077 .299 1237 .249 1782 4.4 .375 973 .348 1129 .325 1296 .271 1866 4.6 .407 1017 .378 1180 .353 1355 .294 1951 4.8 .440 1062 .409 1231 .381 1414 .318 2036 5.0 .474 H06 .440 1283 .411 1472 .342 2121 5.2 .510 1150 .473 1334 .441 1531 .368 2206 5.4 .546 1194 .507 1385 .473 1590 .394 2291 5.6 .583 1239 .542 1437 .506 1649 .421 2376 5.8 .622 1283 .578 1488 .540 1708 .450 2460 6.0 .662 1327 .615 1539 .574 1767 .479 2545 7.0 .879 1548 .817 1796 .762 2061 .636 2968 Example. Have 200 feet head and 600 feet of 11-inch pipe, carrying 119 cubic feet of water per minute. To find effective head. In right-hand column under 11-inch pipe, find 119 cubic feet; opposite this will be found the coefficient of friction for this amount of water, which is 444. Multiply this by the number of hundred feet of pipe, which is 6, and you will have 2.66 feet, which is the loss of head. Therefore the effective head is 200- 2.66 = 197.34. 648 CAPACITIES OF PIPES OF VARIOUS SIZES. CONTENTS IN CUBIC FEET, U. S. GALLONS, AND WEIGHT OF WATER PER FOOT LENGTH FOR PIPE OF VARIOUS DIAMETERS, ALSO AREA IN SQUARE FEET AND INCHES, AND CIRCUMFERENCE IN INCHES. Diam- eter of Pipe in Inches. Area in Sq. Feet or Contents in Cubic Feet per Foot of Length. Contents in U. S. Gal- lons per Foot Length. Weight of Water in One-foot Length, in Pounds. Area in Sq. Inches. Circum- ference in Inches. 1 .0055 .0408 .34 .78 3.14 2 .0218 .1632 1.36 3.14 6.28 3 .0491 .3672 3.06 7.06 9.42 4 .0873 .6528 5.44 12.56 12.56 5 .1364 1.020 8.51 19.63 15.70 6 .1963 1.469 12.25 28.27 18.85 7 .2673 1.999 16.68 38.48 21.99 8 .3491 2.611 21.79 50.26 25.13 9 .4418 3.305 27.57 63.61 28.27 10 .5454 4.08 34.04 78.54 31.41 11 .66 4.937 41.19 95.03 34.55 12 .7854 5.875 49.02 113.10 37.69 13 .9218 6.895 57.54 132.73 40.84 14 1.069 7.997 66.73 153.94 43.98 15 1.227 9.180 76.60 176.71 47.12 16 1.396 10.44 87.16 201.06 50.26 18 1.768 13.22 110.31 254.47 56.54 20 2.182 16.32 136.19 314.16 62.83 22 2.640 19.75 164.79 380.13 69.11 24 3.142 23.50 196.11 452.39 75.39 26 3.687 27.58 230.16 530.93 81.68 28 4.276 31.99 266 . 93 615.75 87.96 30 4.009 36 . 72 306.42 706.86 94.24 32 5.585 41.78 348 . 64 804 . 25 100.53 34 6.305 47.16 393.59 907.92 106.81 36 7.069 52.88 441.25 1017.9 113.09 38 7.876 58.92 491.64 1134.1 119.38 40 8.727 65.28 544.76 1256.6 125.66 42 9.621 71.97 600.59 1385.4 131.94 44 10.559 78.99 659.16 1520.5 138.23 46 11.541 86.33 720.44 1661.9 144.51 48 12.566 94.00 784 . 45 1809.6 150.79 50 13.635 102.00 851.18 1963.5 157.08 52 14.748 110.32 920.64 2123.7 163.36 54 15.90 118.97 992 . 82 2290 . 2 169.64 60 19.63 146.88 1225.71 2827.4 .188.49 66 23.76 177.72 1483.11 3421.2 207.34 72 28.27 211.51 1765.02 4071.5 226.19 NUMBER OF GALLONS OF WATER IN TANKS- 649 NUMBER OF GALLONS IN ROUND CISTERNS AND TANKS. Diameter in Feet. Depth in Feet, 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 2 5 735 1,060 1,440 1,875 2,380 2,925 3,550 4,237 6 881 1,270 1,728 2,250 2,855 3,510 4,260 5,084 7 1 V 028 1,480 2,016 2,625 3,330 4,095 4,970 5,931 g 1,175 1,690 2,304 3,000 3,805 4,680 5,680 6,778 9 1,322 1,900 2,592 3,375 4,280 5,265 6,390 7,625 10 1,469 2,110 2,880 3,750 4,755 5,850 7,100 8,472 11 1,616 2,320 3,168 4,125 5.250 6,435 7,810 9,319 12 1,762 2,530 3,456 4,500 5,705 7,020 8,520 10,166 13 1,909 2,740 3,744 4,875 6,180 7,605 9,230 11,013 14 2,056 2,950 4,032 5,250 6,655 8,190 9,940 11,860 15 2,203 3,160 4,320 5,625 7,130 8,775 10,650 12,707 16 2,356 3,370 4,608 6,000 7,605 9,360 11,360 13,554 17 2,497 3,580 4,896 6,375 8,080 9,945 12,070 14,401 18 2,644 3,790 5,184 6,750 8,535 10,530 12,780 15,248 19 2,791 4,000 5,472 7,125 9,010 11,115 13,490 16,095 20 2,938 4,210 5,760 7,500 9,490 11,700 14,200 16,942 TV J.U Diameter in Feet. Depth in Feet. 13 14 15 16 18 20 22 24 5 4,960 5,765 6,698 7,520 9,516 11,750 14,215 16,918 6 5,952 6,918 8,038 9,024 11,419 14,100 17,059 20,302 7 6,944 8,071 9,378 10,528 13,322 16,450 19,902 23,680 8 7,936 9,224 10,718 12,032 15,225 18,800 22,745 27,070 9 8,928 10,377 12,058 13,536 17,128 21,150 25,588 30,454 10 9,920 11,530 13,398 15,040 19,031 23,500 28,431 33,838 11 10,913 12,683 14,738 16,544 20,934 25,850 31,274 37,222 12 11,904 13,836 16,078 18.048 22,837 28,200 34,117 40,606 13 12,896 14,989 17,418 19,552 24,740 30,550 36,960 43,990 14 13,888 16,142 18,758 21,056 26,643 32,900 39,803 47,374 15 14,880 17,295 20,098 22,260 28,546 35,250 42,646 50,758 16 15,872 18,448 21,438 26,064 30,449 37,600 45,489 54,142 17 16,864 19,601 22,778 25,568 32,352 39,950 48,332 57,520 18 17,856 20,754 24,118 27,072 34,255 42,300 51,175 60,910 19 18,848 21,907 25,458 28,576 36,158 44,650 54,018 64,294 20 19,840 23,060 26,798 30,080 38,062 47,000 56,861 67,678 To find the number of gallons in a tank of unequal diameter multiply the inside bottom diameter in inches by the inside top diameter in inches, then this product by 34: point off four figures and the result will be the average number of gallons to one inch in depth of the tank. 650 DATA REGARDING WATER. Data Regarding Water. Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its capacity four times. A gallon of water (United States standard) weighs 8.3311 pounds and contains 231 cubic inches. A cubic foot of water contains 7 gallons, 1728 cubic inches, and weighs 62^ pounds. Cubic feet of water multiplied by 62.5 equals pounds avoirdu- pois; cubic inches of water multiplied by 0.03608 equals pounds avoirdupois. Cubic feet multiplied by 7.48 equals United States gal- lons. Cubic inches multiplied by 0.004329 equals United States gallons. A column of water 1 inch square and 2.31 feet high weighs 1 pound. A column of water 1 inch square and 1 foot high weighs 0.433 pound. A column of water 33.947 feet high equals the pressure of the atmosphere at the sea-level. Water is an almost universal solvent; consequently pure water does not occur in nature. Sea- water contains nearly every known substance in solution. The latent heat of water is 79 thermal units. When water freezes it gives off its latent heat. The latent heat of steam is 536 thermal units. When steam condenses into water it gives off its latent heat. Pure water consists of 2 parts hydrogen and 1 part oxygen. Chemical name, hydrogen oxide; chemical symbol, H 2 O. Pure water is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, transparent liquid, and is practically incompressible. Water freezes at 32 Fahr. and boils at 212 Fahr. At its maximum density, 39.1 Fahr., it is the standard for specific gravities, and 1 cubic centimetre weighs 1 gram. Salt water boils at 224 Fahr. 231 cubic inches. , 0.13369 cubic foot. 8.3311 pounds of distilled water. 8.34 pounds in ordinary practice. DATA REGARDING WATER. 651 1 cubic foot 62.425 pounds at 39.1 Fahr., maximum den- sity. 62.418 pounds at 32 Fahr., freezing-point. 62.355 pounds at 62 Fahr., standard tempera- ture. 59.64 pounds at 212 Fahr., boiling-point. 57.5 pounds at ice. 7.480 U. S. gallons. 1 pound = 27. 7 cubic inches. 1 cubic inch = 0.036 12-pound. Data on Pumps. DEPTH OF SUCTION. Theoretically a perfect pump will lift water from a depth of nearly 34 feet, cor- responding to a perfect vacuum (14.7 Ibs. X2.309 = 33.95 feet); but since a perfect vacuum cannot be obtained, on account of valve leakage, air contained in the water, and the vapor of the water itself, the actual height is generally less than 30 feet. In pumping hot water, the water must flow into the pump by gravity. The following table shows the theoretical maximum depth of suction for different temperatures, leakage not con- sidered : Absolute Maxi- Absolute Maxi Tem- pera- ture, F. Pressure of Vapor, Pounds per Sq. Vacuum in Inches of Mer- cury. mum Depth of Suc- tion, Tem- pera- ! ture, F. Pressure of Vapor, Pounds per Sq. Vacuum in Inches of Mer- cury. mum Depth of Suc- tion, Inch. Feet. Inch. Feet. 101.4 1 27.88 31.6 183.0 8 13.63 15.5 120.2 2 25.85 29.3 188.4 9 11.59 13.2 144.7 3 23.81 27.0 193.2 10 9.55 10.9 153.3 4 21.77 21.7 197.6 11 7.51 8.5 162.5 5 19.74 22.4 201.9 12 5.48 6.2 170.3 6 17.70 20.1 205 . 8 13 3.44 3.9 177.0 7 15.66 17.8 209.6 14 1.40 1.6 A suction-lift pump is one that raises water only to the level of the pump spout. A force-pump is one that raises water to the pump and also forces it to any reasonable altitude above the pump 652 DATA REGARDING WATER. WEIGHT OF WATER PER CUBIC FOOT AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES. 32 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 il 62.42 62.42 62.41 62.37 62.31 62.23 62.13 62.02 61.69 61.74 61.56 If. 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 212 220 230 *a.9 III 61.37 61.18 60.98 60.77 60.55 60.32 60.07 59.82 59.71 59.64 59.37 . 240 250 260 270 280 290 300 310 320 330 340 SC.S 59.10 58.81 58.52 58.21 57.90 57.59 57.26 56.93 56.58 56.24 55.88 gg 8J5 350 360 370 380 390 400 410 420 430 440 450 55.52 55.16 54.79 54.41 54.03 53.64 53.26 52.86 52.47 52.07 51.66 460 470 480 490 500 510 520 530 540 550 560 -n fi.S 51.26 50.85 50.44 50.05 49.61 49.20 48.78 48.36 47.94 47.52 47.10 One ft. of water column at 39.1 F. =62.425 Ibs. on the square ft. " " " " " " " =0.4335 Ib. " " " in. " " " " " " " =0.0295 atmospheric pres- sure. " " " tl lt tl " =0.8826 in. mercury column at 32 F. " " " " " " " =773.3 ft. of air column at 32 F. and atmospheric pressure. One Ib. pressure on sq. ft. =0.01602 ft. water column at 39.1 F. " " " " " in. =2.307 " " " " 39.1 F. One atmospheric pressure = 29. 92 in. mercury column = 33 9 ft. water column. One inch of mercury column at 32 F. =1.133 ft. water column. One foot of air column at 32 F. and 1 atmospheric pressure = 0.001293 ft. water column. Useful Information Regarding- Water. The mean pressure of the atmosphere is usually estimated at 14.7 pounds per square inch, so that with a perfect vacuum it will sustain a column of mercury 29.9 inches, or a column of water 33.9 feet high. To find the pressure in pounds per square inch of a column of water, multiply the height of the column in feet by .434. Approximately, we say that every foot elevation is equal to DATA REGARDING WATER. 