COST C 2 bSD Mb6 (?Pfl!^ING IN AMERICAN TOWNS. REPORT OF AN ENQUIRY BY THE BOARD OF TRADE INTO WOEKING CLASS RENTS, HOUSING AND RETAIL PRICES, TOGETHER WITH THE HATES OF WAGES IN CERTAIN OCCUPATIONS IN THE PlillSCIPAL INDUSTRIAL TOWNS UP THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. WITH AN INTRODUCTORY MEMORANDUM AND A COMPARISON OF CONDITIONS IN THE UNITED STATES AND THE UNITED KINGDOM. ^resjtiitif* *» ^AiflxumDjxt bu (£onnitauJ» of ^is HBaitsfij. LONDON: PUBLISHED BY HIS MAJESTY'S STATIONERY OFFICE. To b« purchased, either directly or through any Bookseller, from WYMAN AND SONS, Limited, Fetter Lane, E.G., and 32, Abingdon Street, S.W.; or OLIVER & BOYD, Tweeddale Court, Edinrurgu; or E. PONSONBY, Ltd.. IIG. Grafton Street, Duulix. rRlNTKD BV DARLING AND SON, Limitj;d, Bacon Street, E. 1911. [01. o609.] Prinj :,o. hi. DOCUMENTS OF"'' K OF COST OF LIVING IN AMERICAN TOWNS. REPORT OF AN ENQUIRY BY THE r^ i.T.r.+. BOARD OF TRADE INTO WORKING CLASS EEITS, HOUSING AND RETAIL PRICES, TOGETHER WITH THE RATES OF WAGES IN CERTAIN OCCUPATIONS IN THE PRIINCIPAL INDUSTRIAL TOWNS OP THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. WITH AN INTRODUCTORY MEMORANDUM AND A COMPARISON OF > CONDITIONS IN THE UNITED STATES AND THE UNITED KINGDOM. -' f)rcscn!c& fo ij^avliamcnt 6h Cwnminnti a% !^is Majj^aiK. LONDON: PUBLISHED BY HIS MAJESTY'S STATIONEEY OFFICE. To be purchased, either directly or through any Bookseller, from WYMAN AND SONS, Limited, Fetteb Lane, E.G., and 32, Abingdon Street, S.AV.; or OLIVER & BOYD, Tweeddale Couet, Edinburgh] or E. PONSONBY, Ltd., 116, Grafton Street, Dublin. PRINTED BY DARLING AXD SON, Limited, Bacon Street, E. 1911. [Cd. 5609.] Price os. Id. '■pf ^^ To THE President op the Board of Trade. Sib, The volume which I have the honour to submit herewith is the fifth of a series containing the results of an investigation undertaken by the Board of Trade into ■certain matters affecting the condition of the working classes in industrial towns in various countries. The present Report refers to the United States of America, and is based upon the results of an enquiry which extended to twenty-eight representative towns in that country. I have, &c., H, LLEWELLYN SMITH. April, 1911. V lU PREFATORY NOTE. To THE Secretary of the Board of Trade. Sir, The present Report relates to an enquiry into questions affecting the condition of the working classes in certain industrial towns of the United States of America. The subjects of primary investigation were wages and hours of labour, rents and housing conditions, retail prices of food, and the expenditure of working-class families on food. As the investigation began in February, 1909, the whole of the statistical data were collected with reference to that date instead of October, 1905, the date to which the enquiry in the United Kingdom related, and subject to slight adjustments it does not appear that the difference in dates affects appreciably the international comparisons which the statistical data are intended to subserve. With this exception the investigation in the United States followed the general lines which were adopted in other countries and which have been fully explained in the earlier Reports of this series. The towns investigated Avere 28 in number, and of these all but two lie east of the Mississippi, while one is on the west bank and one on both banks of that river, which thus forms the western limit of the area of investigation. This limit was not fixed arbitrarily, inasmuch as the great industrial and urban developments have for the most part been concentrated in the States east of the Mississippi. The com]>ined area of the States thus situated comprises about one- third of that of the whole of continental United States exclusive of Alaska, and contained in 1910 over three-fourths of a j^opulation amounting in that year to about 92 millions. Although thus restricted, the towns investigated were scattered over an ax'ea nine times as great as that of the United Kingdom, and, save j^erhaps in a few of the oldest and most thickly populated States, illustrate a stage of urban development and urban concentration less advanced than has been reached in the United Kingdom. n In the United States as a whole, although the proportion of urban to rural population more than doubled from 1860 to 1900, that of the United Kingdom only increasing by about half during the same period, the proportion was still only about one-third in 1900 in the United States as compared with over two-thirds in the United Kingdom. The basis of comparison is not identical in the two countries, but the figures indicate the broad differences that exist in this respect and are a reminder of the fact that in spite of increasing industrialisation the United States is still primarily a great agricultural community. The percentage of the occupied population in the United States- engaged in agriculture, under a less intensive system, is nearly three times as high as in the United Kingdom and, alike on account both of its agricultural and its mineral resources, the United States is still economically one of the most self-contained countries in the world. It is in the States lying east of the Mississippi that American conditions most nearly approximate to those of the Old World, and are such, therefore, as can be most usefully compared. Even in the restricted area of investigation, however, various circumstances have made the enquiry one into conditions that are in some respects international and continental rather than national in character, especially, in regard to the great area covered, to differences in climate and physical environment which it embraced ; to the Fcdei'al constitution of the States ; to the absence of a common body of labour legislation ; and to the cosmopolitan character of the population. The very large body of immigrants that has arrived in the United States either with a view to j^ermanent settlement or — as is especially the case with much of the more recent immigration — to the accumulation or remittance of savings and to an early return to Europe, is a conspicuous feature of the situation, and this unexampled introduction of (16576—4.) Wt. 6393— 3619. 3000. 4/11. D & S. a 2 381208 IV mixed European stocks is also accompanied by the presence of a large native-boin coloured population. Thus, from various ethnological causes the present enquiry has been more or less complicated in nearly all the towns nwestigated and the task of ascei - taining what were the tacts actually representative of workmg-class conditions tecame one of especial difficulty. Excluding New York, to which for the purposes of this Report a metropolitan position is attributed, the towns visited may be assigned to five geographical groups viz., Kew England, four Other Eastern, six Central, five Middle West, and six Southern towns. The total population of the 28 towns was 15,488,140 in 1910. As before, the comparison of wages has been restricted to occupations common to all towns, viz., those in the building, engineering and printing trades. ihe rates ut wages' ascertained for these trade groups show in general no very marked d-erg^nc - and the differences are certamly not greater than those shown ^J^ff ^^^^^^f J^.^^" the towns of England and Wales. It is noteworthy, however, that in some tmMis, in the Middle Weft especially, the New York rates are exceeded ^ certam o;;«;^P^ti«ns Omitting New York the highest general wages levels occur in the M ddle A\ est towns, the lowfst in the New England group. In regard to the hours of labour the range of divergence is narrow in all the three trades compared. The predominant type of dwelling in the United States as in the United Kingdom is that accommodating the single family, though the exceptions to this rule are far more numerous in the fo?mer country, and in both countries dwellings of four and five rooms "re the predominant types. The most fundamental difference between the housing rccommodlt on of the two countries consists in the fact that frame or timber houses re The usual type in the United States, brick-built houses representing predominan ypes in but few of the towns visited. As between the towns inves igated the range o St levels varies greatly ; the predominant rents of New York taken as 100 exce d those of 19 towns by over 25 per cent., of 11 towns by over oO per cent., and of one town by 127 per cent. Nevertheless, the New York level cm the whole exceeds that o other towns to a far less extent than the London level exceeds that of English provin^^^^^ towns After New York the highest level is shown by the towns of the Middle West, the lowest level by the New England towns. In some of the towns a very considerable proportion of the^dwellings inhabited by the working classes are owned by their occupiers. The prices of the principal articles of consumption, like bread, flour, meat, potatoes and suo-ar do not vary greatly as between one town and another, and when all food prices are 'combined in ildex numbers for the various towns-each article being weighted n order to allow for its relative importance as shown by the normal working-class con umption in the United States-it is found that New York, counting as 00, stands exactly midway between the highest and lowest levels, 109 and 91 respectively. If the towns a^e5 398 309 404 APPENDICES :— Appendix I.— A. Wages Agreements, Workshop and Colliery Rules and Provisions for settling Disputes B. Apprenticeship Regulations C. Factory Benefit Funds D. Miitiial Provident Funds and Associated Charities E. Building and Lodging House Regulations F. Working Men's Building Societies G. House Agreements H. Laws and Regulations relative to the Preparation and Sale of Food K. The Crusade against-Tuberculosis in New York L. Racial Classification of Immigrants M. The Employment of Negroes in Skilled Trades N. National Negi-o Business League 425 443 447 453 456 467 468 488 492 492 495 Appendix IL— Unemployment in the United States Appendix III.— Specimen Forms used in Enquiry 497 499 Index to General Report Index to Town Reports 508 511 Ordnance Surt^, SotUh*uripit>n.,JSJO. ixr GENERAL REPORT. INTRODUCTION. The present enquiry is the fifth of a series undertaken by the Board of Ti'ade into working-class conditions of life in the more important industrial towns of various countries, and particularly into wages and hours of labour, rents and housing conditions, retail prices of food and the expenditure of working-class families on food. The following Reports have been already published, viz., for the United Kingdom (Cd. 3864) in 1908 ; for Germany (Cd. 4032) in the same year ; for France (Cd. 4512) in 1909 ; and for Belgium (Cd. 5065) in 1910. The main object of the foreign enquii-ies has been in all cases identical, namely, to obtain a collection of data comparable with those contained in the Report on the " Cost of Living of the Working Classes " in the United Kingdom. The methods adopted in the various enquiries, including the collection of the statistical data required as regards wages and hours of labour, rents, prices and family expenditure on food, have been, so far as possible, the same. Nevertheless, in one respect an important difference had to be made, namely, as to the date for which the statistical data were obtained, it being regarded as impracticable, owing to the lapse of time, to retain as the standard date for enquiries made in 1909 the one originally selected — October, 1905. In the United States enquiry, therefore, February, 1909, the month in which the actual investigation began, was adopted as the date to which all particulars as to wages and hours of labour, rents and prices should relate. Certain adjust- ments have thus been necessary in making international comparisons, and particulars concerning these adjustments will be found in later pages. Twenty-eight* towns were covered by the enquiry ; the geographical group in which each of these towns has been included for the purposes of the present report, the State in which each town is situated and the population of each town according to the Censuses of 1900 and 1910 are shown in the following Table : — Town. State. Population. 1900. 1910.t New York New England Towns : — Boston Brockton Fall River Lawrence Lowell Providence ... Other Eastern Towns : — Baltimore Newai'k Paterson Philadelphia Central Towns : — Cincinnati Cleveland Detroit Louisville Muncie Pittsburg Middle West Towns : — Chicago Duluth Milwaukee Minneapolis — St. Paul* St. Louis Southern Towns : — Atlanta , Augusta Bii-mingham Memphis New Orleans Savannah New York Massachusetts » ji j» Rhode Island Maryland New Jersey Pennsylvania Ohio )? ... Michigan Kentucky Indiana ... Pennsylvania Illinois ... Minnesota Wisconsin Minnesota Missouri... Georgia ... )> Alabama... Tennessee Louisiana Georgia ... Total 3,437,202 560,892 40,063 104,863 62,559 94,969 175,597 508,957 246,070 105,171 1,293,697 325,902 381,768 285,704 204,731 20,942 451,512{ 1,698,575 52,969 285,315 365,783 575,238 89,872 39,441 38,415 102,320 287,104 54,244 11,889,875 4,766,883 670,585 56,878 119,295 85,892 106,294 224,326 558,485 347,469 125,600 1,549,008 364,463 560,663 465,766 223,928 24,005 533,905 2,185,283 78,466 373,857 516,152 687,029 154,839 41,040 132,685 131,105 339,075 65,064 15,488,140 * For statistical purposes the " Twin Cities " of Minneapolis and St. Paul have been treated as one town. t By the courte.;, but apart from the Italian communities, the pre- dominant kind is that retailed at 2^d. per loaf. It is mainly on this loaf as being the size most generally sold that the predominant i)rice is based. The loaf appears to be very rarely weighed at the time of sale, but, though ranking in a general way as a pound loaf, it fluctuates with the price of wheat and flour, and in February, 1909, generally weighed from 14 to 15 oz. Thus, in that month the predominant price was from 10| Cincinnati 92 Birmingham 102 Muncie 98 Detroit 91 Pittsburg 102 St. Louis 97 Lowell 102 Providence 97 It will be observed that the total range shown in the Table is fi'om 91 to 109, and that within this range New York, which is taken as 100, thus occupies an exactly middle position. The New England and Southern groups have the highest index numbers, the first twelve towns in the Table with a mean of 104 being, with the exception of Newark and Pittsburg, entirely composed of towns included in one or the other of these • The formation of a Table of quantities representing the normal weekly consumption by a working-class family drawn from all the budget nationality groups is less instructive and useful, and is complicated by the necessity of " weighting " according to the proportion that each group forms of the total population of the 28 towns investigated. The last official figures for this purpose, based on the country of birth, are moreover those of 1900, and it is well-known that the immigration of the last ten years has appreciably affected the composition of the population of some towns, especially in respect of the number of Italians (included in the South European budget group) and of the Slavonic peoples. It appears, however, that more than two-thirds of the population of the 28 towns investigated are either native-born American, British or Canadian. Weighting the quantities of each of the budget groups according to the estimated population which would fall into each of such groups but excluding the Jewish and Negro budgets, the following alternative Table of quantities is obtained : — Tea i lb. Cheese Coffee 1 „ Butter Sugar 5 „ Potatoes Bacon If „ Flour, Wheaten Kggs 22 Bread, White The quantities show but slight differences from the Table printed in the text and the characteristic differences that the group budgets themselves reveal are either cancelled or concealed. The prices index numbers for the various towns worked out on the basis of the alternative Table are almost unchanged. In four cases in which the index number is altered — Newark from 106 to 107, Boston from 105 to 106, New Orleans from 100 to 101, and Cincinnati from 92 to 91— the order of the towns as regards prices levels is unaltered. Fractional differences, however, invert the order of New York and Paterson and of St. Louis and yrovitlence, though the index numbers for these towns are unchanged. ilb. Milk ... 5.V qts. 1^ „ Beef ... 6^ lb. 20 „ Mutton or Lamb ... u „ 10 „ Veal ... 1 „ 8 „ Pork ... 2\ „ RENTS AND RETAIL FOOD PRICES COMBINED IN AMERICAN TOWNS. xxxy groups. Although such a general distribution of the higher ranges is observable, with the towns of the Middle West tending to form a group at the other end of the Table, the general uniformity displayed is more striking than are the differences. Thus, nine of the towns above the 100 level do not exceed 105 ; two townsbesides New York itself are at the 100 point ; and nine towns which are under 100 do not fall below 95. Exclusive of Atlanta (which has an index number of 109), the total difference over the whole area covered by the enquiry, in so far as it is reflected in the commodities included, is one of only 15 points. In the following Table the food prices index numbers are given for the different geographical groups : — Food Prices Index Numbers for Geographical Groups. New York = 100. Number of Towns in Group. Mean Index Numbers. Geographical Group. Food, other than Meat. Meat. All Food. New York New England Towns Other Eastern Towns Central Towns Middle West Towns Southern Towns 1 6 4 6 5 6 100 102 102 99 99 106 100 104 96 92 86 96 100 103 100 97 95 103 Ajjart from the Southern group the range for food other than meat is very narrow, viz., from 99 to 102. In the Southern group itself, however, milk is the only article uniformly at a higher level than elsewhere, the usual price of 6(i. per quart found to prevail in every town of this group exceeding by \\d. the highest predominant figure for any other. The index numbers for meat and for all food in the different groups are in conformity with comments already made concerning the price levels of the constituent towns. When the towns are grouped by population, as in the following Table, no ■consistent variation thus determined is apjiarent : — Food Prices Index Numbers for Popidation Groups. New York = 100. Number Mean Index Numbers, Population Group. of Towns in Group. Food, other than Meat. Meat. All Food. New York (Population 4,706,883) Other Towns with more than .500,000 inhabitants Towns with from 250,000 to 500,000 inhabitants Towns with from 100,000 to 250,000 inhabitants Towns with under 100,000 inhabitants 1 8 5 8 6 100 101 99 103 103 100 92- 90 97 99 100 98 96 101 102 The two groups of least populous towns show the highest index numbers for food prices, the explanation being that ten out of the fourteen towns of which these two groups are formed are either in New England or the South, that is, they fall within one or other of the two geographical groups possessing the highest index numbers. Rents and Retail Food Prices Combined. In the following Table the cost of food and rent in the various towns has been expressed by means of a combined index number, New York being taken as 100. In forming this index number allowance had to be made for the relative importance of the two forms of expenditure and this was determined by the general ratio in which these stood in the American-British (Northern) budget, namely as something under three to XXXVl GENERAL REPORT. one.* In forming the combined index number the nearest integers have been taken and a weight of three for food prices and one for rents has been therefore adopted : — Combined Rents and Food Prices Index Numbers in Descending Order. New York = 100. 1 ^°^^- Nnmber. Town. Index Number. Town. Index Number, Atlanta 101 Savannah 96 Cleveland 90 Brockton 100 Lawrence 95 Fall River ... ... 90 New York . 100 New Orleans 93 Lowell 90 Pittsburg 100 Cincinnati 92 Chicago 88 Boston ... 99 Loiiisville 92 Providence 88 Memphis 99 Augusta 92 Baltimore 86 Newark 99 Philadelphia 92 Milwaukee 86 St. Louis 98 Minneapolis — St. Paul 91 Muncie 85 Birmingham . 97 Paterson 91 Detroit 83 In spite of the extra weight allowed for the prices of food, and although Atlanta heads the list both in the above Table and in that based on the relative prices index numbers given on page xxxiv, while Detroit with its] combined advantages of low rents and low prices remains at the bottom in both cases, marked differences are nevertheless apparent in the order in which the towns appear in the two Tables. Thus three of the New England towns — Fall River, Lawrence and Lowell — in which the jmce level was high fall appreciably in the above Table, owing to the lower level of their rents, and a similar shifting of position due to the same cause takes place in the case of Augusta and Muncie. Movements in the opposite direction are also noteworthy, New York changing from the 14th to the 3rd place on the list ; Pittsburg from the 9 th to the 4th ; Memphis from the 12th to the 6th ; St. Louis from the 19th to the 8th ; and Cincinnati fi'om the 27th to the 13th place, this movement being explained by the relatively high level of rents prevailing in these towns. In the following Table the index number combined as in the preceding Table is given for the geographical groups. The somewhat low ranges of food prices in the Central and Middle West towns place these two groups in a slightly more favourable position as compared with the other groups, but otherwise the Table calls for little comment : — Combined Rents and Food Prices Index Numbers for Geographical Groups. New York = 100. Number of Towns in Group. Mean Index Numbers. Geographical Group. Bents. Food Prices. Rents and Food Prices combined. New York New England Towns Other Eastern Towns Central Towns Middle "West Towns Southern Towns 1 6 4 6 5 6 100 66 68 71 79» 75 100 103 100 97 95 103 100 94 92 90 91 96 * Mean of index numbers for four towns, Duluth being excluded. - In the above Table, as in that which follows showing the combined rents and food prices index numbers for population groups. New York, owing to the relatively high rents, heads the list, although occupying a middle position in the Table on p. xxxiv, where its order is determined by price levels alone. With the excej)tion of New York the range of the index numbers-for rents and food prices combined — from 90 to 93 — shows but little variation when the towns are grouped according to population. In the construction of the combined index numbers food prices have been again given a weight of three and rents a weight of one. • The ratio is almost exactly the same whether regard is had to the budgets of New York only or to the budgets from the towns as a whole. KELATION OF WAGES TO RENTS AND RETAIL FOOD PRICES IN AMERICAN TOWNS. XXXVll Combined Rents and Food Prices Index Numbers for Population Groups. New York = 100. Xumber of Towns in Group. Mean Index Numbers. Population Group. Itents. Food Prices. Rents and Food Prices combined. New York (Population 4,766,883) Other Towns with more than 500,000 inhabitants ... Towns with from 250,000to 500,000 inhabitants ... Towns with from 100,000 to 250,000 inhabitants ... Towns with under 100,000 inhabitants 1 8 5 8 6 100 78 73 69 64» 100 98 96 101 102 100 93 90 93 93 Mean of index numbers for five towns, Duluth being excluded. Relation of Wages to Rents and Retail Food Prices. In the two following Tables the mean index numbers for the wages of skilled men in the building, engineering and printing trades, and for rents, food prices and rents and food prices combined, have, for convenience, been brought together for the various geographical divisions and population groups that have been already considered : — Number of Towns in Group. Mean Index Numbers. Wages (Skilled Men). Building. Engineering. Rents and Food Prices, Printing (Com- positors). I Rents. Food Prices. Rents and Food Prices Combined.t New York .•• New England Towns Other Eastern Towns Central Towns Middle West Towns Southern Towns Comparison by Geographical Oroxips. New York (Population 4,766,883). Other Towns with more than 500,000 inhabitants. Towns with from 250,000 to 500,000 inhabitants. Towns with from 100,000 to 250,000 inhabitants. Towns with under 100,000 inhabitants. 1 100 100 100 100 100 100 6 82 77 82 66 103 94 4 91 84 87 68 100 92 6 . 90 85 86 71 97 90 5 103 91 90 79 95 91 . 6 87 92 86 75 1 103 96 Coiinjarison hy Population Groups. 100 97 92 87 83 100 88 86 83 85 100 89 87 85 82 100 100 78 98 73 96 69 101 64 1 102 100 93 90 93 93 t In the construction of this index numbsr food prices have been given a weight of three and rents a weight of one. As shown above the figures call for no comment other than has ali'eady been made upon the various constituent parts of the Tables, but by combining the mean index numbers of the two main divisions of the Tables — industrial conditions as illustrated by selected wages groups and social conditions as illustrated by selected food prices and rents — it is possible to derive an index number that, so far as this is determined by the element of charges for rent and food, may be said roughly to indicate "real wages," i.e., the relative purchasing power of workpeople in the different areas and groups. Taking New York as 100 and working out the percentage ratios of the mean index XXXVlll GENERAL REPORT. numbers for wages to those of the mean index numbers for rents and food prices combined, the result is shown in the following Table : — New York New England Towns Other Eastern Towns Central Towns Middle West Towns Southern Towns ... New York (Population 4,766,883) Other Towns with more than 500,000 inhabitants. Towns with from 250,000 to 500,000 in- habitants. Towns with from 100,000 to 250,000 in- habitants. Towns with under 100,000 inhabitants Number of Towns in Group. Mean Index Numbers. Wages of Skilled Men in Building, Engineering and Printing Trades. Rents and Food Prices Combined. Approximate relative level of " Real Wages." Comparison by Geographical Groups. 1 6 4 6 5 6 100 80 87 87 95 100 94 92 90 91 96 100 85 95 97 104 92 Comparison by Population Gooups. 1 8 100 91 88 85 83 100 93 90 93 93 100 98 98 91 89 In the population groups the order as determined by the wages index numbers is maintained throughout in the " real wages " column, although the differences from the New York standard are always diminished, the range being from 89 to 100 instead of from 83 to 100, and for the two largest groups of towns showing, as thus measured, no appreciable difference from New York. In the geographical divisions the position as shown is somewhat different, the rather advantageous price levels of the towns of the Middle West combine 7 11 2 7 5 9 8 4i 10 9 16 5 14 9^ Average Total Income ... 1 16 2 11 Oi 3 9 10 4 8 5 5 7 3 6 8 Hi 7 8 6 10 6 10 lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. Quantity of Meat, Poultry, 109-25 145 08 160-11 165-15 173-58 176-33 195-42 211-90 and Fish purchased j^er capita per annum. s. d. s. d. 8. d. s. d. 8. d. 8. d. 8. d. s. d. Food bill* per capita per week. Percentage of Family In- 4 10| 5 m 6 9i 7 3 7 8i 7 lOi 8 4f 9 2i come spent on : — (1.) Meat (including 12-95 13-49 12-22 11-36 10-50 9-82 10-23 8-28 poultry and fish). (2.) Food of all kinds* 51-39 47-62 44-15 41-19 37-78 35-53 34-49 28-40 (excluding wine, beer and spirits). (3.) Rent 19-53 17-74 16-66 15-34 14 04 12-01 12-04 9-91 (1.) Food* and Rent 70-92 65-36 60-81 56-53 51-82 47-54 46-53 38-31 combined. Percentage balance after 29-08 34-64 39-19 43-47 48-18 52-46 53-47 61-69 paying for Food* and Rent. * Including meals away from home. It may be desirable to warn the reader that in all general Tables of food expenditure and food consumption the family, that is, all persons sharing in the family food, irrespective of the age of its members, has, as in the preceding enquiries, been taken as the unit ; that the composition of the family in every group tends to vary greatly with income ; and that in all cases, although in varying proportions, the supplementary earnings of children and occasionally the " other " sources of income assume large proportions in the higher income classes. The summary Tables, of which the foregoing is a specimen, have been especially compiled to keep these and similar points prominently in view, in order that the budgets may be interpreted always with as full an appreciation as possible of what they do not, as well as of what they do, indicate. American- British Budget {Northern Group). — The follow^ing Tables present the results of an analysis of the budgets of the 3,215 families (Group A. (1)), containing 15,824 persons, the heads of which were born either in the United States, Great Britain, Ireland or Canada. The particulars are derived from the 22 towns which for the purposes of this enquiry have been considered " Northern," and thus exclude those received from the Southern group. The group to be considered is made up of 2,278 American-born families, 436 Irish, 227 English and Welsh, 189 Canadian (mostly of French descent), and 85 Scottish. The total number of persons comprised in the group includes 9,003 children (of w^hom 4,675 are male and 4,328 female) and 466 other relatives and boarders sharing the family food. 16576 (I 3 xlvi GENERAL REPORT. The ratio of male to female children is in the case of the American-born families as 1*08 is to 1, and in the case of those born in the United Kingdom as 1-12 is to 1 ; while among the Canadians the relation is reversed, being as 0*87 is to 1. The following Table gives the average incomes and detailed expenditure upon food of the families to which the returns relate. VI. Weekly Expenditure per Family on Food — American -Britisl I {North em) G roup. Limits of Weekly Family Income. Dnder £2 and £3 and £4 and £5 and £6 and £7 and £8 and £2. under £3. under £4. under £5. under £6. under £7. under £8. over. (1.) (2.) (3.) (•I) (5.) (6.) (7.) (8.) Nrnnber of Budgets 67 532 1,036 545 437 224 131 243 £ s. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. Average Weekly Family Income 1 16 2 11 0^ 3 9 10 4 8 5 5 7 3 6 8 Hi 7 8 6 10 6 10 Average Number of Children 1-78 2-06 2-46 2-88 3-07 3-63 3-82 4-20 living at home. Average Number of Persons 3-78 4-08 4-54 5-02 5-27 5-82 6-10 6-38 per Family.* s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. Bread, Wheaten 1 H 1 H 1 ^ 1 Hi 2 0^ 2 Of 2 4 2 73 „ Rye 1^ 2 2i If 2 2i n 31 „ Other — o; Oi Oi Oi 1 Oi Flour, Wheaten 1 1 3 1 5 1 7f 1 10 2 93 o| 2 1 2 2i „ Rye — 0: Oi Oi OJ 0- Oi „ Buckwheat and other ... Oi Oi Of 1 1 1 2 Maize and Maize Meal 1 1 li li 1 1 1: If i| 2 Cakes, Crackers, Doughnuts ... 4, 7 10 6| lU 1 3i 1 43 1 7i Rolls, Buns, Biscuits 2^ 4^ 6| 8: 8 10 1 Macaroni, Noodles, Spaghetti... \-. 1| 2I 21 2i 2i 3i 3 Rice, Barley, Sago, &c. 2\ 2i 3; H 4 4i 4i 4| Oatmeal and Breakfast Cereals 2. 3i 4: 5. 5i H 53 6| Potatoes (Irish) 1 24 1 H 1 5 1 8t 1 9| 1 llj 2 5i 2 4 Sweet Potatoes, i 7i 9i 8i lOi Hi 1 li Lard, Suet, Dripping 7 7| 8| 10 m 1 Oi 1 Oi 1 li Butter 1 H 1 8i 2 3 2 9| 3 li 3 6 4 4 23 Oleomargarine , Oi 1 0\ 03 1 1 li Oi Olive Oil — 0^ Oi OJ 1 1 li If Cheese 2J- 2J 4i 5i 5f 63 7 8 Milk (fresh) 1 Oi 1 4i 1 9 1 Hi 2 2| 2 51 2 6i 2 Hi Milk (condensed) 3 4 4J 4 4 4 5 .3i Fggs 11 1 4^ 1 lOf 2 3. 2 5i 2 10 3 1 3 4 Tea 4i 6 7 9 n Hi 1 Oi 1 Oi Coffee H 8:. 11 Hi 1 1 1 li 1 13 1 4i Cocoa and Chocolate Oi 0: li IJ 2 2i 3i 33 Sugar lOi 10; 1 0; 1 4 1 4i 1 7i 1 9 1 8i Molasses and Syrup 1 1, 1; 2i 2 2| 23 23 Vinegar, Pickles, Condiments 1 H 2 3 3i 4i 4i 5i Fruits and Jams 5i 9i 1 1 1 6i 1 7; 1 111 2 1 2 3 Other Items 1 li 1 li 2 2 3 2i Meals away from home o\ 3^ 8: Hi 1 7| 1 11 2 2 4 113 Total 18 C. 24 3| 30 10 36 5 40 6i 45 9| 51 ^ 58 9 • Thi« fig'ure includes boarders and relatives sharing the family food. The total number of these was 4fi6, of whom about one third were sons or daughters of the family. Children whose weekly payments for board and lodginir — and not their weekly wages — were furnished, were counted as boarders. AMERICAN BUDGETS. xlvii 111 an even more striking degree than in the case of the European enquiries, although mainly because of the actual amounts of the supplementary earnings and not because of the different proportions in which these stand to the total family income, the higher incomes are due, not so much to increased earnings of the husband as to the contributions of children of wage-eaniing age. This is made evident from the following figures : — VII. Coinpositidn of Family Incomes in American- British {Northern) Group. * Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under £2.i £2 and 1 under £3. (1.) i (2.) 1 £3 and ' £4 and £5 and £6 and under £4. under £5. under £6. under £7. (S.) i (4.) 1 (5.) 1 (6.-) £7 and under £8. (7.) £8 and over. (8.) Average Earnings of Husband ... „ Earnings of Wife ., Earnings of Children — Under 16 16 and under 21 21 and over „ Other Income £ s. d. 1 13 6i 1 1 3i 6 7 £ «. d. 2 7 4i 1 OJ oi Hi 3i 11 £ s. d. 3 2 3i 1 2i 10 2 OJ lOi 2 7 £ s. d. 3 10 5J 1 li 1 4i 6 8i OHO 5 9 £ n. d. 3 18 6i 2 3 1 2 12 1 4 10 8 4i £ K. d. 3 18 8 1 3 1 lOJ 1 oi 15 Hi 10 9 £ g. d. 4 2 li 1 9i 2 6i 1 6 lOi 18 9 16 5 £ «. d. 4 11 9i 1 6 1 7i 2 1 2 17 Oi 14 9i Total 1 16 2 11 Oi 3 9 10 4 8 5 5 7 3 6 8 Hi 7 8 10 6 10 The average number of children living at home for all income classes shown in the above Table is 2*80. The difference between the weekly earnings of the husband in the highest and lowest income classes shown in the Table is £2 \Ss. 3c?., whereas the difference between the two extremes of the total family income is £8 10s. lOJ., the total earnings of the children in the highest income group exceeding those of the father by 6s. W^d. Even so, the scales of the father's earnings are relatively much higher than those shown in any of the preceding enquiries of this series undertaken by the Board of Trade, and it may be convenient, therefore, at this stage to express those given in the Table in the terms of some familiar type of wage-earner. Thus, as compared with New York, and making no allowance for periods of unemployment, the average earnings of the husband as given in column 1 (33s. 6i(Z.) are almost equivalent to the wages of the lower rated labourers in machine shops ; those in column 2 (47s. 4jrf.) to those of porters employed on the electric railway ; in column 3 (62s. ?>hd.) to those of stablemen employed in breweries or of lower rated cabinetmakers ; those in column 4 (70s. 5ic?.) slightly exceed the rate for hod- carriers ; those in columns 5 and 6 (78s. Q^d. and 78s. 8^.) are slightly below the usual rate for painters ; the average in column 7 (82s. 1 JoJ.) is slightly in excess of the usual rate for ironmoulders ; and the figure in column 8 (91s. ^\d,) corresponds with the lo^ver general ranges for stonemasons and stonecutters. The proportion of the weekly income of the family supplied by the children begins- to be im2>ortant in the incomes between £4 and £5, when it reaches 12'5 per cent, of the total, rising in the next class to nearly 17 per cent., and passing from 30 to 33 per cent.,, until in the highest class it accounts for 47*7 per cent, of the total family income. It is- noticeable that the average earnings of the wife are never very large, and vary but little. In the income classes £p and under £6 and £6 and under £7 (Nos. 5-6) the earnings of the husband are practically the same and, since there is a falling off in the relatively unimportant earnings of the wife, while " other income " shows an increase of only 2s. 4J(^., the position of the families with incomes of between £6 and £7 weekly is seen to be almost entirely due to greatly increased earnings of the children. The average number of children per family in each of the components of the American-British (Northern) group is as follows : — British-born, 3"17 ; Canadian, 3"04 ; American, 2"66. The number of children earning and their average earnings show great variations — in the British-born group 28*4 per cent, are earning and the average weekly earnings per male child, both earning and not earning, amount to £l Os. Id. and per female child to 9s. Q\d. ; for Canadian families 18"4 per cent, are earning and the averages are lOs. llj^/. and Q>s. id. ; and for American, 17'8 per cent, are earning and the averages are 95. lie?, and 4s. 2>d. respectively, or, put in another way, the children of parents born in the United Kingdom earn 29'6 ^qv cent., in Canada 19*5 per cent., and in the United States lo"8 per cent, of the total family incomes as shown by the budgets. In the British-born families the average earnings of the husbands in the class of incomes between £6 and £7 are lis. below the previous class, the male children con- tributing on an average £l 12s. Id. and the female £l 3s. 6rf. each, or a total of £2 16s. Id. as against £3 Is. 2d. earned by the husband. This is less than the husband's average earnings in the class of incomes between £4 and £5, and in the income class £7 to £8 ' 16576 di xlviu GENERAL REPORT. the husband onljf averages 2^d. more than in the class between £5 and £6. Among the Canadian families the two highest income classes are made up in much the same way. In the American families the husband's earnings do not in any case fall below or even decline to those of a lower income class, but in the class between £Q and £7 the average earnings of husbands are only 2s. lO^d. higher than in the previous one, and those of the children considerably more than double. Among both Americans and British, however, the importance of the children as supplementary wage-earners in the higher ranges of family income is abundantly manifested. The percentage of families owning the houses in which they live rises rapidly when the total income reaches £4 weekly, exceeding 35 per cent, in the highest income group but one, and falling somewhat in the highest group, while the average for all the budgets is a fraction below 15 J per cent. The following Table sets out the results obtained in this group with reference to the question of ownership* : — VIII. Percentage of Families owning the Rouses they occupy — American-British (Northern) Group. Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under £2. 1-49 £2 and under £3. 2-82 £3 and under £4. 6-85 £4 and under £5. £5 and under £6. 20-36 24-03 £6 and under £7. 30-36 £7 and under £8. 35-11 £8 and over. All Incomes. 32-92 15-46 In all cases of ownership the stated rental of a similar house has been credited to the weekly income and debited again as rent paid, this sum to a large extent accounting for the " other income " which, it will be noticed, fluctuates with the percentage of houses owned. The chief other items are payments' made either by boarders who shared the family food, or lodgers. The practice of taking boax'ders is so frequent that the rejection of all budgets including them would have involved the sacrifice of a large amount of otherwise valuable material. The " other persons," most of whom are boarders, are equivalent to 0'15 persons per family, or about 3 per cent, oi the whole. About one-third of those thus reckoned were in fact older children, as to whose earnings particulars were not furnished, but instead the amount paid into the family purse as boarders. The purchase of the house by the tenant, especially in certain towns, and the charges on incomings thus incurred, explain the presence of boarders in many cases, whilst in others boarders perhaps merely supply the means of occupying larger and more comfortable premises — a practice not unknown in London and elsewhere. It will be observed that in columns 1-5 (Table VII.), comprising 81 per cent, of all the budgets, the " other income " ranges from 7d. to 8s. A^d. per week. The highest amount under this heading is shown in column 7, where it is 16s. 52d. 2-52 lb. 4-81d. 0-91 lb. 3-99d 1-77 lb. 4-91cZ. 2-28 lb. 4-34c?. 1-04 lb. 4-38rf. 2-04 lb. h-tSld. 2-32 lb. 4-47d. 1-20 lb. 4-93rf. Rolls, Cakes, Biscuits and other forms of fancy bread form a constant and important item in the cereal food consumption of American households, amounting to 0-9 lb. per capita weekly in this group. The particulars furnished for British-born families show rather more than the average, and those for Canadian little more than half the amount, or O'S lb. per capita weekly. Macaroni, Noodles, Spaghetti. — The consumption of these articles per family rises slowly with the income, but the average per capita is almost constant throughout, some- thing less than jV ^b. weekly. The differences shown by the components of the group are insignificant. 1^ GENERAL REPORT. Rice, Barley, Sago, ^c. — There is a small rise in the per capita consumption of these articles with the income. The average per capitals 0'18 lb. weekly, and again no material departure from the general average is shown by the components of the group. Oatmeal and Breakfast Cereals. — The average weekly consumption of these articles is almost exactly ^ lb. per capita for the whole group, but it is somewhat higher in the middle income class than at either end of the series. Potatoes are an important constituent of the dietary, showing an average of 21 lb. per family weekly for all budgets together, or 4"3 lb. per capita. There is no material diflference between the components of the group in their per capita consumption. Dried Peas and Beans (chiefly the small haricot, sometimes known in the United States as " Navy beans") are used in considerable quantity. The American and British- born families use about a quarter of a pound per capita weekly, the Canadian 0"4 lb. Vegetables. — It is not possible even to estimate the quantities consumed, but the expenditure on green vegetables rises steadily with the income from ^d. per family in the lowest income class, to 2s. Id. in the highest, so that, allowing for different size of family, the expenditure per capita is just doubled in the latter class. The expenditure on Sweet Corn and Stoeet Potatoes is somewhat irregular, but tends to rise with the income. The former is sold very largely in the " cob " and the price of both is dependent upon season and locality. The Canned Vegetables are chiefly tomatoes, for which 5d. per can, weighing about 2^ lb. gross, or three cans for Is. O^d., are very general prices. " String beans," that is French beans canned, are also largely used but cost about double. The American families consume much more sweet potatoes, an acquired tasle and a Southern rather than a Northern food, than either the British-bom or Canadians. The expenditure per capita on sweet corn and fresh and canned vegetables is highest in the American returns and lowest in the Canadian. The average consumption of Fresh Milk is a little over one quart per capita weekly,, being 56 qts. per annum for the whole group. Of the components the American returns show an average of 54 qts., the British one of 61 qts., and the Canadian one of 66 qts. The average consumption of Condensed Milk is for the whole group O'lo lb, per capita per week. For the components the figures show but little difference, although the range within the group is very great. In 14 out of the 37 sub-groups of not less than 25 families each into which, on the basis of nationality and town, the budgets fall, the quantity is 0*10 lb. per capita or less ; 16 sub-groups use 0*10 lb. and less than 0*20 lb., and in the remaining 7 the consumption ranges from 0'20 lb. to 0*40 lb. per capita per week. The average consumption of Butter per capita per week is for the whole group 0*42 lb. The differences between the components are insignificant, the Canadian returns showing a slightly higher consumption than the others. Within the group the range i» considerable, from 0*64 lb. as shown by the American returns from Duluth to 0'27 lb. by those of Americans in St. Louis. Out of the 37 sub-groups of more than 25 budgets each, 16 have a consumption of 0'40 lb. and less than 0*50 lb. per capita per week. Lard, Suet and Dripping. — The consumption of these fats averages for the whole group 0*29 lb. per capita per week. Of the components the British-born average 0"20 lb. ; the Canadians 0*30 and the Americans 0'33. Cheese. — The average consumption of cheese of all kinds is, for the group, 0*11 lb, per capita per week, the Americans and the British-born each showing an average almost equal to that of the group, and the Canadians an average of 0'09 lb. Eggs. — The consumption of eggs is for the whole group 4*6 per capita weekly (237 per annum). Of the components the returns from the British-born show an average of 5'1, from the Americans one of 4-4 and from the Canadians one of 4*3 per capita weekly; equivalent to 265, 229 and 224 per annum respectively. The 37 sub-groups show a very wide range of consumption from 8 eggs per capita weekly to 2. In four sub-groups the average is above 7 eggs per capita weekly ; in two it is practically 7 ; in ten it is above 5 but less than 6 ; in ten more it is above 4 and less than 5 ; in nine it is above 3 but less than 4, and in two only is the average less than 3. The gross annual consumption of eggs in the United States is very large, and that by the 3,215 families now imder consideration, estimated on the basis of the budgets, would itself amount to 312,500 dozens. The total number of eggs produced in the whole of the United States during 1909 is estimated at about 1,400,000,000 dozens. AMERICAN BUDGETS. liii Coffee, Tea, Cocoa, Sfc. — CofFee, as contrasted with tea, may be regarded as the national domestic beverage. The average consumption of coffee jyer capita per week is 0*20 lb. for the whole group. Of the components the American i-etums show a weekly consumption of 0-23 lb. per capita, the British 0-12 -lb. and the Canadian 0-09 lb. The American budgets obtained in Pittsburg, with O'Sl lb. per capita per week, show the largest consumption, followed by six sub-groups of Americans with an average weekly consumption per capita of over 0'25 lb. The smallest consumption is shown by British returns from Lowell, viz., 0-03 lb. There are nine sub-groups at the lower^ end of the scale using less than 0*10 lb. of coffee weekly, and of these only one is American. The 106 American families in Muncie, which often provided the minima in foodstuffs, are 11th on the list in coffee consumption, using 0'23 lb. per capita per week, or 0'03 lb. above the average of the whole group, and but little short of the general American average as shown by the budgets. The average consumption of tea per capita per week is, for the whole group, 0'07 lb. Of the components the returns from British-born families show an average of 0*10 lb., ' from Canadians one of 0-09 lb. and from Americans one of 0-06 lb. The consumption of cocoa and chocolate relatively to both coffee and tea is very small, about 1 lb. per capita per annum for the whole group. The average weekly consumption of sugar per capita is, for the whole group, 1'06 lb. Of the components the American and Canadian returns show an average of 1*03 lb. and those of the British-born 1*13 lb. The range within the group is, as usual, very considerable, viz., from 1-44 to 0*78 per capita. Out of the 37 sub-groups of 25 budgets or more, 22 show a consumption of at least 1 lb. per capita weekly, and the mean for the remaining 15 sub-groups is 14 oz. per capita weekly, or 45*5 lb. per annum. The average consumption of molasses and syrup per capita per week for the whole group is 0*09 pints. Meat. — The average consumption of all meat, including poultry and sausage, shown by the budgets, is 14-4 lb. per family weekly, or at the rate of 152 lb. per capita per annum ; if fish be included the amount is increased to 168 lb. The range of consumption is very great, from 100 lb. in the lowest income class to 192 lb. in the highest. If fish be included these figures become 109 lb. and 212 lb. respectively. Of the components of the group the Canadian returns show the lowest meat consumption, with 138"75 Vo. per capita per annum (excluding fish), as against 155*5 lb., and 152 lb. as shown by those of the British-born and of Americans, respectively. Transport and the refrigerating car tend to weaken the significance of the aggregate consumption figures yielded by the budgets for different areas. For the various geographical groups of towns,* however, the following are the figures of annual consumption per capita : — New England Towns ... ... ... ... 146*6 lb. Other Eastern Towns (including New York) ... 156*0 „ Central Towns ... ... ... ... ... 146*6 „ Middle West Towns ... ... ... ... ... 160*2 „ When these aggregate figures are analysed, the most important local differences shown are in the consumption of mutton and lamb, pork, and bacon, ham, &c. Thus, while the consumption of beef is at its lowest in the Central and Middle West groups of towns with percentages to the total meat consumption of 45*0 and 45*1 respectively, and reaches its maximum proportion in the New England towns with 50*7 per cent., the minimum and maximum percentage of mutton and lamb differ much more considerably between the various groups of towns, the respective figures being 4*9 per cent, in the Middle West group and 1.3*1 in that of New England. Pork, on the other hand, is at its maximum in the Middle West towns with 19*2 per cent, of total meat consumption and at its lowest in the Other Eastern towns (including New York) at 10*7 per cent. The consumption of bacon, ham, &c., is also at its maximum in the Middle West group of towns, where it accounts for 13*6 per cent, of the total meat consumption shown by the budgets, but was at its minimum in the New England towns with 9*9 per cent. Local variations are also great in the cases of veal, sausage and poultry, but these forms of meat enter less into the family dietaries. • For purposes of comparison the following figures relating to American-British budgets in the Southern towns are appended : — Beef. Mutton and Lamb. Pork. Bacon, Ham, &c. Veal. Sausage. Poultry. Total. Annual Consumption per capita lb. Percentage Consumption of each kind of Meat. 62-4 42-3 3-1 2-1 30-2 20-4 31-2 21'1 3-1 2-1 9-9 6-7 7-8 5-3 147-7 100-0 liv GENERAL REPORT. The following Table sets out the quautities and percentages of the different kinds of meat as shown by the budgets derived from the various geographical groups of towns : — XII. — Consumption of different Kinds of Meat. — By Geographical Groups of Towns. New England Towns. Other Eastern Towns (including New Tork). Central Towns. Middle West Towns. Annual Consumption per capita. Beef Mutton and Lamb Pork Bacon, Ham, &c. Veal Sausage ... Poultrv Beef Mutton and Lamb Pork Bacon, Ham, &c. Veal Sausage ... Poultry lb. 74-4 19-2 23-4 14-6 3-6 5-2 6-2 Percentage Consumption of each kind of Meat. The average consumption of beef per capita per annum is, for the whole group, 71 "7 lb., and the component nationalities show no important deviation from this figure ; the returns from the British-born showing an average of 75*9 lb., from the Americans one of 70*3 lb. and the Canadians one of 69"8 lb. The average consumption of pork, fresh and salt in the whole group is 24"1 lb. per capita per annum ; of the components the British returns show an average of 19 lb., the American one of 25 lb. and the Canadian one of 34 lb. The average consumption of bacon per capita per annum is, for the whole group, 18'5 lb. ; for the components : British-born 19*7 lb., American 18*9 lb,, and Canadian 9"4 lb. Combining the figures for pork and bacon, the British returns show a consumption of 38*8 lb. per capita per annum., the Canadian 43"1 lb. and the American 43*9 lb., and when thus combined there is but little difference in the consumption shown. The average consumption of mutton and lamb is only 13*3 lb. per capita per annum for the whole group. Of the components, the British-born show an average of 18" 9 lb.,, the American one of 11*6 lb. and the Canadian of 9'4 lb. The range of consumption is very great. The average consumption of veal for the whole group is 9 lb. per capita per annum. For sausage the average per capita per annum is 7 '75 lb. The American average is 8*5 lb., showing a slightly larger consumption than the Canadian (7*75 lb.), while that of. the British-born falls tt) o*8 lb. There are only three town groups of 25 or more budgets in which the consumption of sausage exceeds 15 lb. per capita per annum and in 19 such town groups the consumption is 6 lb. or less ; in six of these it is below 3 lb. The relative proportion of each kind of meat to all meat in the whole group is set out below : — XIII. — Percentage Consumption of each Kind of Meat.- (Northern) Group. -American- British Beef, fresh and corned. Mutton and Lamb. Pork, fresh and salt. Bacon, Ham, | „ , &o. Sausage. Poultry. Total. 47-1 8-8 15-8 12-2 6-0 5-1 5-0 100 Among the component nationalities the Canadians, according to the budgets, use the largest proportion of beef, viz., 50'4 per cent., whilst the British-born show a consump- tion of mutton and lamb much greater than that used by either of the others, viz., 12*2 per cent., as against 7"() per cent, in the American I'eturns and 6'8 per cent, in the Canadian. There are also great differences in the consumption of pork, which forms 24 per cent. of the whole in the case of the Canadians, 16 per cent, of the Americans and 12 j)er cent> of the British-born as set out in the budgets. COMPARISON WITH BRITISH TOWNS. Iv Fish is of considerable importance in these dietaries, the returns from the BrLtish-born showing a consumption of 0*42 lb. per capita per week, the Canadian one of 0"33 lb. and the American one of 0'27 lb. If fish be included with meat the average annual con- sumption of all meat per capita for the whole group is, as already stated, raised to 168 lb. The local figures of quantity of fish consumed reflect mainly differences in the degree of facility with which fish can be obtained, all the towns showing the highest consump- tion being within easy reach of the Atlantic sea-board. The actual consumption per capita per annum as shown by the budgets of the various geogi-aphical groups of towns is as follows : — New England Towns ... ... ... ... 23'9 lb. Other Eastern Towns (including New York) ... 22-9 „ Central Towns ... ... ... ... ... 9"4 „ Middle West Towns ... ... ... ... ... 12'0 „ The annual per capita consumption of and expenditure on all meat and fish and the percentage of income spent on such food is as under in each of the income classes : — XIV. — Consumption of and Expenditure on Meat and Fish. — American- British {Northern) Group. Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under £2. £3 and nnder £3. £3 and ' £4 and £5 and £6 and under £4. ' under £5.! under £6. under £7. £7 and under £8. £8 and Annual Consumption per capita. Weekly Expenditure 2ier capita. Percentage of income 109 lb. Is. 2|d 12-95 145 lb. Is. %\d. 13-49 160 lb. Is. \0\d. 12-22 165 lb. ! 174 lb. ! 2s. Od. 2s. lid. 11-36 10-50 176 lb. 2s. 2d. 9-82 195 lb. 2s. Gd. 10-23 212 lb. 2s. S{d. 8-28 The predominant range of consumption of all meat, poultry and fish per capita per annum is from 140 lb. to 190 lb., 23 local nationality sub-groups of at least 25 budgets each, comprising 2,201 fiimiHes, falling within this range. The corresponding predominant range excluding fish and poultry may be taken as from 120 lb. to 160 lb. jyer capita per annum. The consumption of meat of all kinds as shown by the budgets is in general high and much above European standards. As a rule nationality and occupation greatly influence the figures, and locality has been seen to be not without its effects, but when it is considered that in the lowest income class of the group of budgets under consideration the purchase of all meat and fish is 109 lb. per capita per annum (notwithstanding the fact that out of 119 children only two are earning and the remainder are of low average age), while it approaches double this figure in the highest income class, it is obvious that meat is regarded as a very important feature of the family dietary. A general tendency for food consumption per capita to rise with income is shown in the budgets, but in this there is no regularity. On the whole it is more marked as regards the first three income classes, that is, for those earning up to and under £4 per week, but even in these classes in some commodities as, for instance, pork, bacon and ham, sugar, lard, suet and dripping and coffee, it is hardly apparent in the budgets. As regards the total meat consumption itself it is only in the classes with family earnings averaging less than £4 per week that the consumption tends to move consistently with income. In addition to the large meat consumption, one of the most striking features of the American-British budgets is the great variety of food consumed and the relatively small proportion which the family food bill bears to total income. PART IL— COMPARISON OF WAGES, HOURS OF LABOUR, RENTS AND RETAIL FOOD PRICES IN THE UNITED STATES WITH THOSE IN ENGLAND AND WALES AND OF BUDGETS IN THE UNITED STATES WITH THOSE IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. An attempt must now be made to compare the statistical data collected in the United States with regard to wages and hours of labour, rents, retail prices and household expenditure, with similar data relating to this country. The method of index numbers furnishes the most suitable device by which these summary comparisons can be made and it will be again used. Attention must, however,' again be drawn to the imperfections of a method which, because necessarily limited to the Ivi GENERAL REPORT. preseiltatit)!! of purely statistical data, is unable to reflect those elements of the problem concerning which a corresponding body of data may not be available or which cannot be statistically measured or described. The following illustrations may be mentioned of factors relevant to such a comparison in regard to which a merely numerical statement of international conditions is apt to fall short of completeness : (a) as regards wages and hours, possible differences in the continuity of employment and the strenuousness of the service demanded ; (b) as regards rents, the relative standard of dwelling accommodation provided ; (c) as regards prices, the qualities of goods which a given expenditure secures ; and (d) as regards family food expenditure, differences in national habit and taste and in the conditions of supply. To some extent such shortcomings will be indicated in the following pages. Although the limitations of the real significance of statistical comparisons and the fact that they can rarely, save when dealing with the simplest and most concrete phenomena, convey more than approximate truths, must, therefore, be always borne in mind, such com})arisons are nevertheless of great and jiroved value. Wages. Just as for the purposes of internal comparisons of wages and hours of labour it was necessary to choose occupations that were followed most universally, so is it in respect to international comparisons, and, as in the preceding foreign enquiries, the building, engineering and printing trades have been chosen for this purpose. Roughly speaking, these three trades represent in both countries those which rank among the more highly organised and the more highly skilled, and, although the position of the wage-earner in the first mentioned is probably relatively somewhat stronger in the United States than in England and Wales, owing to the more rapid expansion that is taking place in the former country, the three trades do not appear to occupy a substantially higher relative position in the economy of that country than they do in this ;■ nor does it appear that the selection of their predominant rates for purposes of international comparison is less suitable than in the other foreign enquiries undertaken by the Board of Trade. The predominant weekly wages in the United States in the three trade-groups above mentioned, as represented by the towns selected for investigation, have been given for February, 1909, on page xvi, and the corresponding particulars for England and Wales for October, 1905, will be found on page xxxiii. of the Report on " Cost of Living of the Working Classes " in the United Kingdom. Bringing together the data for the two countries we have the following comparisons : — Predominant Weekly V/ages of Adult Males in certain Occupations in England and Wales and in the United States. Ratio of Mean Pre- Predominant Range of Weekly Wages. domiuant Wage in the United States (Feb- ruary, 1909) to Mean Predominant Wage Occupation. England and Wales United States in England and Wales (October, 1905). (February, 1909). (October, 1905) taken as 100. Building Trades'* : — Bricklayers 37s. 6d. to 40s. 6d. llO.s. to i25s. i?J)..r, - Stonemasons 37s. 2d. „ 39s. 4d. 96s. 3d. „ 110s. Carpenters Joiners j 36s. 2d. „ 39s. id. 68s. 9^ „ 90s. 1 210 210 Plasterers 36s. 6d. „ 41s. 8^7. 100s. „ 119s. 2rf. 280 Plumbers 35s. id. „ 39s. 9f/. 87s. 6f/. „ lUs.Qd. 266 Painters 31s. 6d. „ 37s. 6a!. 1 65s. „ 85s. 217 Hod Carriers and Bricklayers' 24s. id. „ 27s. 50s. „ 68s. 9rf. 231 Labourers. Engineering Trades : — Fitters Turners 32s. to 36s. .32s. „ 36s. I 63s. id. to 74s. 6r/. { 203 203 Smiths 32s. „ 36s. 67s. Sd. „ 85s. id. 225 Patternmakers 34s. „ 38s. 74s. 6d. „ 91s. 8d. 231 Labourers 18s. „ 22s. 37s. 6d. „ 43s. 9d. 203 Printing Trades : — Hand Compositors (Job Work)... 28s. to 33s. 688. 9c?. to 81s. 3d. 246 ( The Building Trades 243 Arithmetic Meanst ... The Engineering Trades 213 All above Occupations 232 * The wages stated for the building trades are for a full week in summer in botli countries. t In arriving at the trade and general index numbers, bricklayers and stonemasons have been regarded as one occupa- tion and carpenters and joiners and fitters and turners as two respectively, as in the earlier foreign enquiries. COMPARISON WITH BRITISH TOWNS. Ivii The level of wages in the building trades was the same in England and Wales in 11)09 as in 1905, but the rates in. the engineering trades had been raised by about IJ per cent, between October, 1905 and February, 1909, and those of compositors by about 2J per cent. The effect of these changes would be to lower the mean ratio for the trades represented in the above Table from 232 : 100 to 230 : 100. In the building trades the rates for the United States are based upon actual returns from employers, but many of these returns embody the locally accepted standard rates in this relatively highly organised group. In so far as this is the case the standard would generally represent the maximum of a group of trades that is one of the most highly paid in the United States, and departures from it would be to a point below rather than one above the rates quoted. Various circumstances are tending, however, to maintain the strong position of wage-earners in these trades, especially the rapid increase of population and the accompanying expansion of towns, resulting from a great volume of immigration that is composed in general of a class of labour that does not enter the skilled branches of the building trades to any considerable extent. The exceptionally high rates for bricklayers deserve notice, and it may be observed that the relative importance of this class of artisan is somewhat over-weighted in the index number for the building trade group, even though combined with that for stonemasons. In England the bricklayer is numerically more important in the building trades than in the United States, partly because of the greater extent to which timber and, in the case of large structures, iron and steel are used in the latter country. Although it might thus seem that influences are at work tending to weaken the economic position of the bricklayer in the United States, these influences are more or less counteracted by the fact that the bricklayer is almost entirely a town product, since the recruiting ground provided by the rural districts' and by the small centres of population in England is relatively unimportant in the United States, owing to the great predominance there of frame buildings. While the position of the bricklayer is thus different in the United States and although as a class he is relatively far less important numerically than the much lower paid carj)enter, it will be observed that the building trade group as a whole commands a high range of wages, the arithmetic mean of the index numbers for the group being 243 as compared with 213 in the engineering trades. In the case of the enfjineering' trades the Eno-lish waores are the standard time rates recognised by the unions concerned, the American ranges, on the other hand, being based, in the absence of standard rates, on returns obtained from employers of actual earnings in an ordinary week, and consequently the two sets of figures are not strictly comparable. It has been already pointed out that in this group of trades the lines of demarcation between the skilled fitters and turners classed as machinists in the United States and the less skilled or semi-skilled machinists engaged on minutely sub-divided tasks are often loosely drawn. The labour employed in the latter case is frequently composed of the newer immigrant classes and the rates paid to men who may still be roughly classed as machinists are not infrequently lower than those quoted in the Table, which are for the skilled mechanic only. In the printing trades the rates for hand compositors engaged on job printing are given. The American figures represent predominant time rates ascertained to be paid in practice, while those for England and Wales are, as in the case of the engineering trades, the standard time rates recognised by the trade unions. In no case in the Table are the comparative ranges seriously complicated by the distinction as between time and piece rates, and in the case of the building trades and of the printing trades not at all. Neither are the comparisons invalidated by differences in the character of the work done by those who fall into similar classes in the two countries. It will be seen that in the building trades the mean of the predominant range in the United States is in no case less than double that of the corresponding English grade of wage-earner. For the whole group the ratio is 243 : 100. In the engineering trades the index numbers are in no case less than double the English figure, and the combined ratio is 213 : 100. For the compositors the ratio is 24(5 : 100, as compared with 232 : iOO for all the occupations included in the Table. It will be remembered that each of these ratios is subject to slight modification in view of the different dates to which the returns relate, the extent of such modification being indicated in the paragraph immediately following the Table above. The question arises as to whether any such ratio as that given above fairly represents the level of wages for adult males in the towns investigated in the United States as compared with that of the towns covered by the corresponding enquiry in England and Wales : or whether a ratio based upon the same occupations as have been used in the 16576 e Iviii GENERAL REPORT. preceding international annparisons is one that may either exaggei-ate or minimise the existing differences. While the combined ratio yielded. by the figures in the above Table appears to give an approximately correct general indication of the relative rates of remuneration for town occupations as between the two countries, so far as they can be determined within the limits of the present enquiry, the comparative figures appear to be somewhat weighted in favour of the United States and should not be pressed to an undue extent. It must be remembered that for the reasons stated above the ptisition tif the building trades in the United States involves the selection of a group of occupations for comparative purposes that is probably slightly favoui'able to the United States, and the whole basis of comparison is not a very Avide one. The proportion of unskilled or of semi-skilled labour employed in industry in the United States is greater than in this country and it may be noted that this fact would affect the comparison of trades as a whole, while it is clear that, in order to ascertain the comparative level of wages in the two countries — taking into account the proportions employed at high and low rates in both cases — a general census of wages woulil be required. Although the proportion of those who may be roughly classed as the unskilled or semi-skilled in comparison with the skilled workers is gi-eater in the United States than in England and Wales, it should be observed that the evidence of the town reports indicates that the proportion o£ men in the community who in an industrial classification would fall below any of these three classes as representing a class of relatively unemployable labour, be it through jiremature deterioration or through old age, is smaller than in this country. The comparatively I'ecent character of American urban development and a rapid growth of population, largely due to the influx of those in the prime of life or who, having passed the more uncertain years of childhood, have not yet reached their prime, are the main general considerations that ilnderlie the above conclusion. HouKS oi' Labouk. The usual hours of labour in February, 1901), in the various branches of the selected trades — building, engineering and printing — in the towns investigated in the United States, have been set out in the first part of the General Report on page xix. The following Table summarises the averages of the predominant hours of labour in England and AVales and in the United States for the different trades compared : — Weekh/ Hours of Labour of Adult Males in certain Occupations in Em/land and Wales and in the United States. Average Hours of Labour per week Ratio of Average (excluding intervals). Hours of Labour in Occupation. the United States (February, 1909) to those in England and Entrland and Wales United States Wales (October, 190.5) (October, 1905). (February, 19011). taken as 100. Building Trades* : — Bricklayers 53 46 80 } ^^ Stonemasons 52 46^ Carpenters Joiners ) .3 47| { 90 90 Plasterers 53 46i 87 Plumbers 53JI m 89 Painters 53l 47; 89 Hod Carriers and Bricklajers' 52j 48| 93 Labourers. Kni/ineering Trmles : — Fitters 53 } •'itJi { 106 Turners 53 106 Smiths 53 56 106 Patternmakers 53 56i 56j 106 Labourers 53 106 Printing 2'rcules : — Hand Coinpositoi-s (Job Work) ... 52i 49 93 f The Building Trades I The Engineering Trade 89 Arithmetic Means .. 3 106 j All above Occupations 96 The hoars of labour stated for the building trades are for a full week in summer in both countries. COMPARISON WITH BRITISH TOWNS. lix In the United States the length of the working week in the buikling trades does not, as a rule, vary between .summer and winter, and when there is any seasonal curtail- ment it is nearly always during the height of the summer when leisure is most welcome and not in the winter because the hours of light are too few for a full day's work. Thus it is occasionally found that the working weeks in the hottest summer months are slightly shorter than during the rest of the year. No adjustment of the figures shown in the above Table is requii'ed to allow for the difference of date to which they refer, since changes in the hours of labour in the building and engineering trades and for compositors in England and Wales between the dates of the two enquiries amounted in each case to less than ^ per cent. The index numbers arrived at in respect of ttie trades enumerated may, therefore, be accepted without modification. It will be seen that the average hours of labour per week range in the different occupations in the building trades from 52 to 53.^ in England and Wales, and from 46 to 48f in the United States. The weekly working time in England and Wales averages about 6 hours longer than in the United States in the case of skilled men, but only 3| hours longer in the case of hod carriers and bricklayers' labourers. The arithmetic mean of the index numbers in the whole group of building trades is 89, showing a working week in summer about 1 1 per cent, shorter than in England and Wales. As regards the engineering trades, the hours are distinctly longer in the United States than in the building trades in that country, ranging from a minimum of o4 hours to a maximum of 60, the average being about nine hours per week longer than the average in the building trades. As compared with England and Wales the average houi's in the engineering trades are also somewhat longer — by 3 or 3j hours per week — the English average being 53, and the ratio of average hours in these trades in the United States to that in England and Wales 106 : 100. Among compositors the American working -week is on an average about 3J hours shorter than in England and Wales, the average hours being 49 as compared with 52J, and the corresponding ratio 93 : 100. The average of the index numbers given in the last column of the Table is 96, showing that in respect of the three groups of trades combined the hours in the United States are about 4 per cent, shorter than in England and Wales. The question again arises as to whether the combined ratio thiis obtained is one from which a general conclusion can be drawn as to the hours of labour in the two countries, and in this case there is little doubt that the percentage figure is somewhat low for the United States. Although in a general survey it is probable that the respective levels shown in the above Tables might be somewhat unduly favourable to the United States, the comparison as between the three selected trade-groups themselves is a fair one, and it therefore provides a basis of calculation of the hourly rate of wages similar to that which has been made in the jjreceding foreign enquiries. Thus for the trades under consideration, the weekly wages for the United States as compared with England and Wales being approximately as 230 : 100 (regard being had to the different dates of enquiry), and the hours of the usual working week being as 96 : 100, it follows that the average hourly earnings of the American workmen are, to those of English workmen in the same trades, appi'oximately as 240 : 100. In the building trades the I'atio is as 273 : 100 and in the printing trades it is 258 : 100, while in the engineering trades it falls to 198 : 100. Housing and Rents. Although the predominant type of working-class dwelling in both the United States and in England and Wales is that accommodating the single family, the exceptions to this prevailing rule are far more numerous in the former country, and the scale upon which the tenement house provision made in the greater part of the City of New York departs from the more conunon practice is without counterpart in England and Wales. In addition to New York, in which exceptional conditions prevail and in which over considerable areas an exceptional measure of congestion exists, there are a few other towns in which dwellings occupied by three or more families are conspicuous types, as against the noteworth}' instances offered in this country by the central parts of London and by Plymouth and Devonport ; while houses constructed for two families, corresponding to those characteristic of Newcastle and the Tyne district, are common over a wide area of the Irnited States. While the classes of dwellings in the occupation of the working classes in the United States are thus considerably more composite than in England and Wales, the difference 16576 e 2 Ix GENERAL REPORT. in the material of which they are constructed is still gi'eater, frame or timber houses being the more usual type in the former country. Brick-built houses have been seen to be the chief local types in only a few towns, including Philadelphia and Baltimore, although they predominate in the central parts of some others, including the borough of ^lanhattan (New York) and Boston. Partly owing to the increasing cost of timber and to the tire- prevention clauses of municipal by-laws, brick-built dwellings are also in general tending to become relatively more numerous, but, as stated, up to the present time the frame ht)use is the more usual type. This difference from English conditions affects, however, relative durability more than either convenience, comfort or rentals. In the absence of any more satisfactory basis of comparison of housing accom- modation, the simplest interpretation of standard has been again adhered to in the number of habitable rooms, and although in a few cases the accommodation provided by some local type of dwelling caused slight difficulty in enumeration, the basis adopted has generally been found convenient and free from ambiguity. In one respect it proved favourable to the United States, inasmuch as sculleries, which were not counted as rooms, are common in English dwellings but exceptional in American. As compared on the basis of the number of habitable rooms, however, it would seem from the following Table, showing the number of towns in which predominant rentals for dwellings of certain sizes were procured, that on the whole the accommodation provided in the American home is somewhat more liberal than in that of England and Wales. Table showing the numbers of toums in England and Wales and the United States from which sufficient numbers of returns of rents for workmen^ s dwellings of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 a?id 8 rooms were obtained to enable predominant rents for each class of dwelling to be stated. Country. Number of Rooms per Dwelling. Number of Towns 1. 2. 3. 4. ' .-,. 6. 7. 8. investigated. England and Wales United States* 1 19 5 44 19 73 28 68 30 25 20 3 1 73 28 * Dwellings occupied by coloured tenants are excluded. In both countries the dwelling of four rooms is the only type found in every case, though that of five rooms is in botli cases very general. On the other hand, the six- roomed dwelling is relatively far more represented in the American returns, 71 per cent, of the American towns showing a predominant rental for dwellings of this size, as compared with only 41 per cent, of the towns in England and Wales. Moreover, in the United States a predominant figure is shown in no town for single-roomed dwellings as com- pared with one in England and Wales, viz., London, while predominant figures tor two rooms are shown in only five Americaii towns, or 18 per cent, of the whole, as compared with 19 towns, or 26 per cent, of the whole, in England and Wales. Predominant rentals for three-roomed dwellings are shown in 68 per cent, of the American towns visited, aild in 60 per cent, in the case of England and Wales. \^'hile, therefore, the dwellings of larger size are more frequent in the United States, and those of smaller size are slightly less frequent, and while the single-roomed dwelling is in no case a common type, in both countries the point of concentration is greatest in the four-roomed and five-roonicd dwellings, and in both cases, therefore, these may be regarded as the more predominant types. As regards the size of rooms, comparison has been found to be impossible, though the measurements ascertained by the investigators seemed to indicate that except in New York, where rooms are apt to be exceptionally small, the more general dimensions of rooms in the American towns were somewhat greater than those usual in English towns. Any difference in the size of rooms does not, however, account for the difference in predominant rentals as between the two countries, which, as will be seen below, shows an excess of something over 100 per cent, in the more usual rents paid in the United States as compared with England and Wales, In the following Table the predominant i-ents for dwellings of three, four, five and six rooms in the United States, as given in the Table on p. xxii, are set out in comparison with those given for England and Wales in the Report on " Cost of Living of the Working Classes" in the United Kingdom (Cd. 8864, p. xiv.). COMPARISON WITH BRITISH TOWNS. Ixi Predominant Rents of Worhmg -class Dwellings in Englmid and Wales and in the Ignited States. Predominant Range of Weekly Rents. Ratio of Mean Pre- dominant Rent in the Number of Rooms per Dwelling. £ngland and Wales. United States. United States to that in Enjfland and Wales, taken as 100. Three rooms Four rooms Five rooms Six rooms 3s. 9c?. to 4s. Gd. 4s. Gd. „ 5s. Gd. 5s. Gd. „ 6s. Gd. 6s. Gd. „ 7s. 2d. 6s. 9d. to 9s. Id. 8s. M. „ 12s. lis. Gd. „ 14s. llf/. 13s. „ 17s. id. 198 207 220 213 Arithmetic Mean 209 It will have been seen from the earlier part of this Report that American working- class tenants are liable to no direct taxation, the tax on real estate, which forms the main source of municipal revenue, being always, and the water rate in nearly every case, paid by the landlord, whatever the ultimate incidence of these charges may be. From the tax on personalty working-class tenants are, as a rule, exempt. In the United States, as in England and Wales, therefore, the rent paid by them is, as regards rates and taxes, an inclusive charge, and to this extent comparison on the basis of expenditure is free from complication. In this comparison of I'ents, weekly figures have been quoted, but it should be observed that in the United States rents are generally paid monthly and not weekly. The differences shown throughout the Table are great and the most usual minimum figure in the United States exceeds the maximum in England and Wales for dwellings of the same size in no case by less than 2s. 'dd, per week, and in one case by 5s. Sd. It will be observed that the ratios of the mean predominant rents in the United States towns are considerably higher as compared with England and Wales in the case of dwellings of larger size, the mean of the ratios for five-roomed and six-roomed dwellings being 216'5 as compared with 202"5 for those of three and four rooms. The disparity is apparently connected with the tendency to which attention has been drawm for the standard of accommodation in the United States to improve markedly, especially in the case of dwellings occupied by the more highly paid industrial classes, and for the modern dwellings to be not only more highly rented but to contain more rooms. A further basis of comparison of rents as between the two countries is afforded by taking the mean of the various predominant ranges and comparing the average rent per room for the whole series. By this method the weekly rent per room in the United States is found to be 2s. 7\d.* as compared with Is. M. in England and Wales, equivalent to a ratio of 210 : 100. ~ In the above comparisons the several predominant rents stated are founded in each caee neither on all the towns visited nor t)n the same towns, since ranges of dwellings of the various sizes shown in the Table were not obtainable in all towns. An alternative comparison may be made by re- working all the index numbers for the rents of the American towns to the basis used for the towns of England and Wales, viz., rents in the Middle Zone of London, that is, a very extended area, the inner boundaries of which are about two miles from the centre of London and the outer limits about four miles from that centre. This has been done in the following Table : — Rents Index Numbers in Descending Order. London (Middle Zone) = 100. Town. Index Number. Town. Index Number. Town. Index Number. New York 160 Philadelpliia 127 Cleveland 102 St. Louis 159 Minneapolis — St. Paul 123 Paterson 99 Pittsburg 151 Atlanta 122 Providence 96 Memphis 150 New Orleans 115 Deti'oit 94 Cincinnati 145 Savannah 114 Augusta 93 Brockton 136 Chicago 114 Fall River 90 Boston 132 Louisville 113 Baltimore 85 Birmingham 130 Milwaukee 108 Lowell 84 Newark 128 ; Lawrence 106 Muncie 71 Cf. pp. xxii. and xlix. 16576 e 3 Ixii GENERAL REPORT. The mean index number on the above basis (of the rents of the Middle Zone of Loudon) for all the towns investigated in England and Wales is 56'2 ; for the above American towns 116"6. The ratio of the American to the English mean is thus 207 : 100, about the same as the mean ratio of the ])redominant rents for each class of dwelling and as that obtained by comparing the general average per room as given above. This ratio will be taken as representing the level of rents for working-class urban dwellings in the United States as com])ared with the level of such rents in England and Wales. Although a difference is shown in the above Table amounting to no less than X9 points, the high prevailing range is a marked feature of the Table and in only eight cases, including none of the larger towns save Detroit and Baltimore, does the rents index number fall below that of the Middle Zone of London. New York heads the list with an index number of 160 and the separate figure for the borough of Manhattan, 175, would show a still higher excess over that of the ^liddle Zone of London. The corresponding figure for Brooklyn is 141. Applying the comparison to Philadelphia and Baltimore, two towns in which the housing conditions approximate somewhat closely to those of England and Wales, inasmuch as the more usual type of woi'king-class dwelling is for single families and brick-built, the ratios show that in the former town the tenant might expect to have to pay 27 per cent, more rent than in the Middle Zone of London ; whereas in Baltimore, well-known as one of the cheaper towns of the States, he would probably pay 15 per cent. less. The three zones into which London was divided show, however, a range of from 86 in the case of the Outer Zone, inchiding certain areas of Greater London lying outside the County, to 118 in that of the Central Zone, the Middle Zone being taken as 100. These three zones were again sub-divided and the parts show a range from a minimum of 79 in certain outlying north-eastern parts — largely residential industrial neighbourhoods and " dormitories " for London itself — to a maximum of 125 in the western portion of the Central Zone. A further basis of comparison is thus afforded, and Muncie is the only American town in which rents were found to fall below any portion of the whole of the London area, while in ten towns at the other end of the scale the range of rentals exceeded those of the most expensively rented district of London, that is, the western portion of the Central Zone, by fi*om 2 points in the case of Philadelphia to 35 points in that of New York as a whole, or 50 points in that of the borough of Manhattan. With regard to the other towns in England and Wales, Croydon and Plymouth and Devonport, with index numbers of 81, and Newcastle-on-Tyne with one of 76, are the solitary examples out of the 73 towns in which rents were investigated in which the index numbers exceed those for the lowest-rented town in the United States Table, and Muncie, with the exceptionally low index number of 71, is the only town in which the level falls below those of the English towns just mentioned. In order to illustrate other important English comparisons that may be made with the United States figures, some of the index numbers for the great centres of population in England and Wales may be quoted, such as f.iverpool 65, or just under half the Boston figure; Manchester and Salford 62, a little less than half that of Philadelphia ; Birmingham, Bradford and Cardiff 59 ; Leeds and Nottingham 56 ; Sheffield 55 ; Bristol 53, or about 38 per cent, lower than that of Baltimore ; and, finally, the index number for Hull, Leicester, Norwich and Preston, which is 48, or just half the representative figure for Providence. The explanation of the higher rentals in the American towns investigated must be looked for in various directions, but principally in the higher cost of building as expressed by labour and materials, in the more generous allowance of ground space per dwelling, except in congested areas, in the more modern character of a greater proportion of the fittings and conveniences of the dwelling, as illustrated by the more frequent provision of bathrooms, in a higher general level of material prosperity that is able effectively to demand such increasing variety and completeness of acconnnodation, and in the shorter life that is expected from the individual dwellings. From what has been said as to the modern character of much of the accommodation provided in American dwellings it follows that the elementary requirements of water and of a water-carriage sewerage system are, as in this country, generally found. The COMPARISON WITH BRITISH TOV.'NS. Ixiii exceptions rarely appertain to towns as a whole, pronounced sanitary defects being nnu'e common in particular quarters of towns, sometimes consisting of older and deteriorated properties, as in part of St. Louis, and sometimes in newer districts of the more I'apidly extending- cities where building has outrun the sewerage and water systems of the locality, as in parts of Duluth. Save in such exceptions as those mentioned, especially in respect to the greater extent to which houses in multiple occupation are found, and in the unusual extent to which, in some foreign districts largely frequented by more recent immigrants, the boarder or the lodger class tends to create overcrowded conditions, the greatest comparative defects of the Amei'ican dwelling and of its surroundings are lai'gely normal to an earlier stage of urban development, and consist not in their internal arrangements and sanitary standard but in an external bareness frequently noticeable ; in the absence of gardens even when, as is common, building plots are si^acious ; in unmade roads, and in an irregular and ragged development that impresses, even more than in England and Wales, often with a sense of incompleteness and sometimes with that of private carelessness and administrative neglect. The rental figures obtained in the United States are, as stated, for February 1909 and the question arises as to how far these may be comparable with the rentals for England and Wales collected for October, 1905. No exact answer can be given to this cjuestion, but there is a considerable amount of evidence to show that if the American figures had been collected for February, 1907, that is for a period two years earlier than that actually selected, they would have shown in many places a somewhat higher level, inasmuch as the industrial depression which followed the financial crisis of October, 1907, and continued throughout the following year led to a decline on the levels reached during the preceding period of prosperity and active immigration. Taking into account the further fact that, even in the United States, rents do not move on a large and general scale rapidly, it seems highh' improbable that any possible variations due to the different dates at which the particulai's were collected in the two countries would affect appreciably the general comparist)ns presented. It is believed, therefore, that for practical purposes the ratio given above of 207 : 100 may be taken as representing with approxi- mate accuracy the level of rents paid by the working classes in the United States and England and Wales respectively. Retail Food Prices. The predominant prices paid in February, 1909, for various articles of food by the working classes in the 28 towns investigated in the United States have been set out in the Table on page xxix. In certain cases, including the principal articles of consumption, and representing about 61 per cent, of the cost of all articles that enter into the ordinary household expenditure for food in the American-British (Northern) Budget and about 66 per cent, for those enumerated in that of the United Kingdom, a comparison is possible as between American and English prices. In some cases the rise in the prices of articles which it is thus possible to compare, including that which has taken place in the pciriod subsequent to February, 1909, has attracted much attention in recent years both in the United States and in many other countries, and the percentage increase in several of the commodities in the United States has been very marked. Various exjilanations of this increase are offered, some internal and others of more general significance, but it would be irrelevant to attempt to discuss in this Report either their individual or their relative importance. It is, however, pertinent to draw special attention to the general tendency that has been manifested in the United States for prices of agricultural food produce to advance rapidly from the comparati\ ely Ioav le^el that prevailed in that country even ten years ago. In most of these cases internal conditions have made the range of ])rices of meat and dairy produce in the United States somewhat higher than that of England and Wales, but the most significant fact with regard to the relative prices of meat as between the two countries is not so much that they are now, on the whole, \er}- slightly higher than in England, but that there has been a large advance from the relatively low level at which they stood only a few years ago. It is with this low internal level of comparatively recent years that domestic comparisons in the United States ai'e almost invariably and naturally made. 16576 e 4 Ixiv GENERAL REPORT. The comparisons of retail prices of food as between the United States and England and Wales, made possible by the present enquiry, are set ont in the following Table : — Predominant Retail Prices in England and Wales and in the United States. Predominant Range of Retail Prices. Ratio of Mean Predominant Price in the United States (February, 1U09) to that in England and Wales (October, 1905), taken as 100. Commodity. Enjrland and Wales (Octoter, T905). United States (February, 1909). Sugar per lb. Cheese „ Butter „ 1 Potatoes per 7 lb. Flour „ Bread per 4 lb. Milk per quart. Beef per lb. | Mutton „ I Pork Bacon „ 2rf. Id. Is. to Is. Id.* Is. 2f/.t 2kl. to Ud. M. „ lOd. ihd. „ 5^. M. „ id. l\d. „ Shd.t M. „ M.* Ud. „ M.X id. „ M.* 7ki. ., Hd. id. ;, 9rf. 2|f/., M. lOd. 1 Is. 4f/. to Is. ^d. oifrf. „ Hid. n^d. „ Is. Ud. lOid. „ lUf/r iid. „ 4|S. J 6d. „ 8f/. 1 IJirf. „ 8J^/. ■yU „ 7\d. 8|f/. „ H)d. 144 143 126 233 139 223 129 104 116 81 116 Colonial or Foreign. j Danish. X British or Home-killed. The predominant ]:)rices in the above Table for England and Wales are taken from the Table on p. xxiii. o£ the Report on " Cost of Living of the Working Classes " in the United Kingdom. In the case of beef and mutton it has been again thought suflScient, as in the other foreign enquiries, to take the mean of the predominant prices of " British or home-killed " and " Colonial or foreign '' meat as being typical of the prices paid by the British working classes ; the exact proportion of " Colonial or foreign " meat con- sumed by the working classes is not known, but it almost certainly exceeds 40 per cent. The price of " Colonial or foreign " butter has been combined with that of " Danish." It is not possible to bring up to date the individual English jjrices stated in the foregoing Table, but records of retail prices in Lcmdon are available and form a sufficient index of the general ctmrse of prices in this country. So far as the items shown above are concerned, the retail prices in London in February, 1909, as compared with October, 1905, showed an advance of 10 per cent, in the price of cheese, 17 ])er cent, in flour, 8 per cent, in bread, 6 per cent, in British beef and 12 per cent, in foreign beef ; the prices ol: potatoes, milk, foreign mutton and pork were the same at the two periods, while those of sugar, butter, British mutton and bacon were respectively 7, 2, 7 and 3 per cent, lower at the later date. Taken as a whole, these figures, after due allowance for the varying degrees of importance of the articles included has been made, indicate that retail food prices were" 3 or 4 per cent, higher in England and Wales in February, 1909, than they were in October, 1905. An examination of the Table shows that the prices in the United States that most nearly approximate, at the respective dates to which the prices apply, to those of England and Wales relate to beef, mutton, bacon and pork, which were, respectively, in the first case 4 per cent., in the next two cases 16 per cent, higher and in the last case 19 per cent, lower than in this country, pork thus afFtn-ding a solitary example in the Table of a lower price level in the United States. In regard to the other items, a great disparity is shown, as a rule, as between American and English prices, the general features of which are unaffected by any difference that may be traceable to the different ))eriod to which the actual figures of the Table refer. The greatest differences ai-e shown in the case of jwtatoes (which were the same price 'n London in February, 1909, as in October, 1905), and bread (which was 8 per cent, dearer), American prices being in both these cases more than double those of England and Wales. As will be seen later, the consump- tion of potatoes per family, as shown by the American budgets, is somewhat greater than that shown by the budgets of the United Kingdom, and the difference in price has, therefore, an increased effect upon family expenditui-e. In the case of bread, the effect is not so great, inasmuch as the average consumption of bread in the shape of the bought COMPARISON WITH BRITISH TOWNS. Ixv loaf is not much more than a third of that shown in the budgets collected in the United Kingdom (8| lb. as compared with 22 lb.), the difference in price being thus, in the case of the American consumer, of correspondingly diminished importance. The quantities are, indeed, such as to leave the average total Aveekly expenditure for baker's bread, without taking into account bread substitutes, at a somewhat lower figure in the American budget than in that of the United Kingdom, in spite of the fact that the price of bread is more than double. The five items not as yet referred to — sugar, cheese, flour, milk and butter — show excesses ranging from 44 down to 26 per cent. Had the figures for both countries been given for February, 1909, the differences shown would have been slightly greater in the case of sugar and butter ; less in the case of cheese and flour, and unaltered in the case of milk. In the last case, therefore, the difference in favour of England and Wales may be put at Id. per quart or 29 per cent. The other items in which relative prices were unaltered as between October, 1905, and February, 1909, were potatoes, for which the mean price per 7 lb, in the United States was 7d. as compared with Sd. in England and Wales or an excess of 133 per cent. ; and pork, for w^hich the mean prices were 6jrf, in the United States and Sd. in Eno^land and Wales or an advantaije to the American consumer in this case of 19 per cent. In the comparisons made so far no account has been taken of the difference in the quantities of the various commodities that are consumed, either in an average working- class family in the same country or in similar families in both countries. Internal comparisons in the cost of living in the United Kingdom were arrived at by comparing the cost, in the various towns investigated, of maintaining what had been found by investigation to represent, as regards food, an average standard of living in British working-class families. Thus, the measurable (quantities that made up this standard having been ascertained and local pi-edominant prices having been obtained, variations in the local cost of living were calculated by seeing how much it would cost in the different towns investigated to purchase the quantities of meat, bread, butter, sugar, &c, included in the average budget. Within the borders of a single country in v\^hich approximately similar habits of housekeeping prevail, and in which approximately similar commodities are consumed and procurable, this method answers well. It becomes, however, less satisfactory when applied to different countries, partly because the range of comparable commodities tends to be narrowed down ; because national differences in the practice of housekeeping, as, for instance, in marketing, in cooking and in thriftiness, tend to obscure the issue ; and because the assumption, well founded in the case of a single country, that general domestic housekeeping habits will as a rule persist no matter in what town the family is living, becomes weaker when different countries are concerned. It is obvious, for instance, that, when a person changes one country for another, even though the same commodities may be obtainable in both countries, differences in local custom, in climate, in the varying impor- tance or attractiveness of alternative commodities, and in other ways, may affect domestic habits and weaken the power or the desire to adhere to a past dietary. Thus, if the quantities showni in the average British working-class dietary be taken and the question be asked what would it cost the same family to maintain the same dietary in another country, it is clear that the influence of environment and the tendency to conform to changed conditions cannot be allowed for in the answer. The test is insular in character and to that extent defective. On the other hand, if predominant prices have been obtained for the two countries under comparison, and the problem be to determine what it would cost an average family in one country to maintain an accepted standard of living at the prices prevailing in another country, the hypothetical basis of any such calculation is manifest. Defects and limitations of this kind are, in fact, inherent in any attempt to compare international and to some extent even internal local conditions as regards industrial and social standards, and they are indicated here in order that the following comparisons may be interpreted and applied with as clear a conception as possible of the assumptions they involve and the elements of the problem of adjustment and adaptation to Avhich they necessarily fail to give due weight. The following Table shows the comparative cost in the two countries of the articles in the average British budget for which compai'ative prices can be given and the adjustment which the difference of date requires. The adjustment has been made by applying to the costs stated (in the penultimate column of the Table) for each commodity the pei'centage changes indicated for that commodity on page Ixiv. Ixvi GENERAL REPORT. Cost of the Average British Working -man'' s Budget (^excluding commodities for which com- paratiie prices cannot be given) at the Predomina)it Prices paid by the Working Classes of i\) England and Wales and (2) the United States. Coift in Pence Quantity in Predominant Range of Retail Prices. of Quantity in Column 2. Commodity. Average British , Budget. England and Wales United States England United (October, 1905). (February, 1909). and Wales. States. Sugar 5ilb. 2d. per lb. 2^., 'M. per lb. d. m d loi Cheese |lb. Id. per lb. lOd. per lb. H 7i Bntter 2 1b. Is. lid. per lb." Is. id. to Is. i>hd. per lb. 261 33* Potatoes 17 1b. 2hd. to ;5.if/. per 7 lb. oy. „ 8^^/. per 7 lb. Ilk/, to Is. Ud. per 7 lb. 7} 17' Flour 101b. 8f/. „ ItV. per 7 lb. 12| m Bread .. 221b. i^d. „ D^d. per 4 lb. 10|rf. „ ll^r/: per 4 lb. 27^ Gli Milk f) qts. '6(1. „ id. per qt. 4|f/. „ ild. per qt. 17^ 221 Beef Hlb. Gld. per Ib.t M. to 8f/. per lb. 30, 4 31i Mutton ... l|lb. 6ff?. per Ib.f U,d. „ 8^0'. per lb. 11' Pork ilb.- 7\d. to SyJ. per lb. bid. ., lid. per lb. 4 3i Bacon Hlb. Id. „ 9d. per lb. S^d. ,. lOd. per lb. 12 14 Total Cost of the J ^bove England i Adjusted ind Wales, Oct., IWb ; for Feb., IHOO United States, Feb., 1909 163^ 234i Index Numbers < 100 100 J43 138 * Mean of Colonial or "Foreign '' and Danish. t Mean of British or Home-killed and of Foreign or Colonial. According to the Table it appears that the English housewife would have had to pay 234J(/. at American prices for the same quantities of those articles of food which cost at English prices in October, 1905, IGS^d., or as adjusted to the prices of February, 1909, about 16d^d. ; her weekly expenditure in the United States would thus be raised on the adjusted prices about o*-. 5d. per week, or 38 per cent. Of this total increase, however, about 2s. 7|c/. is due to the much higher price of baker's bread in the United States, an item that, as has been seen, does not enter largely into the workman's budget in that country. The explanation of more than half of the balance of the difference is found in the comparative costs of potatoes, in which the excess in the United States would be equivalent to an expenditure of about 9frf. per week, and of butter, in which the corresponding excess would be about 7^d. per week. Allowing for the adjusted prices as between the two countries, beef, mutton, jiork and bacon combined would have cost about l^d. more in the i'nited States. The list of commodities is not exhaustive, but on the basis of comparison adopted it is sufficiently complete to give a fairly accurate indication of the difference in the cost of food in the two countries, although the over-weighting of the comparative index numbers by bread is in itself a defect. The most imj^XJrtant of the items omitted is tea, which is dearer in the United States than in England — Is. 8d. to 2s. 3^rf. per lb. in February, 1909, as compared with Is. 4d. to Is. Sd. in October, 1905 — but which is supplanted tiiere, as in German)-, France and Belgium, by coffee as the customary domestic beverage. Coffee, for which no predominant price is available for England, is relatively cheap in the United States as compared with tea, the predominant price being from lOd, to Is. O^^d. per lb. It has, therefore, been thought fairer to omit tea in arriving at a comparati\e cost at American prices of the average British budget. The other most important items omitted are fish and vegetables, for neither of which can any useful basis of comparison be obtained, and eggs, which have been also regarded as non-comparable because of tlie variety of brand and cjuality. In the articles omitted there is, however, nothing that further weakens the figures given in the Table, and the ratio of 138 : 100 will, therefore, be taken as giving, with reasonable accuracy, the ratio of the cost of food in the average British working-man's budget at American prices, as compared with its cost at English ])ricesin February, 1909. The al)ove index numbers represent the change in family expenditure that would result if either in the United States or in England an average British workman's famil}- continued to purchase the main articles of food to which it was accustomed, and paid American prices ft)r them, leaving out of cpxestiou either the power or the desire to adjust expenditure to any new channels by which changed price conditions might be accompanied. COMPARISON WITH BRITISH TOWNS. Ixvii Useful aud suggestive though the above index numbers are, it is highly important, as has been already emphasized, to reahse exactly what they mean and the limitations of their meaning. Their significance will be made more evident if the converse calculation is set out, namely, as to what the average American workman, as reflected in the budgets analysed on pages xliv-lv, would have to pay if he purchased the commodities set out in the above Table, in the quantities shown to be ordinarily consumed in the United States, at English prices as compared with American. This question is answered in the following Table : — Cost of the Averaye American Working-man's Budijet (excluding commodities for which comparative prices cannot be given) at the Predominant Prices paid by the Working Classes of {1) England and Wales and (2) the United States. Cost in Pence Quantity in Predominant Uauge of Retail Prices. of Quantity in Column 2. Commoility. Average American* 1 Budget. England and Wales United States England j United • (October, 190.5). (February, 1909). and Wales. States. Sugar ')i lb. 2d. per lb. 2|rf., M. per lb. d. lOi d. 15 Cheese ilb. Id. per lb. lOd. per lb. 5 Butter 2 1b. Is. Hd. per Ib.t Is. Ad. to Is. 5hd. per lb. 2a 33i Potatoes ,21 lb. 2hd. to Ud. per 7 lb. 5|rf. „ 8^//. per 7 lb. 9 21' Floitr lOi lb. Sd. „ lOd. per 7 lb. lli^d. to Is. Ihd. per 7 lb. l^ 18i Bread 8ilb. iid. „ b^d. per i lb. lOfrf. „ lHf/."per4 1b. lOi 23 Milk b\ qts. M. „ -Id. per (jt. iid. „ 4fr/.,per qt. ISf 45| 24 Beef 6i lb. 6^d. per Ib.J 6d. ,, 8rf. per lb. Hi Mutton It lb. 6|rf. per lb. j (]^. „ Sid. per lb. b^d. „ 7 is. A\d. 9s. 2\d. COMPARISON WITH BRITISH TOWNS. Ixxi Reverting to the preceding Table, it will be observed that marked and important instances of divergent proportions spent on the different items as between the two sets of budgets are found, on the one hand, in the cases of bread and flour and tea, in which much larger percentages are shown as being spent in the British home, and, on the other hand, in those of vegetables and fruit, cakes and rolls, &c.. and coffee, in which a lower percen- tao-e is spent. Genuine differences in national habits are thus reflected, more bread and fewer bread substitutes being consumed in the United Kingdom than in the United States ; tea and not coffee being the British national domestic beverage ; and canned vegetables entering much less into the national dietary in this country than in the United States. If the percentages of bread, flour and bread substitutes be added together the total is 17' 75 for the British and 1.5-08 for the American budget, showing an excess of only 2"72 in the former case. A few other differences may be noted. Thus in every lOOs. expended for food as shown by the budgets for the United Kingdom, nearly 2s. more would be spent in butter, about Is. od. more in cheese, and about lid. more in sugar. On the other hand, according to the American budgets the total expenditure on eggs of 6 per cent, represents an excess of about Is. 7d. But, with the possible exception of bread and flour and vegetables and fruits, the general similarities shown in the two sets of percentages are far more striking than the differences. In the case of fresh milk and meat of all kinds, including fish, the percentages are almost identical ; for the last item about 28«. in every 100.?. being absorbed in both series of budgets. When the various meats are analysed certain differences in relative quantities consumed appear, although as regards beef, the most important item of all, the proportions are very similar, that is, something less than one-half of all meat in both cases. The consumption of mutton and lamb (in the United States the distinction between mutton and lamb is not consistently made in the retail trade) shows on the other hand a great difference, a much larger proportion being consumed in the United Kingdom than in the United States. The general quality of mutton is markedly su])ei'ior in this country. Bacon accounts for about 17 per cent, of the meat consumption as shown in the budgets collected in the United Kingdom, and pork for only 6 per cent. ; whereas in the American budgets the ])roportions are reversed, being 12 per cent, for bacon, ham, &c., and 16 per cent, for pork, or for the two items combined about 23 per cent, and 28 per cent, in the respective countries. Other meat, including tinned meats, tripe, &c., thus accounts for something over 10 per cent, in the budgets of the United Kingdom. In the American budget the analysis shows for veal and sausage 6 and 5 per cent, respectively in each case of all meat consumed, and for poultry — an item that in earlier investigations has appeared appreciably only in the French working-class dietaries — approximately 5 per cent. In general, howe\ er, as regards the direction in which that ]^)art of the family income which is spent on food is concerned, a marked similarity of general practice is shown as between the United States and the United Kingdom. Finally, the more difficult and more important comparison must be attempted of absolute and not relative consumption of different articles of food, or, when quantitative comparison is impossible, of the actual amount spent. It is in this connexion that the disparities in total family income in the two countries present special difficulty, since the most instructive comparisons would necessarily be as between groups of families with approximately similar incomes. There are, it is true, two income classes included in the budgets of the two countries in which the average incomes are almost the same. In the United Kingdom the families Math incomes of 35s. and under 40s., and those Avith 40s. and over per week, with average incomes of 36s. 6^d. and 52s. O^d. respectively, compare very closely so far as these averages are concerned with those in the two lowest income classes in the American budgets, namely 36s. and Sis. O^d. The adoption of these two classes, and these two alone, for detailed comparison is open, however, to serious drawbacks. In the first place, in the case of the United Kingdom, the two classes of families with the highest incomes would have been chosen and in the United States the two lowest income classes, one very small, comprising only 67 budgets and largely composed of general labourers and workpeople of indefinite occupations, and the other showing an average for the husband's earnings that still leaves it, as a whole, within the range of the remuneration of unskilled labour. Further, a comparison based solely on these two sets of budgets would be inadequate owing to the composition of the families in the various classes, those in the United fvingdom having an average of 3*4 and 4*4 children li\ing at home, yielding in the former class some, and in Ixxii GENERAL REPORT. the latter large, supplementary earnings, while those in the United States have averages of r78 and 2"06 children, with the father in both classes practically the sole support of the family. The inadequacy of a comparison based solely on the above income classes is brought out more clearly in the following Table showing the composition of the above families and the average weekly expenditure on food per family and per capita. Table I. (A) United Kingdom. United States. (B) United Kingdom, i United States. Limits of Weekly Family Income ... Average Weekly Family Income ... Average No. of Persons per Family Average Weekly Expenditure for all Food (exclusive of alcohol) per Family. Ditto per cajrita 35s. to 408. 36s. ejrf. 5-4 22s. Ud. is. l^d. Under 40s. 36s. 3-78 18s. ed. 4s. lOid. 40s. and over. 52s. OU. 6-4 29s. Sd. is. 7|d 40s. to 60s. 51.S. Old. 4-08 24s. 3J»c/. 5s. lUd. It will be observed that the amounts spent on food in the American families, although considerably less in both cases, provide for a greater weekly exj)enditure per captita of 9jrf. and Is. ?>\d. in the two income classes. In the above cases the selected families ha^'e total weekly incomes that are approxi- mately equal, but a more suitable basis of comparison of food consumed in the two countries is provided by certain income classes in which the amount actually spent on food weekly is almost the same. A table corresponding to the preceding one is given, illustrating some of the points of similarity and dissimilarity in the families that can be compared on this basis. Table II. (0) United Kingdom. United States. Limits of Weekly Family Income ... ■ 40s. and over. Average Weekly Family Income ... i 52s. Oirf. Average No. of Persons per Family ... 6'4 Average Weekly Expenditure for all Food 29s. 8c?. (exclusive of alcohol) per Family. Ditto per capita ... ... ... 4s. 7|c?. 60s. to 80s. 69s. lOrf. 4'54 30s. \0d. 6s. 9^^. Finally it is possible to select for the purposes of a similar comparison families in which there is the same approximation in the amount spent on food after allowance has been made for the ditlerence in prices in the two countries as indicated by the index numbers given on page Ixvi, namely, 100 for England and Wales and 138 for the United States. According to this ratio it may be assumed that the expenditure of 20*". on food in a British workman's family can be compared appropriately with one of about 27s. (Sd. in an American family for similar purposes, so as to see under these circum- stances also what each family secures for its money. Such a comparison can be made of the following income classes concerning which particulars corresponding to those given in the two preceding Tables are appended. Table III. (D) United Kingdom. United States. (E) United Kingdom. United States. Limits of Weekly Family Income ... Average Weekly Family Income ... Average No. of Persons per Family Average Weekly Expenditure for all Food (exclusive of alcohol) per Family. Ditto per capita 25s. to 30s. 26s. Hid. 5-3 178. 10\d. 3s. ^d. 40s. to 60s. 51s. Ohd. 4-08' 24s. -^d. 5s. ll^rf. 35s. to 40s. 36s. ^d. 5-4 22s. S^rf. 4s. l\d. 60s. to 80s. 69.S'. lOf/. 4-54 30s. lOf/. 6s. %d. COMPARISON WITH BRITISH TOWNS. Ixxiii lu the following Table the international comparisons of food expenditure, concerning which the preceding Tables have given necessary preliminary information, are shown by means of ratios per capita of the quantities of certain articles of food consumed by average workmen's families in the United States and in the United Kingdom, the income classes selected for the purpose being those referred to above and described in the three preceding Tables. In two classes of food in which quantities camiot be given the comparative amounts expended are shown instead. In all cases throughout the Table the United Kingdom bases are taken as 100. Table shoicing, per caj^ita, (he quantities of, or amounts spent on certain articles of food consumed by toorkmen^s families in the United States {American- British — Northern Group), as compared ivith the United Kingdom, the families being chosen for comparison as stated. United Kingdom = 100^ Commodity or Grouii of Commodities. Quantities : — Bread and Flour All Meat and Fish Eggs Fresh Milk Cheese Butter and Animal Fats ... Potatoes Sugar Exj)enditure : — Other Vegetables and Fruit * Tea, CoflEee, Cocoa, &c. ... Comparison of families in which the total family income is approximately similar, (_Table I. ahore.') (A) (B) 123 108 82 43 115 141 98 238 92 66 151 139 93 50 103 137 89 261 108 Comijarison of f amilifis in which the total amount spent on food is approximately similar. {Tahle II. above.') Comparison of families in which the total amount spent on food is approximately simi- lar, allowance being made for the jjcrcentage difference in retail prices as between the United States and England and Wales. (^Table III. abo-ue.y (C) 67 165 172 107 63 110 132 93 320 122 (D) (E) 69 72 195 178 216 197 126 109 62 71 136 128 143 139 107 102 483 357 139 133 * Fresh, dried and canned fruit. In the United States, including a small quantity of sweet potatoes and jam. In spite of the different bases upon which the above pairs of income classes in the two coimtries have been selected for comparison and of the fact, already indicated, that they are to some extent unsuitable for comparison, a marked uniformity in the general results is shown in the consumption per capita, which is the basis of comparison it is necessary to adopt in all cases. The differences shown are nearly always those of degree and not of direction. Thus, even in the lowest income class of the American budgets compared in Column A., the consumption of certain commodities is always higher than that shown in the British budgets with which they can be compared ; while other foods, even in the highest American income classes included in the Table (in Columns C. and E.), show a consumption that is always lower. The most striking examples of the former characteristic are seen in meat and fish, in which the American consumption per capita ranges from an excess of 23 per cent, to one of 95 per cent. ; in eggs, in which the corresponding excess ranges from 8 per cent, to 116 per cent. ; and potatoes, in which the excess is comparatively uniform throughout, ranging from 32 to 43 per cent. On the other hand, a smaller consumption of bread and flour is always shown in the American budgets, and almost uniformly, the range being only from 27 per cent, to 34 per cent, less. Much the same genei'al results are shown in the case of cheese, in w^hich the consumption is only something over half as much in the American families as in those of the United Kingdom, the figures showing a difference of fi'om 57 per cent, to 29 per cent. Fresh milk and sugar are the only articles in which consumption is sometimes more and sometimes less in the American families, the variation shown being in the case of fresh milk from 18 per cent, less to 26 per cent, more, and in that of sugar from 11 per cent, less to 7 per cent. more. In the classes of commodity in which the comparison has to be made on a basis of expenditure and not of quantity, uniform excess in the United States is shown in the case of vegetables and fruit. In this group of items, which includes canned ACgetables, so largely consumed in the United States, the amount spent exceeds by 138 to 383 per cent, that spent by the average families in the United Kingdom with which com- parisons are made. The amounts spent on tea, coffee, etc., in the two countries are relatively uniform, being never more than 8 per cent, less or 39 per cent, more in one country than the other. i6.-)7(; / Ixxiv GENERAL REPORT. On the whole, the above figures do but illustrate analytically the general fact that the dietary of the average Ainerican family is more varied and more liberal than that of families that as nearly as possible correspond to them in the United Kingdom. The comparati^■e percentages of the Table are indeed the corollary of the figures given on page Ixx, from which it appears that the amount spent, ^jer capita, on food in the average American family begins at a figure a little higher than that at which the British maximum stops ; and that the mean of the average food bill per capita of the second, third and fourth British income classes is 3s. 10c?. per capita, and that of the second, third and fourth American income classes 6s. 8c/. In the same way the comparative percentages shown in the above Table may be equally regarded as a corollary of the great difference shown in the range of nominal earnings and of family incomes as between the two countries, for, as has been seen, even though expenditure on food is more liberal in the United States, the pei'centage of the total income available for other purposes is, without exception, even in the lowest income class shown in the American budgets, higher than that shown by any class in the British series. Thus the food bill takes relatively a more subordinate place in the American working-class household. It is still a main item of expenditure but is of less preponderating importance than in the British budgets, and a much greater margin of income available for all other purposes results. As regards the other composite national budgets, while the constituent elements of their dietaries, had any of these been selected for comparison, would, to some extent, have reflected racial characteristics, the proportion of food expenditure to total family income would have been found to be roughly similar, the maximum percentage thus absorbed in no case exceeding that shown in the American budget in any of the income classes used in the preceding Tables I. — III. by more than I '2 7 per cent. This excess was shown by the Jewish budget in the " £3 and under £4 " income class, but in most cases, both in this class and in the classes " under £2 " and " £2 and under £3," such differences as were shown were generally small minus quantities as compared with the American budget itself. Thus the comparison of the British with the American budget has not involved the selection for comparative purposes of a group that differs fundamentally from others not so used. The main constituents of all these other groups have been set out in the Appendices, and show that in every direction, as revealed by the present enquiry, food requirements, as regards the necessaries of life and in many income classes as regards also the fringe of its luxuries, are met with comparative ease. At this point the strict international comparison necessarily stops, since the complete comparative basis provided by the budgets goes no further than income and cost of food. As regards rent, it has been seen that roughly this item costs something more than twice as much in the United States as in England and Wales, but as to the remaining charges on family income, such as clothing, fuel and light, beverages (other than coffee, etc.), tobacco, insurance, recreation and holidays, etc. — the necessary data for international comparison are wanting. The margin of income shown in the American budgets is, however, so large, when rent and food have both been allowed for, as to call for some slight further analysis to the end that even though statistical comparison be impossible the real significance of this margin may be more clearly apprehended. As regards some of the classes of supplementary expenditure mentioned above, there is sufficient evidence to show the general relationship to income that they would Ijear in the United States as compared with this country. Thus for some months in the year over a great part of the field of enquiry fuel is a heavier charge than in England and Wales, owing partly to the lighter structure of the houses, but mainly to the greater .severity of the climate. No exact figure as to this excess in comparative cost can, however, be mentioned. On the other hanil it may be noted that the methods of heating generally adopted, although less hygienic than the open fire-place, are more efficient, that the American dwelling is kept at a higher temperature in cold weather than in England and that all rooms are more uniformly heated. Gas, again, is generally dearer in America than in this country, but in spite of this, both for cooking and lighting, it is very extensively used, suggesting, since petroleum is a cheaper illuminant, a voluntary preference on the part of the consumer. The item of clothing raises wider and more difficult questions of comparison, and j)articulars that have been obtained go to show that while higher prices have, as a rule, to be paid in the United States than in the United Kingdom for woollen and worsted fabrics of similar quality, a very large domestic supply of articles of wearing apparel u[ most descriptions is available there of standard sizes, that are, for tln' most part, un sale at prices either not much higher or not higher than in this country, although ofteu less durable. It is evident, however, that the practice of buying clothes that are COMPARISON WITH BRITISH TOWNS. IxxV expected and intended to last lor a single season only and not for two or more is much more common than in this country. In this respect an analogy may be traced to a national characteristic, noticeable not only in respect to clothing but also as regards^ houses in their inferior durability and, as regards machinery, in the greater rapidity with which it is either worn out or discarded. In all of these directions there appears to be a half-conscious discernment of what is regarded as " economy in spending," which,, while savouring sometimes of extravagance, tends at the same time, as regards machinery, to secure the maximum of at least temporary efficiency, and as regards clothing, as also of food, the maximum of freshness and satisfaction. In more immediate connexion with the question of expenditui'e on clothing the general practice among men of wearing overalls during work and of not appearing in the streets in working clothes is noteworthy, and is one explanation of the impression that is widely given that a larger proportion of the community is well-clad than in this country. In connexion with the consumption of beverages other than cotFee, tea and alcoholic drinks, the great quantity of iced drinks of various descriptions consumed may be mentioned, and ice itself, mainly for the preservation of foods, is a weekly item of expenditure in the summer months in practically every household, while an ice box is a ct)mmon possession and an ice-cream .freezer by no means rare in working-class liomes. While, therefore, ice ranks as a small distinctive charge on income, it affords one of the numerous illustrations of an expenditure that, regarded as necessary, secures at the same time its own return in comfort and satisfaction. Much tobacco is consumed and the number of cigar-ends thrown away which no one takes the trouble to pick up is one of the trifles that is noticeable. Travelling to and from work for short distances is more expensive in America than in England, 2i<;/. being the usual minimum en tramways, and reduced tickets for workmen being very rarely issued. Thus, if the cars have to be used at all, the double journey nearly always costs 2s. 6d. per week. On the other hand, it rarely costs more, the uniform fare adopted for long and short distances generally taking the wage-earner as far as he is likely to travel. Holidays, recreation and sundries, together with savings, come more avowedly and more completely within the region of the voluntary use of any margin of income that may be available than do the previous items, and the amounts are therefore, even more elastic and indeterminable. In some measure the preceding sentences will explain the value to the household of the margin of income shoAvn after charges for food and rent have been met. Apart, perhaps, from the lowest range of urban incomes — those roughly amounting, as shown by the budgets, to less than £95 a year — a more liberal standard of living than that observed in the United Kingdom is clearly indicated. To no inconsiderable extent the adoption of this standard and the higher expenditure it involves are, however, almost necessary, very much as the standard of a locality or of a class has to be roughly observed in this country by those of its members who move freely in it, and, conforming to its atmosphere, themselves help to create that atmosphere. In this connexion a suggestive analogy may be drawn between the relative position as regards the standard of expenditure of an agricultural labourer living in an English village and that of the mechanic of the neighbouring market town, or, again, between the position of the latter and that of his fellow craftsman working in London. In all three cases the necessity and the opportunities for spending differ both in kind and degree. Roughly, similar analogies hold as between urban conditions of working-class life in this country and in the United States. More money is spent as a matter of course in the latter country and to some extent, as has been suggested, this higher expenditure, apart from any differences in price or rent levels, is almost if not quite obligatory ; but, on the other hand, in various material ways, greater satisfaction and more comforts are secured. Thus the habit of spending is more active than in this country, and while the national characteristic of a greater extravagance and even of a greater wastefulness often emerges, the correlative fact must be also noticed that for those who desire it and exercise the necessary strength of will and foresight, sa^ang is also easier because of the larger income at disposal. The significance of the general statistical comparisons set out in earlier pages become* now more apparent. It has been seen that the food of the average English family would cost about ;^8 per cent, more in the United States, and that the rent would be as 207 : 100. 16576 f 2 Ixxvi GENERAL REPORT. The cost of food and rent combined (allotting weights of four and one respectively, these weights being those derived from the British budgets) wt)uld therefore be 52 per cent. greater in the United States than in England and Wales ; but these heavier relative charges on working-class income have been accompanied by weekly wages in American towns as indicated by the three trade-groups — building, engineering and printing — which are as 230 : 100. Thus, according to this ratio, the money earnings of the workman in the United States are rather more than 2\ times as great as in England and AVales, and, since there is no proof that employment is more intermittent in the United States than in this country, a much greater margin is available, even when allowance has been made for the increased expenditure on food and rent. It is with the real significance of this margin that the preceding paragraphs have been concerned. The margin is clearly large, making possible a command of the necessaries and conveniences and minor luxuries of life that is both nominally and really greater than that enjoyed by the corresponding class in this country, although the eflfective margin is itself, in practice, curtailed by a scale of expenditure to some extent necessarily and to some extent voluntarily adopted in accordance with a different and a higher standard of material comfort. APPENDICES 10 GENERAL REPORT. Ixxvii PAGE I.— INDEX NUMBERS OF WAGES, RENTS AND RETAIL FOOD PRICES— (A.) TOWNS GROUPED GEOGRAPHICALLY Ixxviii (B.) TOWNS GROUPED ACCORDING TO POPULATION Ixxix (C.) TOWNS ARRANGED ALPHABETICALLY Ixxx II.— BUDGETS— (A, 1.) AMERICAN-BRITISH (NORTHERN) GROUP Ixxxi (A. 2.) AMERICAN-BRITISH (SOUTHERN) GROUP Ixxxii (A. 3.) AMERICAN (SOUTHERN)— BROKEN FAMILIES Ixxxiii (B.) GERMAN GROUP .• Ixxxiv (C.) SCANDINAVIAN GROUP Ixxxv (D.) SOUTH EUROPEAN GROUP Ixxxvi (E.) SLAVONIC AND ALLIED PEOPLES GROUP Ixxxvii (F.) JEWISH GROUP Ixxxviii (G. 1.) NEGRO (NORTHERN) GROUP Ixxxix (G. 2.) NEGRO (SOUTHERN) GROUP xo UNITED KINGDOM— CONDENSED BUDGETS xci 16576 /» Ixxviii APPENDICES TO GENERAL REPORT. I.— INDEX NUMBERS OF WAGES, RENTS AND RETAIL FOOD PRICES. (A.) Towns grouped Geographically. Wages. Building. Engineering. Printing. Rents ■ Rents. Food and Food Town. Prices Hod Hand Com- Skilled Men. Carriera and Brick- layers' Labourers. Skilled Men. Unskilled Labourers. Composi- tors (Job Work). bined.t New York 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 New England Towns : Boston 91 77 81 102 90 82 105 99 Brockton 88 102 75 97 83 83 106 100 Fall River 83 64 80 85 76 55 101 90 Lawrence 76 82 78 104 71 64 105 95 Lowell 77 87 68 77 79 52 102 90 Providence 79 73 79 90 90 59 97 88 Mean 82 81 77 93 82 66 103 94 Other Eastern Towns : Baltimoi-e 87 86{ 83 86 80 54 97 86 Newark 98 93 87 104 94 78 106 99 Patei-son 91 73 80 82 86 62 100 91 Philadelphia • 86 87J 85 92 86 79 96 92 Mean 91 83 84 91 87 68 100 92 Oentral Towns : Cincinnati 94 100 85 95 86 93 92 92 Cleveland 96 73 86 97 93 64 99 90 Detroit ... 81 64 80 101 83 57 91 83 Louisville 86 86t 83 97 89 71 99 92 Miincie 83 80 81 97 77 44 98 85 Pittsbui^ , ■98 102 95 90 90 94 102 100 Mean 90 84 85 96 86 71 97 90 31iddle West Towns : Chicago 110 93 100 108 100 70 94 88 Dulnth 103 98 95 113 95 s 96 s< Milwaukee 95 87 83 99 81 66 93 86 Minneapolis — St. Paul ... 97 74 88 109 89 77 95 91 St. Louis lOS 117t 89 97 87 101 97 98 Mean 103 88 91 105 90 79 95 n Southern Towns : Atlanta .. 79 45 87 70} 86 76 109 101 Augusta 73 33+ 59:: 82 ^ 86 58 103 92 Birmingham 97 94 86 81 102 97 Memphis 105 SO} 96 85} 90 93 101 99 New Orleans 94 •S7+ 94 104} 90 72 100 93 Savannah 70 .-iO} 96 82} 79 71 104 96 Mean 87 — 92 — 86 75 103 96 * For details of wages, rents and prices on which these index numbers are l)ased, see pp. :{yr)-403. t In the construction of this index number food prices have been given a weight of three and rents a weight of one. * This index number relates to the wages of negroo3 and has not been utilised in the computation of group averages. § Cannot be stated. Sue p. xxii. INDEX NUMBERS. Ixxix L— INDEX NUMBERS OF WAGES, RENTS AND RETAIL FOOD PRICES.' (B.) Towns grouped according to Population. Wages. Building. Engineering. Printing. Rents Population Rents. Food Food Town. in 1910. Hod- Hand Prices. Prices Skilled Men. Carriers and Brick- layers' Labourers. Skilled Men. Unskilled Labourers. Com- positors (Job Work). tom- bined.t New York 4,766,883 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 Other Towns with more than 500,000 inhabi- tants : Chicago 2,185,28;$ 110 93 100 108 100 70 94 88 Philadelphia 1,549,008 86 m 85 92 86 79 96 92 St. Louis 687,029 108 117J 89 97 87 101 97 98 Boston 670,585 91 77 81 102 90 82 105 99 Cleveland 560,66:^ 96 73 86 97 93 64 99 90 Baltimore 558,485 87 86t 83 86 80 54 97 86 Pittsburg 533,905 98 102 95 90 90 94 102 100 Minneapolis-St. Paul... 516,152 97 74 88 109 89 77 95 91 Mean 97 84 88 98 89 78 98 93 Towns with from 250,000 to 500,000 inhabi- tants : Detroit ... 465,765 81 64 80 101 83 57 91 83 Milwaukee 373,857 95 87 83 99 81 66 93 86 Cincinnati 364,463 94 100 85 95 86 93 92 92 Newark 347,469 98 93 87 104 94 78 106 99 New Orleans 339,075 94 87J 94 104+ 90 72 100 93 Mean 92 ■ 86 86 100 87 73 ^^ 90 Towns with from 100,000 to 250,000 inhabi- tants : Providence 224,326 79 73 79 90 90 59 97 88 Louisville 223,928 86 86t 83 97 89 71 99 92 Atlanta 154,839 79 45f 87 70t 86 76 109 101 Birmingham 132,685 97 59: 94 67t 86 81 102 97 Memphis 131,105 105 80$ 96 85t 90 93 101 99 Paterson 125,600 91 73 80 82 86 62 100 91 Fall River 119,295 83 64 80 85 76 55 101 90 Lowell 106,294 77 87 68 77 79 52 102 90 Mean 87 74 83 86 85 69 101 93 Towns with under 100,000 inhabitants : Lawrence 85,892 76 82 78 104 71 64 105 95 Duluth 78,466 103 98 95 113 95 § 96 § Savannah 65,064 76 50t 96 82$ 79 71 104 96 Brockton 56,878 88 102 75 97 83 83 106 100 Augusta 41,040 73 33{ 82 60J 86 58 103 92 Muncie 24,005 83 80 81 97 77 44 98 85 Mean 83 91 85 103 82 1 64 102 93 * For details of wages, rents and prices on which these index numbers are based see pp. 395-403. t In the construction of this index number food prices have been given a weight of three and rents a weight of one. + This index number relates to the wages of negroes, and has not been utilised in the computation of group averages. § Cannot be stated. See p. xxii. 16576 fi Ixxx GENERAL REPORT — ^APPENDIX I. I— INDEX NUMBERS OF WAGES, RENTS AND RETAIL FOOD PRICES.* (0.) Towns arranged Alphabetically. Wapres. Itents. Food Prices. Building. Engineering. Printing. Rents and Food Town. Skilled Men. Hod Carriers and Brick- layers' Labourers. Skilled Men. i 1 Unskilled Labourers. 1 i Hand Composi- tors (Job Work). Prices Com- bined.t Atlanta 79 45$ 87 70$ 86 76 109 101 Augusta .. 73 33J 82 60$ 86 58 103 92 Baltimore 87 86+ 83 86 80 54 97 ^6 Birmingham 97 59J 67$ 86 81 102 97 Boston 91 77 81 102 90 82 105 99 Brockton 88 102 75 97 83 83 106 100 Chicago 110 93 100 108 100 70 94 88 Cincinnati 94 100 85 95 86 93 92 92 Cleveland 96 73 86 97 93 64 99 90 Detroit 81 64 80 101 83 57 91 83 Duluth 103 98 95 113 95 § 96 § FallRiTer 83 64 80 85 76 55 101 90 Lawrence 76 82 78 104 71 64 105 95 Louisville ... 86 86J 83 97 89 71 99 92 Lowell 77 87 68 77 79 52 102 90 Memphis 105 80J 96 85$ 90 93 101 99 Milwaukee 9.5 87 83 99 81 66 93 86 Minneapolis — St. Paul ... 97 74 88 109 89 77 95 91 Muncie 83 80 81 97 77 44 98 85 New Orleans 94 87$ 94 104$ 90 72 100 93 New York 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 Newark 98 93 87 104 94 78 106 99 Patereon 91 73 80 82 86 62 100 91 Philadelphia 86 87$ 85 92 86 79 96 92 Pittsburg 98 102 95 90 90 94 102 100 Providence 79 73 79 90 90 59 97 88 St. Louis 108 117$ 89 97 87 101 97 98 Savannah 76 .■iO$ % 82$ 79 71 104 96 * For details of wages, rents and prices on which these index numbers are based «ce pp. 39.'>-403, t In the construction of this index number food prices have been given a weight of three and rents a weight of one. J This index number relates to the wages of negroes, g Cannot be stated. See p. xxii. BUDGETS. Ixxxi II.— BUDGETS.* (A. 1.) AMERICAN-BRITISH (NORTHERN) GROUP. Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under £2. CI.) £2 and under £3. (2.) £3 and under £4. (3.) £4 and under £5. £5 and under £(>. (5.) £(1 and under £7. f6.-) £7 and under £8. (7.) £8 and over. (8.) No. of Budgets [Total 3,215]. 67 532 1,036 545 437 224 131 243 Percentage of Total No. of Budgets. 2-08 16-55 32-22 16-95 • 13-59 6-97 4-08 7 -.56 Average No. of Children living at home. 1-78 2-06 2-46 2-88 3-07 3-63 3-82 4-20 Average No. of Persons living at home. Average Weekly Earnings of Husband. 3-78 £ .•*. d. 1 13 ^ 4-08 £ «. d. 2 7 4| 4-54 £ s. d. 3 2 3i 5-02 £ s. d. 3 10 H 5-27 £ s. d. 3 18 6i 5-82 £ s. d. 3 18 8 6-10 £ s. d. 4 2 1^ 6-38 £ s. d. 4 11 9i Average Weekly Earnings of Wife. 1 1 1 Oi 1 24 11^ 2 3 13 1 n 1 6 Average Weekly Earnings of Children — Male 3^ lU 2 2^ 7 7 12 2| 14 7^ 1 12 9 3 12 3 Female 6 9 1 6i 3 6 5 1% 13 8 15 5 16 6 Average Weekly Other In- 7 11 2 7 5 9 8 4| 10 9 16 5 14 ^ come. Average Total Income... 1 16 2 11 0| 3 9 10 4 8 5 5 7 3 6 8 lU 7 8 6 10 6 10 Quantity of Meat, Poultry, and Fish purchased ^;er capita per annum. Food billt per capita per week. lb. 109-25 s. d. 4 lOf lb. 145-08 8. d. 5 111 lb. 160-11 s. d. 6 % lb. 165-15 s. d. 7 3 lb. 173-58 s. d. 7 8i lb. 176-33 s. d. 7 lOi lb. 195-42 s. d. 8 4| lb. 211-90 s. d. 9 2^ Percentage of Family In- come spent on : — (1.) Meat (including poultry and fish). (2.) Food of all kindsf (excluding wine, beer and spirits). (3.) Rent 12-95 .51-39 19-53 13-49 47-62 17-74 12-22 44-15 16-66 11 -.36 41-19 15-34 10-50 37-78 14 04 9-82 35-53 12 01 10-23 34-49 12-04 8-28 28-40 9-91 (4.) Foodt and Rent combined. 70-93 65-36 60-81 56-53 51-82 47-54 46-53 38-31 Percentage balance after paying for food and rent. 29-08 34-64 39 19 43-47 48-18 52-46 53-47 61-69 For details relating to this group of budgets corresponding with the details given for the other budget-groups on the following pages, see General Report, pp. xliv-lv. • For full details of expenditure on and consumption of food see pp. 404-423. t Including meals away from home. Ixxxii GENERAL REPORT — APPENDIX II. (A.2.) AMER[CAN-BRITISH (SOUTHERN) GROUP Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under £2 and £3 and £4 and £5 and 1 £6 and £7 and £8 and ' A2. under £3. under £4. under £5. under £6.: under £7. under £8. over. (l.l (2.) (3.) (O (•^.) 1 (6.) (7.) (8.) No. of Budgets [Total 580] 32 116 131 109 80 42 ' 27 43 Percentage of total No. ot Budgets 5-52 20-00 22-59 j 18-79 13-79 7-21 4-66 7-41 Average No. of Children living at home 1-81 2-33 2-68 3-07 3-43 3-92 4-11 4-04 „ „ Persons 3-84 4-42 4-84 ; 5-16 5-60 6-09 6-48 6-37 £ «. d. £ K. d. £ «. rf. £ «. d. £ «. d. £ ». i. £ ». d. £ «. d. Average Weekly Earnings of Husband ... 1 10 9J 2 3 2 3 1 iit 3 12 9 4 4 3 4 9 9 4 7 3 6 3 Oi „ „ Wife 2 8 2 7 1 11 2 7 2 1 1 8 ^— 2 9i „ „ „ Children- 1 Male ... 2 1 7 2 10 5 11 10 8i 1 1 2 1 14 2 8 1 Female... 9J 1 5 2 1 2 4i 3 Hi 6 9 9 4 5 5 „ Ocher Income 2J 1 \\ 2 3 4 1 6 11 8 U 17 10 1 4 6t Total Income 1 14 7J 2 9 lOJ 3 10 6i 4 7 8i 5 7 11 6 8 3 7 8 5 10 3 104 lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. Quantity of meat jxmltry and fish pur- 106-44 127-71 147-52 160-42 164-84 174-77 182-52 227-76 chased ^jee capita per annvni. K. d. *. d. «. d. ». d. J*, d. *. d. *. d. a. d. Food bill* per capita per week 4 3i 5 4 6 7 6 11 7 2J 7 2 7 7i 9 IJ Percentage of Family Income spent on: — Meat (including poultry and fish) 12 -K) 12-30 11-85 11-01 10-34 10-10 9-65 8-63 Food of all kinds* (excluding wine, 47-84 47-23 45-12 40-64 37-40 34-01 33-34 28-47 beer and spirits). Rent 12-33 12 -4.5 14-03 13-86 12-71 12-34 11-47 !)•.->(; Food* and Rent combined 60 17 59-68 59 15 54-50 50-11 46-38 44-81 38-03 Percentage balance after paying for 39-83 40-32 40-85 45-50 49-89 53 -6a 55-19 61-97 food and rent. • Including meals away from home. This Table shows the results of an analysis of the budgets of 580 families (533 American, 43 British-born and i Canadian) derived from six Southern towns, as follows : — Atlanta (58) ; Augusta (118) ; Birmingham (83) ; Memphis (135) ; New Orleans (104) ; Savannah (82). The total number of persons represented is 2,985 of whom 922 are male and 815 female children and 93 "other i)ersons " sharing the family food. The ratio of male to female children is as 1-13 is to 1. It will be noticed that the children's earnings begin to be important in the incomes between £5 and £6, in which they constitute 13(> per cent, of the total : the proportion ia 21-8 per cent, in the next class, 29-2 in the £7 and under £8 class, 26-2 per cent, in the highest class, and 14-8 per cent, for all budgets. The percentage of families owning their houses is, for the whole group, 16-9 per cent. ; the variations within the group are very great. The number of rooms occupied per family averages 43, and the average number of persons per room 1-2. The average consiimption of purchased wlieaten hread is for the whole group 7-4 lb. per family or 1-44 \h. per cnjrita weekly. The consumption per capita in the towns which comprise the group exhibits very great extremes, e.g., Americans in Augusta, 0-29 lb. ; in Birmingham, 0-31 lb. ; in Atlanta, 0-45 lb. ; in Memphis. 138 lb. : in Savannah, l-(il lb. ; and in New Orleans, 4-48 lb. ; British-bom, in New Orleans, 1-flO lb. It may be noted that the budgets of Americans in Augusta show an average weekly income per capita of ICs. 8J(i. and those of Americans in New Orleans one of lH.v. 1 Jrf., while those of British-bom in New Orleans show an income per capita of 1 U. 8(i. The consumption of rye hread is small, barely exceeding \ lb. per family weekly for the whole group, while that of "other bread " is almost negligible. The average weekly consumption of wlieateit Jlimr per family is 13-36 lb. or 259 lb. per capita for the whole group. The British-born in New Orleans are shown as using 0-26 lb. flour per capita weekly, the Americans in Birmingham as using 4-45 lb. ; the Americans in New Orleans 0-62 lb. : in Savannah 1-56 lb. ; in Atlanta 3-76 lb. ; in Augusta 367 lb. ; and in Memphis 2-G2 lb. The average consumption of all bread and all flour for the group is 4-19 lb. per capita weekly, but there is considerable irregularity as between the various income classes : the minimum is in the lowest income class, viz., 332 lb., and the maximum of 4-85 lb. in the classes £3 and under £4 and £7- and under £8. The average weekly consumption of maize and maize meal per family for the whole group is 493 lb. or 0-96 lb. per capita. The consumption of cakeii, cracltem and douijhnutx shows a progressive rise with the income and an average of 1-56 lb. per family for the whole group ; that of rolU, buns and biscuits is 0-53 lb. jier family weekly. The consumption of rice, barleij, oatmeal, ^-e., is 4-35 lb. per family per week as compared with 2-22 lb. in the Northern group. The budgets from Savannah show an average of nearly 2 lb. per capita per week, or more than twice the average of any other town in this group. The average consumption of potatoes {Irislt) is 103 lb. per family per week, which is less than half the consumption shown by the Northern Group. Snoeet potatoes appear to be almost as important an article of diet as Irish potatoes, the average consumption being 79 lb. per family per week. The average consumption of all meat, including sansafic and poultry but excluding Jish, is 14-5 lb. per family weekly or 146-5 lb. per capita per annum. The consumption per capita in the eight income classes is as follows : — No. 1, 95-9 lb. ; No. 2, 116-2 lb. ; No. 3, 137-8 lb. ; No. 4, 144-4 lb. ; No. 5, 153-1 lb. ; No. 6, 163-8 lb. ; No. 7, 167-8 ,- No. 8, 210-3 lb. Beef, pork and Aflfow form 84-0 per cent, of the total consumed. The percentage of income spent on vieat of all hinds, poultry and Jish, ranges from 12-3 per cent, in the 2nd. income class to 8-6 in the highest class, with an average for the whole group of 10-6 per cent. The consumption of butter shown by this group is somewhat less than that in the Northern Group, viz. .- 1-9 lb per family per week as against 2-1 lb. The range by income classes is very great, from a little over } lb. in the lowest class to nearly 3J lb. in the highest class. A large consumption of lard, suet and dripping is an important feature of these Southern budgets, 3-2 lb. being used per family per week, as compared with 1-4 lb. in the Northern Group. The budgets show a low consumption of fresh milk as compared with the Northern Group, and a correspondingly high consumption of condensed milk, the figures being 29 qts. and 1'5 lb. per family per week respectively, while for the Northern Group they are 5-3 qts. and 0-7 lb. BUDGETS. Ixxxiii (A. 3.) A:\IE1UCAN (SOUTHERN)— broken FAMILIES. Weekly Family Income. , Limits oi Under £2 and £3 and £4 and £5 and £6 and £7 and £8 and £2. under £3. under £4. under £5. under £6. under £7. under £8. over. (1.) C2.) (3.) (4.) (5.) (?.)_ (7.) (8.) Xo. of Budgets [Total i6] 13 7 12 9 4 1 Percentage of total \o. of BudgetJ 2S-26 15-22 26-09 19-56 8-70 2-17 Average No. of Children living at home 2-46 H-00 3-00 3-78 11 tt Persons .. ,, :!-46 £ .«. d. 4-29 £ *. d. 4-17 £ s. d. 4-89 £ ». d. Average Weekly Earnings of Husband ... — — — — „ „ .. Wife or 11 6i fi 10 9 9 3 8i Widow. „ .. .. Children — 1 "S Male ... 3 fi 1 12 Oi 1 fi 3 2 2 11 .2 Female... 12 3J 7 9 1 6 4i 11 1 a C3 ., Other Income 5 7J 2 Hi 12 2 1 10 9i ly repret 1 0) 1 Total Income 1 12 lli 2 9 7 3 14 6} 4 8 6 2 lb. lb. lb. lb. 13 1 a. Quantity of meat, poultry and fish pur- 99-48 102-28 196-14 238-26 'S .2 o *j jj chased />er capita per annum. ES 3 suffi o >5 «. d. g. d. «. d. *. d. Food bill* per capita per week ... 4 llj 4 11 7 8i 9 05 o -.J o Percentage of Family Income spent on: — ^, iz; Meat (including poultry and fish) 10-65 9-96 12-00 15-31 Foofl of all kinds* (excluding wine, 52-09 42-46 42-99 49-86 beer and spirits). Rent 1G18 18-01 12-17 12-43 Food' and Rent combined 68-27 60-47 55-16 62-29 Percentage balance after paying for food 31-73 39-53 44-84 37-71 and rent. * Including meals away from home. This group is composed of 46 American families, in which the head of the family is deceased or away from home, and which are supported mainly by the earnings of either the children and the wife or widow ; 35 of these budgets are from Augusta and Xew Orleans. The group contains 71 male and 09 female children. Thirty-five males and 40 females are under 16 years of age and of these seven of each sex are earning. Of the 10 male and 19 female children over 10 but under 21 years of age, 15 males and 16 females are earning, while of the 20 male and 10 female children of and over 21 years of age, 17 males and all the females are earning. The income of the group is made up as follows : — Earnings of wives or widows 14-5 per cent. ; of male children 42-2 per cent. ; of female children 25-7 per cent. ; the balance of 170 jjer cent, consisting of allowances from absent husbands and from relatives, receipts from boarders, credited rent of houses owned and other small receipts. Of the wives or widows 6 work in cotton mills and earn an average of 25*. Orf. weekly ; 6 are washerwomen with an average of Ids. weekly ; 3 are seamstresses, earning an average of 25.<. weekly and one earns a like amount by dressing ladies' hair. The remaining 30 do not work for wages. The occupations of the male children are not so fully given, but of 39 at work 9 are cotton mill workers, with average earnings of 10.v. id. weekly ; 3 are railway employees, earning an average of 37*t. Orf. ; 3 are telephone clerks with an average weekly wage of 34,<. : 2 are merchants' clerks, averaging OS*, weekly ; 2 woodworkers, averaging aix., and one a machinist who returns his weekly earnings at 104*. Of the female children 10 are cotton mill workers, earning an average of 2.5.«. 2 and £6 and £7 and £8 and £2. under £3. under £4. under £5. under £6. under £7. under £8. over. _ (1.) (2.) (3.) (4.) (5.) (6.) (7.) (8.) No. of Budgets [Total 906] 15 163 246 167 123 60 43 89 Percentage of total No. of Budgets 1-6G 17-99 27-15 18-43 13-58 6-62 4-75 9-82 Average No. of Children living at home 1-73 2-26 2-44 2-88 3-38 3-73 3-72 4-65 ,, „ Persons „ „ 3-67 4-27 4-54 5-01 5-47 5-95 5-86 6-72 £ ». d. £ s. d. £ *. d. £ K d. £ tt. d. £ ». d. £ *. d. £ s. d. Average Weekly Earnings of Husband ... 1 10 5 2 6 2 3 8i 3 7 6J 3 12 7i 3 11 OJ 3 16 3 4 2 Oi „ „ „ Wife — 1 5 10 1 8i 1 11 6J 10 2 1 „ „ „ Children- Male 1 9J 2 10 7 8J 17 7 1 11 1 1 19 2i 4 6 2 Female ... 8 lOJ 2} 1 3i 4 9 8 7J 11 10 1 6 1 14 9 „ Other Income U 1 9 1 3J 3 6J 6 4 6 8 13 10 10 7} 11 n Total Income 1 16 OJ 2 10 10.i 3 9 2} 4 8 OJ 5 7 5 6 8 4 7 7 5 10 16 3 lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. Quantity of meat, poultry and fish pur- 138-06 146-95 169-88 170-66 169-73 183-66 185-69 190-63 chased 2><'i' capita per annum. K. (1. .«. (/. s. d. *. d. ». d. s. d. n. d. «. d. Food bill* per capita per week 5 1 5 8J 6 y 6 lOJ 7 1 7 Hi 8 Oi 8 ^ Percentage of Family Income spent on : — Meat (including poultry and fish) ... 13-83 13-88 13-03 11-73 10-54 10-50 9-46 7-47 Food of all kinds* (excluding wine, 50-98 47-95 44-29 39-16 36-13 36-90 31-92 25-73 beer and spirits). Rent 19-21 16-58 i.-.-4r, 14-63 13-23 11-37 9-74 7-94 Food* and Bent combined 70-19 64-53 59-74 53-79 49-36 48-27 41-66 33-67 Percentage balance after paying for food 29-81 35-47 40-26 46-21 50-64 51-73 58-34 66-38 and rent. 1 * Including meals away from home. This group is composed of 9li6 families, living in 19 towns, the largest numbers of budgets being from Chicago (174), Pittsburg (132), New York (86), Cleveland (78), Milwaukee (71), Detroit (64), St. Louis (57), Newark (54) and Philadelphia (53). In all 4,584 persons are included, of whom 1,404 are male and 1,285 female children and 107 " other persons" sharing the family food. The ratio of male to female children is as 1-09 is to 1. In the lowest income class the husband's earnings form 84-4 per cent, of the total family income, in the highest barely 38 per cent. The wife's earnings are small throughout, while the children provide from 1075 per cent, of the family income in the lowest class to 56 per cent, in the highest. The " other income," which is very largely the credited rent of houses owned, averages 6 per cent. The percentage of families owning their houses is, for the whole group, 26, but in each of the last three income classes it is over 50, The average number of rooms occupied per family is 4-71, the average number of persons per room being 1-1, Though the consumption of wheaten hread tends to rise with the income, this rise is fluctuating and irregular. The average for the whole group is 1-33 lb. per capita weekly, the minimum being l-l.'i lb. in the 6th. income class, and the maximum 1-40 lb, in the 2nd. The consumption of rye bread , which stands to that of wheatenas 1 is to 1-66, is characteristic and illustrates the survival of a national taste in a foreign land. The average consumption for the whole group is a little over f lb. 2^cr capita weekly ; in the highest class a trifle less than J lb. and in the lowest a trifle more than 1 lb. The consumption of " other hread " is small and very irregular, not averaging J lb, per family weekly, though in Class 5 it approaches } lb. The average consumption of wheofen flour is 92 lb. per family and 182 lb. per capita weekly for the whole group, the maximum per capita being 2-6 lb. in Class 1 and the minimum 1-72 lb. in Class 4. The consumption of rye flour and hucliitilieat flmir is small. "The weekly consumption per capita of all hread and flour is 4-11 lb. The maximum is 4-94 lb. in Class 1 and the minimum 3-71 lb. in Class 8. The average consumption of maize and miiize meal is 0-63 lb. per family weekly. The average consumption of caken, rrachert and douiiknuts per family is about J lb. weekly per capita, and this is likewise the average consumption of nilh^ hulls and biscuiin. There is a certain uniformity in the consumption per family of rice, barley, sayo, ^-c, the variation from the average of 1 lb. weekly being very small. The average weekly consumption of oatmeal and hreakfaxt cereals per family is practically 1 lb. The weekly average consumption of Iritih potatoes is 23-4 lb. per family or 4-6 lb. per capita. The range ^«- capita is between 3-1 lb. in the 1st, income class and 5-1 lb. in the 7th. class. The average weekly consumption of sweet potatoes is 1 lb. per family. The average consumption of all kinds of meat, including sausage and poultry but excluding flt/i, is 15-4 lb. per family weekly or 158-6 lb. per capita per annum, the lowest average consumption being 132 lb. in the 1st. income class and the highest 178 lb. in the 8th. class. Of the meat consumed 42-5 per cent, is beef, 18-0 per cent, pork, lO'l per cent, real, 8-7 per cent, bacon and ham, 7-7 per cent, sautage, 7-2 per cent, mutton, and 5-8 per cvat. poultry. "The annual consumption ot Jish per capita averages for the whole group 12-2 lb,, ranging from 5*7 lb. in the lowest to 15-1 lb. in the 7th. income class. 'The average consumption of all meat, poultry and flsh per capita per annum is 170-8 lb., and the range is from 138 lb. in the lowest to 191 lb. in the highest income class. The average annual consumption of lard, snet and dripping is 15 lb. per capita, being 13-9 lb. io the highest income class and 20-3 lb. in the lowest. The amount of butter consumed per family rises more or less steadily with the income, the average of the group being 18'4 lb. per capita per annum ; in the lowest income class it is 12 lb. per capita and in the highest 24 J lb. The average consumption of cheese for the whole group is nearly 36 lb, per family or a little over 7 lb. per capita per annum . The average consumption of fresh milk per capita per annum is 60 qts,, being 48J qts, in the lowest income class and 63 qts. in the highest. The use of condensed milk is very irregular ; the average is a little less than 5J lb. per capita j^er annum, heiug 7i Ih. in the 2nd. income class and only 2i lb. in the highest class. The weekly family average of eggs consumed is 21-5 or 221 eggs j'cr capita per annum. In the lowest class the number is 142 and in the highest 304. The consumption of tea is small, viz,, 8'8 lb. per family per annum or Ij lb. per capita. The annual consumption of coffee 2>er capita is 13-7 lb., the families in the lowest income class consuming 14-2 lb. and those in the highest 14-3 lb. Of sugar 43 lb. per capita are consumed annually on the average of the whole group. The variations from this average are small, 39-7 lb, being consumed in the lowest income class and 428 lb, in the highest, while in the 7th. class the average is 47-3 lb. BUDGETS. Ixxxv (C.) SCAXDI^fAVIAN GROUP. Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under > £2 and ' £3 and j &i and | £.", and j £6 and £2. under £8. under £4.!under £5. under £t>.!under £7 (1.) i (2.) i (S.) I a.-) ! (5.) (B.) £7 and £8 and under £«. over. (7.-) I (8.) No. of Budgets [Total 3.S.)] Percentage of total No. of budgets Average No. of Children living at home „ „ Persons Average Weekly Earnings of Husband ... „ „ „ Wife „ „ „ Children — Male ... Female... „ Other Income Total Income Quantity of meat, poultry and fish pur- chased per capita per annum. Food hill* I'lr capita pet week Percentage of Family Income spent on : — Meat (including poultry and fish) Food of all kinds* (excluding wine, beer and spirits). Rent Food* and Rent combined Percentage balance after paying for food and rent. 35 10-45 2-06 4-09 £ s. d. 2 10 3 5 7 8 2 11 11 lb. l.i7-25 i. d. 6 If 14-61 48-50 18-19 66-69 33-31 26-57 2 -.54 4-60 s. d. 3 li 1 ^ llj 1 5i 2 5i 3 9 6i lb. 160-99 *. d. 6 7i 11-87 43-75 15-22 58-97 41-03 73 21-79 3-04 5-15 £ K. d. 3 10 lOJ 1 OJ 5 10 4 7J 5 11 4 8 3J lb. 1.52-31 ». d. 6 10.J 10-80 40-09 14-03 54-12 45-88 61 18-21 3 -.59 6-02 £ ^. d. 3 15 4 1 2J 7 1 7 2J 16 28 8-36 3-78 5-89 £ ». d. 4 13 3 15 li 8 4 11 8 6 10 6 8 4J lb. 151-11 S. d. 6 7i 10-49 37-25 14-00 51-85 48-75 lb. 162-81 s. d. 7 5 9 -.33 34-08 12-20 46-28 53-72 17 5-07 4-23 6-35 & s. d. 5 1 8 19 'JJ 10 8 15 6 7 7 7i lb. 162-97 s. d. 7 7i 8-55 32-89 12-64 45-53 54-47 32 9-55 3-69 6-00 £ t. d. 4 2 lOJ 1 5J 3 12 8i 1 6 1 3 3 10 6 3i lb. 189-59 s. d. 8 7i 7-07 25-11 8-82 33-93 66-07 * Including meals away from home. This group is composed of 335 families, of which 231 are Swedish, 96 Norwegian and 8 Danish, derived from 16 towns. These families contain a total of 1,760 persons, of whom 506 are male children and 529 femala children and 55 "other persons " sharing the family food. The ratio of male to female children is as 1 is to 1-05. More than one-third (viz., 84) of the Swedish budgets were obtained from Minneapolis— St. Paul ; 24 were from New York and the same number from Duluth, 22 from Boston, 17 from Chicago and 16 from Providence ; of the Norwegian budgets 51 were obtained from Minneapolis — St. Paul and 16 from Chicago. The bulk of the budgets (67 per cent, of the total) represent incomes between £3 and £6. There are no families with incomes of less than £2 per week. The percentage of the total family income earned by the husband for the whole group is 71-7 as compared with 96-8 in the lowest income class, 72-6 in the 6th. class and 40-2 in the highest class. The contributions of the children to the family income are small in classes 2 and 3, while in the highest class they form no less than 48 per cent, of the total family income or an average of £4 18*. S^d. per family. In this class 66 per cent, of the male children and 45 per cent, of the female children are wage-earners. The children's earnings begin to be important in the 4th. class, and in the 6th. and 7th. classes they form 18-3 and 20-6 per cent, respectively of the total. The wives' earnings are unimportant. The " other income," most of which is derived from the credited rent of houses owned, ranges from 1-3 i)er cent, to 11-3 per cent. The percentage of families in this group owning their houses is 26-9, but in each of the last four income classes it is well over 40. The average number of rooms occupied per family is 5, and the average number of persons in each family amounts to 5-25. The consumption of bought wheuten hvead is small, the average for the group being O-tlO lb. per rapita weekly, the Scandinavian families as a rule baking a very large proportion of their bread at home. Itije hriud is consumed to a less extent than wheaten bread, the general average being 043 lb. per capita weekly. '• Other bread " is only consumed in three income classes, and in these the quantity is negligible. As the practice of home-baking is general among Scandinavian families, the amount of wlieateit flour purchased is large, the average consumption per family weekly for the whole group being 128 lb. or 2-43 lb. per capita. The Scandinavians are the largest consumers of rye flour, hitckwhcat flour and "otlmr flour" shown by the budgets, the average weekly combined consumption per family being 2-48 lb. ; the maximum consumption is 4'IG lb. in the 6th. income class, and the minimum 1-47 in the 7th. class. The weekly consumption of all bread and flour per family rises more or less regularly from 1614 lb. in the lowest income class to 26-11 lb. in the highest, or 3'95 lb. and 4-:!.j lb. per capita respectively, the general average being 3-95 lb. These figures apparently bear no relation to income, however, the high consumption in •class 8 being more than counterbalanced by the greater number of adults contained therein. The consumption of caken, rolls, biscuits, ^x., amounts to 3-25 lb. weekly per family, and is most conspicuous in the 7th. and 8th. income classes, for which the figures are 4-72 and 4-89 lb. respectively. The average weekly consumption of Irieh potatoes per family is 22-0 lb., equal to 418 lb. per capita. The average consumption of all meat, including satisage and poultry but excluding /«/*, is 14-4 lb. per family weekly or 142-9 lb. 7«'r capita per animm. The quantities in income classes 2-7 only range from 1368 lb. to 144-4 lb. jjer capita per jijinum. In the highest class the quantity is 167 lb., an increase no doubt due to the higher average age of the children. 41-5 per cent, of the meat consumed is beef and 19-0 per cent. pork. The average annual consumption of flsh is 17-3 lb. per capita. As regards the remaining foodstuffs consumed by Scandinavian families, the consumption of butter, fresh milk and eggs is the most characteristic feature. The consumption of butter amounts to 2-88 lb. per family per week, or 28-5 \h. per capita per annum, as compared with 21-6 lb. per annum in the American-British Northern Group. The minimum is found in the lowest income class (22-9 lb.) and the maximum in the 7th. class (31-2 lb.). This group of budgets shows a higher consumption of fresh milk than any other, the average being 8-3 qts. per family per week, or 82 qts. per capita 2)er annum. The minimum consumption is 75 qts. per capita in the 2ad. income class, and the maximum 90 qts. in the 7th. class. The weekly family avei-age consumption of eggs is 25-8 or 2i5 eggs per capita per annum. The quantity per family rises steadily as the income increases, ranging from 17-8 to 35-6 eggs weekly. Ixxxvi GKNERAL REPORT — APPENDIX II. (D.) SOUTH EUROPEAN GROUP. Limits nt' U7odV1» - T? ;i„ X 01 WeeKlJ rniuiiy luuome. Under £2 and £3 and .£4 and 1 £5 and £6 and £7 and £S and £2. under £3.iunder £4. under £5 iuuder £S. under £7.i under £8. Over. (1.) (2.) j (3.) a.-) OV) (6.) (7.) (8.) No. of Budgets [Total B99] 60 195 i.-.i 73 50 29 16 26 Percentage of total .\o. of Budgets 10-02 32 -.V) 2.5-21 12-19 8-35 4-84 2-50 4-34 Average No. of Children living at home 2-33 2-8.-. 2-93 3-66 3-82 4-55 4-41 4-54 „ „ Persons „ „ 4- 33 4-92 r.-09 5-96 6-14 6-90 6-60 7-27 & S. (I. £ «. tl. £ »-. 5 • 2 16 7 3 1 2J 3 1 1 A 9 3} 4 9 7} 3 16 10 Wife 5} 1 9 1 11 2 5i 2 7} 1 1 2 6 ,, „ „ Children- Male ... 5J 9^0 3 10} 7 4 : 17 8 1 2 8 1 10 6 3 7 5 Female... 4 4 1 1 5 3 1} 9 4 18 4} 12 7} 2 6 5 „ Other Income 6 1 11 i 5 7 1 14 1 i 16 18 8} 14 6} 13 5} Total Income 1 15 5} 2 11 2,3 9 4}; 4 8 2} 5 « 8} 6 10 0} 7 8 5} 10 4 7} lb. lb. lb. lb. : lb. lb. lb. lb. Quantity of meat, poultry and fish pur- 128-39 153-14 172-43 185-90 ' 191-57 188-45 204-10 195-73 chased per capita per annum. 1 t *. d. *. d. , g. d. *. d. «. d. .*. d. «. d. s. d. Food-bill* per capita per week 4 6 5 5} 6 2} 6 5} 6 8 6 9 8 5} 8 5 Percentage of Family Income spent on : — 1 Meat (including poultry and fish) 13-34 13-77 13-74 12-71 12-55 11-84 10-42 7-40 Food of all kinds* (excluding wine, 49-12 46-37 L 45-10 15-87 14-35 4103 39-12 36-87 39-02 27-78 beer and spirits). Rent 17-29 12-80 10-90 fl-57 10 -.33 8-50 Food* and Rent combined 66-41 62-24 59-45 ' 53-83 50-02 46-44 49-35 36-28 Percentage balance after paying for food 33-59 37-76 ! 40-55 4617 4998 53-56 50-65 63-72 and rent. 1 ! ! * Including meals away from home. This group is composed of 598 families, of which 199 are Polish, 144 Bohemian, 84 Hungarian, 61 Russian, 52 Croatian, 32 Galician, 22 Lithuanian 2 Roumanian and 2 Servian, derived from 20 different towns. The bulk of the Polish budgets are from Detroit (29), Milwaukee (29), New York (29), Pittsburg (29), St. Louis (19), and Boston (18) ; of the Bohemian budgets, 87 are from Chicago, 25 from Cleveland and 1 5 from Baltimore ; 34 of the Hungarian, 47 of the Russian and all the Croatian and Galician budgets are from Pittsburg ; and 20 of the Lithuanian are from Baltimore. Of the total number of budgets in this group, 207 were obtained from Pittsburg. The 598 families contain a total of 3,112 i)ersons, of whom 914 are male and 823 female children and 183 "other persons" sharing the family food. The ratio of male to female children is as 1 is to 0-90. The husband's earnings form 95 per cent, of the total family income in the lowest income class ; after that the per- centage falls rapidly to 53 in the 6th class, rises to 60 in the 7th class, and then falls again to 38. For the whole group the percentage is 70. The children's earnings are not important until the 5th class is reached, where they form 25 per cent, of the total income. In the highest class the percentage is 56, and for the whole group, 18. The wives' earnings as wage- earners are unimportant. The " other income," which is derived chiefly from boarders and the credited rent of houses owned, forms nearly 10 per cent, of the total income, and is most important in classes 5 and 6, in which the number of boarders is highest. The percentage number of houses owned is high in the last five income classes, ranging from 34 in the 4th. to 50 in the 7th. For the whole group the figure is 19. The average number of rooms occupied per family is 3-96, and the average number of persons pet room 1-3. The consumption of ichcatcn bread purchased at bakers' shops is 6-3 lb. per family or 1-22 lb. per capita weekly. The quantity of ri/e bread used is almost exactly equal to that of wheaten bread, viz., 1-20 lb. per capita weekly. Neither in thR ease of wheaten bread nor in that of rye does the consumption appear to bear any relation to the amount of income. The average quantity of wheaten Jtutir consumed per family per week amounts to 9-1 lb. for the whole group. The consumption rises rapidly from 4-7 lb. in the lowest class to 13'8 lb. in the 7th. class and falls to 8-9 lb. in the highest class. The combined quantity of rye flour, buckwheat flunr and " other flour " amounts to 1-6 lb. per family weekly. By far the largest consumption is shown by the Bohemian budgets. The consumption of all bread a,nd flour is 4-51 Ib.jter capita weekly. The average expenditure on ijreeii and caimed vegetables is much lower than in the American-British Northern Group 1 Quantity of meat, poultry and fish pur- 128-54 153- 19 181-43 209-04 181-58 186-11 £ .s chased per capita per annum. s *. d. .«. d. >. d. *. d. ». d. *. d. s Food bill* ^e»' crtpiYrt per week i Oi 5 Of 5 7i 6 %\ 6 7J 5 11 m .4:) 42 ercentage of Family Income spent on : — O o Meat (including poultry and fish) 13-35 14-14 15-16 14-66 12-94 11-02 Food of all kinds* (excluding wine, 42-15 43-91 41-11 37-96 37-46 30-56 beer and spirits). Rent 20-70 18-75 1 18-79 16-OG 15-60 12-88 Food* and Rent combined 62-91 62-66 59-90 54 02 53-06 43-44 Percentage balance after paying for food 37 09 37-34 40-10 45-98 46-94 56-56 and rent. * Including meals away from home. This group of 303 negro families is derived from the following towns : Baltimore (133), Louisville (44), New York (38) Cincinnati (25), Philadelphia (18), Cleveland (16). Boston (15) and St. Louis (14). These budgets contain a total of 1,486 persons, of whom 393 are male and 444 female children and 47 "other persons" sharing the family food. The ratio of male to female children is as 1 is to 1-13. In none of the income classes represented do the husband's earnings form less than 50 per cent, ot the total family income. On the whole the percentage declines as the income rises. The children's earnings begin to be important in the 5th. class, in A'hich they form 25 per cent, of the total income. For the whole group the average amount earned per child-earner is 17«. ^d. per week, as compared with 31.y. l-jrf. in the American-British Northern Group. The proportion of the family income earned by the wife is relatively high, but decreases as the income rises from 149 per cent, in the lowest class to 7-0 per cent, in the 6th. class. For the whole group the percentage is 11-2. The " other income " is most important in class 5, in which it form 17 per cent, of the total family income. The percentage of families owning their houses is 7 for income classes 1, 2 and 3 combined, but for classes 4,5 and 6 it is 26. ... The average number of rooms occupied per family is 4-72, giving an average of almost exactly one person per room. The chief points of difference between the dietaries of negro and white families in the Northern group of towns are a smaller consumption on the part of the negroes of ialu-rg' bread, cakex, rolls, bheuits, etc., Irish potatoes, leef. hitter, cheese, fresh milk and effgs, and a larger consumption of maize meal, sweet potatoes, pig-meat, sausage, poultry, fish, lard, suet and dripping. The amount of wheaten bread purchased per family per week amounts to 4-69 lb., equal to 096 lb. per capita. Bye bread and " other bread " in these families are practically not consumed at all. Wheaten flour is used largely for home-baking. The average quantity consumed per family per week is 1081 lb., equal to 2-20 lb. per capita. The budgets show no consumption of rye flour, little of huclitckeat and "other f/oiir." The average quantity of all bread and flour consumed juc;- capita per week is 3-22 lb., rising from 268 lb. in the lowest income class to 4-07 lb. in the 6th. class. Maize and viaize meal form a much more important article of diet in the negro than in the white budget. The average quantity consumed weekly per family amounts to 304 lb. In the 1st. and 6th. income classes the quantity consumed is larger than that of wheaten bread. The average weekly consumption of cake.':, rolls, biscuits, Ifc., is 1-4 lb. per family, as compared with 4-4 in the American- British Northern Group. The qiantity per family rises from 0-60 lb. in the lowest class to 2-37 lb. in the 5th. class. The average consumption of Irish potatoes is 2-83 lb. per capita weekly. In the American-British Northern Group the corresponding figure is 4-30 lb. The average quantity of sweet potatoes, Jj-c, consumed per family weekly rises rapidly from 2-9 lb. in the lowest class to 10-3 lb. in the 6th. class, with an average of 5-5 lb. for the whole group. The average consumption of all meat, including sausage and poultry but excluding >«/;, amounts to 14'0 lb. per family per week or 147-9 lb. per capita per annum, the lowest figure being 97-6 lb. in the 1st. income class, and the highest 175-8 lb. in the 4th. class. Of the meat consumed 30-2 per cent, is beef, 21-8 per cent, bacon, ham, ^-c., 17-3 percent, jjorh. 11-0 per cent. poultry, 8-3 per cent, sausage, 8-2 per cent, mutton and 3-2 per cent. real. The consumption of /«// amounts to 2-82 lb. per family per week, or 29-9 lb. per capita per annum. The average weekly quantities of lard, suet and drippini/ and of butter consumed per family amount to 2-01 lb. and 1-14 lb. respectively. The corresponding figures for the American-British Northern Group are 1-44 lb. and 205 lb. Cheese is not eaten to any great extent in any income class, the highest consumption amounting to 0-39 lb. per family weekly in income class No. 5. The small quantities of 7nilk and eggs consumed are the most salient features of the remaining portion of the negro budget. The average weekly quantity of fresh milk consumed per family is 2-56 qts. ; no great deviation from this average is shown by the separate income classes except in the case of the lowest class, in which the quantity amounts to only 089 qts. The average number of egr/s consumed per family per week is 105. Much the lowest consumption is shown in class No. 1 (5-8), the next lowest being 89 in class No. 2. 16576 xc GENERAI, REPORT — APPENDIX II. (G. 2.) NEGRO (SOUTHERN) GROUP. Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under £2 and £3 and £4 and £5 and £6 and £7 and £8 and £2. under £3. under £4. under £5. under £6. under £7. under £8. over. CI.) (2.) (3.) (1.) (■'■>.) (G.) (7.) (8.) No. of Budgets [Total 276] 52 90 50 28 18 12 5 21 Percentage of total No. of Budgets 18-Sl 32-61 18-12 10-14 6-52 4-35 1-81 7-61 Average No. of Children living at home... 1-79 1-83 2-10 3-21 2-78 4-10 „ ,, Persons „ :i-79 3-90 4-20 5-29 4-83 6-10 £ «. (1. £ s. d. £ «. d. £ «. d. £ g. d. £ ». d. Average Weekly Earnings of Husband ... 1 y 2j 1 19 5J 2 6 6 3 1 4 3 15 4} 4 9 8 » „ 1! Wife 3 7 5 9 8 6} 9 1 8 7 12 3 „ „ „ Children- , Male ... 5 2 2 9 3i 6 11} 12 7} % 1 2 U 3J Female ... 2} 3 8i 3 5 4 a 1 3} „ ,, Other Income IJ 1 8i 4 1 7 1 11 2 D. 1 5 1 Total Income 1 13 6i 2 9 4 3 9 IJ 4 7 10} 5 7 11 9 18 7 lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. a> .s lb. Quantity of meat, poultry and fish pur- 131-20 152-98 170-92 178-88 212-47 '3 m 264-63 chased y^ffc capita per annum. s. d. s. d. s. d. ». d. s. d. m m t. d. Food bill' ^er cfl^yiifl per week ■^ iii 5 li 6 li r. 4 1 2i o O 8 7i Percentage of Family Income spent on : — y. !<5 Meat (including poultry and fish) 1.1 -.52 12-24 11 02 12-41 10-41 9-40 Food of all kinds* (excludin;? wine, 14-50 40-44 37-27 38-18 32-18 26-43 beer and spirits). Rent 13-80 11-45 12-39 11-57 11-31 9-19 Food* and rent combined 58-30 51-89 49-66 49-75 43-49 35-62 Percentage balance after paying for food 41-70 48-11 50-34 50-25 56-51 64-38 and rent. * Including meals away from home. This group is composed of 276 Negro families from six Southern towns, viz., New Orleans (75), Memphis (.")0), Savannah (50), Atlanta (42), Augusta (38), Birmingham (21). These 276 budgets contain a total of 1,218 persons, of whom 320 are male and 326 female children and 32 " other persons " sharing the family food. The male and female children are in almost exactly equal proportion. In income classes 1-5 the earnings of the husband form much the most important part of the total family income, the percentage contribution ranging from 87 per cent, of the total family income in the lowest class to 70 per cent, in the 5th. In the 3rd., 4th., and 5th. classes the percentages are very nearly equal. In tlie highest class, which was derived mainly from Memphis, the contribution from other sources is very large and the husbands' earnings only form 45 per cent, of the total income. The children's earnings begin to be important in the 3rQ. class, in which they form 14 per cent, of the total family income. In the 4th. and 5th. classes the figure remains almost stationary, but in the highest class it rises to 36. The wives' earnings are an important item in these budgets, forming slightly over 10 per cent, of the total family income for the whole group. The " other income," which is derived almost entirely from the credited rent of houses owned, forms nearlj 8 per cent, of the total family income for the whole group, and is highest in class 8, where it forms nearly 13 per cent. The percentage number of houses owned is low in classes 1 and 2, but the figure for all the other classes combined is exactly 50 per cent. The average number of rooms occupied per family is 3-74, and the average number of jiersons per room 1-2. The most marked differences between the dietary of Negro families in Southern towns and that of white families in the same towns, as shown by the budgets, consist in the smaller quantities of halter'g hread, Irixh pututoex, butter, fresh millt and e;/gs, and the larger quantities of maite meal, rice and Jiitli. consumed by the Negro families. Most of the uihcaton bread consumed by these families, with the exception of those in New Orleans, is baked at home. The quantity of wheaten bread purchased at bakers' shops only amounts to 3-7 lb. per family and 084 lb. i)er capita weekly. Jli/c bread and "other bread" are practically not used. The average quantity of wheaten fiour consumed in the whole group amounts to 99 lb. per family and 2-25 lb. jyer capita weekly. The weekly consumption of all bread and flour per capita is 3-24 lb. The figure for the whole group of the Southern white families is 419 lb. Maize and maize meal are important articles of diet in the Southern towns. The average weekly consumption for the whole group amounts to 6} lb. per family. Of rice, barley, nago, <5-('., 3} lb. are consumed per family per week. The average family consumption of Irixh potatncs amounts to 54 lb. (1-23 lb. per capita') weekly, as compared with lOS lb. in the Southern white families. Sweet p(itatoes,ifc., are consumed to a greater extent than Irish j>otatoeg, especially in the highest income class, the general average consumption being 1-35 lb. per capita weekly. The average consumption of all meat, including sausage and poultry but excluding fish, amounts to 130 lb. per family per week or 152-8 lb. ;«')- capita per annum. 367 per cent, of this meat is ?/ee/and 431 per cent, pig-meat of all kinds. Sausage and poultry are consumed to a much less degree, while mutton and real are practically not used. The average consumption of beef amounts to 4-75 lb. per family per week or 56-0 lb. per capita per annum ; the corresponding figures for pork, bacon, A'C, are 5-59 lb. and 658 lb., the maximum consumption being in the 8th, income class (73 lb. per capita per annum'), and the minimum in the 5th. class (47 lb. per capita per annum). Poultry is used chiefly by families within the higher ranges of income. Fish is largely consumed, the average weekly quantity amounting to 1-91 lb. per family, while the annual consumption per capita is 225 lb. ISutter is consumed to a much less extent than lard, suet and dripping. The average weekly quantity is 1 lb. per family for the whole group, and rises from 049 lb. in the lowest income class to 1-77 lb. in the highest class. The consumjjtion of lard, suet and dripping ranges from 199 lb. per family per week in the lowest income class to 4-12 lb. in the highest, with an average for the whole group of 257 lb. The weekly quantity of fresh milk consumed per family is 0-74 qts. in the lowest income class, 1-56 qts. in the 3rd. class, and 3-09 qts. in the highest class. The corresponding figures for the Southern white group of budgets are 122, 2-84, and 550 qts. (ondensed milk is largely couMumed by these families. The average weekly consumption jier family rises from 0-81 lb, in the lowest income class to 1-73 lb. in the highest class. The average number of eggs consnmed prr capita per annum is B8 in the lowest inoome class and 216 in the highest The corre8)>onding figures for the Sonthern white group of budget] are 78 and 256. BUDGETS. XCl UNITED KINGDOM— CONDENSED BUDGETS. Average Weekly Expenditure on Food and Consumption of certain Articles of Food by Workmen^s Families in the United Kingdom, 1904. Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under 25*. 25«. and under 30«. 30«. and 35*. and under 35«. ) under 40*. 1 40*. and over. Number of Returns 261 289 416 382 596 Average Weekly Family Income S. d. 21 4^ s. d. 26 111 s. d. 31 llj s. d. 36 6i s. d. 52 Oi Average Number of Children living at home 3-1 3-3 3-2 3-4 4-4 Expenditure. Bread and Flour , Meat (bought by weight)* ... Other Meat (including fish)... Eggs Fresh Milk Cheese ... Animal Fatsf ... Potatoes Vegetables and Fruits Farinaceous Foods other than bread and flour.J Tea, Coffee, Cocoa, &c. Sugar Other Items § ... Meals away from Jiome Total Expenditure on Food ... s. d. 3 Oi 3 2| 7i ' F13 9? 43 8^ 8| 4| 4^ Hi 8 1 1 li s. d. 3 3| 4 1| 8| 8i 111 5i 2 1 9| 7 5 1 2^ 10 1 4i 2i 14 4f : 17 lOJ .5. d. 3 3i 5 1| 10 11 1 6 2 U 10| 10 6 H 4i 1 IO5 1 7| 4 20 9i 1 5^ lU 1 10| 61 22 3i s. d. 4 M H 7 1 1 8 3 8i 1 If 1 3| 7 1 10^ 1 3 2 6i 9 8 .. lb. Consumption. Bread and Flour 28-44 29-97 29-44 29-99 37-76 Meat of all kinds (including an allowance for fish) »> 6-42 . 7-57 8-66 9-25 11-87 Eggs .. No. 6-2 8-7 11-3 12-0 16-3 Fresh Milk .. pints 5-54 7-72 9-85 10-34 12-63 Cheese .. lb. 0-67 0-70 0-79 0-77 1-02 Animal Fatsf >j 2-05 2-47 2-67 2-87 ■ 3-96 Potatoes ... »> 14-05 15-84 16-11 15-87 19-93 Sugar )> 3-87 4-62 4-79 5-21 6-70 ^ Including bacon. t Butter, margarine, lard, suet and dripping. X Rice, tapioca, oatmeal. § Currants, raisins, jam, marmalade, treacle, syrup, pickles, condiments and " other items.'' XCll TOWN REPORTS. NEW YORK ATLANTA AUGUSTA BALTIMORE BIRMINGHAM BOSTON ... BROCKTON CHICAGO... CINCINNATI CLEVELAND DETROIT... DULUTH ... FALL RIVER LAWRENCE LOUISVILLE LOWELL ... MEMPHIS MILWAUKEE MINNEAPOLIS— ST. PAUL MUNCIE ... NEW ORLEANS NEWARK PATERSON PHILADELPHIA PITTSBURG PROVIDENCE ST. LOUIS SAVANNAH PAGE. 1 48 61 72 87 99 117 128 152 161 172 185- 197 208 219 231 243^ 257 270 283 288 299 308 316 3o7 357 370 381 TOWN REPORTS. NEW YORK CITY. New York, the largest city of the New World, is situated at the south-eastern corner of the State of the same name. Philadelphia lies 90 miles by rail to the south- west ; Boston 234 miles to the north-east ; Buffalo, on Lake Erie, the second largest city in the State, 440 miles to the north-west ; while Pittsburg and Chicago t(3 the west are distant respectively 439 and 908 miles. The last-named city can be reached in 18 hours by the best trains and, in general, New York, with the possible exception of Chicago, has at its disposal the completest railway service in the States. Manhattan, or New York proper, as it is still apt to be regarded, was the scene of the original settlement from Europe in the 17th century, and the first City Charter under English law dates from 1665, when the population was about 1,500. New York has thus a history which strfetches back some 250 years, and of this history Manhattan has been the focussing point. As the city exists to-day, Manhattan is one of its five con- stituent boroughs, but the selection of the name of " New York " for the whole city is a recognition of the greater distinction of the history of Manhattan itself, and of its present supremacy. Brooklyn, on the Long Island shore, the other great borough, became part of the city on January 1st, 1898, and was also first settled in the 17th century. In 1816 it was first incorporated as a village, and it was not until 1834, when the population was about 30,000, that it was raised to the rank of a "city." From 1854-1896 seven other towns, with an aggregate estimated population of about 114,000, had been annexed to Brooklyn prior to the absorption of the whole in the greater unit of New York. The other boroughs — the Bronx, Queens, on Long Island, and Richmond — derive their importance rather from what they may become than from what they either are or have been. They are, with the exception of the southern districts of the Bronx which, separated only by the Harlem River, lie adjacent to Manhattan and are in effect a northern continuation of that borough, still comparatively undeveloped, and although containing less than one-seventh of the population of New York, they comprise between them about 227 square miles, or more than two-thirds of its total area. Even these figures do not indicate the extent of the undeveloped areas of the city, since much of Brooklyn, which itself contains about 78 square miles, is, apart from its marsh lands consisting of some 17 square miles, still open country. The absorption of the Bronx, the only borough of the five on the mainland, but separated from Manhattan " Island " only by a narrow river, began in 1874, when the population of some 35,000, scattered in 50 villages, became part of the then City of New York. Further absorptions took place in 1895 and in 1898. The place of most note in Queens County, now coterminous with the borough of that name, was Long Island City, incorporated in 1871, but for the most part the new borough is still a collection of isolated toM'ns and villages with much open ground, including some 12 square miles of marsh land. The borough of Richmond is to-day even a more rural community than Queens, and the fact that it is an island — it is the Staten Island of the maps — which it takes twenty minutes to reach from Manhattan, will probably make it one of the last parts of the city to increase in population rapidly. The climate which New York enjoys, in spite of occasional blizzards in the late winter, heat waves in the summer, and a liability to sudden changes of the thermometer, is one of its great natural assets. The mean temperature is about 62 degrees Fahrenheit, the coldest months being January, February and December, when the mercury generally drops to zero, and when the mean is apt to be just about freezing point. March also is a cold month, with a recorded mean temperature for 39 years of 37*2 degrees. June, July and August are the hottest months of the year, when the mean shade temperature ranges 16576 A ^ NEW YORK CITY. from 70 to 75 degrees. Somewhat more tlian half the possible hours of sunshine are enjoyed, and even in -January and December, when the total number of hours is lowest, this ratio is almost mainfciined. The natural conditions of abundant sunshine and clean and wholesome air, although often sacrificed in other ways, are not fouled by smoke, hard anthracite coal being almost exclusively burnt. The great waterway of the Hudson, the channel of the East River opening up into the lower reaches of Long Island Sound, and the proximity of the open Atlantic are further natural safeguards against the risks of a congested poj)uIation which all great urban centres incur, antl to some of which certain areas of New York itself have been and are notoriously subjected. The City of New York, as it exists to-day, comprises within its great area of 327 square miles a very varied territory — secluded bays as well as crowded pleasure resorts ; miles of ]jiers, but also many miles of open shore and river bank ; natural woodland and (jiuiet villages, as well as the most highly priced l)uilding sites and the most congested urban areas in the world. Of this great municipalit}' — more than two-and-a-half times the size of the County of London — Manhattan is, as stated, still the centre, and had it not been for the chance that the Hudson river divides the States of New York and New Jersey the area of the city would presumably have been still further extended, so as to embrace a collection of cities and districts in the neighbouring State — Jersey City, Hoboken and others — that are as truly parts of the organic whole of New York as are Brooklyn and Long Island City. The most im]>ortiint transitional change of the moment is indeed the linking-up of Manhattan with its surrounding areas, whether these lie in the State of New York or that of New Jersey. The process is, it may be noted, at once accentuating and relieving some of the problems with which the City of New York is confronted. It is facilitating exten- sion and development, but also concentration ; it is increasing the power of movement outwards, but also inwards. The human tide both ebbs and flows, and many are fearing that hi new forms the problem of congestion will still persist. Meanwhile New York grows apace, and not only in population and in wealth, in the extent of its banking operations and of its manufactures, as a great centre of distri- bution, and as the chief port of entry from Europe alike of commodities and of persons, but also in letters, in its press, in music and in the drama it has assumed a position that is in essence metropolitan. The growth of many of the cities of the Middle West is, it is true, considerably more rajiid than is that of New York, and the remoteness of the city from the great centres of primary production is probably destined to be a permanent handicap. To some extent this is counteracted by the railway system of which New York is a point of great concentration ; by the Erie Canal, which establishes a direct connexion with the (ireat Lakes and thus with the agricultural States of the Middle West and North ; and by the ramifications of the financial, manufacturing and connnercial interests which are concerned with the continued prosperity of New York, l^ut the centre of pojmlation in the United States has been moving slowly westwards, and the trend of manufacture is towards the centre of production of raw material and of food. Should these two great tendencies become more marked, or should the influx of immigrants be checked either by restrictive legislation or by other causes, it is improbable that the rate at which New York has been expanding will continue, and ultimately its position in the States is not unlikely to be challenged. But meanwhile it is supreme and is growing at a pace that if continued will make it in a few years the greatest city in the world. The iX)pulation of the area included in the present city of New York increased from about 80,000 in 1800 to nearly 700,000 in 1850, and in 1910 it exceeded 4| millions. From 1850 the increase has been continuous in every borough, and, while the greatest rate of increase is shown by the comparatively new district of the Bronx, by far the greatest actual increase took place in Manhattan and Brooklyn, the former increasing more than fourfold in the GO years 1850-1910, and the latter netirly twelvefold. NEW YORK CITY. 3 The following Tables give the figures of population, as i-eturned at the Federal Censuses of 187U-lylO, for the area at present comprised in the City of New York and for each of the constituent boroughs Year Population. Increase. Percentage Increase. New York City. 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1,478,103 l,911,G98 2,507,414 3,4:57,202 4,766,883 433,595 595,716 929,788 1,329,681 29-3 3I.-2 37-1 38-7 Manhattan. 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 942,292 1,164,673 1.441,216 1,850,093 2,331,542 222,381 276,543 408,877 481,449 23-6 23-7 28-4 26-0 The Bronx. 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 37,393 51,980 88,908 200,507 430,980 14,587 36,928 111,599 230,473 390 71-0 125-5 114-9 Brooklyn. 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 419,921 599.495 838,547 1,166,.582 1,634,351 179,574 239,052 328,035 467,769 42-S 39-9 39-1 40-1 Queens. 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 45,468 56,559 87,050 152,999 284,041 11,091 3i),491 65,949 131,042 24-4 53-9 75-8 85-6 • Richmond. 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 33,029 38,991 51,693 67,021 85,969 5,962 12,702 15,328 18,948 18-1 32-6 29-7 28-3 • The figures show that the position occupied by Manhattan among the other boroughs, as measured by jtopulatiou, is less preponderating than formerly, and the explanation of this is found in the increiising absorption of land there for non-residential ■purposes ; in the higher value of land ; in the relatively small amount of land still available for building ; and in a competition of other areas that is increasing as these become more accessible. In spite of the strength of these influences it is, however, improbable that the position maintained by Manhattan among the other boroughs of the city will be greatly altered for some time to come, and still less that it will be threatened. To a great extent it concentrates the controlling forces of the city — financial, commercial, manufacturing, social and governmental — and, roughly, its position as contrasted with that of the other 10676 A 2 NEW YORK CITY. boroughs may perhaps he compared Avith that filled by London north of the Thames in relation to the south. Almost every feature which the outside world associates with New York is in Manhattan — Wall Street, for instance, Broadway, Fifth Avenue and Central Park. Near the southern end is found that new but already well-known cluster ot amazing buildings which, purely utilitarian in design and purpose and forming here and there forbidding canons of masonry, have grouped themselves into an unconsidered demonstration of the and m and unforeseen grandeur of mass and outline, and are a concrete great place that Manhattan has secured for itself in finance, in commerce industry. Manhattan is also the point at which most of the great volume of ocean and coastwise traffic converges ; Brooklyn playing in this respect a role that is second in importance even to that of Jersey City and Hoboken on the New Jersey side of the Hudson. As compared with the other boroughs, the railway facilities of Manhattan are also incomparably more important, and recent great engineering achievements tunnelling the Hudson are making them increasingly so. Finally, Manhattan affords by lar the most extensive field of employment. The chief centres of wholesale trade are there, while south of Fourteenth Street are concen- trated half the factories of New York. In this last fact is found the chief explanation of the congested districts for which Manhattan is notorious, for although the motives that lead their occupants to fill these crowded areas are highly complex, the dominant explanation is found in the industrial opportunities which living in them secures. Although to a great extent a " dormitory " for Manhattan, Brooklyn also plays an iinjjortant part as a centre of employment. The United States Navy Yard is there, and along the East River are many large industrial enterprises. In some districts centres of the distinctive factory industries of New York are also forming, as notably of the clothing trade in the Jewish settlement at Brownsville. But, in general, the tendency has been for industries needing relatively little space and much labour to be concentrated in the lower sections of Manhattan, and for the large wt)rks and for less " intensive " industries to be established elsewhere, for the present chiefiy in Brooklyn. Queens is in this connexion relatively unimportant, in spite of the industrial character ot Long Island City, and so also are the boroughs of the Bronx, which is, however, the centre of the piano industry, and Richmond. The following outline map shows the I'elative positions of the fi\'e constituent borouglui of the city : — «re«(j*r 1 1 ) /•I'-. '■• ^ V Long • /''/ ' '•- /i/^ lilond t't """ ^'wi Saun^ 1 !r-^ BOKOLICH '»-''^~i-^" X 7 J// & mrLo^o \^ w '-,^ mwtiiK 1 Si 1 /IV /SLAND *^ I'l i 1 r- ^""^ ', I'l ^ Y""/ *" r"'' ^msir j'li Mr •- BOHOUOH Of OUECNS 1 A) » l-»^ J*' \^ ^''^'^^fcy'^^n. J iV * " \ ( """" ^'^^Ms / BO ^*" \ ^^...^ "sl^^" \ ^\j^}) '~^ • • > 17 2 2 Dutch .■ • ... 4 1 1 English >*. •> * 47 30 5 Finnish .. 6 — 1 French 11 15 9 German 222 40 153 Hebrew 7 — — Hungarian . > • . • • 60 1 159 Irish • • • . . .- n 62 14 Norwegian ■•• ... 7 — . — Scotch . . • ••• 11 IS 3 Swedish 75 14 17 Swiss 10 5 1 Others (including Alsatian, Armenian, 8 7 17 Assyrian, Belgian, Cuban, G reek, Hindu, Italian, Polish, Roumanian, Russian, Servian and Spanish). NEW YORK CITY. 9 Attention has been already directed to the fact that in the Ghetto of the Lower East Side, in spite of the conj^estion, the death-rate is not excessive. In this is found a tribute not only to the hygienic practices of the Jewish people, but also to the general health administration of the city. The Department primarily responsible is that of Health, but important supplementary influences are those of the Department of Education, through the indirect influence exercised by the schools, the Department of Street Cleans- ing, the Tenement House Department, and, in the campaign against tuberculosis to which much attention is now being directed, the Department of Public Charities (as controlling the public hospitals of the city). In addition, there has been active co- operation with various voluntary bodies. The general mortality tables indicate a marked improvement in the health conditions of New York in recent years, and the rates for typhus, scarlet, malarial and typhoid fevers, small -pox, measles, diphtheria and croup are among those that show the most appreciable declines. On the other hand, the figures for cancer and pneumonia are less satisfactory. The death-rate from pulmonary tuberculosis in recent years has ranged from 2'10 to 2*44 per 1,000 of population, the average for 1898-1907 being 2'24, as compared with 2'76 for the previous decade. Reference will be made later to the very active anli -tuberculosis campaign that is being carried on. The course of infantile mortality has been irregular. The figures are based upon the number of births actually reported, and the rates are therefore somewhat exaggerated. In 1907, for example, 120,722 births were reported throughout the city, whereas in the opinion of the Department of Health a truer figure would have approximated to 130,000. The number of births recorded is being gradually made more complete, but it is admitted thut a considerable number still escape registration. Thus a comparison of the rate for the Greater City in 1898, when the figure given was 24'1 per 1 ,000 of population, with that for 1907, when it was 28'2, the highest recorded, may reflect not so much an actual increase in the rate, although this too may have resulted from the character of recent immigration, as more efl^ective administration. The same considei'ation would apply to the separate figure for Manhattan and the Bronx, which is given as 29*2 for 1907. Subject to these qualifications, the recorded birth-rates per 1,000 of population and the infantile mortality rate per 1,000 births recorded are shown, for the years 1903-7, in the following Table, which also presents the death-rates per 1,000 of population for the same period. The birth and death rates relate to New York City as a whole, the infantile mortality rates to Manhattan and the Bronx only : — I Birth-rate recorded Year per 1,000 I of Population. r. 11, i 1 AnA Infantile Mortality Death-rate per 1,000 j q^o Births of Population. • *' recorded. 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 251 25-5 25-8 26-9 28-2 18-0 20-0 18-3 18-4 18-5 144 155 154 149 143 Although the ratio of native to foreign-born females is estimated at roughly seven to four, the number of children born to native-born mothers as recorded was 38,361, and to foreign-born mothers 82,361. These figures have led to the insertion on the authority of the Bureau of Records of the Department of Health of a significant calculation which goes to show (statistical accuracy is not claimed) that the birth-rate for the foreign- born is between three and four times as high as that for the native-bom. " It is obvious," the comment of the Bureau runs, " that the foreign mothers are not shirking the responsi- bilities of sex, while the native-born mothers are willing and anxious to forego to a considerable extent the honours, pride, and happiness of motherhood." The argument is emphasized by reference to two blocks, one predominantly Italian in which the birth-rate was 47 per 1000, and another predominantly Jewish in which the rate was 43*7. The anti -tuberculosis campaign, to which reference has been made, is being carried on in many cities in America, and nowhere with more vigour than in New York. For this great local activity there are perhaps definite local explanations, especially the congested conditions under which large numbers of the people are living, and the character of the dwellings. The absence of the open grate is another source of danger, and the whole position is complicated by the presence of large numbers of foreigners, some especially ignorant of hygienic rules, and all having to learn the use of a dietary that is to some extent new, and to adapt themselves to a fresh environment, to a different climate, and in most cases to a more strenuous life. JO NEW YORK CITY. Compulsory notification of tuberculosis was partially introduced in 1894, and was extended in 1897. At the present time it is estimated that in Manhattan and the IJronx 90 per cent, of the reco'^iiised cases are reported. Special tuberculosis dispensaries have been established, either by th(! City or by philanthropic bodies, and the whole of Manhattan is now divided up into districts, cases being referred to the local dispensaries for treatment and supervision. The Department of Health acts as a clearing house and over-lapping is to a great extent avoided. During 1907, 5,870 new patients were examined at the various dispensaries in Greater New York. Xurses are attached to these and many jjatients are visited in their own homes, 6,801 such visits being paid in 1907. There is power of compulsory removal, and during 1907 35 cases of pulmonary tuber- culosis " were removed to Riverside Hospital by force as being nuisances and dangerous to those about them." Various other provision is made and other methods are adopted : the free examination of sputum ; the free disinfection of rooms ; the enforcement of the regu- lations forbidding spitting in jiublic places ; in addition to educational measures of various kinds, such as the delivery of lectures, the issue of leaflets and exhibitions.* The last exliibition was held in the winter of 1908 and was widely advertised. A comprehensive series of lectures was arranged, and the exhibition, which was attended by large numbers, became an iiii})ortimt vehicle of propaganda. The opening meeting, at which the Mayor of New York and the President of the Board of Health took part, was also the annual meeting of the Charity Organisation Society, and the occasion may be cited as illustrating the constructive policy that characterises much of the work of the Associated Charities of America. The key-note of most that is being attempted in connexion with tuberculosis is pre- vention, and preventive effort, as distinguished from that which is primarily curative or remedial, is characteristic of much that is being attempted in New York in the domain of social amelioration generally. Apart from administrative municipal effort, notably through the medium of the Health, Education and Tenement House Departments, perhaps the branch of the Charity Organisation Society for the Improvement of Social Conditions is at once the most important and the most characteristic. Of this branch the two chief divisions are (1) the Tenement House Committee formed to improve the con- dition of tenement houses, mainly by securing proper legislation and by the enforcement of existing laws ; and (2) the Committee for the Prevention of Tuberculosis, formed to aid in every way the movement for the prevention of this disease. Pi-eventive social effort takes, however, manifold forms, as in the promotion of savings and the granting of loans ; in benefit societies ; in the provision of education and special training ; in the direct attempt to improve social conditions ; and in the establishment of social settlements, clubs, libraries, reading-rooms and museums. It is noteworthy that the various agencies thus classified and grouped under the general heading of " Preventive Social Work " take up some seventy pages in the New York Charities Directory for 1909, a little volume in which the long enumeration of agencies — philanthropic, educational, religious and administrative — considered relevant to such a directory cover some 650 pages. Among the preventive agencies two characteristic ones may be mentioned : the Industrial Removal Office and the Educational Alliance. The former was established to reheve the Jewish congestion in New York and, in general, to diffuse the Jewish population widely throughout the States. During the first seven years of its operation since its foundation in 1900, nearly 41,000 persons have been sent to no fewer than 1,000 cities and towns in all parts of the country. The Alliance has much the same general objects in view — the assimilation and Americanisation of the Jewish people — and the distinctive methods adopted are industrial training and general education in English, in American history, &c. The classes for adults in English, held in connexion with the Baron de Hirsch Fund, are attended by very large numbers. The general aim of " Americanisation " is also prominent in much that is undertaken by the Social Settlements which have so multiplied in the United States during the last twenty years, and which are in most cases found in, or in close proximity to, toreign districts. About sixty have been established in New York City. The New York Federation of Churches also owes much of its viUility to the same great influence-— the immense civic and racial problem presented by the necessity of assimilating year by year a large and complex population. Although the various centres of preventive work are absorbing much thought and effort, organisations that have curative and remedial ends in view are far more numerous and their general classification falls nuich into line with that which would be adopted for older communities. Thus, the directory to which reference has been made enumerates agencies for the care and relief of needy families in their own homes, be it by material relief, by the provision of employment, by nursing and the cart; of the sick, or in other * 6Ve Appendix, pp. 188-4S)1. NEW YORK CITY. 11 ways ; relief for destitute, neglected and delinquent children ; relief in permanent and temporary homes for adults ; relief for the sick, and relief for the defective. Many hundreds of agencies are enumerated, some almost entii'ely voluntary in character, working throuuh the medium of the home, and others, both voluntary and " official," through institutions. In Manhattan and the Bronx the Charity Organisation Society is itself the chief co-ordinating centre. Among other agencies that may be mentioned is " The New York Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor," primarily eleemosynary in character, but, like the Charity Organisation Society itself, developing, as, for instance, through the New York Milk Committee, on constructive lines. The United Hebrew Charities is the chief centre for work, very varied in character, among the Jewish poor. In Manhattan and the Bronx this exists as a separate organisation, but in Brooklyn the corresponding agencies are affiliated to what is there the chief centre, namely, the Brooklyn Bureau of Charities. The Provident Loan Society, with loans in 1908 averaging £5 15s. Id. and reaching to the number of nearly 800,000, the Children's Aid Society, the branches of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul and other activities connected with various religious bodies, the numerous hospitals and homes — municipal, subsidised and entirely voluntary, and the societies formed in the special interests of this or that nationality are among the other organisations or groups of agencies that illustrate the great field that has to be covered by charitable and cognate effort. The contrasts in life presented by New York, although perhaps not so complete as those, for instance, of London or Paris, are nevertheless vivid and exacting, and in the aggregate the practical response made on behalf of those who are the more necessitous or helpless, or who are themselves, although free from criminality, harmful elements in society, is not unworthy of a great and wealthy community. On the side of public administration those Departments which are the most relevant to this enquiry — Education, Health, in which the sense of collective responsibility finds perhaps its most striking manifestations, and Housing — have been already mentioned. On the whole municipal effort is confined to those matters — communication, drainage, health, the protection of life and property, and education — over which public control is regarded as almost essential under modern urban conditions. Thus none of the larger public utilities, save water, are municipal, gas, electric light, telephones, the surfixce car system and the elevated railways being all in the hands ol private corporations, subject to such public control as is exercised through the conditions laid down when the various concessions were granted, aud to the thoroughness with which these conditions are enforced ; and also as regards gas, electric lighting and transit facilities, to the powers exercised by the Public Service Commission. The latter body, the outcome of various stages in the direction of public control dating from as far back as 1859, was created by the State legislature in 1907 ; and its main function may be described as that of securing for the public efficient and co-ordinated service on the part of those corporations with which it is concerned. The powers of the Commission are most important in connexion with rapid transit facilities. In these great extensions are contemplated, and as regards administration concern questions which are perhaps at the moment, with the exception of finance, more vital to the development and unity of New York than any other. In this respect, therefore, the task ot co-ordination is of "first-rate importance, and since no fresh scheme of underground or elevated railway service can be adopted without the sanction of the Public Service Commission, it is on this body that the extension of existing facilities to a great extent depends. As regards municipal control the " Subway," which is the underground railway of New York, occupies a middle position. This electric system, which began to run in 1904, and is the most used of all the crowded transit facilities in New York, traverses the whole length of Manhattan, bifurcating at 1 04th Street to Bronx Park. To the South the very heart of the City is served, and since 1908 the line has been carried by a tunnel under the East River to Flatbush Avenue in Brooklyn. The longest distance traversed is about 15 miles, and the uniform fare is 2|(i. Between 96th Street and Brooklyn Bridge Station the line is doubled for an express service. The law requires a minimum speed of 30 miles per hour for the express trains, and the average speed of the whole service in 1907 was 17"6l5 miles per hour, as compared with 14"75 miles on the Manhattan elevated railways, and 7*08 on the Manhattan surface cars. Thus, relative rapidity of travel as well as the course taken by the Subway increases its importance to the community. 