653 $ pound pressure per square inch; this allows for ordinary friction. To find the diameter of a pump-cylinder to move a given quantity of water per minute (100 feet of piston being the standard of speed), divide the number of gallons by 4, then extract the square root, and the product will be the diameter in inches of the pump-cylinder. To find quantity of water elevated in one minute running at 100 feet of piston speed per minute, square the diameter of the water-cylinder in inches and multiply by 4. Example: Capacity of a 5-inch cylinder is desired. The square of the diameter (5 inches) is 25, which, multiplied by 4, gives 100, the number of gallons per minute (approximately). To find the horse-power necessary to elevate water to a given height, multiply the total weight of the water in pounds by the height in feet, and divide the product by 33,000 (an allow- ance of 25 per cent should be added for water-friction, and a further allowance of 25 per cent for loss in steam-cylinder). The area of the steam-piston, multiplied by the steam pres- sure, gives the total amount of pressure that can be exerted. The area of the water-piston, multiplied by the pressure of water per square inch, gives the resistance. A margin must be made between the power and resistance to move the pistons at the required speed : say from 20 to 40 per cent, according to speed and other conditions. To find the capacity of a cylinder in gallons. Multiplying the area in inches by the length of stroke in inches will give the total number of cubic inches; divide this amount by 231 (which is the cubical contents of a United States gallon in inches), and product is the capacity in gallons. To find the height in feet of a column of water correspond- ing with a given pressure, multiply the pressure in pounds by 2.3 feet. The following table is arranged to show at a glance the equiva- lent pressure due to columns of water from 10 to 400 feet in height. Also more particularly to show the number of gallons of water delivered, and the height to which it will be projected through nozzles from ^ inch to 2 inches in diameter. 654 DATA REGARDING WATER. aad paSjis'qo -*!(!_ ui ^af N e eoQtj ccod -SIQ nrTiT?irv ^ iOOt s -OOQOO5O5O'-tC l-tCO'loSt>..t^oSc5i-lrHi-lOS'-OiOCOiOCt^THrPOT-i aad paSaBqo -^' d 10 o c | d^ r UI ^8f COiOTfOOO tiC jo ^q3pH oit^^OTjJt^. 1 i-"* 03 CO CO CO CO t CO CO qou i aa-enbg aad c ? c ^. cc . co . ^^ n . co . c ? co . 1 ~ l . ^^ r *. <=> . ui aanssaa^r toocoi^'^coo^foscoo^ooioocoo'tc^THOi-'co SmpuodsaaaoQ UI OOOOOOOOOOOOCOOOOOOOOO OC^^OGOOiOO W f = -F-. ( 2356 ) D* L Illustration. Take elements of preceding case: I If I' X -^ = 0.000847X4.214 = 0.00368, and i^-| = . 00368, or 4750 X . 00368 = 17 . 49 ft. head. 4750 EQUATION OF PIPES. 657 tig capacity to one pipe of a larger oportional to the squares of their same head, however, the velocity fth power (i.e., as the 2.5 power), i of any two sizes represent the s equal to 5.7 2-inch pipes. N H rH i-i i-i 0* T(i U5 t^ OS i CO CO OS CO 00 CO <* OS CO f-t rH rH rH M (N *' CO 00 ! t ^ l> ! . . oc .*. EQUATION OF PIPES. It is frequently desired to know what number of pipes of a given size are equal in carrvi size. At the same velocity of H w the volume delivered by two pipes of different sizes is pr diameters ; thus, one 4-inch pipe will deliver the same volume as four 2-inch pipes With the is less in the smaller pipe, and the volume delivered varies about as the square root of the fi The following table has been calculated on this basis. The figures opposite the intersectiol number of the smaller-sized pipes required to equal one of the larger. Thus, one 4-inch pipe rHrH UO ^ CO CC N rH CO 1>OSrHTtlt>.OC O5 iO CO O5 CN C > t> O CN CO rH 00 1C 00 CO N rHr-lrHrH rH rH M CD lO rH 00 CO CO t^ rH CO OS t^ lO CD 00 CO I> rH OS M '" H ' H ^ rHrHrHrHlNMtOCO^lOOOCOOO^rH rHrH N (M *SS32^^g^S|8S||||g . rH CO O CO t^ CO CO b- rH OS 1> Tfl M N OOI>O5COOS OSOIN l-HrHrHrHSc6t>- OCOOcQ OT)iot> lOWOOO :CO'<*CD' i-Hi-H NGCGO OOi 1< cq^PM o I 05 83 .-"(NCoVcOGQ o"ci'*"t>r OiNOOO NOO*-*" GO CO COIN PU,O 1-d-HrHrH i IWC^N OOCO^"* 1 'flOlOCO pq "rt _,u COTFiOCQ t>.OOO5O NCO^CO t^-O5i ifO ^_ ~ rT , rH rH r-l rH r-H r-l r-^ (N (N > OONOON 00"o"GO''ci' (DOCi^f NO'oOC) i-HNC^CO CO^^IO lOOt>00 C5OON 6 _ H ^ pq 8 3 r-TrHciTjTtfJ'br aji-T^o ocyTfcp GOWCOIN PQ ? -IM H*'*' HOC<|{+0 T+)C^J!r40 OOO5O (NCO-^CO t^O5r-(CO "l-sl 3 N COWGO-^ C^iOcOcd T}iO< a I!!'.;! ! '. l 5 ^ "^P. 11 ^ . ."^ 1> : (N . 3 !!!!!! I ! !o" co'cc<-^co o"iooco OOOINCO OrPCOCO -*t^t.- . ' * _O -* iO iO CO t* O> O rH CO * 10 1> OCOCDOO' COCOCOCO' fl -, 3 Ob^oTco" O'OrHcc' lOcioTco" NGOI-ICOC - PM,? t^t^l>00 OOO5OO rHCTiC(NO OOCOiO 1 ^ COCO rH QjO COOSO e*(N OOOINrf (OCDGOO WCOO'tH>N COOCO I-H rH i-H rH rH C<> (N C N W CO CO CO * ^ * kO IO CO CD t si OB ^.-H^,-, JH,-,^!^ (NINNiM Jlllll^. ^^llPH^ rules, which apply to both /^iis ^H^ Jlls ^1^ ' /^ii? ^i^. square and hexagon nuts: Short dia. of rough nut ==l*Xdia. of bolt + i in. Angle of thread 60. Flat at top and bot- tom = of pitch. Short dia. of finished nut = HXdia. of bolt + ^5 in. Thickness of rough nut Diameter of Diameter at Threads per = dia. of bolt. Thickness of finished nut Screw, Root of Inch, Num- == dia. of bolt V in Inches. Thread, Inches. ber. Short dia. of rough head = liXdia. of bolt + -4- in i .185 240 20 18 Short dia. of finished head tf .'294 16 = HXdia. of bolt + ^t in. T5 .344 14 Thickness of rough head .400 13 = 1 short dia. of head. If '.507 11 Thickness of finished head I .620 10 = dia. of bolt ^ in. i .731 9 The long diameter of a hex- .837 8 agon nut may be obtained by fa .940 7 multiplying the short diam- 1 1.065 j 160 7 eter by 1.155 and the long | 1^284 6 diameter of a square nut by ' 1.389 5fc multiplying the short diam- | 1.490 1.615 5 5 eter by 1.414. The above standards for 2 1.712 4* screw-threads, nuts, and bolt- 2* 11 1.962 2.175 2.425 \ heads were recommended by the Franklin Institute in De- cember, 1864. The standard 3 2.629 2.879 1 for screw-threads has been 3i 3.100 very generally adopted in the 2i 3.317 3 United States, but the propor- 4 3 567 3 tions recommended for nuts 3.798 21 and bolt-heads have not found 4* 4-J- 4.028 4 255 2i 25 general acceptance because of g 1 the odd sizes of bar not usu- 5 4.480 2i ally rolled by the mills re- 5 t 4.730 2^ quired to make the nut. Oy 4.953 2| M 5.203 6 5.423 2i 684 MISCELLANEOUS MATERIALS. Alum is made by digesting aluminous earths with sulphuric acid, treating the mass with water, and adding to the solution potassium sulphate, after which it is allowed to crystallize out. The manufacture of the colors or paints called lakes depends on this property of alumina to attach to itself certain coloring- matters. Thus, if a solution of alum is colored with cochineal or madder, and ammonia or carbonate of soda is added, the alumina in the alum is precipitated with the color attached to it, and the liquid is left colorless. It is commonly used by paperhangers to keep paste sweet. AMMONIA. Ammonia is the solution of gas ammonia in water. Ammonia gas is composed of 1 part nitrogen and 3 parts hydro- gen. Ammonia is a volatile liquid, characterized by a strong, pecul- iar odor, and evaporates completely away when exposed to air or boiled. It is a powerful base, uniting with and neutralizing all acids, and will dissolve many gums and acids. It is used as a powerful cleaner for glass or woodwork when diluted to a light solution. Especially useful in fairly strong solution, cleaning floors where revarnishing is to be done. WHITING. This pigment is prepared from chalk. Chalk is a natural deposit of calcium carbonate, found extensively in Eng- land and France. When chalk is examined under a microscope it is seen to consist of minute shells, the remains of a group of ani- mals known as Foraminifera, of which there are many species. These form a skeleton of calcium carbonate. They live on the surface of the sea. Whiting is nothing more than chalk ground up with water. Whiting is largely used as a body color in dis- temper work, using water as a vehicle. It is quite permanent when used as a pigment, resisting exposure to all ordinary atmospheric conditions. ASPHALTUM. This substance is employed in the preparation of varnishes such as black japan. It was originally obtained from the shores of the Dead Sea. It is imported from Egypt, South America, and is found in a few places in the United States. The exact chemical composition has not yet been ascertained; presumably allied to petroleum and the paraffines. Artificial asphaltum is made by melting or mixing together rosin, coal-tar, wood, and other pitches, and is used in preparing cheap black varnishes. BEESWAX. This is the best known of waxes and is the prod- MISCELLANEOUS MATERIALS 685 uct of various species of insects belonging to the genus Apis which are found in every quarter of the globe. The wax is obtained by melting the combs in water and then allowing the molten wax to cool. ALCOHOL. It is a limpid, colorless liquid of a hot, pungent taste, and having a slight but agreeable smell. Owing to its extensive application, it becomes one of the most important substances produced by art. There is only one source of alcohol, namely, the fermenta- tion of sugar and other saccharine matter. The best vegetable substances for yielding it are those that contain the greatest abundance of sugar or starch. Owing to the attraction of alcohol for water, it is impossible to procure pure alcohol by distillation alone. Alcohol has the property of non-freezing. This property of non-freezing at any degree of cold to which the earth is sub- jected has led to the employment of alcohol colored by red cochi- neal in the thermometers sent out to the Arctic regions. It is a powerful solvent for acids, resins, gums, oils, and waxes, and hence is employed in the preparation of varnishes. On account of rapid evaporation it is especially used in making shellac varnish. .It acts as a poison by abstracting the water from the parts it touches. It is highly inflammable, its combustion yielding only carbonic acid and water. GRAPHITE. Silica-graphite is as pure and sweet as charcoal, is mined at Ticonderoga, N. Y., and is an ideal pigment in flake form. Graphite possesses greater affinity for iron and steel than any other pigment. Silica-graphite, while smooth and slippery and apparently oily to touch, is absolutely free from any oil or grease. In this respect it differs entirely from lampblack and similar products. It is an ideal protective coating for all kinds of metal or wood. It lasts four or five times longer than any other paint, and covers two or three times more surface. It is also easier to apply than any other paint and wears brushes less. This silica-graphite is used on new and old work, should be used for all priming or first coats, and can be used on top of any old paint. This paint has no bad odor, and will not taint water, and is as pure and sweet and healthful as charcoal, con- taining nothing poisonous. Good for inside of water-tanks. 