12 NEW YORK CTTY. For this great undertaking, for which the sanction of the State legislature had to be obtained, corporate bonds to the amount of about £10,000,000 have been already issued. The whole contract for construction, equipment and operation was taken over by the lessees, now the Inter-Borough Rapid Transit Company, to whom the Subway is rented. Extensions have been sanctioned both to the North in the Bronx, and to the South along Fourth Avenue in Brooklyn. It may be noted that the public motor-omnibus service is in an early and apparently inactive stage of development in New York, a cumbrous and relatively expensive five- penny service in Fifth Avenue, along which no tram line is allowed, being the chief instance of this means of locomotion. Among the striking undertakings of the city the bridges take a leading place, and those constructed over the East River are famous. The Brooklyn Bridge, opened in 1883, has been followed by the Williamsburg Bridge, opened at the end of 1903, and by the Queensborough Bridge, opened in 1909. The Manhattan Bridge crossing the river only a few hundred yards north of the old Brooklyn Bridge is nearly completed. The Brooklyn and Williamsburg bridges are most used, and the former, traversed by Elevated Railway, surface cars, vehicles and pedestrians, is daily the scene of great congestion. This is largely owing to the fact that the Manhattan side is at present a terminus for the enormous volume of traffi? converging there ; but the new Manhattan Bridge and a project now approaching completion, by which these two bridges and the Williamsburg Bridge will be made parts of a loop system, are expected to give con- siderable relief. Queensborough Bridge when opened was not linked with any transit system what- ever, but this comparative waste of a great enterprise is not likely to continue for long, and the effect of this bridge in opening up extensive areas in the borough of Queens is destined to be of great importance. These three bridges, the subway tunnel to Brooklyn, and the two tunnels already completed under the Hudson River, are still supplemented by ferry services both to Brooklyn and Queens and to the New Jersey side. But bridges and tunnels are already, and are destined to be still more completely in the future, the chief channels of inter- communication between Manhattan, the other boroughs, and New Jersey. It is by them that physical unity is being completed and the area of development extended. In the same way the use of the Belmont tunnel under the East River at 'i2nd Street, constructed but so far unused because of legal obstacles, and the completion of the great enterprise of the Pennsylvania Raih'oad Company, by which its whole system will be not only brought into direct communication with Manhattan but also with Ijong Island, may possibly still further tend to ease the congestion of Manhattan and will certainly hasten the develop- ment of outlying districts. Of the great thoroughfares in Manhattan, Broadway alone traverses the whole borough. From the southern end it runs due north for more than two miles as far as East 10th Street, but from that point for more than three mil'^s to West 79th Street it trends in a north-westerly direction, thus breaking a scheme of rectangular planning otherwise almost unrelieved. Fifth Avenue, starting at the south end from Washington Square, about two miles from the Battery, almost bisects Manhattan, and streets lying on either side are distinguished as " East " and " West " accordingly. At first commercial in character, with a sprinkling of the older hotels and flanked by two or three of the most select residential streets in New York, the Avenue, always retaining an air of structural distinction, soon becomes one of the chief centres of the garment industry. Factories, offices and warehouses are numerous here, and in the dinner hour the employees of the neighlwurhood, mainly Jewish men, throng the pavements. Above 23rd Street the character changes, and the beginning of that part which forms the best-known shopping street in New York, and thus in America, is reached. Hotels, restaurants, clubs, churches, public and other buildings are numerous in this section of the Avenue. At and facing Central Park a long range of private mansions begins. Above Central Park the Avenue is still mainly residential in character, but on a less imposing and increasingly modest scale, and further north houses in multiple occupation are reached. The lateral streets occur at intervals of 200 feet, and, including the street spacing, about twenty of the building " blocks " thus formed go to the mile. The regular planning of the streets begins about two miles north of the Battery, and the three to eight inile distances from the Battery itself are reached at 24th, 44th, 63rd, 83rd, 102nd and 12l8t Streets. To the city lx)undary at the north of the Bronx the distance is nearly 16 miles. NEW YORK CITY. 13 Most of the lateral streets in Manhattan are 60 feet in width from building to building, with pathways 15 feet wide, but at irregular intervals twenty of them, like most of the Avenues, are 100 feet in width, and these become in almost every case important thoroughfares for shopping and other purposes. The other Avenues of Manhattan, most of them important centres of retail trade, run parallel to Fifth Avenue. To the north, across the Harlem River, the borough of the Bronx at first maintains much of the character of that part of Manhattan from which it is divided by the river, and Third Avenue itself is directly continued in the northern borough. While the extension of Manhattan has necessarily proceeded in a northerly direction, Brooklyn from the outset has had much greater room for expansion, and its comparative freedom from physical barriers has been an important contributory cause of the relatively uncongested conditions that prevail there. From the business centre of Brooklyn, focussing in Fulton Street and round the City Hall, the great thoroughfares can radiate freely to the north and south and to the east. The public ]>arks and open spaces of New York City cover nearly 8,000 acres, and the enumeration, large and small — some being really only city squares — includes over 100 names. Central Park in Manhattan, Pros]ject Park in Bi'ooklyn, Forest Park in Queens and the Bronx, the Van Cortland and the Pelham Bay Parks in the Bronx are the largest. Foresight in park provision has been best exemplified in the last-named borough, which contains three of the largest and most beautiful parks and m.ore than half the park area of the ^vhole city. Manhattan, although possessing the famous Central Park with 84o acres and having a few more acres of jjark land than Brooklyn, has in view of its great population the most inadequate provision, and the need o£ open spaces there would be far more urgent were it not for the insular formation of the boi'ough. South of Central Park, which begins at a point nearly five miles from the Battery, the most important open space is a httle park of some 21 acres at Battery Point abutting on the Hudson and East rivers. Apart from this no open space in this area, which as has been seen covers the most thickly populated section of the city, is more than eleven acres in extent, and such small open spaces as exist are few in number. A few playgrounds are maintained and these, although falling behind the high standard set by the model system of Chicago, and lacking the distinctive public halls of those admirable centres, are greatly used. Special provision is made for the children, and at one playground visited in the course of this enquiry on a hot Saturday morning the seats thronged by adults, the enclosure and equipment of gymnastic apparatus for the boys, the reserve for girls with its equipment, and the roofed-in construction for children — with dolls-house, sand-heap and other attractions — were noteworthy features. For the children an attendant was in general charge. The foregoing are under the Park Department of the City, but in the more crowded parts some supplementary provision is made by the Board of Education in the form of vacation playgrounds, afternoon playgrounds for mothers and babies and evening roof play- grounds. In all, for the season of 1908, some ninety centres of these various descriptions were provided. Similar provision is also made by a few of the Social Settlements, but when all is said, the streets both in Manhattan and Brooklyn bear daily witness to the undue importance which those still retain as substitutes for open spaces. Other forms of public provision are the New York public library, based on four great benefactions, with numerous branches in Manhattan, the Bronx and Richmond ; the Brooklyn public library, and the Queens Borough public library ; baths— floating and interior ; a municipal lodging house ; a few markets — mainly wholesale ; nine recreation piers, retained and opened for this use from May to September by the Department of Docks and Ferries, and a municipal ferry to Staten Island. Public conveniences are still conspicuous by their absence, there being only some fifteen in the whole city. As regards the government of the City of New York, the form and constitution are, like those of the majority of American cities, determined by the State legislature. The Charter under which the present city exists dates from 1902, and by this Charter and by supplementary and amending legislation, the modes of election or appointment of city representatives and executive ofl&cers, and the various departments of city government and their powers are determined. The Board of Aldermen is the chief representative body and consists of a President elected on a general ticket, of 73 members elected for the various aldermanic districts of the city, and of the Borough Pi-esidents— an office that is distinctive of the New York municipal constitution. Although the Board is regarded as the body in which the legislative power remaining with the City is vested, the Mayor of New York has the power either of suspensory, or, in the case of the granting of a concession, absolute veto over 14 N^W YORK CTTY. its decisions. Its Spending power is also mainly subject to the recommendations of a much smaller bod)' called the Board of Estimate and Ap])ortionment. This latter Board is at present composed of the Mayor, the Com|)troIler — the head of the Department of Finance, the President of the Board of Aldermen and the Borough Presidents. The first three are elected by the whole constituency and the rest by the respective boroughs — all for a period of four years. Voting power on the Board is unecjual, the chief members casting three votes each, the ['residents of the Boroughs of Manhattiin and Brooklyn two votes each and the other Presidents one vote each. The central figure of the Executive of the City is the Mayor, and in his office great powers, not only legislative, largely through the power of the veto, but also of nomination and removal, are vested. The scheme of government as regards the whole City includes a series of Departments, the heads of most of which are Commissioners apjiointed and removable by the Mayor. Among other Departments to which this arrangement applies are those of the Police, Water Supply, Gas and Electricity, Bridges, Parks (with three Commissioners), Public Charities, Fire, Docks and Ferries, Taxes and Assessments, and Tenement House. The Department of Health is presided over by a Board of three — the Commissioner of Health appointed by the Mayor, the Police Connnissioner and the Health Officer of the Port — the last a[)iK)inted by the Governor and Senate of the State. The Department is divided into two Bureaus — Sanitary and Registration — and the Superintendent of the great organisation modestly described by the former title is the Chief Executive Officer of the whole. The Public Education system is again exceptional, general control being vested in a Board consisting of 46 members appointed by the Mayor for a five years term, one-fifth retiring annually. The chief control of the actual administration is in the hands of a Board of Superintendents — the Chief and eight Associates— themselves ap))ointed by the General Board, but the vast system requii-es much devolution and an elaborate organisation. On July Hist, 1908, there were 490 Elementary Schools and 19 High Schools under the control of the lioard. The average daily attendance at all schools during the years 1907-8 was 545,098, and the total expenditure for school purposes, including new buildings, for the year ending July 31st, 1908, was ^^7,867,962. A distinctive feature of New York government consists in its recognition of a certain degree of borough autonomy, the whole of the City being divided up into 25 Local Improvement Districts, the " local board " for which consists of the Aldermen resident therein and the President of the borough within which they fall. It is through the medium of its President that the borough as a municipal unit finds its chief political recognition. The powers alike of the local boards and of the Presidents themselves are concerned mainly with the maintenance and improvement of streets and roads and the system of drainage and sewerage, and in the issue of building permits. In the latter function resiDonsibility is shared with the Tenement House Department, to which plans of tenement houses have also to be submitted for approval. Local expenditure is subject to various constitutional checks that have not always in practice been found to work well. The Borough i^residents report to the Mayor of New York, but are removable not by him but by the Governor of the State. In 1908 the total appropriation of the City Budget was nearly £S0,000,000. Current exjjenditure is met to a great extent by temporary loans raised on " revenue bonds," payable in the current or succeeditig year, but in the long run and apart from this device the main income is derived from the taxation of real estate. Among other sources of income, the following may be mentioned : taxation of certain forms of personal property, special taxes on bank shares, special assessments for local improvements. State subsidy for schools, licences, and water, pier. Subway and other rents. Roughly, about three-fourths of the t(jtal expcnditui-e is ultimately met by the taxation of real estate. The basis of assessment of this is market value, and in New York, witli ])crhaps gi'eater completeness now than elsewhere, an analysis of the assessment is made as between land and " improvement " (or building) values. The relation between the two varies greatly in different parts of the city, a.s, for instiiace, between Lower Broadway and some outlying section of Queens or the Bronx, and whereas in the latter districts the value of the improvements might easily exceed by manv times the value of the land, (in some sites of the former district it would be practicallv impossible, no matter what the height or what the elaborateness of the structure, to erect a building of a value equal to that of the land. In 1909 the general percentage of land value to total assessed value of ordinary real estate in Manhattan was 66'4 as compared with 47'2 in Brooklyn. NEW YORK CITY. 15 Assessments are made annually, and the real estate market is fciken as the chief guide. In the assessment of buildings figures per square foot of floor surface are adopted as " factors " of cost, and these figures, necessarily different for different classes of buildings, and ranging from about 4s. 2(L to 41s. Sd. per square foot, give by the simple method of calculation adopted an approximation to the total figure of assessable value required. For the purpose of this calculation it is essential that particulars both as regards the size of the building plot and class of structure, including the number of floors, should be available, and for the general task of assessment accurate maps under constant revision. The " factor " or basis for calculating the value of buildings for assessment purposes naturally varies greatly for different classes of property, but as an illustration it may be mentioned that in one thickly-populated district tenement houses in its better localities, with dwellings letting at from 16s. Sd. to 20s. lOd. per month per room, were assessed at from 5s. 5d. to 5s. lOd. per square foot of their floor surface." Thus, disregarding, as is doiie in pi-actice, spaces left vacant for light and air, if such a dwelling in this district was five stories high, 60 feet deep, and occupied a building plot 25 feet wide, the assessed value per square foot would have to be multiplied by 60 by 25 by 5 to get the assessable value of the building, which would thus in the above instance be from £2,031 to i*2,l87 10s. Exemptions include federal and municipal property, churches, hospitals, &g., and the tot^l values thus omitted in 1909 were put at £270,000,000. The figures are large, but those for the total assessment are still more imposing, as the following Table shows : — Assessed Value of Real Estate in the City of Nerv York (1909). £ Manhattan 961,342,976 The Bronx 96,396,66. Buildhiff Trades : — Bricklayers Stonemasons .. Stonecutters Car])enters Plasterers Plumbers Structural Iron Worlpers Painters ... Hod Carriers and Bricklayers' Labourers Plasterers' Labourers Foundries and Machine Shops : — Ironmoulders Machinists Blacksmiths Patternmakers ... Labourers Tailoring Trades : — Cutters ... Trimmers Machine Operators Pressers ... ... . . Woodtvorking and Furnishing Trades : — Cabinetmakers ... Polishers Varnishers Upholsterers Labourers Piano Making .- — Woodworking Machinists Bellymen Action Regulators Polishers Varnishers Printing and Bookbinding Trades : — Newspaper — Compositors, Hand and Machine Book and Job — Hand Compositors Machine Compositors ... Pressmen ( ^^^'^'^t'' ^'^^^^^ \ bmall Presses ... Bookbinders Brewing^ : — Cellar and Kettle Men Wash-house Men Route Drivers ... Stable Men Cigarmaking : — Cigarmakers Packers ... Transport Trades : — Longshoremen ... Regular Labourers General Drivers, Teamsters — One horse Two horses f Day work \ Night work Predominant Weekly Wages. 128s. id. 91s. Sd. to 100s. lOd. 91s. Hd. „ 114s. Id. 103s. 2d. „ lUs. Id. 12t)S. Id. 114s. Id. 103s. 2d. 80s. M. OSs. M. 74s. &d. 81s. M. 66s. M. to 81s. M. 90s. to 112s. t;rf. 90s. „ 112s. M. 33s. M. to .50s. 838. 4d to 100s. 75s. to 83s. 4d 58s. U. to 104s. 2d. 50s. „ 75s. 62s. €>d. to 75s. 58s. 4rf. „ 75s. 45s. lOrf. „ 62s. &d. 50s. to 75s. 37s. erf. 62s. M. to 83s. M. 75s. to 91s. M. 75s. „ 83s. M. 75s „ 81s. M. 62s. &d. to 75s. 116s. M. to 125s. 129s. 2d. 87s. 6rf. 95s. lOd. 100s. 75s. 75s. to 87s. &d. 75s. 66s. M. lbs. 62s. 6rf. 45s. \(id. to 66s. M. 75s. to 83s. M. Is. 3«?. per hour. 54s. 2d. to io2s. 6d. 50s. 54s. 2d. 54s. 62s. 2d. 6rf. Predominant Weekly Hours of Labour. 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 54 54 54 54 54 48 to 54 48 „ 54 52 „ 59 52 „ 59 53 to .59 53 „ 59 59 59 53 to 59 54 54 54 54 54 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 54 54 62 62 44 to 54 a,, 54 60 Variable. * In addition to the money wages, free beer is allowed. NEW YORK CITY. 23 Predominant Weekly Wages. Predominant Weekly Hours of Labour. Public Services: — Street Construction, Paving and Cleaning- Paviors ... Pavioi's' Labourers and Rammers ... Road Menders Road Sweepers Drivers ... Water Works (Municipal) — Labourers Gas Works (Company) — Gas Stokers Labourers Electric Light Works (Company) — Wiremen Wiremen's Helpers Meter Testers Electric Railways (Companies) — Motormen — 1st year ... After 1st year Conduct orsj — Ist year 2nd year 3rd „ After 3rd year ... Guards§ — Ist year After 1st year Electric Tramways (Company) — Motormen — 1st year 2nd year ... 3rd „ After 3rd year ... Conductors — 1st year ... After Ist year ... 125.S.*; 125s.t 100s.»; lOOs.t 50s.* ; 37s. Gd. to 4;5s. 9d.-\ 62s. 6d.* 64s. Id.* 50s. 80s. 6d. to 87s. &d. 52s. 6d. „ 59s. 6d. 62s. 6d. 50s. 68s. M. 62s. Gd. to 75s. 75s. to 87s. 6f/. 50s. „ 52s. &d. 50s. „ 56s. M. 52s. 6d. to 60s. 55s. to 62s. &d. 45s. 47s. 6c?. to 50s. Dally Rate of Wages. 8s. id. to 9s. 5d. »s. id. „ 9s. lOd. 8s. M. 9s. 2d. 8s. id. 8s. id. 10s. 3d. lOs. lOd. 9s. 10s. ?,d. 48 48 48 48 48 48 77 77 54 54 48 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 10 hours per day ; 6 or 7 days per week. * Municipal employees. J Corretipond to Guards in this country. + Contractors' men. § Correspond to Porters in this country. With regard to the rates quoted for the building trades, it may be noted that in some branches these tend to vary shghtly as between borough and borough, but in three cases only is this different rating recognised by the trade unions, namely, in those of the carpenters, painters and plumbers. When such differences exist the rates for Queens and Richmond boroughs are always slightly lower than any of the others ; thus in these boroughs the rate for carpenters is 4s. 2d. per day lower than in Manhattan and 2s. Id. lower'than in the Bronx or lirooklyn, and the rate for plumbers 2s, Id. per day lower than in the other three boroughs. In the rates accepted and certified by the Municipal Board of Estimate and Apportionment the city has been regai'ded as a unit since 1907, local differences of the kind just mentioned not being recognised, and it may be noted that under present conditions, with the inter-communication between out-lying parts becoming more complete and the homogeneousness of the city increasing, the differences themselves are tending to lose their jjast validity. Among ironmoulders about 1,600 men were working under trade agreements in Man- hattan and Brooklyn, and about an additional 1,400, representing in all perhaps 75 per cent, of those employed in New York and vicinity, under an agreement that establishes the nine hours working day. The closed shop agi-eement was in operation in about six shops. The rates' for machinists quoted in the Table are for inside workers. There is very little piece work, but complaint was made of the competition of the newly arrived immigrant. In the New York ready-made clothing trade the more general practice adopted by manufacturers is to put out. the wh')le or the greater part of the work to sub-contractors. Direct employment is said to be on the increase, but at present the characteristic method when the material has been prepared by the cutters and trimmers is for all later processes to be executed by middlemen. The main explanation of this extensive devolution is economic, for by it the so-called manufacturer is left comjiaratively free to concentrate attention on his function as disti'ibutor, and is relieved of the task of finding, selecting and controlling by far the greater part of the labour he requires. As one result of this 16576 B 4 24 NEW YORK CITY. plan, although some of the New York clothing manufacturers rank as the lai'gest in America, great factories are the exception. The normal discrepancy between weekly rates and annual earnings, common to manj' trades, is apt to be of special importance in the garment industry, subject as it is not only to the more cyclical variations in trade activity but to recurring seasonal changes. It may be noted that irregularity of employment does not uniformly or even necessarily indicate a lowering of the weekly average, and that as against the slack seasons of enforced idleness may often be set the periods of lengthened working Aveeks — in some trades with earnings increased by the payment of overtime rates. The question is not infrequently also complicated by intervening periods of voluntary idleness, and by temporary changes of employment. But in general a weekly rate has to be discounted before the true yearly earnings can be calculated from it. In the garment industry the following extracts from notes made with reference to individual firms visited will serve to indicate the complexity of this question of annual earnings. " A very high quality of ladies' coats and mantles made. Cutters' rates 100s. to lOSs. id. per week ; high in this kind of work because they do not get regular work all the year The trade is very seasonal — six months very busy and six months slack. Very high earnings are made (with overtime) in the season by operators." " Ladies' cloaks and skirts, good quality. Dull season in May, June and July, and December and January. Operators, according to the books, make £8 6s. 8d. to .^12 10s. in busy weeks during the season." " Work does not stop entirely in the dull seasons but earnings are about half the predominant rates for two months in the year." " Machine opei'ators earn 7os. to 1.50s. per week in the busy season, four months of the year ; ils. 8c?. to oOs. another four months, and 25s. to o3s. 4d. in the slackest season." " Hours 7 to 12 and 1 to 6. Saturday 1 to 4. In sunnner on Saturdays 7 to 12. Work steady for eight months. Api'il to June rather slack, but September to October especially, when work is for about two-and-a-half to three days per week." Among the machine ojjerators the workers are mostly Jewish men, and the cloak- makers form the most strongly organised section ; but even among them not more than 20 per cent, are su])posed to be in the trade union. Piece work is the most common method of remuneration, and the basis of negotiation for fixing rates in a trade in which changes are constant and the scope for variation gi*eat is the Shop Committee. The reliable quotation of rates of wages is made difficult owing to the frequent practice of the men paying their own helpers. Economically machine operators are thus often sub-contractors on a small scale, working themselves and einploj'ing others, and are not simply wage-earners. The earnings on piece work show great disparity, reflecting the scope there is for variation due to the amount of work to be done and to differences in individual skill and aptitude. Many finishers are women and girls, whose earnings range from about ICs. 8d. to 50s., the more usual rate being from 33s. id. to 41s. S(/. per week. In one workshop, in which trousers were being made on a plan so highly sectionalised that each garment went through some 24 pairs of hands and about half the finishing was j)ut out, female inside workers receiving od. per pair were said to be earning 33s. id. per week. By some companies engaged on coastwise traffic, longshoremen are paid Is. 0^1. per hour, but Is. od. is the more generally recognised rate of the Port. On street construction work men engaged on wood and asphalte roadways are paid at considei-ably lower rates than the grades quoted in the Table — from ()2s. Od. to 75s. per week for the more skilled men, and from 43s. dd. to G2s. 6(/. for others being quoted. With regard to tramway employees it may be mentioned that in Manhattan, where a " pay as you enter " car is being introduced, in which, while the task of seeing that the fares are paid is simpler, the earning power of the car is said to be greater, wages are paid at the rate of 7^d. per day higher than those paid on the older and for the present more usual type of car. On these the conductor still collects, handles and registers the fiires, and does not simply manipulate the receptacle into which in the new cars the coin has to be drojiped by the passenger. Housing and Rknts. The number of families per dwelling-house of every description in Manhattan, accord- ing to the Census of 1900, was 4"9, or nearly double the number shown anywhere else in the United States. The exceptional character of the housing conditions thus revealed is much less marked for the other populous boroughs, the corresponding figures for Brooklyn being 2*2 and for the Bronx 2*1. But New York as a whole, for which the figure is 2'9, is to a great extent a city of tenement-house dwellers. NEW YORK CITY. 25 Figures are not available to show with exactitude either the number of persons housed in tenements or the accommodation they secure, and did official i-eturns exist the calculation would still be complicated owing to the comprehensiveness in New York of the term "tenement house," since according to the Tenement House Law all "apartment houses" {anglice flats), even those of the most expensive type, are, if occupied by three or more families, " tenements." It may be noted, however, that in the Census made by the Tenement House Depart- ment in 1902, 380,618 "apartments " or sets of rooms were scheduled in Manhattan, of which about 12 per cent, were rented at 24s. per week and upwards, while in Brooklyn out of 143,131 " apartments " scheduled about 3|^ per cent, were thus rented. Thus at that time in these two boroughs there were i-oughly about 475,000 of the more cheaply rented tenements. Up to the end of 1908 plans for 21,761 buildings containing 253, 25o tenements had been filed under the new Tenement House Law. The large expenditure in recent years on "apartment houses" makes it very probable that considerably more than 12 per cent should be deducted from this total to allow for the more expensive types of dwelling. In forming a general estimate, a further deduction would also have to be made for demolitions and reconstructions of older properties, and on the other hand a slight addition for tenement house properties constructed before 1902 in the three boroughs not included in the Tenement House Census of that year. Taking these vai'ious considerations into account it is improbable that the number of tenements that may roughly be considered to be in working-class or similar occupation falls for short of 700,000. It may be noted that tlie number of houses of this description, that is of which the average rental of tenements is less than 245. per week, and thus of those which according to the regulations are supposed to be inspected monthly, is estimated at about 68,000. Thus whatever the exact numbers may be. it is clear that the tenement house provision made in New York and what is known as the tenement house problem are of vast dimensions. In no borough in accessible districts is the single-family house occupied by wage- earners to an extent which affects the general situation, and the only type of dwelhng affording accommodation for less than three families that will demand special comment is the two-family house of Brooklyn. There is little doubt that a demand for small self-contained houses at a moderate rental exists, but under present conditions it is practically ineffective. " If single-family houses for wage-earners existed," said an estate agent in the Bronx, " I could rent a hundred to-day. But it is a demand that cannot be met, even at a rental of thirty or thirty-five dollars a month " (28s. lOrf. or 33s. 8rf. a week). In this connexion an experiment in Brooklyn of the " City and Suburban Homes Company" will be noted {vide pp. 40, 41), but it is in the borough of Queens that the chief hope lies of securing a large extension of this form of housing provision for wage-earners. Even there successful development on these lines is contingent on the provision of more efficient transit facilities. At least one important scheme is, how- ever, already in contemplation there that includes such accommodation and that may have an important influence on the form of building extension destined to take j^lace in that borough. The two-family house at Brooklyn to which reference has been made is a distinct and locally important type. In some districts the occupiers are, to a considerable extent, wage-earners, but the rapid construction of houses of this description which is proceeding in some of the outlying districts is still mainly for middle rather than woi'king-class occupation. The houses are usually 2 or 2J stories high, the former with a cellar for heaters, coal storage, &c. ; the latter with a basement containing a parlour and kitchen, and generally let with the ground floor. In the two-story and cellar houses the ground floor would often contain five rooms and a bathroom, and the first floor, six rooms and a bathroom, and the rent, varying with the style of dwelling and situation, might be for the smaller sets of rooms from 16s. 4(;Z. to 24s. per week, and for the larger from 18s. M. to 26s. hd. It follows from the foregoing that in the only boroughs in which at the present time there is a large population — in Manhattan, the Bronx and Brooklyn — the wage- earners live, as a general rule, in tenement houses of one description or another. The type of tenement dwelling found in New York varies greatly, differing according to period of construction and according to locality. Thus, as regards Brooklyn certain broad local differences may be distingushed in the smaller number of stories, the larger number of frame houses, and of houses erected for private use that have been SG NEW YORK CITY. diverted, often illegally, to multiple occupation that are found there — features that illustrate, as regards the more central parts of that borough, its slower rate of development and transition. As regards the Bronx, distinctive features are found in the comparative absence there of tenements containing two or even three rooms, and the relatively large number of tenements called by the superior title " flat," illustrating the more uniformly high level of well-being maintained among wage-earners in that borough. Finally, as regards Manhattan, with the exception of certain areas in the Lower South West Side, certain general characteristics illustrate the greater concentration of population there, and the higher value of its land, such as the greater size of the unit of construction, the greater number of "rear houses," the moi*e solid grouping, especially in the Lower East Side, of that particular type of dwelling for which New York is notorious, and up to the present time the risk that has been run of prolonging, if not perpetuating, the evil of congestion by the relatively rapid construction of the larger type of modern tenement house. The tenement house in Xew York dates back ft)r many decades, and the general lines of its evolution have been determined by commercial considerations and by that pressure of population upon a limited area to which reference has been already made. The normal risks of the situation resulting from physical conditions, and, until com- paratively recent 3'ears, from the restricted mobility of occupiers were greatly accentuated by an artificial convention which fixed, in building plots that were as a rule a hundred feet deep, the common width at twenty-five feet. The ingenuity of architects and builders was thus constantly being directed to the problem of turning to the most effective use sites that were admirable for self-contained dwellings with small gardens, but which became exceedingly ill-adapted to the requirements of a large and rapidly increasing industrial population. The rectangular symmetry of the plan upon which by far the greater part of ■Manhattan was laid out, as far back as 1807, made the repetition of types the more inevitable when once those were discovered that seemed sufficiently suitable and proved ])rofitable. Differences from period to period turned partly on size, but pei'haps equally on the attention given to ventilation and light, and it is noticeable that as devices were adopted by which these two last advantages were, or were believed to be, secured, the depth and height of the building tended to increase. Amongst the earliest and simplest types was a double-fronted dwelling with two sets of apartments on each floor of four rooms each, running en suite from street to yard. Thus each tenement not in a corner plot contained two rooms dependent on borrowed light, and when constructed with nothing but a door through which this light could come, it is clear that the accommodation it offered was of a low order. When, further, the conveniences were placed in the yard, generally one to two families, and when rear houses, generally wdth two tenements of two rooms on each fioor, were constructed at the end of the ])lot, often built back to back with other rear houses occupying a corresponding position as reganls the front houses built on the opposite side of the block, the general housing conditions apt to result had many undesirable features. When, however, as is now often found, the type of dwelling above mentioned, without a rear house, has the water-closet with an outer window, and when large windows open between the interior or " dark " and the exterior I'ooms, dwellings are found that are superior in some essential respects to later types and even to some that are being built at ■ the present time. For, when judged by the New York standard, this older type has the great merit, apart from the risk of overcrowding of the individual tenement, of beino" incompatible with an abnormal congestion of population. One such house of five stories visited on the East Side, with its solid brickwork and good plumbing, and with two rooms out of the four of fair size (14 feet 6 inches by 11 feet 2 inches and 14 feet 6 inches by 10 feet 6 inches), gave much more desirable accommodation, even though it had a four-storied rear house behind it, than many much more modern dwellings that were seen, conformity with the existing regulations being compatible with the evasion of a larger number of the canons of good housing than the above dwelling displayed. Varieties of air shaft help to distinguish the dwellings that followed the block type, the first being generally roofed in, and most of them difficult of access for cleaning and inade(juate both for lighting and for ventilation. The earlier forms were small, l)ut the shaft, when once open at the top, soon expanded lengthwise ami became a distinctive feature of probably one of the worst types of dwelling that has ever been designed and constructed on a large scale in modern urban communities. Its inti'oduction made it possible to construct a considerably deeper house than formerly, and although this had the incidental advantage of eliminating the '• rear house " on these NEW YORK CITY. 27 particular sites the remedy was worse than the disease. A depth of not less than 90 feet out of the 100 was sometimes occupied by the dwelling, which usually contained four tenements on each floor, two of four rooms in the front and two of three rooms at the back. The stairs and hallways were in the centre of the building and were thus entirely dependent upon borrowed or artificial light, and wei'e diflficult to ventilate. Water-closets were in the hall outside the tenements, one being shared by two families, loathing facilities were not provided, but cold water was laid on to each tenement. The most characteristic and the most objectionable feature of these dwellings was the shaft to which reference has been made — an indentation on either side of the building some 50 or 60 feet in length, and usually for the greater part of the distance only 28 inches wide. The only point at which this width was greater was for about 16 to 18 feet at the centre where the windows of the water-closets were constructed, and here the shaft was about six feet in width.* It will be observed, therefore, that it is upon the narrow part of the shaft that the windows of living or bedrooms open, and that thus, since on one floor of a pair of typical houses there are fourteen rooms, the outlook for ten of these is upon a slit not more than twice 28 inches in width. When it is further remembered that the houses are usually constructed of five, six or sometimes seven stories, and that the shaft is therefore often some sixty or more feet in height, the full demerits of this design begin to be appreciated. In duplicated dwellings of this description, six stories in height, the windows of sixty rooms and twenty-four water- closets would look out upon a single shaft. The following oflicial comment upon the construction just described is extracted from the First Eeport of the Tenement House Department (1902-3) :— " The ostensible purpose of tlie shaft is to provide light and air to the five rooms on each side of the house which get no direct light and air from the street or yard ; but as the shafts are narrow and high, being inclosed on all four sides, and without any intake of air at the bottom, these rooms obtain, instead of fresh air and sunshine, foul air and semi-darkness. Indeed, it is questionable whether the rooms would not be more habitable and more sanitary with no shaft at all, depending for their light and air solely upon the front and back rooms, into which they open ; for each family, besides having the foul air from its own rooms to breathe, is compelled to breathe the emanations from the rooms of some eleven other families. Nor is this all ; these shafts act as conveyers of noise, odours and disease, and when fire breaks out serve as inflammable flues, often rendering it impossible to save the buildings from destruction." The foregoing type of house was first constructed about thirty years ago, and up to the passing of the present Tenement House Law of 1901, was the predominant type of tenement house being erected in Manhattan. Although so faulty in design that houses of this type meet mth almost universal condemnation, and although few features of a dwelling can be more repellent than one of their neglected and littered shafts, it is upon these shafts, upon the darkened and ill -ventilated rooms and interior stairways, and upon the congestion which these dwellings promote, that fair hostile criticism chiefly concentrates. In several respects undesirable features of the original designs can be mitigated as, for instance, by the construction of interior windows between outer and interior rooms, or, as is compelled by the administration, by the insertion of glass windows opening on the hallways to ensure better lighting. In general, in these dwellings as in others, a sanitary standard is now maintained that, although it may be said to have been forced perhaps upon owners, and certainly upon the administration, by the very magnitude and urgency of the problem with which they were and are confronted, and by the grave risks of disease and epidemic that would speedily follow from neglect or slackness, is creditable to all concerned. Other earlier types of dwellings will be indicated in a later page where reference is made to concrete illustrations of dwellings visited in connexion with this enquiry. For the most part further essential differences will, however, be found to consist rather in matters of arrangement in detail tshn in general structure. There is great variety in plan, in the number of stories and the number of tenements on each floor, in the depth of the building, and to a less extent in the number of rooms per tenement, but such diffez-ences always derive much of their importance from the way in which thej' react on the essen- tial requirements to which reference has been made, that is, as to whether they do or do not help to minimise congestion and to secure the maximum of sunlight, fresh air and breathing space possible. • In shape the plan of these buildings is not unlike a dumb-bell, and " dumb-bell " has thus come to be the name by which the type is known. 28 NEW YORK CITY. Reference may now be made to the most important step directly connected with the housing question that has so far been taken, by which it was hoped that the evils of con- gestion would be mitigated and the maximum of hygienic provision possible be secured. The opinion is general that housing conditions in New York ten years ago were far worse than they are to-day, and supported by the steady rise in the standard of an effective demand, by active competition between different and sometimes newly developed areas, and by a hastened centrifugal movement, the chief legislative instrument by which this improvement has been secured has been the Tenement House Act of 1901. Although some of the ])rovisions of the Act are somewhat specious in character, and although it has tt) be borne in mind that many of the conditions imposed can only be regarded as desirable when compared with others anterior that were particularly undesirable, the passing of the Act was nevertheless a great achievement and indicated a considerable advance in public opinion on housing matters. The following selection from contrasts drawn between the old and the new conditions secured by the Act will serve the double purpose of indicating still further, not only the seriousness of some of the defects which were checked, but also the narrow limitations that New York conditions still continue to impose upcm dwelling construction. Thus, instead of 75 ])er cent, of other than corner sites not more than 70 per cent, could be occupied by the builduig ; instead of there being no limit to the height of buildings in narrow streets, this height was limited to one-and-a-half times the width of the street ; instead of having yards 10 feet deep the minimum depth was raised to 13 feet ; instead of air shafts 28 inches wide courts which could in no case be less than 6 feet in width were required. Cellars were now defined as stories more than half below the level of the kerb of the street, and basements as those partly but not more than half below this level. The occupation of tme tenement on a cellar floor is, it may be noted, legal, but the occupier must be a janitor, and, if the tenement is in the front part of the building, the ceiling must be not less than 4 feet 6 inches above the kerb level of the street. The minimum floor space for any living room was fixed at 70 square feet, and in everv tenement one room had to be not less than 120 square feet in size ; bedrooms could no longer be passage rooms, and for each tenement a private water-closet had to be provided. Rear houses could no longer be constructed. Rear hoiises are, it maybe noted, the New York substitute for courts and alleys. In the English sense these are non-existent and they are, indeed, incompatible with the rectangular block planning adopted. But a rear house, double-fronted, of four or five stories, is in essence a court of little dwellings vertically instead of horizontally arranged. The conditions laid down by the Act for the avoidance of risk from fire are of great value, and, in the opinion of some, constitute its most useful features. By these condi- tions, inter alia, staircases and stair-halls must be constructed of fireproof material through- out ; the first tier of beams must be of iron or steel with fireproof flooring, and every tenement must have direct access to a fire-escape stairway at an angle of not more than 60° with a droj) ladder from the lowest balcony of sufl&cient length to reach a safe landing jjlace beneath. Fire-escapes are a conspicuous feature in every tenement-house street in which there are both front and back tenements, and indicate at once the general character of the housing accommodation it contains. It is laid down that access to the fire-escapes must not be obstructed in any way and the enforcement of this regulation constitutes one of the constantly recurring difficulties of the administration ; room space being often so restricted that the little balcony from whicli the fire-escape stfirts becomes a tempting place on which to put some box or other possession not liable to injury from exposure to the weather. Bedding is often aired there and in the heat of the summer the balconies themselves are constantly slept on. But misuse of this kind — if it be misuse — detracts but Uttle from the general merits of the fire-prevention clauses of the Act. The passage sjiace made necessary by the well-intentioned condition that bedrooms were not to be passage-rooms has been an important contributory influence tending to restrict the size of separate rooms in the new tenements to the legal minimum and, especially in Manliattan, to increase the size of individual buildings as a whole — teiidenoies that indicate two of their greatest defects. From tlie outset, largely owing to the value of land there, those New Law houses erected in Manhattiin have been mainly of six stories, and the tendency to build to this size soon made itself felt, although not to the same extent, in the Bronx. Conditions laid down in the new Act for the prevention of fire tended, it may be noted, to fix the maximum height at six stories save in the form of expensive " apartment houses," since l)uildings of more than this height have to be of fire-proof NEW YORK aXY. 29 construction throughout, and are thus much more costly. Apart from tlie limitation thus imposed, however, the tendency towards the erection of the larger type of tenement house, and thus the recovery in floor space of what was lost in courts, has made itself felt and is one of the considerations tending to modify the satisfaction felt at first when the Act of 1901 came into operation, and the confidence with which the multiplication of what are known as the New Law houses was regarded. Only in a very limited and strictly relative sense would this type of house be now described as an " unqualified success," to quote from the First Report of the Tenement House Department, where, reflecting the same satisfaction, we also read that in the Ijower East Side it was " a Sunday diversion of the people to take their families and friends to see the new houses and to wonder at and admire the light rooms, the bath tubs, and the other improvements." In the Third Report a new note and one of warning makes itself heard ; it is pointed out that there is no legal limitation upon the number of families who may occupy any floor of a tenement house. " From this freedom there has been evolved an almost unlimited number of arrangements, so that as many as four apartments \_i.e. tenements] have been provided on each floor of a house 25 feet wide and as many as eight on each floor of a house 50 feet wide. The occupation of these buildings by so many i'amilies on a floor, however, is by no means desirable, for they are so planned as to comply with the bare letter of the law, providing only such accommodations as are legally indispensable, and necessitating unabating vigilance to secure their maintenance in conformity with the requirements of the statutes." In the Fourth Report (1907-8), it is stated " that the erection of tenement houses in excess of four stories in height outside of the borough of Manhattan, except in rare instances, is considered to be wholly unwarranted and prejudicial to the best interests of the City." There is a reference to the " cheap and medium grade of five and six-storied tenements which have proven to be so harmful and obnoxious." But it is also pointed out that " notwithstanding the experience of Manhattan, some of the other boroughs are threatened with a similar affliction through a continuance by many large operators of the same policy of heedless and greedy construction." tJp to the present time, however, the difl^erence in the type of new dwelling maintained between Manhattan and Brooklyn is very marked, since, while in the former borough from 1902-8 80.51 per cent, of the new tenements were six stories in height, and no fewer than 99.73 per cent, were five stories and upwards, in'the latter borough only 6.13 per cent, were of five or more stories. The corresponding percentage in the Bronx was 62.98. It is obvious, however, that under the present Act, in those districts in which circumstances might further the construction of the larger type of new buildings, existing congestion might be rather intensified than counteracted, or that new congested areas might even be created. The administration of the law is placed in the hands of the Tenement House Department, the magnitude of the housing problem in New York having been held to justify the creation of this special branch of the administration, in spite of some overlapping of functions thereby involved. The two main tasks of the Department are connected (1) with existing dwellings — " to maintain in a safe and sanitary condition the tenements of the city " ; and (2) to see that new dwellings conform to the new law — " to supervise the erection of tenements." The staff included in 1909 a Connnissioner, two Deputy Commissioners and about 300 Inspectors of various grades. Although the number of Inspectors seems large, and although in the new buildings erected under improved conditions, in the alterations to old ones, in the removal of nuisances and in other more indirect ways much good work has been accomplished, experience has proved that the ground is far fi-om being adequately covered. This partial failure has followed in a degree from the magnitude of the task, from its delicacy, from the latent hostility which the Department has often had to encounter, from a certain timidity that has resulted, from the form of legal procedure adopted when action is taken and from the inadequacy of the funds appropriated to the services of the Department. Very much of the Inspectors' time has been taken up in enforcing, and in endeavouring to enforce, compliance with notices served for violation in the case of old buildings. Often these have been ineffectual for a long period — even for years, and in these and other ways ,a formidable list of shortcomings has resulted, including, especially in Brooklyn, many cases of non-compliance with the law in the case of new buildings themselves. According to the last Report of the Department, although more than 230,000 orders of various kinds had been complied with during 1908, at the end of the year more than 85,000 violations were pending. In a recent sympathetic but critical report on the 30 NEW YORK CITY. administration of the Department, prepared by the Bureau of Municipal Research, in which it is said that over 66,000 violations were pending on 1st May, 1909, it is stated with special reference to the infrequent inspection of tenements subject to monthly visits, and to the admission that complete inspection of these had not been made as often as once a year, that this failure to cover the ground is due in large part to " the vast accumulation of uncomplied-with violations.'' Though the aggregate defect Avhich such figures and statements imply is very large, tlie measure of excellence that New York housing conditions now display — bad though these conditions still often are — is under the circumstances perhaps more striking than their shortcomings, and signs pf improvements that are being gradually eiFected in a situation of unparalleled difficulty and seriousness meet the observer on every hand. In New York, where rents are relatively high, where the size of rooms is apt to be small and where a large and cosmopolitan population converges, a certain amount of overcrowding is almost inevitable. The legal minimum air-space is laid down at 400 cubic feet for each adult and 200 cubic feet for each child occupying any room, but save in gross departures from these modest requirements that may happen to be discovered the law is not enfoi'ced. No general statistics are available bearing on this question, but there is a consensus of opinion that the risks are more often incurred among foreigners, especially the later immigrants, and among the lower classes of the coloured population. Among the former the Italians are especially mentioned, and their ciannishness, the large numbers that have arrived in most recent years, the low hygienic standard with which many of them are at first content, form a priori grounds for thinking that the charges are not without foundation. On the other hand, the ease and rapidity with which many of them move either according to the season, or from district to district, or even from America to Italy, make it probable that crowded conditions ai-e among the elements of impermanency that characterise so many of the social conditions of the United Stares. Large masses of the foreign immigrants, others as well as Italians, are indeed like an industrial army on the march, moving as units or in detachments from place to place. Thus in certain districts and periods such an evil as that of overcrowding is apt to become excessive and even threatening in its extent, but it is also sjiecially apt to alter both in area and in intensity, and, even if available, general statistics could give, especially perhaps for such a centre as New York, but a momentary picture of conditions unusually liable to change. The following figures may be quoted from the recent careful study of a small selection of New York families made under the auspices of the Russell Sage Foundation under the direction of a representative Committee and edited by Professor Chapin. The H18 families used in the final comparisons in this study each consisted of four or more persons and had incomes ranging from £125 to £229 a year. Among these, all families occupying less than four rooms, or if occupying more than three rooms showing a I'atio of more than IJ persons per room, were regarded as living under overcrowded conditions. On this basis, which is of course arbitrary and goes considerably beyond the legal standard, 160 families out of the 318 — which were representative of some eight national groups — were so described. It should be noted that the enquiry, although not confi)ied to these, concentrated most of its attention on families with both parents living and having from two to four children, and with incomes not exceeding £229 a year. Among the particulars of domestic expenditure furnished in connexion with the present enquiry the number of rooms occupied was obtained and the results show, for 64 families in which the head of the family was either English, Scotch or Welsh, an average of 1'05 persons of all ages per room ; for 149 American families, 1'12 persons ; for 271 Jewish families, 1"23 persons ; for 86 German families, 1*24 persons ; for 87 Irish families, 1*26 persons ; and for 110 Italian families, 1"60 persons per room. Although the tenement house is the prevailing type of dwelling in New York, enough has been said to indicate that the appearance, structure and surroundings of these dwellings differ greatly ui different parts of the city. As regards the streets, the greatest differences are those existing between the smaller thoroughfares in the older and more central parts of Manhattan and Brooklyn and the wider and more systematic block-planning found a little farther out. But nowhere are streets really narrow or tortuous. Most of the streets in the more crowded areas of Manhattan are asphalted. Brooklyn as compared with Manhattan is somewhat amorphous, and even in some of the more central parts untidy streets and houses proclaim districts of which the destiny is still undetermined. In this neighbourhood the business and non -residential area is extending. Residentially, the general tendency, especially for that part of the borough lying west of Prospect Park, is to become increasingly industrial in character, although the recognised NEW YORK CITY. ol feature of Brooklyn — a great intermingling of streets of different status — still holds good even in the more central parts, and although a few districts in that i^art of the city occupied by a relatively wealthy class are maintaining their past character. Probably the largest area occupied by a uniformly industrial class is that lying to the north of the Brooklyn Broadway — Jews and Italians and others nearer the river and lai'gely German-Americans and others farther east. The character of much of this district has been affected by the Williamsburg Bridge and by the fact that it lies vis-a-vis across the East River to the most congested portions of Manhattan. It is across this area in Brooklyn that the centrifugal movement from Manhattan and' the flight to Brownsville, already mentioned as a comparatively new Jewish district, has taken place. As regards the material of which dwellings are composed, the generic differences are as between brick, often painted and often with a good deal of stone-work introduced, and frame, and it is very significant that whereas in almost the whole of Manhattan frame houses are rare exceptions, in Brooklyn they are common even in the older and more central jjarts. Again, a more formative period in urban development is illustrated. Not a few of these frame houses are of a poor type, but others ai-e well-constructed and in good order, and rows of them, often three stories in height with two families on a floor, constructed on the block system with tenements of four rooms running through from front to rear, are among the characteristic types of Brooklyn tenement houses. Generally, whether brick or frame, bare barrack-like structures are the exception in Xew York. Something has been already said with reference to the complex considerations external to itself that go to make up the advantageousness or disadvantageousness of a dwelling — such as nearness to or distance from the place of employment, convenient shops, schools or open spaces. In this respect the whole city may be regarded as a unit offering as compared with rural areas its own aggregate of advantages and disadvantages, and under existing con- ditions the rapid increase in its population is a sufficient demonstration of its attractive power. P)ut the sub-divisions of this great unit are of infinite variety, and while as regards the ultimate effect of locality on the nominal range of working-class rentals the uniformity is more striking than the differences they present, the real differences, could they be adequately measured, would be found to be far greater. Race segregation tends to divide the city to some extent into areas that are at any given moment practically non- competing, with the general result, however, not so much that rents differ to any very great extent from district to district for tenements of the same nominal size, but I'ather that the less desirable areas and structures are apt to be occupied, apart from the coloured race, by some of the less indigenous populations. When, as a result of this segregation, some particular area becomes the scene of a demand that is, in relation to the city, exaggerated, artificial and abnormal, then local and abnormal rent conditions result. But, as has been said, the most manifest effect of this is not so much the payment of abnormally high rentals, although this also occurs when favourable economic conditions are taken advantage of, as differences in the class of accommodation which is tolerated. To some extent this is due to timidity, to ignorance of conditions prevailing elsewhere, and to lack of enterprise ; but to some extent also to custom, to the " herding instinct," and to a certain liking that comes for areas full of jostling crowds, of bustle and animation, where shops that suit are close at hand, and where the employer or sub-contractor more habitually seeks his labour supply. But, although every area thus tends to have some compensation for whatever may l)e its special drawbacks, the inferiority of the actual accommodation often secured by the poorer alien classes in the crowded districts is an outstanding fact of the situation, and affords one of the numerous illustrations of the ways in which immobility, ignorance and relative poverty are often handicapped. It may be noted, however, tliat were it possible on a large scale to provide a superior class of accommodation in the more crovx^ded and poorer down-town quarters of the city, very many of those at present living there would be immediately driven out by the rents that would be demanded. Nor is it, from the general point of view, an altogether undesirable feature of the situation that the outward pull on the central and more congested population should make itself vigorously felt. As regards the internal differences of the 'dwellings, these vary hardly less than do those which are mainly questions of environment. It may be noted that a considerable amount of whitewashing and repainting appears to be done and done frequently, not on liberal but on effective lines. It is done cheaply ; it is not durable, but it makes for a cleanly appearance, while the smallness of the rooms tends to foster if not a positive tidiness, as on board ship, at least the negative virtue of avoiding the accumulation of useless belongings. Among the poorest, although not the darkest or least hygienic type of dwelling that New York contains, may perhaps be singled out a two or three-roomed apartment on the 32 NEW YORK CITY. top floor of a four-storied rear house of an old descrij^tion. Such a dwelling, especially if built back to bs«;k with a similar building, would have no through ventilation unless, as is sometimes found, a rough window had been broken through between the two houses in the partition walls of the stairways. The inner room or rooms would be mere cupboards with borrowed light. Cold water, probably at a small sink in the living room, would be almost the sole " improvement " supplied. The water-closet might be in the yard, more probably in the corridor or, as often now under the present law, entered directly from the tenement but still shared. with one other family living on the same floor, and having corresponding means of entry from their own tenement. The outlook of the one light room would be on a narrow backyard and on the back windows of the tenement house facing on the street — that is. of the 'front" house. The yard on washing days might be the drying ground for some 16 to 20 families, and from all the lower windows as from the yard itself the suspended linen would block out most of the strip of sky visible at other times. Such tenements as those described would rent in the Lower East Side and a little northwards (and it is there that they are most often found) at from £s. dd. to 8s. M. per week. From such tenements an improving standard may be traced till it reaches among small tenements excellent accommodation, with steam heat, hot and cold water supply, cooking range, bathroom, wash tubs, private water-closet, dumb waiter or service hft, speaking tube, electric bells and automatic switch for opening the street door. From a hygienic point of view steam heat is not above suspicion, and many excellent tenements are without it ; when such have neither it nor a hot water supply, a set range with hot water fittings is y&cj frequently provided. Gas is generally laid on and is much used for cooking, especially in the summer, ' and in the steam-heated apartments all through the year. " Quarter " ( = shilling) meter slot machines are in common use. For fuel, still required in the great majority of cases, bins — or compartments —for individual tenants are very frequently provided in the basement. They are locked and for many, probably for most, tenants the ton of coal is or could be the unit of purchase. The provision of wash tubs has been mentioned ; and these, single or double, are a common feature of the New York tenement. They are inconspicuous, and when not in use can generally be covered and converted to either sideboard or table purposes. Provision for drying linen varies, a clothes-line stretched from the window to the long poles that are so common a feature along the back yards of New York tenement houses being by far the commonest method. The lines, doubled, are worked on pulleys and manipulated from the windows. A substitute for the poles is now very occasionally found in expanding and contracting rods attached to the balcony of the individual tenement. Roof lines are much less common than the poles, but are, for instance, the only form of open-air drying allowed in the well-managed dwellings of the City and Suburban Homes Company, where also lines across the courts — insanitary, unsightly and illegal, but con- stantly found even in New Law houses — are strictly forbidden. Steam-heated dryers in the basements are also provided in some of the dwellings of the Company just mentioned, but these are at present exceptional luxuries. It will be evident that the completeness with which what are often referred to as " all improvements " are found in the individual tenement will vary greatly, and thus also the rents. It will sufiice in this place to state that, when really provided, tenements of more than five rooms will be, over almost the whole of New York, rented at more than 24,s. a week, and thus fall beyond the range of dwelling that is in general occupied by wage-earning families. In the newer dwellings of the City and Suburban Homes Company, which represent the high-water mark of excellence yet reached by small -working-class apartments, four rooms are rented at from 16s. 10c?. to 225. Id. per week. Two negative characteristics which, in addition to rentals, roughly differentiate dwellings in the occupatioh of wage-earners from others, are the absence of lifts other than the small service lifts already mentioned, and the fact that so far they are not fitted with electric light. Although, as has been Indicated, it is easy to discover housing areas in which the accepted standard is low and appears to be stationary, the general fact is undeniable that a better supply and an effective demand are making themselves felt in ways that probably more than any other influence are ultimately destined to hasten on the improvement ot housing conditions in New York. On the side of supply are the new districts, the com- petition of which is measurably increasing in intensity year by year ; the owners who feel the pressure of this competition ; the New Law buildings which, whatever their defects, are undeniable imprt)vements on the worst earlier types, with their tiny rooms, bnrrovved lights and defective sanitary arrangements ; the improvements in the older buildings NEW YORK CTTY. 33 that fire being steadily enforced by the administration ; and the example of such under- takings as those of the City and Suburban Homes Company. As regards demand, the depression and the immigration to Europe in 1908, following on extensive speculative building, brought about a change in the relationship of landlord and tenant that at any rate for the moment conduces to the same end, as do the more permanent influences f)f invention, advertisement and the various efforts that are being made to extend the knowledge of hygienic conditions. Finally, in effective combination with all such influences is the high standard of material well-being that is in general maintained in New York. The following particulars of notes made on individual dwellings visited in the course of the present enquiry are inserted by way of illustration of types and conditions to which more general reference has been made. Lower East Side: — (1) — Five-storied rear house built back-to-back. Two rooms. Cold water. Water-closet now in corridor. Very small, dirty, corner air-shaft of oldest pattern. Occupier Jewish costermonger. Rent 65. 9(/. per week. Ten apartments in all ; range of rental 5s. 9rf. to 7s. %d. per week. (2) — Back tenement of three rooms in tenement house of dumb-bell shape. Range with hot-water fittings supplied. Water-closet in passage. Dimensions : — kitchen 12 feet by 10 feet 6 inches ; bedrooms 12 feet by 10 feet and 8 feet by 8 feet 6 inches ; height 9 feet 8 inches. Kitchen and one bedroom with window on narrow shaft. In Jewish occupation. Rent 13s. 6rf. per week. Front four-roomed tenement also in Jewish occupation. Dimensions : — living room 10 feet by 11 feet 6 inches; kitchen 10 feet by 11 feet 6 inches; two bedrooms 8 feet 6 inches by 8 feet ; height 9 feet 8 inches. Windows of kitchen and bedrooms looking on filthy narrow shaft. Water-closet in passage. Rent 15s. 5c?. per week. (3.) — Two-roomed tenement. Dimensions : — 1 6 feet 6 inches by 12 feet by 8 feet 5 inches and 7 feet by 8 feet 8 inches by 8 feet 5 inches. Window in second room looking on new square shaft as ordered by Tenement House Department. Occupier Jewish machinist. Husband, wife and one child. Fair comfort. Rent 9s. Id. per week. Range of rent of other tenements 8s. 2^?. (top floor) to 10s. Id. per week. The building is an old-fashioned five-storied block house, formerly four rooms through, but each side now divided into two two-roomed tenements. Thus four families on each floor. (4.) — Three light rooms, including one at corner with three windows. Occupier Russian metal worker. Rent 15s. 5c?. per week. (5.) — Rear house off one of the principal streets. Two stories. Two two-roomed tenements on each floor. On ground floor — (i) Bootmaker. Not self-supporting. Earnings put at 25s. per week. Child asleep in small dark room with many flies swarming on its face. Linen far from clean, (ii) Widow. Both apartments squalid. Rents 7s. 8c?. and 8s. 8c?. per week. On first floor — (i) Tailor (ill), wife and three children. Rooms bare, (ii) Woman and son. Rooms comfortable. Rents 9s. 7c?. and 8s. 7c?. per week. Water-closet on stairs, one for two families. Occupiers Russians. On the first floor of the same house fronting the street a prosperous Russian dressmaker was occupying an excellent tenement of six rooms (one used for business) at a rent of 42s. 4c?. per week. (6.) — On third floor. Four rooms and bathroom. Small rooms. Occupier Russian pocket-book maker. Three in family. Rent 17s. 4c^. per week. In same house on fourth floor, five rooms and bathroom. Russian family. Invalid wife. Fairly comfortable. Rent 2 Is. 'id. per week. (7.) — Five-storied New Law 25-family house. Hot water supply. Range supplied. Twenty tenements of four rooms and five of three rooms, total occupants 124. Seventeen tenements with bathroom. Rents, four rooms from 15s. Sd. to 22s. Id. and three rooms from 12s. 6c?. to 13s. 6c?. per week, according to floor and position. (8.) — Rear house, two rooms. Dimensions : — 15 feet by 11 feet by 8 feet and 9 feet by 8 feet by 8 feet. Cold water supply to wash tub and sink. Gras. Range and gas-cooking bracket supplied by tenant. Water-closet, one for two families. Rent 9s. 2d. per week. (9.) — Rear house, ground floor. Three rooms, two dark. Mess indescribable. Husband, wife and four children. Rent 7s. 8c?. per week. (10.) — Rear house, first floor. Three rooms. Cold water supply to wash tub. Range bought by tenant. Water-closet on landing. Rooms tidy. Woman and child. Rent Is. 8c?. per week. (11.) Two rooms. Dimensions : — kitchen 15 feet by 14 feet by 8 feet ; bedroom with borrowed light 9 feet 6 inches by 8 feet 6 inches by 8 feet. Water-closet on stairway. Rent 7s. M. per week. 16r<76 34 NEW YORK CITY. (J 2,) — On top floor of five- storied New Law house in one of the most crowded and best known streets of the Lower East Side. Five rooms and bathroom. Hot water supply. Comfortable. Russian family. Rent 2os. per week. (13.) — In tenement house of five-and-a-half stories. Four back rooms. Small. Rather untidy. Russian family from East End of London five years ago. Two years there. Husband (painter), wife and seven children. Bedding on balcony and two children sleeping there. Rent 1 7s. 4rf. per week. South West Side : — (1.) — Large New Law house, built two years previously. Three- roomed tenement. Cold water. Private water-closets. Weekly rents, two at 10s. 7d., four at lis. Id., four at lis. 6d., one at 12s., one at 125. 6d., one at 13s., five at 13s. 6d., one at 13s. lid., ten at 14s. 5d., one at 14s. lie?, and two at 15s. 5(/. (2.) — Li Italian district, near Washington Square. Two rooms on the third floor front of 18-family house. Husband, wife and six children. Rooms bare. One almost entirely taken up by the bed. Rent 10s. Id. per week. (3.) — In old private house with three stories and basement. Two rooms ; one large, 13 feet by 15 feet by 10 feet. Cold water, sink and water-closet on landing. Rent 9s. 7d. per week. (4.) — In old private house. Four rooms on ground floor ; one 12 feet by 12 feet by 10 feet ; two dark, and one really a big cupboard. Cold water supply. Water-closet in yard. Rent 135. Gd. per week. On first floor for five rooms the rent was 15s. od. per week. (5.) — On ground floor of old house of two-and-a-half stories. Four rooms. Water- closet in little garden. Greenery ; occupier proud of it. Rent 16s. Ad. per week. (6.) — Old house. Two rooms (one very small) and alcove, let as three rooms. Rent 9s. 7d. per week. In the same house two back rooms. Rent 7s. 8d. per week. Occupiers Italians. In passing eastwards from the district in which the above dwellings are situated (the only one in Manhattan in which any considerable number of small houses are found) a marked contrast in the prevailing type appears. The large tenement houses are no longer the exception but become the predominant type, and, while buildings are more elaborate, more ornate and more modern, the sense of comparative openness is lost. There is less sky, less freshness, more congestion. It is the beginning of the transition from the Lower West to the Lower East Side. North of 14th Street : — (1.) Five-storied house. Two families to floor. Block plan. No shaft, but well built and in good order. Private water-closet now, with window on yard. Dimensionsof tenement on second floor : living room (two windows to street) 14 feet 6 inches by 11 feet 2 inches ; two bedrooms (dark, with interior windows 3 feet by 5 feet to livmg room and kitchen) 8 feet 5 inches by 8 feet ; kitchen (with two windows on yard) 14 feet 6 inches by 10 feet 6 inches. Rents per week, mainly according to floor — five at 15s. 5^., two at 17s. 4c?., two at 16s. 4c?. and one at 14s. 5d. per week. Occupiers — Americans and mixed. In the rear, four-storied house. One tenement of three rooms on each floor. Rents 7s. 8d. to lis. 6c?. per week. Size of building lot 25 feet by 100 feet, (2,) Three rooms back. Dimensions: kitchen (windows on yard) 10 feet 2 inches by 13 feet ; bedrooms 10 feet by 12 feet and 7 feet 6 inches by 8 feet (windows on slit shaft). Cold water only. Water-closet on corridor. Room full of furniture and ornaments. Occupier Bohemian. Rent 8s. 8d. per week. Front apartment, with three rooms, looking on slit shaft. Rent lis. Ic?. per week, (3,) In large New Law house for 30 families. Three rooms. Hot water supply. Rooms bare. Occupier, Russian carpenter and family. Rent 12s. 6o?. per week. Another tenement of four rooms, hot water supply and bath, Jewish, Comfortable. Rent 15s. 5d. per week. In Little Italy : — (4.) (a.) New Law house. Hot water supply for half day. Rents per week. Four rooms, front. One tenement at lis. Id., and four tenements at 12s, Three rooms, front. One tenement at 10s. 7c?., and four tenements at lis. 6c?. Three rooms, back. Eleven tenements at 7s, Sd. to 10s. Ic?. Three rooms, looking on court. Five tenements at 7s. 8c?. to Ss. 2d. The slight difference in the rents of the tenements with the front outlook as between three and four rooms is noticeable. Letting in this house had been difficult. (A.) Three rooms at back of ground floor of 24-family house. Cold water. Water- closet in corridor. Gas (quarter meter). Dimensions : 11 feet by 10 feet ; 10 feet by 10 feet ; 6 feet 6 inches by 8 feet 6 inches ; height 9 feet 6 inches. Coal bin in cellar. Husband NEW YORK CITY. 3p barber. Wile and two young cbildren. Rent 6s. 3d. per week. A 6 feet open shaft in this house ; very dirty at foot, as also was yard behind house. Cleaned twice a week, but said to be littered at once. Complaint by janitress of tenants who " will throw things out to save bringing them down." Dumb waiter provided, but broken and not used. (c.) In I15th Street. Three-storied brick house. Three rooms. Dimensions: kitchen 12 feet by 13 feet ; bedrooms 9 feet by 8 feet and 7 feet by 8 feet (no bed) ; height 9 feet. Cold water supply and water-closet on corridor, one for two families. Two dark rooms. Oilcloth on floor. Pictures on walls, and general air of care and comfort in kitchen. All rooms clean. Coal bin in cellar. Buy by ton or half ton, or by Ad. a pail " if short of money." Used quarter meter for gas. Husband, rag dealer. Rent 9^. 7(i. per week. In this house, six rooms deep, four tenements of three rooms on each floor. Two front at 9s. 7d. and two back at 7s. 8d. per week. Building on 25 feet front lot. Building depth 63 feet. (rf.) Three -roomed tenements, front. Cold water supply. Water-closet in corridor, one for two families. Rent 10s. 7d. per week. For back apartments of same size, 9s. 7d. (e.) Three-roomed tenements. Cold water. Wash tub. Water-closet on corridor. Dimensions : 11 feet 2 inches by 12 feet 6 inches ; 12 feet 2 inches by 13 feet 4 inches ; 9 feet 6 inches by 8 feet 5 inches ; height 8 feet 9 inches. Rent 9s. 2d. per week. Back rooms : 10 feet 2 inches by 14 feet 6 inches ; 9 feet 7 inches by 9 feet 3 inches ; 9 feet 6 inches by 8 feet 3 inches. Plenty of furniture. Untidy. Cheerful. Making- macaroni for home consumption. Italian. Rent 7s. Sd. per week. The above two tenements illustrate the sub-division of single six-roomed through apartments into two of three each. The alteration is comparatively easy if the water- closet is on the landing. In that case there is little to do besides closing the inner door of the middle pair of rooms and putting in an extra sink. The alteration is still simpler if the sink is also on the landing. (5.) Four rooms in New Law house. Living room 12 feet by 12 feet by 9 feet. Two bedrooms and kitchen, very small. In avenue with elevated railway. Rent lower in consequence, 12s. Qd. per week. (6.) Four rooms in model dwelling. Fair sized kitchen. Hot and cold water. Steam heat. Gas (slot meter). Husband (waiter) and wife. One lodger. Rent 235. -id. per week. (7.) In 20-family house, dumb-bell shape. Hot water ranges supplied. Wash tubs. Water-closets in yard. Clean and in good order. Cisterns in separate frost- protected chamber. Three and four rooms. Of the three-roomed tenements, two rooms, and of the four-roomed tenements, three rooms looking on to narrow shaft. Dimensions of the four-roomed tenements : good front room 11 feet 8 inches by 15 feet ; kitchen 8 feet by 11 feet ; bedrooms (two) 8 feet by 9 feet ; height 9 feet 2 inches. Tenants colom-ed. Rent according to floor ; of four-roomed tenement (front), 12s. 6d. to 14s. 5d. ; of three-roomed tenement (back), 9s. 7d. to lis. 6d. per week. (8.) Five-storied tenement house, built about fifteen years ago. Five-roomed tene- ment, with bath and steam heat, built through from front to back. Dimensions : 8 feet 6 inches by 14 feet G inches ; 8 feet 6 inches by 10 feet ; 8 feet 6 inches by 11 feet ; 10 feet 6 inches by 12 feet ; 8 feet 6 inches by 10 feet ; height, 9 feet. Occupiers of all nine houses (70 apartments), American, Irish and German. Rent per week — ground floor, 19s. M. ; first floor, 23s. Id. ; second floor, 22s. Id. ; third floor, 21s. 2d. ; fourth floor, 20s. 2d. (9.) In New Law house for 30 families. Five rooms and bathroom on second floor. Hot water supply. Dimensions, exclusive of private hallway : living room 12 feet 9 inches by 11 feet ; kitchen 12 feet by 7 feet ; parlour or bedroom 11 feet by 12 feet 6 inches ; bedrooms 11 feet 6 inches by 10 feet 6 inches, and 10 feet 6 inches by 7 feet 6 inches ; bathroom 6 feet by 4 feet ; height 9 feet 1 inch. Husband Irish, carpenter ; wages 91s. 8d. a week. Wife (despondent) and five children. No signs of want, but many of unsatisfactory home. Rooms bare of furniture. Rent 19s. 8d. per week. The whole house was divided into three, four and five-roomed tenements. Rents lis. 6d. to 12s. 6d., 13s. lid. and from 16s. ^d. to 19s. 3d. per week respectively. (10.) Six-roomed tenement with bathroom, in house about 20 years old Four rooms looking on narrow shaft. Hot water supply. Dimensions : 9 feet 6 inches by 12 feet 8 inches ; 8 feet 8 inches by 8 feet 7 inches ; 10 feet 4 inches by 10 feet 6 inches ; 7 feet by 10 feet 6 inches ; 13 feet by 13 feet ; 12 feet by 9 feet ; bathroom 4 feet by 4 feet 6 inches ; height 9 feet. Occupiers, husband (barber), wife, four children and one lodger. Coloured. Rent 22s. Id. per week. 16576 " c 2 36 NEW YORK CITY, The Bronx: — (1.) Five rooms and bathroom. Cold water flat. Block or " railroad " type. Dumb waiter. Bathroom aad water-closet built out and entered from kitchen. Two entrances to tenement from public corridor. Rooms en suite. Dimensions : parlour (two windows on street) 11 feet 6 inches by 13 feet 9 inches ; two bedrooms (curtained windows, on narrow shaft) 8 feet 6 inches by 12 feet 6 inches and 7 feet 1 inch by 10 feet ; dining room (window on same shaft) 11 feet 6 inches by 13 feet ; kitchen 11 feet 6 inches by 14 feet 6 inches. Comfortable rooms. Many pictures. Occupier, German painter, thirty years in America. Three in family. Rent 16s. ^.d. per week. (2.) Large New Law house in Italian quarter. Hot water supply in winter and " once a week " in summer. Three-roomed tenement. Dimensions : kitchen 15 feet by 9 feet ; two bedrooms 9 feet by 8 feet ; height 9 feet. Husband (labourer, not strong), wife and five children. Rent 8a'. 8tZ. per week. Big cellars for coal. All compartments locked. Italian bakery in cellar. Clean, white loaves ; Is., 8t?., 3c?., and under. (3.) In four-storied house, with shops on ground floor in Italian quarter. Two families on floor. Four-roomed tenement front to back. Cold water supply. Wash tubs. Water-closet on corridor. Dimensions : kitchen 14 feet by 11 feet 9 inches ; two bed- rooms 8 feet by 8 feet, both with borrowed light ; sitting room 1 5 feet by 11 feet 9 inches ; height 9 feet 6 inches. No carpets, as usual. Tidy, comfortable and fairly clean. Husband (labourer in ice works, earning 9s. bd. a day), wife and four children, one of the last a machinist out of work. Rent 12s. Qd. per week. (4.) Frame tenement house. Four rooms (two dark) and bath. Cold water. Wash tubs. Private water-closet. Rent lis. Qd. per week. (5.) Attractive new house. 31 families. Steam heat. Bathrooms. Occupiers, Americans and some Jews. Rent three-roomed tenement, 14s. bd. to 15s. Ad. ; four rooms, IZs. 4rf. to 21s. 2d. ; five rooms, 21s. 2d. to 24s. per week. (6.) Six-roomed back tenement in New Law House. Steam heat. Hot water supply. Dimensions : kitchen 8 feet by 11 feet ; dining room 10 feet 6 inches by 12 feet ; drawing room 10 feet 6 inches by 12 feet ; three bedrooms 7 feet by 12 feet ; 7 feet 5 inches by 11 feet ; 8 feet 6 inches by 9 feet 6 inches ; height, 9 feet 2^ inches. Comfortable, but, as often in houses of this type, rooms very small. Passages would add something to floor space of apartment. Rent (dropped from 24s. in 1908) 21s. 2d. per week. (7.) Five rooms and bathroom in back tenement in New Law house. Steam heat. Dimensions (without passages) : kitchen 7 feet 3 inches by 10 feet 7 inches ; dining room 10 feet 6 inches by 12 feet ; parlour 10 feet by 12 feet ; bedrooms 7 feet 3 inches by 11 feet, and 8 feet by 9 feet 1 inch ; height 9 feet 3 inches. Occupier, American, eleven years in Ncav York ; motor man, leaving for New England for farm. Rent 19s. '6d. per week. In the same house, a front six-roomed tenement, with bath, was 27s. lid. per week. Two years previously, 305. 'dd. Brooklyn: — (1.) In a central area likely to be absorbed for business uses : four rooms in a four-storied brick tenement house. Cold water supply. Water-closet in yard. Irish- American occupier, waiter. Rent 13s. Qd. per week. (2.) In a similar district. Two rooms in a two-storied rear frame house, old. Dimensions : 12 feet by 12 feet, and 6 feet 6 inches by 6 feet 6 inches ; height 8 feet. Occupiers, coloured longshoreman and wife. Rent 6s. 2>d. per week. (3.) In a central district mainly occupied by Irish and Italians. Two rooms in ihree- storied tenement house. Cold water supply. Water-closet in cellar, in fair order (two for six families). Dimensions : kitchen 12 feet by 14 feet ; bedroom 8 feet 6 inches by 9 feet 6 inches ; height 8 feet. No yard. Occupied by Italians. Rent 6s. 9df. per week. (4.) Three rooms on second floor of a three- storied frame house. Cold water. Water-closet in yard. Rent 10s. \d. per week. (5.) In a convenient district, two New Law brick dwellings, with hot water supply. Five rooms and bathroom. Ten at 14s. 5d. per week, twenty-five at 15s. bd., five at 165. Ad., ten at 19s. 3t/., four at 20s. 2d. and thirty at 21s. 2d. (6.) Four rooms on third floor of three story and basement re-modelled brick house. Dimensions : kitchen 10 feet by 13 feet ; bedrooms 10 feet by 14 feet ; 5 feet by 10 feet ; 5 feet by 8 feet. Good cupboards. Large corridor. Wash tub and sink in kitchen. Cold water. Rent 13s. Qd. per week. Rent of first floor and basement, four rooms and bath, 15s. 5c/. ; of second floor, three rooms, alcove and bath, 145. hd. Size of building lot 18 feet by 33 feet. Depth of yard, with shed at end, 62 feet. The especial advantage of this kind of dwelling is the comparative privacy secured. (7.) Four-roomed tenement on the third floor of a converted house. The tenement contained scullery, with sink and wash tub ; water-closet (with skylight) ; two good cup- NEW YORK CITY. 37 boards and broad landing. Dimensions : livinj^ room 10 feet by (5 feet by 15 feat ; bed- rooms (three) 10 feet 6 inches l)y LS feet ; 6 feet 6 inches by 14 feet ; 7 feet by S feet, the last with borrowed light only ; scullery 6 feet by 2 feet 6 inches ; height 8 feet !) inches. Rooms bare, but no sign of want. Occupiers, Italians, who had landed eight days previously, including a young cabinetmaker, who had obtained trial employment at 37^. ()d. a week. Rent 15s. od. per week. The basement and first floor (eight rooms) were let at 28s. IQd. per week, and the second floor (four rooms and scullery) for 15s. bd. Size of building plot 20 feet by 45 feet. (8.) Although the large tenement house is not characteristic of Brooklyn, a con- siderable number are found there, including some of the least desirable types. Thus, in one case, a building of five stories, with four families on each floor, had three of the four rooms looking out on a shaft only three feet in width, and two of these rooms only 7 feet square. The water-closets were in the corridors (one for tn'o families), and were in bad order. Altogether, this dwelling represented one of the worst specimens seen anywhere. It was mainly in Italian occupation, and in this sorry building, as often elsewhere, the neighbourliness of the occupants was a conspicuous feature. (9.) A four-roomed second floor tenement in a three-story and basement double- fronted frame house. Cold water supply. Wash tub and sink in kitchen. Closet on landing (one for two families), and vent shaft. Dimensions : parlour, with two windows overlooking street, 11 feet (5 inches by 15 feet; bedroom (leading from parlour, with window in partition wall) 8 feet 6 inches by lo feet 6 inches : second bedroom {en suite, leading to kitchen, and again with window in partition wall) 8 feet 6 inches by 8 feet ; kitchen, with two windows overlooking yard, 11 feet 6 inches by 17 feet ; height, 9 feet 6 inches. Rent 12s. 6d. per week. Ren*^ of first and third floors lis. 6^^. Building plot 25 feet by 55 feet. Complete plot 25 feet by 100 feet. (10.) In Brownsville. In four-storied 16-family New Law house. Five rooms and bath on second floor. Set range and hot water fittings. Gas. Dimensions : kitchen 8 feet by 13 feet; living room 11 feet by 11 feet ; dining room 11 feet by 13 feet ; bedrooms 7 feet 6 inches by 9 feet, and 7 feet by 10 feet ; height 9 feet 6 inches. Husband a fur worker, earning 70s. 10^. a week ; one son telegraph employee earning fi6s. 81^/. ; and another, in a looking-glass shop, earning 50s. Husband employed in Manhattan. When busy, as at the time of visit, has to leave home at 5 a.m., and does not get back till 11 p.m. Anxious to live again in Manhattan, but wife hopes to stop at Brownsville. Jewish. Evident comfort. Rent 12s. 6d. a week. (11.) In Brownsville. Five rooms and bathroom in three-storied frame house. Ground floor. Clean. Rent 13s. 6d. per week. On second floor the owner was living. Rent of third floor, 14s. od. Two years ago this last tenement was let at 17s. Ad., now considered fortunate to get 14s. od. But the rent movement (July, 1909) Avas again tending upwards. In this and some other more scattered sections of Brooklyn, a tendency to offer tenements for less money in winter than in summer was apparent. Ti'avelling in the cold season is less agreeable, and this is probably the main explanation of the tendency, but in the less thickly built areas themselves wintry weather is apt to make itself felt more than elsewhere, especially when window fittings, &c., are, as is often the case, defective. " Freezing in winter" was the comment of an American living somewhat out of his environment in a showy but badly constructed two-family house in 43rd Street. Thus the power of the crowded parts of Manhattan to attract, to which reference has been made, is doubtless much stronger in winter than in the heat of the summer. In August the contrast in favour of many parts of Brooklyn or of the Bronx is to the outsider incalculable. But in January even to him it is not so manifest. In some newer districts a three-storied house with shop on the ground floor and two families above is becoming common and is suspected of representing an attempt at evasion of the Tenement House Act. This would result if, the structural conditions for a tenement house not having been observed, the space behind the shop was used as a dwelling. (12.) — A five-roomed tenement on the top floor of a three-story and cellar building. Cold water supply. Set range and boiler. Sink. Laundry tubs. Cupboards. Private water-closet. Dimensions : parlour (with two windows on street) 10 feet 6 inches by 14 feet 6 inches ; bedroom with borrowed light from parlour 9 feet by 10 feet ; living room or kitchen (with two windows on yard) 10 feet fi inches by 13 feet ; bedroom with window on yard 6 feet G inches by 10 feet ; bedroom with window on street 6 feet 6 inches by 10 feet 6 inches. Occupier an American carpenter. Rent 13s. 6d. per week. Although one bedroom was " dark " and the other two small, the tenement had a comfortable appearance and was one of many illustrations of the very great disparity 1657(! C 3 38 NEW YORK CITY. often presented between the accommodation secured by the more or less well-to-do wage- earner and others less favourably situated. This is much more sti'iking than differences in rentiil. The ground floor of the above house was let for IS,*!. 6d. and the second floor was 15s. orf. per week. (13.) A five-roomed tenement en suite in a four-story and cellar double-fronted tenement house containing seven families and one shop. Cold water supply. Sink and wash tub. Coal bin in cellar. Dumb waiter (used). Water-closet on landing (one for two families), ventilated by shaft 1 foot by 3 feet 3 inches. Dimensions : — living room, two windows on street, 1 1 feet 6 inches by 15 feet 6 inches ; bedroom (with window on shaft 1 foot 3 inches deep by 7 feet in length) 8 feet 6 inches by 9 feet ; second and third bedrooms (with windows on same shaft) 6 feet by 7 feet 6 inches and 8 feet 6 inches by 9 feet ; kitchen (with two windows on yard and fire escape) 11 feet 6 inches by IG feet ; height of rooms 9 feet 10 inches. Occupiers Americans. Elderly mother born in New York and two children earning form household. Evident comfort. Rent 12s. 6d. per week. Size of building lot 25 feet by 60 feet and of complete lot 25 feet by 100 feet. (14.) A better tenement of the same class of occupation, with living room, dining room, kitchen and three bedrooms, bathroom, and small private hall, was rented at 19s. 3rf. per week. Two of the bedrooms had only borrowed light and the third was the small typical " hall room," but the tenement gave the impression of considerable comfort and the information that such were preferred to the ordinary types of New Law houses excited no surprise. (15.) Four-storied brick tenement houses. Shops on ground floor. Five-roomed tenements with bathrooms. Hot water. Fixed ranges. Eight tenements let at 13s. 6d. per week, eight at 14s. bd., twelve at 15s. 5d. and two at 16s. id. per week. The examples given in the preceding pages, although by no means exhaustive, are representative, but apart from certain particulars with regard to New Law houses — a very complex group — no statistics are available as to the relative frequency either of the above or of other types. Even as regards the New Law houses such statistics as the number of stories or even the number of families on each floor give but little insight into the real character of the dwelling. The interpretation of any rental figure has been seen, indeed, to involve a consideration of many conditions affecting the character of the tenement — not only as regards locality, type of street, &c., but also as to tlie position in the building, such as whether front or back or rear ; the size of rooms ; whether or not there is a bath- room — now very generally provided in new tenements of four rooms and upwards ; and what other " improvements " are provided. All such conditions, combined in great variety, necessarily affect the real value of tenements, as also does the prevalence or absence of " overcrowding." Roughly, this last element may probably be said to be connected with large national gToupings and would thus be one among many considerations that increase the difficulty of appraising the home standard and of interpreting the significance of general rental figures for this great and cosmopolitan city. For the purpose of this enquiry rentals of over 18,000 different tenements on as representative a basis as possible of the class in the occupation of wage-earnei-s were obtained for February, 1909 — mostly in Manhattan, the Bronx, and Brooklyn. Separate figures for the predominant rentals which they yield are shown in the following Table.: for the Lower East side of Manhattan, that is for the part lying south of 14th Street and east of Broadway, to which reference has been frequently made, for the rest of Manhattan, the large sub-divisions of which — South- West, East, West and North — display little variation in nominal predominant rentals, for the Bronx, for Brooklyn and for the whole of New York City. It wnll be noted that only three, four and five-roomed tenements are given in all cases and, although general figures cannot be given, it is certain that these are the predominant sizes and that tenements of two and six rooms are relatively exceptional and local.* The elimination of the single-room tenement and the fact that two rooms are not predominant everywhere are also noteworthy features of the housing conditions of a city so highly rented and, in many parts, so closely built as New York. It will be remembered, however, that in general the size of the rooms is small and that, for instance, " three rooms " are apt to have a total floor-space of not much more than 300 square feet and a cubic measurement not much above 2,700 feet and sometimes considerably less. • In 1907 and 1908 in the plans filed with the Tenement House Department, out of 58,843 tenements of all descriptions (cf. p. 25) 8l)*4 per cent, were of from three to five rooms, only 2*8 were uqder three rooms, 10"2 were of six rooms and G'O above that number. NEW YORK CITY. 39 The following Table shows the predominant weekly rents in February, 1909, of dwellings in the occupation of working-class families in the boroughs of Manhattan, the Bronx and Brooklyn, and in New York City as a whole : — Predominant Weekly Rents of Working-class Dwellings. Two rooms. Three rooms. Four rooms. Five rooms. Six rooms. Manhattan : Lower Bast Side Other Districts Manhattan aii a whole The Bronx Brooklyn 6*. 9(7. to 10.«. 1(7. 6*. 9d. „ 9*. 7d. 6*. 9(7. ,, 9*. 7(7. 10*. 7(7. to 14*. 5(7. y*. 7,7. ., 13*. 6(7. 9*. 7(7. ., 14*. 5(7. 9*. 7(7. „ 14*. 5,7. 8*. 8,7. „ 12*. 6(7. 15*. 5(7. to 17*. id. 14*. 5(7. ., 17*. id. lis.od. „ 17*. 4(7. 13*. 6(7. „ 17*. 4(7. 11*. 6(7. ,, 13*. 6(7. 21*. 2(7. to 25*. 16*. 4(7. „ 24*. 16*. 4(7. „ 25*. 17*. 4(7. „ 21*. 2(7. 14*. 5,7. „ 17*. id. 21*. 2(7. to 25*. New York City — 9*. 7(7 „ 13*. 6(7. 12*. 6d. „ 16*. id. 15*. 5(7. „ 21*. 2(7. — Rent is usually paid monthly in advance, and written contracts are the exception. The relationship of landlord and tenant is apt to vary, not only, as everywhere, according to the way that each regards his obligations, but according to the fluctuations of a somewhat sensitive market. Thus, whereas in 1906 in the Lower East Side it had been difficult to secure rooms, and real estate agents had their waiting lists, in 1909 conditions had changed. Rents had frequently declined there and tenants rather than landlords were often in the stronger position. The changed relationship, which was the sequel and in part the result of the depression of 1907-8, was noticeable in many directions and in the Bronx, for instance, in 1909 the practice of giving a month of free occupancy to new tenants ^vas common. In all cases rent includes water-rate and taxes. The former is based on a scale which varies chiefly with width of building plot and number of stories, families, baths and water-closets. Thus for a 25-feet front dwelling of five stories the minimum rate would be 50s. per annum. For each additional family above one the extra charge is 4s. 2t/. and fcir every additional bath and water-closet above one, an extra charge of 12s. 6d. and 8s. -id. resi)ectively. The facilities for tramway and railway transit provided in New York, although extensive, are inadequate. The almost invariable charge is 2^d., never less, save across the rivers by ferry or bridge, and rarely more. Both in Manhattan and Brooklyn an elaborate system of transfer tickets is in operation on the various surface lines, and although not so liberal in Manhattan as formerly, making it difficult, for instance, to know how to avoid a or/, fare in going from the Middle East to the Upper or Lower West Side, and although in both boroughs the validity of the tickets issued is not easily mastered, the transfer system cheapens locomotion very perceptibly. The convergence of many tramway lines upon, and thus the grouping of termini in, the lower section of Manhattan, is a defect of the New York system that is being mitigated, particularly by the Subway (vide p. 11). Apart from the Subway, it is to be noted that the customary charge of ''l^d., although it will generally carry a passenger to, will never take him beyond the Manhattan termini either at the Battery or at Brooklyn Bridge. It may be stated, however, that the prevailing daily expense for those who have to travel to or from their work is od., or 2s. 6d. a week, and the vast daily movement, especially towards Lower Manhattan, shows that great numbers incur at least this weekly charge. Apart from the public authorities, general responsibility for the New York tenement house devolves on three parties, landlord, tenant and janitor — the last named being a distinctive New York figure. The duties, often undertaken by a woman, are not those of d doorkeeper, as the name suggests, but are concerned mainly with the execution of small necessary repairs, with the cleaning of the public portions of the dwelling, and, apart from structural requirements, with its sanitary condition. Actual duties vary greatly with the size and character of the house, and in cases of steam-heated apartments, or when there is a hot water supply, the janitor has to be something of an engineer. He rarely collects rents, but a good janitor must be a good letting agent. He is in constant com- munication with the tenants, and his influence, as affecting the cleanliness of the home and its surroundings, may be almost as important as the discharge of his more definite duties. This is, for instance, the case as regards the collection of refuse which, under an ordinance of seven or eight years ago, has to be divided into three classes — ashes, garbage and dry rubbish, such as paper, clothes, &c., which can be placed in a bag or made into a bundle. Responsibility for compliance with the ordinance is placed on the janitor, who has in his turn to bring the necessary influence to bear on the tenants. Although janitors 16576 G 1 40 NEW YORK CITY. are inclined to resent this particular obligation, tenants are now becoming used to the requirements, and on the whole the plan is said to be working well. Collection of refuse by the authorities appears to be systematic and satisfactory. The remuneration of the janitor varies with the duties, but the most common starting point is a tenement rent-free. A Janitors' Society has been formed especially for the East Side janitors and the member- ship is mainly Jewish. The objects are partly educational, and it is instructive to note that in the list of subjects taught to members, including, for instance, " The Requirements of the City Departments — Health, Street Cleansing, Fire and Tenement House," in " Plumbing " and in " Fire Drills," " English " and " Citizenship " are also mentioned. Although the janitor is a very common representative of the owner of the building, the owner himself is often found living there, for small owners of tenement house property are numerous in New York. Among Jews and Italians especially this is a favourite form of investment and speculation, although the speculative element received a check in the depression of 1907-S and in the concurrent and subsequent fall in the value of real estate in some tenement house districts. It is to the landlord that the law in general looks for compliance with its require- ments, and it is partly on this account that the character of the tenants and of the personal influence that can be brought to bear upon them, be it that of a good janitor, of a considerate small resident landlord, or that exercised through the efficient organisation of a great corporation, assumes special importance. Working-class ownership of dwellings is the exception. In 1900 only 12'1 percent, of the total number of homes in New York City were owned by their occupiers, the percentages in the constituent boroughs being : Manhattan and the Bronx 5*9, Brooklyn 18'0, (Queens 36"J: and Richmond 36'7. It must be remembered that these figures relate to the population as a whole and not to the working classes alone, and that considerably more than half the total jjopalation was living in Manhattan and the Bronx. There are no municipal dwellings in New York, and the vastly greater proportion of its housing accommodation has been provided on ordinary commercial lines. A few tenements, some 4,100, have, however, been provided at various dates by individuals or corporations inspired primarily by the desire to improve the housing con- ditions of the city. The pioneer in housing reform in New Y'^ork is Mr. A. T. White, and the first of three blocks of model dwellings erected by him in Brooklyn was completed in 1877, the last in 1890. All were built at a time when land was comparatively cheap, but in the liberal planning of their enclosures they are almost unique in New Y'^ork, and in the absence of dark rooms and in their well-ventilated outside staircases they present further admirable features still contrasting vividly with the structures with which New York abounds. They include about 500 dAvellings, are self-contained, and are popular. Rents are payable weekly in advance and range from os. lOd. to 10s. 5c?. for two rooms, and from 7.s. l\d. to lis. 7d. for three rooms. Altogether thirteen sets of model buildings, nine of them in Manhattan, were erected before the New Law of 1901. They contain in all about 2,300 tenements, and more than lialf are either owned or managed by the City and Suburban Homes Company — now by far the most imjwrtant corporation erecting or managing model dwellings in New Y'ork. Subsequent to 1901 less model building has been carried out, but in the later period the same Comjjany has exercised a still more predominant infiuence, since eight out of the thirteen buildings that have been put up under the New Law, containing about two-thirds of the accommodation provided, are owned by it, while eleven of the buildings are under its management. The excellent dwellings now known as the " Avenue A. Estate " with 542 tenements, and the building known as " The Tuskegee," perhaps the only new erection devoted from the first to the accommodation of coloured people, are among the more notable undertakings of this Company, of which Mr. White is a Director and Dr. E. R. L. Gould the President. The total amount in\'ested by this Company in model tenement estsites is £956,424 ; the total rent collected for the year ending Api'il 30. 1909, was £73,617 from the Company's properties and £53,051 from managed properties, with an average percentage of loss from bad debts of only 0"26 per cent. Interest at the rate of 4 per cent, is being paid, and under the terms of the Company's charter, the maximum is fixed at a cumulative dividend of 5 per cent. A subordinate activity of the Company consists in the provision of dwellings for single families on a small suburban estate at Homewood in Brooklyn. On this estate 248 houses, detached and in rows, liave been erected., and of the former about 100 have been sold. Of these about half have been fully ])aid for, the average price being £7^2, At least 10 per cent, of the 2>i'rchase price must be paid in cash, the purchaser — who receives a deed to his house — giving back a 20 years' instalment mortgage lor the NEW YORK CITY. 41 difference, l^urchasers have to take out a life insurance policy for approximately two- thirds of the original mortgage indebtedness. For a purchaser aged 30 this indebtedness for principal and interest on a house costing £792 amounts to £5 2s. 2c?. and the insurance premium to about 13s. 9d. monthly. Taxes, water-rate and fire insurance represent about 18s. dd. per month. In the aggregate, therefore, without allowances for upkeep and repairs, the fixed charges would approximate to about 4s. 6d. a day for a period of about 20 years, when they would automatically drop to about 18s. 9*^. per month, leaving the occupier the owner of a house and a paid-up life insurance policy of £417. These houses contain eight i-ooms and bathroom and are built on plots of land 30 feet by 100 feet. Smaller houses in rows with six rooms and bathroom are rented at 18s. od. or 19s. 'id, per week. The car fare is 2^d., and it takes 35 minutes to reach the terminus on the Manhattan side of Brooklyn Bridge. As regards lodging houses, apart from the Municipal Lodging House already mentioned and from the ordinary commercial ventures, the best known provision is that of Mills' Hotels. In two of these, with numerous conveniences and advantages such as reading and writing rooms, baths, &c., more than 2,000 rooms are available at lOd. per night. The range of charge for lodging houses is in general from od. to 2s. Id. per night, and 7^d. is the most usual. The charges for a bed in the Salvation Army Workingmen's Hotels are od. and 7^d. A " furnished room " is apt in New York as elsewhere to represent an unsatisfactory and expensive form of housing provision, and its frequent characteristics have been described in a booklet issued by the City and Suburban Homes Company as consisting of " a dirty carpet, unclean bedding, absence of hot water, meals in the sleeping room or in the nearest restaurant in all weathers, no privacy, and no comfort." In a house visited in Brooklyn to which the foregoing would apply fairly well, the weekly charge for a small "hall" bedroom was 6s. Sd. and for larger rooms 10s. 5d. The occupants of the house were mainly Irish of both sexes. Retail Prices. In general in New York the consumer enjoys, or can enjoy, the normal advantages that accrue when competition is active, when demand is extensive and varied, when sales are large and turnover rapid, and when therefore a body of distributors sufficiently large to affect prices is able to work on a small margin of profit. As regards clothing, groceries and provisions, these circumstances have special weight, and in all branches of retail dis- tribution of articles in more general consumption influences are at work tending to equalise prices, and thus to prevent great local differences of range. Some of these influences, it may be noted, make for the centralisation of retail trade, such as catiilogues, advertisement, fi-ee delivery, the telephone and, as regards communication only, postal facilities together with the increased accessibility of great shopping centres and more rapid locomotion ; while others rather equalise the facilities afforded to different districts, such as the increasing number of " chain stores " or " multiple shops," and of branch establishments, but from all alike the consumer stands to gain. It is probable that such influences are more uniformly operative as regards prices than qualities, but ignoring this point, and remembering the limitations and exceptions that exist (mainly connected with the wholesale sources of supply), it is necessary to emphasise the general fact that New )l oi'k possesses a vast and on the whole effective system of competitive retail distribution . As regards food, the machinery through which this system operates most widely is the local or " neighbourhood " store for groceries, provisions, bread and often milk, and the local butchers ; but the " department store " and the " chain store " are also among the controlling influences. Both of these are important in New York, the former rather because of the amount of trade which they secure and the extrinsic attractions which they offer than because their prices are particularly low ; the latter because they are cheajj, and because in them the policy of " cutting " prices is more systematically adopted. One of the latter firms, with branches now widely scattered throughout the city, started in 1883 with a single shop and has now about 200. Co-operative distribution has established no foothold. A common appendage to the grocers' or, sometimes, the butchers' shop is a permanent fruit and vegetable stall, often elaborately and tastefully arranged, which flanks the entrance to the main establishment and, it may be noted, often encroaches on the public footway in so doing. These subsidiary establishments in the very great majority of cases are conducted by Italians. They pay rent to the shop-keeper, who thus secures for his own customers the convenience of what is, to all intents and purposes, another department. A corresponding annexe to the saloon is also common, but this is usually a fchoeblackiug establishment, although very occasionally a fruit stall may be also seen. 42 NEW YORK CITY. Shops giving prominence to " delicatessen " are common, and are tending to compete with the ordinary retailer, since in addition to their distinctive wares they are selling more groceries. In one such establishment in 10th Avenue, for instance, bread, biscuits, jams, cheese, eggs and tea, with canned food of all descri])tions were among the articles stocked, and " groceries and delicatessen " is a notice sometimes seen. From the grocery the " delicatessen " shops are still, however, mainly distinguished by their stock of cooked meat, fish, sausages, &c., prepared in various ways and ready for eating. Occasionally a shop exclusively for the sale of coffee and tea is seen. Apart from the "department stores," the so-called private " market," an establish- ment at which most food requirements can be met, and which has become the most common form of shop in Boston and some other cities, is exceptional, not being found save in some of the less central districts, and there only occasionally. Butchers' and fishmongers' shops are, however, sometimes called " markets." The retail markets in the ordinary English sense of the word are not important in New York, and in Manhattan the best known is situated near the business part of the city, and is used by the middle-class rather than by the wage-earning consumer. Street markets are not uncommon and the "push cart" is frequently seen, especially in the foreign quarters. Push cart hawkers have to take out a yearly licence costing I65. 8(^. In some districts they have been forbidden in the streets and relegated to the arches under the tracks of the New York Central Railway from 110th to 115th Streets. Here a large open push-cart market, largely Italian, has rapidly formed ; the same feature is common in the Lower East Side, and in Brownsville a market of this description was noted, illustrating the readiness with which in a comparatively new district the old form of dealing made its appearance. Such markets are indeed sporadic in many quarters of the city. Apart from fruit and sweet-stuffs, food did not, however, appear to be often ofi^ered for sale, the chief wares being dry goods and fancy articles of various kinds. As regards the methods of sale, credit is common, often for a weekly account, and is given specially by the local or " neighbourhood " stores. The individual connexion which these establish and the extended credit which it is known will often be allowed if required, are attractions with which the strictly cash business of the "chain store" or " department store " cannot compete. Trading stamps are somewhat extensively used but are not likely to be a permanent institution, and are already considered by some to be losing their popularity. They are a form of advertisement, and one that is believed to retain custom in a special way. They necessarily, and this is perhaps their best feature, go hand in hand with a system of cash payments. The common feature of the system is the issue of stamps by the dealer proportionate to the amount spent. The usual basis is ten stamps per one dollar {4s. 2d.) purchase, but the variations are numerous, and individual firms frequently make it a feature of their advertisements to offer extra stamps for some specified short period, or for articles of which they wish for the moment to push the sales. A large firm in Manhattan, with a view partly to advertisement, and partly in order to equalise the business pressure of the day, was offering double the number of stamps, that is twenty instead of ten, on all purchases made before noon. The stamps issued must be placed in a book provided by the trading stamp company, and a full book holds 990 stamps, so that if it has been filled on the ordinary basis of ten stamps per dollar {4s. '2d.) it represents the expenditure of 99 dollars. Such books can be sold to dealers for about two dollars, but usually they are " redeemed " on presenta- tion at a depot at which the ''premiums" offered for the stamps are on view. These depots are establishments at which a considerable variety of articles, useful and orna- mental, for the home are kept, and in which the filled-up book of stam})S is the recognised medium of exchange, everything being priced per " book," one, two or more. Ultimately it is upon the somewhat slender thread of the attractiveness of these premiums that the trading stamp system depends. In the sale of goods English weights and measures are generally used, and for many articles the pound, the yard and the quart, the last equivalent to If English pints, are the customary units. As regards foods the tendency to sell by can, box, basket, packet or package, without any specified weight, demands notice, if only because of the difficulty thus created of ex])ressing purchases of food in terms of quantity. The present tendency is explained ])artly by genei-al considerations such as advantageousness to the manufacturer and dealer, or often the convenience to the latter and to the consumer, but it is receiving a great im])etus from the provisions of the National Pure Food Law passed by Congress in 1906, and since then adopted by various State Legislatures, including that of New York itself. 4 NEW YORK CITY. 48 According to this law, if an article is sold by weight or measure and in package form the terms of the weight or measure must be " plainly and correctly stated on the outside of the package," and the risk of infringement is naturally being avoided by the omission of a statement of weight or measure altogether. Thus, in the case of canned tomatoes, which vary greatly in quality, the former 2 lb. tin has become " No, 2 " and the gallon tin "No. 10" ; the sale of tins of biscuits of specified weights has almost ceased, and in general the custom previously widely adopted, as in the case of many table cereals, preserves, sauces, sardines and pickles, has been greatly extended. Opinion is still divided, as it was when the law was being passed, as to whether the enforcement of a statement of weight or measure would have increased or diminished the usefulness of an Act that admittedly contains many admirable provisions. The view that the present tendency is disadvantageous to the consumer is clearly reflected in reports of the City of New York Bureau of Weights and Measui-es. Inspection to see that there is " fnir " dealing as regards quantities devolves upon this Bureau, and as to quality, in so far as this is connected with the sanitary fitness of foods and their freedom from adulteration, upon the Department of Health. The Bureau of Weights and Measures reported 44,753 investigations in 1908 and 1,115 offenders, including .S.37 grocers, 297 butchers, 151 coal dealers, 38 ice dealers, 36 fish dealers and 35 " delicatessen " shops. Most violations are found in the poorer shopping districts of the city. Altogether it is considered that some 40,000 shops and other places, in addition to coal, ice and hawkers' carts using scales or measures, are subject to the inspection of this Bureau, the staff of which includes 18 inspectors. Of the traders of the city some 8,000 were regarded as " suspects " needing special vigilance in 1908. The penalty for using filse instruments is 25 dollars (iio 4s. 2d.) and for giving short v/eight or measure 10 dollars (£2 Is. 8d.). It is suggested that the power to publish the names of second offenders should be given to the Bureau. The Department of Health reported a total of over 900,000 food inspections of all kinds made during 1907 . The quantity (in lb.) of foodstuffs returned as condemned and destroyed were : meat, poultry and game 2,974,948 ; fruit 7,540,516 ; vegetables 2,558,025 ; groceries and canned goods 382,795 ; fish 297,561 ; and eggs (for six months) 52,750. In every important class of food by far the greatest amount is condemned before it reaches the centres of retail distribution — as at slaughter-houses, &c, in the case of meat, or on vessels or wharves or at railway depots in the case of fruit and vegetables. Increasing attention is being given to the inspection of milk inside the city and of sources of supply outside. P'or daii-ies, creameries and milk shops " score cards "* have been recently adopted, calling for more definite and specific information than formerly and tending to eliminate the personal equation of the individual inspector, to secure more accurate returns, and to make them more uniformly fair. In the course of the oSicial inspections made during 1907 out of 8,880 samples taken for analysis 552 were found to be adulterated. As milk is retailed in New York by very large numbers of small shops and is kept by many rather to secure other custom than as a direct source of profit, the task of its inspection in New York is one of special difficulty. Groceries and other Commodities. Much cereal food is consumed, but bread as such does not occupy a place of exceptional importance in the domestic budget. Wheaten bread is most usually consumed, the ordinary loaf ranking as 1 lb., but scaling as a rule from even weight to 2 oz. below this. Thus the common price of 2^d. was usually paid in February, 1909 for a loaf of from 14 to 16 oz. Bread thus retailed is generally made at large factories, from where it is delivered daily or twice daily to grocery shops. Stale loaves are returnable and are then sold more cheaply. Bread is also sold at the shops of the smaller bakers and is then generally slightly heavier, but the convenience of buying bread where other commodities can be also purchased appears to be one of the main explanations of the strong position maintained by the ordinary " neighbourhood store " as the retailer of bread. There is no official price or weight of bread, but the latter varies according to the market price of flour. Thus, in June, 1909, when the price of flour was rising, particulars were furnished of fresh scaling instructions sent out by one baking and retailing firm to its various branches. According to these instructions the dough was to scale from 17 to 19 oz. for • See Appendix, pp. 484-7. 44 NEW YORK CITY. the various qualities of 2hd. loaf that were being made, representing a drop of about one oz. in the ordinary 2^d. family loaf from a previous scale that had been in operation for about a year. Dough for a wheaten loaf sold at 2d. was to scale 15 oz. and 5 lb. of dough were to be used to make 36 bread rolls. For rye bread made of wheaten and rye Hour, in the proportion of about two to one. 20 oz. of dough was the weight for the 2.^(7. loaf. Altogether the instructions covered bread of eight different weights and five different prices. Although appreciably heavier loaves were being sold at this particular bakery, the opinion was expressed that the usual weight in June was about 14 oz. for the wheaten 2^d. loaf, representing a drop of one oz. from the mean of the weights that were found to be predominant in February. But it is also clear that by those who looked for it somewhat cheaper bread could be bought. Among the more distinctive forms in which bread is sold are the Italian loaves, always wheaten and often large— one of oval shape measured in a private dwelling was 29 by 8| by 5 inches and had cost Is. 3rf. — and the "rough rye" bread on sale in the •Jewish districts. This is baked in large flat loaves and is retailed in sections at l^d. per lb. Breadmaking at home is a practice still occasionally ado])ted — by some Italians, for instance, who are also said to prepare the doagh and send it out to be baked, and who also often make their own macaroni. Many brands and qualities of wheaten flour, mainly Western, are sold. The bag of 24J lb., or one-eighth of the customary barrel, is a frequent unit of sale, but smaller quantities are also sold as, for instance, a bag of '6^ lb. (for 6^d.). Flour is one of the commodities in general consumption particularly susceptible to the fluctuations of a highly sensitive market of which the headquarters are in the Middle West. A great variety of allied foods is consumed and the following prices may be quoted : — corn (maize) meal l^d. to 2^d. per lb. ; oatmeal 2d. per lb. ; rice from 8rf. to 4d. per lb. ; lima beans 4d. per lb. ; spaghetti 5*^/. to 6d. per lb. ; macaroni (domestic) Ad. and (imported) Gd. per lb. ; and buckwheat 6^d. to 8d. per 3 lb. In the season fresh corn (maize) cobs, a sprinkling from and reminder of the vast crop which the country produces, are obtainable and furnish an excellent dish. A price noted in August was from two to four cobs, according to size, for 2^d. Coffee, which is much more extensively consumed than tea, is also the cheaper beverage, and the prices of both have remained stationary for some years. While the predominant price of coffee stands out clearly at Is. O^d. per lb. it is worth noting that 1 lb. of an excellent drinking coffee could be obtained from shops that admittedly rank as among the best in New York for 9f/. or 5 lb. for 3s. 6^d. White granulated sugar is used far more than any other variety and is freijuently sold in 3J-lb. packets for H^d. The predominant price per lb. is from 2^d. to 3rf. J^ngs are largely consumed. Great supplies come from the West and market conditions have been greatly affected by cold storage, one effect of which is to diminish the seasonal fluctuations in price. The existence in New York of a trade union of egg inspectors with some 300 members is significant. When these men are employed by the retailer, as is done to some extent, inspection paid for at the rate of 7^d. a case of 30 dozens practically enables the dealer to reclassify his eggs and sell grades if he chooses, with a guarantee that all are good. The cheese in most general consumption is the American " full cream " as dis- tinguished from the skimmed milk cheese, and the predominant price of lOrf., quoted in the Table below, refers to this variety. An American-made Swiss cheese, sold at about the same price, is bought by the Italians, but the cheeses more usually consumed by them are imported Parmesan, Swiss, &c., and range in price from Is. 3d. per lb. upwards. Thus, in an Italian shop the following prices were quoted : — American lOd. per lb., Swiss Is. bd., and Parmesan Is. M. A cheap food known as " j)at " cheese, made of sour milk and sold in broken lumps like curds, is largely consumed by the Jews and others, and ranges in price from M. to 5d. per lb. Oleomargarine is very rarely retailed, partly Ijecause of a tax of od. a lb., partly because of a municipal licence of 25s. a year that has to be taken out, and partly because of a strict crxlc of State regulations as to its manufiicture and sale. These were amended, but strengthened rather than weakened, in 1909. The preparation and sale of oleo- margarine in imitation of butter is forbidden. It is anticipated by some that the tendency for the price of butter and lard to incresise may lead to fresh attempts on the part of those interested in the manufiicture and sale of oleomargarine to obtain some abatement of the existing regulations. NEW YORK CITY. 46 • Potatoes are rather expensive and ranged upwards from 1^/. per lb. in February, 1909. Sweet potatoes are a seasonal vegetable, coming in at the beginning of August. Previous to that date they are in the market but come from further South and are dearer. During the full season, which lasts till the beginning of November, they come largely from the State of New Jersey, and when most abundant are only slightly more expensive than the white or Irish potatoes. Thus at the end of August at a shop in the Bronx about 7 lb. of sweet potatoes were being sold for ^\d. and the same quantity of Irish potatoes for l\d. Sweet potatoes are of considerable food value, but it is in the South rather than in the North that they figure as a really important article of consumption. Some other summer prices of vegetables may be quoted : — Onions b\d. a quart ; string beans 3|i. to b\d. a quart ; and tomatoes l\d. for two quarts ; and of fruits, apples b\d. to Q\d. a quart ; white gi-apes bd. and small black grapes 2|c?. per lb. ; peaches (small) three for 2J(/., and bananas \d. each. As already stated, milk is very largely sold by the grocers " loose," that is, not in bottles. The main official objection to this method of distribution is not so much on the score of quality, which cannot be assumed to be poor because of a relatively low price, as on sanitary grounds. Milk kept in the small shop, albeit in the authorised refrigerated receptacle, is apt to reach too high a temperature ; the constant opening, which, for a 17 -quart can, for instance, would mean some 20 to 30 times, is undesirable, and it is more difficult to keep milk and vessels clean. The milk sold in New York comes from a great radius — some from as far as Ohio, and reference has been already made to the efforts that are being made, both within and without the city area, to ensure purity of supply. The ordinary price of milk delivered in bottles in February was 4|(^. a quart, while the predominant price as sold to wage-earning families, which would be mainly determined by the price for milk sold loose and not delivered, was ?>\d. per quart. It is asserted that a Milk Exchange in practice fixes the price paid to the producers, and that the average thus paid during 1908 and 1909 to producers in the State was 2d. per quart, or a price that is said to yield little or no profit to the dairy farmer. If this statement be correct it would explain how it is possible for milk to be retailed in this city at a price that is relatively cheap. In November, 1909, the price of milk delivered in bottles was raised to b^d. per quart. Anthracite coal is consumed. It is sold by the short ton of 2,000 lb., and the standard prices observed for February were 27s. 1(/. per short ton for the size known as " nut" and 20s. l()d. for a smaller variety known as " pea " coal. The price per short ton for nut size is reduced to 25s. in April in nearly every year, and from then onwards is raised bd. monthly till September, when the maximum is again reached. One object of this arrangement is to help to equalise demand throughout the year. For the bushel of 80 lb. the price most generally paid was Is. O^rf. The retailing of small quantities has passed to a great extent to hawkers and to the " cellar store " dealers. Most of these are Italians, and a seasonal change of occupation is secured by the sale and delivery of ice in the summer ; " ice, coal and wood " is a common notice. A small charge is sometimes made for delivery, and the convenience of actual delivery in the dwelling of small quan- tities sometimes leads to the disuse of the bin in the cellar, and thus the avoidance of the trouble of carrying coal upstairs. Wood for fuel is frequently collected, largely from the debris of dismantled buildings, and those observed doing this appeared as a rule to be foreigners and generally Italians. When there is no steam heat the rigorous cold of some of the winter months makes the charge for fuel a heavier one than in England. The difficulty of weighing coal appears to mark it out as one of the commodities in which the consumer, perhaps more often the small consumer, is especially apt to suffer from unfair or ignorant dealing. In 1907, when the Bureau of Weights and Measures paid special attention to this trade, 2,382 investigations are reported as having discovered 1,230 offenders, mainly amongst the small dealers, of whom there were some 2,500 in the city, for selling coal in unauthorised measures or selling by weight without weighing. Nearly all of those against whom complaints were lodged were foreigners. The cases of serious shortage in complete loads numbered 67 out of 729 re-weighed, and the average shortage was ]27| lb. per ton ; of the 729 loads re-weighed 314 were found to be of even weight, and 184 over weight, the average over weight being 37 lb. per ton. Coke is little used, a fact that is explained by the large production of water gas in New York — some nine-tenths of all the gas produced. 46 NEW YORK CITY. The increasing consumption of gas for cooking, especially in summer, has been already noticed. The legal charge for gas over the greater part oi New York is os. ^d. per 1,000 cubic feet. It is estimated that the number of consumers of gas for all purj)oses in June, 1907, in Greater New York was 997,752, and of this large total all but 48,165 were in the boroughs of Manhattan, Brooklyn and the Bronx. Considerably more than half of the total were in Manhattan itself. Retailers oi kerosene have to take. out a licence costing 41. 2ld. „ M. Bacon, Breakfast— Boneless ... ,9 lOd. Eggs per Is. 8 to 12 Cheese, American per lb. lOd. Butter )f Is. id. to Is. b^d. Potatoes, Irish per 7 lb. Id. „ nd. Flour, Wheaten — Household ,, Is. Oid. „ Is. OM. Bread, White per 4 lb. lOrf. „ ll|d. Milk per quart Hd. Coal, Anthracite : — Nut per cwt. Is. 6id.* Pea ,, Is. 2d.* Coal sold by the bushel .. »» Is. 5^d.t Kerosene per gallon lid. to lid. By the ton of 2,000 lb. t By the bushel of 80 lb. Meat. Most of the meat consumed in New York is Western-reared, and a considenible proportion — probably largest in the case of beef and smallest in that of veal — is also Western-dressed. Thus much of the meat described as " city-dressed " has also a Western origin, and, in meat as in cereals, the dependence of this great urban community for sustenance upon domestic, albeit distant, centres of production is an outstanding fact ot the situation. The following are the numbers of animals slaughtered in the West and East Side slaughter-houses in Manhattan in 1907 : — Cattle 488,846 ; sheep and lambs 1,495,940 ; calves 283,075 ; and hogs 867,916. The figures, except those for hogs, are swollen by the Jewish demand for " kosher " meat, and by the greater ease with which orthodox requirements as to the interval between killing and consumption can be met when the delay involved in the transport of carcases over great distances is avoided. The sale of horseflesh for human food is prohibited by the Sanitary Code of the city. Joints are purchased less extensively than in England, a j^ractice that is exj>lained not only by the desire to buy quantities that involve less trouble and less knowledge of cooking in their preparation, but also by a climate in which for a considerable portion of the year meat will not remain good for long unless very carefully kept, and when the appetite is more apt to demand freshness and variety in diet. The charge that Ameriain housekeeping is " wasteful " and that " chops and steaks " are so largely bought simply because housewives do not know " how to roast" ai-e not the sole explanations of domestic habits that as regards the purchase and preparation of meat are so widely adopted and so frequently condemned. The prices quoted for brisket hi the following Table are for the plain as distinguished from the " fancy " cut of that name. The latter is without bone and without fat, and is sold at about Sd. per lb. The better parts of the flank are sold as steaks at 6d. or Gid. per lb., while cheaper parts are sold at 4d. or bd. per lb. for boiling or for soup. The sirloin steak in New York does not include the fillet or tenderloin, the inclusion of this forming the porter-house steak, and yielding a cut that is from 2d. to 2^d. per lb. dearer than the sirloin itself. NEW YORK CITY. 47 Poultry is consumed in large quantities, and enters especially into the eTewish dietary. Prices quoted in the Lower East Side in the summer of 1909 of lOd. per lb. for fowls and lid. for chickens were stated to be from Id. to l^d. in excess of the usual range. Most ot the fish consumed in New York is received from fishing grounds lying, except for halibut, either to the north or to the south, but a few varieties of deep-sea fish are caught locally — weak fish, the more expensive blue fish, sea bass, common mackerel, &c. The prices of these range from 5d. to lOd. per lb. Mackerel, much dearer than tbrmerly, are now sold by the piece at from 6d. to 7^d. per lb. Some varieties of clams and many oysters come from neighbouring parts of Long Island. A.8 regards fish brought from a distance, fresh cod sold at from r)d. to 6d. a lb., haddock at from 4rf. to 6d. and halibut at from 8d. to lOd., are the more important varieties. Of salt and smoked fish may be mentioned cod, costing from Qd. to 7d. and hake and pollack (often sold for cod) costing from bd. to Qd. per lb. During the summer of 1909 the price of meat advanced somewhat. Pork appears to have been especially dear, and the quotation of lOd. per lb. for fresh loin in September was singled out at a large shop as being significant of the exceptional conditions of the market. The following are the predominant prices of various cuts of meat in New York in February, 1909 :— Predominant Prices paid by the Working Classes in February, 1909. Description of Out. Beef :— RoastB — Round „ Ribs prime „ Ribs second cut „ Chuck or short ribs Steaks — Round „ Sirloin Shin without bone Flank Plate, Brisket... j ll^f"^^ ^^^^^^ Mutton or Lamb : — Leg Breast Loin Chops Shoulder Neck Veal :— Cutlets Rib chops Loin chops Breast Neck Pork :— Fresh — Loin „ Spare rib „ Shoulder „ Chops Corned (wet salt or pickled) . . Dry salt Ham Shoulder, salt or smoked Predominant Price per lb. Sd. Sd. Id. 5d. to Id. Sd. „ lOd. M. „ lOd. bd. „ Gd. id. „ Gid. id. „ Gd. ^d. „ i'f. 6^. toSd. id „ bd. Sd.. „ lid. lOd „ lid. 5d „ Sd. id „ Gd. lid. 8d. to lOd. 9d. „ lOd. Gd. „ Sd. 6d. „ Id. 6W. to Id. ihd. „ bd. 6d. ,Gid. Id. to Sd. Id. „ Sd. Id. Id to Sd. bd. „ Gid. 48 ATLANTA. Atlanta, the capital of the State of Georgia, is so situated as to he within com- paratively easy reach of the ports both on the Gulf of Mexico and on the south east Atlantic coast. This position has proved of great commercial importance. In addition to being a railway centre marking the intersection of several lines communicating with the South, the South-East and the Middle West, Atlanta presents many features in its apjjearance and in its activities which suggest a metropolis. No competing city lies within a radius of many miles, and it is therefore the centre on which practically the whole of the financial, commercial and administrative business of a vei'y large area converges. Besides being the capital Atlanta is also the largest city of Georgia. Owing to its varied industrial and commercial .activities, and the wide social range which its citizens represent, Atlanta has the appearance of being larger and more influential than A\ould be inferred from its population, which in 1910 numbered 154,839. The following Table shows the population of the city as returned at each of the Federal Censuses of 1870-1910 :— Tear. Population. Increase. Percentage Increase. 1870 21,789 1880 37,409 15,620 71-7 1890 65,533 28,124 75-2 1900 89,872 24,339 37-1 1910 154,839 64,967 72-3 In 1900 the area of the city was 10| square miles. On 1st January, 1906, a new ward containing a population of about 8,000 was taken into the city limits, and on 1st January, 1909, further territory consisting of about 12 square miles was added to the city area, the extent of which is now about 24 square miles. There has been practically no immigration into Atlanta in recent years, the Census of 1900 showing that only 2'7 per cent, of the white population were foreign-bom and only 5'0 per cent, had foreign-born parents. The proportion of persons of negro descent was not so great as in some southern cities, but was very considerable, being nearly 40 per cent. A cleavage exists between the two racial elements in the population which is evident in many aspects of the social and industrial life of the city. Everywhere the distinction of colour is rigidly observed, and racial feeling shows itself to as marked an extent in Atlanta as in any other city of the South. This feeling is probably the resultant of many forces, some of which are without doubt economic in their character. The negroes form, broadly speaking, the class of unskilled workers, whose interests seldom, in any city, coincide exactly with those of the classes above, and the line between skilled and unskilled labour being always obscurely drawn, the encroachment of the one class of workers upon the field of the other is almost everywhere a fertile source of dispute and jealousy. In Atlanta, however, these industrial differences exist between two races, one of which is held to be much the social inferior of the other, and a bitterness is apt to ensue, and the quarrel to be magnified, to an extent which would be unlikely were the personal elements simjjler. The social separation of the two races is everywhere emphasised — in the tramcars, in the churches and the theatres, at the baseball ground and even in the public parks and libraries ; and in all cases the negro is either excluded or made to occupy a position of marked inferiority. Much of this reaction against the negro is merely an expression of the soreness lefb by the Civil War, and of the no less painful period of "reconstruction" which followed. The feeling is, however, held by many to be cumulative, and in Atlanta, where the new industrial development of the South is active, where new industrial conditions and relationships are being shaped and where, therefore, the new post-beUum relationship between the two races is less effective and less under- stood, the difficulties of the situation are more than usually marked. Though the spectacle is not rare, the position of a white man and a negro working side-by-side at the same or similar occupations is obviously fraught with unpleasant possibilities in the shape of industrial friction. The social separation, therefore, tends to bring about an economic separation also, and this again, by marking off a definite class of negro occupations, has the effect of making the social differences themselves still wider. ATLANTA. 40 As is well known, Atlanta was almost wholly destroyed by fire during the Civil War. Ijike many such calamities the disaster has given no occasion for ultimate regrets. The rebuilding of the city was carried on with vigour, and the growth of population has since been rapid. In appearance the city is very modern and in many ways suggests the North rather than the South. It is claimed that this outwai'd appearance of brisk activity and enterprise accurately expresses the business spirit of the city, and that while the native of Atlanta is a true Southerner, holding fast by Southern traditions and ideals, he takes the greatest pride in being progressive and enterprising. Much is said to be due to climate, which having regard to latitude — which is that of Fez in Morocco — is cool. The city stands on a plateau, 1,050 feet in height, which is formed by the eastern slope of the Alleghany Mountains, and to this situation are due the comparatively cool summers. In Atlanta the business man's day begins early, before 9 o'clock in the morning, and seldom ends before 6 in the evening. The siesta, observed in some Southern cities, where business is suspended between two and four in the afternoon, is not known, luncheon being usually taken early, seldom after two o'clock. The centre of the city is occupied by the principal shopping thoroughfares and by a number of very tall buildings in which most of the commercial and financial business of the city is transacted. The city is supposed to be laid out on a regular plan having as its features concentric circles joined by radii, but it is very difficult to discern any such plan in actuality. Two or three of the main streets are long and straight, but otherwise there is little regularity. Some of the residential districts of Atlanta are very attractive. As a rule there is an abundance of trees, while the Southern style of domestic architecture is distinguished by a ])leasing freshness and light elegance. There is no other city or town near Atlanta competing with it as a residential centre for its wealthiest citizens, and Peachtree Street, a long, handsome and fashionable thoroughfare, contains a number of residences both expensive and tasteful. In strong contrast to the well-kept appearance of the Peachtree Street quarter of the city, however, are two industrial districts, one near the large cotton mill in the south of the city, and the other near the cotton and furniture factories of the north-east. These bear evidence to Atlanta's character as a manufactur- ing city, as distinct from its importance as a commercial and administrative centre. The city here has an untidy and depressing appeai'ance ; the houses are for the most part poor and often squalid, and the roads are rough and ill-paved. The arresting features in these districts are the factories and railway sidings : the dwelling houses are merely incidental, grouped about on plots wherever there is room. The coal used in Atlanta is a soft bituminous product chiefly from the Alabama fields. This yields a good deal of smoke, which is accountable for much of the dirt in the manufacturing portions of the city. In the city as a whole the streets are of fair width. The main streets are laid with asphalt or stone setts, while the less frequented- and residential thoroughfares are macadamised or not paved at all. There are a few parks or open spaces, the best of which are restricted to white people, but the city cannot be said to be well provided for in this respect. The parks are not easily accessible, except by car, to the great bulk of the working-class population. Atlanta possesses a complete and efficient trolley car system. Within the city itself and for some distance beyond there is a uniform fare of 2^d. The pleasant little town of Decatur, some six or seven miles fi-om Atlanta, can be reached for this fare. Buckhead and Eastpoint are also about the same distance from Atlanta and within the 2^d. zone. The farthest point accessible by trolley car is Marietta, a small town about 20 miles distant, from which the line of the Alleghany range can be seen. The fare to this terminus is Is. oJJ. The car lines, as well as the gas and electric lighting undertakings, are controlled by private enterprise. The water supply, taken from the Chattahoochee River, is owned by the city. A minimum charge of 2s. 6d. per month is made for every house supplied, this entitling the user to 5,000 gallons, a quantity not often exceeded by working-class households. For each additional 833 gallons 5tZ, is charged. A modification of the charges is made where there are two or more dwellings under one roof, each let at not more than 5s. dd. per week : the whole building is then charged as one house, the limitation as regards quantity still, of course, applying. This is of some importance in considering the subject of working-class housing in the city. The sanitary administration of Atlanta is under the care of a Board of Health con- sisting of the Mayor and of citizens elected by, but not from, the City Council, one citizen being elected for each of the nine wards. About half of the members of the Board are usually medical practitioners. The Board maintains two departments, the Health Depart- ment and the Sanitary Department. The first is in charge of a medical man and is con- cerned with the isolation of infectious diseases, the remedying of various defects in houses, and the supervision of slaughter-houses and dairies. Tlie Sanitary Department is in the 16576 D 50 ATLANTA. charge of a chief Sanitary inspector, and is concerned mainly with the removal of liouse garbage, the cleansing of streets, &c. and the supervision of houses with regard to nuisances arising more particularly from filth and neglect than from defects of drainage, &c. There is no regular system of house inspection, and in the poorer districts of the city broken pipes, sodden earth and accumulations of rubbish give evidence here and there of insufficient supervision. Some indication of the health of the city is furnished by the following statistics, in regard to which it must be remembered that about 10 per cent, of the population consisted of coloured persons : — Year. Race. 1904 1905 190(; 1907 1908 White . Coloured . White . Coloured . White . Coloured . White . Coloured . White . Coloured . Number of Deaths. 1,053 1,253 1,128 1,206 1,182 1,299 1,275 1,258 l,07fi 1,031 Numbar of Deaths under One Year. 198 261 232 240 192 217 220 207 164 190 Number of Deaths from Tuberculosis. 115 165 108 171 111 161 114 114 113 114 Owing to doubt in regard to the aggregate population figures, the rates yielded by the various numbers in the above Table are not very conclusive. It is clear, however, in view of the fact that the negroes constitute only about 40 per cent, of the total population, that the mortality among the coloured race is very much heavier than among the white, and the infantile mortality is probably very excessive. In studying the mortality figures for the negroes and whites respectively, however, it must be remem- bered that there is not merely a difference of race, but also, on a general view, an important difference of economic standing, the coloured section of the population being almost identical, as mentioned above, with the unskilled labouring class, whose low standard of living is the result, in part at least, of a condition of relative poverty, and is not wholly due to any disregard of the laws of decency and health peculiar to the race. Vital statistics relating almost solely to the lower section of the population in a large city would always compare unfiivourably with those for the more prosperous section, or for the city as a whole. Some account of the system of local taxation in Atlanta may be usefully given. There are two taxing authorities, namely, the city, which is concerned almost solely with its own finance, and the county, which collects on behalf of the State as well as itself. Both authorities levy a tax on re;il and personal jiroperty. Realty is charged nominally on its full value, personalty on the basis of GO per cent of its value aa declared in the statements required of the tax-paycr,s. In the city the realty which was assessed in 1908 amounted to £35,178,414, and the personalty to £5,995,717. It will easily be inferred that in practice the incidence of the tax on realty is much heavier than on personalty. Not only is personalty taxed on a lower basis of assessment and subject to a numberof statutory exemptions, e.g., bonds of the United States Government, but it is clear that the ease with which personal property can be under-valued or concealed has a very powerful effect on the yield of the tixes, and places real property in a relatively unfavourable position. This relative disadv.mtage at which real property stands must have an important effect upon rentals, since an investor would certainly take into consideration the fact that real property cannot, and personal property can, to some extent at least, escape, and he would not select tha former unless he saw his way cle ir to a return that would compensate him for this difference. The rate of tax on property levied by the city in 1908 was 1|^ per cent. The city taxes also comprise an annual tax for sanitary purposes of 125. Grf., levied on each house, and paid as a rule, in the case of working-class property, by the landlord. There is a poll or street tax of 46'. 2tl. payable by all men between 21 and 50 years of age, except those who are infirm, those who served in the Confederate Army, those at present serving as soldiers and those j)rofessionally engaged as clergymen or preachers. There is also an elaborate code of licence duties for businesses of various kinds. In the county a combined property tax is levied for State and county purposes, the rates being 0"5 per cent, for tlie State and 0fi5 per cent, for the county. Realty is assessed at the full declared value as for the city ; personalty is charged at three-fourths ATLANTA. 51 of the amount assessed by the city, i.e. | of 60 per cent, of the declared value. The city assessment is taken in both cases as the basis for the county assessment, though the collection of the two sets of taxes is kept quite distinct. Thougli there is no statutory exemption for personal property below a certain value, in practice persons of very small means are not assessed, and it is probable that as regards the bulk of the working classes the only tax directly borne by them is the poll tax, and even as regards this tax there are, without doubt, a number of evasions, especially among the poorer coloured people. A person owning house property, however, no matter how small his total means, would be assessed. The authority for poor relief in Georgia is the County. Fulton County — in which Atlanta is situated — maintains a poor farn^. seven miles from the city, lielief is in practice confined to the aged, though any person showing himself or herself to be without means would be relieved. Relief consists of food, clothing and shelter at the farm. There is nothing disciplinary in the treatment, the mode of relief being roughly analogous to that of charitable almshouses. Some of the women sew and some of the men work in the garden. Practically all the vegetables, etc., recjuired by the institution ai'e grown on the farm, but not by the labour of the inmates ; the labour principally employed is that of coloured women convicts. The number relieved reniahis pretty constantly at about 75 — men and women. Though the treatment is liberal, and prac- tically no stigma attaches to the recipient of relief, but little imposition is found in practice to occur. Outdoor relief is not given in those counties where a poor farm is maintained ; where deemed advisable it is usually forthcoming from the private charities of the city. In Atlanta there is an Associated Charities Bureau working on lines very similar to those followed by the Charity Organisation Society in this country. This has various activities touching the life of the poor, and is by far the most important and' wisely administered agency in the city for the relief of destitution and distress. In the neighbourhool of the cotton mill in the south of the city is a small social settlement whose leaders are engaged in an unobtrusive but useful work among the mill operatives, most of whom are of the " Poor White " class. Mention must be made of the fact that in Georgia the sale of intoxicants is pro- hibited by State law. In soTne cities of the State the enforcement of the law is very lax, and probably nowhere is it entirely effective. In Atlanta, however, a tolerable degree of rigour exists, especially with regard to the coloured population and the poorer classes generally. The well-to-do sections of the population who desire liquors have no difficulty in importing whatever they waiit from dealers in other States where prohibition does not obtain, this inter-State traffic being safeguarded by Federal law ; but it is probable that this practice is not common among the poorer classes. Local opiiuon as to the moral value of prohibition differs greatly, but there seems to be a general agreement that in Atlanta it has resulted in a marked diminution of drunkenness among those who stand in the greatest need of this sort of safeguard. With the prohibition law the " saloon " has not, however, entirely disappeared. It still i-emains both for the coloured and white people, selling, however, only " near beer," a beverage with so small a percentage of alcohol that it is permitted by law to be sold as non-intoxicating. In appearance and taste it resembles the genuine article. Probably some surreptitious trade in stronger drinks goes on in some of these "near beer" saloons, but vigilant control is exercised by the ])olice over the " coloured " saloons. The Southern white man every- where shows great nervousness about the negro who has a fondness for whisky. Atlanta is the seat of an important colotu'cd University. The fees are very moderate, and most of the students partly pay their expenses by doing work on the college grounds. The University has a faculty consisting of both coloured and white professors, and differs from the better known institutions of Hampton and Tuskegee- by the smaller emphasis which it lays upon manual and industrial training. Atlanta University stands rather for culture than for technical instruction, and has for one of its chief aims the training of those who are themselves to take the lead in the movement for higher education among the negroes. Most of the graduates become teachers or enter the pi'ofessions. There is also in the city a large and well-equipped Technical School for white students. Occupations, Wages and Houus of Labour. The native of Atlanta commonly attributes the prosperity of his city to the variety of its interests and manufactures. This variety is chiefly due to the geographical position occupied by the city, the metropolitan character of which has already been described. 16576 D 2 52 ATLANTA. The following Table, based on the Federal Census of 1900, shows the distribution of the working population among various occupational groups : — Number of Persons of 10 years of age and over engaged in Occupations in Atlanta in 1900. Occupations. Males. Females. Total. 2,193 3 2,196 1,265 1 1,266 430 480 910 133 120 253 202 1 203 208 1,705 1,913 530 8 538 386 203 589 473 72 545 1,399 73 1,472 11,238 1,023 12,261 2,702 70 2,772 4,712 11,170 15,882 Building ... Metalworking and Engineering Cotton Other and not specified Textile... Boot and Shoe Slaking ... Clothing Woodworking and Furnishing ... Paper and Printing Food, Drink and Tobacco Other Manufacturing and Mechanical Pursuits Trad 3 and Transportation Labourers (not otherwise specified) Professional, Domestic and Personal Service and 1 Agricultural Pursuits. J All Occiipations 25,871 14,929 40,800 An interesting feature of the above Table, and one which is important as indicating the character of the city, is the large number engaged in professional, domestic and personal service. This represents nearly 39 per cent., a proportion the significance of which is best understood when it is compared with the number similarly emploj'ed in some purely manufacturing city. In Fall River, for example, the number included in 1900 in the occupational group mentioned i-epresented less than 10 per cent, of all workers. Among the large number of manufactures in Atlanta the following are of special importance : cotton yarns and cloth, chiefly of the cheaper grades, overalls, furniture, bedsteads, spring mattresses, carriages, machinery and various manufactures of iron, fertilisers and chemicals, confectionery and medicines. Cotton manufacture is represented in Atlanta by two very large mills, which had their origin as country mills, but have now been absorbed by the city. The cotton industry derives importance also from a considerable number of mills outside but in the neighbourhood of the city. These, though not urban, ha\'e been taken into considei'ation in ascertiiining wages ; and as they are tyj^ical of the cotton mills which are scattered over so large an area in the South they may be briefly described. The mill village is frequently very isolated and is usually a self-contained little community. All the cottages are owned by the proprietor of the mill and are occupied only by his workpeople and their families. The village shop also is often the property of the mill owner, the use of mone\' being reduced to a inininmm by the customers having the cost of their purchases set off against their wages. The operatives' cottages, with the deep porches typical of the South, are usually attractive in appearance, and the general aspect of the whole village is picturesque. Inside, the houses are fairly commodious, and, as a rule, there is [)leiity of ground available for those who are willing to till it outside the long hours of Work. The working force of the cotton mills in and around Atlanta is composed almost entirely of the native or " Poor White " element. IJetween these " Poor Whites " and the negroes there is little sympathy, and the lattei are only employed in the yard and in a very few distinct departments, where they do not as a rule come into contact with the white operatives. In the mill village the negroes have their own quarter, and as a rule their shanties compare very unfavoui-ably in appearance and accommodation with the cottages of the whites. This description of the mill villages only applies to those at a distance from a city, and it is not to be taken as true of the clusters of cottages around the two cotton mills in Atlanta itself. Certainly, the merit of picturesqueness can no longer be claimed for these ; as regards one of them, indeed, the cottages are of marked ugliness. The self-contained character of the settlement has also, to a large extent, been lost. The " Poor White " class, as that term is ap|>lied to the white peo[)le of the South who drift int(j the cities and the cotton mills from the country districts, form a fairly distinct element in the population. Whatever their potentialities may be, and it is some- times claimed that they are great, they bear at the present time, as represented by the ATLANTA. 53 operatives in the cotton industry, all tlie marks of a previous generation which was unable, as a poor and non-slave-holding class, to command the respect of either the white or the coloured people. Many of them have come from the hilly regions in the north of the State and the Carolinas, and their exclusiveness and somewhat suspicious turn of mind give evidence as much of a solitary life among the mountains as of their unfortunate social position. The men belonging to this class of " Poor White " as a rule can easily be identified by their tall and gaunt appearance, their high cheek bones and their lank black hair and sallow complexion. Usually their families are large. Their children are sent to work early ; as soon, in fact, as the law permits, or evasion seems safe, lint little ambition is shown to educate ciiildren to occupy positions superior to those of their parents, and without doubt the presence of young children in the mills — sometimes a matter of considerable scandal — has in the past been due much more to the people themselves than to any special preference on the part of the employers for immature labour. Generally speaking, it is not usual for a married woman whose husband is at work to seek employment also in the mills, though many instances occur where a woman will prefer to work in the mill, and to employ someone to attend to her home and children, rather than concern herself with house-work. Among the women of the " Poor White " class around Atlanta there are, indeed, few signs of house pride. In most homes the furniture is scanty and poor, but even so it is seldom arranged with an eye to securing the best effect. The neat white and green cottages of the country mills invite an internal cleanliness and tidiness that is seldom forthcoming from the tenants. Probably the poor appearance of the homes is also largely due to the disposition which the people show to move from one locality, or one mill, to another at short intervals. This vagrant tendency is the cause of a good deal of inconvenience to the mill-owners, but it appears to be deeply rooted and it asserts itself often in spite of special inducements made to the operative to remain. So far as could be observed, the mill owners were usually fairly solicitous for the well-being of their workpeople, and much is doubtless done by the better employers to relieve cases of distress and to make the lives of their employees as comfortable as their economic position permits. The proprietor of one small mill always insisted that the doffing boys should spend the intervals between their rounds out-of-doors, forbidding them to stay in the mill in their idle moments. Reading was allowed but was restricted to approved boys' books, which were supplied by the employer, in the hope that they would take the place of more sensational literature. The same employer made it a condition that every family coming to work in his mill should buy a cow, the money for the purpose being advanced on very easy terms, and the grazing being found free. He held it of the greatest importance that a family with children should have a good supply of milk. These may be small matters, but they indicate the spirit governing the dealings of the better disposed employers with their workpeople. The mill operatives do not show a strong tendency to organise into effective unions, even where, as in the case of Atlanta itself, the operatives of one mill are not isolated from those of another. About twelve or fourteen years ago a strike occurred at one of the large mills in Atlanta owing to the employment of some coloured women in one of the departments, and largely through the efforts of a somewhat gifted organiser, a printer by trade, a Union was formed. The strike was successful and the Union continued for a few years. A second but ill-advised strike occurred as the result of some other dispute, and this ended disastrously for the workers. The Union then disappeared and no other organisation has since arisen. The cotton industry in and around Atlanta is confined almost entirely to knitting yarns, plain and coarse goods such as duck, sail cloth and sacking. Most of the looms used are self-acting, one of the two large mills in the city having only looms of this kind. One weaver usually attends to about sixteen or twenty 36-inch looms. The frame and ring spinners are mostly women, and to some extent minors of both sexes. The usual earnings of the spinners for a full week are from 20s. lOd. to 2o6'. There is no system of factory inspection in Georgia. The sanitary arrangements are within the purview of the local sanitary authorities, and in the city the supervision from this source is presumably sufficient. The country mills, however, are seldom or never visited by a public official, and the arrangements with regard to light, ventilation and sanitation are good or not according to the enlightenment of the employer. The safety appliances around the machinery and the safeguards against fire are periodically inspected by officials of the insurance companies with which the employer may have protected himself. The fertiliser industry in Atlanta has arisen in response to the demand coming from the cotton areas of the South. The factories in the city and neighbourhood are for the most part branches of larger concerns, including some of the Chicago meat companies. 16576 D 3 54 ATLANTA. The labour employed is, with the exception of the supervisors and a few professional men, almost entirely that of unskilled coloured men. The building trades are on the whole effectively organized. In all the branches the minimum rates of pay agreed to by the unions appear to be either paid or exceeded. About three-quarters of tlie bricklayers are coloured men, but the majority of the carpenters are whites. In these two trades separate unions or " locals " exist for each race. Nominally the same I'ates of wages are paid for both white and coloured labour in these trades in Atlanta, but most employers maintain that the average efficiency of the coloured workmen is less than that of the white, and that the predomijiant wages of the two classes of workmen there- fore differ slightly in favour of the white. One large employer, however, held that the mulatto as a bricklayer had a value exceeded by no one, and in his own case the highest paid workmen were the " near whites," as the octoroons and others of mixed blood are often locally called. Among the coloured people themselves, even those who are intelligent and well educated, the view is commonly held that discrimination is shown against the coloured artisan, and that though his work may be better than that of his white colleague his wages are less, solely on account of the fact that he is coloured. Casual instances which appeared at first sight to be conclusive were occasionally cited, but no convincing evidence that this practice existed on a considerable scale was forthcoming. Such evidence, it is clear, would be very difficult to obtain, turning as it does upon the value of the individual workman to his employer. Upon that subject no one but the employer himself could speak aiitJioritatively, and the enipWer who confessed to discriminating between his workmen solelv on account of their colour would be possessed of an exceptional degree of candour. Generally the charge is made by the coloured people and repudiated with some indignation by the white employers. With regard to other branches of the building trades it may be mentioned that plumbers are practically all white and plasterers practically all coloured. In the machine sliops the skilled labour employed is white. The machinists are well organised so far as the railway sliops and the smaller repair shops are concerned, but in the large machine manufacturing shops a good deal of non-union labour is employed. The ironmoulders are well organised in the stove manufacturing shops, but not in the machine shops ; in the former they work under a trade agreement. The blacksmiths are strongly organised. The printing trades are well organised in the newspaper offices, and in most of the job offices, though two firms of considerable size and importance employ non-union labour. The Typographical Union is probably the strongest in the city as regards membership. Agreements are made with the employers, providing among other matters for the arbitration of all disputes. Other important trade unions, besides those mentioned, which have agreements are those of the coppersmiths and tinsmiths, the tailors and the garment workers. The following Table shows tlie predominant weekly wages and hours of labour for adult males in various occu))ations. The particulars relate to white men, except as . regards bricklayers and [plasterers, who are mainly coloured, and as regai'ds first-coat varnishers in the furniture trade, furnacemen and mixers in fertiliser manufacture, paviors, scavengers, road sweepers and unskilled labourers generally, almost all of whom are coloured men. Predominant Weekly Wages and Hours of Labour of Adult Males in the Principal Occupations in February, 1909. Predominant Weekly Wages. Preal)ourers Gins itiid Ajji ioultural De^jartment : — Carpenters Painters ... Labourers Cotloii Industry : — Picking Room Hands Card Grinders ... Slasher Tenders Loom Fixers Weavers ... Slubbers Labourers Furniture Making : — Cabinetmakers Machine Woodworkers First-coat Varnishers Second-coat Varnishers and Polishers Labourers Fertiliser Manufacture : — Acid Chamber Men Furnace Men Mixers Labourers Printing and Bookbinding Trades .• — Newspaper — Hand Compositors — Night work Machine Compositors — Night work Book and Job — Hand Compositors Machine Compositors Bookbinders Baking -. — First Hands Second Hands ■ Labourers Public Services : — Street Construction, PavingandCleaning(Municipal)- Paviors ... Faviors' Labourers , Road Menders Scavengers _ Road Sweepers — Machine ' Drivers ... Water Works (Municipal- Labourers Gas Works (Company) — Gas Stokers Labourers Electric Light and Power Works (Company) — Linemen... Wiremen... Electricians Stokers ... Labourers Electric Ti-amways (Company) — Motormen and Conductors 104s. 2d. ^■As. id. Us. M. to 4:5.s. i»r/. 56.S. M. to GHs. 'J(/. 43.S. 'M. „ G2s. (jd. 2os. „ 31.S. M. 25s. to 30s. 3 Is. 3f/. „ 41s. Sd. 37s. Gd. „ 45s. 43s. 9d. 37s. 6rf. to 41s. 8d. 31s. 3^/. „ 37s. iJd. 25s. „ 31s. iid. 45s. lOd. to 50s. 43s. 9f/. „ 50s. 33s. M. to 36s. Gd. 43s. M. „ 47s. lid. 31s. M. 51s. If/, to 72s. lid. 39s. i)d. „ bis. Id. 33s. 9d. „ 43s. M. 27s. 6c/. „ 31s. 3f/, 83s. id. to '.)ls. Sd. lOOs. „ 125s. 75s. i)3s. 9f/. to lOOs. 70s. lOd. 66s. M. to 83s. id. 50s. 20s. lOd. to 31s. M. 37s. Gd. 31s. 3f/. 50s. 27.S. Gd. 31s. 3f/. 39s. Id. 2bs. to 31s. 3(/. 42s. 27s. Gd. to 38s. Gd. 72s. lid. 68s. 9d. 68s. 2d. 33s. 2d. 28s. id. to 37s. Gd. 73s. id. 51 to 54 51 „ 54 54 59 to 60 59 „ 60 59 „ 60 60 to GG 60 „ 66 60 „ 66 t;o „ 66 60 „ 66 60 „ 66 60 „ 66 60 60 60 60 60 84 84 60 60 48 48 48 to 54 48 „ 54 54 58 to 60 58 „ 60 58 „ 60 51 51 51 57 57 51 60 84 60 to 84 53 60 56 56 53 to GO 80 Taking wages at !New York as the base, = 100, in each case, the wages index numbers for Atlanta are — building trades, skilled men 79, hod carriers and bricklayers' labourers (negroes) 45 ; foundries and machine shops, skilled men 87, unskilled labourers (negroes) 70 ; printing, hand compositors (jistration of deaths obtained from the burial certificates filed by the keepers of the several cemeteries. Even the present system of requiring doctors to notify the Board of births does not, the report states, yield satisfactory results, owing to laxity in reporting cases and to the fact that many of the poorer people employ neither doctor nor qualified midwife at births but trust to nature and casual help, with the result that many births are not notified. Successive recent reports comment on the high rate of mortality amongst the negroes, which is represented as being almost double that amongst the whites, and attribute it to ignorance and poverty ; but they also point out that this mortality has steadily decreased during the past decade, since the negro families, almost without exception, are living better than ever before, and are more willing to co-operate with the health officers in carrying out the sanitary regulations. AUGUSTA. ~ 63 The procfressive negro doctors of the city are also stated to have aided the work of the Health Department in every way and to be largely responsible for the reduction of the death-rate amongst their own race. Such figures as are available indicate that the rate of mortality from tuberculosis, like the mortality rate in general, is specially high amongst the coloured population, though the tendency appears to be downward. The Anti- Tuberculosis Society and the Associated Charities are making combined efforts to educate the community in combating this disease ; they are doing useful work in this direction in the schools, })articularly those of the coloured population, and are about to erect a sanatorium for the separate treatment of consumptives. The only municipal enterprises, in addition to street cleaning, are the water supply and the supply of water power to factories by means of the canal. The gas works, electric light and power works and tramways belong to companies, while works of street construction and paving are done by contractors. The drinking water for the city is obtained from the river and passed through mechanical gravity filters. There are no cities on the river above Augusta to contaminate the water supply. The price of gas for lighting is 6s. M. per 1,000 cubic feet, and for cooking 4.s. 2c?. per 1,000 cubic feet. Slot- meters have been introduced both for lighting and for use with gas cookers, 166| and 250 cubic feet respectively being supplied for Is. OJrf. The Tramway Company maintains an excellent urban and inter-urban service on ten lines. A uniform fare of 2^d. is charged on the urban system and workmen's tickets are not issued. An inter-urban line runs from the centre of the city to Aiken, in South Carolina, some 23 miles distant, connecting the intermediate mill towns and winter resort hotels. There are seven elementary schools for white children and four for coloured children, and in each case the staff consists of a male principal and female assistants. No fees are charged, but all children, save those of indigent parents, have to purchase the books required for instruction. Attendance is not compulsory ; it is estimated that (50 per cent. of the white children of school age and 50 per cent, of the coloured are enrolled. The most recently built school for white children cost nearly £21,000 and is thoroughly efficient in structure and equipment ; instruction in cooking is given to the girls. The children of this school are mainly from the homes of the better class mill workers and show an admirable standard as regards clothing, health and cleanliness. One high school for girls only has been provided by the educational authority, and here fees of £3 2s. &d. annually are charged. The State Legislature of Georgia in 1907 passed a law prohibiting the sale or the keeping of liquor throughout the State. In the case of Augusta it is difficult to estimate to what extent sobriety has been promoted by the closing of saloons, seeing that facilities still exist for obtaining alcoholic liquors in the suburb of North Augusta, in the State of South Carolina, where beer and spirits are sold by the bottle exclusively in " State Dispensaries." One of these " Dispensaries " is within a few minutes walk of the city and is extensively patronised. Within the city itself a drink known as " near beer," stated to contain less than 3 per cent, of alcohol, the limit fixed by law, is largely sold. The illicit sale of whisky is also carried on to a considerable extent in numerous "Blind Tigers," or secret drinkmg dens. Public opinion is to a considerable extent hostile to the prohibition law, and since it came into oj^eration the number of prosecutions for drunkenness and disorderly conduct has not been greatly reduced, the numbei's for 1907 and 1908 being 3,540 and 3,198 respectively. Local employers generally stated that they had not noticed any mai'ked improvement in the sobriety of their workpeople, though they added that they had little or no complaint to make in this respect before the law was passed. On the other hand several house agents who were consulted said that their rents had been paid more regularly, and negro pastors testified to very considerable improve- ment in the habits of many of their people. Occupations, Wages and Hours of Labour. The industry which gives employment to the largest number of workers at Augusta is that of cotton spinning and weaving. According to information supplied by the loca] Chamber of Commerce 4,394 operatives were employed in the cotton mills of Augusta in 1908, of which number 2,515 were males and 1,879 females (3,757 white and 637 coloured persons). A small allied industry is the manufacture of cotton-seed oil and cotton-seed oil products, in which over 300 persons are employed. Next in importance to 64 AUGUSTA. cotton spinning and weaving come the repairing of locomotives and the building of railway carriages and wagons, in which occupations over 1,100 employees were engaged in 1908. Two foundi'ies and machine shops employed about 260 men. The lumber trade is carried on in several large establishments which usually employ altogether over 800 men, who are engaged in the sawing of planks and the manufacture by machinery of sashes, doors, Winds, boxes, &c., the sawing of the logs being done in the country near the lumber forests. The proximity of the timber supply and the cheap water power at Augusta have given this industry its importance and made it a source of supply for a large area. The abundance of clay of a good quality in the neighbourhood has led to the establish- ment of nine brickmaking plants, worked by one company, which produces over oOO million bricks annually, amongst them being a hard kind of brick specially adapted for street paving. Sewer pipes of all kinds ai'e also made and altogether this industry gives employment to nearly 600 men. Excluding the cotton industry, the majority of the working classes of Augusta belong to the coloured race, and unskilled labour is almost exclusively performed by negroes, whose weekly earning; range from 20s. to 25s., the latter figure being more frequent than the former. In the case of married men with families these earnings are usually supple- mented by the earnings of wives and daughters, who engage themselves as cooks, charwomen and general servants in the hotels and residences of Augusta and its wealtliy suburbs. These supplementary earnings tend to increase the natural aversion to continuous labour in the case of a large number of negroes, and complaints are frequent amongst employers of the difficulty of securing a full week's work from coloured labourers, even when during pressure of trade the inducement of higher wages is offered. A very considerable number, however, are engaged in skilled occupations as bricklayers and not a few as plumbers. In these occupations the increased earnings are reflected in a higher standard of living, manifested not only in dress and character of house but also in a keen desire to give to sons and daughters a high-school and even a college education. Next in numerical importance to the negroes comes a large class of workers known as the " i'oor Whites," who form the great bulk of the operatives in the cotton mills. Coming originally from the mountainous districts, where they had lived for generations as poor peasants uninfluenced by the progress of civilisation, they are as a class shiftless, ignorant and intemperate. Many of the men show a disposition to avoid work altogether and to live upon the earnings of their families, much of which they spend in drink. Even those who work in the mills are in many cases unreliable, frequently absenting themselves from work on account of their intemperate habits. Social workers find them unresponsive, yet notwithstanding their defects of character they are slowly yielding to the discipline of the mill and the social and educational influences of city life. Female labour, so far as the whites are concerned, is mainly confined to the cotton mills and belongs to the class last mentioned. In 1908 over 1,800 women and girls were engaged in the various occupations of spinning, spooling and weaving. The earnings of girls generally run from 20s. to 30s. per week. Women ring spinners are paid at the rate of A^d. per side and earn about 2os. per week ; weavers' earnings vary from 2os. to 37s. 6rf. per week. The law of Georgia permits children over ten years of age to be employed in exceptional circumstances only, but as there is no system of factory inspection the law cannot be considered to be enforced. No figures are available as to the number of children employed between the ages of 10 and 14 years. As school attendance is not compulsory and the percentage of children of school age in attendance is, as already stated, 60 for the white and 50 for the coloured children, it is evident that abundant opportunities exist for the employment of this class of labour. Hours of labour vary in the different industries. In the cotton mills 60 hours weekly are worked. Work begins at 6'45 a.m. and continues uninterruptedly until 12'30, when there is an interval lasting until 1*10, after which work continues until 6"15, but on Saturday work ceases at 12"35. In the railway and machine shops 59 and 60 hours weekly are worked except in the case of one of the railway companies' shops, where hours have recently been reduced to nine daily or 54 weekly. Where the ten-hour day prevails, work is carried on from 7 to 12 and from 1 to 6, or from 7'30 to 12*30 and from i to 6, and where the nine-hour day prevails, from 7'30 to 12*30 and fi'om 1*30 to 5*30, except in summer, when the dinner interval is reduced by ten minutes and work ceases one hour earlier on Saturday. In the building trades the hours are nine daily (7 to 12 and 1 to 5) or 54 weekly throughout the year for most of the occujiations. Carpenters and plumbers, however, work ten hours daily or 60 hours weekly, and stonecutters, . < . 4. Ci J •- J . AUGUSTA. 65 of whom few are employed in Augusta, work eight hours daily or 48 hours weekly. Men engaged in the printing trades have an eight-hour day according to their national agreement. The Saturday half-holiday is only observed in the cotton mills. The only holidays generally observed at Augusta are Independence- Day (July 4), Labour Day (first Monday in September) and Christmas Day, but in addition the mills usually have a " Pic-nic Day " in May. Wages are not paid for these holidays. In the building, engineering, and printing trades time rates of wages are paid universally, except in the case of machine compositors, who are paid piece rates. Time rates also prevail in the lumber mills and woodworking factories. The premium bonus system has not been introduced by any local firms. Piece rates are mainly confined to certain classes of cotton operatives, viz., spinners (women), slubbers (mostly men) and weavers (men and women). Only in the case of weavers do the earnings A-ary to any great extent, and this is due to the fact that no limit is fixed for the number of looms per operative. Auto- matic looms are largely in use and the most highly skilled weavers attend to as many as 20 or 24 looms each, whilst weavers of average skill superintend 16 or 18 looms. Those who run the ordinary looms tend 6 or 8 looms each. Ring spinners usually tend 6 or 8 sides. The following Table shows the predominant wages paid to adult males and the usual hours worked by them in February, 1909. The rate stated for carpenters refers to fully skilled men, most of whom are whites ; rough carpenters, who are coloured men, are paid Z7s. 6d. for a week of 60 hours. ]\Io8t of the bricklayers are negroes, and in the textile trades, pickers, card minders and strippers are also coloured. With these exceptions, skilled men are usually whites, while unskilled men in all trades are negroes. Brickmakers and teamsters are recruited from the coloured section of the jiopulation. Predominant Weekly Wages and Hours of Labour of Adult Males in the Principal Occupations in February, 1909. Predominant Weekly Wagres, Predominant Weekly Hours of Labour. Building Trades .- — Bricklayers >• ••• 90s. 54 Stonemasons 90«. 54 Stonecutters 75s. 48 Carpenters • • *• 62s. 6d. 60 Plasterers >• «•• 90s. 54 Plumbers • • •*• sis. 3 114s. Id. to 125s. 44 to 48 Stonemasons <•• ... ■. . 103s. 2d. „ 112s. M. 44 „ 48 Stonecutters • • ji> •■> ... 82s. M. „ 91s. M. 44 Carpenters >• •*. ■■• ••■ 75s. 48 Plasterers ■. •■■ '■«• ••• 100s. 48 Plumbers *• ■•> •■. ■*■ 87s. M. 48 Structural Iron Workers ■• •.• ■•• •*> 100s. 48 Painters 62s. &d. to 75s. 48 Hod Carriers, Bricklayers' anc Plasterers' Labourers 56s. M. „ 62s. M. 48 General Labourers 37s. •*. 50s. „ 62s. 6d 54 Caulkers 68s. 9d. 54 Labourers 37s. 6d to 50s. 54 Clothing Trades: — Cutters 62s. Gd. to 83s. id. 54 Trimmers 56s. 3d. „ 62s. Gd. 54 Tailors 50s. „ 75s. 58 to 60 Pressers 50s. „ 75s. 58 „ 60 Basters 50s. „ 75s. 58 „ 60 Shirt, Overall, &c. Making : — ■' « Cutters 66s. 8d. to 83s. id. 52^ to 54 Laundry Men and Ironers 68s. 9d. „ 75s. m „ 54 Straw Hat Manufactxire : — Blockers 75s. to 87s. Gd. 60 Finishers 62s. Gd. „ 75s. 60 BALTIMORE. 79 Predominant Weekly Wages. Predominant Weekly Honrs of Labour. Chemical Works : — Sulphur and Pyrites Burners Mixers and Grinders ... Labourers Brickinak ing': — Machine Men Burners ... Kiln Men (Setters) Labourers Printing and Bookbinding Trades: — Newspaper— Machine Compositors { gg^rw^k" Book and Job — Hand Compositors Machine Compositors ... Pressmen /^y"'^-??ith dividends upon these shares. A feature of land tenure at Baltimore is that the site is not bought by the house owner, but remains an annual charge upon him. It is estimated that the amount which has to be paid annually in ground and water rents, insurance and property tax by owners of the older working-class houses is from £11 9s. to £12 10s. and for the newer houses £13 lis. to £15 13s. In 1907, three years after the great fire, which had effected great clearances in the older quarters of the city, a special Committee composed of members of the Charity Organisation Society, and of the Association for the Improvement of the Condition of the Poor, published the results of an investigation which had just been made into the housing conditions prevalent in certain tenement and other poor districts. Four districts were chosen, (1) the Albemarle Street district ; (2) the Thames Street district ; (3) the Biddle Alley district ; and (4) the Hughes Street district. In the first the Russian Jews formed 54 per cent, of the families visited, the Italians 17 per cent., and there was a sprinkling of various other nationalities. In the T^econd district the Poles formed 79 per cent., while in the third the inhabitants Avere mostly negroes, and in the fourth entirely so. Overcrowding was found most serious in the case of the Poles, though the Italian boarding houses also were " usually greatly overcrowded." In the Albemarle Street district the plots were unduly built upon : out of the 119 typical houses investigated, 56 per cent, covered more than 70 per cent, of the plots upon which they stood. In all districts the cellar-basement was found to serve as the kitchen of the dwellings. The water supply was found in a large percentage of cases to be outside the tenement, and often to lie in the fence separating two yards. With regard to sanitation, it is stated that " out of 600 houses only nine were found that had any accommodation other than yard privies," and the condition of these vault-privies left much to be desired. Ten bath tubs were found in the Biddle Alley district, many of them used for the most diverse purposes, including sleeping ; eight and nine were found in two other districts, while in the remaining district no bath tubs were found. The cellars were found to be damp, a condition attributed mainly to the surface drainage system. Out of 590 houses, with 1,157 families, only six contained provision for the disposal of waste water by any method other than surface drainage. The yards also were unpaved, or badly paved, and, as a rule, no non-absorbent material was found therein. With regard to rentals, the average cost per tenement room per week for all districts proved to be Is. lljfi?., while the average cost per room per week in the case of single-family houses was Is. l^d. For the latter the highest average rent -was Is, 8f(/. (in the Jewish district of Albemarle Street), and the lowest Is, 4|f/. (in the essentially negro district of Thames Street) ; the highest average per room in the tenement houses was 2s. \^d. in the Albemarle Street district, and in the three remaining districts the averages were Is. Idd., Is, lOjrf. and Is. lOJrf, It must be borne in mind, of course, that the areas to which the report relates represent a relatively small proportion of the city, yet, as is therein stated, " though not extensive as conq^ared with the city as a whole, they cover a considerable territory ; and, congested as they are, they hcjuse a very large number of people. Since undertaking the study, the investigator has seen other blocks just as congested as those included in the BALTIMORE. gS two-tenement sections, and other alley neighbourhoods just aS insanitary as the Biddle Alley and the Hughes Street districts." The following notes relate to representative dwellings of the working classes which were visited in the course of the present enquiry : — Collington Avenue. — Some 35 red brick houses, built in 1908, and occupied for the most part by Germans or German- Americans, many of whom are brewery workers. They contained three rooms on the ground floor, and three rooms with bathroom upon the upper floor. Marble steps led up to the street door, and the framework of the windows was of marble. The cellars had cemented floors, and each contained a furnace for heating the whole house. The hall passage ended at the stairs, and the cellar entry ran under the staircase. The front room of a house visited measured 15 feet by 9 feet, and contained a piano ; the middle room measured 13 feet by 10 feet, and the kitchen 14 feet 6 inches by 12 feet 6 inches, and the height of all rooms was 9 feet. Upstairs, the front room measured 12 feet 6 inches square, the middle room 12 feet by 7 feet and the back room 15 feet by 12 feet, the height being as on the floor below. The tenant, a brewery worker, had been offered the house for £312 lOs., but subject to an annual ground rent of £10. The rent of these houses was from 145. bd. to 15s. bd. per week, but a considerable number were owned by the occupiers. On the opposite side of the street were 35 houses of two stories, containing six rooms and bathroom, but without the same interior finish, and without the marble steps and facings ; they had a letting value of 13s. Qd. Fait Avenue. — Ten red brick houses, containing six rooms and bathroom, hall and vestibule, let at 13s. Qd. per week. Three marble steps led to the front door, and there were marble trimmings to the windows. The houses had small yards, cellars with earthen floors, closets (vault) in the yards and hot and cold water supplies. The front and middle rooms downstairs measured 13 feet 6 inches by 10 feet 6 inches, and the kitchen 14 feet square. Upstairs the fi-ont room measured 13 feet 6 inches square, the middle room 14 feet by 7 feet 9 inches, the back room 14 feet by 8 feet 6 inches and the bathroom 7 feet 6 inches by 4 feet 9 inches. Eastern Avenue. — Sixteen red brick houses looking upon Patterson Park, built in 1909, and all for sale at from £310 to £335, the rental value being fi*om 13s. &d. to 145. bd. per week. The houses had marble steps and facings, and vestibules with hall passage running back to the stairs. The dimensions of rooms were : downstairs — front room 13 feet by 9 feet ; middle room 13 feet by 9 feet ; kitchen 13 feet 9 inches by 12 feet 6 inches, with a height of 9 feet : upstairs — front room 12 feet 6 inches square ; middle room 12 feet 3 inches by 7 feet ; back room 14 feet by 10 feet ; bathroom (parallel to back room). 10 feet by 4 feet, with a height of 9 feet in each case. Grove Street. — Ten houses containing four rooms and a small scullery, occupied by Poles, and let at 7s. 8a?. per week. The staircase was in the back room, the water and convenience in the yard. The front room measured 12 feet by 11 feet 3 inches by 8 feet 3 inches, and the back room Mas smaller to the extent of the staircase space at one side. The upper rooms were both like the front room below. West Hoffman Street. — Six two-storied red brick houses, containing six rooms, occupied by negro waiters, draymen, &c. The kitchen measured 12 feet by 9 feet, the middle room 12 feet square and the front room 16 feet by 9 feet, the height being 8 feet 3 inches. The bathroom upstairs was 5 feet square. The staircase was between the front and middle rooms, and the convenience in the yard. Preston Street. — Twelve houses with eight rooms, two in each of three floors, and two in the basement floor. Two negro families lived in several of these houses, each family having, as a rule, four rooms, one of them a basement, and paying half the rent or 6s. M. per week. The front rooms were 12 feet square, and the back rooms 9 feet 6 inches by 12 feet. Walnut Alley. — About forty red brick houses, containing two basement rooms and two rooms on each of the other two floors, let at 85. ^d. per week. The occupants were negroes. The back basement room measured 13 feet by 8 feet 9 inches, and the front 12 feet by 10 feet and the height was 7 feet 9 inches. The upper i-ooms had the same dimensions except that they were about 6 inches higher. The stairs were in the back rooms and the hydrants in the yard. Oxford Street. — Some fifty houses of eight rooms, occupied by negroes. Two rooms were basement rooms. The houses were generally rented to single families, who sublet 16.-.7ti *' - $4 BALTIMORE. four rooms at half the rent. There were wooden steps in the front and rear leading up to the doors of the first floor. The front rooms measured 16 feet by 12 feet, and the back rooms 12 feet square, with a height of 8 feet. Dolphin Street — Twelve good two-storied houses in red brick, with six rooms and bathroom, situated alongside a tramway line and occupied by negroes. The houses had marble steps and window trimmings, also vestibules and hall passages, and good cellars. The frontages measured 13 feet, and the measurements of the first floor rooms were as follows : — Front room 16 feet 6 inches by 12 feet, middle room 12 feet 6 inches by 7 feet 6 inches and back room 9 feet by 8 feet 6 inches, with a height of 8 feet 6 inches. The bathroom ran parallel to the last- mentioned room. Mice Anna Street.— A tenement house near Fell's Point Market occupied by foux'teen families, twelve being Polish and two German. Eight fixmilies occupied three rooms each at a rent of from 4s. 10c/. to 5s. %d. per week, five occupied two rooms at from 2s. \ld. to 3s. 4d. per week and one room was let at Is. bd. The ground floor was used as a stable, and the entrance — broad enough for the passage of a cart — was ill -paved and dirty. At the back of the yard were two small houses, containing two stories and four rooms, let at 4s. \0d. Three privies and two hydrants served for all tenants. The dimensions of one of the three-roomed dwellings were : front room 16 feet by 13 feet, middle room (dark) 14 feet by 13 feet and back room 12 feet by 13 feet, the height being 8 feet. The tenants belonged to the unskilled labouring class. Albemarle Street. — A house inhabited by three German-Jewish tenants, of whom one was a baker, another a carpenter and the third a " junk dealer " or ragman. Two of the tenements contained three rooms and let at 7s. 8rf., and there was a two-roomed tenement on the ground floor, let at &s, Of/., the dimensions of these rooms being 18 feet by 12 feet 6 inches and 18 feet by 15 feet respectively, with a height of 9 feet. One convenience was provided for the three families, but each tenement had a water-tap. Two other tenements of three rooms and one of four rooms all let at 7s. 8d. The dimensions of the rooms in the four-roomed tenement were : 14 feet by 15 feet, 14 feet by 15 feet, 7 feet by 8 feet and 15 feet by 12 feet, the height being 9 feet. This was formerly a single-family house occupied by well-to-do people, but was now tenanted by Russian Jews. Trinity S*reet. — A house occupied by two Italian families, the husband in one case being a mason, who occupied three rooms on the ground floor, the dimensions being 15 feet by 12 feet by 9 feet, 14 feet by 12 feet by 9 feet and 10 feet by 8 feet by 9 feet. There was no corridor in front, but a rear entrance with passage, where the stairs were found. The closet was on the vault system. West Cross Street. — Twenty houses in a row, all with six rooms and bathroom, eighteen being owned or in course of purchase by the occupiers. The rents of the remaining two houses were 14s. bd. and lis. Qd. respectively. The frontages measured 13 feet. Each house had a vestibule and hall passage running back to the door of the middle room. The closet was on the vault system. The dimensions of the rooms w^ere as follows : — Ground floor — front room 14 feet by 9 feet ; middle room 12 feet by 10 feet 6 inches ; kitchen 15 feet by 9 feet 6 inches. Upstairs : — Front room 15 feet by 13 feet ; middle room 12 feet by 10 feet 6 inches ; back room 9 feet 6 inches by 12 feet 3 inches, the height in every case being 8 feet 6 inches. Among the occupants were two engineers, a railway conductor, a granite worker, a tailor. Most were Germans or of German descent. Retail Prices. Baltimore is a noted food-supply centre. Fruits, vegetables, dairy products, poultry and meat are produced in the fertile districts of the Stiite of ^laryland, and the shores of the Chesapeake are especially favourable for these branches of agriculture. The city is remarkable among the large cities of the United States for the abundance and varied character of its retail markets. In the jirincipal districts of the city are covered markets where all kinds of meat, vegetables, fruits, butter, eggs and other important foodstuffs are sold. Of the eleven markets the Lexington, Fell's Point, Belair, Centre Cross Street and Lafayette Markets are the most frequented and in them working people make a large piu-t of their purchases. All are open on Saturdays and one or two other days in the week. The streets which surround the markets are lined with a gToat variety of pn^vision shops and other stores, the prices of which are influenced by the market quotations. The number of butchers' stalls is very great, and all grades of meat are sold in them. BALTIMORE. 85 There are no co-operative societies, but some " multiple " firms have several branches. One with seventy-five branches in other parts of the United States, and dealing in coffee, tea and sugar, has sixteen local shops. Two other general grocery firms have I'espectively seven and eleven shops in various parts of the city. In addition there are two important general sho2:»s, with large meat and grocei'y departments, which attract the custom of the workpeople. Food prices have risen to a notable degree in Baltimore in the course of the last eighteen years. In 1892 the Maryland Bureau of Statistics began to collect regularly from a number of retail dealers the prices of the medium qualities of certain articles of general consumption. The average prices for 1909 showed an increase of ol"46 per cent, over those of 1892. The prices of 1909 were ascertained from 230 retail dealers in various parts of the city, and related to the medium quality of thirty- six diiferent articles, comprising various descriptions of meats, fish, groceries and provisions and coal. Twenty-six of these articles were higher in price in 1909 than in 1908, and six were lower, while in the case of the remaining four, the average price was the same in each year. The monthly average prices at the most important market in Baltimore were also collected in 1908 and in 1909 for 108 articles, which included meats, game, poultry, fish, vegetable, fruits, butter and eggs. Of these 108 articles, which are described as supplying " the tiible of the average home," 67 showed an increase in price in 1909 as compared with 1908, 38 showed a slight decrease and 3 were unchanged. Groceries and other Commodities. Tea is drunk to only a limited extent, coffee being the popular beverage. Tlie tea mostly used is a China blend, and it is often bought in packets of four oz. for 7^d. The coifee iii general use comes from Brazil. Sweet potatoes are plentiful and are largely eaten, especially by the negroes. A'^egetables (notably tomatoes, peas, s])inach, cabbage and potatoes) and fruits are also abundant and cheap. Bread . is largely baked at home, but less in summer than in winter. The buying of bakery bread is, however, on the increase. The loaf sold at 'i^d. weighed as a rule from 14 to 15 oz. ; when put into the oven it weighed about 1 lb. It must be remembered, however, that wheaten bread does not constitute as large an item in the dietary of the American as of the Englishman or Frenchman. Maize bread and other substitutes are largely eaten. Boneless bacon is most generally bought, breakfast bacon with the rib in not being in much demand. American, Swiss and Limburg are the principal cheeses, but Swiss cheese is much dearer than the other two, being usually retailed at from Is. od. to Is. b^d. per lb., while the American costs from 9rf. to \0d., and the Limburg 10c?. per lb. The last-named is largely eaten by the German working people. By municipal regulation the ton of coal must weigh 2,240 lb. when sold in the city. Baltimore is an important coal market. The following Table shows the pz-edominant prices of certain principal commodities of the qualities mostly consumed by the working classes in February, 1909 : — Predommant Prices paid by .the Working Classes in February, 1909. Commodit}'. Predominant Price. Tea per lb. Is. 8d to2s. M. CofiEee „ M. „ lOd. Sugar : — White Granulated „ 2^d., 2ld. Brown „ 2id. Bacon, Breakfast — Boneless ... „ M. to lOd. Eggs per Is. 9,10 Cheese, American per lb. <3d. to lOd. Butter Is. 2^J. „ Is. 5hd. Potatoes, Irish per 7 lb. aid. „ Id. Flour, Wheaten — Household „ Is. Oid. „ Is. Of d Bread, White per 4 lb. 10|f/. „ U^d. Milk per quart 4|rf. ( Is. 6|d to Is. Tid* Is. bid. „ Is. 8|rf.t Is. 7^d. „ Is. lOM.t Coal, Anthracite per cwt. Kerosene per gallon 5W. ,, 6c?. • By the ton of 2,210 lb. t By the half-ton (1,120 lb.). % By the bushel (80 lb.). 16576 F 3 S6 BALTIMORE. ^Jeat. A large percentage of the meat consumed in the city comes from the West, although the home-killed meat forms an appreciable proportion of the whole, and commands better prices. It is said that the finer grades of Western meat are not sent to Baltimore. It is chiefly beef that comes from the West, the mutton, veal and pork being obtained for the greater part from the local centres. There is no municipal abattoir at Baltimore, but there are two large private abattoirs and a number of minor ones. The working people eat for the most part beef and pork, veal and mutton being in but slight favour. The shin is often sold whole at from l.s. b^d. to Is. lO^c?., according to its weight. Chuck roast, round steak, with plate and brisket, are the principal cuts of beef bought, while dry salt pork, spare rib and ham are very popular. The subjoined Table shows the predominant prices paid for the chief cuts by the working classes in February, 1909 : — Predominant Prices paid by the Working Classes in February, 1909. Description of Cut. Predominant Price per lb. Beef :— Roasts — Round Id. to l\d. „ Ribs prime Id. „ M. „ Ribs second cut &d. „ Id. „ Chuck or short ribs bd. „ 6d. Steaks — Round , Id. „ 7^. „ Sirloin M. „ °id. Shin without bone id. „ bd. Flank M. „ id. Plate, Brisket { ^""ff^ - ; ' \ Salt or corned M. „ id. 3d. „ id. Mutton or Lamb : — Leg 6d. to 9d. Breast id. „ 6(f. Loin 7^. „ lOd. Chops M. „ lOd. Shoulder 5d. „ Gd. Neck id. „ 5d. Veal :— Cutlets lOd. to lid. Rib chops 7^. „ 9d. Loin chops nd. „ lOd. td. „ 6id. id. „ 6d. Breast Neck Pork :— Fresh — Loin Id. to Sd. „ Spare rib bd. „ Shoulder bd. to Id. „ Chops Id. „ M. Corned (wet salt or pickled) &d. „ l\d. Dry salt M. „ 7H Ham Id. „ 8id. Shoulder, salt or smoked 6d. „ li^. Prices at New York being taken as the base, = 100, in each case, the index number for the price of meat at Baltimore is 92, for other food it is 99 and for food prices as a whole 97. For rents and food prices combined the index number is 86. 87 BIRMINGHAM. Birmingham, which is now the largest city in the State of Alabama, has attained its present importance owing to the active development of the mineral resources of the State during the last twenty years. The city proper is the business centre of an important mining district in Jefferson County, where coal, iron ore and limestone are found in close proximity and in great abundance. Birmingham people claim that the local conditions for the production of pig iron are superior to those found in any other part of the world, but the development of this industry has been hindered by the fact that the principal markets for iron and steel lie in the northern portions of the United States. As no waterways are available for the commerce of the Birmingham district, producers of heavy commodities like pig iron and coal find their advantages in production counteracted by the heavy cost of transport to the more distant markets. The future development of the coal and iron industry is therefore dependent to a large extent on the development of the resources and population of the Southern States. The following Table shows the growth in the production of coal, coke and pig iron in the State of Alabama (which for this purpose practically means the district of which Birmingham is the commercial and railway centre) since 1877. The figures are those collected by the State Inspector of Mines : — - Coal. Coke. Pig Iron. 1877 1887 1897 1907 Tons of 2,000 lb. 196,000 1,950,000 5,893,771 14,424,863 Tons of 2,000 lb. 325,020 1,443,017 3,096,722 Tons of 2,240 lb. 36,823 261,394 947,831 1,686,674 The city of Birmingham and the smaller townships adjacent lie in a valley which runs east and west. The southern side of the valley is bounded by a steep escarpment of red rocks, indicating the presence of iron ore. Towards the north-west are the coal mines extending over a considerable area. Limestone is quarried towards the north-east. The iron and steel works are situated at various points in the valley, the largest being at Ensley, which is about ten miles from Birmingham. In Birmingham itself and the immediate suburbs there are several important smelting works and also a number of foundries and machine shops producing cast iron pipes, engines and sugar-milling machinery. In North Birmingham, brick and fireclay works and saAV-milling are of importance. The textile industries have obtained little foothold as yet in Birmingham, but there is a large cotton mill a short distance away. The Table given above, showing the production of coal, coke and pig iron, affords a better indication of the growing importance of Birmingham than the population, though this has increased remarkably, as is seen from the Table below. Residential suburbs have sprung up, and beyond them have grown small detached townships, such as Ensley, Pratt City and Bessemer, which are only a few miles distant from the city. Birmingham is thus the commercial, shopping and social centre for a wide district. The Census figures for 1880-1910 for the city proper are shown in tlie following Table : — Year. Population. Increase. Percentage Increase. 1880 1890 1900 1910 3,086 26,178 38,415 132,685 23,092 12,237 94,270 748-3 46-7 245-4 16576 F 4 88 BIRMINGHAM. In the year 1900, o2*3 per cent, of the total population consisted of American-born whites, 43'1 per cent, of persons of negro descent and only 4*6 per cent, of foreign-born whites. These figures relate only to the population comprised within the city limits. In the outer districts, near the mines and the large iron and steel works, there are now some colonies of Italians and Slavs, who do not form as yet a large proportion of the population, though their numbers are likely to increase. Opinions differ amongst employers as to the comparative merits of negro and East European labour, but some companies, at least, prefer Slavs or Hungarians, the latter particularly having a reputation for steadiness, and also possessing the physique which is required for heavy labour in the iron works. Whether they can be attracted in large numbers at the existing level of wages paid to unskilled labour remains, however, to be seen. Italians are employed to some extent on railway construction and maintenance. They are not fond of underground work in the coal mines, but are employed to some extent in surface work. One of the mine managers stated that Italians, owing to unfamiliarity with the hazards of coal mining, are " too easily scared " by small accidents which the negro takes more philosophically, saving the management much worry and expense. Another point in the negro's favour is that he spends his earnings freely at the mining companies' stores, whereas the Italian frequently lives frugally and saves all he can, remitting the money to Italy. Within the city limits practically all the unskilled labour is performed by negroes, bxit it would not be true to say that all negroes are unskilled labourers. In the building- industry, which is discussed in more detail below, they have a footing in the skilled occupations, and there are negro doctors, lawyers, ministers, schoolmasters and even bankers. Educational facilities for negroes in Birmingham are, however, rather meagre, the schools being understaffed and overcrowded. Money is not voted readily for negro education, though for white children handsome and well-equipped schools ai'e provided. Education is not compulsory for either race, but in the city the great majority of white children attend school. The climate and physical characteristics of all this region are quite favourable to the health of white men. Birmingham is from 700 to 800 feet above the sen-level, and the soil is of a porous nature, readily absorbing moisture. The surrounding country consists mainly of low, thickly-wooded hills and narrow valleys, altogether different from the low-lying level ground of the " black belt " further south. Although Birmingham, like Atlanta, is in nearly the same latitude as Fez in Morocco, the climate is essentially temperate. During a large part of the year the temperature is cool and the air bracing, and even in summer the nights are seldom hot. Pine woods are found to a considerable extent in the surrounding country, but in Birmingham itself and the immediate vicinity most of the trees are deciduous. In the middle of March there are no more leaves to be seen than in England at the same time of the year. For a city whose rate of growth is both rapid and fluctuating, it is impossible to obtain vital statistics of a thoroughly reliable character for years far removed from the date of the last Census. According to local estimates of population, the death-rate has kept at about 21 or 22 per 1,000 of the population during the last few years, though it fell to 18'o in 1908. The death-rate among white people alone during the same period, was appreciably lower, probably 15 or 16 per 1,000. The total number of deaths in 1908 was 1,109, and the following Table shows some of the principal causes of mortality : — Mortality from some of the Principal Causes in 1908. White. Negro. Total. Violence (including accidents) 63 68 131 Tuberculosis .. 31 111 142 Pneumonia 26 47 73 Broncho-pneumonia 10 16 26 Typhoid 32 21 53 Cancer 28 8 36 Acute intestinal disorders of children under 5 years... 37 35 72 Two facts attested by these figures are particularly noticeable, viz., the large number of deaths from violence and the heavy mortality amongst negroes from tuberculosis and lung diseases. Nearly 12 per cent, of the total deaths were due to violence, mainly accidents BIRlVnNGHAM. 89 •on the railways at level crossings and in steel works, &c. The mortality from this cause in 1908, though heavy, was less than in previous years, and the report of the Health Officer suggests that the principal cause of the reduction has been the prohibition of the sale of alcoholic liquors, which came into force on January 1st, 1908. It is not easy to determine as yet how far prohibition has operated in this direction, because the year 1908 was one of exceptional trade depression, hence fewer accidents M^onld be expected in view of the much smaller number of railway wagons in use and the almost complete stoppage of production in some of the iron and steel works. It is also probable that there was a much smaller floating population in Birmingham in 1908 than in the previous years of trade activity, for negroes remain on the plantations when the coal and iron works are not actively employed. There is good reason, however, for believing that prohibition has not been ineffective. The return of the number of convictions at the Birmingham City Court for certain offences in 1907 and 1908 given below shows a greater diminution in 1908 than can well be accounted for merely by the difference in the state of trade :— - Convictions for Various Offences in 1907 and 1908. White Persons. Coloured Persons. Total. 1907. 1908. 1 1907. 1908. 1907. 1908. Assault and Battery 339 235 610 282 949 517 Assault with intent to Murder 7 8 37 25 44 33 Disordei-ly Conduct 492 .316 804 443 1,296 759 Drunkenness 1,53.5 516 735 172 2,270 688 Wife-heating 16 14 . 96 42 112 56 It is noticeable that, allowing for relative numbers, drunkenness appears to be more prevalent amongst the white population than amongst the negroes, and that the effect of the prohibition law has been less marked in the case of the former than the latter. The business portion of the city is built of brick and steel. Already there are several tall blocks of office buildings, of the kind known as " sky-scrapers," and a new block, taller than any already existing, was in course of erection at the time of the investigator's visit. The offices in these tall buildings are of a superior kind and are largely occupied by the iron and steel and coal mining companies, estate agents, lawyers, •&C. ; doctors and dentists also have their consulting rooms and surgeries in them, and it may almost be said that the commercial and professional life of the town, in its larger aspects, is concentrated in these imposing office blocks. In a city in which every dwelling house has some space around it, the question of parks is not very pressing. Birmingham, however, has several small parks, the principal one some .5 or 6 miles from the centre of the city. A drainage system has been carried out in practically the whole area of the city proper, but most of the suburbs are still imperfectly served in this respect, for no regula- tions have compelled builders to keep to the land adjacent to paved and sewered streets, so that houses have been erected anywhere within reach of the widely radiating tramway system. In their desire to obtain cheap land and plenty of room people do not mind sacrificing the convenience of made roads and sewers for a few years. When districts become sufficiently inhabited the roads are made and the sewers follow sooner or later. Water has to be procured from the beginning, however, and as wells are not available in most places, the supply of the Water Company has to be taken. The charges are rather high, probably on account of the large area which needs to be covered in order to reach a limited number of houses. The rate of charge by meter is Is. Qd. per 1,000 gallons for quantities not exceeding 25,000 gallons per month ; for a larger consumption the price per gallon is reduced according to a scale. Most of the domestic supply, however, is not charged by meter. The scale of charges varies in the different suburbs, each of which has made its own bargain with the Water Company. For the city the charge for domestic consumption, in so far as it applies to houses of the kind occupied by wage-earning families, is as follows : — Per annum. Dwellings of three rooms and less Z^s. Ad Each additional room up to ten rooms ... ... 4s. 2d. Water-closet ... 20s. lOo?. Jjatn ... ... .,, ,,, ,,. ... .,, 16s. 8«. ^0 BIRMINGHAM. Thus a house having five rooms and water-closet, without bath, would be charged 62s. 6d. per annum, or about Is. 2d. per week, while with a bathroom the charge for such a house would be about Is. 6c?. per week. The water charge is nearly always paid directly by the tenant. The electric lighting system, the gas works and the tramways are all owned by one company. The charge for gas is 4s. 2d. per 1,000 cubic feet. The tramways have 112 miles of track and a 2^d. fare for any distance is charged over nearly the whole system. The municipal revenue is derived partly from the usual general property tax, and partly from licences. A State law prohibits the city from levjnng a tax of more than one per cent, per annum on the assessed capital value of property for municipal purposes. The State and county taxes, however, amount to l'3o per cent., so that the total levy is 2'So per cent., of which the city retains less than half. To make up a sufficient revenue the city has an elaborate schedule of licences for all kinds of businesses and professions. Banks pay fi-om £42 to £94 per annum, according to the amount of their capital,, surplus and undivided profits ; dry-goods stores pay from £3 to £63 according to the- value of the stock, barbers' shops pay 125. 