686 MISCELLANEOUS MATERIALS. It has twice the bulk of mineral paint, therefore covers just so much more surface, and is applied and used the same as linseed-oil paint. Graphite is equally useful for wood or metal, and never fades, therefore stands without a rival for durability, economy, and for beauty of finish. MURIATIC ACID. Muriatic acid is prepared by heating com- mon salt with sulphuric acid, dissolving the evolved gas in water. When pure it is a colorless liquid, fuming slightly and having a strong acid smell. Muriatic acid is a powerful acid. It dissolves in the cold such metals as zincs, iron magnesium, nickel, and aluminum. When boiling it dissolves tin, lead, copper, bismuth, and many other metals. Muriatic acid is used largely in cleaning the alkali col- lecting on brick or stone buildings. OXALIC ACID. Oxalic acid was first discovered in the juice of the Oxalis acetosella. It is widely distributed in the vegetable kingdom in the form of potassium, sodium, and calcium salts, and is made artificially by heating sawdust with a mixture of caustic potash and soda. It forms white crystals, is readily soluble in water and alcohol, has an intensely acid taste, and is violently poisonous. It is often sold under the erroneous name of salts of lemon. Oxalic acid is largely used in calico-printing dyeing, and in bleaching flax and straw. It is used by painters in bleaching floors and woodwork. GYPSUM. Gypsum is used principally for wall plaster, and the most important markets are the large cities in which modern buildings are being constructed. Gypsum plaster is largely displacing lime mortar as wall finish. Not only is it found to be more suitable and durable, but its strength and hardness, and the fact that construction can be completed more quickly when it is used, have brought it into favor. In the Rocky Mountain States and the region westward to the Pacific coast, the gypsum industry is in its infancy. There are plants in Montana, in the Black Hills of South Dakota, in Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, California, and Oregon. Some of them have a large capacity, and their product is finding a ready market. This is more particularly true of those which supply the larger cities. The deposits are well distributed in these States, and the character of the gypsum is such that they can meet any requirements of the trade. No doubt the industry will advance with the growth of the country, and when the value of gypsum plaster is better appreciated MISCELLANEOUS MATERIALS. 687 it will displace the lime and sand plaster in these States, as it is doing in the East. STAFF. This composition, which was used so extensively in the construction of buildings for the Chicago Exposition, and has been employed even more extensively in the buildings for the St. Louis Exposition, is a mixture of ordinary plaster of Paris with a suitable binding material. The latter must be rather coarse and loose, to allow the plaster to percolate through it and afford the necessary surface for adhesion. Manila fibre, hemp, etc., are commonly used for a binder. As a building material staff is well-nigh fire-proof. Frost does not hurt it. Rain as little effect upon it. A drip injures it. The short durability of staff plaster on exposition buildings in some instances has been due to their inadequate foundations and the shrinkage of the sheeting to which the plaster is applied. If spread on expanded metal lathing, staff plaster would doubtless prove durable. Staff and cement do not give a good mixture. SILICATE STONE. This is an English invention and consists essentially of silica and lime. The proportion of lime used is from 5 to 10 per cent, the purity of the silica regulating the quantity. When the proper mixture has been made it is put into moulds, water and steam are injected, and the whole sub- jected to a high heat and pressure. In this way, it is stated, the lime combines with part of the sand and forms a silicate of lime, to the presence of which the mechanical strength of the stone is principally due. The crushing strength is given as 10,776 pounds per square inch. The process takes six hours from the time the mixture enters the moulds until it is ready for shipment. In appearance the stone resembles granite, though the color can be changed in manufacturing to suit the taste of customers. It is adapted to working in intricate ornamental designs, and is claimed to have the property of resisting the injurious action of salt or fresh water and varying atmospheric conditions. BUILDING PAPERS. There are a number of different building papers on the market, such as asbestos, parchment, felt, rosin- sized, asphalt, tar, etc. They are usually graded as to weight or thickness. The felt or deafening papers are usually graded as to weight per square yard, and generally come in three weights, viz.: 9 square feet to a pound, and which is about / T inch in thickness; 6 688 MISCELLANEOUS MATERIALS. square feet to a pound, and which is about jg inch in thickness] 4J square feet to a pound, and which is about ^ inch in thickness. The asbestos papers usually run in three thicknesses as fol- lows: Thin, which weighs 6 pounds per 100 square feet and which is about T |s inch in thickness; medium, which weighs 10 pounds per 100 square feet, and which is about -g\ inch in thick- ness; and heavy, weighing 14 pounds per 100 square feet, and which is about $V inch in thickness. Rosin-sized papers also come in various thicknesses, but are usually very thin ; they are made by immersing Manila or other paper in a mixture of rosin, glue, and ochre. Asphalt papers are made by saturating felt paper with asphal- tum, either alone or mixed with petroleum residuum. The various tar and roofing papers are made in one, two, or three thicknesses, and are designated as "one-ply," "two-ply," etc. ASBESTOS. This is a mineral of so fibrous a nature that it can be woven into a textile fabric, which is naturally incombustible, having also the quality of slow conduction of heat. Its chief use in building has been for covering of steam-pipes, deafening for floors, sheathing paper, etc. Its color ranges from white, through many shades of yellow to a dull brown. COAL-TAR. Coal-tar is a by-product produced in the manu- facture of coal-gas. When distilled it produces, in various stages, coal-naphtha, dead oil or creosote, and tar or pitch; this last is used for roofing, waterproofing, etc. Coal-tar after being distilled is very brittle at the freezing-point, and softens and flows between 70 and 115 Fahr. Paving pitch is the residue obtained from distilling coal-tar. Creosote-oil is a product obtained in distilling coal-tar. It is mostly used for preserving timber. ASPHALTUM AND BITUMINOUS RCCK. The general term "asphaltum" may be applied to the numerous varieties of hydrocarbons of an asphaltic base which exist in all condi- tions, from the liquid to the solid state. The general rule has been to include under asphaltum only material used as such, for instance, the residuum from petroleum-refining processes which is sold and used as asphalt. The term "bituminous rock" includes sandstones and lime- stones impregnated with asphaltum or bitumen which are shipped and sold without previous mixing. This rock is used prin- MISCELLANEOUS MATERIALS. 689 pally for street pavement, and is either used in its natural state or mixed with other ingredients. Bituminous rock is also treated to obtain asphaltum or bitu- men, the product being sold as refined or gum asphalt. Asphaltum is much used for roofing purposes, and is much superior to the ordinary tar or pitch, as the sun and weather does not affect it. When there is any doubt as to the composition of either asphaltum or bituminous rock, a careful analysis should be made. MINERAL WOOL is essentially a vitreous substance converted to a fibrous condition. In appearance it consists of a mass of very fine fibres interlacing each other in every direction, thus forming an innumerable number of minute air-cells. The resemblance of these fibres to those of wool or cotton has given to the material the name of mineral wool in this country, and of silicate cotton elsewhere; but it is only in appearance and softness that any similarity exists between the mineral and organic fibres. Mineral wool partakes of the nature of glass without its brittle- ness, the fibres being soft, pliant, and inelastic. They are of irregular thickness, and cross each other in all possible direc- tions. It is made by converting scoria and certain rocks, while in a melted condition, to a fibrous state. Average Weight. Pounds per Cubic Foot. Square Foot One Inch Thick. Cubic Feet to Ton. Ordinary slap wool 12 1 pound 166 Selected " " Extra 9 6 223 333 Ordinary rock wool 12 1 166 Selected " " . .... 8 a 250 Extra " " 6 | 333 LITHARGE. Obtained by melting lead and passing a current of air over the molten lead. The oxygen is absorbed; the resulting oxide is allowed to melt and run into suitable vessels. On cooling it breaks into fragments, which are again broken into flakes or powdered, as the case may be, and ready for the market. Litharge is used for a great variety of purposes: in making glass, cements, colors, pottery, calico-printing, and as a dryer in paints and oils, etc. MICA. Common mica is a double silicate of potash and 690 MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS. alumina. A characteristic feature of mica is that it occurs in plates which are readily split into thin transparent slices, with great power of resisting heat. Mica forms one of the constitu- ents of a typical granite, and it appears in small flakes through- out the stone. Miscellaneous Receipts. TEST FOR SEWER-GAS. Saturate unglazed paper with a solution of 1 ounce pure lead acetate in half a pint of rain-water; let it partially dry, then expose in the room suspected of containing sewer-gas. The presence of gas in any considerable quantity soon darkens or blackens the test-paper. A suspected joint of a pipe can be tested by wrapping with a single layer of white muslin, moist- ened with the above solution, and if gas is escaping it will darken the cloth. To CLEAN COPPER. Take 1 ounce of oxalic acid, 6 ounces of rotten stone, ounce of gum arabic, all in powder, 1 ounce of sweet-oil, and sufficient water to make a paste. Apply a small portion and rub dry with a flannel or leather. REMOVAL OF STAINS FROM GRANITE. A paste of 1 ounce of ox-gall, 1 gill of strong solution of caustic soda, 1 J tablespoonfuls of turpentine, with enough pipe-clay to make it thick, and scour well. Or, mix together J pound soft soap, 1 ounce washing-soda, and a piece of sulphate of soda as big as a walnut. Rub it over the surface proposed to clean, let it stand twenty-four hours, and then wash off ; or, smoke and soot stains can be removed with a hard scrubbing-brush and fine sharp sand, to which add a little potash. Or, use strong lye, or make a hot solution of 3 pounds of common washing-soda dissolved in 1 gallon of water. Lay it on the granite with a paint-brush. To CLEAN MARBLE. Mix 2 parts by weight of sal-soda, 1 part powdered chalk or fine bolted whiting, and 1 part pow- dered pumice-stone with enough water to make a thin batter, and by the means of a scrubbing-brush apply it to the spots; then wash off with soap and water. Or, to remove grease spots from marble, moisten fine whiting or fullers' earth with benzine, apply it in a thick layer to the spots, and let it remain for some time; then remove the dry paste and wash the spot with soap and water. To extract oil stains from marble, make a paste by mixing 2 parts of fullers' earth, 1 part soft soap, and 1 part potash with MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS. 691 boiling water. Apply this paste to the spots and let it remain three or four hours. To REMOVE PAINT FROM WINDOW GLASS. Put sufficient saleratus into hot water to make a strong solution, and with this saturate the paint which adheres to the glass. Let it remain until nearly dry, then rub it off with a woollen cloth. To MAKE MODELLING CLAY. Knead dry clay with glycerine instead of water, work thoroughly