6d. per chair, &c. The Tramway Company pays £875 per annum, and the railway companies £365 each. The Water Company is charged £3,646, and the Telephone Company £521. Lawyers, doctors and dentists pay from £5 to £26 according to their gross business receipts. The licences yield rather more than the ordinary property tax ; this reverses the usual position in American cities. Occupations, Wages and Hours of Labour. Birmingham is more important as the centre of a manufacturing and mining district than as a manufacturing city and the Census statistics for the city alone do not do justice to the industries which in reality give the place its importance. According to the Census of 1900 trade and transportation, and professional and domestic service gave employment to the largest number of people, but metalworking and engineering and the building trades were also largel}' represented. The Census statistics may be summarised as follows : — Number of Persons of 10 years of age and over engaged in Occupations in Birminqham in 1900. Oocnpations. Males. Females. Total. Building > Metalworking and Engineering Textile Boot and Shoe Making Clothing Woodworking and Furnishing Paper and Printing Food, Drink and Tobacco Other Manufacturing and Mechanical Pursuits Trade and Transportation Labourers (not otherwise specified) Professional, Domestic and Personal Service andl Agricultural Pursuits J 1,127 1,532 21 67 76 84 127 205 924 5,725 1,647 2,153 3 370 1 5 8 8 370 24 4,373 1,127 1,532 24 67 446 85 132 213 932 6,095 1,671 6,526 All Occupations 13,688 5,162 18,850 Coal Mining. — Both white and coloured men are employed in the coal mines as pick miners, but practically all the labourers are coloured. Payment is by the ton. Is. Sd. t)er ton of 2,000 lb. being a common price at the time of the investigation, the rate having )een reduced in most mines in 1908, when a gi-eat strike resulted in the defeat of the miners. Unskilled helpers, paid either by time or piece, but mainly by time, are often employed by individual miners, who thus take somewhat the same position as foremen, and in this way make high earnings when they are themselves good managers. It is said that the best miners are those from Great Britain, who came to this district many years ago and were able to turn to advantage their knowledge of mining methods in the BIRMINGHAM. 91 British coalfields. The rapid development of the industry in recent years has led to the employment of large numbers of Southern white Americans and negroes who have had to gather their knowledge as best they could. These men, on the whole, are less skilful than those who have been brought up to mining from their youth. Partly owing to differences in skill and experience, and partly owing to the fact that unskilled helpers are frequently employed, there are wide differences in individual earnings. These differences are further accentuated by the fact that many of the men, especially those of coloured race, work irregularly. A mining manager stated that owing to irregularity of attendance he was compelled to have from 30 to 40 per cent, more men ■on his books than he was likely in ordinary circumstances to need at any one time. The average hewer earns from 10s. bd. to 12s. (\d. per day and usually works from three to five days per week, but many men, including some coloured men, earn higher amounts. The hours are variable, and depend largely upon the men themselves, but the usual day's work averages about eight hours. The wages and hours of labour stated in the Table on p. 93 are for a full week of six days. Blast Furnaces. — The labour employed in blast furnaces is almost entirely coloured, and of a comparatively unskilled type. A few white supervisors, mechanics and engineers earn skilled rates of wages, but the majority of men employed earn less than 8s. 4(i, per day. Two shifts of twelve hours each are Avorked se\'en days per week. The furnaces mostly lie a few miles beyond the city boundaries. The largest plant is at Ensley. Rolling Mills. — Most of the iron smelted in the Birmingham district is sent away as pig iron, but some is converted into steel and rolled into rails and plates. Labour in the rolling mills is mainly coloured, though some Slavonic and Italian unskilled labour is employed. White men act as head I'ollers and as foremen and superintendents, but coloured men are employed as heaters and catchers, and have very high earnings. Coking Ovens. — Work is done entirely by negroes, who can stand the heat better than white men. The nature of the work, in fact, specially suits the negro, as constant attendance is not required. The work of pulling and loading is hard while it lasts, but the duration of actual work is not great. Pullers and loaders are j)aid by piece. Foundries and Machine Shops. — There are a few machine shops and foundries, the most important of the latter being those which produce cast iron pipes, and of the former those which are engaged in making engines, sugar-milling machinery, &c. The railway companies also have repair shops which employ a considerable number of mechanics. Moulders in general machine shops have a recognised rate of 135. l^d. per day of ten hours. Both moulders and machinists are mainly union men, and the rate of pay is about the same for the two occupations. No half-holiday on Saturday has yet been secured in machine shops, and, indeed, at the time of the investigator's visit the question of introducing a Saturday half-holiday even into business offices was only just being taken up. The skilled men are all white, and the labourers are all coloured men. Building Trades. — About half the bricklayers in Birmingham are said to be membera of the trade union, which includes a small number of coloured men. It is not owing to the existence of any very sympathetic feeling between the white men and the negroes that the latter are allowed to join the unioi^ ; it is simply because the white men feel that their interest demands that coloured men should be organised so far as possible, so as to prevent them from cutting down the rates of wages. Wherever a sufficient number of coloured men can be organised, they are encouraged to form a union of their own, affiliated to the white men's unions, but where there are not enough to form a separate union, they are allowed, in the South, to become members of the white men's organisations. Union bricklayers are employed principally by the larger contractors, and are paid 2s. 7\d. per hour, working eight hours per day. Non-union men, who are mainly coloured, work nine to ten hours per day, earning from ISs. Qd. to 16s. Sd. per day. A few are paid the full rate of 20s. lOrf. per day, and some earn less than 12s. Qd. per day, but the majority come within the range quoted. It is not uncommon for non-union coloured bricklayers to work by contract or piece work ; their work is largely on foundations of frame houses, where good finish is not required. In spite of the mild climate in winter, bricklayers are said to have almost as much irregular work as in the North. Rain is very heavy when it falls, and stops outdoor work, and further irregularity is due to the fact that the demand for bricklayers' work comes mainly from builders of large premises, for which there is not a continuous demand. Stonemasons and stonecutters do not form a large class. Carpenters are the most important class of men employed iu the building of frame houses. The district unions have a membership of about 600, including a small union of 92 BIRMINGHAM. coloured men. The union rate of pay is Is. 8d. per hour, and eight hours per day are- worked for six days per week. A considerable number of coloured carpenters, estimated at 300, are outside the unions, and there are a few non-union white carjjenters. The- non-union men include a large number of I'ough carpenters, who are paid rates as low as lOd. per hour, and work usually ten hours per day. Plasterers are almost all coloured men, who have a fairly strong union. They have an eight-hour day, with a half-holiday on Saturdays, making 44 hours per week. Non- union plasterers often are paid by piece and their earnings vary considerably. Plumbers are all white men, and practically all are organised. The ordinary day is eight hours, but only seven hours are worked on Saturday for a full day's pay. Structural iron Avorkers are all white men. Painters are a numerous body, as all frame houses have to be painted periodically^ The white men are mainly unionists, and at the time of the investigation they were asking for Is. 8d. per hour ; rather less than half had already received that rate and the remainder were still receiving \s. o^d. per hour. The non-union coloured painters are numerous, being estimated at 600 to 700. They earn from 10(/. to Is. Sd. per hour and work ten hours per day. General unskilled labourers in the building trades earn from 4s. 2d. to 5s. 2|rf. per day, and usually work ten hours. Labourers attached to skilled men as helpers are paid various rates. When union labour is employed, there is a sharp line between the skilled men and the unskilled, the latter receiA'ing from 5s. 2Jrf. to 6s. 3f?. per day. When the line of division is less definite, helpers may get as much as Ss. 4rf. per day. Hod carriers, who are employed mainly in connexion with plasterers, have a union, but it is not strong. Members of the union receive l.s. O^d. per hour or 8s. 4f/. per day, which is the maximum figure. For non-union hod carriers the range is from as. 2^d. to 6s. 'dd. per day. Practically all the unskilled labour in the building trades is coloured. A few Italians, Greeks and Syrians are employed, but they are an insignificant factor. Among employers opinions differ strongly on the question whether coloured men are likely to displace white men in the skilled occupations in building. Those who employ one or the other exclusively are satisfied that their policy is right. For the better class of buildings, especially large business buildings, good houses and hotels, white men are employed, but builders of small houses of a plain type find coloured men capable of doing all that is required, and to a certain extent even able to do work of a good class, in which case the}' can command corresponding rates of pay. The building and mining industries are the two in which the white and coloured races come into the most direct competition with one another, yet it cannot be said that in either of these industries a situation exists which occasions any very serious friction. No doubt in both industries the white men would like to monopolise the skilled work for themselves, but they recognise that that is impossible, and make the best of the situation. In ordinary times thei'e is a tolerable modus vivendi, tolerable at least so far as the white men are concerned, for they make it quite clear that their connexion with the coloured men is purely a matter of business and involves no social recognition whatever. From the point of view of the coloured men the position is by no means so satisfactory, though • admittedly better than it might have been. It is in the mining industry that the relations between the two races, though working side by side in direct competition, are smoothest. They acted together in the great strike of 1908, and in fact the good feeling between the- white and the coloured men was used with great effect by the ojiponents of the strikers, who charged the white miners with disloyalty to their race. The system of piece work is doubtless a factor which contributes towards the avoidance of racial friction ; under this system the inefficiency of one set of men does not tend to lower the standard rate of wages for all in the same degree that it might do if time rates were paid. White coal miners, moreover, have less delicate tastes and modes of life and are less imbued with social ambition than the skilled men in the building trades. Many of the latter are Northern men, unaccustomed to contact with a large mass of negroes from childhood, and having as a rule lived in cities, they are more influenced by the desire for social equality with the commercial classes, and they are apt to feel that this social equality is endangered b}- any suspicion of association with negroes. Printing Trades. — Union rates of wages are general in the printing trades. The rate for compositors on day work is 2s. l^d. per hour, and on night work 2s. 6d. per hour. The machine compositors working on the morning newspapers ai*e on piece work and earn from 20s. lOd. to 25s. per day. BIRMINGHAM. 9a Municipal and Public Services. — Street construction work is done by contractors. Scavenging and road sweeping is done by convicts hired by the city from the State authorities. These men work with manacles on their legs. Motormen and conductors in the employ of the tramway company are all white men, and are paid on a scale beginning at 8c/. per hour for the first six months and increasing to 8'^d. per hour for the second six months ; in the second year they are paid d^d., after which they rise by ^d. per hour each year up to Is. O^d. per hour in the eighth year of service. The day's work amounts to about ten hours ; seven days are worked per week. The following Table shows the predominant weekly wages and hours of labour of adult males in the jirincipal occupations in Birmingham in February, 1909 : — Predominant Weekly Wages and Hours of Labour of Adult Males in the Principal Occupations in February, 1909. Predominant Predominant Weekly Wagea. Weekly Hours of Labour. 125s. 48 75s. to 100s. 54 10 60 80s. 48 62s. M. to 75s. 60 114s. Id. U 125s. 47 112s. &d. 54 70s. to 80s. 48 50s. „ 75.3. 60 31s. M. „ 50s. 60 25s. „ 31s. M. 60 62s. 6d. to 75s. 42 to 54 37s. 6d. „ 50s. 48 „ 60 37s. 6d. „ 50s. 48 „ 60 31s. 'id. „ 37 s. &d. 48 „ 60 46s. Sd. to 54s. 84 42s. M. „ 52s. 6^. 84 39s. bd. 84 46s. Sd. to 51s. Id. 84 51s. Id. „ 58s. id. 84 36s. 6d. 84 31s. M. to 50s. 40 to 56 27s. 6d. „ 31s. M. 60 78s. 9d. 60 78s. 9d. 60 78s. 9d. to 103s. M. 60 78s. 9d. „ 85s. 60 25s. ,, 31s. M. 60 72s. to 76s. 6d. 54 85s. „ 88s. M. 53 to 60 110s. 4S 120s. 48 110s. 48 125s. to 150s. 48 Building Trades : — c . , , I White Bricklayers Carpenters ( Coloured White Coloured Plasterers Plumbers Structural Iron Workers „ . , ( White Painters j coloured Hod Carriers, Bricklayers' and Plasterers' Labourers. General Labourers Coal Mining : — Hewers Drivers Labourers (underground) Labourers (surface) Blast Furnaces* : — Keepers First Helpers Second Helpers Hot-blast Men Pig Carriers and Pig Breakers Labourers... Coking Ovens: — Coke Pullers and Loaders Labourers ... Foundries and Machine Shops : — Ironmoulders Machinists Blacksmiths Patternmakers Labourers ... Eailway Shops : — Machinists Boilermakers Printing Trades: Newspaper — work work Hand Compositors-! -fj- i,j. Machine Compositors | j^^gj^^wor work Book and Job- Hand Compositors Public Services : — Street Construction and Paving (Contract)- Paviors Paviors' Labourers Road Menders Drivers ... 75s. 62s. 6d. 37s. Gd. 31s. M. 31s. 3«f. 48 60 60 60 60 The hours of labour stated for men employed at blast fnrnaceB are inclusive of intervals. H BIRMINGHAM. Predominant Predominant Weekly Wages Weekly Hours of Labour. Public Services — cont. Water Works (Company) — Regular Labourers 36s. 6d. 7(t Construction Labourers 27s. 6d. 60 Gas Works (Company) — Gas Stokers 48s. M. 84 Labourers 25s. 60 Electric Light and Power Works (Company) — Electricians — Ist class 9()S. 3c/. 84 Electricians — 2nd class 70s. 81 Stokei-s 65s. Sd. 84 Oilers 58s. id. 84 Overhead Linemen 68s. 9d. 60 Labourers 43s. M. 84 Electric Tramways — See text. Taking wages at New York as the base, — 100, in each case, the wages index nmubers for Birmingham are — building trades, skilled men 97, hod carriers and bricklayers' labourers (negroes) 59 ; foundries and machine shop.?, skilled men 94, unskilled labourers (negroes) 67 ; printing, hand compositors (job work) 86. Housing and Rents. Outside the small area of the business centre of the universal building material for all classes of dwelling bouses. city, wood is the almost The exterior is of frame boards painted usually a light or subdued tint, green occasionally giving a touch of colour. All the smaller houses consist of only one story, and consequently cover a much larger area than is usual in England. A verandah is always provided except in the case of some of the poorest negro houses, and ample air space surrounds every house. In the latter respect Birmingham does not differ greatly from other American cities of similar size, but Birmingham is very modern and has mostly grown since the invention of electric traction, so that the tendency to expand is there rather greater than visual. A common size for a residential building site is 40 feet by from 100 to 150 feet, and on this site there may be a single house or a pair of semi-detached houses. Negro houses are built in closer groups, some facing the street or avenue and some in the rear, forming rough quadrangles. As many as twenty-eight semi-detached negro houses may occupy a space 150 feet by 190 feet, but considering that this type of house contains only two rooms, and is only one story in height, even this cannot be regarded as very close building. The external appearance of the houses does not greatly differ from that of frame houses as built in the North ; the most distinctive feature is the fact that the cheaper houses in Birmingham are built above the ground, on little brick piers, allowing the air to circulate freely underneath, a method of building which is not adapted to the require- ments of people living in more northerly climates. Another noticeable fact is that verandahs are more general in Birmingham than in northern cities, where many of the frame houses occupied by the wage-earning classes are without verandahs. In Bii-mingham even the cheaper negro houses have usually a porch extending along the whole of the house front. The typical negro houses are built in pairs, semi-detached, each house having two rooms, about 12 feet by 14 feet. These houses are not always plastered inside, and many of them look as if nothing were spent on paint and repairs. Water-closets are provided to the extent of one to four or five houses, and a whole group of houses will have a common hydrant and sink in the yard round which they are built. The cheap negro houses are not confined to any one quarter of the city, but occur in groups here and there, especially in the neighbourhood of railway lines, iron and steel w^orks and coking ovens. In many cases the land on which they stand is increasing in value, and will in course of time be needed for busmess purposes. Some day it may be impossible to provide cheap accommodation in the form now prevalent, and a tenement house problem may then arise. Three-roomed houses are occupied by both Avhite and coloured people. They are usualh' of better appearance than the two-roomed houses, being better painted and kept in repair. They are not built in groups or behind other houses. The rooms are often large, and in some cases there is a passage from the front door by which the middle room can be reached without passing through either of the other rooms. BIRMINGHAM. 95 Four-roomed houaes are seldom occupied by coloured people. They are not infrequently detached, and vary from the simple four rooms to a little bungalow, with a hall, a bathroom and electric light. The range of rents is consequently very wide, but the majority run from 10s. \d. to ISs. per week. The best type of four-roomed houses, conveniently situated, and having every modern improvement, cost from 15s. od. to 19s. 3c?. per week. The houses with five rooms are much the same in character as those just spoken of, and their rents likewise show a wide range. As in the case of four-roomed dwellings, locality is a very important factor. In the suburbs rents are lower than in the city, not only because land is cheaper, but also because the expense of drainage and roadmaking has not been incurred to the same extent as in the city. Further, a working man who has to travel regularly to reach his work pays 2s. 6d. per week for car fares, and when loss of time and the travelling expenses of other members of the family are taken into account, it will be understood that convenience of situation is important. Equally important, if not more so, is the social character of the neighbourhood. Too close jjroximity to coloured settlements or to a low-class white population has the effect of greatly depreciating rents. Skilled workmen like to live in neighbourhoods where their children will mix with the children of the commercial classes in the public schools, and that is a privilege which has to be paid for in the shape of rent. Another factor making for higher rents is the existence of halls, which are sometimes square and of good proportions, so that they are almost equal to rooms ; in fact, in the matter of rent, no clear distinction is drawn between houses with four or five rooms and a hall and houses w^th five or six rooms. The fact of the water-closet being inside the house has also a bearing on the rent, while the existence of a bathroom and electric light adds further to the value of a house. Though there are houses which combine these advantages with convenience of locality, and are let at from 19s. 3d. to 28s. lOd. per week, they are occupied to a considerable extent by business people. For wage-earners the predominant range of rents for houses with five living rooms is from 13s. to 18s. dd. per week. No general statement can be made with regard to the arrangement of rooms in the detached four and five-roomed houses, the shapes of which are very variable. It may be said, however, as a general rule, that when there is no hall the front door opens into the parlour and that the kitchen is in the rear. Even when there is no passage it is seldom necessary to pass through one bedroom to reach another, as the bedrooms open off the parlour and the kitchen. The rooms are on the whole sufficiently spacious. The principal living rooms are seldom less than about fifteen feet square, and they are commonly about ten feet in height. All the better hcjuses have gauze screens over the doors to keep out flies, which are everywhere in America a serious nuisance in summer. It is usual to have fire-places in several of the rooms, as in England, for heating in winter, but in the kitchen there is the usual American stove, which stands out from the wall ; it is commonly the property of the tenant and is of ornamental design. Where there is a bathroom, it is usual to have a hot-w^ater supply from a boiler fitted to the kitchen stove. During about six months of the year, fires are used very much as in England. Many working-class families burn a ton of coal per month for nearly half the year. The following Table shows the predominant ranges of rents, including the water-rate where such is paid separately by the tenant, of houses occupied by wage-earning families in Birmingham and the immediate subufbs. Rents in the mining villages are excluded. Predominant Rents of Working-class Dwellings. Number of Rooms per Dwelling. Predominant Weekly Renta. Two rooms- Three -Coloured Tenants Four rooms — White Tenants ... Five rooms — White Tenants ... 4s. M. "is. id. 10s. Id. 13s. to us. 'M. „ 8s. Sd. „ lOs. Id. „ 13s. „ 18s. M. The level of rents at New York being represented by 100, the rent index number for Birmingham is 81. This is rather higher than might be expected in a city of the size of Birmingham. The explanation of this is probably to be found in the fact that Bbmingham 96 BIRMINGHAM. has been growing rapidly, and for a number of years the supply of houses has hardly kept pace with the demand. It should also be borne in mind that in new and gi'owing communities such as Birmingham, local capital is scarce and therefore commands a high return. There is not the supply of cheap capital available for investment in buildings which is found in older communities where there is a considerable number of retired business men or their descendants with capital to invest. Land also is more expensive than might be exjiected in view of the great areas available. This is due to the fact that great expectations are entertained, doubtless with good reason, regarduig the extension and the future growth of the city, for which a population of a million within measurable time is predicted by local enthusiasts. There is comparatively little ownership of homes by wage-earners. According to the Census of 1900, 86*3 per cent, of the families of Birmingham rented their homes, this proportion being almost as high as in New York. The mining companies and some of the outlying iron works house their own employees. When mines were first opened in this district there were no houses for the men to live in, and no local capitalists to build them, so that the companies had to provide accommodation, and they have continued to do so in most of the mining centres. The miners' houses are vei-y cheap, flimsy buildings, unplastered and not always air-tight. They contain either two, three or four rooms, seldom more, and are let at much lower rents than houses with an equal number of rooms in Birmingham and its suburbs. The rent per room ranges from Is. 2d. to Is. lid. per week. The country in which these mining villages are situated has great natural attractions, but many of the villages themselves are destitute of charm, consisting, as a rule, of a collection of plain wooden huts erected on land carefully cleared of all vegetation. No one seems to think of fencing in gardens with a Aiew to making the homes look attractive. In this respect, however, the miners are no different from the bulk of the Avage-earners, and even a large part of the middle classes, of Birmingham and many other American cities. In the cities, however, it is quite usual to grow trees either along the roads or in the garden plots, and the frame houses have some architectural attraction and are mostly kept in repair and painted periodically. Most of the mining villages, on the other hand, have a bare and dreary aspect, and look like temporary settlements built for men engaged on works of construction, and destined to move elsewhere before long. Sanitary conditions in these villages are very primitive. Public attention has only recently been called to the grave dangers of this state of things by the discovery that the disease ankylostomiasis, popularly known in America as "hook-worm " and in England as " miner's worm," is widely prevalent in the Southern States. The symptoms of the disease — acute anaemia, debility, " dirt eating" and, in the case of children, arrested development of body and brain — have been known for generations to be widely prevalent, but it is only in recent years that the discovery has been made that ankylostomiasis is the cause. It has been found in some rural districts where investigations have been made that as many as from 20 to 30 per cent, of boys under sixteen years have been suffering from this disease, and many medical men believe that the reputation for indolence which has been acquired by the Southern " Poor Whites " is largely attributable to the enfeebled physique which results from ankylostomiasis. At the time of the investigator's visit early in 1909, this subject was only beginning to engage public attention, and no investi- gations had been made in the mining districts of Alabama. There Avere, however, complaints of indolence on the part of white as well as coloured miners, and the necessary conditions for the prevalence of ankylostomiasis were present, namely, neglect of sanita- tion and the habit, on the part of children,, of going barefooted, for the disease is contracted either by drinking polluted water or through the skin of the foot. The oAvnership of houses by the companies led to an embittered state of feeling at the time of the strike in 1908, when the men had to camp out in tents. The Governor of the State declared this to be a danger to the community, and sent troops to turn the men out of the camps, thereby breaking the strike. Retail Prices. There are no co-operative stores in Birmingham, but at the time of the investigator's visit the labour unions and the Fanners' Alliance were negociating with a view to the establishment of one. " Multiple " firms with branches in different places are not repre- sented in this city. One local firm has five pro\-ision stores in the city and the immediate neighbourhood, but the great majority of shops are under separate owner- sliij). There is a market of no great size where a few butchers and greengrocers have stalls. The kxjal supplies of farm and market garden produce are said to be inadequate, BIRMINGHAM. 97 and large quantities are brought from the Middle and more northerly States. Meat of local production is not held in great favour, and a large part of the supply comes from Chicago. There seems to be a consensus of opinion that local agriculture is rather back- ward at present, and that more efficient farming and market gardening would be a great boon to the neighbourhood. There is plenty of good land and a good climate, and it is hoped that the efforts of the State and Federal Departments of Agriculture will effect great improvements in this respect, to the advantage of both farmers and industrial workers. The mining companies have " commissary stores," at which most of the miners' pro- visions are bought. Wages are paid in the form of cheques on the stores, which may be cashed on demand. In practice the men are stated by employers to be quite at liberty to have cash if they choose and to buy their food where they like. The demand for labour has been increasing to such an extent that the companies say they cannot afford to quarrel with their men over such a point. Formerly it used to be said that a company could afford to sell its coal at cost and yet make a satisfactory ))rofit from its stores, but in recent years the strong demand for competent labour in times of ordinary trade activity and the increase of population, with its accompaniment of private competitive shops and the extension of tramways, have combined to check the abuse by the companies of their monopoly of the supply of houses and food. In the absence of a sufficiently developed corporate feeling, co-operative stores, so familiar in England, cannot be established. It is impossible, however, that the system of company ownership of stores and of houses should be entirely satisfactory. The men feel, whether with reason or not, that refusal to buy at the company stores is regarded with disapproval, and may lead to prejudice in the allotment of stations in the mine, which vary greatly in earniijg capacity. Groceries and other Commodities. N^ewly-made butter from distant creameries sells at Is. o^d. per lb. The local farmers' butter is not much liked, as it is unscientifically made and does not keep well. The most popular butter is a kind known as " renovated " which retails at Is. M. per lb. Fresh milk is considered too expensive for consumption by many of the wage- earners, who consume buttermilk to a very great extent. Another reason sometimes given for the preference of buttermilk to fresh milk is a suspicion that fresh milk might be contaminated with typhoid. The city has a milk inspector, but in a warm climate and in a widely scattered town it is difficult to ensure the purity of milk. Coal is burned very regularly during the winter months, when the temperature is often comparatively low, especially at nights. It is bought mainly by the ton and half-ton. For the purposes of this enquiry returns were obtained from a number of retail tradesmen in the town and suburbs, and the appended Table gives the predominant prices of some of the principal provisions, &c. in February, 1909. Predominant Prices paid by the Working Classes in February, 1909. Commodity. Tea Coffee Sugar : — "White Granulated ... Brown Bacon, Breakfast — Boneless ... Eggs Cheese, American Butter ... Potatoes, Irish Flour, Wheaten — Household Bread, White Milk Coal, Bituminous Kerosene per lb. per Is. per lb. per 7 lb. per 4 lb. per quart per cwt. per gallon Predominant Price. 2s. Id. to 2s. 6d. lOd. M., Sid. 2id. to Ud. 9d. „ lOd. 12 „ U lOd. Is. Sd. to Is. bid. Id. „ 9id. Is.Oid. „ Is. 1^. lOd. „ Is. i>id. 6d 9id. to Is. Old.* 9d. * By the ton of 2,000 lb. Meat. The meat supply of Birmingham comes mainly from distant packing centres, especially from Kansas City and Chicago, but some comes from Texas. It is usually sold 16576 98 BIRMINGHAM. in retail shops, but a few butchers have shops in a private market. The mining- compiiuies do not always sell meat at their commissary stores ; in mining districts this business is in the hands of private firms to a greater extent than the provision trade. The predominant retail prices of the different cuts of meat in Birmingham and the immediate neighbourhood in February, 1909, are shown in the subjoined Table, based upon returns furnished by butchers : — Pre titniinant Prices paid by the Working C/asseti in February, 1909. Description of Cut. Predominant Price i)er lb. Beef :— Roasts — Round lid. „ Ribs prime lid. to Sid. „ Ribs second cut 6irf. „ lid. „ Chuck or short ribs Hd. Steaks — Round... lid. „ Sirloin SJrf. Flank 3|r/. to 5c?. Plate, Brisket— Fresh ;5|f/. ,. '^d. Mutton or Lamb : — Leg lOrf. Breast 3d. to 7hd. Loin l^d. to Is'Oid. Chops lod. „ 1.S-. oy. Shoulder lid. • Neck Veal :— M. Cutlets lOf/. Rib chops lid. Loin chops lid. Breast id. to 6id. Neck id. „ M. Pork :- Fresh — Loin Ikl. „ Spare rib (3jf/. „ Shoulder tJ^d. „ Chops lid. Dry salt 6jid. Ham lid. to Sd. Shoulder, salt or smoked inid. „ lid. Prices at New York being taken as the base, = 100, in each case, the index number for the price of meat at Birmingham is 98, for other food it is 104 and for food prices as a whole 102. For I'ents and food prices combined the index number is 97. 99- BOSTON. Boston, the settlement of which dates from 1630, ranks as one of the great and historic cities of the New World and is at once the political capital of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts and the commercial metropolis of New England. In the former respect its position is somewhat exceptional, inasmuch as among the fifteen cities in the United States having a population of more than a quarter of a million in 1900, Boston is the only Sfeite capital. The city is situated at the head of Massachusetts Bay and lies 234 miles by rail to the north-east of the City of New York, which can be reached by the fastest trains in five hours. No great city lies to the north of Boston within the borders of the United States, but bevond these is Montreal with a lake and river connexion with the agricultural areas of the West, both those of the United States and of Canada, that is unrivalled for the Greater part of the year by any ocean port, not excepting New York itself. In general the advantages of New York over Boston as a port are indeed conceded — hence its power, to quote from the recent Report of a Municipal Improvements Commission, appointed in part by the Governor of the Commonwealth and in part by the Mayor of Boston, " to hold its position as the leading port on the Atlantic and keep far in advance of all others in the extent and value of its commerce." But New York cannot handle or indeed attract all trans -atlantic commerce, and thus Montreal (handicapped, however, by its winter climate), Philadelphia and Baltimore are regarded as being destined in the future to be in more direct because in more equal competition with Boston than is New York itself. The great importance of these considerations is due to the fact that Boston itself is pre-eminently a commercial centre and a port, and that in its magnificent harbour, of which the main channel will shortly be 35 feet deep at mean low water, it possesses its greatest single physical asset — an asset that, incompletely developed as it is, still finds Boston competing for place as the second sea port in the United States. The following Table presents a summary of the statistics of tonnage, imports, exports and passenger arrivals at the Port of Boston for the years ended June 30th, 1905-*) :— Tonnage Entered Number of Pas- Yeai- ended June 30th. and Cleared in the Foreign Trade. Value of Imports. Value of Exports. sengers arriving at the Port. Tons. £ £ 1905 4,687,393 20,899,559 18,292,603 83,065 190f. 5.201,487 22,175,433 20,570,760 80,281 1907 5,263,012 25.923,537 21,015,031 95,142 1908 4,940,655 19,516,399 20,010,639 64,110 1909 4,833,828 23,431,791 15,866,158 59,179 Although the development of its foreign trade and to this end the improvement of its port and railway facilities are felt to be essential conditions of the maintenance of the great position held by Boston, the part which the city plays as a place of manufacture and as the chief distributing centre for the industrial districts of New England is of equal and allied significance. Boston in this connexion occupies a somewhat unique position among American cities and its present importance would be inadequately reflected in figures that merely gave particulars with reference to the city itself. For it is the point at which the activities of a ring of outlying centres converge, and while " Greater Boston," often called the " Metropolitan District," contains such cities as Lynn, Cambridge, Waltham, Somerville, Quincy, Hyde Park and Watertown, with other smaller industrial and many residential centres, beyond the narrow borders of this district, but still well within the sphere of influence of Boston itself, lie such cities as Lowell, Lawrence and Haverhill. Thus Boston is the centre and the mainspring of one of the greatest as also one of the oldest manufacturing centres in the States. With all these outlying points it is organically connected, and just as the obligation to develop the resources of the port is forcing itself upon the attention of the more farsighted members of the community, so also is the necessity for developing on special lines the aptitude and the skill, the power of initiative and the industrial I'esources of a large area that is being confronted by an increasing dependence for its food supplies upon distant centres ; by a gradual shifting away from itself of the centre of population of the country as a whole ; and by the increasing strength, nearer that centre and thus nearer the centres of 1657t; G 3 100 BOSTON. production of the raw material of food and manufacture, of competing industries. Thu^s while in many parts of the country cities are apt to take their progressive development almost for granted, in Boston and its neighbourhood a new set of conditions appears to supervene. As a centre of oversea export the position of New England would be highly advantageous, but as one of production for domestic use its advantages are conditional upon the maintenance and development of such special features as will overcome the handicap of a geographical position that is somewhat isolated. It is largely on this account that the retention of local capital for local investment ; education : the maintenance of industrial peace ; specialised skill and the excellence, or it may be the special cheapness, of output are found to have special claims to attention in this i-elatively old established centre of industrial life. It will be c;oncluded from what has been said that Boston is very far from being simply a leading centre of the intellectual and cultured life in America. It is this, as is also the Harvard belt of the adjoining city of Cambridge ; but Boston to-day, with a certain distinctive New England atmosphere that makes itself occasionally felt, is a cosmopolitan, commercial and industrial city with racial characteristics in petto ^•ery much resembling those of New York itself. The Irish have been in greater numerical preponderance than in any other American city of the first rank, the British and Canadian element is also unusually large, and there is a comj^arative absence of Germans, but there are well defined Jewish and Italian districts, with similar areas, smaller and less definite, frequented by Poles and Scandinavians and others, and sprinklings here and there of coloured quarters. In spite of this mixture of races there is some truth in the common view, traceable in part to its structural and material aspects, that Boston is one of the most " English '' of American cities. To some extent the resemblance is negative and is due to an absence of plan which has characterized the development of the older city, no longer, it may be noted, a peninsula approached from the mainland by the historical " Neck ' but through extensive reclamations converted into a promontory some two miles in length and a mile or more in width. There is a saying that " the cows laid Boston out," and much of the centre is certainly a confusing maze of streets. And it is at the centre that the material resemblance to an English environment makes itself most felt. Tall buildings like those of New York are the exception and as carried to their extreme heights are unknown, while many of the busy and crowded streets of the older city almost repeat the impressions that are given by many English towns. Further from the centre the tendency is for the streets to become wider and for the planning to be more systematic, but rarely is there found that convenient but obtrusive rectangularity so widely characteristic of American cities. Apart from the business centres and the crowded poorer districts found near the heart of the city, other distinctive features are the high ground in the neighbourhood of Beacon Street ; Boston Common, that famous and magnificently situated open space ; and to the south-west of these the district still known as Back Bay, one of the extensive areas that from time to time have been reclaimed, and now forming one of the best residential quarters of the city. The old city, still spoken of as " Boston proper," is surrounded on three sides by the waters of the Charles River, of its harbour, and of a harbour inlet — Fort Point Channel — and contains considerably less than one-third of the total population of municipal Boston. Across the Charles River to the north lies Charlestown, I'ivalling Boston itself in age and annexed to the city in 1874. On the other side of the harbour but now reached by a tunnel lies East Boston (with some 50,000 inhabitants), which has been part of the city for more than two centuries, but the settlement of which only began some 70 years ago. South Boston — " South " only in relation to Boston proper — is also separated from the old city by water and has a somewhat stationary population of under 70,000. To the real south of the city lie Roxbury, with parts already closely built, and the outlying and more suburban areas of Dorchester and West Roxbury, On the south- west, the side which, with the west and to some extent the south, is attracting the rnore fashionable trend of population, the detached and wealthy town of Brookline peneti'ates to a point not more than two or three miles from the heart of Jioston itself. North of Brookline, and completing the area comprised by municipal Boston, lies P>righton, annexed in 1874, and for the most part a pleasant residential district. Across the Charles River lie the cities of Cambridge and Somerville, both, like Brookline, abutting closely on Boston itself. As already stated, at further distances in almost every direction landwards lie other places, some 40 in number, within a radius of about 15 miles of the State House in BOSTON. 101 Boston, helping to form a Metropolitan District, much of it already united by a common system of sewerage, by a common water supply, and by a single park system, as well as by the system of transit facilities enjoyed. The aggregate population of this District in 1905 was about I5 millions. To a great extent the area thus covered is residential, but in the aggregate the manufacturing industries of the centres lying outside Boston some- what exceed those of Boston itself. Of these centres Lynn and Cambridge are the most important. The following Table, dei'ived from the Census of 1905, gives certain statistics of manufactures relating to these three cities and to the Metropolitan District as a whole : — Amount of Capital Invested. Value of Stock Used. Value of Goods Made. Number of Persons Employed. Amount of Wages Paid. Boston Cambridge Lynn £ 27,408,921 6,720,883 4,820,664 Metropolitan District as a Wliole I 57,948,313 £ 19,708,940 5,232,612 6,794,926 45,642,710 £ 38,406,492 8,834,805 11,458,963 85,082,494 59,160 14,586 21,540 139,468 £ 6,640,247 1,561,220 2,445,362 15,373,545 From 1875 up to the State Census of 1905, the population in the whole of this District rather more than doubled, that of Boston itself having increased during the same period from 341,919 to 595,380, or by 74 per cent. According to the Federal Census, the population of Boston had further increased to 670,585 in 1910, but figures for other parts of the Metropolitan District are not yet available. The following Table shows the population of Boston, as returned at the Federal Censuses of 1870-1910, together with the percentage inter-censal increases : — Year. 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 Population. 250,526 362,839 448,477 560,892 670,585 Increase. 112,313 85,638 112,415 109,693 Percentage Increase. 44-8 23-6 25-1 19-6 West Roxbuiy, Brighton and Charlestown were incorporated in 1873, since which date there has been no extension of the city limits. * The total area of the city is 27,300 acres, of which 1,637 are flats and 1,050 water. The lower rate of increase in population in recent years is to a great extent explained by the extra-metropolitan increase, attributable in part to the increasing efficiency of transit facilities. The following Table, compiled from the State Census figures, will show in which districts of the city increase in population has been most marked during the 30 years 1875-1905 :— • Population Population in 1875. in 1905. Boston proper 140,669 172,473 Charlestown 33,556 39,983 South Boston 54.147 67,436 East Boston ... The Islands 27,420\ 1,927/ 51,334 Roxbury 50,429 111,261 Dorchester 15,788 90,011 West Roxbury 11,783 41,076 Brighton 6,200 21,806 All Boston ... 341,919 595,380 For the last 15 years the figures for South Boston and Charlestown have been almost stationary, while those of Boston proper, Avhere the non-residential business area is 16576 G 3 i02 . BOSTON. extending but in other parts of which the congestion has become somewhat gi'eater, have shown as a net result of these conflicting tendencies only a slight increase. The latest available figures as to the resident alien population are those of the State Census of 1905, During the last decade the largest increase has been among Italians. Although about 15 times as many immigrants land at New York as at Boston, the latter port nevertheless ranks as the immigrant station second in importance in the whole country. The number of immigrant aliens admitted during the 12 months ending June 30, 1908, was 41,363, and in the following year 36,318. During the latter year 61,197 immigrants at all ports gave Massachusetts as their place of intended future resi- dence, but it is obvious, since intentions may change after landing, that this figure may not prove true even for the State as a whole, and that its bearing upon any one city within the State is uncertain. But it may be noted that some of the larger groups that figured in the return were Italian (mainly southern), Polish, British and Irish, French (mainly French Canadian), Hebrew, Greek, Portuguese (the majority j^robably from the Azores), Litluianian, Scandinavian and Finnish. Minor streams of recent immigration to Boston itself may be illustrated by the Albanians and the Greeks. In both these cases new arrivals are mostly men, the Greeks, however, having somewhat more family life of the two, but both representing races by which boarding-houses and restaurants are much used. The former are said to be taking the place of the Italians in the push-cart fruit trade, but industrially neither are so far important. In 1905 the total native-born population was 64*8 per cent, of the whole, 51*7 per cent, having been born in Massachusetts itself. It will be remembered that this large percentage includes the American-born children of foreign parents. Of the foreign-born population at that date 31'8 per cent, were bom in Ireland, 23*4 per cent, in Canada (mainly English Canadians), .11"5 per cent, in Russia, 9*7 per cent, in Italy and 8*2 per cent, in Great Britain. Some of the main tendencies of recent immigration may be traced in the changes that took place in this series of percentages during the five years 1900-5, the percentages of persons born in Ireland, Canada and Great Britain having declined from 35*8, 25"5 and 9"2 respectively in 1900, and the percentage of persons born in Russia and Italy having risen from 7"6 and 7*0. The density of the population of Boston ranges by wards fi'om 3'5 to 185'6 pei^acre, and the average for the whole city is 24*2. The highest figure is found in Ward 8, in the area known as the West End, containing the largest Jewish Colony in Boston. Many individual blocks in this district, as also in that known as the North End (largely an Italian quarter), where the number of persons per acre falls to 102"3, would represent a much more congested population than the above percentage figures indicate, since much of the tenement building both of the past and present is of such a character that, were the areas large, intolerable conditions of congestion would have been created. And the same is true of a few other districts in which careless development has been permitted, as, for instance, in part of the district known as South Bay. A certain indifference or lack of foresight appears indeed to have characterised some of the structural changes permitted in Boston, an attitude that probably finds a partial explanation in the comparative smallness of the Boston housing problem and, in recent years, in the relief from much of the normal pressure of congestion afforded by an excellent tramway system. In some small areas conditions are highly unsatisfactory, however, and with special reference to one such district the following extract from an appendix on " The Metropolitan Plan " included in a recent Report of the Metropolitan Improvements Commission may be quoted. The reference is especially to school-house provision, but the strictures apply to and indeed result from the street planning and the close building of the neighbourhood : — " These school-houses [the North End school- house grouj)] are so closely huddled together, and are so badly shadowed by adjoining private buildings, that they require artificial light in many of their class rooms even on bright days. A single visit to this locality and to the schools themselves should convince anyone that these conditions, if not actually criminal, are so bad as to deserve immediate remedy. Boston cannot regard itself as an enlightened city while it allows the children of the North End to be schooled in such shameful darkness and without proper playground space. This site should either be abandoned for school purposes or a project for its re-organization should be made to enable it to fulfil its functions })roperly Buildings which hem it in too closely should be torn down and future school structures should be so placed as to form in connexion with these new spaces a com- prehensive architectural scheme." The vital statistics of Boston are somewhat more complete than those usually available in the United States, and the following Table, based on statistics contained in BOSTON. 103 the Annual Report of the City Registry Department, gives the birth-rates, death-rates and infant mortality rates for each of the years 1903-7 : — Year. i Birth-rate per Death-rate per ! Infantile Mortality 1 1,000 of Population.: 1,000 of Population.: per 1,000 Births, 1903 1904 1905 1900 1907 2G-3 2.5-5 26-3 28-2 30-7 17-6 17-4 18-4 18-8 20-1 120 118 119 124 107 The larger outlets for municipal enterprise are mainly limited to the more necessary functions of government, including education, water supply, and, one of the most dis- tinctive achievements as regards the metropolitan district, a comprehensive system of parks, park ways and beaches. Minor illustrations of municipal enterprise are found in baths, cemeteries, hospitals, alms-houses, a temporary home for the destitute and lodging- house for wayfarers ; a municipal printing department ; a few public con i^eniences ; two market halls, and a magnificent public library with ten branches. The supply of gas, electric light and transit facilities in Boston, as in the great majority of American cities, is in the hands of private companies. Among the private undertakings probably the most important, and the one most identified with the development of the city, is that known as the Boston Elevated Railway, mainly, it may be noted, not an elevated railway, but an electric surface car s)'stem, with a total mileage of 474. As already stated, the area served is largely beyond the city boundaries, and the statistics of the Company refer rather to a considerable section of the Metropolitan District, including Boston, than to Boston alone. It is worthy of note, however, that during the year ended September 30th, 1908, more than 273,000,000 revenue passengers were carried ; and that the gross earnings were £2,932,229. Out of this total, it is estimated that about lO'o per cent, (including ordinary taxation amounting to £180,860), went in one form or another of contribution to the public, while dividends paid represented a little over 5 per cent, on the capital invested. The speed of the sur- face cars is now from 8f to 9 miles per hour as compared with from a little over 7 to 8 miles eight years ago. The elevated trains run at about 14 miles an hour. The uniform fare is 2^d. whether for 15 miles or only to the next stopping place, and a liberal system of transfers is in operation. The number of charitable and beneficent organisations of every kind in Boston is large, falling into much the same groups as in, for instance, New York, but perhaps more impressive than there because of the relative smallness of the Massachusetts city. The number and variety of agencies and societies with constructive and reforming objects in view that may be summed up under the general title of Civic Betterment are especially noteworthy, and one of these, known as " 1915," may be mentioned ds illustrating and as endeavouring to co-ordinate a good deal that is distinctive in local aims and aspirations. " 1915 " is a society which by a study of the experience of other cities and by the co- ordination of local organisations hopes to secure, or to pave the way for securing, the best results from city planning, and it owes its name to the hope that the adoption of certain steps both of investigation and of practical reform in the intervening years may make it possible five years hence to hold an exhibition that will demonstrate not only what has been done in the interval, but also what can be shown to be necessary and possible in the future in order to make Boston the " finest city in the world." The society appeals for the service of all classes and endeavours to take account of the interests of all : " not only politics but business ; not only commerce but labour ; not only work but health and pleasure, art, music and painting ; not only adults but children." " In more economical and more responsible city government ; in better sanitary administration ; in the improvement of homes ; in education ; in architectural improvements and in better street alignment ; in the adoption of a system of insurance for wage-earners and old age pensions ; and in making Boston a more prosperous centre of commerce and industry " — in these and in other endeavours " 1915 " has outlined a varied, hopeful and ambitious programme. The inception of " 1915 " has synchronised with, and probably may be partly traced to, the indirect effects of municipal changes of importance that are taking place in Boston. Of these, the Report ijresented in January, 1909, by the Boston Financial Commission, appointed in July, 1907, may be regarded as to a great extent the [iroximate cause. The circumstances under which the Commission was appointed, and the conclusions which it has reached, may be illustrated by the following extracts from the report itself. It will 16576 G i 104 BOSTON. be noted that the Commission was appointed before the crisis of 1907, but that the period of its deliberations corresponded more or less with the depression that followed, and that these may to some extent have been coloured thereby. But in its report, in a section dealing with " General Results " in which special attention is drawn to the heavy and increasinu- burden of municipal expenditure and indebtedness, the Commission comments as follows : — " The city is not keeping pace with its rivals in commerce or in its industries. The population is nearly at a standstill. There is but little demand for real estate and almost none for vacant land. " These conditions are, of course, not all due to the bad government of the city ; but no intelligent observer can fail to perceive that they are much aggravated by that cause, and particularly by the apparent unwillingness or inability of the citizens at large to stop the extravagance. Until recently the general public appears to have regarded the situation with helpless acquiescence. " The effect of municipal misgovernment and the consequent high rate of taxation upon the prosperity of the city is apparent, when the comparative lack of growth of manufacturing industries is considered. With our large population, excellent police department, cheap land, and above all an extensive tide-water frontage, the city affords excellent facilities for manufacturing establishments ; but the manufacturer knows that if he locates in Boston his taxes will be greater than in other cities, and that they are being constantly raised without effective protest from the citizens." Among the legislative measures which the Commission regarded as " essential to enable the people to redeem their Government " are the following : — 1. A City Council consisting of a single small body elected at large ; 2. The concentration of executive power and responsibility in the Mayor ; 3. The administration of the departments by trained experts or persons with special qualifications for the office ; 4. Full publicity secured through a permanent Finance Commission. The proposals of the Commission have borne fruit and after nearly 90 years of government by Mayor and City Council — modified by successive chai'ters granted by the General Court of the Commonwealth but in essential particulars the same — following on 180 years' experience of the Town Meeting, the important step has been taken of changing the city government on the lines laid down above. Thus in effect Boston will for the l^resent be governed by an elected Mayor, with full executive resjionsibility, and by a small body of elected Commissioners. The conditions laid down for nomination and the form of ballot paj^ers are intended to weaken if not destroy the power of the " Caucus " and the " Boss,", and Boston has thus adopted its own modification of new plans on which a few other cities have already experimentally and on the whole successfully embarked. The step is of great interest and potentially of great importance because of the example it may afford of practicable reform in matters of municipal government. The real estate valuation for May, 1908, from the assessment of which as in other cities the gi*eater part of the municipal expenditure is met, was £225,501,104, about three fifths being for land and two-fifths for buildings. The total figure for 1909 was almost identical, viz. — £227,624,042. The valuations of jJersonal estate in the two years were respectively £51,095,216 and £53,217,964. The tax-rate for 1909 was 1'65 per cent., of which 1'30 per cent, was for city purposes, 0*24 per cent, for State charges, and O'll per cent, for county charges. Although not co-terminous with Suffolk County, Boston bears all county charges, Chelsea, Revere and Winthrop, the other places within the county, paying no contributions for these purposes. Occupations, Wages and Hours of Labouk. In the previous section it has been indicated that Boston is a commercial mther than an industrial city and it is as such that it is generally regarded. It is thus identified with no special manufacture, considerable and varied though its field of employment is, and is without any staple industry like several cities in the Metropolitan District itself, notably Lynn as a centre of the boot and shoe industry, and Waltham with its watch- making ; or places a little further afield which have been specially studied in connexion BOSTON. 105 with the present enquiry, like Fall River, Lawrence or Brockton. Such places, relatively small but with specialised industrial pursuits, are the more representative manufacturing centres of New England. The field of occupation in Boston itself, representative as it is of a few of the localised industries of Massachusetts, is neither dominated by nor indeed identified primarily with any of them, and it is noteworthy - that in u long and miscellaneous list of about 80 manufactures of the city given in the Report of the State Bureau of Statistics for 1908 the average number of employees of both sexes exceeds 4,000 in no single industry, and exceeds 1,000 in only ten cases. The total number of establishments included in the above return is 1,683, and the total average number of employees 52,103, of whom 34,033 were males. The following Table, compiled from the Federal Census of 1900, gives in large groups the latest available statistics for employment of every kind : — Number of Persons of 10 years and over engaged in Occupations in Boston in 1900. Occupations. Males. Females. Total. Building Metalworking and Engineering Textile Leather Boot and Shoe Making Clothing Woodworking and Furniahing Paper and Printing Food, Drink and Tobacco Other Manufacturing and Mechanical Pursuits Trade and Transportation Labourers (not otherwise specified) Professional, Domestic and Personal Service and Agricultural Pursuits All Occupations 17,971 11,050 758 731 2,201 4,1G9 1,157 1,297 5,035 11,101 t;9,667 19,545 30,201 181,183 3(5 187 1,320 40 703 12,153 4G0 2,079 1,153 2,119 15,91(5 134 34,039 70,339 18,007 11,237 2,078 771 2,904 1G,<522 4,017 t5,376 (5,188 13,220 85,583 19,679 (54,240 251,.^22 In the introductory section the considerable foreign element has been mentioned. The employments followed by it show great variety, and the general fact that a great diversity of occupation is apt to be followed even by peoples who are supposed to run somewhat exclusively in, as it were, more or less prescribed channels, is being more widely recognised. But although the industrial complexity of the life that every considerable foreign community tends to create is an economic and social fact of great significance, predominant channels of employment may nevertheless be indicated for this or that group, as, for instance, carpenters and joiners, teamsters, and in a less degi*ee machinists, painters and labourers, as followed by Canadians ; the large labouring element and the number of teamsters in the varied groups of occupations followed by the Irish ; the drift to the metal and building trades illustrated by the Scandinavians ; the large number of tailors, retail dealers and hawkers among the Jews, the first of these industries being also predominantly followed by the Poles ; the large number of Italian labourers ; and, as regards the coloured population, the numbers of these who are absorbed as servants and waiters, labourers, teamsters and porters. From the Table of predominant wages and hours of labour given on p. 107 it will be observed that in the building trades the eight-hour day, with a short working Saturday, is widely recognised ; that in the printing trades the working week consists of 48 hours or less ; that in municipal employment the 48 -hour week prevails ; that the 54 and 55-hour week is predominant in the metal trades ; and that in the transport trades the ten-hour day and 60-hour week are most usual. The general tendency when changes are made in the recognised length of the working week is for the number of hours to be diminished, and the figures for 1908 published by the Commonwealth Bureau of Statistics show that in that year 2,310 employees in Boston received reductions, the most important change being the concession of the 44-hours week to 1,100 painters, and of the 48-hours week to 475 persons engaged in the clothing industiy. « The holidays most observed are Independence Day, Labour Day (September), Thanksgiving Day (November) and Christmas Day ; but Washington's birthday 106 BOSTON. (22 February), Patriot's Day (April) and Memorial Day (May) are also widely recognised. Massachusetts is one of the two States of the Union in which New Year s Day is not recognised as a general holiday. As would result .naturally from the numerous industries followed in Boston the number of trade unions is large,' some 241 different local societies being enumerated by the State Bureau of Statistics in 1908. The total membership of 228 of these, composed ahnost entirely of males, amounted to 62,889. Among the most strongly-organised occuj^ations are those of the cigarmakers and longshoremen working on ocean-going vessels. Boston is not a stronghold of trade unionism, however, and in most trades, including building and printing, the " open shop " generally prevails. This practice by no means implies that as regards the principal conditions of employment terms inferior to those aimed at by the trade union exist, but simply that no preference to trade unionists is recognised. The objection to the " closed shop " is thus compatible with the observance of n trade agreement, and in Boston itself more than half the local societies report the existence of agreements with varying degrees of comprehensiveness and validity. In the building trades an experiment is being made in regulating and improving conditions in relation to employment by the organised alliance of employers and employed. To this end two societies, duly incorporated, the one of Brick and Stone Masons and the other of Carpenters and Joiners — in both cases including " Masters and Craftsmen " — have been formed, and conditions regulating the terms of employment as regards hours, wages, overtime, &c., have been laid down. A distinctive feature of the Carpenters' and Joiners' Society is the division of the employee members into " Craftsmen " and " Associate Members," the minimum rate of 2s. jier hour being fixed for those who are admitted into the former class, and of Is. Id. for the latter. In the agreement of the Brick and Stone Masons' Society there is a similar clause, those not qualified as craftsmen not being " entitled to receive a wage greater than the sum of 20 per cent, less than the standard minimum wage," which in this case is fixed at 2s. %d. per hour. The principle of the minimum wage is thus recognised, but is supplemented in the case of both societies by the avowed attempt to regulate wages more completely than usual according to efficiency and by the recognition of a grade of the fully competent, for which those " not up to the average of skill and efficiency " may, unless they be old men, hope to qualify. About 400 " craftsmen " have been admitted to the two societies, which, it may be added, are not approved by the ordinary trade unions. A State Free Emploj^ment Office was opened at Boston in December, 1906, and in the following year similar offices at Springfield and Fall River, In the year ended November 30th, 1907, the Boston office was instrumental in filling 14,480 positions. In the following year — a year of depression — the number of positions filled fell to 9,941, while in the year ended November 30th, 1909, 13,034 positions were filled by the agency of this office. The following statement shows the more important details illustrative of the work of the Boston office in the year ended November 30th, 1909, as compared with the previous year : — 1909. 1908. • 1 Males. ^«-l- pI«o1 Total Persons. Number of Applications for Employment Kmnber of Perseus applied for by .Employers Number of Positions reported Filled Number of Persons for whom Positions were secured : — (a) once only (6) more than once 23,334 9,375 6,729 3,804 1,017 8,486 8,029 6,305 2,267 1,239 31,820 17,404 13,034 6,071 2,256 46,563 12,825 9,941 4,954 1,581 No classification according to occupation of the " Positions reported filled " is available for the year ended November 30th, 1909, but in the previous year the largest number of positions obtained for males was for " boys (errand, office, &c.) " 624, and farm hands 568. Among positions in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits the following arc some representative numbers : — Blacksmiths 15 ; carpenters 146 ; firemen 95 ; machinista 70 ; painters 128. The largest groups for females are classed as : Housework 1,386 ; waitresses 706 and kitchen workers 519 ; while factory workers (thus described) numbered 273. BOSTON. 107 The following Table shows the predominant weekly wages earned by men in certain of the principal occupations in Boston in February, 1909, with the number of hours usually worked : — Predominant Weekly Wages and Hours of Labour of Adult Males in the Principal Occupations in February, 1909. Building Trades : — Bricklayers Stonemasons Stonecutters Carpenters Plasterers Plumbers Structural Iron Workers Painters Hod Carriers and Bricklayers' Labourers Plasterers' Labourers ... Foundries and Machine Shops : — Ironmoulders Machinists Blacksmiths Patternmakers ... ... ... ... Labourers Tailoring Trades : Cutters Trimmers Printing and Bookbinding Trades : — Newspaper — j Day work I Night work Compositors, Hand and Machine Pressmen Book and Job — Hand Compositors Pressmen ' Cylinder Presses Day work iffht work I Da JNi ] Small Pi-esses Bookbinders dgarmakers Transport Trades : Longshoremen General Drivers, Teamsters — One horse ... Two horses Public Services : — Street Construction, Paving and Cleaning — Municipal Employees : Paviors Paviors' Labourers Scavengers Road Sweepers ... Drivers ... Contractors' Employees : Paviors Paviors' Labourers Road Menders Hrivers .. Water Works (Municipal) — Labourers ... Gas Works (Company)— Labourers ... Electric Lighting (Company) — Electricians Installation Men ... Firemen Labourers ... Electric Railway (Company) — Surface Lines : Motormen and Conductors ... Elevated Railway : Motormen Guards Brakemen Predominant Weekly Wages. 110.S. to 120s. llOs. 91s. Sd. 80s. dd. to 90s. 110s. 87s. 6d. to 100s. 90s. „ 100s. 72s. 5d. ,. 77s. 45s. lOd. „ 60s. 69s. 8rf. 75s. 61s. lid. to 72s. 56s. M. „ 67s. 6d. 68s, 9d. „ 90s. 41s. 8f/. „ 43s. M. Predominant Weekly Hours of Labour. 95s. lOd. to 104s. 62s. 6d. „ 75s. 2d. 106s. 9d. 113s. 9d. 82s. 6fZ. to 85s. 5d. 82s. M. „ 85s. 5d. 79s. 2d. 87s. 6d. 68s. M. 73s. M. to 83s. 4d. 75s. 75s. 50s. to 54s. 2d. 58s. M. to 62s. M. 75s. 62s. Gd. 56s. M. 56s. M. 56s. M. 100s. 50s. to 56s. 3d 40s. to 45s. 43s. 9f/. to 50s. 56s. M. 50s. to 56s. M. lbs. 68s. 9d. 66s. 8d. 50s. 57s. 6d. to 62s. Gd. 58s. 9d. „ 68s. M. 5;3s. 9rf. „ 58s. '.)d. 47s. 6d. „ 52s. 6d. 44 to 48 44 44 44 to 48 44 48 48 44 44 to 48 44 54 54 to 55 54 „ 55 54 „ 55 54 „ 55 44 to .53 46-i „ 56 42 42 42 36 48 48 48 48 60 60 60 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 to 54 48 .. 54 54 „ 60 48 48 to 54 56 56 56 54 60 60 60 60 Taking wages at J numbers for Boston are- rew York as the base, = 100, in each case, the wages index building trades, skilled men 91, hod carriers and bricklayers' 108 BOSTON. labourers 77 ; foundries and machine shops, skilled men 81, unskilled labourers 102 ; printing, hand compositors (job work) 90. In the building trades the usual working day is from 8 a.m. to .5 p.m., with one hour's interval at noon. Over the greater part of the United States no seasonal alteration of hours is necessary on account of the difterence in the length of the summer and winter day, but in Boston a latitude is reached in which in winter daylight is curtailed to an extent that may stop work or make it difficult before the close of the ordinary work day. Thus in the agi-eement of the Massachusetts Society of Brick and Stone Masons, to wdiich reference has been made, an exceptional clause is found stating that " when darkness prevents working up to 5 o'clock the noon interval may be shortened so that full time may be worked." Building work is undei'taken in Boston, as generally in the States, on an extensive system of sub -contracting, the chief contractors in this city being generally either master bricklayers or master carpenters. This method, by which, while the client has the con- venience of dealing with only one contractor, the latter on his part puts out most of the work to specialist firms, was infiuentially ci'iticised as sacrificmg too much to mere speed in execution, and as not securing a proper unity or co-ordination in construction. Among machinists there is in Boston a fairly clear distinction betAveen the skilled machinists and unskilled or semi-skilled helpers. The predominant range for the former is quoted in the Table. A starting point for the others is at about 50s. per week. In the clothing industry there are no very large firms in Boston, but a considerable number of small ones. The machining is largely done by small contractors, and there is a fair amount of homew^ork. Cutters are strongly organised and are on piece work, a practice that is now unusual in America in this occupation. Their earnings are high, averaging in the best shops about £5 a week during the greater part of the year. Trimmers are paid time wages and are directly employed. Their wages range from 62s. 6d. to 75s. per week. Pressers are sometimes on time wages and sometimes on piece work, and earnings vary so considerably according to the class of work done that it is not possible to state a predominant range of weekly wages. Women are mainly employed by the small contractors, and no investigation was made of the earnings of such w'orkers, but those who work for the larger firms earn from 22s. lid. to 33s. 4f/. per week for the most part. In Cambridge there are some large publishing and printing firms, mainly engaged on book work, and the rates for compositors (engaged a good deal on piece work), range from 62s. 6d. to 75s. 6d. for a week of 48 hours, or somewhat lower than for the ordinary job printing in Boston as shown in the Table. In the case of electric railway employees, the law requires that a day's work shall be 10 hours in 12 consecutive hours for platform work. No uniforms ai'e provided by the electric railroad company. " Satisfactory service " money to the amount of 62s. 6d. is paid to about 80 per cent, of the men each year. Under a plan which has been in force since 1903 employees who have been in the service of the company continuously for 25 years and who, in the judgment of the management, are unfitted to serve the company further, and also those who have reached the age of 60 and have been continuously employed for not less than 15 years, are qualified for a pension not exceeding 24s. a week for life. Employees of the electric light company ha\'e 14 days' holiday in the year with pay. Days taken off, including those on account of illness, are paid for up to 14 days in one year and deducted from the annual leave. About three years ago the local branch of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters was defeated in a dispute for shorter working hours, and since then this trade union has been weakened. But the rates of wages for these men are said to have remained unaltered. - Housing and Rents. Boston is not regarded as a tenement house city, but the law and administration as regards this type of dwelling have had a considei-able effect upon the lines upon which local housing has develojied. The local definition of a tenement house has varied and is somewhat obscure, but the working definition is a house in which more than three families are living, or one in which, with a shop underneath, as many as three families are living. Thus the " three-family house " is not subject, as it would be, for instance, in New York and in many other cities, to tenement house conditions as regards construction and inspec- tion, and, pai'tly owing to the above definition and to the ensuing practices, the three- family house has become a distinctive and representative type of working-class dwelling in I'oston. In some districts, tenement houses have multiplied and are multiplying, especially where the value of land is greatest, where a population is found willing or it may be in some cases preferring to accept the conditions of ordinary tenement house BOSTON. 109 life, and where either old houses existed that lent themselves to re-modelling on tene- ment house lines, or older small frame buildings were found that could be pulled down and their sites prolitably used for the accommodation of twice or thi-ice the old number. Thus as regards the extension of housing acconnuodation in lioston two active tendencies may be traced — at the centre the construction or remodelling of the brick tenement house and in the more outlying and expanding districts the erection of houses largely for three families. These tendencies have been operative for some years, with the result that while as regards the latter type the tlu'ee-family house may perhaps be considered as predominant for Boston as a whole, as regards the former type, districts that are predominantly tenement- house in character have grown up in at least three fairlv well defined areas. Of these districts the more important lie near the business centre of the city, almost gii-dling it with their areas of relative congestion, and the best known of this description have been already mentioned as lying in the West End or Jewisli, and the North End or predominantly Italian, quarters. Both have been made the subject of careful studies by Residents and Associates of the Social Settlement known as South End House. One other general feature of the housing situation that must be mentioned, is a middle zone of older dwellings of which the sites are not sufficiently near the centre to make it worth while to rebuild, and not sufficiently far out to attract a population that finds itself able, at no greater expense as regards transit and at little extra expenditure of time, to seek pleasanter surroundings further afield. Thus a considerable part of South Boston, especially that lying east of Dorchester Street ; of Charlestown ; parts even of East Boston — in some respects one of the most attractive of the inner districts — and parts too t)f East Cambridge are for the moment stagnant areas, in which housing conditions affording relatively cheap but unsatisfactory accommodation persist, and where there is no economic force at work to bring about either improvement or reconstruction. A proximate cause of many of these more than usually well defined areas of arrested development is found in the I'oston Elevated Railway C(jmpauy, which, acting as a clearing house for the centre, is able easily to transmit, especially from its main tei-mini at Charlestown and Roxbury, large numbers to various connected outlying districts lying both within and without the city boundaries. Although the tenement and the three-family houses have l^een mentioned as though representing distinct types, it will be understood that they fall into various sub-divisions, the former, for instance, according to the number of tenements per house, the number and size of rooms per tenement and the conveniences that are provided ; and the latter accord- ing to the two last points, whether they are built in rows or pairs or detached, and other characteristics of the dwelling that may affect its standard. Each type is, indeed, highly composite, the house for three families being perhaps of the two the more inadequately defined by the simple classification that has so far been used. The range of standard which it illustrates may, for instance, be indicated near one end of the scale by a modern but not quite new dwelling in Brighton where 26s. a week was being paid for five light rooms and a bathroom, hot and cold water, steam heat and janitor service, though this would represent a class of dwelling occupied by " business " rather than by working-class families ; and near the other end of the scale by a row of dwellings in Charlestown in which 10s. Id. per week was paid for the same number of rooms, two dark and one a small " hall bedroom," all, with the exception of the last, being of fair size, with no conveniences but cold water and a private water-closet on the landing. While in some of their essential characteristics the houses built for three families are somewhat closely allied to the tenement type, this similarity becomes the more complete the more closely they are built. Even in one of the outlying areas, for instance, which a few years ago ranked as one of the more desirable suburbs of the city and which to a considerable extent is maintaining its past character, there are districts in which three- family houses have been built on a speculative basis in considerable numbers, and in such close proximity to one another that the opinion is expressed by responsible persons that this district will " in ten years' time rank as undesirable." Thus, both because the types of each are so various, and because of certain conditions that both types tend to introduce, no clear and consistent distinction can be drawn between the tenement and the three- family house. The real differences are rather those of style, position and character which each may manifest, rather than of the type itself. To a great extent the same considerations hold good also of the house constructed for two families, which is also frequently found in some pares of the city — for instance, in South and East Boston. In a broad classification the three general types of dwelling that have been mentioned may be regarded as exhaustive, since single-family houses are not being built commercially no BOSTON. for those of small means, and when they are built, which is not often, are usually owned by their occupiers ; and also leaving out of account the numerous lodging-houses which are a class apart and are found especially in the South End and in parts of the West End districts. There were about 87,000 buildings of every description in Boston in 1907, and of those nearly three-fourths were wooden. The total number of dwelling houses of all kinds was 70,145, including 1,864 which were vacant. Of the total about 7,000 are officially classed as tenement houses, and of these the great majority are ui the central districts. This concentration may be illustrated by the fact that in East Boston only about 100 real tenement houses are found. Apait from the number of tenement houses no recent statistics are available as to the number of houses of different types, but in 1891 an exhaustive Census was taken showing, as regards the size of tenements, that at that date, when the total |X)pulation covered by the Census was 311,396, 0*66 per cent, of that population were living in one-roomed dwellings, 5'2o per cent, in two rooms, 16'58 per cent, in three rooms, 24*87 percent, in four rooms, 18'2o per cent, in five rooms, 12* 12 per cent, in six rooms and the rest (22*27 per cent.) in seven rooms and over. The information was obtained by a house- to-house canvass of rented tenements throughout the city without respect to grade of dwellings or class of occupants, but in spite of a comprehensiveness which would tend, from the point of view of the present enquiry, to exaggerate considerably the importance of the dwellings of larger si/e, and of the long interval, it is probable that the relative prop(.)rtions shown have still a general validity. As regards the average number of persons per dwelling-house, this, according to the Census of 1900, in the whole of lioston was 8"4. In 1907 the average ranged in the different wards from o'o in Brighton to 20*7 iu the North End, and in the West End district the corresponding figure was 16"6. In eight other widely scattered wards, in which in the aggregate the Irish are the predominant IX)pulation, but in two of which Jews are living in considerable numbers, and in one each of which Italians, Americans and negroes are largely found, the number of persons per dwelling exceeded ten. In 14 other wards the number was less than ten. The percentage of families of every class living in dwelling-houses occupied by one family was 32*2 according to the Census of 1900, while 41*3 per cent, of families were then living in dwelling-houses occupied by three or more families. In spite of a sanitary administration that is improving and on the whole efficient, from few jwints of view does it appear that the general housing conditions for the working classes of Boston give satisfaction (an exception being the small proportion of families occupving only one or two rooms) to those who are most anxiously watching and most eager to ]jlan for the betterment of this great and beautifully situated city. It may be noted that in the extra -municipal areas in which, as has been mentioned, a considerable amount of building is taking place, and in which many who work in I 'oston live, such provision for the working classes as is being made is of a rather superior type and that " cheap " houses outside Boston appear to be old dwellings, scattered among some of the older adjacent townships. The characteristic features of the congested tenement house districts of P>oston pi'oper that have been mentioned are irregular planning and the resulting great variety in the description of dwellings erected, the numerous courts, the close building, and, as already stated, the remodelling or rebuilding as tenement houses of dwellings once in private occupation, and the disappearance of the once common frame house. Drying posts and lines on the roofs are common features, and are indications of the dearth of other open space even in the form of yards. In the West End the close building rather than the narrowness of the streets attracts attention. The tenement houses there are largely five and six-storied brick buildings. Outward evidences of poverty wei-e not visible, and even a crowd, including a sprinkling of the coloured population, attracted by a fire in Cambridge Street, which runs through this district, was free to a noticeable extent from the poor and ragged element that such an occurrence would have collected in one of the poorer and crowded parts of London. The following are notes on dwellings visited in the West End : — Three-storied frame house in court. Plenty of yard space. Outhouses. Water- closet in the house, one for three families. Three rooms — one living room and two excellent bedrooms — comfortably furnished. Occupied by Russian Jewish family. Rent 10s. Id. per week. On the ground floor a coloured family occupied three rooms at 8s. 4assage. Cold water supply. Stove furnished by tenant. Very dirty shaft. Occupiers Italians. Rent 10s. 1<^. per week. ()n the second floor two rooms, one a large and greatly treasured bedroom. Rent 1 2s. per week. In the neighbourhood, three rooms occupied by a family of seven were rented for ISs. ad., two rooms with three in family for 7s. 8r/., and two rooms with six in family, four being infants, for 8s. 8ev lb. 117 BROCKTON. Brockton, the principal centre in the United States for the manufacture of fine grade shoes, is situated in Massachusetts, about 20 miles south of Boston. It was not incorporated as a city until 1881. Originally it formed part of the town of Bridgewater and later, in 1821, was itself constituted a town under the name of North of the population of Brockt on smce 18 f are shoi vn 111 th e following iabU i . — . Year. Population. 1 Increase. Percentage Increase. 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 8,007 13.608 27.204 40,00.^ 56,878 5,601 13,686 12,769 16,815 70-0 100-6 46-8 42-0 The area of the city is 21.j square miles. The chief thoroughfare. Main Street, runs in a straight line from north to south throughout the whole length of the city, and the built-up section of the city extends only for a comparatively short distance to the right or left of this central street. A short distance to the east of Main Street, and running parallel to it, is the railway line. On the far side of the line the appearance of the city is less inviting than on the western side, and it is there that most of the non-English-speaking people, other than the Swedes, are found. Though of rapid growth, the city is on the whole well paved, and presents a less unfinished appearance than some cities of older date in the same State. With the exception of the High School and the City Hall there are few buildings of any pretensions. In its outward appearance the city gives an impression of prosperity and comfort on the part of its workers, and this impression is confirmed by closer investigation. Though scattered instances of dilapidated or ill-kept houses are to be found, it may be said that the city is wholly without slums, as that term is usually understood. This pleasing characteristic is no doubt due in part to the recent growth of the city, but much must also be allowed for the fact that Brockton is engaged mainly in an industry in which most of the employees are well paid. The appearance of the city owes something also to the fact that most of the manufacturers and heads of concerns trading in Brockton have their homes there, and their presence accounts for a number of choice residences which, >vith their gardens, tend to relieve the monotony of appearance characteristic of many industrial centres. The influence of the close proximity of Boston, though clearly perceptible in certain branches of the city's activities, is not so well marked as in some of the other industrial centres in Massachusetts, the directing force behind most of the Brockton enterprises being largely exercised in the city itself. Brockton may be contrasted with such Massachusetts cities as Lawrence and Lowell as regards the elements of its population. According to the Census of 1905, the only non-English-speaking nationality represented by more than a thousand persons was the Swedish. Though no fewer than 12,275 persons out of a total population of -17,794 were shown to be foreign-born, over half of this number consisted of English-speaking immigrants not readily distinguishable from the native population. Of the total foreign- born population, 27*4 per cent, ^vere born in Canada (only one-quarter of these being French Canadians), 23'o per cent, in Ireland, 20"3 per cent, in Sweden, 9'3 per cent, in Great Britain, 6*3 per cent, in Russia and 5'4 per cent, in Poland. The English, the English-speaking Canadians and, to a less extent, the Irish become readily assimilated to the Americans themselves in their mode of living ; the Swedish people also maintain a standard of life at least as high as that of the Americans ; so that the proportion of the population which is composed of those national elements which are usually most closely associated with poverty in American cities is not large. The industrial importance of the city is derived entirely from its manufacture of boots and shoes. Beyond this industry and such directly dependent trades as the manufacture of shoe " findings," few manufactures are represented to any extent in the city. The predominance and the magnitude of the boot and shoe industry are shown clearly by statistics published by the State for the year 1908. The total output of all industries in the city was stated at £9,314,874 and of this sum £7,349,319 was due to boots and shoes, £559,614 to boot and shoe findings and £588,428 to boot and shoe cut stock. 16576 H 3 118 BROCKTON. The municipal activities of Brockton are confined to the ordinary services under- taken by a modern Amei'ican city, municipal trading l^eing limited to the maintenance of the water supply ; this supply, which is considered to be very satisfactory, is obtained from Silver Lake, some distance from the city. The city is served by an elaborate system of electric tramways which is controlled by a company operatingr over the greater part of Massachusetts. Boston, Pi'ovidence and other points even more distant can be readily reached. The electric light and power supply and the gas works are also under the control of private companies. The charge for electric light current in the early part of 1909 was IQd. net per kilowatt-hour, but since July of that year this charge has been i-educed to 7hd. At present electricity for lighting or for other domestic uses has not made its appeai-ance to any appreciable extent in working-class homes. The charge for gas is OS. per 1,000 cubic feet, a discount of r>d. on this price being allowed for prompt payment. A considerable number of prepayment meters are still in use, but for some time past they have not been supplied or replaced, their use being considered by the company to be unsatisfactory on many grounds. The number of gas stoves known to be in use in the city at the time of the investigation was nearly 6,000. The financial system of the city need not be described at length, being generally similar to that of the larger cities of Massachusetts dealt with in this volume. The tax-rate on real and personal property in 1909 was 2*06 per cent, of the assessed value, and in 1908, 2*09 per cent. In 1906, the last year for which comparative stJitistics are available, the rate was 1"97 per cent. Only two of the thirty-three cities in Massachusetts showed a higher rate than this, and both of these had less than 2.5,000 inhabitants each. The per capita valuation in Brockton was, however, comparatively low, being £147 16s. It is probable that this low valuation is due as much to a lack of stringency in the assessments as to the cliaracter of the population. Very few of the taxpayers make declarations or returns of their personal property. The assessments are almost always made on hypothetical amounts, and there is no doubt that these are in most cases well below the actual amounts strictly liable. In addition to a sum of £164,041 raised by taxation, £890 was derived from licence duties and £3,568 from special assessments on account of impi-ovement works. The small amount derived from the licence duties is accounted for by the fact that with the exception of a break of twelve months the city has, for more than 20 years, prohibited the sale of intoxicants. The interruption in this period of prohibition occurred some years ago, and according to all accounts the reversion to the previous practice was made with remarkable unanimity. The private charities of the city are not organised, dififering in this from so many American cities. Public assistance is controlled by the City Government and the principles of administration and relief are generally similar to those in other cities of the State. Indoor relief is given at the City Home, a comfortable, neatly furnished house, with farm lands attached, on the outskirts of the city. The number of inmates of both sexes is usually about 100, nearly all of whom are of very advanced age. Outdoor relief to thosa who have a settlement in the city is usually given in kind, the value of -the Aveekly supplies being about 8s. 4f/. in summer and 12s. 6d. in winter for each family assisted. The articles suj)plied, according to the needs or wishes of the family assisted, comprise flour, butter, sugar, tea, coiFee, potatoes, beans, rice, oatmeal, meal, crackers, soap, pork, salt fish and lard. The goods are supplied from the City Store and it is said that the quantity given for 8s. Ad. is more than could be obtamed at a retail shop for that sum. Shoes are also supplied for children in deserving cases, and on the whole there is a good deal of elasticity in administration. The total number of families assisted in 1908 — a year of exceptional distress — was 377, representing 1,526 persons. The sanitary administration of the city is under the control of a Board of Health, consisting of a chairman, a health officer (who is a medical man) and an executive officer. The staff consists of two bacteriologists, a plumbing and sanitary inspector, an inspector of meats and provisions and a city physician. The total numbers of births, deaths, deaths under one year and deaths from tuber- culosis of all kinds for the period 1904-8 are shown in the following Table : — Year. Births. Deaths. Deatlis under One Year. Deatlis from Tuberculosis. J'.IM 914 ')67 100 74 190.5 1,104 609 9G .S6 1906 l.l.W 568 109 61 1907 1,4;50 676 148 .50 190S 1,426 im 137 52 BROCKTON. 119 Occupations, Wages and Hours of Laboub. The importance of the boot and shoe indnstry in Brockton has been already referred to. Apart from this and cognate industries, the largest single enterprise is a colour-printing establishment. The purely industrial character of the city, to which testimony is afforded by the comparatively small percentage of people engaged in professional pursuits, is shown by the following Table of occupations based on the results of the Federal Census of 1900 :— Number of Persons of 10 yeai's of age and over engaqed in Occupations in Brockton in 1900. Occuijations. Males. Females. Total. Building Metal working and Engineering Textile Boot and Shoe Making ♦ ... Clothing Woodworking and Furnishing ... Paper and Printing Food, Drink and Tobacco Other Manufacturing and Mechanical Pursuits Trade and Transportation Labourers (not otherwise specified) Professional, Domestic and Personal Service and ) Agricultui-al Pursuits ... J All Occupations 830 371 21 6,254 77 80 113 133 858 2,762 476 1,075 13,050 2 8 1,959 374 107 20 67 529 10 1,416 830 373 29 8,213 451 80 220 153 925 3,291 486 2,491 4,492 17,542 It will be seen from the above Table that 47 per cent, of all persons employed in work for gain were engaged in the staple industry of the city. Later figures, based on a State enquiry in the year 1908, are even more significant. These figures relate only to persons employed as manual workers in manufacturing industries, and show that of such workers 82 per cent, were engaged directly in boot and shoe manufacturing, while a large percentage of the remainder were engaged in trades auxiliary to the chief industry. The following are the full details : — Number of Wage-earners employed in 1908 in the Manufacturing Lidustries of Brockton. Wage-earners Employed. Industry • Average Number. Smallest Number. Greatest Males. Females. Total. Number. Boots and Shoes Boot and Shoe Cut Stock Boot and Shoe Findings Boxes, Fancy and Paper Lasts Foundry and Machine Shop Products Other Industries 9,264 503 367 66 140 146 819 3,814 228 200 168 141 13,078 73] 567 234 140 146 960 9,598 615 432 213 113 130 792 14,692 845 723 248 158 172 1,150 All Industries 11,305 4,551 15,856 11,893 17,988 The above Table shows that if the manufacture of fancy and paper boxes be regarded as one dependent on the shoe industry, the number of workers employed in manufactures having no obvious connexion with boot and shoe manufacture is less than 7 per cent, of the total. Reference to the last two columns of the Table will show that in the boot and shoe trade a great fluctuation occurred in the numbers employed during the year. This feature of the statistics is no doubt explained to a large extent by the general depression of trade which passed over the country in that year, but much is accounted for by tlie occurrence of trade disputes. The year 1908, indeed, compares very unfavourably with the previous year. In 1907 the average number of wage-earners in the manufacturing industries reported in the city was 18,338, the difference between this total and that for 1908 being almost entirely due to the falling off which occurred in the leading industry. In 1907, 16576 H 4 120 BROCKTON. too, the fluctuation in the numbers employed was much smaller than in 190S. The greatest number employed in the boot and shoe factories in the former year was 16,558, while the smallest number was 13,098. The boot and shoe trade in Brockton is highly organised, and pructically all the manufacturers recognise agreements with the men's unions. The trade union stamp system has been developed with considerable success. There is little doubt that the manufacturers regard the stamp as an asset of some value for advertising purposes and as a quid pro quo for their concession of union claims. The agreement, known as the " union stamp agreement," is entered into between the manufacturer and the Boot and Shoe Workers' Union, the international organisation which forms a co-ordinating body for the unions concerned ^dth special branches of the trade. The principal provisions of the agreement are that " the union agrees to furnish its union stamp to the employer free of charge, to make no additional price for the use of the stamp, to make no discrimination between the employer and other firms, persons or corporations who may enter into an agreement with the union for the use of the union stamp and to make all reasonable efiFort to advertise the union stamp and to create a demand for the union stamped jn'oducts of the employer, in common with other employers using the union stamp." On the other side the emploj'er agrees to hire as boot and shoe workers only members of the union. It is farther agreed that the union will not cause or sanction any strike, that the employer will not lock out his employees while the agreement is in force and that all questions of wages or conditions of labour which cannot be mutually agreed upon shall be submitted to the Massachusetts State Board of Conciliation and Arbitration. In addition to the Boot and Shoe Workers' Union there are no fewer than thirteen unions concerned with special branches of the trade, ^•iz., those of the vampers, lasters, sole fasteners, skivers, heelers, edgemakers, finishers, treers, packers and dressers, sole leather cutters, stitchers and cutters and also a mixed union. It may readily be surmised that with this somewhat elaborate organisation the number of questions arising for settlement is considerable. Most of the negotiations between the employers and the men take place through the Manufacturers' Association, to which the majority of the firms belong. The number of references to the State Board of Arbitration is great. In 1908 no fewer than 75 separate decisions were given by the Board in matters submitted by Brockton concerns, several firms figuring a number of times in this total. The general feeling appears to be that this organisation of industry is an advantage to both sides, and certainly the progress of the city under this regime has been marked, for it is too early yet to judge whether the set back of 1908 was the first step of a gradual decline, or merely a temporary disturbance in which Brockton was not the only participant. The advance made by Brockton as a boot and shoe centre and the rapidity with which the volume of its output lias grown show at least that industrial prosperity, measured by the usual standards, has been concurrent with the frank recognition of the men's unions. On the other hand, it is sometimes argued that the concession of the high union rates of wages has resulted in the transference to other centres of many of the cheajjer grades of work. There appears to be no doubt that the average yearly earnings of the boot and shoe operatives are higher in Brockton than in any other boot and shoe centre in Massachusetts. It is claimed, indeed, that they are higher than in any other centre in the world. According to the State Bureau of Statistics, the average yearly earnings in 1908 of workpeople of both sexes engaged in this trade were £136 os. in Brockton, £122 7s. in Haverhill, £124 5s. in Lynn and £114 10s. in Beverley, all these cities l^eing important boot and shoemaking centres. If, however, i t is true that high rates of wages have resulted in the loss to Brockton of certain of the chea])er kinds of work, such a change is probably only an aspect of a tendency which, according to local information, has in fact been at work, namely the gravitiition to the city of the most efiicient labour in the country. There seem accordingly to be adequate grounds for the belief that a development has taken or is taking place which might be foreseen in the light of ordinary theory. High i-ates of Avages, once established, have developed or attracted labour of a quality for which alone such wages can be com- mercially paid, and the labour previously available has been obliged either to bring itself up to the new standards of efficiency or to seek employment elsewhere. If such te the industrial phase through which Brockton is passing, it would go far to explain those favourable features in its appearance and economic life to which references are made elsewhere in this report. In 1908 the number of industrial disputes in Ih'ockton was large and unusual. One in particular was very serious for the city, inasmuch as it resulted in the virtual removal to other centres of a large firm, and the conse(]uent dismissal of over 2,000 workers. The dispute in this case, coming after a number of years of remarkably harmonious relation- BROCKTON. 121 ships, had its origin in a somewhat technical point. The matter was submitted to arbi- tration by the State Board, whose decision was distasteful to the men. The Boot and Shoe Workers' Union then gave notice, as they were technically quite entitled to do, that they would terminate the " union stamp agreement " and this action caused a good deal of bitterness that was responsible for further quarrels. In its annual report the Board of Arbitration, commenting on the dispute, says, "It is the opinion of tne Board that industrial peace is retarded in this instance by relatively small matters and that to set them aside would result in a renewal of the friendly and contractual relations wliich accomplished much benefit to the community during the past ten years, and con- tributed to the high repute of the parties." At the time of the investigation reasonable hopes were entertained that the matter would be settled and that the firm would re-establish itself in the city. Meanwhile, the effect of the dismissal of so many workers had created a good deal of disturbance in the economic life of the city. The strength of the trade union position in the shoe industry in Brockton has not been without effect on the other trades of the city, most of which are effectively organised. Trade union rates are paid in all branches of the building trades, and the amount of non-union labour employed is probably insignificant. In the printing trades the union rates are generally paid or exceeded, though not all the shops are staffed exclusively with union labour. The machinists are organised, but in Brockton as in many other cities wide differences of skill, &c., are a difficulty in the way of the establishment and enforcement of a high minimum rate. The union rate for machinists is Q2s. 6d. per week, a rate which, when compared with the rates paid locally in other occupations, is some- what low. In practice, however, this rate is often exceeded. The machine shojj industry in Brockton is small ; there is no general foundry in the city, casting work being sent to Bridgewater or elsewhere. Xot the least effective union in the city is that of the labourers. This union has had a large measure of success in fixing the rate of wages for general unskilled able-bodied labour at the rate of o6s. 8c?. per week. As in other American cities the unions show a marked singleness of purpose in cai'rying out the primary objects for Avhich they exist, being very little identified with aims other than those directly concerned with wages and hours of labour. The sick and death benefits ai-e the only exception to this general policy. In the Painters' Union the sick benefit is 20s. lOd. per week for a maximum of eight weeks in any one year. The death benefit varies from £10 Ss. -id. to £62 10s. according to length of membership. This may be taken as fairly typical of the building trade unions. There are no out-of-work benefits other than strike pay. The subscriptions to the iinions are usually lOd. per week. The following Table shows the predominant weekly wages and hours of labour in the principal trades and occupations in February, 1909 : — Predominant Weekly Wages and Hours of Labour of Adult Mcdes in the Principal Occupations in February^ 1909. Predominant Weekly Wages. Predominant Weekly Hours of Labour. Building Trades : — Bricklayers llOs. iS Stonemasons lOO.s. 48 Carpenters 82s. 48 Plasterers ' llQs. 48 Plumbers 91. S-. 