with the hands, moisten work at intervals of two or three days, and keep covered to prevent evaporation of moisture. To CLEAN PAINT. When paint is washed with any strong alkaline solution, such as soda or strong soap, the oil of the paint is liable to be changed to soap and the paint is seriously injured. To avoid this, take some of the best whiting, and have ready some clean warm water and a piece of flannel, which dip into the water and squeeze nearly dry; then take up as much whiting as will adhere to it, apply it to the painted surface, when a little rubbing will quickly remove any dirt or grease stains. After this wash the part well with clean water, rubbing it dry with a soft chamois. Paint thus cleaned will look as well as when first put on, and the operation may be tried without fear of injury to the most delicate colors. It answers far better than the use of soap, and does not require more than one-half the time and labor. Another simple method is the following : Put a tablespoonful of aqua ammonia in a quart of moderately hot water, dip in a flannel cloth, and with this merely wipe over the surface of the woodwork. No rubbing is necessary. The first recipe is preferable, except where the paint is badly dis- colored. To AGE OR COLOR COPPER. Add about 1 pound of powdered sal ammoniac to 5 gallons of water, dissolve it thoroughly, and let it stand at least twenty-four hours before putting it on the copper. Apply it to the copper with a brush, being sure to cover every place ; let it stand for a day and sprinkle with water, using a brush to sprinkle the water on so that it will not run and streak the copper. After standing overnight the color will be as desired. The same effect can be produced by using vinegar and salt instead of the sal ammoniac, using J pound of salt to 2 gallons of vinegar. To REMOVE OLD GLASS FROM SASH. Take a hot iron and run along the surface of the putty, when it can easily be re- moved with a chisel. 692 GLOSSARY OF NEW BUILDING MATERIALS. To REMOVE RUST STAINS. To remove rust stains from wood, wash the disfigured parts with a solution of 2 ounces of oxalic acid to 1 pint of hot water. In fitting doors, always keep the hollow side next the stop or rebate strip. A flour barrel is 28 to 30 inches high and 20 to 21 inches in diameter. When hanging transoms, where possible, if the transom is to be hung at the top, hang them so that when they are open the glass will lay on the wood and not on the putty. Wash-stands are usually set 2 feet 6 inches from the floor. The relative strength of timbers is estimated by multiplying the breadth by the square of the depth. Example. How many times as strong is a joist 2' V X15" when supported on its narrow side as when supported on its broad side : 1\ X 2| =* 6, 6iXl5=93 T V 15X15 = 225, 225X2^=562$, 562^93 T V=6, or six times stronger. GLOSSARY OF NAMES OF SOME NEW MATERIALS USED IN BUILDING. ALASTER. A fire-proof paint, manufactured by the National Fireproof Paint Corporation, Chicago, 111. ^EOLIPILE. A patent damper for use in the smoke-collar of a furnace, manufactured by the JSolipile Co. , New York. AB-LU-ENT. A paint and varnish remover, manufactured by the Detroit White Lead Works, Detroit, Mich. ANHYDROSAL. A water-proof coating for concrete and brick, manufactured by Toch Bros., New York. ASBESTOLITH. A plastic sanitary floor covering, manufactured by the Asbestolith Co., New York. ASBESTOSIDE. A siding for buildings, manufactured by H. W. Johns-Manville Co. , New York ALABASTINE. An interior-wall paint, manufactured by the Alabastine Co., Grand Rapids, Mich. ALPHADUCT. A flexible conduit for electric wires, manufactured by the Alphaduct Mfg. Co., New York. ASBESTINE. A fire-proof paint, manufactured by the Alden Spears Sons Co. , New York. ANAGLYPTA. An embossed-paper wall covering, for sale by W. H. S. Lloyd Co., New York. GLOSSARY OF NEW BUILDING MATERIALS. 693 APADAC. A structural-meal paint, manufactured by the Chil- ton Paint Co., New York. BITULITHIC PAVEMENT. A pavement put down by Warren Bros., New York. BESSEMER PAINT. A paint for the protection of iron and steel, manufactured by Rinald Bros. , Philadelphia, Pa. CARBOLINEUM AVENARIUS. A wood-preserving paint, manu- factured by the Carbolineum Wood-preserving Co., New York. CEMENTICO. A cold-water paint, manufactured by the U. S. Gypsum Co. CONSERVO. A wood preservative, manufactured by Samuel Cabot, Boston, Mass. CALSOM FINISH. A kalsomine for interior walls, manufactured by B. Moore, Chicago, 111. DULL-EINB. A dull varnish, manufactured by Samuel F. Woodhouse, Philadelphia, Pa. FLINTKOTE. A prepared roof covering, manufactured by J. A. Bird & Co., Boston, Mass. FLINTOLINE. A floor paint, manufactured by F. W. Devoe Co., Chicago, 111. FLU ATE (Lockpore). A coating for the preservation of marble, stone, terra-cotta, etc., manufactured by Toch Bros., New York. GRAINOLETTE. A transfer graining paper, manufactured by the Stencil Treasury, 209 E. 59th St., New York. HYDREX. A water-proofing compound, manufactured by F. W. Bird & Son, East Walpole, Mass. INDURINE. A cold-water paint, manufactured by L. A. Moore & Co., St. Paul, Minn. JAP-A-LAC. A floor finish or varnish, manufactured by the Gil- den Varnish Co. , Cleveland, Ohio. KALLIGRAIN. A transfer graining paper, manufactured by Emil Majert, New York. KONKERIT COATING. A water-proof paint for concrete or brick walls, manufactured by Toch Bros., New York. LINOFELT. A sheathing fibre felt, manufactured by Union Fibre Co., Winona, Minn. LYTHITE. A white enamel paint, manufactured by Frank S. De Ronde Co., New York. LETHEROID. A wool-felt roof covering, manufactured by the Union Paper Co., Cleveland, Ohio. 694 GLOSSARY OP NEW BUILDING MATERIALS. MARBELITHIC. An artificial marble, made by the Marbelithic Co., Dayton, Ohio. MONOLITH. A sanitary plastic flooring, base, etc., manufac- tured by the American Monolith Co., Milwaukee, Wis. MALTHOID. A ready roofing, manufactured by the Paraffine Paint Co., San Francisco, Cal. MIRAC. A varnish and paint remover, manufactured by J. Lucas & Co., Philadelphia, Pa. MURA-KALSO. A kalsomine, manufactured by American Lucol Co., New York. METILE. A metal wall covering in imitation of tile, manufac- tured by Wisconsin Mantel Co., Milwaukee, Wis. Novus GLASS. A glass wainscot, etc., manufactured by the Penn- American Plate Glass Co., Pittsburg, Pa. OKONITE. A brand of insulated electric-light wire, manufac- tured by the Okonite Co., Broadway, New York. PORCELITE. A white : enamel paint, manufactured by the Thomson Wood Finishing Co., Philadelphia, Pa. PHENOID. A varnish and paint remover, manufactured by Ellis Chambers, Dedham, Mass. ROOF-LEAK. An asphalt roof coating, manufactured by the Elliot Varnish Co., Chicago, 111. SUPERB A. A cold-water paint, or kalsomine for interior walls, manufactured by the Dry Kalsomine and Paint Works, New York. SIAMLAC. A substitute for shellac, sold by J. B. Moffett, Minne- apolis, Minn. SILICATED CARBON. A transparent waterproofing for concrete and brick, manufactured by the Standard Specialty Co., Cleveland, Ohio. SPHINX GUM. A strengthener to add to flour paste, manufac- tured by the Arabol Manufacturing Co. , 100 William Street, New York. SALSEE. A plastering fibre used in place of hair, manufactured by C. R. Weeks, 14th Street, New York. SACKET'S PLASTER BOARD. A plaster board made in sheets 32"X36" and nailed to the studs, and then finished with a coat of hard plaster, sold by the Garden City Sand Co., Chicago, 111. SANITAS A cloth wall covering, manufactured by the Standard Table Oil Cloth Co., New York. GLOSSARY OF NEW BUILDING MATERIALS. 695 TAPESTROLA. A burlap decoration, manufactured by Richter Manufacturing Co., Tenafly, N. J. TITEKOTE. An iron-preservative paint, manufactured by the Barber Asphalt Co., Philadelphia, Pa. TEX-TA-DOR-NA. A burlap wall covering, manufactured by the Tex-ta-dor-na Manufacturing Co., Columbus. Ohio. TRANSITS. A fire-proof lumber, manufactured by H. W. Johns- Man ville Co. INDEX. PAGE Abacus 575 Absorptive power of brick 43 granite 43 limestone 43 marble 43 mortar 43 sandstone 43 slate 70 Ab-u-lent 692 Acid, muriatic ' 686 oxalic 686 tests for iron and steel 426 Activity of cement 128 Adulteration of linseed-oil 397 red lead 403 turpentine 399 white lead 402 Aeolipile 692 Aggregate for concrete 167 Air-slaked lime Ill Alabastine 692 Alaster ; 692 Alcohol 685 Alphaduct 692 Alum 682 Aluminum, weight of 658 to solder 388 Ammonia 684 Ampere, electric 480 Anchors to beams, etc 307 Anchor-joist 260 Anhydrosal 692 Anaglypta 692 Angle, to draw 535 Angle-beads 293 Angles in partitions 299 Annealing, steel 447 Annulet 575 697 698 INDEX. PAGE Antimony vermilion 403 Apadac 693 Apophyge 575 Apothecaries, measure, liquid 578 dry 578 Arc 617 area of 619 measurement of 618 of circle 571 to draw curve of ; 572 to find radius of 617 Arc lamps 514 Arc-lighting 507 Arch: brick floor 194 composed of two arcs of circles 569 concrete floor 195 drop 568 elliptical, not level 570 flat-pointed 567 four-centre 569 Gothic 567 hearth 86 inverted, in footings 27 lancet Gothic 567 lintel 59 lintel, brick 85 size of ring 622 three-center 568 to find thrust of 622 Tudor 569 Arch brick 74 Architectural terra-cotta . % . . 226 Architecture, orders of 548 table of orders 553 Arcs of circles, tangential 536 Area: arc 619 circles, to find 692 circles 616 cone 697 cycloid 613 cylinder 620 ellipse 619 frustum of cone or pyramid 620 polygon 613 pyramid 697 sector 619 segment 619 sphere 621 square 613 INDEX. 699 Area: PAGE trapezium 613 triangle 613 Area covered by concrete 144 Artificial foundations 9 stone sidewalks 180 Asbestos 688 paper 688 Asbestolith 692 Asbestoside 692 Ash, description of 314 Ash boxes and pits 253 Ashlar: backing of 83 coursed, two sizes stone 49 irregular coursed 49 joints in 64 level and broken 49 random 50 random in courses 50 regular coursed 49 rusticated 51 Asphalt paper 688 Asphaltum 684-688 Astragal 575 Atmosphere, effects on stone 43 tests for effects on stone 43 Automatic sprinklers 287 Avoirdupois measure 577 Barrel, contents of 621 size of 692 Basalt, description of 29 Batter-boards 4 Beams: belly-rod 675 bending moments of 478 deflection of 478 formula on iron and steel 476 in footings 21 properties of I beams 468 roof and floor 439 safe load 463 size of 468 steel 468 strength of wooden 318 to find stress of wooden 623 various loading of 478 weight of 468 wooden 306 Bed of foundations 8 Bench-marks 4 700 INDEX. PAGE Beeswax -. 684 Behrend steel sheet-piling 19 Belly-rod truss, strength of 675 Bessemer paint 693 Bevel for backing hip-rafters 555 octagon roof- 555 Bevel to mitre purlins 556 Birch, description of 315 Bitulithic pavement 693 Bituminous rock 688 Black walnut, description of 315 Blind bond in brickwork 80 Block and tackle, power of 623 Block-tin pipe 367 Blue black 405 pigments 405 lead 405 sap 315 Board measure 322 Boilers, setting of 245 Bond in brickwork 79 stonework 48 Bolting of structural iron and steel 427-440 Bolts, etc., in woodwork 308 Bond iron in buildings 262 Boneblack 405 Boston hip in shingling 299 Boxes, size of 622 Braces, to get cut of 560 Brass: expansion of 662 rods, weight of 395 specific gravity of 658 weight of sheets 393 weight of tubing 369 Bremen blue 405 Bricks : absorptive power 43-75 ' expansion of fire-brick 662 fire-brick 76 iron in 73 lime in 73 names of 74 quality of 75 shale in 73 size of 74 tests of 75 weight of 75 weight and strength of 75 working strength 75 vitrified 76 INDEX. 701 PAG5 Brick-laying 76 arch lintels 85 backing up ashlar 83 beds in brickwork 78 bond in 79 bond course to mark 82 bracing of walls 85 chimneys 86 efflorescence on 100 English bond 81 English cross bond 81 estimating of 100 Flemish bond 81 floor-arches 194 footings 26 headers 83 hearth-arches 86 hollow walls 86 joints in 78 nogging 87 pointing 98 projecting courses 84 rules for 87 secrete bond 80 wall ties in 80 washing down 86 wet when layed 76 Brick-dust, weight of . . . 661 Brick footings 26 nogging 87 British thermal unit (B.T.U.) 524 Bridging 298 Broken-stone drain 5 Brown colors 406 Buckeye fire-proof floor construction 210 Building paper 687 Bushel, weight of 582 Butternut, description of 315 Buttresses 61 Calcareous stones 30 Calking joints in cast-iron pipes 359 Callarino 575 Calson finish 693 Camber in joist 297 Capping, concrete 19 granite 20 Carbon in steel 426 Carbolineum avenarius 693 Carpentry: anchorage of beams 307 702 INDEX. Carpentry: PAGE angles in partitions 299 base, fastening of 305 bracing, etc 299 bridging floors 298 partitions 298 camber in joist 297 description of woods 313 doors 302 doors, hand of 305 to hang 692 fastening finish, etc 304 finish, nailing of 303 flag-pole, to make 302 floor-strips 297 grounds 298 hardware, placing of 305 joints in timber 565 kerfing of mouldings 569 lumber measure 322 metal plugs 305 mouldings, nailing of 303 nailing blocks : 303 in T. C. walls 304 panels, etc 303 partitions 298 pitch of ttairs 302 reducing timber to octagon 558 sash 302 securing trim, etc 303 sheathing 302 shingling 299 strength of wood columns 319 of beams 318 transoms, to hang 692 trimmer-beams 306 wainscot, fastening of 305 washstands, height of .' 692 wood beams, etc 306 frames 304 Castings, shrinkage of 680 Cast-iron pipe, safe pressure. . 364 Cast iron : appearance of 422 color of 422 defects in 421 expansion of 662 fittings, weight of 368 inspection of columns 422 lintels 438 malleable 423 melting-point 423 INDEX. 703 Cast iron : PAGE pipes, weight of 380 pressure in cast-iron pipes 364 sand-holes in 421 shrinkage of 423 specifications for 423 strength of 423 of columns 424 of malleable 423 weight of 423 Carving, stone 61 Cavetto 575 Cedar. 314 Cement: activity of 128 amount for test 3 analysis of Portland 116 of various brands of Portland 145 color, etc 116 expansion of 142 Keene's -. 296 Lafarge 296 magnesia in 116 manufacturers' guarantee 116 natural 112 non-staining 142 notes on 142 porosity of 142 Portland 115 Puzzolan v . 120 use of 121 Rosendale 112 silica 124 size of sieves for testing fineness 142 slag 120 strength of various brands of Portland 147 of natural 146 specifications for 125 Portland 117 natural 113 Puzzolan 122 specific gravity 143 tests of various brands of natural 146 of Portland 147 tests of 126 for expansion 142 of mortar 158-171 for soundness 142 use of, in freezing weather 156 weight of 658 weight, etc., of natural 112 what one barrel will do 144 704 INDEX. Cement: PAGE water-proof wash 154 Cementico 693 Centrifugal pumps, capacity of 634 revolutions of 635 Chain, strength of 675 Chases in walls 85 Channels, properties of 472 safe load 466 sizes of 472 weights of 472 Cherry 315 Chestnut, description of 315 Chimneys, flues, etc., fire protection of 235 height of flue-lining 235 supports 240 thickness of brick walls 231 wood plugs in 236 and flues in frame buildings 231 Chimneys 86 Chord.' 615 Chrome yellow 404 Cincture 575 Circle: arc, to draw 572 area, to find 616 circumference of 616 involute of 548 heads, to lay out 574 measurements of 616 parts of 615 to draw diameter when chord and rise of arc is given 572 to find centre 571 to draw to strike three given points 570 Circular areas 590 Circuit-breaker, electric 506 circular measure 580 Circumferences, table of 590 Cisterns, capacity of 649 Classification of brick 74 of fire-proof structures 253 Clay: carrying power 10 foundation 9 in concrete 168 in sand 110 shrinkage of 6 Cleaning of brick masonry 86 of granite 690 of marble 690 of stone masonry 68 of paint 691 INDEX 705 PAGE Closets as fire-traps 235 Coal-tar 688 paint 417 Cobalt blue 405 Coins, weight of 581 Colors: compound 406 contrast in 418 harmony in 418 to mix 406 Color of bricks 73 Columbian fire-proof floor construction 216 Columns: cast-iron 424-436 double 437 encasing of steel 197 entasis of 574 filling with concrete 480 iron and steel 435 names of parts 575 wood 319 Comparison of thermometric scales 628 Composite order of architecture 549 proportions of 554 Concentric rings, to divide circle 536 Concrete : aggregate for 167 building blocks 191 compositions for various uses 184 construction 190 defects in 191 depositing 174 dry. . , 164 filling hollow columns 480 floor-arches 194 floor-arches, tests of 194 floor construction 194 rules for ; 194 forms for 190 inspection of 164 lime 186 mixing 165 notes on 187 plastering, composition of 184 proportions of 168 of cinder 194 protection of steel by 173 reinforced construction 190 salt in 190 sand for 168 sidewalks .180 706 INDEX. Concrete: PAGE sidewalks, specifications for 181 strength of 240 specifications for 175 tests of 171, 172 of mortar in . 158 voids in 169 volume of 188 wash 184 weight of 183 wet 164 Cone or pyramid, frustum of 620 volume of 620 area of 620 Contents of pipes .....' 648 of irregular body 622 Conventional signs for riveting 434 Conserve 693 Conductor, electric 496 Conduits, electric 480 interior electric 513 Corinthian order of architecture 548 proportions of 554 Cornices of fire-proof structures 277 Cornice, plaster 295 Corner beads, metal 293 Corona 575 Coping, stone 61 Copper : amount required for test 3 capacity, electrical , 494 expansion of 662 nails 312 rods, weight of 395 roofing 384 specific gravity 658 to clean 690 to age 691 weight of sheet 393 wire, resistance of, electric 482 Covering for steam-pipes 522-524 Creosote 688 Crowds, weight of 681 Cubic measure. 577 Cube roots, etc 590 Cummings's system of reinforced concrete 219 Curb, stone 61 Curbs, to set 67 Cut-outs, electric 506 Curve approximating an ellipse 338 Cycloid 613 area of 613 INDEX. 707 PAGE Cylinder 620 area of '. . 620 volume of 620 Cymatium 575 Cyma-recta 575 Cypress, description of 314 inspection of 334 Dam measurements 635 Decimals of a foot. 610 of an inch 611 Defects in : cast iron 421 concrete 191 glass. .... . . ... . . . . 420 granite. . '.' 29 limestone 39 plastering 293, 294 sandstone 34 steel 426 timber 315 wrought iron 426 Degrees from steel square 564 Diary, superintendents 2 Dismissal of workman 2 Dodecahedron .-. 614 Dome, perpendicular sheathing on 558 horizontal sheathing on 559 Doors, to fit 692 to hang 692 hand of 342 Doric order of architecture 548 proportions of , 553 Douglas fir, inspection of , . . 344 Ducts for ventilation 385 Drains, tile 5 broken-stone 5 Drawing : arcs of circles, tangential 536 cycloid 545 ellipse 537 epicycloid 547 hyperbola 545 hypocycloid x . 547 involute of circle 548 Ionic involute 543 octagon 535 oval 539 parabola 545 polygon 535 spiral 540 708 INDEX. Drawing: PAGE spiral, when greatest diameter is given 543 stair scroll 542 tapering scroll. 542 triangle 533 Drop arch 568 Ducts for ventilators 241 Dull-ine 693 Dutch pink 404 Duties of superintendent 1 Echinus 575 Efflorescence on brickwork 100 concrete 189 Electric work: ampere 480 amperes per lamp 485 per motor 492 arc lighting 507 lamps 514 automatic cut-outs 508 bends in conduits 480 broken circuit 480 capacity of wire 494, 495 circuit, broken 480 concealed knob work 512 tube work 512 conduits 480 conductors 496 constant -potential system 508 cut-outs 506 economy coils 514 electric heaters 510 terms 480 equivalents of electrical units 484 fixtures 513 flexible cord 514 grounded circuit 480 grounding circuits 502 ground connections 502 horse-power 484 incandescent lamps 508 wiring table 488, 489 insulators 496 interior conduits 513 low-potential system 510 moulding work 511 ohm 480 resistance of wire 482, 483 rules for 499 sockets 513 soldering fluid 514 INDEX. 709 Electric work: switches 506-509 transformers 502 trolley wires 501 underground conductors 504 volt 484 watt 484 wires, inside 503 outside 499 wiring formula 497 table 485 Elevator shafts 270 Ellipse: curve approximating 538 draw with trammel 538 foci of 619 joints in arch 561 perimeter of 619 to draw 536 to find area 619 Elliptical arch, joints in 561 English bond in brickwork 81 cross bond in brickwork 81 Entablature, names of parts 575 Entasis of column 574 Encasing of columns 197 Epicycloid 613 to draw 547 Equivalents of electrical units 484 Estimate of superintendent 2 Estimating brickwork 100 stonework 51 Excavating 5 shrinkage of material 6 Expanded metal construction 198 Expansion of: brick, fire 662 brass 662 cast iron 662 copper 662 granite 662 lead 662 steel 448 table of 662 tin 662 wrought iron 448 wrought-iron pipe 529 zinc 662 Facia 575 Felt paper 687 Fencing, grade of lumber 327 710 INDEX. PAGE Ferroinclave fire-proof floor system 211 Fibre, plastering 293 Fillers, wood 414 Fillets 575 Filling, fire-proof floor . 220 around walls 28 Fineness of cement 142 of sieves 142 Finishing lumber, sizes of. 333 Fire-brick 76 weight of 661 Fire-clay, weight of 661 Fire-escapes, erection of 288 Fireproofing of columns 197 Fire-proof floor construction: Buckeye 210 Columbian 216 Cummings 219 expanded metal 198 tests of 200 ferroinclave 211 filling of 220 Hennebique 214 Herculean arch 222 International 207 Johnston 220 Kahn 210 Kuhnes sheet-metal 206 Metropolitan 210 Multiplex 217 New York arch 220 Ransome 214 Renton 203 Roebling 200 terra-cotta 220 Thacher 218 vulcanite 211 Fire protection of buildings 229 anchors, etc 260 ash-boxes and pits 253 automatic sprinklers 287 boilers, setting of 245 bond iron in buildings 262 bridging in partitions 236 cement mortar 278 chimneys, flues, etc 235 chimney supports 240 closets as fire-traps 235 columns, casing of 267 concrete fire-proof construction . 266 aggregate in 266 INDEX. 711 PAGE Fire concrete, preparing and placing 167-174 cornices 277 ducts for ventilators 241-243 elevator shafts 270 encasing of columns 276 fire-escapes, erection of 288 fire-proof structures classified 253 fire protection of fire-proof structures 262 fire-resistant devices 286 fire-shutters, address concerning 281 fire-stops in furred walls 236 stud walls ". 238 floor construction in fire-proof buildings 263 flues, etc 231 flue connections 244 frame house protection 231 furnaces, setting of 246 hearths 233 hearth bottoms 233 hollow-tile construction 264 mortar in '. 264 setting tile 264 shoe tile 265 wetting tile 265 hot-air pipes, etc 241-249 in walls 242 lining, height of 235 materials probibited 266 metal frames . 