8A 44 Painters 75.9. 48 Hod Carriers, Bricklayers' and Plasterei-s' Labourers 70.s\ 48 General Labourers 56.9. :w. 48 Foundries and Machine Shops .- — Machinists 62s. 6d, to 67s. ixf. 54 Blacksmiths 62s. Gd. 54 Labourers 37«. 6rf. to 43s. 9d. 54 Printing Trades : — Newspaper — Compositors, Hand and Machine — Day work 83s. id. to 91s. 8f/. 48 Book and Job — Hand Compositors 72s. lit/. 48 ,) ,„„ ^„ i Small Presses 66.9. Sd. \ 48 >'-^«^°^*^^^ ( Cylinder Presses 79s. 2d. i 48 122 BROCKTON. Predominant Weekly Wages. Predominant Weeklv Hours of Labour. Boot and Shoe Trades .— Outside Cutters / ]?,^"[\ I Machine Outsole Cutters Upper Cutters {g-d^-^. ... ... ... . Goodyear Welters and Goodyear Stitchers Lasters and Pullers-over Edge Trimmers and Edge Setters Vampers Heelers Treers Public Services : — Street Construction, Pavingand Cleaning (Municipal)- Paviors Paviors' Labourers Road Menders Scavengers Drivers, Teamsters Water Works (Municipal) — Labourers Gas Works (Company) — Gas Stokers Labourers Electric Light and Power Works (Company) — Stokers Linemen Labourers Electric Tramways (Company) — Motormen and Conductors* — 1st year 2nd year 3rd, 4th and 5th yeare 6th and 7th years After 7 years 75*-. 87s. 6(1. 68s. M. 62s. 6d. 75s. 91s. 8d to 104s. 2f7. 68s. M. 100s. 70s. 10<;. 83s. 4d. 62s. 6d. 83s. id. 104s. 2d. 91s. Sd. 100s. 75s. 87s. 6rf. 56s. M. 56s. 3rf. 56s. 3(/. 56s. M. 56s. 'dd. r4t>. Ud. 56s. 3(7. 72s. lid. 62s. 6d. 56s. M. 61s. M. 64s. 2d. 67s. Id. 70s. 72s. lid. 54 54 54 54 54 48 51 to 54 48 54 54 54 48 48 48 48 48 48 56 48 56 48 48 70 70 70 70 70 • 67s. Id. was the rate received by the majority of the men. Taking wages at New- York as the base, = 100, in each case, the wages index numljers for Brockton are — -building trades, skilled men 88, hod carriers and bricklayers' labourers 102 ; foundries and machine shops, skilled men 75, unskilled labourers 97 ; printing, hand compositors (job work) 83. In the above Table the hours of labour of the workers in the boot and shoe trade have been given as accurately as jwssible, but in regard to the piece Axorkers there is considei-able doubt as to the usual number of hours worked in an ordinary week. Many of the piece workers a])pear to have a good deal of freedom in their comings and goings, and their hours of work were vaiiously estimated at from seven to nine per day. There i» good reason, however, for putting the hours of the goodyear welters and stitcliers and the edge trimmers and setters at 48 per week, and for assuming that the other workers mentioned in the Table usually work the full nominal hours of 54 per week. Cuttera are usually employed on time work, and the rates stated above are the recognised standard rates. Edge trunmers and edge setters are piece workers, the usual rate for trimming being 1a*. O^c/f. per dozen pairs. Lasters are sometimes employed on piece work and sometimes on time work. The standard rate per day is 126'. 6(7. Goodyear welters and stitchers are invariably piece Avorkers, the rate for welting averaging about 9if/. per dozen pairs, and for stitching about lOhd. per dozen pairs. The majority of treers are employed on piece work, but some are employed on time work. Heeling is paid at piece prices, and is di^■ided between four sets of workers, known respectively as heelers, sluggers, shavers and breasters. The heeler, so-called, employs a boy to assist him ; the payment is a matter of private arrangement, but is usually about 4s. 2d. per day. The net earnings of all four classes are about the same. Vampers consist about etpially of men and women, and are employed both as piece and time workers. The rates given in the Table are those applicable, as nearly as can be ascertained, to men. Women also find employment in many operations in the closing and treeing rooms. The variety of operations is so great and the range of jiayment so wide that there is much difficulty in stating the pre- dominant earnings of these female workers. For women closers or stitchers the most BROCKTON. 123 usual rates aj^pear to range from 50s. to 62s. (ul. per week. For other women no rate can be quoted. At one factory women employed on " table " work earned from 31s. 8(7. to .50s. per week, while another firm stated that none of the adult women employed earned less than 43s. 9d. per week. Housing and Rents. At the time of its incorporation as a city in 1881 the population of Brockton was less than 14,000, while in 1910 it was 56,878, The number of its inhabitants has thus quadrupled in less than thirty years. The evolution of Brockton from a small country town into a considerable city is therefore comparatively recent, and the city has not to contend with any evil legacy in the shape of large blocks of dwellings, built according to the loose standards of bygone days, such as characterise older and larger cities. A number of old tenements and cottages are, of course, to be found, but these are for the most part scattered and nowhere present a serious problem. Practically all the residential buildings in Brockton are of the familiar American " frame " or wooden type, detached, enjoying a generous measure of ground space, and exhibiting a variety of treatment in their outward design. The working-class dwellings may be classified into two fairly distinct types. The first is a tenement in a house with gables or sloping roof, which contains attics. Such houses are, generally speaking, the older type, but, with a certain variety of treatment which often makes them of attractive appearance, they are still being built. As a rule they contain two separate dwellings, the attics being shared by the tenants on the two floors below. Occasionally, however, the attic floor is converted into a separate dwelling. The attic rooms are as a rule lighted quite adequately by ordinary or perpendicular windows, their chief di'awl^acks being the sloping roof and a tendency to be very cold in winter and very hot in summer. The second type of working-class tenement house is a square-built house, without attics, containing as a rule three separate dwellings, that is, one on each floor. As regards convenience and general desirability, these present as wide a variation as the houses of the first type. Though differing rather widely as regards external appearance the two types of houses may be conveniently considered together so far as the character of the individual tenements is concerned. The usual number of rooms in woi'king-class tenements is five, but four and six are also common. . Practically all the tenement houses have both front and back entrances, there usually being two independent staircases. Most of the houses are detached ; there are very few semi-detached dwellings and practically no " terrace houses." The gi'ound space surrounding the buildings varies a good deal both in extent and appearance, but is usually ample from a health point of view. As regards frontage the houses at the higher rentals are made attractive by deep porches or balconies. With few exceptions the residential buildings are of wood, but otherwise the architecture of the better types of the two-family " gable " houses is not unlike that of the cottage revival style to be observed in the outlying suburbs of London and other large English cities. In the case of such a house there is nothing to tell an inexperienced observer that it is occupied by two working-class families and is not the residence of a well-to-do citizen. About the three-tenement houses of the second type described above thei'e is no similar doubt or ambiguity. Inside the tenements the arrangement of the rooms is similar to that common in almost all Xew England cities, the chief characteristic being an absence of any passage or corridor joining the separate rooms of the tenement. As a rule all the rooms communicate with each other, an arrangement Avhich economises space and facilitates warming. The latter consideration is important, for not only is the winter severe but American habit usually retpiires living rooms to be maintained at a temperature of at least 70 degrees, while heated bedrooms are regarded as a moderate comfort that should be within reach of every self-respecting workman. On account of wide variations it is difficult to give any standard or normal measurements of the various rooms. Usually, however, the kitchen is large, about 14 feet square being a size frequently found. The bedrooms are often small, especially in tlie tenements containing six or more rooms. The height of the rooms in the typical houses is always sufficient, 9 feet being usual. No instances of rooms without windows were observed. The conveniences or "improvements" in the tenements vary with the rental. Well within the range of dwellings of a strictly working-class type are such conveniences as bathrooms well fitted with porcelain baths and basins, basement furnaces supplying heat by means of hot air or steam to the several tenements in the house, hardwood floors and fixed china cupboards, and electric bells and speaking tubes communicating between the kitchens and the front street doors. All these conveniences are found together only in 124 BROCKTON. the tenements at the higher rentals ; but few of the artisans' homes are destitute of all of them. It may be said that in most of the working-class dwellinos a bathroom — usually containing also the " toilet " — is a common feature. Another very usual convenience is a slate or stone set tub in the kitchen. It is as a rule rectangular in shape and about o feet 6 inches long, divided into two partitions, so that both hot and cold water can be used at the same time. Where these are found there is always a water heating system also. In the less expensive tenements this is worked by the kitchen stove, but in those at the higher rentals a basement furnace supplies the hot water for domestic uses as well as heat for the rooms. The furnaces are usually maintained by the individual tenants, a slow combustion system being the most common, but in a few cases in working-class tenements, and in many cases in middle-class tenements, the heat is supplied by the landlord, who charges an inclusive rent. In the case of a tenement of four or five rooms, the fact of heat being supplied would make a difference in rent of about '2s. lid. per week As has just been indicated these cases are not common among working-class tenements and they have not been considered in the statistics of predominant rentals shown below. No important modification need be made in the above description of typical working-class houses in Brockton when attention is confined to the non-Eno-lish- speaking population. The most important and numerous section of this population are the Swedes, who maintain a standard of housing accommodation quite equal to that of the English-speaking people. With regard to the Russians and Poles, and other nationalities that in other American cities generally exhibit a standard of life which is in contrast very low, it is a matter of importance that in Brockton there is no old or densely crowded district which it might be supposed, by analogy with other cities, would become their distinctive quarter. That there should be a tendency to cohere in groups even in Brockton is to be expected, yet these colonies are not in the centre of the city but well towards the outskirts, where at the present time there is no strong temptation to economise ground space at the risk of health. Their dwellings are for the most part the old two-family houses and the three or six-tenement blocks. The sjjecial conveniences or improvements indicated above are not generally present, and, inside, the houses may exhibit a poverty of furniture in strong contrast with the comfort of the American skilled artisan's home, but otherwise the housing conditions of the poorer foreign immigrants are not exceptional to those of the city as a whole. The rents most usually paid in Brockton for accommodation of a working-class character are as follows : — Predominant Rents of Working-class Dwellings. Number of Rooms per Dwelling. Predominant Weekly Rents. Four rooms j 10s. Id. to 14s. 5d. Five rooms \ 12s. 6d. „ lis. id. Six rooms . j 15s. 5d. „ 19.s. 'Sd. These i*ents include the charge for water. The level of rents at New York being represented by 100, the rents index number for Brockton is 83. Many people of the working class own their homes. Recent figures showing what proportion they bear to the total are not available, but the United States Census of 1900 showed that 33"9 per cent, of all homes in the. city were owned, either fi-ee or encumbered, by their occupiers. It must be borne in mind that tenements are the prevailing type of housing accommodation for working-class flvmilies, and that since two or three families to a house is the usual rule it is not possible for more than a certain proportion, less than half, of the families so accommodated to be themselves the owners of their homes. The actual proportion shown by the Census is therefore remarkably high. Of all the homes which were owned, about two-thirds were encumbered with mort2:asre or other charges. Retail Prices. The shopping facilities in Brockton appear to be exceptionally good on account of the presence in the city of several very large shops and " markets " doing trade on a strictly cash basis. It is claimed, indeed, that the shops in Brockton serve not only strictl}' local needs but also attract custom from towns at a considerable distance. The scene inside the two or three largest of these cash " markets " is almost always BROCKTON. 125 a busy one. Each consists of a large shop in which are numerous counters at which all imaginable foodstuflfs in season, including vegetables, fruit, meat and provisions, groceries, bread and cakes, are sold. Overhead is a network of wires conveying the bills and money from each separate counter to the cashier, while in a gallery at one end or side is a small oflBce from which the proprietor or manager can watch the proceedings over the whole shop. These shops cater for all classes of trade, both as regards the various social grades and the different nationalities. Separate shops maintained by foreigners for the benefit of their fellow-countrymen are not an important feature in Brockton, though a few exist at which the more distinctively national articles of food can be obtained. Groceries and other Commodities. As elsewhere in the United States the weight of the loaves of bread sold for the same price varies considerably with different shops, while even at the same shop it is not certain that all the loaves of the same price and quality weigh the same. Loaves were sold at 2|rf. and orf., and a number of tests of relative weights showed that the 2^d. loaf represented the better bargain, yet in spite of this the bd. loaf was reported at several of the shops to be more popular. It was said to be a " better " loaf than the cheaper kind. " Grey " or rye bread is popular among the Swedes. As a rule its price is the same as that of ordinary wheaten bread. The Swedes, like most Americans, drink coffee in preference to tea, and also show a marked taste for beet as distinct from cane sugar, the most favoured kind being imported from France and selling at from 4 Is. 4f/. „ Is. 5^. Potatoes, Irish per 7 lb. b^d. „ Id. Flour, Wheaten — Householc »1 Is. OkJ. „ Is. 2id. Bread, White per 4 lb. ny. „ Is. Oid. Milk per quart ' i^d. Coal, Anthracite per cwt. Is. 9K to Is. 11M.» Kerosene ... per gallon 6d. to lid. • By the ton of 2,000 lb. Meat. The beef sold in Brockton is almost entirely Westei'ji- dressed. Mutton or lamb and pork are obtained both from local sources and from the West, but the proportion of local to Western-dressed sheep consumed is not large. It is said that little mutton properly so called is consumed in the city. Beef, pork and lamb, in this order, are probably the most popular forms of flesh food in the city as a whole. Veal is obtained almost entirely from local sources. Western -dressed veal is held in low esteem, and when sold is cheap. Western calves fetch only id. per lb. at a time when local or " native " calves fetch hd. to 7d. The principal meat trade of the city is centred in the large shops or " markets," which have already been described. There are apparently no shops in the city where meat alone is sold, though at some stores the trade in groceries, provisions, &c., is subordinated to the sale of meat. A few particulars in regard to the local method of cutting meat may be added. Rounds of beef are almost always cut into steaks, never sold as joints. When cut as steaks, three different cuts are usually recognised — top, bottom and vein. The top cut is usually Ad. to 5d. per lb. more than the bottom cut. The vein cut is only slightly dearer than the bottom cut. Plate and brisket of beef are usually only sold " corned " or salted. The brisket is usually boned and rolled and known as " fimcy " brisket. In regard to lamb or mutton, the most usual method of cutting is to sell the fore- quarter in one piece and not to cut the breast, neck and shoulder separately. Similarly in the case of veal, the breast and neck are usually sold as a forequarter. The distinction between rib chops and loin chops of veal is not general. Veal cutlets are often known locally as veal " steaks." Dry salt pork is sold but little in Brockton. smoked. Hams and shoulders are usuallj' The following Table shows the prices most generally paid by the working classes for certain cuts of beef, mutton or lamb, veal and pork in February, 1909 : — BROCKTON. 127 Predominant Prices paid by the Working Classes in February, 1909. Description of Cut. ----- Predominant Price per lb. Beef :— Roasts — Ribs prime ... ... M. to lOr/. „ Ribs second cut Sf/. „ M. „ Chuck or short ribs M. „ Id. Steaks — Round... 8f7. „ Is. Oisd. „ Sirloin Is. Oif/. „ Is. M. Shin without bone id. „ Ml. Flank M. „ id. Brisket, " Fancy " 6d. „ lid. Mutton or Lamb : — Leg Id. to 9d. Breast id. „ M. Loin 6d. „ Srf. Chops Is. Oy. „ Is. M. Shoulder 5d. „ Id. Veal :— Cutlets Is. 2d. Rib chops IGd. to Is. O^d. Loin chops lOd. „ Is. 2d. Breast Ml. „ 6d. Neck id. „ M. Pork :— Fresh — Loin 6d. to Ihd. „ Spare rib bd.' „ Shoulder 5d. to OW. „ Chops . . . Sr/. Corned (wet salt or pickled) Gd. to Id. Ham ... ... ... ('>kL „ i^\d. Shoulder, salt or smoked bd. ., 6d. Prices at New York being taken as the base, = 100, in eacli case, the index number for the price of meat at lirockton is 110, for other food it is 105 and for food prices as a Avhole 106. For rents and food prices combined the index number is 100. 128 CHICAGO. Chicago, the Metropolis of the Middle West, is the largest city in the State ot Illinois and the second largest in the United States. Its abnormally rapid develoji- ment is due to its situation at the southern end of Lake Michigan, a position which enables it to dominate the principal trade routes by water and rail for a very large portion of the country. In the work of opening up the A'ast area of the West and Middle West, Chicago, in common with its rival St. Louis, formed a natural sta,rting point for pioneers and immigrants. Even before the advent of railways a short canal connected the city with the great water system of the MissiSsij)pi, thus providing communication between the chain of Great Lakes and New Orleans on the Gulf of Mexico. During the early period of railway development eastern capital favoured Chicago in jireference to St. Louis and thus secured the ascendency of the former, with the result that to-day Chicago is the greatest railway centre in the world. Twenty-six trunk railways radiate from the city and connect it Avith the Atlantic and Pacific coasts, Canada and the Gulf of Mexico, while a much larger number of branch lines assist in the transport to the city of vast quantities of grain, lumber, live stock and minerals from its more immediate environment, and also m the distribution of the manufactures of the East. To facilitate the transfer of freight from one railway to another an independent belt line has been built extending round the city and linking up the whole of the freight termini. Shunting operations are simplified by the use of artificial gradients. In spite, however, of the remarkable network of railways converging upon Chicago, and the facilities for rapid transference from one system to another, the volume of traffic has increased so enormously that the question of improved water communication between the Great Lakes and the Gulf of Mexico for the con^-eyance of the heavier freight has become one of first-rate importance. The State Legislature of Illinois has already voted over £4,000,000 for the purpose of extending the present Chicago Drainage Canal to th& head of navigation on the Illinois River, and of dredging the latter river to its junction with the Mississippi, so as to provide a uniform depth throughout of 14 feet at Ioav water and a channel 200 feet wide at the bottom. The execution of this scheme aAvaits the co-operation of the Fedei*al Government and of the Aarious States in the Mississippi Valley, and when completed the scheme will provide a deep waterway extending 1,625 miles from Lake Michigan to New Orleans. Whilst Chicago's interests are primarily commercial its favourable situation and exceptional transport faciUties have led to the establishment of many industries, some of which are conducted on a very large scale. The total value of the city's manufactures for 1908 was returned at £319,723,472 and for 1909 at £367,282,280. The industry for which Chicago is most famous is that of meat packing, and the value of its output for the year 1909 was nearly £55,000,000, or including many of the by-products over £65,000,000. The great development of this industry is mainly due to the introduction in the 'Seventies of the refrigerator car, which made it possible to ship dressed beef great distances and to effect considerable saving in cost of transit besides other economies. The perfecting of the system of cold storage and of the sterilising and airtight packing of meat in cans has further contributed to the growth of this industry. About 40 firms are engaged in meat packing, but the bulk of the trade is in the hands of four or five companies, whose products are shipped all over the world. In addition to their highly developed organisation these firms are distinguished for their scientific utilisation of waste products. The iron and steel industry is also of considerable and growing imjwrtance, ore being brought in lake steamers from the rich mines round Lake Superior. Two steel works equipped with modern plant are situated within the city boundaries, whilst the United States Steel Corporation has recently constructed large works at Gary, some 25 miles to the south of Chicago, on the Lake shore, on a tract of land over 9,000 acres in extent and having a frontage to the Lake of seven miles. The plant itself covers 1,000 acres and embodies the latest ideas in equipment and working. The total value of the output of the Chicago rolling mills, blast furnaces and foundries for 1909 was over £67,000,000. The manufacture of machinery, railway and tramway cars, bridges, liftsr, heating apparatus, electric supplies, &c., is carried on extensively, whilst several of the railway comiianies have large works for repairs, the building of their locomotives being done at other centres. Amongst the firms manufacturing machinery, the International Harvester CHICAGO. 129 Company is one of the best known, its agricultural machines being made in two large establishments employing some 15,C00 workpeople. The Pullman Car Company is another Chicago firm with an international reputation. The luxurious cars which are such a conspicuous feature of American railway travelling are constructed in the works of this company, which employs about 8,000 men as a rule, but ordinary passenger cars and tramcars are also made by the firm. The value of the machinery, cars and other articles mentioned above manufactured in Chicago in 1909 exceeded £'-55,000,000. The manufacture of ready-made clothing is also an industry for which Chicago, like New York and Cincinnati, is famous. Chicago claims to be the largest centre outside New York for the better-class trade in men's ready-made suits, the trade of Cincinnati being principally in cheaper lines intended for the South. In Chicago the work is done mostly in factories, which are steadily ousting the sweatshop. The industry is highly developed and suits are finely graded to secure a good fit. The value of the output of the ready-made clothing industry for 1909 was .811,000,000. Jioot and shoemaking and woodworking are also very important industries in Chicago, while there is a host of minor industries such as are usually associated with a great city. The growth of population in Chicago during the period 1870-1910 is shown in the Year. Population. Increase. Percentage Increase. 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 298,977 503,185 1,099,8.50 1,698,575 2,185,283 204,208 596,665 598,725 486,708 68-3 118-6 54-4 28-7 In 1840 the inhabitants of Chicago numbered only 4,470. The population has grown by successive waves of immigration, in which the following nationalities and races have in turn been prominent : — Irish, Germans, Scandinavians, Bohemians, Poles, Jews, Lithuanians, Italians, Austrian and Hungarian Slavs (mainly Slovaks and Croatians) and lastly, Roumanians, Servians, Bulgarians and Greeks. To a large extent the Irish and Germans have risen from the ranks of unskilled labour, and are now well represented in the business, professional and municipal life of the city, and it is noteworthy that the police force and tramway staiF are predominantly Irish. The Federal Census of 1900 showed that the white inhabitants of American birth formed 63'7 per cent, of the population, 20-9 per cent, having American-born and 42"8 per cent, foreign- born parents, while the foreign-born whites formed 34*4 per cent, of the population ; persons of negro descent formed 1*8 per cent, and other coloured persons O'l per cent. Of the foreign-born inhabitants, 29*1 per cent, were born in Germany, 12'6 per cent, in Ireland, 10'2 per cent, in Poland, 9"0 per cent, in Austria- Hungary (mainly Bohemians), 8'3 per cent, in Sweden, 7"1 per cent, in Great Britain and 5'9 per cent, in Canada. Since 1900, however, the Slavonic and South-Eastern European immigration has increased so largely that these figures are probably of little value as an indication of the present composition of the population of Chicago. An estimate made by the Chicago Association of Commerce of the approximate number of inhabitants of Chicago who in their everyday conversation use the languages of Southern and Eastern Europe includes 125,000 Polish, 90,000 Bohemian, 50,000 Yiddish, 25,000 Italian, 10,000 Croatian and Servian, 10,000 Slovakian, 10,000 Lithuanian, 7,000 Russian, 5,000 Hungarian, 4,000 Greek, 2,000 Roumanian and 2,000 Slovenian. The cosmopolitan character of the city is further emphasised by the fact that newspapers are regularly printed in ten different languages, and Church services conducted in twenty. The city covers an area of 191 square miles, large portions of the outlying districts consisting of open prairie land. The city is laid out on a regular rect- angular plan, but a number of avenues radiate from the centre near the Lake front. Some of the streets which run in a straight line from the extreme northern boundary to that in the south are over 20 miles long. The city has a frontage to Lake Michigan 254 miles in length. The nucleus from which the city has grown is the district near the mouth of the Chicago River, the small natural harbour of which determined the early pioneers and traders of this part of the country in their choice of the site of Chicago. 'J'his river, with its northern and southern branches, divides the city into three parts 16576 • I 130 CHICAGO. known as the l^orth, West and South Sides respectively. The commercial and business activities of the city are concentrated in the oldest )iart of the South Side, now known as the Loop District, since it is encircled by the Loop Line of the Elevated Electric Railway, from which branch lines run to various outlying parts of the city. Nearly all the streets in this area are lined with buildings of brick or stone varying from ten to twenty and even more stories in height, and though with few exceptions the style of architecture is plain, even to monotony, the effect produced by these long lines of lofty, massive structures is very imposing, particularly in the case of those buildings which front the Lake, some of which are more handsome in appearance. In this district are located all the leading banks and hotels, the offices of the great commercial and industrial companies, and also the official buildings, including the county and municipal offices and the Federal Government building, in which is the central post office. The " Chicago system " of steel frame building is practically universal in the commercial quarter, and as the ground is swampy the structures rest on piles which have been sunk to an average depth of 90 feet. The method of pile construction adopted for modern buildings is to line the shaft with caissons, fix steel rods vertically and fill up the shaft with cement. As these piles are only a few feet apart they form a foundation strong enough to support the most massive superstructures. The Federal IJuilding is an imposing structure of Roman Corinthian design built of grey granite, cruciform in shape, and surmounted by a huge central dome. The main building is eight stories high, while the dome contains eight stories more, giving a total of 16 stories and a height of 297 feet. The interior corridors and rotunda are cased with marble, and the building contains more than 500 rooms, while its area at the base is 150,000 square feet. The County Building, to which is being added a new City Hall constructed of grey granite, will when complete form a fine and massive structure of modern classic style of the Corinthian order. The County Building alone rests on 130 caissons of concrete extending to bed rock 115 feet below the street level. The more modern of the office buildings, though plain in exterior, are remarkable for the degree of elegance and convenience offered internally. Many of them have a spacious hall lined with marble on the ground floor and a number of lifts, the movements of which are controlled by a person whose duty it is to see that no time is wasted. The express lifts in particular, which do not stop between the ground and some specified upper floor, are typical of the facilities for the rapid transaction of business which are so characteristic of Chicago. The extensive use of time-saving methods and appliances is also strikingly illustrated by the manual signs by which large transactions are conducted amid the deafening clamour of the Grain Pit, the automatic telephone system largely in use in offices, which enables one subscriber to reach another directly by means of a simple mechanism at the side of his instrument with which the necessary connexion at the central exchange is made automatically, and the underground freight system which follows the lines of the principal streets in the Loop District, connecting all the railway freight and passenger termini, the docks, warehouses, the central post office and the principal " department stores." Between the underground stations miniature goods trains drawn by electric engines carry all kinds of freight, from mail bags to furnace cinders and excavated earth, these cinders and earth being conveyed to the Lake front for the purpose of filling up a portion of the harbour to form a new park. Huge " department stores " are a marked feature of this "down-town" district, and one of them, said to be the largest in the world, employs from 7,000 to 10,000 persons according to the season. Round the Loop railway there is a very frequent service of trains ; twenty different train lines enter it fi'om all parts of the city and the principal railway termini are in close proximity. The vast concourse of people which guthers daily within this restricted area and the large amount of surface traffic have created a serious problem to which the authorities have long had to devote earnest thought. Efforts have been made more or less successfully to cause as much carrying as possible, particularly the delivery of coal, to be done during the night. In spite of these efforts and the increasing use of tlie underground tunnel, however, much remains to be done before the congestion of passenger and goods traffic will be satisfactorily relieved. Outside the " down-town " district the city is very mixed in character. Of the three principal divisions the Western and Southern are largely industrial, Avhile the Northern is to a great extent occupied by well-to-do citizens, and includes the Lake Shore Drive, where the finest residences are situated. In various parts of the Western and Southern divisions, however, are broad streets and avenues of handsome appearance, lined with trees, open lawns and blocks of modern and expensive flats built of brick or stone. Elsewhere the aspect of these districts is cheerless, shops and dwellings of frame construction preponderating, and few of them showing signs of recent painting, while CHICAGO. 131 the smoke of factories, the dust given off by unmade streets and the general untidy appearance of both streets and buildings give a repulsive appearance to entire localities. Only a small percentage of the streets are macadamised, and a very large number, called " dirt " streets, have not been made at all, with the result that they are quagmires in wet weather and are filled with clouds of dust in dry and windy weather. In the district south of the river are situated the largest industi-ial establishments, the stock yards and meat packing establishments, the steel works and the principal engineer- ing works. The stock yards form the largest live-stock market in the world and cover an area of 500 acres divided into 13,000 pens, giving accommodation for about 75,000 cattle, 300,000 hogs, 125,000 sheep and 6,000 horses. Within this area are 300 miles of railway track, a large Exchange and hotel, while banking and other facilities are also provided. Since 1900 a yearly average of more than 16,000,000 animals have been marketed and sold, the total value exceeding £60,000,000, or more than £200,000 for each busines-s day. Adjoining the stock yards is Packing Town, where slaughtering and packing, together with allied industries, are conducted in colossal establishments. Further south, at a distance of twelve miles i'rom the centre of the city, is an industrial district known as South Chicago, which in recent years has been added to the city and now contains about 100,000 inhabitai.ts. In this district is J^ullman Town, formerly an independent township, where the famous Pullman curs are made. Pullman Town still retains a distinct individuality, having been built and till recently owned by the original head of the firm to accommodate his workpeople. The town is laid out in broad streets and the houses are all built of brick, those occupied by the skilled workmen resembling the houses of the same class of workers in English towns, whilst the unskilled labourers reside in blocks of flats. Several large buildings erected for public and philanthropic purposes give the town the appearance of a self-contained community. ■ In the same district, on the Calumet River, are situated the two extensive 'steel works of Chiaigo, whilst in the neighbourhood is one of the large works where agri- cultural machines are made. The vicinity of the steel works is one of the most dreary, and unsightly parts of Chicago, being inhabited almost exclusively by the latest class of inmiigrants — Servians, Croatians and other Austrian Slavs, &c. In this neighbourhood saloons, patronised by the various nationalities, may be seen in long rows side by side. Within a radius of about 40 miles from Chicago are many suburbs inhabited by the commercial and professional classes of the city, the largest being Evanston, situated 12 miles to the north on the Lake shore, and connected with the heart of the city by two lines of railway. As a city Chicago has always been distinguished for daring enterj^rise and for the opportunities which it has aftwded for the rapid accumulation of wealth. The almost entire absorption of its leading citizens in commercial and industrial pursuits, however, led to laxity in nuniicipal government and to neglect of humane ideals, with the result that the city gained an unenviable reputation for lawlessness and disregard of human life. The most desperate criminals in the country congregated there, and innumerable low-class saloons were known centres of vice and crime. Owing to the congested condition of street traffic and the lack of proper control accidents at the street railway crossings were notoriously frequent, and resulted in nearly one death per day on an average, whilst the accidents due to tramcars and other vehicles also reached an alarming total. Large areas in working-class districts were covered with jerry-built frame h(j uses crowded together with a total disregard for hygienic considerations. The rapid growth of the city after the great fii-e of 187 L and the great tide of immigrants of so many nationalities, mostly of the unskilled labour class, and ignorant of city life and its requirements, would under any circumstances have taxed the energies and resources of municipal authorities to the utmost, but the difficulties were greatly increased by a system of local government which gave prominence to the '" ward boss." To-day there are signs on all hands that a bettf^r order of things is beginning to dawn for Chicago since civic problems have begun to engage the serious attention of thoughtful and enlightened citizens. Amongst improvements of recent date are the elevation of railway tracks, forced on the companies by the municipality in the interest of public safety ; better discipline in the police force, leading to the readier suppression of crime ; the establishment of juvenile courts and a system of probation which materially assists in preventing the growth of criminal ]iropensities amongst children ; the better regulation of street traffic ; the substitution of concrete pavements for planked sidewalks in the poorer localities ; the increasing stringency of sanitary regulations, accompanied by systematic efforts on the part of the health authorities to educate the public on these matters ; the growth of well-equipped Social Settlements which not only serve as centres for much beneficent personal influence, but by means of investigation direct public and 16576 I 2 132 CHICAGO. official attention to various social evils ; and the activities of the Immigrant Protection League. A. movement which seems destined to influence greatly tho development of the city is that promoted by the Association of Commerce with the avcvived aim of a " Better as well as a bigger Chicago." The main features of " the New Plan for Chicago " jjrojected by the Association includes the provision of a Civic Centre, consisting of municipal and Government offices grouped round a spacious square, from which main avenues are to radiate in various directions, the improvement of the Lake front, the development of a complete system of traction for freight and passenger traffic and a system of outer parks and boulevards. Being the joint work of business men whose financial interests are identified with the welfare of the city, and of experts, the Chicago Plan has aroused the interest of a large section of the community, and a Counnission has been appointed by the City Council to study the problems involved. The dejith-rate per 1,000 of population, as published by the (Chicago Department of Health, in each of the years 1904-8, was as follows :— 1904, 13-6 ; 1905, 13-7 ; 1906, 14-2 ; 1907, 15-3 ; 1908, 14-1. From the results of the Census enumeration of 1910 it would appear, however, that the population estimates utiHsed in the calculation of these mortality rates are slightly in excess of the actual figures, and accordingly the death-rates are under-stated, but not appreciably so. The death-rates must therefore be considered low, and among the factors contributing to this condition are, as mentioned in a recent report of the Health Department, the invigorating breezes from Lake Michigan and the large proportion of young and sturdy immigrants in the population, while another cause is suggested by the following passage in a recent report of the Chicago Tuberculosis Institute : — " Most Chicago people still regard some other place as home, and when they feel they have not long to live they go to the old home, whether it is a village in Italy or a farm in Iowa, to die. This is truer of Chicajro tlian of any other city." The registration of births, especially among the immigrants, is incomplete. The infant mortality is therefore stated per 1,000 deaths, and during the years 1904-8 this figure was as follows :— 1904, 191 ; 1905, 214 ; 1906, 210 ; 1907, 209 ; 1908, 226. That the infantile mortality is regarded as a serious problem is shown by the attention given to the subject by the Health Depai'tment, which is endeavouring to reduce the prevailing high rate by the more vigilant supervision of the milk supply, and in other ways, while the Milk Conmiission of Chicago, a philanthropic institution, has co-operated by establishing milk stations where pure milk is sold in bottles below cost price. The mortality amongst infants is largely due to diarrhceal diseases, but diphtheria has also been so frequent that the Health Department now supplies anti-toxin free to medical men, who are required to report on the cases for which it is used. The rate of mortality from tuberculosis of all kinds during the five years 1904-8 ranged from 1*82 to 1*91 per 1,000 of population. The report for 1908 of the Tuberculosis Institute, a philanthropic organisation, points out that the official figures given above do not represent the true state of affairs, owing to the tendency mentioned above of sick people to return to their homes in the country or to Europe, and of a large pro})ortion of consumptives in particular to migrate in search of health. An investigation made recently by this Institute led to the conclusion that " souie localities have as great a frequency of the disease as can be found in the slums of any city in the world. From the well-known lodging district of the 1st Ward cases have been reported at the rate of 6*1 per 1,000 living in one year. This is a district containing a large floating population. In the 22nd Ward 3*7 cases per 1,000 inhabitants have been found and in the 2nd Ward 4'0 cases per 1,000 inhabitants. These are resident districts. As the sources of these reports were meagre it is probable that not more than one-fourth of the existing cases have been reported." In 1908 the Institute maintained seven free dispensaries, a staff of trained visiting nurses and one sanatorium. The number of applicants at the dispensaries during that year was 2,311, of whom 1,080 were Americans. The experiment has since been made of treating children suffering from consumption in an open-air school, and satisfactory results are reported. The influx of large bodies of foreign innnigrants unaccustomed to the sanitary regulations of cities has created a grave difficulty for the Health Department. For the purpose of educating public opinion the Department systematically exhibits in workshops and stores placards printed in various languages relating to contagious diseases and sanitation, and the daily Press and other publications are utilised for the same purpose. Weekly bulletins presenting in popular forui the city's health statistics, together with information on subjects relating to public health, are sent to doctors, ministers, school teachers and social settlements, and officers of the Department frequently give public lectures on the same subjects. CHICAGO. 133 Municipal enterprise in Ciiicago is confined to street cleaninjr and repairing (the work of construction and paving being done by contract) and to the supply of water ; the gas, electric power and lighting and tramway services ai'o in the hands of private companies. The supply of water is obtained from Lake Michigan. Owing to the fear lest the source of the water supply should be contaminated by the flow of drainage into the lake, a drainage canal was constructed connecting the Chicago River with the Illinois River and the Mississippi water system. This canal has caused the current of the Chicago River to flow away from the lake instead of into it as was formerly the case. The tramway company pays to the city 55 per cent, of its net annual profits in return for permission to use the streets. The fare for any distance within the city Hmits is 2^d. Workmen's tickets are not issued. Chicago possesses a tine system of parks, with connecting boulevards which encircle a large portion of the city. The formation of an " Outer Belt " system of parks, to include some fine features of natural beauty in the surrounding country, is also under consideration. In addition to the larger parks more than fiO small parks, squares and playgrounds have been opened in various working-class districts. Many of these are furnished with gymnastic apparatus, swimming pools, shower baths, club and reading rooms, public halls for entertainments and other rooms that can be reserved for private celebrations of various kinds. No charge is made for the use of any of these advantages. Education is compulsory between the ages of 7 and 16 years, except in the case of children over 14 years of age whose employment is necessary for the support of the family, and for these special permits must be obtained. The public school system comprises secondary as well as elementary schools, and all are free. Manual training forms part of the instruction in the elementary schools, while some of the secondary schools are devoted to technical education. The training of teachers is conducted in a normal college affiliated to the University of Chicago. This university, which has been richly endowed, comprises 31 buildings standing on 95 acres of ground. Many of the buildings are handsome structures in the English Gothic style of architecture. On the same grounds and affiliated to the University is a group of schools in which a continuous course of instruction is given from the kindergarten stage up to matriculation at the University. Fees are charged for pupils attending these schools. Occupations, Wages and Hours of Labour. The following Table shows the distribution of the occupied population of Chicago according to the Federal Census of 1900 : — Number of Persons of 10 years of age and over engaged in Occupations In Chicago \?i 1900. Occupations. Males. Females. Total. Building Metal working and Engineering Textile Leather Boot and Shoe Making Clothing Woodworking and Furnishing Paper and Printing Food, Drink and Tobacco Other Manufacturing and Mechanical Pursuits Trade and Transportation Labourers (not otherwise specified) Professional, Domestic and Personal Service and 1 Agricultural Pursuits / 46,970 47,884 1,033 3,609 4,212 15,542 17,337 12,886 18,741 36,653 195,163 73,597 81,888 127 767 1,233 128 536 33,159 373 3,459 2,846 4,091 36,371 1,446 65,331 47,097 48,651 2,266 3,737 4,748 48,701 17,710 16,345 21,587 40,744 231,534 75,043 147,219 All Occi^pations 555,515 149,867 705,382 As might be expected in a city which is growing with such rapidity as Chicago, the building trades employ a very large group of workpeople. Moreover, the reputation which local firms of contractors enjoy in connexion with the " Chicago system " of building results in their enterprise covering a very wide area of the Middle West, and in the constant transference of their workmen temporarily to outside places. The great demand for skilled workmen has given the men engaged in the building trades a some- what privileged position, enabling them to maintain strong unions and to secure high 1C576 I 3 134 CHICAGO. rates of wages to"ether with other t'avourabie coiiditious. Even the strou;^- tide oi' immigration to Chicago is not prejudicial to their interests, as few of the immigrants are skilled men. The preference of American boys for commercial and profe^isional pursuits rather than manual labour is another factor which tends to prevent the building trades from becoming overcrowded. On the other hand work is executed with great rapidity and a high standard of output is demanded in compensation for high wages and short hours. June and July are usually slack months in these trades. Working agreements are in operation for all of the building trades. As all the leading contractors of Chicago belong to the associations of their trades, the wages and ,, hours agreed upon are observed throughout the city and these are quoted in the Table. I Union officials regularly visit buildings and shops where work is in progress for the purpose of seeing that the provisions of the agreements are complied with. None but union members may be employed unless these cannot be obtained, and fines are imposed upon employers or workpeople for violations of agreements. A Board of Arbitration is formed for each trade for the settlement of all disputes. The agreements state that there shall be no limitation of the amount of work which shall be performed by a man during the working day, which is explained to mean that each shall do a fair and honest day's work. On the other hand the carpenters' working rules contain a stringent provision to the effect that "any member guilty of excessive rushing on work shall be reported, tried, and fined "not less than 4Ls. Sd., ruled off the job for one year, or both." Another rule provides " that any member guilty of repairing, fitting, or grinding his tools in his own time while "employed by a contractor or builder shall be ruled olf said job for one year and finei " not less than 41s. 8rf." Whilst minimum rates of wages are fixed by the agreements, employers are not debarred from j^aying higher rates to superior men. All wages are payable weekly, either in cash or by cheque as determined by the agreement. When the pay office is situated at a distance from the place where work is being executed an extra charge is made of half an hour's time for each mile and unnecessary waiting time at the pay office is also charged for at the regular rates. Time rates of wages are almost universal in the building trades. The eight-hour day is the rule for journeymen except that only half a day is worked on Saturday, but labourers are required to commence work ten minutes before the bricklayers both morning and afternoon, while bricklayers have to be on the scaffold and ready to begin work at the starting time. Overtime is paid for at the rate of time-and-a-half in the case of brick- laj-ers, stonemasons, structural iron workers, painters, hod carriers and labourers, while carpenters, plasterers and plumbers are paid at the rate of double time ; but all work done on Sundays and holidays in any of the foregoing trades is paid for at the rate of double time. The holidays are New Year's Day, Decoration Day, July 4th, Thanksgiving Day and Christmas Day, but plasterers and ])lumbers are in addition entitled to Labour Day. The agreements also regulate the employment and the number of apprentices.* The most distinctive industry of Chicago is meat packing, an industry mainly •concentrated in a few establishments at Packing Town, and conducted along with many allied industries of minor importance. The slaughtering and packing in Chicago of millions of animals yearly have led inevitably to great sub-division of labour, the skill of each worker being utilised solely for the one operation which he can perform best and being highly developed by constant practice. The cattle are driven up an inclined way to the top story of the packing factory (which is four or five stories high), where the killing always takes place, and within the half-hour or so which elapses from the time each animal enters the " knocking pen " to the arrival of the dressed carcase in the cooler nearly 50 different operations are performed by as many men. Economy of money as well as of time is secured by this system, since the rates of wages correspond to the degree of skill required for each operation, and by means of this economy, together with the introduction of mechanical appliances to facilibite the rapid handling of the carcases and the large local supplies, Chicago packers are enabled to compete successfully in the markets of Kew York and London. Cattle are first driven into a row of pens, each holding two animals, above which walks a man who fells each in turn with a swinging blow of his hammer. The front and floor of each pen are raised mechanically, and the I animals roll out upon the killing floor, where the hind legs of each are fastened by a f chain and the body hoisted and suspended from a rail, along which it travels slowly by gravity until it arrives at the ground floor in the form of dressed sides, all the various j operations being performed on the journey. Of all the many operations those which } demand most skill are the cutting of the hide and the splitting of the backbone, the former work being sub-divided into nine different sections with eight different rates of pay. • For text of specimen agreements and working rules see Appendix, pp. 425-130 and 445-6. CHICAGO. 135 Cows of an inferior grade are reserved for canning and are called " canTiers." The dressed sides pass into the cutting rooms, where by means of band saws and knives used by expert cutters the sides are cut into sections and rapidly stripped of all meat. liabour in these rooms is highly sub-divided, each cutter being restricted to one particular section of the body— one man divides the hind from the fore quarter, another severs the hind leg, which is stripped by a third, and so on. As in the killing and dressing depart- ment so also in the cutting room — not a moment is wasted, work being carried on at such high pressure that none but the strong and dexterous can maintain the pace. The dressing of sheep resembles that of cattle. In the hog killing and dressing department, however, a larger number of mechanical contrivances are in use. The hogs are driven to the top floor of a four or five story building, where each in turn is shackled by the hind leg to a large revolving wheel with chains hanging at intervals along the rim, and on arriving at the top the chain is transferred automatically to a sloping rail and the suspended hog travels to the butcher, whose sole work is to stick each animal in the throat as it reaches him, an operation he performs at the rate of 700 to 800 animals an hour, this man being one of the " pace setters " of the department. The hog then travels on to a grouj) of other carcases, hnd when the blood has drained out it passes through a bath of scalding water and is drawn by an endless chain through a machine which scrapes off the bristles, washes it, and delivers it on to a table. Here a workman almost severs the head, which is forthwith examined by a Federal Meat Inspector. Continuous practice enables this inspector in a moment to find and make the requisite incisions in the two principal glands of the head, discoloration and granular appearance of which reveal the presence of tuberculosis. One ear of each tuberculous hog is either cut off or marked, and as the suspended carcase travels once more along the sloping rail it is arrested at a point where it is switched on to another rail, so being diverted into a retaining room, where a staff of Government inspectors examine each vital organ with a view to deciding whether or not the whole animal shall be condemned and sent to the fertiliser factory. Hogs which pass the medical examination proceed by gravity, still suspended froin the overhead rail, from one floor to another, where the various operations of splitting, dressing and cutting are performed us in the case of the cattle department. In the sausage and canning departments the work is done largely by machinery, and men have been displaced to a great extent by women and girls, a large proportion of whom are Slavs. The manufacture of cans is an allied industry which likewise finds employment for but few men, as the cans are made entirely by automatic machinery, while the work of painting and labelling them is done by females, who are paid piece rates, their earnings ranging from 3os. 4d. to bQs. od. for semi-skilled time workers. For skilled time workers and for piece workers, who are comparatively few in number, it is not possible to state a predominant range of wages, though some indication of the level of wages of these men is afforded by the fact that such rates as (J8s. 9rf., 75s., 93s. 9rf., and 109s. bd. for a 45-liour week were frequently returned. In the production of iron and steel Illinois takes a leading place amongst American States. This position is due to the abundant supply of coal in the State and to the proximity of the iron oi*e, much of which comes by water from the Lake Superior region. The two large companies at Chicago engaged in this industry use both the Bessemer and o])en-hearth pi-ocesses in the production of steel, also up-to-date machinery for ttie rolling of rails, plates and bars. The total number of men employed by these two companies (the returns relating to October 1st, 1909, in the one case and to January 1st, 1910, in the other), exclusive of office staffs, was 9,979. Of this total between 25 and 30 per cent, were skilled workmen, principally American- born, the remainder being unskilled or semi- skilled men, the former predominating by more than two to one. The foreign-born workers number three-quarters of the whole and, though drawn from nearly every nationality of Europe, are mainly from Bussian Poland and Austria-Hungary, these two sources contributing more than one-half of the total number of men emj^loyed at the works in question. The largest contingents from Austria- Hungary are the Croats, Austrian Poles, Slovaks and Magyars. More than three-quarters of these and the Russian Poles are employed in unskilled labour, as they come from agricultural districts. Concerted action on the part of these various nationalities is practically an impossibility, divided as they are by language and race prejudice ; consequently the rates of wages paid and the general conditions of labour are determined by the play of competitive forces. Of the numerous products of foundries and machine shops the most noteworthy are agricultural, printing, laundry and grain elevator machinery. The local shops of the railway companies are engaged in repair work. The International Harvester Company, which chiefly produces reaping, binding and mowing machines, has two large works in Chicago where over 3,000 men were employed in 1909. More harvesters, binders and mowers are manufactured in Chicago than in all the rest of the country combined. A large number of girls and women are also employed in these works in the making of twine for use on the Ijinding machines. Intricate as some of this machinery is, the enormous production of standard patterns has led to a high degree of CHICAGO. 137 specialisation in labour and to the extensive adoption of piece rates, particularly for moulders, assemblers — who put together the various sections of the machines — and " builders " — who do the final work of fitting, adjusting and testing the machines. In this establishment and in others where similar conditions obtain only a relatively small number of skilled workmen ai'e employed, the great majority being semi-skilled and unskilled labourers. The moulders work mainly at bench and machine moulding. In the establishments turning out a higher grade of machinery, union rates and hours prevail for moulders and machinists, both being paid time rates. In railway shops time rates also prevail. In the large establishments producing standard machines or parts, and employing a large proportion of semi-skilled and unskilled labour, the bulk of the workmen belong to the more recent of the immigrants, the majority being Poles from Russia, who are willing and hard workers, particularly \vhen they are paid piece rates. Prominent among the other nationalities are Lithuanians, Bohemians and other Slavs. The construction of cars, mainly for railways, gives employment to more than 16,000 men, about half of these being found in the works of the Pullman Company and the remainder in several railway works. The dining and sleeping cars of the Pullman Company, as well as many of the passenger cars made by the railway companies, necessitate the employment of a large number of skilled workmen, the majority of whom are cabinetmakers, passenger car carpenters, coach ])ainters and wood machinists, whilst freight car carj)enters and repairers may be regarded as semi-skilled workmen. Some of the newest cars are now being constructed with steel bodies, wood being employed only for the lining and general interior finish. Standard rates of wages do not obtain and workmen are paid accoi'ding to individual skill, both piece and time rates being paid. The manufacture of men's and women's ready-made clothing is an industry of great and growing importance in Chicago. Bespoke tailoring, though employing a consider- able number of persons, is relatively unimportant. The busy season generally commences about the middle of January and continues for some ten weeks, being followed by a slack season until the beginning of August, when another busy season commences and lasts over four months. The largest factories, however, endeavour so to regulate the output as to provide steady employment through the slack seasons. Superior machinery and organisation, minute sub-division of labour and the vigilance of the factory inspectors are steadily forcing the ready-made trade out of the hands of contractors into the factories, many of which, situated in the west and north-west divisions of the city, are new and well - equipped buildings, admirably lighted, warmed and ventilated, and provided with the latest washing and cloakroom facilities, sanitary conveniences, &c. A considerable amount of work is still handed over to contractors, particularly in times of pressure, but it is generally maintained that the ev^ils of sweating are less pronounced in Chicago than in New York, since a considerable proportion of the Russian Jews and Italians engaged in this trade have come from the latter city, where they have already gained more or less experience of American ways and speech, with the result that they are fairly able to hold their own against the contractors. The predominant nationalities engaged in the clothing trades are the Scandinavians, Germans, Bohemians, Poles and Russian Jews, and in a less degree the Southern Italians. The Scandinavians and Germans are principally skilled cutters, whilst the tailors, operators and finishers, male and female, are mainly drawn from the other nationalities. The strongest unions are those of the Scandinavians and Bohemians, but they have failed to secure generally their union rates and conditions, having been defeated in the lock-out of 1904-5 on the "closed shop" issue. The ready-made garments are made in many sizes ; thus for " normal " men ten sizes are made, for " slims " ten sizes, for " stouts " ten sizes and for men of extra size eight sizes. Sub-division of labour has largely affected the tailors in all branches of the clothing ti'ade, a much greater proportion of the work being now done by female machinists and finishers. Cutters are paid by time, while the remainder of the occupations are paid by the piece. Wages and earnings vary very considerably according to individual skill, but those quoted in the Table are for the great majority of workers of average capacity. The earnings of machinists, who are mainly Russian Jews, show a wide range due to the sub-division of labour. The report of an investigation made by the City Health Department in 1906 into the clothing factories and workshops states that in these reasonably clean conditions prevail, while in many the conditions are perfect. Few of the 1,276 places visited were found to be overcrowded, but it was necessary to issue 761 notices to make improve- ments of various kinds, and to take out summonses in 100 cases. The investigation disclosed the fact that a considerable amount of work is let out by contractors to home 138 CHICAGO. workers, and in many such homes visited all the worst evils of the sweating system were found to exist, even where the finishing of the highest-priced clothing was being done. The report states that much of this work was invariably done in rooms used for eating and sleeping and that garments lay about on the flooi's or on the beds, while the sanitary conditions generally were bad and at times members of the family were found to be suffering from diphtheria, scarlet fever, smallpox, measles and consumption. The report further adds that the Aveekly earnings of a family making up sweated garments, excluding the earnings of the husband or father, were rarely found to exceed 8s. 4d. The annual report of the Health Department for the year 1908 states that during the year more than (5,600 workshops engaged in making wearing apparel were inspected, and of these about 3,600 were already licensed, and during 1908 about 3,300 further licences were issued. The report states that the problem of controlling the making of clothing in tenement houses is still unsolved, and that while it appears necessary to allow this work to some extent, in the interest of families which would otherwise find it difficult to make a living, the authorities recognise the need of measures of control and are investigating the action taken in other cities. The woodworking industry of Chicago finds employment for a considerable body of men engaged mainly in the sawing of planks, and the manufacture by machinery of sashes, doors and the general interior woodwork required for buildings. Strong unions exist and the " closed shop " is the rule. The wages paid and the hours worked are regulated by un agi'eemeut. This agreement provides that nine hours shall constitute a day's work, there being an interval of one hour or less at noon. During the months of June, July and August, however, only five hours are to be worked on Saturdays. Over- time is to be paid for at the rate of time-and-a-half, except on Sundays, New Year's Day, Decoration Day, tTuly 4th, Thanksgiving Day and Christmas Day, when the rate shall be that of double time. On Labour Day work is not allowed under any circumstances. Wages must be jiaid every two weeks in legal tender and not more than three days' pay may be held back. The pro])ortion of apprentices that may be employed and their rates of wages are also determined by the agreement. The printing and publishing industry is one of the most important in Chicago. Chicago newspapers circulate all over the States, while in the printing and publisliing of books, maps, catalogues, &c., Chicago also serves a very wide area. School text books are printed and issued by one establishment which claims to be the largest job printing firm in the United States. Another large firm specialises in catalogues, the great demand for which is partly due to the enormous business done by the mail-order houses whose headquarters are in Chicago. One firm employing about 1,000 persons chiefly produces maps and railway and city guides. Strong unions exist for all the different branches of the printing industry, but union rates and conditions are only generally operative in the newspapei* establishments, the largest firms engaged in job printing refusing to recognise the unions. The newspaper scale of the Typographical Union states that hourly rates, except for machine compositors, shall be not less than 2s. 3Js : — Moulders (Floor) . 81s. M. 54 Bench and Machine Moulders . 568. M. to 67s. 6d. 54 to 58^ Machinists . 81s. 3c;. 54 Assemblers and Semi-skilled Machinists .. 59s. 9rf. to 75s. m Blacksmiths . 81s. 3rf. „ 101s. M. 54 Blacksmiths — Semi-skilled 58s. 9d. „ 78s. 9a!. 54 to 58it Patternmakers 101s. M. 54 Patternmakers — Semi-skilled 77s. 5d. to 9.0S. Sd. 54 to 58i Labourers . 38s. 9f/. „ 52s. ]d. 54 „ m Railway Car Construction and Repair : — Cabinetmakers, Wood Machinists, Passenger f Time \ Piece 67s. 6d. to 81s. 53i to 60 Car Carpenters 67s. M. „ 87s. 9r^. 53j „ 60 Semi-skilled Cabinetmakers, Wood Machin- /Time \ Piece 55s. „ 6.'*s. '6d. 53 ,. 60 ists and Carpenters 58s. Gd. „ 67s. 6d. 53j „ 60 The hoars of labour stated for men employed at rolling mills are inclugive of intervals. CHICAGO. 141 Predominant Predominant Weekly Weekly Wages. Hours of Labour. Railway Car Construction and Rej/air — cent. Passenger Car Painters { 'p|™g 60s. to 81s. 81s. „ 90s. 53j 53: to 60 „ 60 Passenger Car Repairers — Time 60s. „ 62s. 6d. 53; •„ 60 Freight Car Repairers | p?"^^ 46s. Sd. „ 50s. 54s. 2d. „ 62s. Gd. 53: 53: •„ 60 ■ ,, 60 Labourers 37s. Gd. „ 41s. Sd. 53: „ 60 Clothing Trades : — Cutters 75s. to 83s. Ad. 48 Tailors 66s. Sd. 48 to 54 Basters 58s. id. 48 „ 54 Operators 62s. Gd. to 66s. Sd. 48 „ 54 Presscts 58s. Ad. „ 66s. Sd. 48 „ 54 Boot and Shoe Manufacture : — Cutters 83s. 4d. 55 Lasters 62s. Gd. to 79s. 2d. 55 Goodyear Operators an--J.., - ;;; ;;; 104s. 2d. to 112s. Gd. 112s. Gd. „ 125s. 42 to 48 42 „ 48 Machine Compositors { gytHtk- ^ Z 116s. Sd. „ 122s. 60'. 116s. Sd. „ 145s. lOd. 39 „ 42 39 „ 42 Book and Job — Hand Compositors 87s. Gd. 48 ,. 54 Pressmen — Cylinder Presses 93s. 9d. to 99s. 48 „ 50 Bookbinders 75s. „ 87s. Gd. 0\) )f 04: Meat Packing : — Skilled Men, see text. Semi-skilled Men 44s. Gd. to 56s. M. 45 Labourers 28s. 2d. „ 37s. Gd. 45 Bakeries : — Oven Hands (S*yr'"'^, t Night work 70s. lOd. 75s. 54 54 Second Hands (g^^r'"'^, ( Night work 62s. Gd. 54 GGs. Sd. 54 Third Hands |g^\ 7°''''^ ( Night work 54s. 2d. 58s. Ad. 54 54 Breweries .- — Brewers, Maltsters, Wash-house and Cellar Men ... 77s. Id. 48 Bottlers 50s. 48 Labourers 54s. 2a!. 48 Keg and Bottle-beer Drivers 76s. lid. and commission. variable Transport T'rades : — General Drivers, Teamsters — One horse 50s. to 52s. Id. 66 Two horses 60s. bd. „ 62s. 6d. 66 Railway Freight Yards — Switchmen, Shunters { S^^ r'"^, ( Night work 93s Ad. 99s. 2d. 70 70 Freight Handlers 50s. to 52s. Id. 60 Public Services .- — Street Maintenance and Cleaning (Municipal)— Road Menders 50s. 48 Scavengers 50s. 48 Road Sweepers 50s. 48 Water Works (Municipal) — Labourers 62s. Gd. 48 142 CHICAGO. Predominant Weekly Wages Predominant Weekly Hours of Labour. Public Servicen — cont. Gas Works (Company) — Gas Makers Gas Stokers Labourers Electric Light and Power Works (Company)- ilst Class ... 2nd „ :{rd , ilst Class 2nd „ .3rd Ist Class , 2nd „ Labourers Electric Tramways (Company) — Motormen and Conductors ... Overhead Linemen 75s. Sd. to 81s. M. 62s. 6d. „ 68s. Od. 50s. 80s. 6d. 70s. 2d. ms. Id. 89s. Id. 70s. 4d. 52s. dd. 768. 68s. 50s. to 50s. Sd. 78s. dd. 78 78 59 56 56 56 45 45 45 48 54 to 60 70 Taking wages at New York as the base, = 100, in each case, the wages index numbers for Chicago are — building trades, skilled men 110, hod carriers and bricklayers' labourers 93 ; foundries and machine shops, skilled men 100, unskilled labourers 108 ; printing, hand con)positors (job work) 100. Few of the firms in Chicago undertake " welfare work " of any kind. The International Harvester Company, however, has in operation a comprehensive scheme which includes protit- sharinsi", sickness and accident insurance and old age pensions [see Appendix, pp. 447-453). The plan of profit-sharing falls into two sections, the first consisting of a percentage of the year's profits, wliich is distributed amongst those men who have shown marked ability during the year in contributing towards increased output or decreased cost of production ; the second consisting of the sale of the Company's stock to its employees on the instal- ment plan. No employee is allowed to purchase stock amounting to more thaa his yearly earnings^ nor can he pay a sum exceeding 25 per cent, of his annual earnings in any one year. In July, 1909, 12,500 seven per cent, preference shares and 15,000 ordinary shares were offered to the employees ac a price below the current market value. In addition to the regular dividends a bonus is given of 16s. Sd. and 126'. Q(/. per preference share and ordinary share respectively. This bonus is given annually for five years after the purchase of the stock, but men who leave the Comi)any's service during that period cannot continue to receive the bonus, which is placed to a fund and distributed at tlie end of five years amongst the stock-holding employees. In 1909 over 4,300 employees of the Company were shareholders. The Company's benefit plan is under the control of the employees, but the Company contributes over £10,000 annually, provided the average membership equals 75 per cent, of the employees, which is now the case. Sick benefit a'liounts to half the average weekly earnings calculated on the basis of the previous 60 days worked, and in the case of women the benefit for disability due to pregnancy is limited to three months. Accident benefit also amounts to half the average earnings similarly calculated and continues for not more than 52 weeks. Should the accident result in the loss of a hand or foot the amount of compensation equals one year's average earnings, while the loss of one eye entitles a member to one-half that amount. The loss of a hand and a foot, or both hands or both feet, or of both eyes entitles the victim to two years' average wages. Compensation for death resulting from sickness equals the amount of one year's wages, but if death is due to accident the amount of two years' wages is paid. Pensions are paid by this Company to all male en.ployees who have reached the age of sixty-five years, and who have remained twenty or more years in its service, lietirement of workpeople is compulsory at the age of seventy. Females are eligible when they have reached the age of fifty and have remained twenty or more years in the Company's service ; retirement is compulsory for them at the age of sixty. The amount of the pension is one per cent, of the average annual earnings for each year of active service, this average being computed for the ten years preceding retirement, but no pension may exceed £20 16a'. 8^/. per month, or be less than £3 155. ppr month. The same firm shows great interest in the comfort and general well-being of its employees in other ways, as by the provision of wash rooms, clothes lockers, cheap meals and a comfortable "rest room " with a nurse in attendance. Cases of accident are treated promptly in the factory hospital. A handsome club house has been erected close to one of the firm's two works Monthly Contribution, 3s. Hd. fis. M. 9.5. i^d. ... 12s. 6d. 15s. Hd. CHICAGO. 143 and another is being built for the second. This club house provides facilities for social intercourse, educational work and athletic games ; a billiard room and baths are also atttiched. Technical instruction is also given to those youths who aspire to higher positions under the firm. The whole of the " welfare work " is under the direction of a superintendent, whose time is entirely devoted to it, while a lady secretary is entrusted with the supervision of all the institutions provided for the women and girls employed in the factories. Another large firm also distributes a y)ortion of its profits amongst its workpeople, but the percentage is not fixed, and the firm does not bind itself to continue the system. One of the railway companies has had in operation for twenty years a benefit scheme providing compensation in case of disability or death resulting from sickness or accident. All expenses of administration are borne by the company and contributions and benefits are graduated according to the scales of wages. The monthly rates of contributions for the five classes into which the employees are divided are : — Limits of Weekly Pay. Less than 33s. 8rf. 33s. M., but less than 52s. ll^^. o2s.lld. „ 72s. li 72s. Id. „ 91s. -id 91s. 4rf. and over The benefits for disability due to accident for the same classes are respectively 2s. l6?., 4s. 2rf., Qs. 36?., 8s. 4rf. and 10s. bd. per day, and are payable for a period not longer than 52 weeks, after which half-rates are paid as long as disability continues. Compensa- tion for the loss of a hand or foot is paid in a lump sum, the amounts ranging from iB167 to £667, according to the class to which the injured pei-son belongs, and twice as much is paid for the loss of both hands, both feet, or one hand and one foot. Disability resulting from sickness is compensated at the same rates and for the same period as in the case of accident, except that half- rate payments may continue lor an additional 52 weeks. Death benefits range from £62 lOs. to £312 10s., according to the class to which the deceased belonged, but the amount may be materially augmented by the payment of additional contributions. The labour laws of the State of Illinois contain many provisions for the health, safety and comfort of workpeople in " factories, mercantile establishments, mills and workshops." Compensation for injuries or death resulting from accident is not com- pulsory, however, and can only be secured by recourse to lawsuits, in which case negligence on the part of employers must be proved. The hours of labour of females engaged in any factory, mechanical establishment or laundry are limited to ten per day. Children under 14 years of age are not permitted to be employed at any time, while those between the ages of 14 and 16 may only be employed eight hours per day, and between the hours of 7 a.m. and 7 p.m. Children between the ages of 7 and 16 years, with the exception of those between the ages of 14 and 16 years who are " necessarily and lawfully employed," are required to attend school during the whole time it is in session. Housing and Rents. The working-class population of Chicago is distributed mainly over the western and southern divisions of the city, the remainder being found in a district of the northern division which skirts the north branch of the Chicago liiver. The western division is pre-eminently the factory and workshop district, and also contains most of the breweries, in consequence of which its population is on the whole more homogeneous than is that of the southern division. In this latter section of the city are two main industrial areas — the stock yard district in the northern part and a district situated at the south-eastern end where the steel works and;the Pullman car works are situated. Both these districts are occupied almost entirely by w^orking-class houses, but between them are large areas containing superior houses and flats of a modern type, these being found particularly in the vicinity of the parks and boulevards and also of the University. 144 CHICAGO. The poorest and most overcrowded districts are in the central portion of the city and near the stock yards and the steel works. This central arefi is very extensive, and comprises portions of all three divisions of the city, as the northern and southern branches of the Chicao'o River, which form their boundaries, unite at a point only a short distance from the mouth of the main channel. At the heart of this district are the principal Italian colonies, near to which live the Poles and Jews, with the Bohemians at the southern end. Farther out to the west and north-west of this central district are the areas occupied by more or less skilled workers of mixed nationalities, though in certain localities particular nationalities predominate. Thus German mechanics occupy a con- siderable portion of the north division, Swedes and Germans divide between them the north-west portion, while Germans and Irish occupy fairly defined localities round Garfield Park in the middle-west. In the southern division the district round the stock yards is occupied by Irish, Poles, Lithuanians and other Slavs in fairly distinct localities, while adjoining the steel works are large colonies of Poles and other Slavs. Visits to purely working-class districts in all parts of the city made in the course of the enquiry showed that the houses were generally constructed for the accommoda- tion of more than one family, while the large majority contained from two to six flats. Although large blocks at jjresent house a minority of the working-class population, they are fairly numerous in various parts of the city and are of growing importance where the increasing value of land and the demand for more modern conveniences, such as bath- rooms, interior water-closets and good basements, necessitate this type of structure if the rents are to be within the means of even skilled working men. The frame dwelling coTistructed of wood predominates in the city generally, but a large proport'.on of the houses are built of brick, particularly in the north and central districts, though even in the latter the rear houses are universally of the frame variety, having been originally situated at the front of the building plot and afterwards removed to the rear to make room for new front houses. The building regulations now in force, howevei', prohibit the erection of new frame buildings, or the extension of existing ones, within what are known as the " fire limits," which enclose a considerable area, including the central districts. Single-family dwellings, or cottages, form only a small percentage of the total, and as a rule are built for sale to their occupiers, the renting of this class of house being no longer a good investment. These houses are frame-built and have five or six rooms on the gn)und floor with an unfinished attic extending over the whole building. The rooms consist of kitchen, dining room, parlour and two or three bedrooms, with bathroom containing also the water-closet. Underneath is a brick basement lined with cement in which is placed the furnace or stove for heating all the rooms above. The average cost of building such a house is about £750, and the price of the plot, usually 25 to 30 feet by 125 to 175 feet, ranges from £125 to £210. Working men, particularly Germans, who are intent on purchasing their homes, prefer generally a two-storied or three-storied building with a flat on each floor, as by letting two of these flats they are able to cover both the interest on the mortgage and the taxes. The construction of this class of house- costs from £1,000 to £1,600. The building of houses for sale is done almost entirely by private speculation, building societies of a philanthropic or co-operative character being almost non-existent. The great bulk of the workers live in rented flats containing from four to six rooms ; tliree-roomed flats are only met with in the oldest buildings or in modern steam-heated flats, which are not as a rule occupied by working-class families. Skilled workmen with families prefer the six-roomed flat owing to their custom of using one room as a dining- room distinct from kitchen and parlour, in consequence of which the five-roomed flat is relatively much less important, particularly in modern tenements occupied by this class of tenants. Flats are found as a rule in two-storied or three-storied buildings of wood or brick, those of four or more stories being somewhat exceptional. In the older type of building the three-storied house, which predominates throughout several large districts, is strictly speaking one of two stories and a basement, owing to the fact that the street level has been raised, so that the original ground- floor flat is now considerably, if not entirely, below it. Where the buildings are set back from 10 to 17 feet, as frequently happens, the front rooms of the basement are well lighted. Access t^d. was found to weigh 20^ oz., one costing orf. weighed 2 lb. and a quartern loaf could be bought for ?>d. This bread is bought by Germans, Jews, Poles and Bohemians, and the last-mentioned also sometimes buy rye flour, but as a rule those who consume rye bread buy it in loaves from the bakers. Macaroni is bought principally by Italians, at from 2^d. to M. per lb. Italians also buy considerable quantities of lard, and often use no butter ; at the time of the investiga- tion the popular qualities of lard cost 7^d. to 8^^/. per lb. The State of Ohio prohibits the sale of oleomargarine in the same shops with butter, and little is sold. The poorer Bohemians, however, not infrequently purchase it. Milk is required to be sold in bottles, and usually cost 4|c?. to 4£(i. per quart, though a few dealers sold at 3^c?. Coal is mostly sold by the ton of 2,000 lb. Both anthracite and bituminous coal is burned, but most working-class families use only bituminous coal, the popular qualities of which cost 15s. 7|rf. per ton of 2,000 lb., though there is also a considerable trade in better qualities at 16s. %d. and 17s, %\d. per ton of 2,000 lb. Coal is burned very freely in winter, and partly for this reason and partly because the popular qualities of bitu- minous coal used in Cleveland are of rather low grade, the quantity consumed by wage-earning families is large. A ton per month is a not uncommon rate of consump- tion, and, as has been stated, the bill for coal and gas together is frequently from 4s. Ad. to 6s. 'id. per week. The following Table shows the predominant prices of various commodities of common use in February, 1909 : — Predominant Prices Paid by the Working Classes in February, 1909. Commodity. Tea Coffee Sugar : — White Granulated Brown Bacon, Breakfast — Boneless ... Eggs Cheese, American Butter... Potatoes, Irish Flour, Wheaten— Household Bread, White Milk Coal, Bituminous Kerosene per lb. » per Is. per lb. per 7 lb. ?) per 4 lb. per quart per cwt. per gallon Predominant Price. 2s. Id. lOd. to Is. O^d. m., M. %\d. M. to M. 10 M. to lOd. Is. Gd. „ Is. Id. Id. UM. Uld. 4M. to 4id. lOld. „ ls.» ' 6d. By the ton of 2,000 lb. CLEVFXAND. 171 Meat. A large proportion of the meat consumed in Cleveland is slaughtered locally. Prices have rather a wide range, as might be expected in a large city with a considerable foreign population engaged in heavy manual labour. The immigrant workpeople are not as a rule particular about the quality of the meat they consume, and there is a good deinand for the cheapest kinds. At the same time American working men of the higher grades create a large demand for meat of fairly good quality. Beef is more largely consumed than any other kind of meat, and pork, though next in popular favour, is much less eaten. Italians and Jews are rather fond of veal. The Italians eat little pork and mutton is very little consumed by any section of the community. The following were the predominant prices paid by the working classes in February, 1909, for various cuts of meat : — Predominant Prices paid by the Working Classes in Fehruar]i^ 1909. Description of Cut. Beef :— Roasts — Round „ Ribs prime „ Ribs second cut „ Chuck or short ribs ... Steaks — Round „ Sirloin Shin without bone Flank Plate, Brisket {f-^^^^^^^;;i Mutton or Lamb : — Leg Breast Loin Chops Shoulder Neck Veal :— Cutlets ... Rib chops Loin chops Breast Neck Pork :— Fresh — Loin „ Spare rib „ Shoulder „ Chops Corned (wet salt or pickled) Dry salt Ham Shoulder, salt or smoked Predominant Price per lb. &d. to Id. M. „ M. M. „ Id. 6d. ed. toM. Id. „ lOd. Ud. „ Hd. id. „ 5d. Ud. „ id. ^d. „ id. 6d. to 9d. id. Id. to 9d. 8d. „ M. 6d. „ Id. id. „ ad. lid. Sd.. M. to 9d. 5d. „ M. M. „ Hd. M. M. to 6id. &\d. „ 7d. M, „ iHd. M. id. Id. to 8d. 6d. „ Id. Prices at New York being taken as the base, = 100, in each case, the index number for the price of meat at Cleveland is 93, for other food it is 101 and for food prices as a whole 99. For rents and food prices combined the index number is 90. 172 DETROIT. The city of Detroit, in the State of Michigan, is situated between Lakes Erie and St. Clair, on the western bank of the river Detroit, which joins them, and which forms a connecting link in the magnificent waterway system of the Great Lakes and the river St. Lawrence. On the eastern bank of the river opposite Detroit stands the small Canadian town of Windsor, which depends almost entirely for its existence upon the industrial activities of its neighbour. Formerly, Detroit was a centre of the lumber and grain trades and of the smelting industry, but when these were transferred to other parts of the country it turned its energies to manufacturing with great success, becoming the principal centre in the United States for the manufacture of stoves and motor cars. Admirable transport facilities by water and rail have largely contributed to the rapid expansion of the local industries, several large railway systems connecting the city with all parts of the country and with Canada. Iron and copper ore comes by way of the Great Lakes in huge steamers from the northern part of the State on Lake Superior, which possesses great mineral resources, whilst up Lake Erie is borne much of the coal required for local industries. In addition to these natural advantages, vigorous enterprise and the adoption of the latest methods of manufacture have raised Detroit to a leading place amongst the industrial cities of the United States. The stoves for which Detroit is famous are mainly for household use and show a high degree of artistic design and finish, the ornamental parts being nickel plated and polished. During 1908 Detroit factories turned out 18,250 automobiles, this number being within 3,000 of the total for the whole of the United States in 1905, and in the course of 1909 this output was largely increased. These cars range in price from the £150 " run-about " to cars costing from £800 to £1,000. Adding machines are also manufactured in large quantities, being in great demand for banks and offices generally. Two companies are engaged in building large lake steamers, the hulls of AA^hich are constructed in yards several miles distant, vt'hilst the machinery and internal fittings are made in the city. During 1908, out of a total of 26 lake freighters launched with a total tonnage of 213,000, eleven with a tonnage of 93,000 were built by the two Detroit companies. Copper and brass rolling and the manufacture of steel tubes, freight cars, steam radiators, structural iron work and general machinery are also important industries. The largest factory in the world for the production of drugs is situated in Detroit and employs over 2,000 persons, Avhilst the manufacture of carbonate of soda and various by-products is a prominent industry, finding employment for nearly 2,000 men. Numerous factories are engaged in the production of tobacco and cigars, clothing and boots and shoes, but these industries are of minor importance compared with the foregoing. The history of the city dates back to 1710, the period of the French occupation. Since 1870 its growth has been remarkable, as is shown by the following Table : — Year. Population, Increase. Percentage Increase. 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 ... 79,577 116,340 205,876 285,704 465,766 36,763 89,536 79,828 180,062 46-2 77-0 38-8 63-0 The area of the city in 1900 was 29 square miles, but in 1906 about 12J square miles were added, the increase of population from this cause being over 20,000. A further, but smaller, extension of the municipal boundaries took place in 1908. The rapid growth of the city is illustrated by the composition of the population, which, according to the Federal Census of 1900, comprised 65'0 percent, of American-born whites and 33*6 per cent, of foreign-born whites, while persons of negro descent amounted to only 1*4 per cent, of the whole. Of the American-born whites, two-thirds were of the first generation, that is, had one or both parents who were foreign-born ; the Census figures being for American-born whites of American-born parents 21 '5 per cent, of the total population, and for American-born whites of foreign-born parents 43'5 per cent. Of the foreign-born population of Detroit, 33*2 per cent, were born in Germany, 30*0 per cent, in DETROIT. 173 Canada, 14*1 per cent, in Poland, 6'7 per cent, in Ireland and 9*3 per cent, in Great Britain. The large percentage of Canadian-born persons is explained by the fact that Detroit is one of the natural gateways from Canada into the United States. Mutual trade relations between the two countries naturally account for the presence of a large number of Canadians, as does the fact that many young Canadians seeking their fortunes in the States come first to Detroit, moving later to Chicago and other Western cities as opportunities occur. Among foreigners the percentage of German-born persons exceeds that of any other nationality, for Detroit, like Chicago, Cincinnati, Milwaukee and other cities of the Middle West, experienced a great wave of German immigration in the 'seventies. Of late years the immigration from Germany, excluding G3rman Poles, has been comparatively unimportant, and the great bulk of this portion of the community has become Americanised to such a degree that purely German institutions, such as churches, schools, press, &c., do not appear to floiirish. The case is very different with the Poles who, though not so numerous as the Germans, are far more noticeable, as they yield much more slowly to American habits of life and speech, and live in two compact colonies in the eastern and western districts of the city, where Polish is the language of ordinary intercourse, of school instruction and of church service. Many handsome churches and large schools testify to their devotion to the national faith and language, for these institutions are entirely supported by their offerings. That the Poles make good citizens is generally acknowledged in Detroit, and though coming from agricultural districts in Germ-any their native intelligence and adaptability have enabled them to rise in considerable numbers from the ranks of unskilled labour, while employers speak in terms of praise of then* industry and powers of endurance. Thrift is also a marked characteristic of these people, as is manifested by their eagerness to purchase their homes, to which end the earnings of soas and daughters are devoted. The rapid growth of many of the industries of Detroit has afforded abundant opportunities for comparatively well paid female labour in factories and offices, and has been an important factor in facilitating the purchase of homes. In business and in various professions the younger generation of Poles is largely represented, whilst the Polish community generally is by degrees approximating to American standards of living, the children almost without exception being observed to be well clothed and apparently well fed. Later Polish immigrants have thus found themselves from the outset under powerful progressive influences within their own community, and to these they have not been slow to respond. During recent years some thousands of Hungarians and Italians have come to Detroit, the former finding employment as labourers in the chemical works and iron foundries, whilst the latter are engaged as navvies in excavating work. The Italians as yet show no progressive tendencies, but the Hungarians, though inferior to the Poles in this respect, are considerably in advance of the Italians as regards their general standard of home comfort, and many of them are purchasing their homes. Detroit is considered to be one of the best examples of the modern American city. It is laid out in broad straight streets and avenues, lined as a rule with trees on both sides. Most of the main avenues run from the large square in front of the City Hall, which forms the hub of the gity plan, the principal one, Woodward Avenue, being in the centre. A handsome boulevard, from 150 to 200 feet wide, and nearly 12 miles long, encircles a large portion of the city, beginning and ending on the bank of the river. The principal avenues are paved with asphalt and the remainder with stone setts. Many of the streets are paved with circular creosoted wood blocks. Macadam is not lai'gely in use and a considerable number of streets have not yet been made. For the purpose of lighting up passages between streets and buildings, open iron work towers from 100 to 175 feet high have been erected, and are held in position byguy ropes. At the tops of these towers from four to six powerful electric lamps illuminate a large area, and in the centre of the city they serve not only to supplement the light of the ordinary street electric lamps but also to secure a more equal distribution of light. For various reasons, however, the authorities have not found these towers •satisfactory, and they have decided not to erect any more. The principal public buildings and business blocks are situated near the centre of the city. The two largest and most handsome public buildings are the Post Office and the County Government Offices, both of stone. Round the large central square rise lofty buildings of varied and pleasing exterior, including the City Hall, blocks of offices and a new and handsome hotel, while the centre is occupied 174 DETROIT. by a large fountain. Several steel-frame buildings of the " sky-scraper " kind, varying from 12 to 20 stories in height, have been erected in recent years. The newest and highest of these, the Ford Building and the Majestic Building, occupied by offices, are faced with white glazed brick and form the most conspicuous objects in the city. Many handsome stone churches and residences of the wealthy inhabitants are situated on the principal avenues. In the better class residential districts modern steam- heated flats in brick buildings are becoming a prominent feature ; elsewhere, however, frame houses, with more or less ornamental verandahs, and with open grass plots in front, are universally met with. The factories and industrial works are mainly situated in the outlying parts of the city, and several of the newest occupy sites on the city boulevard, broad grass plots separating them from the side walk. Considering the large number of factories and works situated within the city or adjacent to it, the air of Detroit is remarkably free from smoke. This fact is due to the vigilance of the city smoke inspector and to the adoption by a large number of firms of mechanical stokers and of various smoke-preventing devices. During 1909 the number of convictions obtained against residents and firms for violations of the smoke ordinance was 31, and of these 19 were suspended on account of the abatement of the nuisance. Efforts are being made to deal with the owners of steamers passing up and down the river, these at present being the principal ofi^enders in this respect. Detroit is well furnished with parks and open spaces, covering a total area of about 913 acres. The largest of these. Belle Isle Park, having an area of 707 acres, and situated on an island of the same name in the river, is a favourite resort on Sundays and holidays. The Water Works Park, covering 70 acres, is a picturesque pleasure ground, containing artificial lakes in addition to reservoirs with a total capacity of 33 million gallons ; there are also numerous pleasure resorts within easy reach of the city by steamer. The advantages enjoyed by Detroit of healthy location in the vicinity of large lakes, of a dry sandy soil, of generally favourable housing and sanitary conditions, and of a large proportion of young, sturdy immigrants in the population, all contribute to keep the death-rate of the city at a comparatively low figure. The number of deaths which occurred during the five years July, 1903 to June, 1908, was as follows : — Year, Number of deaths. ±U\JO t: ••• •«• «•« •«• ••• "Xj/yt/ 1904-5 4,730 1905-6 ... ... ... ... ... 5,178 1906-7 6,214 1907-8 5,930 Compulsory registration of births was not enforced prior to 1906. In the year 1906-7, the number of births reported was 8,704, and in the following year it was 9,496. Deaths of infants under one year old numbered 1,222 in the year 1906-7, and 1,201 in the year 1907-8. A public clinic and also a hospital have been established for the treatment of cases of consumption. In the clinic patients are examined and receive medical advice, and, where unable to purchase sufficient nourishment, they are also provided free with eggs and milk. During the year 1909, 3,450 dozen eggs and 10,415 quarts of milk were distributed in this way. Facilities for the open air treatment of consum})tives have also been provided by the erection of 12 tents and cottages. At present the full extent to which tuberculosis prevails is not known, but the State Legislature during the winter session of 1909 passed a law which requires that in future all cases of tuberculosis shall be reported to the local Boards of Health. Medical inspection of children attending schools is also carried out by the Health Department, and in this work 27 doctors and two nurses are engaged. During 1909, 50,501 children were examined, and of these 3,499 were excluded from school. Hitherto the examination for physical defects has been confined to cases referred to the doctors by teachers and principals, but a special examination of 300 children in one school showed that nearly 70 per cent, were suffering from one or more physical defects, and as a consequence of this discovery the Health Department has decided upon carrying out, during 1910, a complete physical examination of every child entering school, and the keeping of records on the card system. The nurses of the Health Department visit the homes of all children excluded from school on account of contagious diseases, for the purpose of advising the parents as to the proper treatment and, where necessary, of persuading them to secure medical attention. DETROIT. 175 The municipal enterprises include street construction, paving and cleaning and the water works. The gas works, electric light and power works and tramways belong to private companies. The price of gas is 3s. id. per 1,000 cubic feet. Electric cars connect all })arcs of the city and also numerous outlying townships. Interurban traffic is served by a system of fast cars. City fares are uniformly 2^d. for any distance, and in most cases a transfer from one line to another .can ba claimed for this fare. Workmen's tickets are issued at the rate of eight for Is. O^d., and are available between the hours of 5.30 and 7 a.m., and 4.45 and 5.45 p.m., one fare serving for a maximum distance of 12 miles. The work of street construction, paving and cleaning is managed by a salaried commissioner appointed by the mayor for a period of four years. The electric light and power works and the water service are each managed by a board of honorary com- missioners nominated by the mayor, and approved by the City Council. It is claimed for this system that it admits of these undertakings being controlled by business men with special knowledge of various departments of the work, and with special interest in their economical management, who w^ould not consent to take ])art in election contests and to assume responsibility for the general work of the City Council. Moreover, it is held that men of exceptional abilitv and good local standing are by this means more likely to be secured for continuous service than w^ould be the caee if they had to run the risk of municipal elections. Detroit is well supplied with schools for elementary and higher education. Attendance is compulsory in the case of elementary schools, and is enforced by a staff of " Truant Officers." The children of Roman Catholic parents as a rule attend their own parochial schools, which are maintained entirely by church dues. Six manual training centres and six high schools are maintained by the Board of Education, the curriculum in the high school including sciences, mathematics and ancient and modern languages. Evening schools have also been established where mechanical drawing and mathematical calculations, useful in various trades, as well as subjects usually found in commercial courses, are taught. Classes have also been formed for students who desire to prepare for Civil Service examinations. Many free public libraries are maintained by the city. Occupations, Wages and Hours of Labour. The industry which gives employment to the Largest number of men in Detroit is the manufacture of motor cars and their accessories. This industry is mainly in the hands of a few large firms. The work is highly specialised, and the latest and most costly machinery is used for the duplication of the various parts of the mechanism of the cars. The extent to which machinery is utilised makes it unnecessary to employ more than a relatively small proportion of skilled mechanics, who superintend the more complicated and costly machines. The buildings are of recent construction, well lighted and heated, and work generally is conducted under healthy conditions and with no small degree of personal comfort. Clean, well-kept washing rooms, cloak rooms and storage places for bicycles are provided for the employees. Another highly specialised industry, in which conditions similar to the above prevail, is the manufacture of adding machines, carried on in one large factory employing over 1,000 men. Baths are provided for the workpeople, meals are served at cost price in lunch rooms on the premises, and a large hall on the top floor is set apart for social entertainments. The manufacture of stoves comes next in importance to that of automobiles and is carried on principally in four large works. Being an older industry, the buildings and general conditions of work do not reach the same modern standards as those prevailing in the manufacture of motor cars. Copper and brass rolling is carried on by two firms employing together over 900 men, three-fourths of whom are unskilled workers. The manufacture of steel tubes, radiators, structural iron work and general machinery completes the list of the metal working industries. Chemical manufacture is the only remaining industry of considerable importance as far as the number of men engaged in it is concerned, the total being nearly 5,000, and is mainly confined to the making of carbonate of soda along with various by-products and of drugs. This industry is largely carried on by two large works, in one of which, the drug factory, considerable interest is taken in the social welfare of the employees, 176 DETROIT. provision being made ior the sujiply of free coffee, tea and milk, and for social entertainments, while financial support is also given by the firm to its own baseball and bowling clubs. The following Table shows the distribution of the workers of Detroit by industry, age and sex according to the factory inspector's report for 1908 : — Industries, Automobiles, Carriages and Wagons Stoves Other Metal, Engineering and Shipbuilding Clothing and Boots and Shoes Woodworking and Furnishing Paper and I'rinting Chemicals Tobacco Food and Drink Other Total 9,766 3,606 16,18.5 2,280 4.703 2,795 4.919 973 3,900 7,360 Total. 56,487 272 89 1,296 6,189 468 928 1,943 4,652 1,047 2,322 10,038 3,695 17,481 8,469 5,171 3,723 6,862 5,625 4,947 9,682 19,206 75,693 Children under 16 years included in Total. 77 91 475 368 303 137 103 340 96 3.54 2,344 The factory legislation of the State of Michigan regulates to some extent the conditions and hours of labour in the case of males under 18 years of age and of females, also the sanitary condition of factories and workshops, hotels, shops- and public buildings. The law limits the number of working hours to 60 per week for the above two classes (except that the law does not apply to shops employing not more than ten persons) and prohibits the employment of females other than members of the family as barmaids, or in dancing or furnishing music for hire in saloons or bar rooms. Children are not allowed to work under the age of 14 years, and the employment of illiterates under the age of 16 years is also forbidden. School attendance is compulsory up to the age of 16 years, but children who have received an eighth grade diploma from the public school, or whose work is necessary for the support of their parents, may be employed on attaining the age of 14 years, provided they have obtained the pennission of the school authorities. The jirovisions relating to factories and workshops require the removal of dust from the atmosphere and the provision of washing and dressing rooms. The minimum time allowed for the mid-day meal is 45 minutes. It is also provided that no room or apartment in any tenement or dwelling house may be used for the manufacture of clothing, artificial flowers, cigarettes or cigars without a permit from the factory inspector, who must be satisfied on inspec- tion of the premises that not less than 250 cubic feet of air space is allowed for each person employed, and that proper provision is made for light, heating and venti- lation. All firms which put out to contract the above classes of work must keep a register of the names and addresses of all such persons to whom the work is so put out on contract, and this register must be produced on the demand of the factory inspector or his deputy. If it be discovered that garments which have been made under such con- ditions that they are a danger to public health are imported into the State the authorities may take such action as is deemed necessary for the protection of the public. Local health officers are required to notify the factory inspectors of cases of contagious or infectious diseases found in the above premises. Infringements of the law are punishable by fine or imprisonment, or both, at the discretion of the court. The administration of the factory laws devolves upon the State Commissioner of Labour and a stiiff of factory inspectoi's, including women. The report of visits paid during 1908 to 176 establishments employing females in Detroit states that all were found satisfactory as regards conditions of safety, light, heating and ventilation, and all except four as regards sanitation. The number of females employed in these 176 establishments was 13,527 and the average daily wage paid was 5s. Sevenil industries at Detroit afford opportunity for the employment of a large number of women and girls, notably cigarmaking, which is largely in their hands, men acting mainly as overseers. Over 4,000 females are employed in local factories. In one I DETROIT. 177 of the largest of these a dining room is provided for the use of the employees and a musician paid to play the piano during meal times. Food is furnished at nominal charges, and excellent facilities for washing and dressing exist. The manufacture of clothing and overalls employs over 1,500 women and girls, most of whom belong to the local branch of the Grarraent Workers' Union, which has secured union conditions of labour, while employers in return have the right to affix the union label to every garment made in the factory. The manufacture of boots and shoes and of drugs also occupies a considerable amount of female labour, the number of females employed in the largest drug factory being about 1,000. The remainder of the women and girls engaged in industry are found in laundries and other miscellaneous establishments, whilst the better educated are engaged in office work as typewriters, bookkeepers, &c. The hours of labour in general vary from 48 to 60 weekly according to the industry. In the building trades the rule is an eight-hour day, or 48 hours per week, except in the case of labourers and some of the structural iron workers, who work 60 hours. In the printing trades the hours range from 42 to 48 weekly. In the metalworking and engineering industries hours vary from 54 to 60 per week and the Saturday half-holiday is not generally observed. A large chemical firm made an important change in the hours for process men in 1903. The system of working twelve-hour shifts night and day was altered to one of three shifts of eight hours each without any reduction in the wage paid for the shift. During the six years in which this eight-hour shift has been in operation it has been found that the output per shift has not decreased and that the men work more regularly than was the case under the old system. The holidays observed are New Year's Day, Decoration Day (May 30), Independence Day (July 4), Labour Day (first Monday ih September), Thanksgiving Day (November) and Christmas Day. Wages are not paid for these days. Most of the branches of the building, engineering and printing trades have local unions, and with few exceptions these are affiliated to the American Federation of Labour. The unions, however, with the exception of those of the compositors, stove polishers and garment workers, have not succeeded in forcing conditions of labour on employers, with the result that the " open shop " is the rule in Detroit and uniform rates of wages are rare. The union of metal polishers, buffers and platers has effected an agreement, which is renewed annually, with all the local firms in the stove industry. A Conciliation Committee exists on which both sides are represented. Disputes are submitted to a committee of two, one representing the employers and the other the union, and pending the decision of this committee no workmen may be discharged or may leave work. The union limits the piece earnings of members to 16s. Srf. per day and any member whose earnings exceed that amount is fined £5 45. 2d. by the union for each offence, the object of this rule being to prevent any reduction of the piece rate. Time rates prevail exclusively in the building trades and are the rule in the foundries and machine shops except in the case of moulders, who are in many cases paid by the piece. In the stove industry piece rates are common, especially for moulders, polishers and mounters, the latter being the men who put together the various parts of the stove. In the shipbuilding industry piece rates are common for occupations connected with hull construction excepting that of the angle-iron smiths. Time rates generally prevail in the motor car factories and in the copper and brass rolling mills, where, however, the casters are paid only by the piece. In the chemical industry time rates only are paid. In the printing trades time rates are general, except in the case of machine compositors in news- paper offices, who work on time and on piece rates according as circumstances require. The lower limits of the range of wages stated for these men in the Table on p. 179 are the minimum rates of wages required by the men's union for 42 hours' work. Workmen of American and German descent form the bulk of those engaged in skilled occupations. A considerable amount of unskilled labour is perfoi*med by the Poles, but a large number of them are engaged in semi-skilled occupations and they also form a large proportion of the moulders and metal polishers. Hungarians, Belgians, and Italians belong to the more recent section of the immigrants and are almost without exception unskilled labourers, the Hungarians and Belgians being largely employed in the chemical works and foundries, whilst the ItaUans are engaged in excavation work of various kinds. 16576 - M 178 DETROIT. The following Table shows the predommant wages and hours of labour in the principal industries in February, 1909 : — Predominant Weekly Wages and Hours of Labour of Adult Males in the Principal Occupatio7is in February, 1909. Predominant Weekly I Predominant Weekly Wages. Hours o£ Labour. Buildimj Trades : — Bricklayers Stonemasons and Stonecutters Carpenters ... Plasterers Plumbers Structural Iron Workers Painters Hod Carriers and Bricklayers' Labourers Foundries and Machine Shops : — Ironmoulders Machinists ... Blacksmiths Patternmakers Labourers ... Motor Gar Shops : — L'onmoulders Other Skilled Men — see text. Machine Operators and Semi-skilled Assemblers Labourers Shipbuilding arid Boilermaking : — Ironmoulders Machinists Blacksmiths Patternmakers Labourers Angle-iron Smiths — Shipbuilding Platers, Heavy — Boilermaking Shipbuilding Platers, Light — Boilermaking Shipbuilding Rivetters — Shipbuilding Caulkers Holders-up Labourers .. Manufacture of Stoves : — Ironmoulders Machinists Mounters Blacksmiths Patternmakers Polishers Buffers Labourers Copper and Brass Rolling Mills : — Brass Rollers Casters Casters' Helpers Wire Drawers Tube Drawers Other Helpers and Labourers Chemical Works : — Process Workers Labourers 100s. to 110s. 48 100s. 48 60s. to 70s. 48 100s. 48 81s. 3d. to 93s. M. 48 62s. 6d. „ 75s. 48 and 60 60s. „ 70s. 48 37s. 6d. „ 50s. 60 68s. 9^.*; 75s.t 60 63s. to 68s. M. 54 to 60 63s. „ 66s. 3d. 54 „ 60 68s. M. „ 87s. &d. 54 „ 60 40s. „ 4.5s. 54 „ 60 75s.»; 104s. Sf/.t 48s. id. to 54s. od. 36s. „ 43s. dd. 88s. 9rf.»; 02s. 9rf.t 72s. id. to 78s. M. 73s. 9c?. „ 81s. 3d. 86s. 3d. 41s. Sd. to 46s. Sd. 75s. 81s. 2d. ( 68s. 9d»; \ 100s. to 104s. 2d..-t 77s. 6d. 62s. Gd. 83s. id. 68s. 9d. 66s. Sd. 40s. to 50s. 78s. 2d. to 93s. 9d.* ; 87s. 6d. „ lOOs.t 62s. 6rf. „ 75s. lOOs. „ 116s. 3d. 68s. dd. 75s. to 87s. &d. lOOs. 62s. &d. to GSs. 9d. 43s. 9d. 75s. to 87s. 6d. 100s. „ 125s. 62s. 6d. 50s. 43s. 9rf. 37s. Gd. to 43s. 9d. 42s. 9rf. to 51s. id. 36s. „ 40s. Gd. 60 54 to 60 54 „ 60 59 59 59 59 59 60 59 60 59 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 48 to 60 60 60 60 45 to 48 45 „ 48 60 60 60 54 to 56 54 • Time wages. t Piece earnings. DETROIT. 179 Predominant Weekly Wages. Predominant Weekly Hours of Labour. Printing and Bookbinding Trades : — Newspaper — Machine Compositors { gj'Jhr^tk ' Z Z Pressmen (Day work) Book and Job — Hand Compositors Pressmen (Cylinder Presses) Bookbinders Public Services : — Street Construction, Paving and Cleaning (Municipal)— Paviors Paviors' Labourers Road Menders Scavengers Road Sweepers Drivers Water Works (Municipal) — Labourers Gas Works (Company) — Gas Stokers Gas Fitters Labourers ... Electric Light and Power Woi'ks (Company) — Electricians Linemen Stokers Labourers Electric Tramways — see text. 87s. M. to 100s. 96s. M. „ 116s. 8rf. 87s. 6d. 70s. lOd. to 758. 75s. „ 87s. 6d. 70s. lOd. „ 83s. id. 80s. 43s. 9d. 43s. M. 56s. 3d. 43s. dd. 43s. M. 43s. 9d. 50s. to 53s. 6d. 55s. 41s. M. 68s. 9d. 75s. 56s. M. 43s. M. 42 to 48 42 „ 48 42 „ 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 84 60 60 56 48 56 48 Taking wages at New York as the base, =^ 100, in each case, the wages index numbers for Detroit are — building trades, skilled men 81, hod carriers and bricklayers' labourers 64 ; foundries and machine shops, skilled men 80, unskilled labourers 101 ; printing, hand compositors (job work) 83. In the building trades, union rates of wages are not the rule and the rates quoted in the Table are for men of ordinary ability. Superior bricklayers and fast workers are paid as high as 120s. per week. Comparatively little stone work is done and cutters are expected to act as masons also. Carpenters doing the best class of interior finish are paid higher rates, ranging to 80s. per week. Structural iron workers are not a very numerous class, and their work being of a dangerous character some of the more reliable men who raise and fix girders in position receive 80s. per week. The lower rates of wages paid to labourers are for men w^ho fill the hoists with bricks ; mortar mixers and others doing semi- skilled work receive the higher rates. Building operations can be carried on for nine or ten months of the year. Wages are generally paid fortnightly. In the motor car industry the work varies considerably. Among the most highly- skilled men are those termed " tool and die makers," who are principally engaged in the w^ork of testing ; these men are comparatively few in number and their earnings are high, the general range being from 72s. 6d. to 84s. 7d. per week. Equally high wages are earned by the trained machinists in charge of the automatic machines, the management of which requires considerable knowledge and skill. Machine operators do little more than feed the machines of which they have charge. A large class of assemblers is employed in putting together various sections of machinery ; some of this work demands little or no skill and the wages are the same as those paid to labourers. Others who fit together the more complicated parts receive the same rates as machine operators, as owing to the perfection of the machinery which turns out those parts the assemblers as a rule are not required to do any bench Avork. Tramway men ai'e paid ll^d. per hour during the first year, Is. in the second and Is. 0|rf. after the second year. They spend nine hours daily on the platform but are considered to be on duty for 12^ hours. They are not provided with uniforms and the superintendent may require a man with whose appearance he is dissatisfied to buy a new outfit. As a rule a new suit is bought each summer and winter, the cost ranging from 37s. 6rf. to 58s. 4rf. The earnings of female workers, mostly girls, engaged in the making of workmen's overalls vary from 25s. to 41s. Sd. per week of 48 hours. The piece work system prevails in this industry. Girls engaged in cigar factories are also paid oy the piece and 16576 M2 180 DETROIT. earn on an aA'erage from 33s. id. to 37s. 6d. per week, but some of the more expert earn as much as 545. 2d. per week. 'J"he State Legislature of ^lichigau established labour exchanges in 1905, placing their administration in the hands of the Labour Commissioner, and providing funds for working expenses. No fees are charged either to workpeople or employers. The labour exchanges were at first only established in cities having a population of 50,000 or more, but owing to the success experienced the Legislature decided in 1907 1o extend their operations to cities of 30,000 inhabitants or more. The report of the State Bureau of Labour contains the following figures showing the extent of the operations of the Detroit Exchange during the year ended 30th November, 1908 : — Sex of Workpeople. Number of Applications. Number of Situations Filled. Number of unsuccessful Applications. From Employers. From Workpeople. From Employers. From Workiieople. Males Females 5,361 2,275 5,408 1,887 4,951 1,773 410 502 457 114 Total 7,636 7,295 6,724 912 571 Housing and Rents. Detroit rightly has the reputation of being a " Home City," the expression signifying that a large proportion of the inhabitants own their dwellings. According to the Census of 1900, 22'5 per cent, of the homes of Detroit were owned by their occupiers free of encumbrance, 16'6 per cent, were owned encumbered and 60*9 percent, were hired. Since that date the system of purchasing houses by instalments has become still more popular amongst the working classes, but no figures are available showing the respective propor- tions of dwellings at present owned and rented. Whilst in many cases the effort to purchase the home leads to sub-letting, this practice does not appear to be so general as in some other cities visited, notably Minneapolis and Milwaukee. According to the above Census the average number of families 2:>er dwelling-house was 1*2 ; 87"1 per cent, of all dwelling-houses were occupied by single families, 10*6 per cent, by two families and 2"3 per cent, by three or more families. Of all families enumerated 74*9 per cent. Avere resident in dwelling-houses occupied by single families, 18"3 per cent, in dwelling-houses occupied by two families and 6*8 per cent, in dwelling-houses occupied by three or more families. Observation of housing conditions as they at present exist points to the conclusion that the foregoing percentages have not been materially affected in the interval, and that overcrowding has not assumed serious proportions, in spite of the tendency shown by many of the later Hungarian immigrants, and most of the Italians, to herd together in tenement houses, the Italians being generally desirous of saving sufficient money to enable them to return to their homes in Europe. These immigrants, however, form a relatively small proportion of the total population, and the number of tenement dwellings of the poorer kind is not large. Working-class houses are distributed throughout the city, with the exception of some of the finer avenues and the adjacent streets, Avhich are occupied by large villas and rows of modem flats. 13etter-paid mechanics are frequently found living near business and professional men, social distinctions between these classes not being so sharply drawn' in the matter of housing, save in the case of the wealthier inhabitants, as is usually the case in English towns. The only districts which are strictly homogeneous are those occupied by the Poles, Hungarians and Italians. The Poles live mainly in two large colonies, one to the east and the other to the west of Woodward Avenue, which bisects the city, whilst the Hungarians are principally found in the outlying district to the west known as Del Ray, which has been recently incorporated, and in the vicinity of which are large chemical works and several large foundries. The Italians also occupy the same quarter. With the exception of the Del Ray district, the parts of the city mainly occupied by the working classes present generally a pleasing appearance. Most of the streets are lined with trees on both sides, and an open grass plot from 6 to 12 feet in width separating the houses from the side walk is a common feature. The absence of the monotonous uniformity so characteristic of working-class streets in English industrial towns in the matter of house construction is very marked in Detroit. As a rule houses are detached, standing about 6 feet apart, and are built of wood with considerable variety ui the style DETROIT. 181 of structure, and where ornamental verandahs predominate and houses have been recently j)ainted the general effect is highly picturesque. A liberal amount of space is generally found between houses which front on parallel streets, the building plots being usually from 100 to 120 feet deep, and separated by an alley 20 feet wide. Even in the poorer district of Del Ray the abundance of air and light is a pleasing feature, though the condition and general appearance of the houses themselves may leave much to be desired. Streets as a rule are sewered, and the collection of ashes and garbage is undertaken by the municipal authorities, tenants being required to provide their own ash-bins, though refuse heaps are not infrequently found in the alleys. Whilst considerable variety obtains in the style and character of working-class houses the predominant type may be said to be the five and six-roomed frame house, mostly detached, though frequently semi-detached. As a rule this house is one story in height, with an attic used as a lumber room and lighted sometimes by a gable window. The floor of the house is raised 2^ to 3 feet above the ground, the intervening space being enclosed with boarding. The front entrance is reached by a short flight of steps leading to a porch or verandah more or less ornamental. A similar porch and steps are not infrequently found at the side, the second entrance being at the back of the house. The fi-ont door opens either into a small vestibule or directly into the front room. The rooms open into one another and are ranged three on each side or three on one side and two on the other in the case of the five-roomed house, when the kitchen is a lean-to structure. The walls are generally plastered and coloured, being papered only in the better class dwellings. A dark pantry usually adjoins the kitchen, and in the latter the sink and the water-tap are usually placed, though sometimes the tap is found outside. A spacious yard, un])aved, lies at the rear and contains the wood or coal shed and the closet at the end nearest the back alley. Closets in the older type of house are flushed by water from the kitchen sink, which enters the fall pipe below the surface of the ground, while houses of recent construction have water-closets of the modem type. A modification of the above type, known as the " story-and-a-half house," is frequently met with in Polish districts. This is a two-family or semi-detached house, the attic story of which is furnished with two extra gables, one on each side of the house, with a window to each gable. The owner and his family occupy the attic floor, which is approached in the rear by a staircase between the two ground-floor dwellings, and the latter are sub-let, the rent thus obtained assisting the owner to pay off the purchase-money more rapidly. The more modem type of six-roomed cottage is frequently a two-storied building with a basement which contains a furnace supplying heat to every room by means of pipes. In this basement are found the coal cellar and facilities for the washing of clothes. Bathroom and water-closet are always met with in this class of house, which is let at from 17*. 4(1. to 21s. 2d. a week. Seven and eight-roomed dwellings are frequently occupied by mechanics, but comparatively few are rented, nor are they suflttciently numerous to form a distinct type. Flats of four and six rooms are numerous, though not belonging to the predominant types. They are generally modern and self-contained, and many of them are situated over shops in the principal streets, though the majority are met with in two and three- storied houses. Modern six-roomed flats are situated in the best parts of the city in the east and in the vicinity of the Boulevard. A large basement contains a separate furnace for each flat, the tenants supplying their own coal. A bathroom supplied with hot and cold water, and containing also the w.c, is provided, and the landlord supplies both electric and gas fixtures. All these flats are self-contained and well finished internally. The rents usually charged for ground and first floor flats of this class are ft-om 195. 'dd. to 21s. 2d. per week and 17s. Ad. for the second floor. In a number of cases the whole building is heated by one furnace in the basement, and the cost of heating and the service of the janitor who attends to the furnace are included in the rent, which ranges from 24s. to 28s. lOd. per week. Many such flats situated over shops are let at 21s. Sd. per week, including heating, for seven months and at 1 7s. Ad. per week during the remainder of the year. Modern conveniences such as bathrooms and basements are rarely met with in dwellings of less than six rooms. In the poorer neighbourhoods, where houses are not frequently repaired and painted, the woodwork deteriorates rapidly and presents an unsightly appearance. Dilapidated and insanitary dwellings are somewhat rare, however, slum conditions being mainly confined to a comparatively small number of tenement blocks occupied by the later immigrants of the lowest grades. Sub-letting is fairly common in the poorer neighbourhoods, two rooms being usually let at 4s. 10c?. per week, and three rooms at from 4s. lOd. to 5s. dd. Two tenants frequently divide a house, each paying half the rent. 16576 M 3 182 DETROIT. Kitchen and parlour stoves are invariably the property o£ the tenant. Except where families live in two or three rooms the general tendency is to use the kitchen for cooking purposes and as a scullery only, meals being taken in the living or dining room. Another room furnished as a parlour is a common feature in all working-class houses, save those of the poorer kind. Gas cooking stoves are in general use (the price of gas is 35. 4d. per 1,000 cubic feet), and gas is largely used for lighting. The dimensions of rooms observed to be typical in various parts of the city were : — 15 feet by 15 feet, 15 feet by 13 feet 6 inches, 15 feet by 12 feet 6 inches and 14 feet by 8 feet ; a small room measuring 10 feet by 7 feet 8 inches is frequently met with in the case of six and seven-roomed houses. The usual height of rooms is 9 feet. The following Table shows the predominant rents paid for working-class houses in Detroit in February, 1909 : — Predominant Rents of Working-class Dwellings. Number of Rooms per Dwelling. i Predominant Weekly Rents. Four rooms 5s. 9d to 7s. M. Five rooms ' 8s. M. „ lis. 6rf. „. f Old 1 9s. Id. „ns.6d. Six rooms (Modern ' lis. M.„21s. 2d. The level of rents at New York being represented by 100, the rents index number for Detroit is 57. The above rents include water charges, which, like the taxes levied upon real estate, are paid by the owners ; there is no poll tax. Taxes are levied upon real and personal property, the average rate for a number of years past having been 1*95 per cent., and never exceeding 2 per cent. Personal property includes household furniture, for which the occupier has to make an annual declaration of value. As, however, exemption is granted for all personal property the total value of which is less than £104, the working classes as a whole do not pay this tax. In the matter of housing provision no action has been taken either by the muni- cipality or by philanthropic societies, private enterprise alone meeting all requirements. Estate agents do a considerable business in the sale of plots of land, and frequently in erecting houses on them for prospective purchasers. The system in vogue is that of payment by instalments, and the Poles particularly make great efforts to become the owners of their homes. A plot of ground for a workman's dwelling usually measures 30 feet by 100 feet, or 30 feet by 120 feet, and the prices for the freehold of such plots range from £52 to £125, according to situation. A frame house of five or six rooms has a frontage of from 21 to 24 feet, and a depth of 36 feet, and costs from £417 to £625. An initial deposit of variable amount is paid by the purchaser, and the balance is paid off in monthly instalments, the minimum being 41s. 8f/. per month. In many cases the deposit and instalments are so arranged that the whole amount can be liquidated by the end of twelve years. One form of inducement offered to intending purchasers is the combination of life insurance with the loan. In case of the death of the purchaser, after payment of the initial deposit and the first year's instal- ments, the widow obtains possession of the house and land, the balance of the loan being covered by the policy. When the freehold of the land has been acquired, mortgages and loans are frequently negotiated with local banks. Retail Prices. Detroit is favourably situated as regards its food supply, the State of Michigan having a flourishing agricultural industry. The working classes as a rule patronise the family grocers in their vicinity and purchase mainly on the credit system. There are several large " department stores " in the city, but their grocery and provision trade is mainly amongst the well-to-do class. Two or three " multiple " firms are represented, but these deal almost exclusively in tea and coffee on the system of giving presents with purchases. There is no co-operative society, nor are there .any public retail mai'kets of the English type. Competition is very keen amongst local dealers, and prices are consequently fairly uniform for the qualities of goods in demand. The variety in the working-class dietary is not so great as might be expected from the nationalities represented in the population. Many of the Germans have lived so long at Detroit that they have adopted American standards of living. The DETROIT. 183 Poles, however, are unusually large consumers of pork, sausage, bacon and boiling and stewing beef and veal, whilst on Sundays and Church festivals poultry is eaten largely and on Fridays fish, principally herrings. The poorer workmen who carry their dinner to their places of employment usually make that meal of bacon or pork, with eggs and potatoes eaten cold. Rye bread is also eaten far more thaii wheaten by this same class of F'oles. Groceries and other Commodities. Bread is purchased to a considerable extent, though there is also much home baking, particularly of cakes and rolls. A municipal by-law compels the baker to mark his name and the weight clearly on every loaf weighing other than an even number of pounds, and this is done either by means of a label attached to the loaf or by stamping it in legible characters. Food inspectors visit the shops where bread is sold for the purpose of detecting infringe- ments of this regulation, which are punishable by fines. Three large firms dominate this trade, and have clean, sanitary, up-to-date bakeries. These firms bake mainly w^heaten bread in loaves of 14 and 28 oz., which are sold at 2^d. and 4|rf. respectively. The price of rye bread is the same as for wheaten bread of corresponding weight. In Polish districts some of the smaller lakers sell a 26-oz. rye loaf at %^d. (The foregoing prices all relate to February, 1909.) The milk supply is largely in the hands of three large dairy companies, which, in February, 1909, sold at the uniform price of ^\d. per quart delivered. In summer the custom is to sell milk ^d. cheaper per quart. A municipal by-law requires milk to be delivei'ed to customers in sealed bottles. Tea, though consumed to a greater extent than is usually the case in American cities, is much less popular than coffee, which is sold roasted and ground. As regards sugar the greatest demand is for white granulated, the brown variety being used for cooking and for making candy at home. Bacon is smoked and sugar-cured of various qualities, and the main supply is obtained from the Chicago packing-houses. Butter made by local farmers and called "dairy" butter sells mainly at Is. 3c?. per lb., while the price of creamery butter ranges from Is. 4(i. to Is. 5J(/., the lower limit being most general. Renovated or re-made butter {i.e., butter made at the creameries fi*ora low-grade butter made by farmers), is of inferior quality and costs Is., but is not popular. Both anthracite and bituminous coals are used by the working classes, the poorer section buying the soft kind almost exclusively. It is sold by the ton of 2,000 lb., but a great deal is delivered in quarter-ton lots, an extra charge being added to the fractional price of the ton. Coal is also sold by the " bushel" basket, for which no standard of weight or capacity is observed, at Is. Oirf. per basket for bituminous and Is. Zd. for anthracite. The following Table shows the prices most generally paid by the working classes in February, 1909 :— Predominant Prices paid by the ' Working Classes in February, 1909. Commodities. Predominant Price, Tea per lb. Is. ^d. to Is. M. CoflEee »> Is. 0\d. „ Is. M. Sugar : — White Granulated ), 2ld., M. Brown )j 2irf. Bacon, Breakfast — Boneless.. »> l^d. to lOrf. Eggs :— Storage per Is. 13 „ 14 Local Fresh )9 9 „ 10 Cheese, American per lb. IQd. Butter )» Is. 3d. to Is. M. Potatoes, Irish per 7 lb. b\d. „ Id. Flour, Wheaten — Household ,y Wid. Bread, White per 4 lb. md. to \1M. Milk per quart ^d. Coal :— Anthracite per cwt. Is. Ud.* ; Is. P-]f/.t Bituminous *) ll\d. to Is. 3i<^,» ; Is. Id. to Is, bd.] Kerosene ... per gallon 6d. * B? the ton of 2,000 lb. t By the quarter-ton (500 lb,). 16576 M i 184 DETROIT. Meat. The meat supply of Detroit is obtained from the State of Michigan and from Chicago packing-houses. The local supply comprises from 900 to 1,500 head of cattle, about 5,000 sheep and 1,200 calves weekly. There is no public abattoir, but meat inspectors examine all animals offered for sale in the local stock yards and also the dressed meat from Chicago in the storehouses. The mode of cutting meat does not differ materially from the New York standard. The better cuts of beef and mutton are bought by those who follow the American style of living. Pork and veal are principally consumed by the Poles, who also purchase the cheaper cuts of beef for boiling. The following Table gives the predominant prices paid by the working classes in February, 1909 :— Predominant Prices paid by the Working Classes in February, 1909. Description of Cut. Predominant Price per lb. Beef :-^ - Roasts — Ronnd b\d. to 6irf. „ Ribs prime 6d. „ l\d. „ Ribs second cut bd. „ Id. „ Chuck or short ribs id. „ bd. Steaks — Round... biid. „ &id. „ Sirloin Id. „ "t^d. Shin without bone id. „ bd. Flank M. „ id. Plate, Brisket {f-fj^^^^^^-^- ••; M. „ id. Z^d. „ id: Mutton or Lamb : — Leg Id. to 7^d. Breast id. „ bd. Loin l^d. „ lOrf. Chops M. „ lOd. Shoulder 6d. „ 7W. Neck id. „ bd. Veal :— Cutlets M. to IQd. Rib chops Id. „ M. Loin chops Id. „ Sd. Breast Hd. „ 6id Neck i^d. „ bd. Pork :— Fresh — Loin &d. to Id. „ Spare rib iid. „ bd. „ Shoulder bd. „ bid. „ Chops 6d. „ l^d. Corned (wet salt or pickled) 6d., &ld. Dry salt bhd. to 6d. Ham 6id., 6{d. Shoulder, salt or smoked bd. to b%d. Prices at New York being taken as the base, = 100, in each case, the index number for the price of meat at Detroit is 82, for other food it is 94 and for food prices as a whole 91. For rents and food prices combined the index number is 83. 185 DULUTH. The city of Duluth, which derives its name from a French explorer of the seventeenth century named Jean du Luth, is situated in the State of Minnesota at the extreme western end of Lake Superior and about midway between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceana, in latitude about 47° N. It is the third largest city of the State, ranking next to Minneapolis and St. Paul. To the west of Minnesota lie the great agricultural and grazing regions of North and South Dakota and Montana, and also some rich tracts of timber land, whilst 80 miles to the north-west of the city are the exceptionally pro- ductive iron mines of the Mesaba Range, the exploitation of which may be said to have been only begun. Owing to its connexion with the great trans-continental railway systems of America and of Canada, Duluth is able to tap these great natural resources of the North- West, whilst its situation at the head of the chain of Great Lakes has made the city, in spite of a rigorous winter climate, the commercial gateway between East and West. Opposite Duluth is the small city of Superior, in the State of Wisconsin, on the south bank of the River St. Louis, which separates the two and flows into a fine land-locked harbour on Lake Superior. Both cities form one great port and possess spacious docks of modern construction opening on to the river and the harbour ; the commercial and jobbing firms, however, have their headquarters mainly in Duluth. The bulk of the trade is in grain and flour, iron ore and coal, much of which is carried in steamers of over 10,000 tons. By means of the most modem equipment these large steamers can be loaded with iron ore in three or four hours, whilst the introduction of the "clam-shell bucket" worked by machinery has reduced very materially the time required to unload a cargo of coal. The following statement of cargo received and shipped illustrates the rapid growth within recent years of the business of the great port Duluth- Superior : — Year. Cargo received (Tons of 2,000 lb.). Cargo shipped (Tons of 2,000 lb.). Total Value. 1895 1900 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 2,035,465 3,085,184 4,212,704 6,147,714 7,840,023 6,594,915 6,815,410 4,289,886 8,640,061 18,463,441 23,023,707 26,946,682 17,202,247 25,713,891 £ 19,791,667 28,147,749 40,989,913 52,479,134 59,902,020 46,482,150 54,481,075 During 1909 5 J million short tons of coal entered the port, whilst the shipments included over 50 million bushels of wheat, 9 million bushels of barley and flax seed, 4 million bai'rels of flour and 22 million tons of iron ore. Grain is stored locally in 24 enormous elevators, the newest of which are constructed of reinforced concrete as a protection against fire. Their total capacity is nearly 30 million bushels, and by the use of an ingenious system of shoots large steamers can be loaded in the course of a few hours. While commercial and shipping activities predominate at Duluth, industry is also of growing importance. At present industrial enterprise is principally confined to lumber sawing and woodworking, to the smelting of ore, and to the manufacture of lumber mill and mining plant and general machinery ; flour milling was formerly an important industry, but it has moved to other centres, principally to Minneapolis. In the neigh- bouring city of Superior are a large shipyard where lake steamers are built and repaired, repairing shops for the Great Northern Railway and a few small manufacturing works of various kinds. In consequence of the enormous deposits of iron ore within the State of Minnesota and the richness of the new mines of the Mesaba Range, where iron is found so close to the surface that it is scooped out by steam shovels, the Steel Corporation has recently acquired land at Duluth for the erection of a large plant estimated to cost £2,500,000 in order to smelt and work the ore close to the source of supply. Another company has 186 DULUTH. built electrical works on the river St. Louis, close to the city, where there is a fall of 378 feet, for the purpose of distributing electric power to manufacturing concerns. Both the foregoing enterprises point to very considerable industrial expansion in the near future. The following Table shows the population of Duluth according to the Fedei*al Censuses of 1870-1910 ._^ ^ ^ i'ear. Population. Increase. Percentage Increase. 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 3,131 3,483 33,115 52,969 78,466 352 29,632 19,854 25,497 11-2 850-8 60-0 48-1 Out of a total of 64,942 inhabitants, at the date of the State Census of 1905, 38,017 or 58*5 per cent, were American-born and 26,925 or 41-5 per cent, were foreign-born. Of the latter 25-7 per cent, were born in Sweden, 22-9 per cent, in Canada, 14-7 per cent, in Norway, 7*9 per cent, in Finland and T'l per cent, in Germany, the remainder being mainly from Great Britain, Ireland, Poland, Austria and Russia. In addition to the immigrants from Sweden and Norway, a large number of the American-born inhabitants are also of Scandinavian parentage, principally Swedes, for tlie whole State of Minnesota was originally settled by people of that nationaUty. Being a distributing point for labour required in mines, lumber camps and in railway construction over the north-eastern part of the State, Duluth attracts a large number of foreign immigrants, groujjs of whom may be seen daily standing in the vicinity of the various employment registries. When their seasonal work is over, or when the monotony of cam}) life becomes unendurable, many men return to Duluth for a " spree," and the hard earnings of months may be spent in the course of a few days. In the circumstances it is not surprising that cases of intoxication appear numerous to the visitor. Conspicuous in appearance and character amongst this class of workers is the " Lumber Jack," who is notoriously good-natured and proud of the social recognition he can command amongst his own class so long as his pockets are full. The population is distributed over an area 22 miles long from east to west and half a mile wide on an average. The city boundaries embrace, in fact, a series of small towns extending along the steep slope of the hills which line the north bank of the river St. Louis and the head of Lake Superior. In the heart of the city, close to the harbour and the docks, is situated the business centre. The eastern portion of the city fronting the Lake is mainly occupied by handsome residences of the wealthy inhabitants, while the west end is predominantly working-class in character. Two picturesque suburbs have grown up on the eastern and north-eastern confines. Lakeside and Woodland, both of which are occupied by the business and professional classes and are connected with the centre by a service of electric cars. A working-class district. West Duluth, lies several miles from Duluth proper and is likewise connected with the latter by electric cars. Between these two places lie the docks of more recent construction, the lumber mills, ironworks, foundries and machine shops. On the extreme western limits, at a distance of 15 miles from the centre of the city, lies the small suburb of Fond du Lac, communication with which is maintained by a motor train service. The general aspect of the city and suburbs as viewed from the harbour is very picturesque, particularly in the summer time, when the hill-sides are covered with thick foliage. The city is laid out on the usual rectangular plan, with steep avenues rising from the water's edge to the crest of the hills, and crossed at right angles by streets most of which are lined with trees. Lake Avenue bisects the city proper, and all avenues east and west of it are numbered consecutively. Tall blocks of office buildings, varying from six to ten stories in height, and mainly brick structures of the steel-frame type, rise in the business portion of the city. Fine stone buildings, notably the County Court House, the Post Office and the High School, are conspicuous, as is also the building of the local Board of Trade, which contains one of the important " Grain Pits " of the country. Handsome hotels and churches assist in imparting a substantial and prosperous appearance to this city, which has grown up with such remarkable rapidity. DULIJTH. 187 The more important vital statistics of Duluth as registered for the period 1 904-8 are given in the following Table : — Year. Number of Births. Number of Deaths. 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1,440 1,354 1,517 1,684 1,750 717 834 940 961 882 Number of Deaths under one year. Number of Deaths from Tuberculosis. 133 173 211 200 178 124 76 96 101 105 The situation of Duluth is peculiarly healthy, as the steep sloping ground on which the majority of the houses stand affords a natural fall for the drainage, and at the same time exposes almost every house to the healthful breezes from Lake Superior. A small percentage of the sewage is treated in septic tanks, the remainder being discharged into the lake, where a constant current carries it away from the area of possible contamination to the water supply, which is drawn from a point in the lake eight miles east of the centre of the city. Municipal enterprises include street cleaning (paving and construction being let out by contract), the water service and the distribution of gas. The supply of gas is obtained by contract from a local undertaking which manufactures gas as a by-product ; the price to householders is 3s. l^d. net per 1,000 cubic feet. The electric light and power works and the street tramways belong to private companies. The tramway company charges a uniform fare of 2^d. for any distance within the city limits, one transfer to any branch line being allowed. No workmen's tickets are issued, nor is there any reduction in price on the purchase of a number of tickets. The city is well supplied with parks and open spaces, and a movement is on foot to provide a number of playgrounds for children. The total area covered by the parks is about 400 acres, and the largest of these, Lincoln Park, the Cascades and Lester Park, preserve some fine natural woodland and waterfalls. Two of these parks are situated close to the homes of tlie working people. In addition to these parks there is an open strip of land seven miles long fronting the lake, and separating it from the harbour, with entrances for shipping at its northern and southern ends. On this ground pine trees grow in abundance, and the sandy beach is a favourite resort for family picnics during the summer. Many bungalows have been erected there for summer residence, some owned by mechanics, and electric cars run for three miles along this peninsula. Across the shipping entrance at the Duluth end, passengers and vehicles are conveyed fi-ee by a suspended transporter worked by electricity, the first of the kind erected in America. Duluth possesses many well built public schools. Education is free and compulsory between the ages of eight and sixteen years, attendance being enforced by truant officers, who also act as factory inspectors, but these officers are authorised to issue labour jjermits to children who have attained the age of fourteen years, and whose employment is necessary for their own maintenance or the support of parents. The centre for secondary education, which is also free, is the High School, a fine stone building erected at a cost of about £100,000. The final examination of this school at the end of a four years' course gives admission to the State University. Two centres for technical instruction are also provided, with a four years' course in which practical instruction is given in moulding, forging, machine construction and woodworking. The curriculum also includes mathematics, physics, drawing (freehand and mechanical), surveying, commercial law, typewriting and shorthand. The city of Superior is connected with Duluth by railway, by electric cars and, during the period of open navigation, by a ferry service of small steamers across the harbour. Owing, however, to the high car fare, which is od. each way, and to the frequent delays caused by the opening of the swing bridge for the passage of steamers, few business or working-class people of Duluth find it ^practicable to reside in Superior, although the rent level is generally lower in the latter city. Apart from the activities at the docks, and at the large shipbuilding yard, where work fluctuates greatly, Superior is of little importance industrially at present, its manufacturing concerns being small and miscellaneous in character. The population in 1907 was a little over 40,000. Superior is well laid out in rectangular blocks, with broad streets nearly all lined with trees, while in the centre of the city are many handsome official and business buildings. 188 DULUTH. Occupations, Wages and Hours of Labour. The two most important industries at Duluth, from the point of view of the numbers employed, are those of lumber sawing and dock labour. In the former nearly 1,200 men are engaged, whilst nearly 800 men are employed in the allied industries of sash and door making and general woodworking. At the docks about 1,400 men are employed in the handling of coal, iron ore, grain, and general freight. The following Table shows the distributioQ of the industrial population of Duluth in 1907, according to figures supplied by the State Bureau of Labour ; but no figures were available for the building trades : — Industries. Number of Workpeople. Males over 16 years old. Females over 16 years old, Juveniles under 16 years old. Total. Dock Labour Woodworking : — Lumber Sawing ... Sash and Door Making ... Matchmaking General Woodworking ... Foundries and Machine Shops Smelting Works General Metal working Printing and Bookbinding Leather working Food Products Clothing Trades Laundries ... Other Industries Total 1,400 1,160 414 68 173 445 262 123 209 93 335 217 77 838 93 38 23 75 209 258 85 1 7 19 5 1 4 1 1 1,401 1,161 421 180 178 445 262 124 251 116 411 427 335 924 5,814 781 41 6,636 Owing to the ingenious labour-saving devices used, the number of dock labourers is not large relatively to the amount of tonnage handled. Ore trains come direct to the dock side, and the ore drops through the trap doors at the bottoni of the wagons into " pockets," which are large cavities in the side of the dock, each capable of holding over 220 tons of oi'e. Through a shoot attached to each pocket the ore pours direct through the hatchways of the steamer into the hold. As many as 36 shoots are sometimes in action simultaneously for one steamer, and 9,000 tons of ore have been loaded in the short time of an hour and a half. A small gang of men attend to the levers which work the trap-doors and the shoots. Trimming the ore in the hold is seldom resorted to, the voyage through the lakes being generally calm. The device used for unloading coal is the "clam-shell bucket," worked by machinery. The bucket, suspended from a huge rig or metal beam, descends into the hold and fills mechanically, after which it is hoisted and travels along the beam to the point of discharge on the dock side, where it opens and drops its contents. Few men are required to complete the work done by the " clam- shell " in the hold. The sawing of lumber is an industry which is only carried on during the season of open navigation. In the lumber mills ingenious labour-saving machinery, which runs day and night, is in use, converting logs into planks, laths and shingles with a surprisingly small amount of waste. The sawn timber is stacked alongside the docks to be loaded on to steamers by the longshoremen or " lumber shovers,' as they are called. Owing to the many processes involved, for each of which there is a special machine, attended by one or more men, this industry gives employment to a large amount of unskilled or semi- skilled labour during seven months of the year only, many of the men seeking employ- ment during the remaining five months in the forest lumber camps. Comparatively high wages are paid to men who simply feed the machines, since smartness and some degree of skill are frequently necessary in order to utilise fully the high rate of 8j>eed at which the machinery is run. Sawyers especially are paid high wages, as the lives of other men depend on their nerve and judgment, and consequently their work is not comparable with that of English sawyers. These men manipulate levers controlling machinery which fixes the logs in position on a travelling carriage and moves the latter to and fi*o in front of the band saw. Standing on this carriage are two or three men who by means of levers set or adjust the log to the band saw according to the thickness of the planks required. DULUTH. 189 This work is controlled by signs from the sawyer, whose judgment decides how best to utilise each log. The high speed at which the carriage runs may be appreciated from the fact that 2,000 to 2,500 logs are sawn daily by one macbine in ten hours, a rate of 200 to 250 jjer hour, and serious accidents are only averted by skill and nerve on the part of the sawyer who regulates the movement of this carriage. Gang sawyers tend a stationary machine in which a row of saws work vertically in cutting up whole logs into planks. This work is not attended with danger like the carriage, but the gang sawyer has to superintend several helpers. The jilanks are carried on rollers to other machines which strip off the bark and are attended by " edger men," after which they pass to the trimming machines and are there cut to the required lengths by circular saws made to rise and disappear under the action of levers. Many other processes complete the work done in a lumber mill manned for the most part by unskilled labour. The lumber industry appears destined to decline as the forest areas within reach become depleted. The iron and steel industry, however, promises to increase in importance owing to the advantages accruing from the smelting and working of the metal close to the ore mines. One factor of importance which is favourable to local industry is the low freight rates for coal brought by steamers from Pennsylvanian ports on Lake Erie. As the ore-carrying steamers going east would in many cases have to return under ballast, specially low rates are offered westward and coal is accordingly carried at one-third of the eastward rate. At present only one concern is engaged in the smelting of ore, but it is anticipated that in the near future the new works of the Steel Corporation will employ about 2,000 men. The making of logging machinery used in lumber camps -and of lumber mill and mining plant is carried on mainly by three firms. The long severe winter at Duluth and the closing of navii^ation durinsf the months when Lake Superior is frozen over — from December to the middle of April — naturally cause the protracted suspension of many local activities. Work ceases altogether in the lumber saw mills and also at the docks except for a small number of men •engaged in loading coal wagons from the supply accumulated during the period of navigation, and even this work is liable to frequent interruption when railways happen to be blocked with snow. Building operations are not entirely suspended, though as a rule bricklayers and masons cannot count on more than eight months of work during the year. More building is carried on in the winter than was formerly the case, but as the mortar has to be heated the extra expense is only entailed where urgent reasons exist for finishing the work in hand, and this applies principally to the erection of blocks of business buildings, whose proprietors are anxious to let the premises as soon as possible. Lumber camps in various 2>arts of the State provide opportunities of employ- ment in winter, but the arduous nature of the work, the monotony of the camp life and the crowding together of so many low-class foreigners, together with other objectionable features, make these camps vmattractive to a considerable portion of the local workmen, who ])refer to accept poorer-paid work near home when this can be had, or even to manage to get through the winter with no work at all, particularly when living in their own homes. The following Table shows the predominant weekly wages and hours of labour in February, 1909 :— Predominant Weekly Wages and Hours of Labour of Adult Males in the Principal Occupations in February, 1909. Predominant Predominant Weekly Wages. Weekly Hours of Labour. Building Trades .-^ Bricklaj^ers 130s. 48 Stonemasons 120s. 48 Stonecutters 112s. M. 48 Carpenters 90s. 48 Plasterers ... 125s. 48 Plumbers 125s. 48 Structural Iron Workers 87s. i6d. to 100s. 48 Painters 87s. &d. „ 90s. 48 Navvies 50s. CO Bricklayers' and Plasterers' Labourers 67s. 6d. 54 190 DULUTH. Predominant Weekly Wages. Predominant Weekly Hours of Labour. Foundries and Machine Shops : — Ironmoiilders ... Machinists Blacksmiths Patternmakers ... Labourers Lwnher and Woodworking Trades : — Sawyers Gang Sawyers ... Setters ... Edger Men Trimmer Men ... Millwrights Cabinetmakers ... Filers, Sorters, Labourers Printing Trades : — Newspaper — Compositors, Hand and Machine I xt- Juf -o,.]. Book and Job — Hand Compositors Dock Labour — see text. Public Services : — Street Construction, Paving and Cleaning— Paviors (Contractors' Men) ... Paviors' Labourers (Contractors' Men) Road Menders (Municipal Employees) Road Sweepers ( „ » ) Scavengers (Municipal Employees) ... Water Works (Municipal) — Labourers Gas Works (Company) — Heater Men and Gas Tenders Labourere Electric Light and Power Works (Company)- Linemen... Stokers Labourers Electric Tramways (Company) — Motormen and Conductors 78s. M. to 81a. M. 78s. 9f/. „ 87s. 6d. 75s. „ 79s. lid. 92s. 2d.. „ 93s. M. 45s. „ 50s. 150s. 68s. 9d. to 75s. 68s. M. „ 75s. 66s. M. „ 68s. 9d. 50s. „ 62s. 6d. 75s. 62s. &d. to 75s. 50s. „ 56s. 3d. 92s. to 95s. lOd. 100s. 75s. to 90s. lOd. 56s. ;w. 50.S. 50s. SOs. 50«. 55s. to 60s. 52s. Gd. 43s. M. 81s. M. to 87s. 6d. 60s. Id. 50s. Gd. 64s. id. to 67s. od. 54 to 59 54 „ 59 54 „ 59 59 54 to 59 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 48 48 48 to 54 60 60 48 48 48 48 84 70 48 84 77 73i Taking wages at New York as the base, = 100, in each case, the wages index numbers for Duluth are — building trades, skilled men 103, hod carriers and bricklayers' labourers 98 ; foundries and machine shops, skilled men 95, unskilled labourers 113 ; printing, hand compositors (job work) 95. At the freight docks "boss" stevedores in some cases undertake the work from sea captains or shipping firms on the tonnage basis, and engage labourers at an hourly rate. Several railway and shipping companies have their own superintendents to look after the work and pay the labourers a fixed hourly rate. The usual rate of wages paid to dock porters is 1^. l^d. per hour. At the ore docks employment is constant during open navigation and is suspended for the remainder of the year. From the opening of the season to July 1st the hourly rate is lOd., from July 1st to November Ist it is ll^d., and for the rest of the season Is. 0|rf. A ten-hour day (60 hours per week) is worked, and overtime is paid for h DULTJTH. 191 at the rate of Is. O^d. per hour until July 1st and Is. 3d. for the rest of the season, while Sunday rates are Is. 8d. and l,s'. o^d. for the corresponding periods. For night work slightly higher rates are paid. At the coal docks employment is constant on the whole, owing to the work of trans-shipment in addition to unloading, and is paid at the rate of lOd. to ll^d. per hour, a ten-hour day being the rule, while for casual work rates of Is. l^d. and Is. 3d. per hour are paid. Coal heavers receive 2s. 6d. per hour, but cannot count on more than three days' employment in any week. At the grain elevators, where woi'k is more casual, a uniform I'ate of Is. Ohd. per hour is paid. The wages of longshoremen are not included in the Table owing to the intermittent character of their work. They are the only class of dock labourers who are organised in a union. This union, which has branches at all the principal ports on the Great Lakes, controls the loading and unloading of lumber at all these places and imposes a stringent regulation to the effect that union men may only be employed for unloading lumber from any ship if union labour w&s employed for loading the same. Ca2)tains are consequently careful to employ only union men for loading lumber when these can be obtained. When, however, the supply of imion men is insufficient, and non-union labour has to be engaged, the captain is obliged to keep a flag flying at the masthead. While this flag is flying any union man who appears can require to be substituted for a non-union man. As soon as the last non-union man has left the ship the flag is hauled down. The union scale, which is thus effectively enforced, is 2s. Id. per hour for a ten-hour day. Overtime is paid for at the rate of time and a half. The union secretary estimates the average weekly earnings durhig the season of open navigation at 83s. 4(1. Tramway motormen and conductors are paid according to a scale ranging from lO^rf. to Is. O^d. per hour, the maximum rate being paid only to men who have served over Ave years ; early in 1909 the predominant rates were lOJrf. and lid. per hour, the average hours ot labour being about lOi daily, seven days a week. The men are not sujjplied with uniforms. The wages paid for unskilled labour frequently rise during harvest time, from the end of July to the end of August, when from 15,000 to 20,000 men are generally required in North and South Dakota, w^here harvesters are paid 8s. Ad. to 12s. 6d. per day in addition to board. During summer, railway construction is conducted on a large scale in this part of the States, The effect of these conditions is to force up wages for common labour at Duluth from July onwards, a rise of 2s. Id. to 4s. 2d. per day being frequent according to the supply available. One of the local railway companies employing the largest number of ore dock labourers has a sliding scale for wages as the season advances, the rate rising from 8s. M. to 10s. od. per day. The introduction of labour- saving devices at the docks and the advent of Austrian and Italian immigrants in increasing numbers each year threaten to neutralise the above conditions, especially as these immigrants live cheaply by herding together in boarding houses, where one of their number attends to the catering and the cookmg of food, and as their general standard of life is much lower than that of the Scandinavians and Finns, who have hitherto formed the bulk of the immigrants. Time rates are the rule in Duluth, except in the shipbuilding and boilermaking trades, w^here piece rates are frequent. Although a number of union rates are recognised no wages agreements are in force at Duluth, and the " open shop " is the rule. Building contractors established the principle of the " open shop " after a recent conflict with the unions, otherwise union rates and conditions have remained practically unaltered in these trades for some years. Wages are generally paid fortnightly, or twice during the calendar month, and by cheque. A large percentage of these cheques are cashed in the saloons on pay days, the saloon keepers being supplied with the necessary money by the local breweries. This system is considered to lead to more drinking than would be the case if wages were paid in cash. The usual American holidays are observed, but not strictly; and the Saturday half-holiday is exceptional. The eight-hour day obtains generally in the building trades and for compositors. Workmen in the building trades are ex]3ected to have their tools in order, and no time is allowed for preliminaries when working hours begin. In the foundries and machine shops from .54 to 59 hours per week are worked, while at the lumber mills and docks a ten-hour day or 60-hour week is universal. 192 DULUTH. Housing and Rents. Working-class houses are situated mainly in the west end of Duluth proper and in West Duluth, which is a district quite detached from the city, but they are also found scattered over the central portion of the city, in alleys, over shops and iu tenement blocks, though they are not numerous there owing to the higher rents which prevail generally. The various nationalities do not congregate in particular localitiea excepting the Austrians and Italians, who are not sufficiently numerous, however, to need special consideration. A large proportion of working-class people live in houses which they are gradually purchasing on the instalment system, a practice which leads to a considerable increase in the amount of daily travel by cars to and from work, as houses are selected for other reasons than proximity to the place of employment. As the tramway cars are every evening crowded with workmen returning home it is evident that a large number are in the habit of using this means of locomotion. The large majority of those who are purchasing their homes are Scandinavians, who, though Americanised to a very considerable extent, still retain the frugal habits of their race and especially the strong desire to possess their own homes. Local agents foster the purchase system by tempting offers of easy payments. The usual size of a plot of ground for a workman's cotfcige is 25 feet by 125 feet and the cost from £52 to £83 according to situation. A frame house consisting of four rooms costs from £167 to £208 and a six-roomed house from £250 to £313. One local land company is developing an outlying district, called Duluth Heights, which is reached by a steep grade railway worked by gravitation. This company offers building plots at from £26 to £31 on condition of a cash deposit of 41,9. Sd., the balance, with interest, being payable in 60 monthly instalments. The same company offers to build houses of several types at from £167 to £250 each after a cash deposit of from £33 to £50, the remainder of the purchase money, with interest, taking the form of a monthly rent of from 58s. Ad. to 66s. 8d. payable until the amount is paid off. During sickness payments may be suspended for a maximum period of three months on production of a doctor's certificate stating that the purchaser is unable to follow his employment. If from any other cause than sickness the purchaser should fail in his payments for more than one month the company may require the immediate payment of the balance due, or may rescind the contract, in which case all previous payments made by the purchaser are forfeited. Agents are said on the whole to be lenient with purchasers and the success of these enter- prises would seem to corroborate this statement. With the exception of men employed in the building trades, particularly carpenters, who are able to do a portion of the work of construction themselves, comparatively few of the American-born workmen seem to be able to purchase their own homes and at the same time to maintain their higher standard of life. Lumber companies supply all the exterior and interior framewoi'k of fittings for houses all ready prepared, so that the work of construction is considerably facilitated. The Scandinavians have a natural aptitude for woodworking, and this fact, together with their frugal habits, undoubtedly accounts for the fact that so many of them succeed in securing their own homes within a reasonable time. The United States Census of 1900 showed that the percentage of homes owned free by their occupants at Duluth was 24*2 and that of homes owned encumbered 11*5, the remaining 64*3 percent, being rented. Since 1900, however, the system of house purchase has grown in popularity, and the difficulty of finding rented dwellings which existed in most working-class districts at the time of the investigation would seem to indicate that the percentage of rented dwellings is lower now than ten years ago. The predominant type of rented dwelling is, in the case of less skilled workmen, a flat of three or four rooms and, in the case of better-paid mechanics, one of five or six rooms. These flats are frequently found in tenements but more generally on the ground and first floors of two-storied houses, in many of which the owner occupies one floor and lets the other in order to pay off the purchase money more rapidly. There are compara- tively few rented houses in which the tenant does not sublet one or more rooms. Extremely varied conditions obtain as to situation, structure and conveniences, and these are all reflected in the rents charged. Flats in divided houses are rarely self-contained, the front entrance serving both for the downstairs and the upstairs flat, but a separate back entrance to the first floor flat, reached by outer stairs, is fairly common. As the downstairs occupier has the advantage of the use of the porch or verandah the rent charged is usually higher than that for the first floor flat. The water-tap and sink are as a rule in the kitchen on each floor, and a food pantry and several clothes closets are DULUTH. 193 common features. At the rear of the house is a drying ground, with wood sheds and privies. Sometimes a bathroom and water - closet are shared by both tenants. A. divided house has usually three or four rooms on each floor. A certain number of flats are found in tenement blocks three stories high, the ground-floor flat being in some cases a semi - basement, owing to the sloping ground on which the block is built. These latter dwellings, however, are not sufficiently numerous to form a class by themselves, and the same remark applies to the houses adjoining back alleys. The tenement blocks of the older type are frame built and have a common yard with wood sheds and privies. Access to the dwellings is by a common entrance and passage on the ground floor. Stairs lead from the passage to landings on the floors above, where the flats are ranged on both sides of long passages, which are not infrequently poorly lighted. Sometimes water-closets shared by several families are situated on the landings. Each flat has a water-tap and sink in the kitchen and one or more clothes closets. In most cases each room receives direct light. Modern flats, mostly of fi\'e or six rooms, are found in rows of two-storied brick houses, in tenement blocks also of brick, or over shops. Each flat is self-contained and furnished with a bathroom in which the water-closet is placed. In most cases they have food pantries and clothes closets and are wired for electric light. Conveniences for wash- ing and for storing wood and coal are pro\'ided either on the open ground at the rear or in the basement. A vestibule or lobby is also a common feature. Tiers of narrow wooden stairs at the rear give the upstairs tenants access to the yards. Owing to the great variety of housing which prevails in Dulutli predominant dimensions of rooms cannot Jbe given. Measurements taken in a number of dwellings of normal character, however, showed living rooms to vary in size from 10 feet by 10 feet to 12 feet 6 inches by 15 feet with a fairly general height of 9 feet. Bedrooms vary from 9 feet by 10 feet to 10 feet by 15 feet. In five and six-roomed dwellings a small bedroom is often found measuring from 7 feet by 7 feet G inches to 8 feet by 10 feet, the height being generally 9 feet. Frame houses of the more modern kind have a stone foundation. The most modern houses and flats have a large cement basement containing one or more furnaces for heating the rooms above by means of pipes. As a general rule working-class tenants heat their dwellings by means of a stove in which anthracite coal is burnt. As the rooms all open into each other the heat from this stove warms the whole dwelling. In the kitchen is another stove for cooking, in which soft coal or wood is burnt. Both stoves are always the property of the tenant. No statistics are available as to the amount of overcrowding that exists at Duluth, but an inspection of all the working-class neighbourhoods justifies the conclusion that at present this is not a serious evil. In West Duluth and the west end of Duluth most of the working-class houses have abundance of air and light owing to their being as a rule detached or semi-detached, the buildings standing 6 feet apart, and having open ground or 3'ards in the rear. The alleys separating the back yards of houses are required to be not less than 16 feet wide. There is, however, a tendency to erect a second house on a building plot, the front house being removed back towards the alley to make room for the additional structure. Tenement blocks in a number of "cases cover too large a proportion of the building jjlot, to the detriment of light and ventilation, and this tendency becomes more marked towards the centre of the city where land is dearer. Duluth has not yet developed a slum district, but the tendency just mentioned, unless checked, will inevitably produce serious congestion in the future. Water-closets are fairly general in sewered streets but a large number of privies are met with in various parts of the city. Garbage cans have to be provided by the tenants and both these and the privies are emptied at the cost of the tenants by scavengers licensed by the sanitary authorities. The emptying charge is bd. per garbage can and 8gC?. per cubic foot for privies. Sometimes in tenement blocks one large garbage can is used by several tenants, and the periodical charge of Is. 0^^. for emptying this is divided amongst them. City water is supplied to all houses except those in streets high up the hill sides and those in some of the streets in West Duluth, in which cases water has to be obtained fi-om the nearest supply available. The foUoW'ing Table shows the predominant weekly rents paid f(.)r working-class dwellings in Duluth in February, 1909 : — 16576 N 194 DULUTH. Predominant Rents of Working-class Dicellinijs. Number of Rooms per Dwelling. Predominant Weekly Rents. Three rooius Old Modern Four rooms — Old ( Old Five rooms \ Partly Modern ( Modern Six rooms — Modern s. M. to 7s. M. 13s. M. 7s. 8rf. .11.S. 6f/. 15s. 5rf. 20s. 2d. 21s. 2d. 15s. M. lis. 6d. 15s. bd. 18s. 3d 24s. 25.S. The above figures include the water charges, which in the case of flats are nearly always paid by the owner. Rents are j^aid monthly and in adyance. In the centre of the city rents are t)ften considerably higher than those quoted in the Table, but working-class dwellings are not sufficiently numerous in that quarter, and conditions are too varied, to justify separate classification. In the small district of West Duluth rents are lower than in Duluth proper, partly owing to its distance from the centre and its proximity to ^vorks employing mainly unskilled labour, but owing also to the more primitive conditions of the locality, few of the streets being sewered, and stone foundations to houses being rare. Few mechanics reside in this district. Four-roomed flats cost from 75. 3c?. to 7s. 8d. weekly here, and six- roomed dwellings of the older type from 95. Id. to II5. Gd., semi -modem ones from 125. 6d. to 145. od. and modern ones from I65. 4d. to 195. M. Retail Prices. The food supplies of Duluth are nearly all brought a considerable distance, there being little agriculture or market gardening in this part of the State, The gi'ocery and provision trade is entirely in the hands of local dealers : the " multiple " shop is unknown, and the few " department stores " cater for the better class customers. A small co-operative society commenced business in December, 1908, and in June, 1909 its membership numbered 215. A member's share costs 4l5. 8d. and the limit of investment is fixed at iilO 85. M. On these shares interest at 6 percent, is paid, and on purchases a dividend of 1^ per cent, was paid for the first half year. The credit system prevails almost universally, and bills are paid half-monthly or monthly, according as wages are paid by local firms. Groceries and other Commodities, In the matter of groceries and provisions no marked differences of taste prevail between the American and Scandinavian portions of the population, but the latter exercise greater frugality. Comparatively little bread is sold owing to the prevailing habit of baking at home. Both wlieaten and rye breads are sold, the -latter in small quantity to those Scandinavians and Slavs who retain their taste for it. Wheaten loaves are sold at the uniform price of 2^d. ; the ])redominant weights in June, 1909, were found to be from 12 to 14 oz, per loaf. Rye loaves, ran^ging from 1^ to 2 lb. in weight, cost M. per loaf. One kxjal firm has obtained almost a monopoly of the milk trade. In winter the price is 4^d. for single quarts and A\d. where two or more (juarts are bought daily. Small cowkeepers on the outskirts supply their neighbours with milk at 4*. 2d. for 12 or 13 quarts. In summer milk is ^d. per quart cheaper. The Health Department in its annual report publishes for each milk dealer and cowkeeper separately the results of the inspection made by its officers, stating in the case of each dealer the })ercentage of butter fat found in .samples obtained, and in the ca.se of each cow-shed tlie number of marks assigned for cleanliness and .sanitary conditions. Coffee, principally ground and roasted, is consumed to a far greater extent than tea. White granulated sugar is the only kind in general use, and is usually sold in quarter-dollar, half-dollar and dollar bags. Brown sugar is used for cooking and for making candy. Bacon comes almost exclusively from the Chicago packing-houses. As local supplies of eggs are meagre the only kind in general use are cold storage. DULUTH. 195 Creamery butter is the kind mostly in demand, costing l.s. 3d. to Is. b^d. per lb. A small amount of local farmers' butter is sold at Is. O^d. per lb. Potatoes (Irish) are brought long distances to Duluth, bj' rail when navigation is closed. They are sold mainly by the peck. Both anthracite and bituminous coal are used, the former predominating. The latter is only used for cooking purposes by the poorer classes, and even these often prefer slab wood from the lumber mills, purchasing it from hawkers at prices varying according to the distance from the mills, the situation on the hillside and the size of the load. Anthracite coal is sold only by the short ton of 2,000 lb., the half- ton and the quarter- ton and the price of the kind mainly in demand is 32s. 3Jrf. per (short) ton, 17s. 3JcZ. per half-ton and 95. 7d. per quarter-ton, delivered. The whole trade is in the hands of a few companies. An extra charge of Is. O^d. per ton is made for delivery in West Duluth and in streets high up the hillside. This extra charge affects a considerable number of working-class people. Bituminous coal (Hocking Valley Lump) is sold at 19s. d^d. per (short) ton, lis. O^d. per half-ton and 65. bhd. per quarter-ton. The price of hard wood is 25s. per cord unsawn and 28s. l^d. sawn. An additional 4s. 2d. per cord is charged for cartage. Coke is not much used. The local firm which produces it requires it for the blast furnaces. Predominant Prices paid by the Working Classes in February, 1909. Commodity. Predominant Price, Tea . per lb. Is. Sd. to 2s. Id. Coffee • *» lOd. „ Is. Oid. Sugar : — White Granulated " ^y •6d. Brown »' M. Bacon, Breakfast — Boneless . . J? Ikl. to lOrf. Eggs per Is. " 8 „ 12 Cheese : — American per lb. 9^;. ., lid. Brick * 1) iOd. Butter )» Is. 3d. to Is, Ud. Potatoes, Irish . per 7 lb. b^d., 6d. Flour, Wheaten — Household ?1 Hid., llld. Bread, "White . per 4 lb. Hid. Milk . per quart iid. to 4ff/. Coal :— Anthracite . per cwt. Is, 9|rf.» ; Is. Uid.t ; 2s, Ifdf Bituminous i» Is. 1W,» ; Is. 2M.t ; Is. 5|rf.t Kerosene . per gallon lid. to 8id. • By the ton of 2,000 lb. t By the half-ton (1,000 lb.). J By the quarter-ton (500 lb.). Meat. Very little home-killed meat is sold at Duluth, stock raising not being carried on to any extent in the north-eastern part of the State, The principal sources of supply are the packing centres of St. Paul, Chicago and Omaha, and the meat is all chilled or fi'ozen. Large Chicago firms have extensive cold storage premises at Duluth, using the city as a distributing centre for the mining districts. There are only two local abattoirs, both small, and these are visited by the meat inspector, as also are the butchers' shops of the city. Meat is sold almost entirely in separate shops and is rarely seen inside grocery shops. The method of catting beef, veal and lamb does not differ materially from thai practised generally in other cities. The chuck is the portion of the forequarter remaining after the first six ribs and the plate (the thin half of the forequarter) have been cut away. Mutton and veal are cut similarly to beef. Beef and pork are mainly in demand amongst working-class buyers, mutton or lamb and veal being consumed to a small extent only. Scandinavians have a decided preference for lean meat and are also large consumers of fish, principally fresh-water herring {l^d. to 2^d. per lb.), lake trout and white fish (Gjrf. per lb.). 16576 N Z 196 DTJLUTH. The following Table shows the predominant pi'ices paid by the working classes for various cuts of meat in February, 1909 : — Predominant Prices paid hy the Working Classes in Fcbrtiari/, 1909. Description of Cut. Beef :— Roasts — Round „ Ribs prime „ Ribs second cut „ Chuck or short ribs ... Steaks — Round „ Sirloin Shin without bone Plank Plate, Brisket ...{^J^^'J^^.^;;^^^ Mutton or Lamb : — Leg Breast Loin Chops Shoulder Neck Veal :— Cutlets Rib chops Loin chops Breast Neck ... Pork :— Fresh — Loin „ Spare rib j „ Shoulder „ Chops Corned (wet salt or pickled) ... Dry salt Ham Shonlder, salt or smoked Predominant Price jier lb. 6d. to lid. Ud. 6|d to 7id M. „ 6id. lid- 9d. to lOd. b(l. 2y. to 4f/. '4d. „ M. 2id. „ 3d. Id. lid. to 9d. lid. „ Orf. M. „ lU. id. „ 5a. 9d. l^d. l\d. to 9(7. 5d. M. Hd. 5d. od. Cid. to Ihd. &\d. „ ltd. 6; d. „ l^d. lid. 5d. Prices at New Yoi'k being taken as the base,=: 100, in each case, the index number for the ])rice of meat at Duluth is 90, for other food it is 98 and for food prices as a whole 96. i9r FALL RIVER. Fall River, the largest cotton manufacturing centre in the United States, is situated on high ground rising sharply from a somewhat narrow bay or inlet which opens to the sea between Long Island Sound and Cape Cod. The city is in Massachusetts, but stands very close to the boundary between that State and Rhode Island. It is 49 miles distant by rail from Boston and about 180 miles distant from New York. With the latter city Full River is connected by a line of large paddle steamers which depart each evening and afford good facilities for night travelling. Besides its rail and water connexions, Fall River shares in an extensive electric tramway sy&tem which provides direct com- munication not only with the scattered villages lying within the city's wide boundaries, but also with Providence, New Bedford, Newport and other important towns in the district. The electric cars also offer a slower but cheaper route, alternative to the railway, to Boston and other places at a considerable distance. The site of the city is a granite j^lateau of uneven contour, varying in height from about 150 feet, a short distance from the river, to about 250 feet in the well-to-do residential district of the " Highlands." To this high situation and its exposure to the wind is in part due a certain brightness of aspect which is not commonly associated with large industrial centres. As bearing upon the general appearance of the city mention should be made of the prevalent use of anthracite coal not only in dwellings, but also to some extent in the mills. The extreme length of the city of Fall River is about eleven miles and the greatest width about seven miles, but long before these limits are reached the houses thin out in districts of a rural character. No important extension of boundaries appears to have taken place since 1862. The following Table shows the population in the Federal Census years 1870-1910 : — Year. Population, Increase. Percentage Increase, 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 26,766 48,961 74,398 104,863 119,295 22,195 25,437 30,465 14,432 82-9 52-0 40-9 13-8 It will be seen that in the earlier part of the period covered by the above Table the growth of population was rapid. Since 1900, however, there has been a somewhat striking check in the rate of increase. This was due in part to severe industrial disputes, and in part to trade depression, resulting probably from the expansion of the cotton industry in the Southern States, where much of the plainer and coarser kinds of work previously done in the old-established New England mills is now carried on. The Federal Census of 1900 showed that at that date Fall River had a higher percentage of foreign-born inhabitants than any other large city in the United States, but from the State Census taken in 1905 it appeared that Fall River then ranked after Lawrence m respect of the proportion of foreign-born inhabitants, who in the former city constituted 43*9 per cent, of the total population^ as compared with 46'1 per cent, at Lawrence. Of the foreign-born inhabitants, 36"2 per cent, were born in Canada (9o"9 per cent, of these being French Canadians), 26"7 per cent, in Great Britain, 13"2 per cent, in Ireland, 10"9 per cent, in the Western Islands of Portugal, 4*2 per cent, in Portugal itself and 2'9 per cent, in Russia. If the immigrants from the United Kingdom and the English-speaking Canadians be regarded as one group they constitute more than 42 per cent, of the foreign-born population of the city and over 18 per cent, of the entire popula- tion. Inasmuch as similarity of language and, to a large extent, of traditions makes the points of difference between this national group and the native-born slight, the significance 16676 N 3 198 FALL RIVER. of these figures is obvious. Among the English immigrants — who are mostly from Lancashire — there are not wanting signs of a cohesive tendency, and a warm regard for much that has been left behind in the " old country " tinges many a conversation ; but, on the whole, the English assimilate to the American type very closely and rapidly, and their inclusion among the figures of " foreign-born " residents has not the same signifi- cance as, say, the inclusion of Portuguese, Russians or even French Canadians. The French Canadians form the most distinctive national group in the city, having preserved, unaffected by American conditions, their religion, language and, to a large extent, their customs. Their economic position in Fall liiver does not differ materially from that which they occupy in other New England cities, and it is not necessary here to repeat the more general description of their characteristics which will be found in the report on Lowell, a city Avhich in many respects shows a strong likeness to Fall River. The immigration into Fall River has taken place in a series of waves. The Irish came first, in the years following the agricultural crisis of the early 'forties, and though they still continiie to come, the movement has spent its force. The next important influx was that of the French Canadians, who like the Irish came to fill the unskilled positions in the cotton mills. This movement has nearly ceased, and the French Canadians, speaking generally, have now risen in the industrial scale, and occupy a position between that of the experienced English immigrants from a Lancashire factory and that of the more recently ai-rived Portuguese. The Portuguese represent one of the most recent large additions to the foi-eign- born population. The majority come from the Azores and other neighbouring islands. So far, the process of assimilation has not gone far. They maintain their own churches, and have so congregated together that certain quarters of the city have become identified with them. Though the majority of the Portuguese probably enter the mills to stay, yet many have a keen ambition to become possessed of farms and a considerable number of these drift off, not so nmch to the larger holdings in the Middle and Far West, as to the small and somewhat poor farms of New England itself. Other peoples represented are the Russians and Poles. These share with the Portuguese the roughest kinds of work in the mills. They do not show the same cohesive power as some of the other foreign nationalities. They are congregated, however, to a large extent, along the strip of land in the immediate neighbourhood of the river, and then- dwellings present probably the lowest standard of housing accommodation in the city. It may be noted here that though Fall River has been affected to so great an extent by immigration, there are, on the whole, but few signs of those congested conditions of housing which in some cities are associated with the presence of a large alien population. In the neighbourhood just mentioned as being occupied largely by the Russians and Poles, there are many obtrusive signs of squalor and congestion, but, regarding the city as a whole, it may be stated that the practice of building the tenement houses as separate detached blocks secures for the inhabitants, in most instances, a sufficiency of light and air, though among some of the immigrant classes it is probable that, even in dwelUngs which are themselves satisfactory from a hygienic point of view, a certain amount of overcrowding exists. The following Table shows the general and infantile mortality for the years 1904 to 1908 :— Year. Number of Deaths. Deaths under one Year. 1904 2,047 812 1905 2,139 809 1906 2,073 848 1907 2,359 991 1908 2,358 681 The total number of deaths due to zymotic diseases was 404 in 1908 and 553 in 1907. The number of deaths due to tubercular diseases (including phthisis) during the period 1904-S was as follows :— 1904, 166 ; 1905, 141 ; 1906, 166 ; 1907, 257 ; 1908, 143. The large increase shown for the year 1907 is not specially commented on in the reports of the Board of Health. Municipal organisation in Fall River is generally similar to that of other cities in Massachusetts, the sanitary condition of the city being under the special care of the Board FALL RIVER. 199 t)f Health, which consists for the most part of local medical men serving voluntarily. This department of the city's activities has recently been reorganised. At the present time the actual administrative work is done by an agent or chief inspector and by a number of other inspectors, Avho are assigned special duties, e.()., inspector of plumbing, inspector of milk and oleomarg-arine, inspector of animals and veterinary supervisor of food supplies. There are, in addition, two sanitary inspectors engaged on general duties connected with contagious diseases, the removal of sanitary nuisances and the periodic visiting of all houses in the city. Since May, 1907, particular care has been taken with a view to securing the purity of the milk supply. The regulations provide that every person wishing to sell milk in the city must first procure a licence from the Board of Health. As a condition of his obtaining this he must produce a veterinary certificate as to the condition of the cows belonging to himself or to the person from whom he proposes to obtain his supplies. No fresh cattle can be added to a herd supplying the city without first undergoing a tuberculin test. An inspector is assigned specially to the duty of visiting all sources of supply in and around the city with a view to satisfying himself as to the soundness of the animals and the cleanliness of the sheds and utensils. The city undertakes the care of consumptives as well as of those suftering from the diseases ordinarily classed as contagious. It appears from the report of the Board of Health for 1907, however, that owing to the lack of funds the hospital pi'ovision of the city during that year Avas inadequate. The electric lighting and gas supplies and the tramway services are controlled by private enterprise, the tramway forming part of a very extensive system covering a large portion of East and South Massachusetts. The water supply is municipal, and is obtained from a large lake lying north of the city, which is regularly patrolled with a view to preventing contamination. Through its Board of Park Commissioners the city also maintains cemeteries and two parks, one of which is a fine open, breezy green, commanding an extensive view of the bay on which the city stands and of the country beyond. Mention should also be made of a well-equipped Textile School, which provides day and evening instruction in both designing and practical processes connected with the staple industry of the city. In Fall River the roads are for the most part cobbled, but the side walks in the centre of the city and along the chief roads are paved in the oi-dinary way with flags. In many of the residential streets, however, the paving is intermittent, short stretches of flags alternating with the roughly trodden bank according to no apparent system. The city revenues are obtained in the main from a tax on real and personal property and a poll tax. Each citizen is supposed to make an exhaustive declaration of his property, and the amount required by the city authorities is levied on a pro rata basis. The poll tax is a tax of 8s. 4J. primarily on all men of not less than 20 years of age. The assessors have power, however, to abate this levy in cases of infirmity, poverty or old age, and in practice about 15 per cent, of the total amount assessed is abated on these grounds. Both the ])oll and property taxes are collected together. The total amomit raised from both sources in 1907 was £339,047, representing a rate of 1*82 per cent, of declared property, real and personal. The whole of the sum raised is not available for civic purposes, however, for each city contributes to the State funds, which are principally derived from this source. The amount contributed by Fall Kiver to the Massachusetts Treasury in 1907, for various purposes, was £26,245, while the sum of £24,599 was passed over to the county authorities. The chief source of municipal revenue in 1907 besides the taxes were the receipts from liquor licences, which amounted to £31,298. During the year beginning May 1st, 1909, however, the liquor traffic was prohibited in the city, so that this item almost disappeared, but the prohibition decision was reversed in 1910. Occupations, Wages and Hours of Labour, The industrial position of Fall River is sufficiently indicated by the State statistics of manufactures. The report for 1908 shows that out of the total value of all products returned at £10,788,310, no less than £8,543,379, or 79 per cent., represented the value of cotton goods. The city is therefore dependent almost entirely upon the cotton industry, and the fact that it has no second important industry to fall back upon is recognised locally as being responsible for the severity with which the industrial disturbances of the past few years have affected the general commercial, trading and professional classes, besides those directly concerned in cotton manufacture. 16576 N i 200 FALL KIVER. The following Table, based upon the Federal Census for 1900, shows the distribution of the population of Fall River among- the chief groups of occupations : — Number of Persons of 10 years of aqe and over engaged in Occupations in Fall River in 1900. Occupations. Males. Females. 2,146 4 1,102 3 12,762 11,375 1,007 1,850 215 11 239 286 120 850 128 10 179 25 432 13 1,815 129 6,303 816 2,631 10 Total. Building Metalworking and Engineering Cotton Other and not specified Textile Boot and Shoe Malcing Hat and Cap Making Other Clothing Woodworking and Furnishing Paper and Printing Food, Drink and Tobacco Other Manufacturing and Mechanical Pursuits Trade and Transportation Labourers (not otherwise specified) Professional, Domestic and Personal Service and' Agricultural Pursuits All Occupations ... 2,379 31,448 2,346 2,150 1,105 24,137 2,857 226 525 970 138 204 445 1,944 7,119 2,631 4,725 17,728 49,176 It will be seen that practically half of the total population engaged in occupations is employed in the cotton industry. The only other branches of manufacture of special importance are hat and cap making, carried on by one large firm, and metalworking and engineering. The last-named trade is represented by a number of shops engaged almost entirely in repair work, and also by a firm of considerable size making looms and other textile machinery. The following Table, based on the Massachusetts State enumeration of industrial wage-earners for 1908, is less wide in scope, but it is of interest not only as relating to a later date but also as showing the great fluctuation in employment which took place in 1908 :— Number of Wage-earners employed in 1908 in the Manufacturing Industries of Fall River. Wage-earners Employed, Industry. Average Number. Smallest Number. Greatest Males. Females. Total. Number. Cotton Goods Cotton Small Wares Foundry and Machine Shop Products Other Industries 12,739 75 520 3,625 11,486 77 27 1,209 "24,225 152 547 4,834 17,589 119 450 3,454 28,551 199- 656 5,711 All Industries 16,959 12,799 29,758 21,612 35,117 It will be seen that in the leading industry of the city a great fluctuation in employ- ment took place in the year. In 1907 the average number employed in this industry was 28,944. Fall River is the largest cotton manufacturing city in the United States, the number of spindles being estimated in 1906 at nearly 3,400,000, or about one-seventh of the total for the whole country, and the number of looms at over 82,000. As is usual iu the cotton manufacturing centres of the United States, both spinning and weaving are done under the same roof. Finishing and bleaching are also carried on to a large extent. Several of the mills are operated partly by water power, and to the possibilities presented by the stream which flows partly through and partly under the city is due no doubt the early localisation of the cotton industry in this district. The mills appear to be fitted with machinery of the most modern design. The Northrop and other self-acting looms are largely used, especially for the plainer varieties of cloth in which an even tension is possible during weaving. A machine for performing FALL RIVER. 201 the tedious process of drawing-in has been introduced recently. The appearance of most of the mills is plain and business-like, but not unattractive. They appear to be generally well hghted and airy. No regulation of artificial humidity is imposed by the factory inspection authorities. In the weaving department the number of looms per worker is greater than in England, twelve being the most usual number. The looms are lighter and are run at less sjjeed than those of Lancashire. In the mule-spinning room one man usually looks after two pairs of mules, with a total of about 3,000 spindles. It should be mentioned that in recent years mule spinning has shown a marked tendency to leave Fall River and increase at New Bedford. This change coincides with and implies a change from relatively coarser to finer counts in the latter city, and the converse process in the former. The principal trade unions in the textile industry are the Mule Spinners' Union, which comprises practically all the workers, about 350 men ; the Card Room Workers' Union, which includes about one-third of the total number employed in this department ; the Slasher Tenders' Union, with a membership of about 80 per cent, of the total ; and the Weavers' Union, numbering about 3,000 out of 10,000 employed in the city. Generally, the unions pay accident, strike and break-down benefits. Out-of-work or sick benefits are not common, and there is no trade union provision for old age. The following general changes in rates of wages in the cotton industry have taken place since July, 1906 : — In November, 1906, there was an increase of 10 per cent. ; in May, 1907, an increase of 10 per cent. ; and in May, 1908, a reduction of 18 per cent., so that wages now bear a relation to those of July, 1906, of 99'22 : 100. These changes affected all classes of labour. Wages are at present regulated by agreement, according to which the rates are revised every six months and fixed according to the margin existing between the average price of middling upland cotton and the selling price of a certain ■quality of print cloth. The two essential clauses of this agreement are as follows : — 1. 10'89rf. per cut shall be the recognised standard price for a margin of 95 points, based on the cost of 81b. of middhng upland cotton and the average selling price of 45 yards of 28 inches 64 x 64 print cloth and 33'11 yards of 38^ inches 64 x 64 cloth. Quotations from the " New York Journal of Commerce " shall be considered authori- tative. 2. The standard of wages shall be fixed every six months, beginning the last Monday in May and November of each year, and no oftener, and shall be based on the average margin, as fixed above, for the previous six months. Prices for weaving shall be ^s follows : — With a margin of 115 d. 11-98 11-845 11-71 • •• ■•• J-XOi 11-435 • •• ••• Xl *^t/0 11-16 11-025 10-89 10-75 10-615 10-48 ... 10-345 10-09 9-83 ■ • • • • • *j OoO 9-34 ... 9-00 but there shall be no change in prices on either the ascending or descending scale unless the margin has reached a point named in the above schedule. 9-OOf/. per cut shall be the minimum rate paid for weaving ; ll-98rf. shall be the maximum. Wages in all depart- ments other than weaving shall be adjusted on the price for weaving as above deter- mined. It should be remarked that this agreement was departed from in favour of the workers on the occasion of the last reduction in May, 1908. Had the agreement taken full effect the reduction would have been much more than that which actually occurred, viz., 18 per cent. In February, 1909, the margin was 80 points. J. J.l» ^ 112i >Ullll/0 •• . ... 110 1071 105 1021 100 97^ 95 92J 90 871 85 m 80 771 75 721 202 FALL RIVER. In February, 1909, the predominant wages and hours of labour for adult males in various occupations were as shown in the following Table : — Predominant Weekly Wages and Hours of Labour of Adult Males in the Principal Occupations in Fehruary, 1909. Building Trades :— Bricklayers Stonemasons Stonecutters Carpenters ... ... ... ... ... ... Plasterers Plumbers Painters ... Hod Carriers, Bricklayers' and Plasterers' Labourers General Labourers Foundries and Machine Shops .• — Ironmoulders Machinists Patternmakers ... Labourers Cotton Industry : — Picker Hands Card Grinders Card Strippers Drawing Frame Tenders Mule Spinners Slasher Tenders Loom Fixers Weavers Bleachers and Dyers Printing Trades: — Newspaper — Hand Compositors — Day work Machine Compositors — Day work Pi-essmen — Day work Book and Job — Hand Compositors Pressmen (Small Presses) Public Services : — Street Construction, Paving and Cleaning (Municipal) — Paviors — Cobble Paviors — Block ... Paviors' Labourers, Koad Menders, Scavengers and 1 Road Sweepers ... ... ... ... j Drivers, One horse Drivers, Two horses Water Works (Municipal) — Labourers Gas Works* (Company) — Gasmakers Firemen Labourers Electric Light and Power Works (Company) — Engineers ... ... ... ... ' ... Switchboard Men ... Wii'emen and Linemen Labourers — Fire room Others Electric Tramways (Company) — Motormen and Condftctorsf — 1st year 2nd year 3rd, 4th and 5th years 6th and 7th years After 7 years 105s. 105s. 75s. to 87s. 6f/. 75s. 105s. 81s. 3f/. 68s. 9f/. 43s. °)d. 37s. 6f/. 62s. Qd. to 75s. 50s. to 70s. lOd. 75s. 33s. M. to 37s. &d. 27s. M. to 30s. 9f/. 41s. 8f/. „ 45s. IQxl. 29s. 2d. 24s. Id. 50s. 43s. Id. , 50s. 33s. 4r/. 35s. bd. 31s. 3f/. 28s. id. 70s. lOr/. 45s. Id. 52s. Id. 45s. 1(V/. 39s. Id. 66s. 8f/. 83s. M. 83s. id. 66s. ^d. 54s. 2d. to 70s. lOf/. 56s. :w. 125s. 56s. M. 56s. .3f/. 62s. &d. 56s. Zd. 61s. Zd. to 65s. 8f/. 56s. 43s. M. 87s. &d. 58s. id. to 70s. lOrf, 62s. 6f/. „ 75s. 45s. lOd. „ 50s. 37s. M. „ 45s. 61.S-. 3d 61s. 2d. 67s. Id. 70s. 72s. lid. 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 54 54 58 58 58 58 58 58 58 58 58 51 to 58 58 58 58 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 84 84 60 84- 84 54 84 54 70 70 70 70 70 • Water Gas Works. t 67«. Id. was the rate received by the majority of the men. FALL EIVER. 203 Taking wages at New York as the base, =100, in eacli case, the wages index numbers for Fall River are — building trades, skilled men 83, hod carriers and brick- layers' labourers 64 ; foundries and machine shops, skilled men 80, unskilled labourers 85 ; printing, hand compositors (job work) 76. With regard to the wages of women in the cotton mills it may be mentioned that the predominant wages of female slubbing and roving frame tenders range from 33s. ■id. to 37s. 6d. per week, a range which also represents the most usual earnings of women weavers. In the spinning rooms the frame spinners, paid according to the number of *' sides " of which they have charge, usually earn from 29s. 2d. to 33s. Ad. per week. Apart from the cotton mills there is no other important field of employment for women. It is not known what proportion of the women at work are married. Mention has already been made of the principal trade unions in the cotton industry. With regard to other occupations it may be noted that unions exist for most of the branches of the building trades and that the standard minimum rates of pay are generally paid. The most important branch which is not organised is that of the hod carriers and labourers. The printing trades are well organised, though, apart from the newspapers, the printing industry in Fall River is unimportant. The machinists are organised, but not very effectively. In Fall River, as in Boston and Springfield, a Free Employment Office is maintained by the Massachusetts Government. During the year ending oOth November, 1909, the Ofiice received 3,642 applications for employment, of which number 2,314 came from males. The total number of persons called for by employers was 2,130 and the number of positions filled 1,541 (males 436, females 1,105). The majority of the positions filled by women were of a domestic character. There is little in the nature of " welfare work " in the mills in Fall River, but at •one important establishment a scheme of profit sharing is in operation. Housing and Rents. It has already been remarked that the boundaries of Fall River are wide and embrace a large area which is rural in character. So far as the urban portion of the municipality is concerned, however, the working-class population is found everywhere except in a small quarter in the neighbourhood of the City Hall, which is occupied almost exclusively by shops, offices, &c., and in the district known as the '' Highlands," which is pre-eminently the residential quarter for people of means. Those working-cLiss people who live beyond easy walking distance from their work have at command extensive tramway facilities. The fare for journeys within the city limits is 2^d., but six tickets may be obtained for Is. O^d., this reduction being one of the conditions of the grant of the Company's concession by the city authorities. Except in the " fire zone," a small area in the centime of the city, practically all the houses in Fall River are of wood, the foundations only being of brick or stone. The use of wood permits of a considerable variety in construction, and the possibility of effective ornamentation at little additional cost, so that the working-class streets present a strong contrast to those of an English industrial town with their long rows of dwellings, quite imiform in structure. A few large blocks of dwellings built originally by mill-owners for their employees are the only residential buildings which remind an observer of Enghsh conditions. The working-class dwelhngs almost without exception are flats or tenements, which most usually contain either four, five or six rooms, though three-roomed and seven- roomed tenements are not unknown. The size of the houses in which the tenements are situated varies considerably. Sometimes there are only two tenements in a buildino-, and from two to six tenements in one building may be considered the most common number. There are in addition, however, many tenement blocks in which this number of separate dwellings is exceeded. The tenement buildings are usually detached or semi- detached, and are seldom built in rows. Many lie back from the street, and might perhaps be termed rear houses, though the term, on account of the generous amount of space which usually surrounds the buildings, would here have little significance. Gardens or separate house yards, such as are common in England, are rarely found. A rough grass 2>lot usvially surrounds the tenement building, and affords a drying green, but it is unfenced, and the boundary between two such plots is frequently hard to discern. Though the size of the tenement building varies considerably, the arrangement of the separate dwellings is generally uniform. A common "hall-way" or staircase gives access to both or all the tenements, though in some cases the tenements on the ground floor have separate entrances from the street. Subject to certain minor differences 204 FALL RIVER. nearly all the flats or tenements conform to one of two feirly well-marked local types. In the first type the building is usually three stories high, and all the rooms of each tenement are on one floor. In the second type the building consists of two main floors and an attic floor, and the three or four attics are shared as a rule by the tenants in the building for the purpose of sleeping rooms. These attics usually have dormer windows, and when their interiors are plastered and papei'ed their use as bedrooms is free from objection. The first of the two types of tenement houses is more modern and on the whole represents a rather higher standard of housing than the other, but to this generalisation there are some exceptions, and both types may be considered as representative of the dwellings of most sections of the working classes. A marked feature of a typical working-class tenement is the large size of the kitchen and the arrangement by which this apartment is made the centre of the dwelling, with all the other rooms opening directly oflE it without passages or corridors. The kitchen, in fact, serves as an entrance hall and as a living room, and from the point of view of size and utility is the most important apartment in the house. Standing out towards the middle of this room is almost invariably a large and often elaborate stove, sometimes designed only for heating purposes and sometimes for both heating and cooking. In many cases these stoves belong to the tenants, and appear often to be the object of a good deal of family pride, the manifest expensiveness of the stove being sometimes in strong contrast to the rest of the household furnishings. A kitchen in a dwelling of moderate rental often measures as much as 16 feet square. The size of the other rooms varies greatly. The height of the rooms appears in practically all cases to be sufficient, being seldom less than 9 feet. In addition to the kitchen and the main apartments which lead off it, there is usually a small narrow closet or pantry containing sink and water supply and affording facilities for storing food. In the cheaper flats, however, this pantry is not found, the sink and water-tap being in the kitchen. The other apartments which lead from the kitchen need no special description. As a rule they are of fair size and well lighted. The practice of building detached tenement houses makes it often possible, in fact, to light a room on two sides. A few houses still remain in which one or more rooms receive only a borrowed light, but such dwellings are no longer built. The practice of reserving one room as a parlour or best room is usual, and except in the very poorest homes the furniture and ornaments appeared on the whole to be in very good taste and to suggest intelligent discrimination and appreciation of comfort. Within the rental limits shown in the Table below bathrooms are fairly common, though by no means universal. The bathroom almost always contains the sanitary convenience. In the method of heating — an important consideration in view of the severity of the winter — considerable differences exist. In the cheaper flats the parlour and bedrooms derive their warmth from the kitchen with its large stove. In this case the local adoption of the flat as the chief type of dwelling, and the arrangement by which the kitchen is made the centre of the tenement, are easily explained. This method ' is undoubtedly the most common so far as strictly working-class houses are concerned. In the dwellings of a better class the kitchen stove may be connected with a hot-water system, which, by means of radiators, heats the remaining rooms and also supplies the bath and fixed basins. A third common arrangement is to have furnaces in the base- ment, one to each flat, each under the care of the separate tenants and constructed on the slow combustion principle. The basement in such cases is usually a large apartment, partly underground, which affords a common washhouse, storehouse and drying room for the various tenants in the house. This last method is found only in houses occupied by the most prosperous of the working classes. A type of dwelling which marks a passing phase in the industrial development of the city may be mentioned. It consists of large blocks of tenement houses originally erected by mill-owners for their operatives, but now mostly let on the usual connnercial basis, and not exclusively to mill employees. One group of these dwellings consists of four long blocks of bri<;k-built tenement houses, each block being separated from the next by a broad open yard. The houses are two-storied, with attics above. The majority of the tenements consist of a kitchen, two bedrooms and two attics, while some have, in addition, a sitting room or parlour. The rental of such accommodation is considerably below the preduininant range for working-class dwellings in the city as a whole. FALL RIVER 205 It will have been seen that the rent of a dwelling- is influenced by a number of considerations besides the number of rcK>ms, with the result that a wide range is shown for any one class of dwelling classified according to its nominal accommodation. Inter- mediately within the extreme limits, however, the predominant rentals are as follows : — Predominant Rents of Working-class Dwellini/s. Number of Rooms per Dwellinsr. Four rooms Five rooms Six rooms PredomiDant Weekly Rents. 