278, 279 sash 278, 279 mill or slow-burning construction 256 National Board of Underwriters' rules 270 cinder filling on top 275 concrete arches 273 encasing of beams 275 of columns 276 fire-proof buildings 270 floor filling 271 hall partitions 271 hollow-tile arches 272 pipe openings 275 protection against freezing. 275 strength for floors 275 temporary centring 275 various fillings. . 273 pipe covering 244-251 pipes, wires, etc 269 plaster of Paris, use of, in ^re-proof buildings ; 266 plumbing pipes 244 pointing 277 protection against hot metal, etc ,...,...,. 252 712 INDEX. PAGE Fire protection of buildings from outside fires 276 of external openings 278 ranges, setting of 246 registers 251 secrete bond in brick wall of buildings 277 selection of materials 277 shutters, metal 278 sills and lintels 277 smoke-pipes 248 smoke-pipe shields 249 stairways 269 steam and hot-water heating pipes 250 studded fireplaces 234 terra-cotta 277 tile partitions, etc 267 tower fire-escapes, erection of . 290 trimmer-arches 239 wall ties 277 wire-glass. .'. 284 wood-framing for fire protection 237 wood in fire-proof structures 268 plug in chimneys 236 Fire-proof structures classified 253 Fire protection of fire-proof structures 262 Fire-resistant devices 286 Fire shutters, address concerning 281 stops in furred walls 236 Fittings, weight of pipe 368 Fixtures, electric 513 Flagpole, to make 302 Flagging, stone 61 Flashing 384 projecting brick courses 84 Flat-pointed arch 567 Flemish bond in brickwork 81 Fliutoline 693 Flintkote 693 Flitch plate-girder 624 Floor-arches, tests of 194 Floor construction in fire-proof buildings 263 Floors, concrete 194 Floor levels, to check 4 strips, wood 297 Flooring, trough plate 479 Flow of water 641-643 Fluate (lockpore) 693 Flue linings, height of 235 weight of 371 connections 244 Flues, testing of 86 etc 231 INDEX. 713 PAGE Flux for soldering 387 Foot, decimals of 610 Footing: inverted arch in 27 brick 26 courses 25 spread 21 calculations of 22 stone 25 Forms for concrete, wood to use 190 Force-pump 651 Force of wind 679 Formulas : area of piston 653 diameter of pipe 656 diameter of pump cylinder 653 flow of gas in pipes 409 for electric wiring 497 head of water 656 horse-power to elevate water 653 inclination of pipe 556 power of lever 623 power of pulleys 623 screw 622 pressure of water 652 prismoidal 613 quantity of water discharged 655 size or arch ring 622 steel beams 476 strength of flitch plate-girders 624 of stone lintels 622 of wooden beams 623 stress in belly-rod truss 625 hog-chains 625 thickness of cast-iron water-pipe 367 thrust of arch 622 trusses, strength of common 626 stress in members of 627 Pratt 628 Whipple 628 velocity of water 656 volume of water discharged 655 Foundations : artificial 9 bed of 8 clay 9 gravel 9 laying out 4 pile 10 rock 8 sand. . 9 714 INDEX. Foundations: PAGE silt, etc 9 walls 27 Frame-house fire protection 231 Frankfort black 405 Frieze 575 Fronts, iron 442 Furnaces, setting of 246 Furring, metal 225 Fusibility of metals 679 Gallons in cisterns 649 Galvanized iron sheets, weight of 391 Gas-piping 371 Gas pipes, capacity of 373 flow in pipes 373 Gauges, standard 674 Gauge, U. S. standard 389 decimal equivalents 389 Geometrical definitions 612 Georgia pine 313 Girders : flitch plate 624 steel and iron 463 wood 623 Glass, defects in 420 expansion of 662 how made 420 quality of 420 to remove 691 thickness of 421 weight of 421 Glazing 421 Glue 683 Gneiss 29 Gothic arch 567 Grainolette 693 Granite : absorptive power 43 amount produced 33 analysis of 32 buildings used in 30 capping 20 color of 30 defects in 29 description of 28 expansion of 662 strength 31 to clean 690 weight of 31 working strength 30 Graphite 685 INDEX. 715 PAGE Graphite paint 417 Greek orders of architecture 548 Green colors . 406 Grillage on piles 19 steel 16 wood 19 Grindstones, weight of 622 Grounds, plastering 298 Grouting 163 composition of 177 Gravel: carrying power 10 foundations 9 shrinkage of 6 Gravity, specific, of materials 658 Gutters, tin 386 Gypsum 686 Hair, plastering 293 Hand of doors 305 Hardness of woods, relative 352 Hard-pan, carrying power 10 Hardware, placing of 305 Headers in brickwork 83 stonework 48 Hearth bottoms for fire protection 233 arch 86 Hearths 233 Heaters, electric 510 Heating: capacity of radiators 518 comparison of thermometric scales 528 calculating radiating surface 518 data for steam-heating 527 on hot-water heating 516 duty of steam-engines 527 expansion of wrought-iron pipes 529 fuel value of wood 526 heating furnaces and boilers 530 location of radiators 516 of registers 516 non-conductive covering 522 table of 524 outlets of vent and hot-air pipes 515 pipe data 527 pressure of systems 516 ranges and stoves 531 registers 531 location of 515 resistance to flow in pipes 521 rules for installing heating systems 530 716 INDEX. Heating: PAGE running of pipes, hot-air 515 steam and hot water 567 size of steam-mains 529 steam, data on 524 steam or hot-water pipes 515 systems 515 steam, rules and information on 525 testing 516 value for horse-power 526 Hemlock 313 Hennebique fire-proof floor construction 214 Herculean arch 222 Hexagon bay 561 Hexahedron 614 Hickory 314 Hip-rafters, bevels for backing 555 Hog-chain girders, strength of 675 Hole in roof for pipes, etc 563 Hollow walls 86 Horse-power, electric 484 heating value 520 to elevate water 653 Hot-air pipes 241-249 Hot-water system of heating 515 Hydraulics 634 capacity of centrifugal pumps 634 cisterns, capacity of 649 contents of pipes 648 fire-streams 642 flow of water 641-643 gallons hi cisterns 649 lift of pumps 651 measurement of streams 637 miners' inch, measurement of 637 pressure of water 638 pump data 651 velocity of water 640 revolution of centrifugal pumps 635 Water: boiling-point 605 data on 650 discharge in pipes 655 freezing-point 650 heat of 650 loss by friction 645 pressure of 638 pure 650 sea- 650 to compute velocity 656 discharge 655 head 656 INDEX. 717 PAGE Hydraulics water: to compute diameter of pipe 656 to find pressure 652 veloc'.ty of 640 weight at different temperatures 652 of column 650 of cubic foot 651 of gallon 650 weir-dam measurements 635 Hydraulic lime m Hydrex 693 Hyperbola 615 to draw 545 Hypocycloid 613 to draw. 547 Icosahedron 614 Incandescent lamps 508 wiring table 488 Inch, decimals of 611 Incompetent workman, dismissal of 2 Indian red 403 Indigo blue 405 Indurine 693 Insulators 496 International system of fireproofing 207 Interpretations of specifications 3 Inverted arch 27 Involute 613 of square 540 of circle 548 Ionic involute, to draw 543 Ionic order of architecture 548 proportions of 553 Iron in brick. . 73 sheets, weight of 390-461 Ironwork: annealing of 447 beams, strength of 463 properties of 468 weight per foot 468 cast-iron pipe, weight of 368-380 channels, properties of 472 safe load 466 sizes of 472 weight of 472 expansion of 448 melting-point 448 modulus of elasticity 664 notes on 447 painting of 408 pipes, weight of wrought-iron 376 718 INDEX. Ironwork: PAGE trough-plate floors 479 weight of sheets 390 Iron, structural: beams, strength of 463 bolting of 427-440 cast-iron columns 424 columns 435 connecting of 439 erection of 427 framing of 439 fronts 442 girders 438 inspection of 426 lintels, cast-iron 438 punching of 446 requirements for 435 riveting of 427-440 roof-beams 439 skeleton construction 435 specifications for 442 strength of floor-beams 463 tests of 426 trusses 441 working strength of 449 Iron, wrought: strength of 426 specific gravity of 426 weight of 426 working strength 426 Irregular body, to find contents of 622 Ivory -black 404 Japalac 693 Johnson system of fire-proof floors 220 Joints in: brickwork 78 elliptical arch 561 stonework 64 timber 565 Joist: camber in 297 bevelling ends in walls 297 bridging of 298 levelling of 297 Kahn system of fire-proof floors 210 Kalligrain 693 Keene's cement 296 Kerfiag of mouldings 569 King s yellow 404 Knots: killing, in painting 407 INDEX. 719 Knots: PAGE in stone 29 in timber 315 Konkerit coating. . . .-. 693 Kuhne's fire-proof floor construction 206 Lafarge cement : 296 Lakes 404 Land measure 577 Lampblack 404 Lasting quality of woods 217 Latent heat of steam 525 Lathing: data on 292 metal 293 nails required 292 Laying out work: approximating roof surface 555 arc of circle 572- arc, to draw curve of 572 Arch; drop <>...; 568 elliptical, not level. 570 flat-pointed 567 four-centre ; 569 Gothic - . . 567 Gothic, elliptical. t , 566 lancet Gothic 566 '* .... to give rise and span 567 of two arcs of circles 569 three-centre 568 Tudor 569 braces, cut of > 560 circle, to strike three given points 570 to find centre ; 571 heads 574 degrees from a square 564 diameter of circle when chord and rise of arc are given 571 entasis of column 574 foundations 4 gambrel roof 573 hexagon bay 561 joints in elliptical arch 561 timber 565 mansard roof 573 mitre circle and straight moulding 564 octagon bay 561 ogee bracket 562 pipe hole in roof 563 plancher for conical roof. .. 560 privy seat 563 purlins, to mitre * 556 720 INDEX. Laying out work: PAGE rafters, bevels for backing 555 cripples, lengths, etc 556 for curve roof : 559 in concave roof 560 in convex roof 560 lengths and bevels 555, 556 rake mould, to lay out v . . 558 sheathing, bevel for 557 on dome perpendicular 558 horizontal 559 ventilating hole in privy door 563 Lead: expansion of 662 weight of 658 sheet 368 sash-weights, weight of 682 Leatheroid 693 .Length of miles 581 Level, to use 4 line, curve of 565 Lever, power of 623 Liquid measure 578 Lime: amount for stonework 52 air-slaked Ill concrete 186 for plastering 293 hydrate of Ill hydraulic Ill analysis of 112 in brick 73 mortar 150 preservation of Ill putty Ill quality of Ill weight of 660 what one barrel will do Ill Limestone: analysis of 40 absorptive power 43 defects in 39 description of 36 production in the U. S 38 strength of 39 weight of 39 Limnoria terebrans 14 Line 612 Linear measure 576 Linofelt 693 Linseed-oil 396 amount for test 3 INDEX. 721 Linseed-oil : PAGE boiled 396 bung-hole process 397 raw 396 substitutes for 397 tests for 398 Lintels: cast iron 438 strength of stone 622 in fire-proof structures 277 Litharge 689 Load on roofs, weight of 677 Locust 314 Loam, shrinkage of 6 carrying power 10 Logarithms 590 Lumber: inspection of cypress 334 of Douglas fir 344 of Eastern Oregon pine 337 of Oregon pine 342 of redwood 349 of yellow pine. 322 measure 323 woods, where found 350 Lythite 693 Magnesia in brick clay 74 cement 116 Mahogany 315 Malthoid 694 Manila rope, strength of 667 Maple, description of 315 Marble: absorptive power of 43 analysis of v 42 anchors for 69 cutting 68 description of , 40 dust, weight of 661 expansion of 662 Georgia 41 mosaic .^. 70 polishing of 68 production in United States 41 setting. , 68 strength of 42 Terrazza 70 to clean 690 weight of 42 Marbleithic 694 Materials, rejected 1 722 INDEX. PAGE Materials, rejected, removal of 1 prohibited in fire-proof structures , 266 specific gravity of 658 strength of 663 weight of 658 Measures of miscellaneous weights 582 Measurement of arcs of circles 618 barrel 621 brickwork 100 circle 616 ellipse 619 miner's inch 637 roof 555 sphere . . 620 spherical zone. , 621 stonework 51 streams 637 tapering timber 621 weir dams 635 Melting-point of metals 679 cast iron 448 steel 448 wrought iron 448 Mensuration: ale or beer 579 apothecaries', dry 578 liquid 578 avoirdupois 577 circular 580 cubic 577 dry 579 land 577 linear 576 liquid 578 square 576 standard pound 578 surveyors', long 580 square 579 time 580 troy 580 value, U. S. standard 581 weight of coins 581 wine 579 Metals, color at different temperatures 679 Metal frames 278 fronts 442 sash 278 Metals, melting-point 679 Metal nailing plugs 305 Metals, strength of 664 INDEX. 723 PAGE Metals, specific gravity of 658 Metal wall ties 80 Metile 694 Metal beams 225 corner beads 293 furring 225 lathing 293 Metallic paint 417 Metal, painting of 408 Metric system 583 common equivalents 585 equivalents . . . - 584 interchangeable table 586 Metropolitan fire-proof construction 210 Mica 689 Miles, length of various 581 Mill construction 256 Mineral wool 689 Mirac 694 Miscellaneous weights . 582 Miscellaneous materials : alcohol 685 alum 682 ammonia 684 asbestos 688 asphaltum 684-688 beeswax 684 bituminous rocks 688 building papers 687 coal-tar 688 creosote 688 glue 681 graphite 685 gypsum 686 litharge 689 mica 689 mineral wool 689 muriatic acid 686 oxalic acid 686 pitch 688 silicate stone 687 staff 687 whiting 684 Mitres, to find, on square 564 Modelling-clay, to make 691 Modulus of elasticity of metals 664 Monolith 694 Mouldings, kerfing of 569 Mortar: absorptive power of ; 43-142 cement 153 724 INDEX. Mortar: PAGE cement-lime 512 cement : amount for plastering 144 stonework 144 brickwork 144 strength of 157 coloring of cement 155 effect of temperature on 155 for press brickwork 151 grouting 163 lime: amount for brickwork Ill stonework Ill plastering Ill lime 150 mosaic, marble 70 lime putty in cement. 152 mixing 154 sugar in 151 tests of 158 tests of cement 170 use of in freezing weather 151 volume of 186 water-tight 154 Mouldings, fastening of 303 Moulding, kerfing of 569 Moulder's table 680 Mouldings, to mitre straight and circle 564 Multiplex fire-proof floor construction 217 Mura-kalso 694 Muriatic acid 686 Nails: flooring, number required to lay 311 lath, number required 292 requirements of 308 resistance of 309 shingles, number required 301 sheathing, number required 311 siding, number required 311 size, length, etc 311 slate, number required 73 term of penny 311 tests of trength 310 weight of copper 312 Names of parts of a column 575 Naples yellow 404 National Board of Underwriters' rules 270 Natural cement 112 tests of 146 New York terra-cotta floor-arch 220 INDEX. 725 PAGE Non-conductive pipe covering 522-524 Hogging, brick 87 Novous glass 694 Oak: black, coloring of 418 coloring of 418 description of 314 red 314 verde finish 418 weathered 418 white 314 Ochres 404 Octahedron 614 Octagon bay 561 to draw 535 when base is given 536 to find side 561 diameter 562 reduce square timber to 558 Ogee bracket 562 Ohm, electric 480 Oil. linseed 396 amount for testing 3 Okonite 694 Onyx 41 Orders of architecture: composite 549 Corinthian 548 Doric 548 Ionic 548 Tuscan 549 Oregon pine, description of 313 inspection of 342 Eastern 337 Oval, to draw 539 on given line 539 Ovalo 575 Oxalic acid 686 Oxide of iron 403 Beds. 404 P. & B. paint. 417 Paint, to remove from glass 691 cleaning of 691 Painting: applying paint 407 antimony vermilion 403 adulteration of white lead 402 of red lead 403 of turpentine 399 bituminous paints 417 726 INDEX. Painting: PAGE birch-coloring of , 416 black pigments. , . 404 blue-black , 405 boneblack 405 blue lead 405 Bremen blue ..'.......'..... 405 brown umber ; 406 burnt sienna . 406 blue pigments. . 405 cobalt blue 405 compound colors ......... .........: 406 cleaning old work 409 coloring oak 418 coloring birch 416 contrast in colors 418 chrome yellow 404 ceilings, painting of 408 data on painting 417 Dutch pink 404 filling hardwoods 414 finishing redwood 410 Frankfort black 405 greens 406 harmony in colors 418 Indian red 403 ivory-black 404 indigo blue 405 ironwork, painting of 408 King's yellow 404 Lake's 404 lampblack 404 litharge 689 linseed-oil, boiled ; ; 396 bung-hole process 397 raw 396 substitutes for 397 tests for k 398 materials for 396 metallic paint 417 Naples yellow 404 oxide of iron ^ 403 reds 404 ochres 404 pumice 414 Prince's metallic paint 417 paint, to remove , . . . . 409 Prussian blue 405 preparing for 407 rosin 414 raw Sienna. .. 406 red lead, adulterates used '. 403 INDEX. 727 Painting: PAGE red lead, tests of 403 removing old paint , 409 sublimed lead 401 shellac 413 stains 416 scarlet red 403 turpentine, adulteration of 399 tests for 399 to mix paints , 406 tinwork, to paint 408 ultramarine blue 405 vermilion 403 Venetian red 404 varnish 409 wood fillers 414 weathered oak 418 white lead 402 tests of 402 walls, painting of 408 yellow ochre 404 zinc white 402 tests for 403 Paints: asphalt 417 bituminous 417 coal-tar . 417 graphite 417 lead and oil 406 metallic 417 ready-mixed 417 Paper: asbestos 688 asphalt 688 building 687 felt 687 parchment 687 tar 688 Paper-hanging 422 Parabola 615 to draw 545 Parchment paper 687 Partitions : angles in 299 Berger . '. 225 bracing of 298 expanded metal 223 fire-proof 223 Metropolitan. . 223 Phrenix 225 rabbit 223 Roebling 223 728 INDEX. Partitions: PAGE wood 298 Pattern-makers' table 680 Pavement, bitulithic 693 Paving : asphalt 107 brick 102 concrete foundation for 104 cross-walks 109 grouting of 107 gutters 103 specifications for 102 Phenoid 694 Piles: bearing value 15 capping of 19 concrete 16 concrete capping of 19 driving 13 eaten by terredo 13 limnoria 13 for foundations 10 friestedt sheet 18 granite capping 19 grillage on 19 material for 11 pointing of 12 preserving of 14 Raymond 16 sheet 17 simplex 16 specifications for 10 testing of 14 tests of concrete 16 Wittekind sheet 18 Pitch, paving 688 Pipes: cast-iron, weight of 380 contents of 648 covering 522 data on 527 equation of 657 expansion of 529 fittings, weight of 368 how made 370 in fire-proof structures 269 running of steam- and hot-water 515 resistance to flow in steam- 521 size and weight of iron 376 lead 366 Plancher in conical roof 560 Plane figure 612 INDEX. 729 PAGB Plans as guide 3 Plaster, weight of 661 Plaster of Paris '. '. 293 in fire-proof structures 266 Plastering: cement, composition of 153 cornices and mouldings 295 covering capacity of patent 295 lime 295 data 295 hair 293 Keene's cement 296 Lafarge cement 296 lime for 293 outside stucco 295 patent plasters 294 protection of cement 295 sand for 293 scagliola 295 staff 687 stucco 295 weight of plaster 661 Plinth. 575 Plumbing: air-inlets 356 block-tin pipes 367 conductors 361 connecting lead and iron pipes 359 drain connections 354 drain-pipes 358 drain-pipes, weight of 358 fall of soil-pipes 351 fastening of pipes 351 flow of water in pipes 363 galvanized boilers, capacity of 369 gas, flow of, in pipes 374 gas-pipes, capacity of 372, 373 increase of pressure 372 to compute pressure 372 gas-piping. 371 hand-holes in traps 356 house-drains 355 joints in sewer-pipes 353 soil-pipes 353 latrines 361 lead pipe, size and weight 366 location of traps 356 materials used 354 pressure in cast-iron pipes 364 rules for 354 sheet lead 368 730 INDEX. Plumbing: PAGE .soil-pipes a 356 weight of 368 stop-cocks in pipes 354 tests of pipes 353 for sewer-gas 690* vault, privy, 362r wash-stands, height to set 692* waste-pipes 357 water-closets 360 Plumb-lines, radiating 565 Point 612 Pointing, brickwork 98 stonework 67 walls of fire-proof structures 277 Pole for setting stonework 66 Polyhedrons 614 Polygons 612 to draw 535 Poplar, description of 315 Porcelite 694 Portland cement 115 analysis of 145 tests of 147 Posts, party-wall 4J Pound, standard 57 Power of lever 623 of screw ... 622 of pulleys 623 Pratt truss 630 Pressure of water 638 of wind on roofs 678 of heating systems 516 Pressures, to compute various 372 Prince's metallic paint 417 Prismoidal formula 613 Privy-door ventilating-hole 563 Privy seat, to lay out 563 Protection of buildings from outside fires 276 of external openings of fire-proof buildings 278 Prussian blue 405 Pulley, power of 623 Pumice 414 Purlins, bevel to mitre 556 Puzzolan cement 120 Quadrant 615 Quadrilateral 612 Quoins, chamfered 51 Radiation, to compute 518 Radiators, capactiy of 518 location of 517 INDEX. 731 PAGE Radius of arc, to find 617 Rafters : bevels to back hips 555 in octagon roof 555 in concave roof 560 convex roof 560 curve roof 559 length of cripples 556 lengths, bevels, etc 556 to find length of 555 Rake moulding, to lay out 558 Random range stonework 47 broken courses 47 coursed 47 Ranges, setting of 246 Ransome system of concrete construction 214 Receipts, etc. : copper, to age 691 to clean 690 glass, to remove 691 marble, to clean 690 modelling-clay, to make 691 paint on glass, to remove 691 rust-stains, to remove 692 sewer-gas, to test for 690 stains on granite, to remove 690 Reciprocals 590 Rectangle 612 Red lead: adulteration of 403 amount required for tests 3 tests for 403 Red oak 314 Redwood 314 finishing of 410 inspection of 349 Registers, heating 531 location of 515 Reinforced-concrete construction 260 Rejected materials 2 Renton system of fire-proof floor construction 203 Requirements for iron and steel 435 Resistance o shearing of wood 317 Rhomboid 612 Rhombus 612 Right angle 612 to bisect 533 Riveting 440 careless 428 instructural steelwork 427 of structural steel and iron 427-440 732 INDEX. PAGE Riveting, perfect 430 signs for 434 "Rivets, strength of 432 Rock foundations 8 Rock-carrying power 10 Roebling fire-proof floor system 200 Roman orders of architecture 548 Roofing, etc.: angles of roofs 677 copper 384 flashing 384 loads on 678 pressure of wind on 678 tin 382 weight of covering 677 zinc 384 Roof, to measure 555 Roof leak 694 Rope: information on wire 669 strength of wire 665 of manila 667 Rosendale cement 112 Rosin 414 Rubble: stonework 46 coursed 46 random 46 Rust-stains, to remove 692 Sacket's plaster-board 694 Salsee 694 Salt in cement mortar 156 concrete 190 sand 110 Sand: carrying power of 10 clay in 110 for concrete 168 for plastering 293 salt in 110 shrinkage of 6 quality of 110 weight of 660 Sandstone: absorptive power of 43 analysis of 37 buildings used in 34 color of 34 defects in 34 description of 30 INDEX. 733 Sandstone: PAGB expansion of 662 production in United States 35 strength of 35 weight of 36 working strength 35 Sanitas 694 Sash-cord, strength of wire 667 Sash, to fit 302 Sash-weights, weight of lead 682 of cast-iron 681 size of cast-iron 681 Scagliola 295 Scarlet red 403 Scotia 575 Screws, length and number 313 Screw, power of 622 Screw-threads, standard 683 Sector 616 area of 619 Segment 616 area of 619 Sewers 353 Sewer-gas, test for 690 Sewers, main, laid 5 Sewer-pipe, weight of 370 Sheathing, to cut 557 on dome, horizontal 559 perpendicular '. 558 Shearing, resistance to 633 Sheet lead, weight of 368 Sheet-metal gauge 389 Shellac 413 amount for testing 3 Shingling: Boston hip 300 nails required for 301 number in a bundle 302 number per square of roof 301 sides and corners 301 valleys 300 Shrinkage of castings 680 of timber 316 Shutters, metal 278 fire address concerning 281 Siamlac 694 Sidewalks: construction of 180 defects in 181 laid in freezing weather 181 hot weather 181 specifications for . 181-183 734 INDEX. PAGE Sienna 406 burnt 406 Silicated carbon 694 Silicious stones 30 Silt foundations 9 Sills and lintels of fire-proof structures 277 Silicate stone 687 Size of boxes 622 Slate: absorptive power of 70 laying of 71 nails required for 73 roofing 70 strength of 72 tests of .' 70 weight of 72 of various thicknesses 72 Slow-burning construction 256 rules for , 259 Smoke-pipes 248 Sockets, electrical 513 Soil; carrying power of 10 foundations 9 shrinkage of 6 testing of 7 Soil-pipe, weight of 368 Solder, composition of 387 to test 387 for aluminum 388 Soldering, flux for 387 fluid for electric wires 514 Solid 612 Specifications for concrete 175 constructural steel 444 iron 442 concrete foundations, etc 177 natural cement 113 Portland cement 117 Puzzolan cement 120 reinforced concrete construction 191 sidewalks 180-183 piles 11 structural cast iron 423 Specific gravity of substances. 658 of steam , 525 Sphere, area of 620 contents of > 621 Spherical zone 621 contents of. . . . . 621 INDEX. 735 Sphinx gum 694 Spikes, length, etc 312 Spiral composed of semicircles 540 in arithmetrical progression 540 of any number of turns 541 of one turn 540 Spiral, to draw when great diameter is given 543 Spread footings 22 Sprinklers, automatic fire- 287 Spruce 313 Square, involute of 540 measure 576 to draw 533 Squares, etc., table of 590 Staff 687 Stains 416 Stairs, pitch of 302 Stair scroll, to draw 542 Stairways La fire-proof structures 269 Standard screw-threads 683 Star, to draw 533 Steam and hot-water pipes in fire-proof structures 250 data on 524 latent heat of 525 rules and information on 518 specific gravity of 525 Steam-engine, duty of 527 Steam-heating, data on 524 system 515 Steam-mains, size of 529 Steam-pipes 515 Steel : beams 439 bending moments of 479 deflection of 479 formula for 476 safe load 563 various loading 479 channels, properties of 472 safe load 466 sizes of 472 weight of 472 columns 435 expansion of 448 girders 438 I beams, properties of 468 size of 468 strength of 463 weight of 468 melting-point 448 modulus of elasticity 664 736 INDEX Steel: PAGE pipe, how made 379 weight of 376 protection of, by concrete 173 sheets, weight of 390 skeleton construction 435 specific gravity 658 specifications for 442-444 trusses 441 weight of flat bars 450 of round bars 456 of square bars 456 of sheet 461 working strength 448 Steps, stone 61 to set stone 66 Stone: cutting 52 iron in 33 laying 46 setting 62 strength of 664 testing of 41 tests and analysis of 44 Stone-cutting : bush-hammered 54 carving. . . , 61 crandalled work 54 cross-crandalled work 54 defects in 57 drip on sills, etc 58 drove work 55 fine-pointed 52 inspection of 57 lintels 59 mouldings 57 patent hammered 54 picked work 54 rock face 55 with draft 55 rough-pointed 55 tools used 52 tooled work 55 template for droved work 56 wash on sills 58 Stone lintels, strength of 622 Stone-setting: area coping 61 backing-up 63 curbs 61 flagging 67 height pole 66 INDEX. 737 Stone-setting: PA.GE lead filling in joints 65 tool for 65 size of joints 64 steps 66 tool for slushing joints 64 wedges used for 62 Stonework : amount of lime and sand for 52 area coping 61 ashlar, coursed two sizes 49 irregular coursed 49 level and broken 49 random 50 random in courses 50 rusticated 51 block -coursed 47 buttresses 61 chamfered quoins 51 coping 61 curbs 61 cut-stone work 46 flagging 61 footings 25 granite 28 irregular form of 47 joints hi 64 measurement of 51 natural stones 28 one-man rubble 48 pointing ' 67 random range 47 coursed 47 regular coursed ashlar 49 rubble-work 46 rubble, coursed 46 random 46 washing down 68 Stone, silicate 687 Streams, measurement of 637 Strength of brick 75 cast iron 423 columns 424 chains 675 concrete 171, 172 flitch-plate girders 624 granite 31 hog-chains 675 limestone 39 malleable cast iron 423 Manila rope 667 738 INDEX. Strength of PAGE marble 42 materials 663 metals 664 mortar 158 rivets 432 slate 72 steel beams 463 wire 673 stones 664 timber, working 317 trusses 709-711 wire sash-cord 667 rope 665 wooden beams 318 columns 319 wrought iron 426 Structural steel and iron: annealing of 447 beams 439 bolting of 427-440 columns 424 connecting 439 erection of 427 expansion of 448 framing of 439 girders 438 inspection of 426 melting-point 448 notes on 447 plates in joints 438 punching 446 requirements for 435 riveting of ^27-440 signs for riveting 434 skeleton construction 435 specifications 442 tests of 426 trough plate flooring 479 trusses , 441 working strength 449 Studded fireplaces 234 Stucco-work 295 Sublimed white lead 401 Substances, expansion of 662 Sugar in mortar 151 Superintendent 1 decision of 1 diary of ^ 2 duties of 1 estimate of 2 personality of . . , 1 INDEX 739 PAGE Superintendent: plans as guide 3 Superba 694 Surface 612 Surveyors' measure, long 580 square 579 Switches, electric 506-509 Syenite 29 Tangents 616 Tapestrola 695 Tar paper 688 Tenia 575 Terra-cotta : architectural 226 balcony 229 cornice 228 fire-proof floors 220 flue lining, weight of 371 nailing blocks in 304 pavilion 229 Terrazza 70 Terredo navalis 13 Tests, amount of material to submit for 3 Testing of cement 126 concrete 171 granite 41 limestone 41 linseed-oil 398 red lead 403 sandstone 41 slate 70 steel 426 turpentine 399 white lead 402 wrought iron 426 zinc 403 Tetrahedron 614 Tex-ta-dor-na 695 Thacher system of reinforced concrete floors 218 Three-centre arch 568 Tile drain 5 Tiles, weight of roof 677 Timber: contents of tapering ...... 621 defects in 315 description of 313 dry rot 315 for masts, etc 316 trusses, etc 308 heart-shakes in, . . , . , . . 316 740 INDEX. Timber: PAGE inspection of cypress 334 of Douglas fir 342 of Eastern Oregon pine. 337 of Oregon pine 342 of redwood 349 of yellow pine , 322 knots in 315 lasting qualities of 317 relative strength of 692 rot in 315 sap in 315 seasoning of 316 shrinkage of 316 sound, indication of 316 splits in 316 to reduce to octagon 558 wind-shakes 316 working strength of 317 Time measure : : 580 Tin and sheet -metal work: double-lock joint 383 flashing 384 flux for soldering 387 gutters 386 hot-air pipes 385 joints in 383 laid between strips 384 method of laying 383 painting of 385 single-lock joint 384 solder for. . 387 soldering aluminum 391 standing seam 383 tin plate 386 ventilators 386 Tin plate: amount for test 3 brand of 386 number of sheets required 388-391 size and weight of sheets 390 thickness of 386 vent-pipes 385 ventilators 386 weight of 386 Tin, modulus of elasticity 664 Titekote 695 Torus 575 Tower fire-escapes 290 Transoms, to hang 692 Transit 695 Transformers, electric 502 INDEX. 741 PAGE Trapezium 612 Trapezoid 612 Trap-rock 29 Triangle, to draw 533, 534 Trough-plate floors 479 Trusses: iron 441 pin-connected 441 riveted 441 steel 441 strength of common 628 stress in members of roof. . 627 Pratt 630 Whipple 631 Tudor arch 569 Tuscan order of architecture 549 proportions of 551 Turpentine : adulteration of 399 tests for 399 Two-centre arch 568 Ultramarine blue 405 Umber 406 burnt 406 Varnish 409 amount required for testing 3 Velocity of water 640 Venetian red 404 Ventilator 386 Vent-pipes 250-385 outlets of 385 and ducts 251 Vermilion 403 Versed sine 617 Vitrified brick 76 Voids in broken stone 169 in concrete 169 Volume of concrete 188 of motar 186 Volt, electric 484 Vulcanite fire-proof floor system 211 Walls, foundation 27 hollow 86 Walnut, black 315 white 315 Wall ties, metal 80 in brick walls 80 in fire-proof structures 277 Wainscot, fastening of 305 742 INDEX. PAGE Wash, cement 184 Wash-stands, height of 692 Water: boiling-point of 650 data on 650 discharge in pipes 655 elevated, quantity of 654 expansion of 662 flow of 643 freezing-point 650 heat of 650 loss of head by friction 645 pressure of 638 of column 652 pure 650 sea- 650 to compute the diameter of pipes 655 head of 656 inclination of pipes 656 velocity 656 volume of 655 to find pressure 652 velocity of 640 weight at different temperatures 651 of column 650 of cubic foot 651 of gallon 650 of different gallons 655 Water-proof wash for cement 154 Watt, electrical 484 Wedge, to find contents of 613 Wedges used to set stone 62 Weight of aluminum 658 beams, 1 468 block-tin pipe 367 brass rods ' 395 sheets 393-461 brick 75 brick-dust 661 bushel 582 cast iron 423 cement 659-661 cubic yard 198 channels. 4 72 coins 581 concrete 183 copper rods 395 sheets 393-461 crowds 681 fire-brick. . 661 INDEX. 743 Weight of PAGE fire-clay 661 flat steel bars 450 flue lining 371 galvanized sheets 391 granite 31 grindstone 622 I beams 468 lead 743 lead pipe 366 lime , 661 marble-dust 661 mineral wool , . 689 plaster , 661 roof covering 677 round steel bars 455 sash- weights, lead , 682 iron 681 sewer-pipe . 370 sheet brass 393 copper 393 iron and steel 390-461 iron 461 steel 461 lead 368 soil-pipes 368 steel wire 673 square steel bars 455 tin per box 392 plates 386 various materials 658 water 661 woods 352 wrought iron 426-461 weights, various 582 Weir-dam measurement 635 Whipple truss 631 White lead: adulteration of 402 amount required for testing 3 tests for 402 White oak 314 pine 313 walnut 315 Whitewash 296 Whiting 684 Wind, force of 679 pressure of 678 Wine measure 579 Wire: electric, inside 503 outside. . , . . 499 744 INDEX. Wire: PAGB electrical capacity of 494 resistance of copper 482 ropes for inclined planes 668 rope, general information on 669 to measure. . . . .* 672 strength of 665 sash-cord 667 trolley 501 weight, etc., of steel 673 Wire-glass, use of 284 Wiring, electrical 480 table 485 formula 497 Wood: beams, etc. . 306 blocking for nailing 303 columns, etc 319 fuel value of 526 hearth bottoms 86 trim, securing of 303 Woods: description of 313 lasting qualities 317 strength of 352 weight of. 352 where found 350 Wrought iron: defects in 426 melting-point 426 specific gravity 426 strength, working 426 tests for 426 weight of 426 Yellow ochre. . . 404 pine. 313 inspection of 322 Zinc: amount required for testing 3 expansion of 662 roofing 384 white 402 tests of 402 weight of 661 A C r Q yf RETURN TO the circulation desk of any University of California Library or to the NORTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY Bldg. 40CX Richmond Field Station University of California Richmond, CA 94804-4698 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS 2-month loans may be renewed by calling (510)642-6753 1-year loans may be recharged by bringing books to NRLF Renewals and recharges may be made 4 days prior to due date. 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