7,S. 4(f. to Ss. id. 8s. 4r/. ., 11.9. M. lO.s. M. „ 13.S. 7(1. The level of rents at New York being represented by 100, the rents index number for Fall River is 55. These rentals have shown very little change during the last few years. Water ijharges are included. Houses are generally let by the week. The by-laws which now regulate the erection of houses in the city are detailed and in some respects stringent. They recognise two " fire districts " in the centre of the city. In the first, with certain exceptions, only brick, stone, etc. buildings may be erected. In the second this i-egulation is modified, and allows of dwelling or tenement houses built of wood, when occupying an area of less than 2,000 square feet. In the rest of the city no restriction is placed on the erection of frame houses, but very careful and minute provisions are laid down for the insulation of flues, steam pipes, etc., in such dwellings. The by-laws also provide that every building shall have a foundation the bearing of which must not be less than four feet below any adjoining surface exposed to frost. The by-laws contain no provisions with respect to the ventilation, lighting or cubic space of rooms in dwelling houses. No housing schemes have been attempted in Fall River by the municipality or by philanthropic effort. A number of building societies and companies do business in the city, the general principle upon which they proceed being the familiar one of a cash deposit and the repayment of the remainder of the loan in the form of quarterly or yearly instalments. Buildings and land are in almost all cases held freehold, though in some instances the house and the land belong to different owners. In the latter case the land carries a rent charge or feu sometimes subject to revision at cerbiin intervals. According to the Census of 1900, 10'6 per cent, of the homes in the city were owned subject to encumbrance and 7"4 per cent, were owned free of encumbrance by their occupiers. It is not known what proportion would a])ply exclusively to the wage-earning classes. Retail Prices. There is little in the working-class dietary or the shojjping facilities of Fall River that calls for special remark. The usual routine of a working-class family prescribes breakfast at an early hour, according to the time of starting work, dinner at 12 noon and supper at 6 p.m. It is seldom that more tharf these three meals are taken. The city has a market where at certain times a busy trade is carried on. There are also a few branches of "multiple" firms selling groceries. A system of canvassing for grocery orders is common. An agent for some company calls for orders weekly and when a custom has been established arranges for payment by fixed instalments. Amonf the shopkeepers credit is frequently given, especially at times of industrial depression. The retailer is forced by the stress of competition to trade on this system, and through his bad debts feels very quickly the effect of hard times in the industries of the city. Groceries and other Commodities, The taste in tea differs widely and is reflected in the range of price shown by the returns obtained. The most usual quality, however, appears to sell at about Is. 3d. to Is. Sd. per lb., though much tea is sold at prices outside these limits. The quality is generally an Oolong and large leaf variety. Ceylon tea, as commonly used in England, while obtainable, does not ajDpear to be much sold. 206 FALL RIVER. In Fall River working-class customers usually buy sugw at so many pounds for a quarter- dollar or for a dollar (4s. 2d.) and frequently make no enquiry as to the weight which thsy receive for their money. The weight of a loaf of bread is fixed by State statute at 2 lb., but in Fall River the law does not appear to be rigidly enforced. In practice, bread is seldom placed on the scales at all and in very many cases the loaf weighs much less than 2 lb. The loaves most usually sold cost bd. and weigh from IJ to 2 lb. The coal commonly used by the working classes is anthracite, which is usually bought by the half- ton (1,000 lb.) Coal is not hawked through the streets ; those who require only small quantities at a time buy bags of coal from the general shop. Coal cellars are usual in the houses, but where the sacks are carried upstairs an extra charge is made: if carried to the second floor l^d. extra is charged for half a ton: if to the third floor Is. ^d. Coke is usually bought at the grocery and provision shops in small bags containing about 20 lb., for which hd. is charged. 1909 The following Table shows the predominant prices of various articles in February, Predominant Prices paid by the Working Classes in February, 1909. Commodity. Tea Coffee per lb. Sugar : — White Granulated Brown Bacon, Breakfast — Boneless... Eggs Cheese, American per Is. per lb. Butter Potatoes, Irish per 7 lb. Flour, "Wheaten— Household Bread, White per 4 lb. Milk Coal, Anthracite per quart per cwt. Kerosene per gallon Predominant Price. Is. M. to Is. M. Is. O^cl. 2\d., 2|r/. Sd. to 9f/. 7 „ 9 9r/. " lOd. Is. 2^. „ Is. id. 6d. „ Id. Is. 0^., Is. Oid. lOd. to Is. lid. 4frf. 2s. Oid. to 2s. lff/.» lid. „ 9d. * By the half -ton (1,000 lb.) Meat. The meat consumed in Fall River is both 'local and Western-dressed, the latter coming in specially constructed railway wagons from Chicago and neighbourhood. Both varieties are of good quality and there is little difference, if any, in price. Meat is sold as a rule in shops which also sell groceries and provisions ; shops selling meat only are not common. Beef is undoubtedly the meat most favoured, except by the Canadians, who consume nearly as much pork as beef. The best joints are in great demand and fetch a good price, the price of the inferior parts being correspondingly low. Mutton is not much sold. Veal is eaten to a very small extent ; some butchers do not sell it at all and others only sell it at intervals. The price of such veal as is sold shows very great variation ; this is due partly to a practice which prevails in many parts of New England of putting veal on the market either when it is too young or when it is too old to be satisfactory. Variation in the price of particular joints is also due to differences in the character of the trade carried on at any given shop : the inferior cuts may be dearer and the better cuts cheaper at one shop than at another where a better class trade is carried on. The slaughter houses of the city are under the control of a veterinary supervisor of food supplies. Slaughtering is done under his inspection and the meat fit for food is stamped by him in accordance with Massachusetts State law. FALL RIVER. 207 The following Table shows the pi'edominant prices paid by the working classes in February, 1909, for various cuts of meat : — Predominant Prices paid by the Working Classes in February, 1909, Description of Cut. Predominant Price per lb. Beef :— Roasts — Ribs prime 8(/. to M. „ Ribs second cut Id. „ Sd. „ Chuck or short ribs od. „ 6d. Steaks — Round 8d. „ lOd. „ Sirloin ... Is. „ Is. Id. Shin without bone 4f/. Flank ■id. Mutton or Lamb : — Leg Id. to 9d. Breast ad. Loin Id. to 9d. Chops l\d. „ lOd. Shoulder M. „ t*> 4;5s. 9d. 54 Fuimdries and Machine Slwps : — Ironmoulders 70s. 10(7. 54 Coremakers 62s. 6d. to 70s. lOrf. 54 Machinists 57s. id. „ 62s. 6d. 55 to 60 Blacksmiths 60s. bd. to 75s. 55 „ 60 Labourers 37s. 6d. „ 50s. 54 „ 60 Worsted Industry: — Wool Sorters 41s. M. to 59s. 2d. 58 Scourers or Wool Washers 30s. 'dd. „ 37s. 6d. 58 Combers 32s. Id. „ 35s. Id. 58 Card Strippers ;.. 32s. 2d. „ 37s. M. 58 Mule Spinners 55s. 9d. „ 63s. Sd. 58 Loom Fixers 62s. lOd. „ 64s. 2d. 58 Weavers ids. M. „ 51s. Gd. 58 Dyers— Yarn, Cloth, and Slub 30s. 5d. „ :'.7s. 6d. 58 Shearers 33s. id. „ 44s. 2d. 58 Pressera 29s. to 4l5. Id. 58 Cotton Industry : — Picking Room Hands 25s. 5d. to 33s. id. 58 Card Strippers 30s. to 36s. 3d. 58 Card Grinders ••• *<• *•■ 37s. Sd. to 42s. id. 5S Slubbers 33s. lOd. „ 42s. 9f7. 58 Slasher Tenders ... ... ... 43s. Gd. „ 60s. M. 58 Slasher Tenders' Helpers 31s. If?, to 36s. 58 Loom Fixers 56s. lOd. to 61s. Sd. 58 Weavei'S 38s. 7d. to 50s. 58 Printing Trades : — . Newspaper — Compositors, Hand and Machine f Day work \ Night work ... 66s. Sd. 75s. 48 48 Pressmen ... 75s. 48 Book and Job — Hand Compositors 62s. 6d. 48 Pressmen — Small Pi-esses 62s. 6rf. 48 Puhlic Services : — . Street Construction, Paving, and Cleaning (Muni- cipal) — Paviors (stone block) 125s. 48 Paviors' Labourers 62s. 6d. 48 Scavengers • •• 50s. 48 Road Sweepers (Machine : Night force) 50s. 48 Drivers, Teamsters * ■ • 50s. 48 Water Works (Municipal) — Labourers 503. 48 Gas Works (Company) — Gas Stokers 77s. id. 84 Labourers 40s. 6f/. 54 Electric Light and Power Works (Company) — Electricians ... 58s. 2d. 70 Enginemen 62s. 6d. 60 Fitters 58s. id. 54 Stokers 70s. 84 Electric Tramways (Company) — Motormen and Conductors* — 1st year 61s. M. 70 2nd year 64s. 2d. 70 3rd, 4th and 5th years 67s. Id. 70 6th and 7th years 70s. 70 AJ'ter seven years 72s. 11(/. 70 * 67*. Id. was the rate received by the majority of the men. Taking wages at New York as the base, = 100, in each case, the wages index numbers for Lawrence are — building trades, skilled men 76, hod carriers and bricklayers' 16576 3 214 LAWRENCE. labourers 82 ; foundries and machine shops, skilled men 78, unskilled labourers 104 ; printing, hand compositors (job work) 71. The rates of wages for weavers given in the above Table are based upon returns obtained from mills in which the earnings of male and female weavers respectively could be discriminated. Weaving is an operation which is very largely shared by women, and it was not possible in all instances to obtain the respective earnings of the two sexes. At some mills it was stated that there was no difference between the earnings of men and women, but at one large establishment, Avhere exact returns were kept, the relation between the average earnings of men and women weavers in tlie worsted trade was shown to be 100 : 85 and in the cotton trade 100 : 86. The predominant earnings of women and girls in some of the other principal occupations of the textile trades wei'e as follows : — Worsted Goods: — Gill-box Minders 26s. 7d. to i2s. lid. Drawing Frame Tenders ... ... ... 29s. ,, 305. od. Frame Spinners 30^'. 3d. „ 32s. Sd. Warpers ... ... ... ... ... 2os. 3d. ,, 41s. Id. Burlers 24a'. 2d. „ 365. lie?. Menders ... ... 31s. nd. „ 42.s. 4c?. Twisters (2 and 3 sides) 25s. 10*/. „ 33s. 4d. Cotton Goods: — Drawing Frame Tenders ... ... ... 24s. 3d. to 31s. lid. Intermediate Frame Tenders ... ... ... 33s. 41S LA WHENCE, Meat. The meat consumed in Lawrence is almost entirely Western -dressed, and calls for no special remark. Very wide variation exists as regards the price of veal. This appears to be due to the sale by some butchers of calves which are either too young to furnish good eating, or too old to deserve the name of veal, A few peculiarities of cut may be referred to. Rounds of beef are seldom cut right througli or sold as joints. Thej' ai-e nearly always cut into steaks, three cuts being recognised — the top cut or best, the vein cut or second quality and the bottom cut or cheapest. Brisket is seldom sold fresh, but is nearly always corned. It is often the l>ractice to corn the whole of the " rattle," i.e., the lower ends of the thick and thin ribs cut horizontally. Usually the brisket, when corned, is boned and rolled and known as " fancy brisket," As regards mutton and lamb, the shoulder, neck and breast are usually cut in one piece and sold as a forequarter. The practice of " lifting " the shoulder and selling it as a separate joint, as in England, does not prevail. Dry salt pork is very little sold in Lawrence. Smoked and sweet pickled hams have a large sale. They are sold whole, but more often sliced, at \0d. per lb., or in steaks. The following Table shows the predominant prices for various cuts of meat : — Predominant Prices paid by the Working Classes in February, 1909. Description of Cut. Predominant Price per lb. Beef :— Roasts — Ribs prime Id. to IM. „ Ribs second cut Gd. „ 8d „ Chuck or short ribs 6(7. „ 7d. Steaks — Round... 7M. „ lOd. Sirloin Is. 2d. „ Is. M. Shin without bone 4d. „ bd. Flank 3irf. „ id. M. „ 7d. Brisket, " Fancy " Mutton or Lamb : — Leg l\d. to lOrf, Breast bd. Loin 7\d. Chops lOd. to Is, M. Shoulder bd. „ lid. Neck 3irf. „ bd. Veal :— Cutlets 10(7. to Is. 2>d. Rib Chops 8d. „ lOd. Loin Chops 9(7. „ Is. Breast bd. „ 6(7. Neck id. Pork :— Fresh — Loin 7d. to l^d. „ Shoulder bd. „ 6d. „ Chops 7d. „ Sd. Corned (wet salt or pickled) Hd. „ Id. Ham Id. Shouldei-, salt or smoked bd. to 5^. Pi'ices at New York being taken as the base, = 100, in each case, the index number for the price of meat at Lawrence is 107, for other food it is 104 and for food prices as a whole 105. For rents and food prices combined the index number is 95. ^19 LOUISVILLE. Louisville, which was founded in 1790 and was named after Louis XVL of France, is the largest city in the State of Kentuck}'. It is situated on the border of the State, and lies wholly upon the left or southern bank of the Ohio, which here separates the State of Indiana from that of Kentucky. Cincinnati is 1 30 miles higher up the river. Chicago and St. Louis are at almost equal distances, the former being 300 miles by I'ail to the north-west, and the latter 291 miles to the west. While not conspicuous as an industrial centre Louisville is yet the seat of a varied and considerable industrial activity. Its distinctive trades embrace the manufacture of whisky and of tobacco and cigars and the tanning of oak sole leather, but its metal, woodworking, clothing and transport trades are also important. Its commercial interests are large, for it is the greatest leaf tobacco market in the United States, and it has an extensive trade in Kentucky whisky and in horses and mules. The city is an important distributing centre, for its own and several more Southern States, for hardware, flour, groceries and many other commodities, and it serves as the shopping, banking and social centre t)f a wide area. Its educational institutions include the University of Louisville, several medical colleges, a dental college, a law school and two important theological colleges. The city possesses good means of communication with both local and distant centres. Nine railway systems maintain services with it, and electric tramways extend into the country districts in many directions. One regular and rapid service of this kind runs to Indianapolis, the State capital of Indiana, covei'ing the distance of 117 miles from Louisville in about four hours. The river traffic is relatively unimportant, though quantities of coal from the Pittsburg region for St. Louis, Memphis and New Orleans pass the city. To avoid the Falls, which are in i-eality rapids, a canal two-and-a-half miles in length has been built. The ])opulation of Louisville in 1828, when the city charter was granted, was less than ten thousand, and thirty-two years later the Census returned the population at 68,033. The following Table shows the number of inhabitants at each decennial Census since that date : — Year. 1870 1.S80 1890 1900 1910 Population. 100,753 123,758 161,129 204,731 223,928 Increase. 23,005 37,371 43,602 19,197 Percentage Increase. 22-8 30-2 27-1 9-4 At the Census oi 1900 43'2 per cent, of the inhabitants were American-born whites of American-born parents, 27'2 per cent, were American-born whites of foreign- born parents, 10*o per cent, were foreign-born persons, while the negro jjopulation formed 19'1 per cent, of the total. The largest number of foreign-born inhabitants came fi'om Germany, Ireland and Great Britain, natives of these countries forming respectively 57"8, 19*6 and 5*1 per cent, of the foreign-born population. Southern Germany ( Wurtemberg, Bavaria, etc.) was represented in a marked degree. On the opposite bank of the Ohio are two towns of Indiana, called New Albany and J eff ersonville, which face respectively the western and eastern extremities of Louisville. In 1900 the population of New Albany was 20,628 and that of Jeffersonville 10,774, but they have grown since that date. These towns are separated by a stretch of almost open country extending some three miles, and the traffic between them and with Louisville is not great. Of the three bridges which span the river two are reserved for the passage of trains or tramcars, whilst the third, with a roadway at each side for vehicles, connects the city with New Albany, l)ut at a distance of three miles from the centre of the city. Ferryboats capable of conveying vehicles ply between Jeffersonville and the eastern part of Louisville. 220 LOUISVILLE. The following Table shows, for each of the years 1904-8, the general death-rate,, distinguishing white and coloured mortality, and also the death-rate from I uberculosis : — Death-rate per 1,000 of Population. Death-rate Year from T uberculosis- per 1.000 White. Coloured. Together. of Population. 1904 15-2 27-4 17-6 2-43 190o 14-7 25-6 16-8 2-27 1906 14-0 24-5 16-1 2-08 1907 14-8 23-3 16-4 1-97 1908 13-2 23-9 15-3 1-90 The law as to the registration of bu-ths is not enforced, and the number of births reported foils considerably short of the actual total. In the report of the City Health Department it is stated that maternity cases, particularly among the negroes, are frequently attended by " unlicensed midwives or pseudo-physicians. Such attendants studiously neglect to furnish the certificate required by law in oi-der to a^'oid being subjected to the payment of a licence fee, which is required of all accoucheurs, whether physicians or midwives." Louisville is a jjleasant city, and is set in picturesque surroundings. It is built upon a flat plain slightly above the level of the Ohio and extends over six miles along the river banks. The area of the city is 13,094 acres. It has been laid out upon a geometrical plan, the streets running north to south being numbered, and those from east to west bearing names. The Broadway, a boulevard several miles in length, which commences at Cave Hill and ends at Shawnee Park on the river, forms a dividing line ])etween north and south. The wholesale and retail business district lies between this boulevard and the river, but industrial establishments are not confined to a particular locality. Some of the largest works are situated in the southern outskirts, others in the south -Avestern districts, while near the river various factories are found both east and west. In the central districts the by-laws compel the use of brick or stone as building material, and in the better residential quarters the bulk of the houses are of brick. Both frame and brick structures aie found in the other quarters, but frame houses appear to be far less common than in the ordinary city of the South. Various kinds of pavement are used, viz., granite setts in the busy central streets and brick, asphalt and macadam elsewhere, though many roads are still merely " dirt" roads, to use the official description. The macadam roads do not withstand the climatic conditions successfully and the surface of many of the roads which have been made leaves mucli to be desired. The tramway service is very complete, extending over 167 miles of track, and by the system of transfer tickets one may change fi'om the first to a second line, and even a third if necessary, on a single journey for the minimum fare (2|rf.) charged by the company. Ko special advantages are conceded to working men. The ti-amways are owned by a private company, but the city owns about one-third of the stock of the company that controls the gas and electric light and power works. The stock of the Louisville Water Company is owned by the city, and the company is managed by the " Board of Water Works," which consists of the Mayor and four members appointed by him. The municipality owns 1,350 acres of park, and some of the parks are very beautiful ; Cave Hill Cemetery is also a place of great natural and artificial beauty. It is a drawback of the parks, however, that they are in rather remote quarters of the city. The municipality also owns a large library with six branches, one of which is located in the j^rincipal negro district. Separate public elementary education is provided for coloured children, and one of the five public high schools is maintained for their exclusive use. In the matter of religion also the two races have separate organizations, and the negroes have in the city about sixty churches. There is no poll tax in Louisville. The city property tax-rate for the financial year 1908-9 was 1'75 per cent, of the assessed value of real and personal property, but where the value of the personal property does not exceed £52 it is exempted from taxa- tion. The State and county tax-rate for the same period amounted to 0*77 per cent, of the assessed value. Occupations, Wages and Hours of Labouk. No figures of recent date exist showing the number of persons employed in the various incTustrial occupations at Louisville, but the following Table, compiletl from the LOUISVILLE. 221 Census returns of 1900, sets forth the number of persons of 10 years of age and over engaged in occupations at that date : — Number of Persons of 10 years of (Kje and over engaged in Occupations in Louisville in 1900. Occupations. Males. Females. Total. Building Metalworking and Engineering Woollen Other and not specified Textile Leather Boot and Shoe Making Clothing Woodworking and Furnishing Paper and Printing Food, Drink and Tobacco Other Manufacturing and Mechanical Pursuits Trade and Transportation Labourers (not otherwise specified) Professional, Domestic and Personal Service and Agricultural Pursuits All Occupations .5,433 1,410 14.5 178 912 4.57 1,07G 1,940 942 4,617 4,469 22,632 8,885 9,891 10 23 413 282 20 71 4,369 34 206 1,103 307 2,8fHl 90 13,354 66,017 23,082 5,443 4,463 558 4G0 932 .528 5,445 1,974 1,148 5,720 4,776 25,432 8,975 23,245 89,099 The distinctive industries of the city are whisky distilHng, tobacco manufacture and ttmning, though other trade groups employ hirge bodies of workers. The whisky for which Louisville is famous is made of maize on the Scottish method, but has a special colour owing to its being matured in charred barrels. Notwithstanding the great value of the whisky trade, the numbers occupied are relatively few, and the bulk of the work is of a semi-skilled nature. Louisville claims to be the largest leaf-tobacco market in the United States, and the tobacco industry employs a large number of workpeople. One establishment, stated to be a branch of the tobacco combination, employs in its plug department alone 1,200 persons, of whom 75 per cent, are men. There were in the city in the summer of 1909 a total of 31 tobacco factories and 94 cigar factories. The latter include some quite small establishments ; eight were reported to employ 50 or more workpeople, and most of the remainder from one to six. Women and girls are being introduced more and more into this trade, and in the cigar fjxctory of the tobacco combination women are employed almost exclusively. Oak sole leather is the special production of the Louisville tanneries, but harness and collar and other kinds of leather are also made. Twelve firms carry on the tanning industry, but the numbers employed are not so great as formerly. This is partly due to the introduction of machinery into certain prociisses. The bark used in tanning is obtained from Kentucky, Tennessee and Virginia, and the hides come from the Western packing- houses. A large proportion of the labour employed is coloured. The metalworking trades have developed considerably since 1900, and now employ more men than any other single group of industries in the cit}^ One railway works employs at normal seasons 2,500 persons in the manufacture and repair of its rolling- stock ; another firm employs 1,400 persons in the making of enamelled sanitary and plumbing ware ; a third some 700 in the making of ])loughs and other agricultural implements ; a fourth from 400 to 500 in the manufacture of ice machinery, boilers, etc. ; and another large concern produces cast iron pipes and other foundry work. Structural iron work and wireworking are other branches of the metalworking trades. The woodworking industry comprises the making of farm waggons — Louisville claims to have the largest factory of this kind in the United States — boxes, pails, barrels and also furniture of medium quality. Owing to the importance of Louisville as a distributing centre the transport trades employ a very considerable amount of labour. Save in the tramway system, where all the labour is white, the bulk of this labour is negro. Some 3,000 persons are stated to be employed in the making of ready-made clothing ; men's and youth's clothes and breeches (especially of corduroy) for country wear are mainly produced. Jews are largely engaged in this trade. Pork packing has declined in importance at Louisville. Except in the building and newspaper printing trades, where an eight-hour day prevails for the most part, the normal working day is from nine to ten hours. The latter number a])peared more usual, work beginning at 7.0 and ending at 5*30 or 6.0, according to the length of the dinner interval. A free half-day on Saturday is not common, but in 222 LOUISVILLB. some worka a little overtime is worked on five days of the week, and the afternoon's work on Saturday is i)roportionately shortened. The holidays universally recognised are three, viz., Christmas Day, Independence Day (July 4th) and Thanksgiving Day, In many cases Labour Day (in September) is observed, while, if work is not pressing, Washing- ton's Birthday and New Year's Day may also be recognised. Wages are paid weekly, save in the case of some large metalworking establishments. The trade union movement has suffered a reverse in Louisville in recent years, and the depression in 1907-9 tended to weaken further the influence of trade unionism. In 1909 oidy the unions in the newspaper printing and brewery trades were strong enough to obtain wages agreements. In the building trade the great majority of the employers have declared " open shop," and some of the unions, e.g., those of the bricklayers and plasterers, while obtaining union rates of pay and hours of work, do not insist upon working only with union men. All the large firms in the other trades maintained the " open shop." A profit-sharing scheme was found to be in operation in connexion with an important flour milling firm. This firm, which in other respects also treats its workpeople with much consideration {e.g., by providing a reading room, billiard room, &c.), divides 10 per cent, of its annual profits among the employees, the amount paid to each varying from three to five weeks' wages. The following Table shows the predominant weekly wages and hours of work in certain princijjal occupations in Louisville in February, 1909 : — Predominant Weekly Wages and Hours of Labour of Adult Males in the Principal Occupations in February, 1909. Predominant Predominant Weekly Wages. Weekly Hours of Labour. Buildimj Trades : — Bricklayers 120,s. 48 StoiiemasonB llOs. 48 Stonecutters 70s. to 100s. 48 Carpenters 62s. 6(1. to 75.S. 48 Plasterers 114s. Id. 44 Plumbers 75s. to 100s. 48 to 54 Structural Iron Workers 67s. 6d. to 90s. 54 Painters 75s. 48 Hod Carriers and Bricklayers' Labourers 56s. 3d. to 62s. Gd. 48 Fotmdries ami Machine Shops : — Ironmoulders 68s. 9f/. to 75s. 60 Machinists 68s. M. „ 75s. 60 Blacksmiths 68s. 9^. „ 75s. 60 Patternmakers ... 75s. 60 Labourers 37s. Gd. to 43s. 2d. 60 Structural Iron WorJcs .- — Skilled Men in \yorks 56s. M. to 67s. 6d 54 Railway Workshops : — Machinists 83s. 9f/. 60 Drill Press Men ... 57s. Gd. 60 Blacksmiths 68s. 9d. to 77s. Gd. 60 Patternmakers 77s. Gd. 60 Boilermakers 71s. M. to 83s. 9d. 60 Tinners 72s. Gd. 60 Electricians 70s. 60 Passenger Car Carpenters and Builders 60s. to 70s. 60 Freight Car Builders 52s. Gd. 60 Freight Car Carpenters and Repairers 50s. 60 Engine Carpenters 55s. 60 Woodworking Machinists .. 58s. 9r/. to 63s. 9d. 60 Cabinetmakers 66s. 3r/. „ 72s. Gd. 6a Upholsterers 66s. 3d. 60 Painters 45s. to 52s. Gd. 60 Helpers to Skilled Men 41s. 3d. „ 47s. 6f/. 60 General Labourers 33s. 9f/. 60 Mami/actiire of Sanitary Wa^-es .- — Moulders 75s. to 112s. Gd. 54 Enamellers 100s. „ 150s. 48 Machinists .' 62s. Gd. „ 75s. 60 Brassworkers 62s. Gd. „ 75s. 60 Labourers 37s. Gd. 60- LOUISVILLE. ^23 Predominant Weekly Wages. Predominant Weekly Hoius of Labour. Clothing Trades : — Cutters / Machine \Hand Pressers Rasters — Trousers Coat Makers Lumber rmd Woodworking Trades : — Band Sawyers Other Sawyers Trimmers ... Woodworking Machinists Pailmakers . . . Boxmakers Coopers Cabinetmakers Upholsterers , Polishers and Varnishers Labourers . . Waggon Building : — Smith Shop- Hammermen Blacksmiths Assemblers Helpers Wood Shop— Benchmen Shaper Hands , Other Machine Operators Paint Shop — Stripers Coaters and Varnishers Labourers Printing and Allied Trades : — Newspaper — Machine Compositors { ^^hrwOTk Pressmen — Day work , Book and Job — Hand Compositors , Pressmen I gy*/"^e^- P'-^^^es ( Platen Presses Lithographic Engravers Lithographic Pressmen Bookbinders Tanning : — Fleshers Workers-out and Strikers Rollers Curriers Labourers ... Flour Milling : — Millers Millwrights Packers Baking : — First Hands Second Hands Vanmen Meat Packing .- — Slaughterers and Cutters ... Curers and Picklers Brewing : — Brewers, Cellarmen Bottlers Route Drivers Bottle-beer Drivers 62s. 6d. 75s. G2s. ed. 50«. to (J8.S. 9f/. 62s. Gd. to 70S. 68s. 9^. to lOOs. 62s. 6d. 50s. 45s. lOd. to G2s. 6d. 87s. 6d. 50s. to 75s. 68s. M. „ 75s. 45s. lOd. „ 54s. 2d. 50s. „ 62s. 6d. 37s. Gd. „ 43s. M. 37s. 6d. 55s. M. 52s. Id. 46s. Ud. Us. 8d. 57s. 4rf. 52s. Id. 41s. 8d. 52s. Id. 46s. llrf. 31s. 3f/. 94s. 104s. 62s. 6d. to 66s. Sd. 72s. Ud. 72s. Ud. 37s. Gd. 79s. 2d. 91s. 8d. 58s. id. 83s. i(I. 81s. M. 47s. llc^. 100s. 100s. 75s. 56s. dd. to 62s. Gd. 41s. M. „ 52s. Id. 52s. Gd. „ 62s. Gd. 62s. Gd. 37s. Gd. to 40s. 50s. to 75s. 87s. Gd. 37s. Gd. to 47s. Ud. 70s. lOfl. 58s. id. 58s. id. to 62s. Gd. 57s. id. to 68s. 9d. 41s. 8<;. „ 52s. Id. 66s. Ud. to 75s. 33s. id. „ 45s. lOd. 75s. 62s. Gd. 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 54 to 60 54 54 to 60 60 60 60 60 60 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 48 48 48 54 54 54 54 54 54 60 60 60 60 60 48 to 65 54 „ 60 48 „ 60 60 60 60 to 66 50 to 60 50 „ 60 48 54 54 54 224 LOUISVILLE. Predominant Weekly Wages. Predominant Weekly Hours of Labour. Distilling : — Distillery Men Warehouse Men ... Drier Men Bottler.s , Draymen Labourers Tohaccu Tradex : — Warehouses — Coopers ... ,. Rollers ,,. Plug Tobacco Manufacture — Strippers Machine Feeders Wrappers or Twisters Cigarmaking — Cigarmakers (better cigars) „ „ (medium) „ „ (cheap) Public Services : — Street Constrixction, Paring and Cleaning (Municipal)- Paviors (Brick and Boulder) Stonecutters and Granite Paviors Rammer Men Labourers Water Works (Quasi-Municipal) — Labourers Gas Works (Company) — Gas Stokers Labourers Electric Light and Power Works (Company) — Switchboard Men Arc-lamp Trimmers Linemen Firemen Drivers ... Electric Tramways (Company) — Motormen and Conductors 52s. &d. to 54s. 2d. ils. 8d. „ 45.S'. lOd. 52.S. Id. 43,s. i)r/. 50.S'. Cvl. oOs. 39s. Id. 40s. Sd. 37s. 50s. to 54s. 2d. 43s. 9f/. „ 47s. od. 33s. 4(r/. „ 41s. 41s. 8d. „ 50s. 58s. M. „ 75s. 8f/. &2s. Gd. ., 75s. 41s. 8d. „ 50s. 33s. 4(/. „ 41s. 8f/. 75s. 112s. 6d. 75s. 43s. 9d. 37s. Gd. 72s. lid. 43s. 9f/. 70s. 10c/. 51s. Id. 62s. 6fl'. 72s. Ud. 62s. 6r/. 58s. id. to 64s. 2d. 57 to GO 57 „ 60 57 s, 60 54 ,. 57 60 57 to 60 60 to 65 60 „ 65 54 „ 55 54 „ 55 54 „ 55 48 „ 55 48 „ 55 48 ., 55 54 54 54 54 60 84 60 70 70 60 84 60 70 Taking wages at New York as the base, = 100, in each case, the wages inde numbers for Louisville are — building trades, skilled men 86, hod carriers and brick- layers' labourers (negroes) 86 ; foundries and machine shops, skilled men 83, unskilled labourers 97 ; printing, hand compositors (job work) 89. Housing and Rents. A feature of the distribution of the working classes in Louisville is the tendency for the two principal immigrant races and for the negro jDopulation to cluster in certain ai-eas. The German element predominates in the more easterly part of the city, on the south- eastern outskirts and in the north-west, wdiile the Irish are mainly grouped in the outer w^estern district north and south of Broadway and in a quarter named " Limerick " that lies to the south-w^est of the same dividing line. The negroes are for the most part segregated in the more central districts between Broadway and the Ohio, but their dwellings extend rather to the west than to the east. The public library for tlieir exclusive use lies within this west central area, and here also are the headquarters of their chief social, religious and other organisations. The great majority of the white working-men's homes are single-family cottages. At the Census of 1900 the average number of families per dwelling-house in the city as a whole was 1*3, and the percentages of families resident in dwelling-houses occupied by one, two and three or more families were respectively G2'8, 20"2 and 17*0. The negroes, who formed 19 per cent, of the whole population at that date, live very largely in tenement or flat dwellmg-houses, which are numerous in the central area. The cottages of the white workpeople contain three, four or five rooms, according to the means of the tenants and the needs of their families. No statistics exist showing the numerical relationship of these thi-ee gi'oups, but investigation for the purposes of this enquiry left the impression that dwellings of four rooms were the most numerous. The LOUISVILLE. 225 commonest type of such cottages is a single- storied dwelling with two rooms at the front and the remaining two immediately behind, additional space being secured by the projection of the rear portion of the building at one or both sides. Another usual type of four-roomed dwelling is a cottage four rooms in depth, each room being therefore as broad as the building. In a third but less common type there are three successive rooms on the ground floor and the fourth room is built over the one at the rear. The three-roomed cottage is of the ordinary kind met with in Southern cities, the rooms lying one behind the other. Louisville has evolved a rather unusual type of five and six-roomed house. Where there are five rooms, three are on the ground floor, and two are built over the third or back room. This upper structure projects at one or both sides, the covered space below serving as a verandah, of which the floor is raised above the ground. In the case of the six-roomed house — though houses of this size are not often occupied by working people — the sixth room is obtained either by the insertion of another room in front of the two- storied portion, or two ground-floor rooms are built in this portion, the necessary space being obtained by reducing the size of the verandah. Whatever their size the cottages are practically all detached or semi-detached, the former kind being more numerous than the latter. These dwellings are usually erected on plots measuring 25 feet by 125 feet, and the bulk of them have open spaces both in front and behind. It is worthy of notice, however, that although these spaces are relatively large, little attempt appears to be made to cultivate them either with vegetables or flowers. Wood is the usual building material, but the number of brick houses is proportionally far larger than in other Southern towns. Another point of difference in Louisville is the absence of the front porches in which Southern people are wont to sit in the summer evenings. The sanitary conditions of tlie dwellings leave much to be desired. The vault system of closet prevails in all houses of this class. The city water supply is not laid on to the bulk of the dwellings, which depend for their water upon rain-water cisterns in their yards or upon wells either in these yards or in the street. It is quite unusual to find baths in the homes of the working people. For the storage of coal a Avooden shed built in the yard is used in most cases, and in practically all the cottages visited there was a cellar beneath the rear part of the house, to which access was obtained by means of a trap-door in the verandah floor. The walls of this cellar were usually built of brick, and it was mostly used as a place of storage for potatoes, vegetables and other foodstuffs. Although a considerable number of coloured families live alone in cottages similar in style to those occupied by whites, it is probable that the majority either live in tenement houses or share a cottage with another family. The more thrifty and regularly paid men rent dwellings of two and three rooms, but not a few negro families have only a single room. The older and less desirable houses in the central districts are largely inhabited by negroes. These houses, whether constructed for or converted to tenement use, need no special description. They may be single houses of two or three stories, with a depth of three or four rooms, or they may be double houses with the entrance in the centre, when they ha^^e as a rule a depth of two rooms. Many large houses were observed which had apparently been specially built to let in single-roomed tenements, and in some of these from 20 to 'do families were housed in single rooms. These one-roomed tenements are as a rule let singly by the week, but in some cases the whole building is let to a tenant-in-chief, who sub-lets at a profit. In the case of the divided one-storied cottages it is common for one family to take the two or three front rooms, while the other family takes the rooms behind. The following Table shows the predominant rents paid for dwellings of three, four and five rooms occupied by whites, and for dwellings of one, two and three I'ooms occupied by negroes : — Predominant Rents of Working-class Dwellings. Number of Booms per Dwelling. Predominant Weekly Bents. One room. — Coloured tenants Two rooms — Coloured tenants Three rooms- ( ^]^}!''f ^^T''*' I White tenants Four rooms -White tenants ... Five rooms — White tenants ... 2s. M. to i$s. id. 4,s. lOd. „ 6s. 9d. OS. 9d. „ 8s. M. 6s. 9d. „ 9s. Id. 8s. M. „ 11, ?. M. lis. 6d. „ 14s. Dd. The level of rents at New York being I'epresented by 100, the rents index number for Louisville is 71. 16576 226 LOUISVILLE. Although the rentals paid by negi'o tenants do not show a wide difference from those paid by whites, when the number of rooms only is taken into consideration, the value received is not equal, for, as a rule, the negroes occupy older houses, inferior in convenience and finish to those occupied by the whites. It was more than once remarked to the investi- g'ator that negroes very frequently pay more than whites for similar accommodation, simply because they are not cai-eful to estimate the value of the accommodation offered. The point is important, though it may be doubted whether house renting is the only trans- action in which want of discrimination tells to the negroes' disadvantage. The above rentals include the cost of water, when the city water is supplied. As the principle of exempting personal properties of small value is applied in a liberal spirit, working-class tenants as a rule pay no taxes. Rents are paid monthly in advance, and it is usual to sign monthly leases. I The following notes relating to typical working-class dwellings visited in the course of the investigation will serve to illustrate the housing conditions of both white and coloured working people : — Dwellings of White People : — Grijfith Avenue. — A four-roomed cottage, having two rooms in front co-extensive in breadth with the house, and two parallel rooms behind these. The front rooms were the same size, measuring 15 feet 9 inches by 15 feet 3 inches by 11 feet 6 inches, and the back rooms both measured 14 feet by 12 feet by 11 feet 6 inches. The house had a forecourt and a good garden (uncultivated) behind, and the closet (pri\'7-vault) was at the end of this garden. The water supply was obtained from a cistern built in the ground, but well water was also procurable at a pump in the street. The house was occupied by a bricklayer, who paid 95. 7d. per week. Fifth Street. — Nine houses, each of four rooms, in a row, and having the same interior arrangement as in the preceding instance. The two front rooms measured 14 feet by 13 feet by 10 feet ; one back room measured 13 feet 6 inches by 8 feet by 10 feet, and the other 13 feet 6 inches by 7 feet by 10 feet. There were water-taps within the houses, which had forecourts and small gardens behind. The rent was lis. 6rf. per week. Maijazine Street. — A four-roomed cottage, let at \\s. Qd. per week. The two front rooms measured 15 feet by 15 feet by 11 feet, the third room 15 feet by 9 feet by 11 feet and the fourth (parallel to the third) 15 feet by 11 feet by 11 feet. The house had a forecourt and a good garden, a water-tap in the yard, a cellar beneath the kitchen and a coal -shed in the yard. Lee Street. — Ten houses of four rooms, let at 12.s. Qd. per week. Three of the rooms, lying one behind the other, were square (14 feet by 14 feet by 10 feet), and the kitchen measured 12 feet by 14 feet by 10 feet. There was water within the cottage and in the yard. The closet was on the privy-vault system. Fifth Street. — Five cottages of four rooms, one behind the other, let at 10s. Id. per week. Two rooms measured 13 feet by 14 feet 3 inches by 10 feet, the third 14 feet 3 inches by 14 feet 3 inches by 10 feet and the fourth 10 feet 9 inches by 14 feet 3 inches by 10 feet. There was a water-tap in the yard, where the privy- vault also was placed. The houses had no garden space. OTTara Street. — Two new houses of four rooms, with bathroom, pantry and closet indoors. The houses had cost about £150 each to build, the value of the site was about £100, and the rent was 12s. M. per week. The two front rooms measured 14 feet 6 inches by 15 feet by 10 feet ; a third room, next to which was the bathi-oom, on the same level, had the same dimensions. The kitchen (adjacent to which was the pantry) measured 12 feet by 14 feet by 10 feet. The kitchen was cellared, and there was a good garden with a coal-shed. St. Xavier Street. — A three-roomed brick cottage, let at 7s. 3rf. per week. The front room measured 15 feet 6 inches by 16 feet by 10 feet, the second room 16 feet by 16 feet by 10 feet and the third 12 feet by 16 feet by 10 feet. The house had a garden behind, a sjjace in front, and there was a cellar beneath the kitchen ; water was obtained from a cistern sunk in the ground. Dumesnil Street. — Two brick houses of three rooms, which all measured 16 feet 3 inches by 15 feet 3 inches by 11 feet. Each house had a good garden, a cistern pump and a coal-shed. The closet was on the vault plan. Rent 9s. Id. per week. O'liara Street. — Two three-roomed houses, let at 8s. 8i. per week. All the rooms measured 15 feet by 15 feet by 10 feet. Water was obtained from a pump ; there were no cellars, but in the gardens, which were of good size, there were coal-sheds. LOUISVILLE. 227" Twenty-First Street. — A five-roomed house, let at lis. Qd. per week, with three rooms on the ground level, and two upstairs over the kitchen. The m.easurements of the downstairs rooms were : Front room 15 feet 6 inches by 15 feet by 10 feet ; second room 16 feet by 15 feet by 10 feet ; kitchen 13 feet 6 inches by 15 feet by 10 feet ; the upstairs rooms measured respectively 13 feet by 1:J feet by 10 feet and 13 feet by 9 feet by 10 feet. The stairs were in the kitchen, and there was a good garden, but the water supply was from a cistern and a public pump, while the closet was on the vault plan. Dwellings of Negroes: — Seventh Street. — A house, four rooms deep, containing six families, each occupying two rooms, the tenements being let at 5s. ^d. ])er week. The rooms measured 16 feet or 16 feet 9 inches by 12 feet 6 inches by 11 feet. The water- tap was in the corridor of the first floor, and the water-closet was in the middle of the corridor, but with no outside ventilation. Ninth Street. — A negro " ark " of two stories and one room deep, with a gallery running round the outside. The building contained 34 rooms, each let at 3s. 2d. per week. All rooms were of the same size, measuring 13 feet by 12 feet 6 inches by 10 feet, and in most cases accommodated a family. There were two closets (on the vault system) and one water-tap for the entire house. Pearl Street. — A large house known as the " Tin House," occupied by 32 families, of which only four rented two rooms. The rooms, which were let at 2s. %d. j^er week, measured 13 feet by 17 feet by 10 feet 6 inches. One water-tap and four closets (vault system) served for all the tenants. There was no provision for through ventilation in the case of quite half the tenements. Centre Street. — A two-roomed first-floor dwelling let at 5s. 9c?. per week. The front room measured 16 feet by 13 feet by 10 feet, and the kitchen 13 feet by 14 feet 6 inches by 10 feet. York Street. — A first-floor dwelling of three rooms let at 7s. 8d. per week. All the rooms measured 15 feet by 15 feet by owell is under the supervision of a Board of Health, the executive staff consisting of an agent and bacteriologist, a physician and six inspectors, including an inspector for meat and provisions. The city maintains three parks, with areas of 34, 22 and 11 acres respectively, and ;al80 about a dozen open spaces or squares having a combined area of about 4 acres. 234 LOWELL. Both during- the day and evenmg ample facilities are offered for technical instruction in the staple industry of the city at the Lowell Textile School, which is maintained by the State, and is one of the finest institutions of its kind. The cit}' revenues are derived mainly from taxation and licence duties. The taxes consist chiefly of those on real and personal property, the poll taxes, the street railway tax, and the tax on incorporated companies. In 1907 real estate was valued at jBl2,485,606, and personal estate liable to taxation at £3,284,131. The rate of tax levied was 1*94 per cent., yielding £304,963. The number of persons liable to the poll tax was 25,181, and the yield at Hs. Ad. per head was £10,492. The tax levied on shares of stock in the National Banks in Lowell held by non-residents amounted to £2,526. The total amount due in respect of property and poll taxes amounted, therefore, to £317,981. Of this sum, £276,958 was available for city pur]wses. The street railway tax received either directly or from the State amounted to £3,796, and the corporation tax to £13,219. Liquor licences yielded £37,167, of which £9,297 was paid over to the State. Other licences (on druggists, dogs, paint and chemicals) contributed £841, and special assess- ments for sewers, street sprinkling, sidewalks and moth extermination amounted to £9,408. Occupations, Wages and Hours of Labour. The following Table, based on the Federal Census results of 1900, shows the distribution of the population of Lowell according to occupation : — Number of Persons of 10 years of age and over engaged in Occupations in Lowell in 1900. Occupations. Totol. Building Metalworkiog and Engineering , Cotton , Woollen Hosiery Bleaching and Dyeing , Carpet Making Other and not specified Textile , Leather Boot and Shoe Making Clothing ... . . Woodworking and Furnishing ... Paper and Printing Food, Urink and Tobacco Other Manufacturing and Mechanical Pursuits Trade and Transportation Labourers (not otherwise specified) Professional, Domestic and Personal Service and cultural Pursuits ... All Occupations Agri- 2,353 3,448 8,768 1,723 2,766 415 689 5,303 420 706 1,232 548 539 463 2,209 7,448 2,615 6,103 47,748 The Table shows clearly that piu-ely industrial character of the city to which attention has already been directed. The relative importance in 1908 of the princi])al manufactures as fields for employment is shown by the following Table, compiled from a return published by the Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics : — Number of Wage-earners employed in 1908 in the Manufacturtng Industries of LoiceU. ' Wage-earners Employed. Industry. Average Number. Smallest Number. Greatest Males. Females. Total. Number. Cotton Goods Woollen Goods Worsted Goods Foundry and Machine Shop Products Boots and Shoes Other Industries 5,572 612 529 1,921 715 5,159 5,383 340 801 14 349 4,936 10,955 952 1,330 1,935 1,064 10,095' 8,801 700 1,051 1,474 702 8,268 12,313 1,191 1,658 2,729 1,478 11,655 All Industries 14,508 11,S23 26,331 20,996 31,024 LOWELL. 235 It will be seen that of the average number of 26,331 wage-earners employed in all the manufacturing industries embraced in the return, the cotton industry employed 10,955 or 42 per cent. These 10,955 persons were distributed among as few as seven establishments. The capacity of the mills, however, is much greater than the number of persons em])loyed would indicate, the year 1908 having been one of acute depression. The cotton mills are large red brick structures, five or six stories high, built with one exception alongside the ^lerrimac River, from which source much of their power is derived. They are all engaged in both spinning and weaving, and usually in dyeing and bleaching. While American-born people probably form the most numerous single class of employees, they are in a very distinct minority as compared with the aggregate of foreign-born workers. An analysis of the staffs at two of the largest mills gave the following result : — First mill — Americans 445, foreign nationalities 2,510, including French Canadians 681, Irish 621, Greeks 568, English 294, Belgians 125, Poles 99, Scots 42, nine other nationalities 80. Second mill — Americans 567, foreign nationalities 1,700, including Poles 427, Irish 321, French Canadians 244, Greeks 242, English 152, Portuguese 114, Scots and Russians 69 each, eight other nationalities 62. The language difficulty is obviously a handicap to an employer in the supervision of the various branches of a miil, and there is consequently a tendency to group a class of foreigners in order that those who understand a little English may instruct or advise the others. A national group, once represented in a mill, naturally tends to become larger. In the same way certain processes become identified with different nationalities in different mills. In one of the two mills mentioned above, the Greeks are mostly employed in the spinning rooms, but this cannot be regarded as a characteristic of all the other mills in the city. In this particular case the introduction of the first few Greeks was due largely to some temporary consideration, but once they were there, it was found convenient, as the staff increased, to put others with them. It may be mentioned that though official notices and instructions in regard to a few of the chief factory rules are usually printed in four or five different languages, no serious attempt is made to deal with the non- English-speaking workers by means of their own language, except possibly in the case of the French Canadians. Even the workpeople's names often undergo a strange metamor- phosis when transcribed in the firm's books. Many a Greek or Portuguese who is known among his countrymen by some polysyllabic title answers in the mill to "John Smith" or some other emphatically English name. Owing to the presence of a large number of foreign -speaking men, previously used to agricultural pursuits in their native land and utterly untrained in factory work, it is the custom in Lowell for male labour to be employed in several occupations which in England are reserved more exclusively for women. To a very large extent the roving, jack frames, &c., are tended by men, while, as mentioned above, in at .least one mill Greek men ai'e employed in ring spinning. Generally speaking, however, the male labour from Central, Eastern and South-Eastern Europe is mostly employed in the picking room and dye houses and in other more or less definitely unskilled capacities. The French Canadians, on the other hand, on account of their longer association with the industry, are employed on the skilled or semi-skilled tasks. In former days they were a somewhat uncertain factor, showing a marked tendency to go back to Canada and engage there in agricultural work. This migration still continvies, but it is no longer considerable. The French Canadians are now a permanent element in the population, and are usually regarded as excellent workpeople. The textile trades are organised to some extent both on the side of the mill-owners & and of the workpeople, though the workers' associations represent only a minority of the employees. Jhe Lowell Cotton Manufacturers' Association represents the employers, while the workers' unions consist of English, Belgian and Polish branches of the Textile Workers' Union, and also separate unions for loom fixers, for beamers, fixers and slashers, for weavers, for mule spinners and for bleachery workers. It may be noted here that in Lowell mule spinning is carried on only to a relatively small extent. The tendency to replace mule spindles by ring frames is going rapidly forward, the principal motive being economy, and to some extent, no doubt, the desire to make full use of the plentiful supply of unskilled immigrant labour. No common schedule of wage rates is agreed upon by the various mills, but in practice competition ensures a general uniformity. From time to time during the last ten years negotiations have taken place between the employers' 2|d. Brown »» 2hd., 2fd Bacon, Breakfast — Boneless ,? 7^d. to lOf^. Eggs :— 1 Storage per Is. 9 „ 10 Fresh 5j 6 „ 8 Cheese, American per lb. lOd. Butter ,j Is. M. to Is. 6d. Potatoes, Irish per 7 lb. 6irf. „ Id. Flour, Wheaten — Householc 59 lOfrf. to Is. lirf. Bread, White per 4 lb. lOd. „ Is. Ud. Milk per quart Hd. Coal, Anthracite per cwt. Is. lO^d.* ; 2s. Oidt Kerosene per gallon lid. to 8id. 16576 By the ton (2,000 lb.) or half -ton (1,000 lb.), t By the quarter-ton (500 lb.). 242 LOWELL. Meat. The beef, mutton and veal consumed in Lowell is practically all Western-dressed, though a certain amount of local- beef of very poor quality is also on sale at the cheapest shops. The method of cutting does not call for special comment except so far as " rounds " are concerned. This part of the carcase is very seldom cut as a roast, and when cut as a steak is usually divided into three parts, top of the round, bottom of the round and the vein cut. The " top " is the most expensive, and the " bottom " the cheapest cut. As elsewhere in New England the price of veal varies considerably from shop to shop, such variations being principally due to wide differences of quality. The best pork sold in Lowell is local or Boston killed. A considerable amount of frozen pork is, however, also obtained from the West. Canned meats have a large sale. Roast beef and corned beef, each sold in cans weighing gross 1 lb., cost (^^d. The following Table shows the jjrices most generally paid by the working classes for certain cuts of beef, mutton, veal and pork in February, 1909 : — Predominant Prices paid bji the Working Classes in February, 1909. Description of Cut. Predominant Price per lb. Beef:— Roasts — Ribs prime lid. to M. „ Ribs second cut 6d. „ 7^d. . „ Cliuclf or short ribs od. Steaks — Round Ud. to lOrf. „ Sirloin 'Is. Ok/. Sliin without bone M.ioM. Flank M. „ M. Brisket, " Fancy " Id. „ Sd. Mutton or Larab : — i-eg 7|f/. to Df/. Breast id. „ 6d. Loin M. „ Sd. Chops lOf/. „ Is. Ok/. Shoulder 6d. Neck 3f/. to bd. . Veal :— Cutlets lOf/. to Is. 2d. Rib chops Sy. „ lid. Loin chops 'M. „ llhd. Breast M. „ 6d. Neck id. „ hd. Pork :— Fresh — Loin 'bd. to 7 k/. „ Spare rib id. „ 65. „ Shoulder bd. „ Chops Id. to 8r/. Corned (wet salt or pickled) b\d. „ Id. Dry salt Id. ■' Shoulder, salt or smoked ihd. to bd. Prices at New York being taken as the base, = 100, in each case, the index number for the price of meat at Lowell is 99, for other food it is 103 and for food prices as a whole 102. F|or rents and food prices combined the index number is 90. 243 MEMPHIS. Memphis, a city in the south-west corner of the State of Tennessee, is situated wholly upon the left bank of the Mississippi at a distance (by the river) of 454 miles below St. Louis and of 818 miles above New Orleans. It lies in close proximity to the State of Mississippi, and the eastern boundary of the State of Arkansas faces the city upon the opposite bank of the river. Memphis is now the largest city in the State. Incorporated in 1826 as a town, and in 1849 as a city, it had in 1860 a population of 22,623 ; but the course of its growth was seriously arrested by three epidemics which occurred in the 'seventies. The following Table shows the number of inhabitants at the Federal Censuses of 1870-1910. Year. Population. Increase or Decrease ( — ). Percentage Increase or Decrease ( — ). 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 40,226 33,592 64,495 102,320 131,105 -6,634 30,903 37,825 28,785 -16-5 92-0 58-6 28-1 The effects of the epidemics of 1872, 1878 and 1879 are reflected in the decline of population recorded in 1880. The epidemic of yellow fever in 1878 was the most severe of all : according to the report of the Howard Relief Association the number of persons attacked Avas 15,000, of whom 5,150 died, more than four-fifths being whites. In the following year there were 1,595 cases and 497 deaths. Business had been prostrated in 1878 by the ravages of the disease, and in January, 1879 the State Legislature repealed the city charter, assumed control of its taxation and finances and placed it under the government of a " legislative council." It was only twelve years later that a new city charter was granted. The city appears to have taken adequate measures against the recurrence of such epidemics. Modern sewerage and an admirable artesian water system have been provided. It may be noted here that 3'1 square miles were added in September, 1909 to the municipal area, which up to that date covered 16 square miles. This extension increased the population of the city by several thousand, but, in spite of this, the increase during the last decade in the number of inhabitants fell considerably below that in the preceding ten years, this decline in the rate of increase being largely attributable to development beyond the city limits. The foreign-born element in the population of Memphis is inconsiderable, forming in 1900 but 5 per cent, of the total. Of the 5,110 persons enumerated in 1900 who were foreign-born, 29"5 per cent, were born in Germany, 22*2 per cent, in Ireland, 14*2 per cent, in Italy, 9'2 per cent, in Great Britain and 6*3 per cent, in Russia. The Germans and the Irish rapidly assimilate to American conditions. The former, in so far as they are found in the ranks of manual workers, are employed mainly in the skilled occupations of the building and machine shop trades, while the Irish are employed notably by the railways both in the handling of goods and on the trains, by the municipality (as policemen, firemen, &c.) and in the lumber mills. The Italians are far more conspicuous. In recent yesirs they have come in increasing numbers to Memphis (as to the South generally), and have met with considerable success in the occupations that they have adopted. A large number of the smaller grocery and meat shops — with a bar often attached — as well as many cheap restaurants, which especially attract negro custom, are kept by Italians. One of their distinctive occupations is market-gardening ; in 1909, 36 Italian families owned in the city and suburbs 1,175 acres of land (valued at £45,000) which they cultivated in this way, besides renting 875 acres for similar use. Their carts, stocked with fruits and vegetables, are to be seen daily making their rounds in all quarters. Many Italians also sell fruit, vegetables, ice-cream, popcorn, &c., at street stands. As labourers they work in the streets and on the. railways, but some are employed as decorators, plasterers and labourers in the building trades. Greeks are also growing in tuimbers in Memphis. Several cheap restaurants are kept by them, and in the business of shaving and boot cleaning — much more important as trades 16576 Q 2 244 MEMPHIS. but if negroes The whites in American than in European cities — they are proving successful competitors to the negroes, who had liitherto enjoyed almost a monopoly. The negroes formed in 1900 48*8 percent, of the total population, a larger pei'centage than in any other city included in the present enquiry save Savannah, where the percentage was .51 "8 at the same date, and in the last ten years their increase in numbers has kept pace with the growth of the city. Few relations, save those of a business nature, exist between them and the whites and socially and educationally, not less than in their religious organisations, the two races live apart. Negroes possess political rights, but they are not easily exercised. For a long period they have held no public office. In the ti'amcars negro passengers are compelled to take the back seats and, although not expressly debarred, an unwritten law excludes them from the principal public parks. They do not frequent the theatres, and have their own recreation grounds. There are two negro cemeteries, wish to be buried in the public cemeteries they are restricted to special areas avoid living in close proximity to them, and when negroes obtain a settlement in streets inhabited by whites, these tend to leave. The negroes, therefore, are usually found con- gregated in distinct streets and quarters of their own. Distinct signs of advancement in education and in economic well-being ai-e observable among the negro population. In 1909 the city maintained eight free public schools and one high school for negroes, in which over 90 coloured teachers, including 17 male teachers, were employed. As there is no compulsory education law it is difficult to ensure the attendance at school of negro children, and in 1908 only about one-quarter of the negro children of school age were enrolled, but the leaders of the coloured people are doing their utmost to efEect an improvement in this respect. In 1907 it was decided to transfer to Memphis the seat of the University of West Tennessee, which was founded in 1900 at Jackson, in the State of Tennessee, for the higher education of coloured youth, and in 1909 the departments of medicine, dentistry, pharmacj', law and nurse training were in active work in the city. There are also two private institutions which provide instruction largely of a commerciiil and industrial character, the Le Moyne Normal Institute and the Howe Institute. The former, founded in 1871 by the American Missionary Association, and presided over by a white principal, had some 700 students on its books in 1909 and classes were held in, among other subjects, psychology, printing, woodworking, music and needlework. The Howe Institute (which has some 500 students) was organised by the Baptists, and, in addition to ordinary subjects, gives iiistruction in theology, music, shorthand, typewriting, bookkeeping, printing and needlework. There were in the city in 1908 over forty negro doctors, seven dentists and twelve lawyers. Many negroes keep grocers' and butchers' shops and other small stores, while some have risen to be small contractors. In the outer parts of the city, such as " Klondyke " and " New Chicago," there are considerable colonies of negroes, the members of which nearly all own the houses in which they live, while in certain more central districts, according to a negro writer, " whole subdivisions are being abandoned by the white people and bought up by the ambitious and thrifty classes of coloured people." There are no negro daily newspapers, but two weekly journals are published and the two Institutes above mentioned also publish periodicals for the negroes. In 190(5 a banking institution under the exclusive ownership and management of coloured people was established in Memphis, and it has met with con- siderable success. The negroes have also erected an Old Folk's and Orphans' Home. " The vital statistics for ^lemphis are defective. No general registration of births is enforced, and in April, 1909, the number of births recorded did not in any single week exceed forty. Both whites and negroes frequently fail to i*eport births, but the latter are more remiss than the former. As a consequence the natural increase of [xjpulation cannot be stated, nor can an infantile mortality rate be calculated on the usual basis. The following Table shows the tofcil number of deaths, the number of deaths under one year and the number of deaths due to tuberculosis for each of the years 1904 to 1908 inclusive : — Year. Total Number of Deaths. Number of Deaths under One Year. Number of Deaths due to Tuberculosis. White. Coloured. White. Coloured. White. Coloured. 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 931 1,071 1,027 1,023 1,030 1,101 1,239 1,160 1,185 1,410 140 118 137 151 162 I.')? 181 159 191 219 63 98 97 103 88 145 171 197 155 170 MEMPHIS. 245 Memphis is primarily a commercial and distributing centre. It is the largest inland cotton market in the world, and also claims to be the largest hardwood lumber market. As a centre for the wholesale grocery, hardware, shoe, dry goods, agricultural implement and flour trades it is of great importance. In point of industry the woodworkings trades predominate, while one of its distinctive manufactures is the production of cotton-seed oil. There are important machine shops in the city and the immediate vicinity, but railway repair work affords the larger part of the emploj'meut in them. The remaining trades mainly subserve local needs, and do not supply distant markets. A period of prosperity set in for Memphis in the 'nineties, and it has continued unbroken to the present time. The following Table, which sets forth for each of the years 1901 to 1907 the receipts of the Bank Clearing House and of the Post Office, and for 1902 to 1 907 the value of the transfers in real estate and the total estimated cost of new buildings and house improvements, furnishes evidence of the growing prosperity of the city : — Year. Clearing House Receipts. Post Office Receipts. Real Estate Transfers. New Buildings and Improvements. 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 £ 32,183,945 37,333,321 44,585,325 54,305,068 56,963,033 51,569,803 51,849,592 £ 51,519 61,261 71,275 82,004 91,122 100,558 112,344 £ 887,352 1,286,258 1,484,510 2,272,665 2,346,117 1,901,981 £ 469,375 ■ 680,257 957,116 1,053,668 1,358,364 1,548,348 Memphis enjoys exceptional means of communication and of transport. Nine distinct railway systems enter the city. The Mississippi is here spanned by a great cantilever railway bridge, which is the only bridge across the river south of Cairo. By this river and its tributaries Memphis has access to a large territory embracing the States of Tennessee, Mississippi, Arkansas, Louisiana and Missouri, and is enabled to obtain cotton, timber and other commodities at low cost. Coal and iron also reach Memphis from Pennsylvania by the Mississippi and its tributary the Ohio. The river acts as a permanent regulator of freight charges, and its presence tends to ensure for the city comparatively low railway rates. Memphis is at the head of the deep water and all-year navigation of the Mississippi, and is the home port of 175 steamboats. The Panama Canal, when completed, will doubtless further the interests of Memphis, more particularly if the projects for connecting the Mississippi with the Great Lakes and for providing a deeper permanent channel in the river should be realised. As to local transport facilities, Memphis possesses an electric tramway system with 75 miles of track within the city limits and 109 miles if extensions to the various suburbs are included. There are few dwellings on the Arkansas banks of the Mississippi, so that little traffic is carried on between the two sides of the river : one steam ferry makes the passage about fifteen times daily, the service ceasing about six o'clock in the evening. The city occupies a striking situation upon the fourth Chickasaw Bluffs, some forty feet above the highest water mark, and the site is of an undulating character. The majority of the streets away from the immediate centre are bordered with trees, and the municipality owns nearly 1,100 acres of garden sjjaces in different parts of the city. O\'erton Park, Avhich is the finest park, is a little removed from the centre, and about three miles from the river, while Riverside Park, along the Mississippi banks, is almost the same distance from the dividing line between the northern and southern sections of the city. The streets, though wide and regularly laid out, as in the majority of American cities, are badly paved, and much remains to be done in the provision of good roads and foot- ways. Memphis has grown with such rapidity, however, that the authorities have been unable to keep pace with its requirements, and whole streets exist without jn'operly laid roads or footways. Of a total of 235 miles of streets in the urban area in December, 1907, 121 miles, according to the report of the city engineer, were "dirt" streets, i.e. composed merely of the natural soil. When the heavy falls of rain, known as wash rains, occur at Memphis, these streets become almost impassable. The footways are also often mere " dirt " paths, relieved in some cases by Avooden planks. A sum of £625,000 is, however, to be expended upon street improvements in the immediate future. 16576 Q3 246 MEMPHIS. With the exception of the buildings devoted to commerce and industry and those in the central parts of the city, the great majority of the houses are built of wood. A few of the more pretentious dwellings are built of brick or stone, while a larger number have a wooden fi'amework covered with a veneer of brick, or have basements of brick or stone. Outside the business quarters, where houses of three and four stories are found, as well as a few lofty structures of from nine to fifteen stories, the houses mainly contain one or two stories. Among the more notable public buildings may be named the new Court House, the Custom House and the Public Library. The course of the city's expansion is towards the south and east. The latter jjortion of the city is chiefly inhabited by the well-to-do classes, while industry is moving to the south. Already the area known as New South Memphis, which adjoins the city, yet is independent of it, is a fast developing industrial ceiitre, and in South Memphis proper are numerous factories and the local workshops of the principal railway systems running into Memphis. The projected Union Station, at which all passenger trains will arrive, is to be in this district, which is also at present the headquarters of the wholesale grocery, hardware and other important warehouses. Northern Memphis is almost wholly given over to the timber trade and to one or two branches of the woodworking trade. Expansion on this side has been hindered by Wolf River, and the boyaus that often overflow in the spring. The enterprise of a company which secured a large tract of land to the south of the city greatly stimulated development in that direction ; among other inducements the company offered free sites for factories for terms of years. Municiijal enterpi-ise is confined to the care of the streets and the management of the water works. The city has introduced the crematory system for the disposal of garbage. \d. per hour, and from that period to the completion of their second year 9.^6?., when the rate for the third and fourth year becomes 10 inches by 12 feet, and the fourth ^'^•' MEMPHIS. room measured 15 feet by 15 feet 9 inches by 12 feet. There wa.s a small yard, but no garden space behmd ; the water-closet was within the house, and there was a good pantry and a hall 6 feet 3 inches broad. ^ South Third Street.— Two houses of four rooms, let at 14s. 5rf. per week. The kitchen measured 10 feet 3 inches by 7 feet 6 inches by 9 feet 9 inches, the front and second rooms 15 feet 9 inches by 15 feet 3 inches by 12 feet and the third room 15 feet by lo feet 3 inches by 12 feet. Thomas Street.— A house with four rooms and hall, let at 15s. 5^/. per week. The measurem.ents of the rooms were : 14 feet by 15 feet ; 13 feet by 15 feet ; 9 feet by 12 teet ; 10 feet by 9 feet. Each room was 10 feet in height. There was a yard and garden, but no city water, one well serving two houses. Arkansas Avenue.— Hix houses of three rooms, let at 10s. 7d. per week. The measurements of the rooms were : kitchen 12 feet 6 inches by 13 feet 4 inches by 10 feet high ; middle room 15 feat by 13 feet 4 inches by 10 feet ; front room 13 feet 4 niches square and 10 feet high. There were a water-closet, a tap in the house and a coal house in the yard. Trigg Avenue. — Four houses with five rooms and bathroom, let at from 1 7s. Ad. to 19s. Sd. per Aveek. The measurements of the rooms were : hall or lobby, X feet 6 inches by 10 feet ; two living rooms and one bedroom, each 13 feet 6 inches square ; a second bedroom 10 feet by 12 feet ; kitchen 10 feet by 12 feet. A^orth Second Street. — Four detached houses of four rooms, let at 14s. 6d. per week. There were forecourts and gardens (64 feet by 30 feet), but the latter were left in an luicultivated state. The front room measured 15 feet 3 inches by 15 feet, the twcv middle rooms 14 feet 9 inches by 15 feet 3 inches and 14 feet 9 inches by 15 feet 9 mches and the kitchen 11 feet 3 inches by 15 feet 3 inches. Marple Street. — Twenty houses of four rooms, let at 9s. 7d. per week. All the rooms had the same breadth of 13 feet 3 inches : two rooms had a length of 13 feet, the third one of 12 feet and the kitchen one of 9 feet 6 inches. The houses were supplied with well water, and the privies and coalhouses were in the yards. Chelsea Avenue. — Three houses with five rooms and pantry, let at 19s. 3d. per week. The rooms measured : 15 feet 9 inches by 13 feet 3 inches ; 13 feet 3 inches by 9 feet 3 inches ; 13 feet by 12 feet ; 13 feet by 12 feet 6 inches ; 10 feet 8 inches by 12 feet 4 inches. The height was 10 feet in each case. There were both back and fi^ont porches. Decatur Avenue. — Two houses with five rooms and bathroom, let at 24s. per week. The dimensions of the rooms were : 12 feet by 8 feet ; 14 feet square ; 12 feet 6 inches by 14 feet ; 12 feet by 13 feet; kitchen 9 feet by 12 feet ; bathroom 5 feet by 8 feet. Height of rooms 10 feet. The great majority of the negro households occupy cottages of two and three rooms ; when larger dwellings are taken, a portion is usually sub-let. These cottages are also frame structures of one story with the rooms succeeding one another. Like those of the whites they are either single or double, but when single the space separating the houses is less, and they tend to lie in groups. Sometimes one finds rows of from eight to sixteen or more cottages similar in form and detached, yet with nothing to indicate the boundaries of the building plots. Building speculators find negro- dwellings a very profitable form of investment. As a rule they build groups of six, sixteen or twenty such dwellings, using the cheapest material, placing no walls or other boundary marks between the houses and providing a common water supply and a restricted number of closets. The " bottoms" or low grounds, which the undulating and uneven configuration of the land creates in abundance, are often utilized for groups of dwellings for the accommodation of negroes. It is true that large numbers of the negroes are well housed, but the housing conditions in negro quarters are as a rule very inferior, and the prevailing impression produced by an inspection of them is a dismal one. The excessive crowding of their homes in the allej's, in the " bottoms," and in the rears of front houses, where front and back are convertible terms, and where some of the necessary conveniences, primitive though they are, have to be shared in common, can hardly tend to increase the self-respect of the coloured population or conduce to its social betterment. A feature of negro housing is the existence of many two-storied tenement dwellings built of wood called " arks," where families live in one or two rooms. Access to the upper- storios of these structures is obtained by an external staircase at either end of the buildings MEMPHIS. 253 along which a gallery runs both on the ground and first floors. Water and conveniences are provided for common use, and the open space about the dwellings is often quite inadequate. The municipal ordinance passed in August, 1908, pro^dding that "no single frame (i.e., wooden) house shall be erected which shall contain accommodation for more than two families," will bring about in time the disappearance of these unsatisfactory dwellings. Notes are added relating to negro dwellings visited : — Florida Avenue. — Two negro cottages of three rooms, let at las. per week. Two rooms measured 12 feet 6 inches by 13 feet 9 inches by 10 feet, and the kitchen 10 feet 6 inches by 13 feet 9 inches by 10 feet. City water was laid on. Michigan Avenue. — A row of sixteen detached houses occupied by negroes having two rooms and kitchen and let at 8s. 8c?. per week. The front room measured 13 feet 6 inches square ; the middle room 12 feet 6 inches by 13 feet 6 inches ; the kitchen 10 feet 9 inches by 9 feet 3 inches. Each room was 10 feet high. There were small yards but no gardens, and there was a common water supply. Texas Avenue. — Ten houses of three rooms, let at Is. 8d. per week. The front room measui-ed 13 feet by 13 feet by 9 feet, the second room 14 feet by 13 feet by 9 feet and the kitchen 9 feet 9 inches by 13 feet by 9 feet. The closets and water supply were in the yard. Lenow Street. — Two negro cottages containing two rooms and let at 5s. 9c?. per week. Both rooms were 13 feet 3 inches square and 9 feet 6 inches high. There were two closets for the use of six cottages. South Second Street. — Four negro "arks." each containing sixteen rooms, let at 3s. 4c/. a week. The four buildings were two-storied frame structures with stiiirs at each end leading to an upper gallery, upon which the rooms of the first floor opened. The rooms all measured 14 feet 3 inches by 14 feet 3 inches by 10 feet. There was one water-tap for every eight rooms, and a closet for about every four households. In the same enclosure were two more " arks," each containing eight rooms let at the same rent. When two I'ooms were taken by one family, the rent charged was 5s. 9c?. or 6s. 3c?. per week. McLemore Avenue. — Ten houses (in pairs) let at 7s. 8(i. per week, and one house (detached) let at 8s. 8^i?. per week, all with three rooms. Thei*e was one closet for every two houses ; each had a sepai'ate coal shed, but there was a common yard. There was no city water, one pumj) serving all the tenants. The two front rooms measured 13 feet by 13 feet by 9 feet, and 14 feet by 13 feet by 9 feet respectively. Texas Avenue. — A house of two rooms let at Gs. 9d. per week. The front room measured 14 feet by 13 feet 6 inches by 10 feet, and the back room 13 feet 3 inches by 13 feet 6 inches by 10 feet. Next to this house were two blocks of two houses with two rooms each, let at 5s. 9c?. per week. In the immediate neighbourhood were ten very old negro shanties of two rooms each, of which the rent was 4s. 10c?. per week. In several cases there was only one closet for several houses, and the water supply was obtained from pumps. Polk Avenue. — Two negro houses of four rooms each, very old and let at 9s. 7d. per week. The first two rooms measured 12 feet 6 inches by 13 feet 6 inches, the third room 11 feet 6 inches by 13 feet 6 inches and the fourth room 10 feet 6 inches by 13 feet 6 inches. The height of the rooms was 11 feet 3 inches. There was an open yard, with water-tap, behind. Georgia Street. — Eight houses built in pairs containing three rooms each, and let at 8s. 8c?. per week. The three rooms were all 14 feet wide and the length of the houses was 38 feet. Each had a water-closet in the yard. This yard was common to all, and in it were two water-taps for the eight houses. In the same row was a single detached house of the same size let at 9s. 7c?. jjer week. The dimensions of the kitchen were 10 feet by 13 feet 6 inches by 10 feet and of the two front rooms 14 feet by 13 feet 6 inches by 10 feet. Mar^ble Street. — Ten detached houses of two rooms, let at 4s. 10c?. per week. The rooms measured 14 feet by 13 feet 3 inches by 8 feet 9 inches. They were old houses ; the privies were in the yards, and there was no water supply save a pump in the rear. Hard by there were ten newer houses of the same size, let at 5s. 9(i?. per week, which also had to depend on pump water. The predominant weekly rents in February, 1909, of working-class dwellings of one, 254 MEMPHIS. two and three rooms occupied by coloured tenants, and of three, four and five rooms occupied by white tenants, are shown in the following Table : — Predominant Rents of Working-class Dwellings. Number of Rooms per Dwelling. Predominant Weekly Rents. One room — Coloured tenants | 26-. lid. Two rooms — Coloured tenants ... i 4s. lOrf to Ss. 9f/. rri._«-. „^«^„ ( Coloured tenants Inree rooms •{ -.tt-u -i t. * I White tenants Foui' roonis^White tenants ... Five rooms — White tenants ... I 5s. 9f/. „ 9.S. Id. Is. Sd. „ U.S. Gd. Us. „ Us. M. 14 s. f)d. „ 24.S. The level of rents at New York being represented by 100, the rents index number for Memphis is 93. The above rentals include the cost of water, which is paid by the landlord. Connexion with the mains is insisted upon by the city authority whenever they are laid down in the street. The minimum annual cost of a water supply is 25s., with an additional 2Qs. 10c?. for a water-closet or fur a bath. A discount of 25 per cent, upon these charges is given when payment is made within a specified time after delivery of bill. There is no local tax payable by tenants, uidess they possa^s personal projierty exceeding in value £208. Rents are paid monthly and generally in advance by white tenants, while negro tenants pay weekly in advance. The collection of rents is almost exclusively in the hands of house agents, who charge 10 per cent, for C(»llecting from coloured tenants and 5 per cent, in the case of white tenants. It is imusual to insist upon the signing of leases for this class of property. The last Federal Census (1900) showed that 15'3 per cent, of the houses in Memphis were fully owned by their occupiers, and that a further 3'5 per cent, were owned but were encumbered. The working classes — and not less the more regularly employed negroes — evince a marked desire to become owners of their houses. It is customary,, however, to buy houses already built rather than to construct new ones. Several building loan societies are established in the town ; they generally charge (5 per cent, interest, and require the borrower to take shares. In most cases the prospective owner is able to enter into possession upon the payment of a sum equal to one-tenth of the com- bined value of the house and site, and he discharges the balance by monthly instalments extending over a number of years. None of the industrial firms liave built houses for their employees, nor has the city interested itself in housing schemes for the working classes. The sanitary inspection is adequate, however, nine officials being employed by the city in the inspection of houses and the superintendence of sanitary conditions generally. Retail Prices. The working classes of Memphis have not organised any co-operative societies, and the bulk of their trade falls to small retail dealers. There is in the centre of the city, near to a large district mainly working-class in character, a retail market, containing about half-a-dozen stalls for the sale of meat and an equal number for the sale of vegetable* and fruit, but it is too small to be regarded as a trading centre. One " multiple " firm alone is of real importance as far as working-class custom is concerned ; it does an exclusively cash business in all the usual grocery commodities, in bread, vegetables, j)otatoes and certain domestic utensils, but not in fresh meat, and in April, 1909 it had twenty-six branches in the city. Several other provision firms have as many as four establishments and also sell meat in some of the branches, while two large trading companies, with branches in many cities, have each a shop in the town, but sell mainly tea, cofi^e and sugar. The sale of fresh meat, poultry, vegetables, potatoes and general groceries is usually carried on in the same establishments. All shops in which meat is sold are called " meat markets," and while the meat is kept in the inner part of the shop premises, the live poultry lie in large crates in the footways. Shops devoted to the sale of meat alone are rare, and there are few ])ork butchers' shops. Germans are numerous in the meat trade, and Italian names are noticeable in the list of grocery businesse^<. Italians and Sicilians almost monopolise the growing of vegetables in the neighbourhood, and their carts make daily rounds throughout the city. The dietary of the negro, as contrasted with that of the white working man, lacks variety. The coloured families live for the most part upon beef, pork, dry salt bacon, rice,. MEMPHIS. 255 beans, turnips, onions, potatoes, yams, maize bread, biscuits and coffee, and there is little d. Potatoes were unusually dear early in 1909 and imports were stated to have been made from Gefmany and Ii'eland, Rice is usually sold in quantities of 3 lb. for Is. 0^(/., single pounds costing 4^rf. or bd. The working classes do not buy wheaten bakery bread every day as a rule, and the negroes buy little of this bread. The loaf is sold at 2Jrf., and, though currently regarded as weighing X lb., in reality varies in weight with the price of fiour. In February, 1909, its weight was usually about 14 oz. The " biscuits " so largely eaten are made of soft moist white fiour, raised by baking powder, and are somewhat similar to the round tea- cakes known in England. Maize bread is much eaten both at middle and working-class tables. Biscuits, maize bread and other forms of bakers' cereals are always made at home. The coal in general use is a bituminous coal from Kentucky and Alabama. Coal is also mined in Tennessee, but the transport conditions from the former centres to Memphis are .superior. This coal is sold by the ten barrels, or 1,800 lb. The negroes buy coal to a large extent from hawkers who sell it by the basket, or by the bushel of about 80 lb. . Coke is used to a very limited extent for domestic purposes, while wood is rarely used for: fuel. Gas is often employed for cooking in the summer months. The appended Table shows the predominant prices of certain commodities in February, 1909. The prices relate to the qualities most usually bought by working- class households :— Predominant Prices paid by the Working Classes in February, 1909. Commodity. Predominant Price. Tea . per lb. • 2s. to 2s. 6f/. CoflFee 1 lOf/. „ Is. OJ//. Sugar : — White Granulated 1 2%d. Brown 1 2\d. Bacon, Breakfast — Boneless » 9r/. to lOf/. Eggs per l,s. 10 „ 12 Cheese, American per lb. U)d. Butter »» Is. 3r/. PotatoeB, Irish per 7 1b. Id. to Sir/. Flour, Wheaten — Household )) 10|rf. „ Is. md. Bread, White per 4 1b. ind. Milk per quart. id. Coal, Bituminous per cwt. Is. Oir/.* Kerosene per gallon. s\d., 6d. and M. * By l,S()0 lb. ciiiantities. Meat. The greater part of the Memphis meat supply comes from Chicago, Kansas City, St. Joseph (Missouri) and South Omaha, and is conveyed in cold storage freight cars fi'om these packing centres. A certain quantity of beef and mutton is" obtained in the neighbourhood, and a large part of the pork consumed is of local origin. Most of the meat sold is subjected to a process of chilling, and a certain percentage is frozen. 256 MEMPHIS. There is no municipal abattoir in Memphis, but there are three private slaughter- houses, at one of which some 80 per cent, of the butchers kill their meat. All meat exposed for sale must bear the stamp of the Federal or municipal meat inspectors. The following Table shows the predominant prices of certain cuts of beef, mutton or lamb, veal and pork in February, 1909 : — Predominant Prices paid by the Working Classes in February., 1909. Description of Cut. Beef :— Roasts — Round „ Ribs prime „ Ribs second cut „ Chuck or short ribs Steaks — Round „ Sirloin Flank Plate, Brisket— Fresh ... Mutton or Lamb : — Leg Breast Loin Chops Shoulder Neck Veal :— Cutlets Rib chops Loin chops Breast Neck Pork :— Fresh — Loin „ Spare rib „ Shoulder „ Chops Corned (wet salt or pickled) Dry salt Ham Shoulder, salt or smoked Predominant Price per lb. 6Jf/. to l^d. l\d. .. 9r/. Hd. „ l\d. 5d. „ 6id. l^d. l\d. to 8|f/. 3c7. to M. id. l\d. to mi. bd. „ l\d. Ud. ,. \0d lOrf. M. to li^d hd. lOd. l^d. l\d. to mi M. „ 6id id. „ 5d. 7^d. 6: d. 6:d. l-,d. 6 rf. &\d. n,d. bid. to 6ia Prices at New York being taken as the base, = 100, in each case, the index number for the price of meat at Memphis is 95, for other food it is 103 and for food prices as a whole 101. For rents and food prices combined the index number is 99. 257 MILWAUKEE. Milwaukee, the largest city in the State of Wisconsin, is situated 85 miles north from Chicago on the western shore of Lake Michigan, and is one of the three great manufacturing and distributing centres for the vast area of the north-western States east of the Rockies, the other two being Chicago and Minneapolis- St. Paul. Four main trunk railway lines connect Milwaukee with all parts of the country, — goods trains being in one case conveyed in steamers across the lake in order to avoid the detour by way of Chicago,— whilst many lines of cargo steamers ply between the city and other points on the Great Lakes. For many years the leading industries were tanning and brewing, the lager beer of Milwaukee being famous throughout the United States. During recent years, however, these industries have been surpassed in importance by the manufacture of iron and steel and of machinery, including mining, saw mill and flour mill plant, steam turbine machines, steam shovels, electrical cranes and many other kinds of general machinery. One of the railway companies has a large establishment for the construction and repair of locomotives and cars. The supply of iron ore is brought in steamers from the rich mines upon the northern and southern shores of Lake Superior. Among other consider- able industries may be included meat packing, flour milling, and the manufacture of clothing, boots and shoes, tobacco and cigars. The commercial activities of Milwaukee are also A'^ery considerable, the shipping of grain and the unloading of coal and iron ore and of general cargo being conducted on a large scale at the various docks, where the latest labour-saving machinery is in use. Many and extensive jobbing interests concerned in the distribution of the products of both the Western and Eastern States have their headquarters in the city. During 1908 over three-and-a-half million tons of coal were received at the docks (four-fifths of it being transhipped to various points in the States lying to the west and south-west), and 46,000,000 bushels of grain were received and distributed, while the total freight transported by lake into and out of the port of Milwaukee amounted to 6,342,000 tons. Each of these three totals was somewhat less than the corresponding total in 1907, but greater than in any previous year. The growth of Milwaukee has been very rapid. Prior to 1835 the place was merely an Indian trading post. Hard times in Ireland during 1847 and the political troubles in Germany in 1848 caused a large number of emigrants fi'om those countries to seek a home in Milwaukee, amongst other places, and many of the descendants of these early settlers are to-day numbered amongst the prosperous citizens. The following Table shows the growth of the population as returned by the Federal Censuses of 1870-1910, Year. 1870 1880 1890 1000 1910 Population. Increase. 71,440 115,587 204,468 285,315 373,857 44,147 88,881 80,847 88,542 Percentage Increase. Gl-8 76-9 39-5 31-0 The area of the city is about 22J square miles. According to the Census of 1900, 68"5 per cent, of the inhabitants were American- born whites, but three-quarters of these had foreign-bom parents. The proportion of the total population formed by foreign-born whites was 31'2 per cent. Of these 60*5 per cent, were born in Germany, and 17"0 per cent, in German Poland, In spite of this lai'ge German element in the population the general aspect of the city is tj'pically American, and with the exception of some German churches, a German theatre, one or two newspapers printed in German, and some cafes of the Continental type, there are few outwai'd indications of the presence of so large a population of Teutonic origin. The German language is taught in the public elementary schools, but English is the language spoken everywhere outside the home. In the tone and temper of the inhabitants, and in their social life and love of music, however, German influence still joersists. Whilst progress is rapid in all directions the atmosphere of business and 16576 B 258 MILWAUKEE. social life is less feverif^h thau in most Americau cities ; a love of organisation characteristic of the German bent of mind is also manifest in social, imlustrial and municijml life. It may be noted that Milwaukee is the strongest centre of Social Democratic organisation in the United States, and was the first large American city to elect a Socialist mayor. A marked feature of the social life of the city is the extent to which the workers frequent the many local '• summer gardens," pavilions and parks on Sundays in company with their families. Of late years the Poles have become a factor of increasing importance in Milwaukee, Two successive waves of Polish immigration, in 1870 and in 18S0-2, came from Prussia ; a third wave came in 1895-6 from Galicia in Austria ; and in 1900 Poles from Russia began to pour into Milwaukee. Though not possessing the same educational advantages as the German Poles, those from Russia are said to exhibit a more vivacious temperament, to acquire more rapidly the s])eech and habits of their new surroundings and to manifest generally a more progressive spirit than the German section of their race. The Poles form a large colony in the south-west portion of the city, and are very tenacious of their language and religion, striking evidences of which fact are seen in their two Polish newspapers, their many handsome churches and the large schools maintained entirely by their oflFerings, in which instruction is given in the Polish language, though English is also taught ; whilst all the shops of this district use the Polish language for their signs and descriptions of goods. Industry and thrift are peculiarly characteristic of these people, as is generally admitted by employers and evidenced by the strength of their benefit and co-operative building societies. Though not free from a love of spirits, excessive drinking is rarely found to be habitual, being confined mainly to festive occasions, and the whole neighbourhood shows a creditable standard of respectability, sections of it rivalling the best working-class districts of the city as far as tlie appearance of the dwellings is concerned. Hungarians, Italians and Greeks have become fairly numerous during recent years, but they form only a relatively small proportion of the total population. A small Jewish district exists in the centre of the city. The following Table gives the more important vital statistics for the years 1904-8. The estimates of population upon which the rates are based are those of the City Health Department :-- Tear. Estimated Population. Birth-rate per 1,000 of Population. Death-rate per 1,000 of Population. Infantile Mortality per 1.000 Births. 1904 1905 1900 1907 1908 325,000 335,000 345,000 350,000 300,000 25-2 23-4 24-6 26-8 26-4 12-9 12-2 13-4 13-2 12-4 135 139 149 129 132 Several factors are conducive to the low death-rate in Milwaukee, including a situation which exposes the city to the healthy breezes from the lake, which is in reality a large inland sea. One effect of this is to moderate very considerably the heat of the summer, while the general custom of building detached houses also leads to a free and abundant circulation of air round almost every dwelling. The disproportionate number of persons in the prime of life, owing to the large influx of immigrants in late years, further assists very materially to keep the death-rate low. The rate of mortality from pulmonary tuberculosis during the five years 1904-8 averaged 1"17 per 1,000 of population. One of the wards mainly occupied by the poorer class of Poles, and the second largest ward of the city in point of population, is very overcrowded largely owing to the practice of sub-letting by those who are endeavouring to purchase their homes. The report of the Health Department for 1908 showed the density of population in this ward to be 36 persons per acre, the death-rate 15*1, and the birth-rate 49*8 per 1,000 of popuktion (giving a natural increase of 34*7 per 1,000, comparing with 14'0 per 1,000 for the city as a whole), and the infantile mortality 150 per 1,000 births. The city's water supply is obtained from the lake and is filtered. Up to the present there has been little risk of contamination as there are no cities of any considerable size on the lake near Milwaukee. As the sewage is discharged into the lake, however, and the population of the city is increasing rapidly, the question of sewage disposal is assuming serious importance, and a commission is investigating the whole subject. MILWAUKEE. 259 The city is bisected from east to west by the River Menomonee, which flows into the Milwaukee River coming from the north, close to its outlet into Lake Michigan. Along the various waterways and canals opening into the Menomonee River are many wharves, those for the unloading of coal being conspicuous by reason of the large iron structures called " rigs," with their mechanical appliances for the rapid unloading of steamers. The Menomonee valley is also the principal factory district, though many large factories are dispersed about the outlying portions of the city. In the centre of the city and in close proximity to the lake front is the business and commercial district, which presents a striking and dignified appearance owing to the large number of lofty and handsome buildings, many of which are constructed of stone, conspicuous amongst them being the Post Office, City Hall, County Court Offices, Public Library, Chamber of Commerce, and some blocks of business offices rising to a height of 15 stories, and faced with white glazed brick and tile. The city is laid out on the rectangular plan in broad streets, most of which outside the business district are lined with trees. The residences of the wealthier citizens are in the district skirting the lake, and along several fine, broad boulevards, where many hand- some churches are also situated. Municipal enterprise is confined to the making and cleaning of streets (j)aving being- done by private contractors) and the supply of water. The gas and electric light and power services and the tramways belong to private companies. Electric cars maintain communication with all parts of the city and several small suburbs, and a uniform fare of 2^(1. is charged for any distance within the city limits, this fare giving the right to one transfer ; no workmen's tickets are issued. A tramway also connects Milwaukee with Chicago and intervening towns, the distance of 85 miles being covered in about three hours. A dining-car service is provided on this route. Education is compulsory for children between the ages of 7 and 16 years, except in the case of those over 14 years of age to whom permits under the Child Labour Laws have been granted. The system comprises public and denominational schools, the latter being maintained entirely by the religious bodies to which they belong. The public school system includes elementary and high schools, manual training and cooking centres and one trades school. Children unable to keep pace with the ordinary instruction of the schools attend a special " difficulty " school, and in bad weather car fares are paid for those whose homes lie beyond walking distance. Free luncheons are also given to children who are found to be suffering from insufficient nourishment. The trades school, to which all boys between the ages of 16 and 20 years are admitted free, materials only being charged for, provides instruction in patternmaking, machine construction and tool making, carpentry and woodworking, plumbing and gas-fitting, and evening classes are held for students who are unable to attend during the day. In the elementary schools the German language is taught in addition to the ordinary subjects. Evening schools and social centres are also provided by the educational authority ; at the social centres public lectures in four languages are given on subjects bearing on American citizenship. A complete system of medical inspection has recently been introduced in all the primary schools under the local educational authorities. The medical director of schools and the teachers co-operate in keeping records of the health and general physical progress of the children, a separate card being used for each child. Milwaukee is well supplied with public parks, the total area of which is about 812 acres. They are distributed throughout the city, and all are easily accessible to the working classes. Occupations, Wages and Hours of Labour. The industries which give employment to the largest number of men at Milwaukee are the manufacture of iron and steel and machinery and general metalworking. According ta the factory inspector's report for 1907-8, about 80,000 men were employed in these industries in Milwaukee and the suburbs of West Allis and South Milwaukee, which contain several large engineering works. There has been a great development in engineering since the United States Census of 1900. Many firms are engaged in the manufacture of high-class machinery, including turbines, gas, steam and electrical machines, electric cranes, Corliss engines, steam shovels, milling and brewing machinery, &c. The largest works are of modern construction, the one- storied shop with glass roof of saw-tooth pattern being a common feature, whilst the arrangements for ventilating and heating are highly satisfactory. The industry next in importance is the tanning and preparation of leather, for which Milwaukee is said to be the largest centre in the world, having selling houses in England, France and Germany. This industry is mainly concentrated in a few large finns, and in 16378 R 2 260 MILWAUKEE. 1907-8 gave employment to nearly 5,000 males. Whilst practically every kind of leather is tanned except that for upholstering purposes, the principal output is in leather for fine and heavy shoes, including black and coloured leather, patent and enamel leather made from calf skins, cow-hide, horse-hide and goat skin. Several firms are also engaged in tanning saddlery, harness and heavy glove leather. The raw material is obtained principally from the great slaughtering and packing centres of Chicago and Kansas City. The allied industries of saddlery and boot and shoe manufacture are of growing importance, but are relatively small compared with those in other centres in the United States. The tanning industry is carried on in buildings of an older type than many of the engineering establishments, and inferior to them as regards lighting and ventilation. The industry is highly specialised, each worker being confined to one operation, and machinery is largely employed, particularly for removing the flesh and hair from hides and for the splitting, sha\'ing, and buffing of the leather. Both chrome and vegetable tanning are in vogue, and hides are passed from tank to tank in a few days. In the tanning department the only skilled man is the tanner, who acts as superintendent over all the processes, the remainder of the workers being unskilled or semi-skilled. Currying is likewise highly sub-divided, the only skilled men being the splitters, whose work is tti detect where the leather is uneven in thickness and to adjust the splitting knife, which works by machinery and reduces the leather to a uniform thickness. The remaining workmen in this department also are semi-skilled and unskilled. The large influx of immigrants has provided manufacturers with an abundant supply of cheap labour, little instruction being necessary to enable these workers to perform the simple operations required. Next in imporbmce to tanning comes the brewmg industry, which is mainly confined to a few large firms, two of the largest together employing 3,000 men. Large amounts of capital have been expended in modernising both the buildings and the plant. In the bottling departments workers are principally engaged in feeding machines which wash, fill and stopper the bottles. The total output of the local breweries amounted in 1908 to 2,630,266 barrels (English), of which more than half was produced by the largest brewery. The output in 1908 was smaller than in any of the three preceding years owing, as stated in the report of the Chamber of Commerce, to the prohibition wave which had swept over the Southern States. The following Table shows the distribution of the working-class population of Milwaukee by industry and sex according to the United States Census of 1900, all occupied jjersons of 10 years of age and over being included : — Number of Persons o/ 10 years of age and over engaged in Occupations in Milwaukee in 1900. Occupations. Males. Females. TotaL Building Metal working and Engineering Hosiery Other and not specified Textile Leather Boot and Shoe Making Clothing Woodworking and Furnishing Paper and Printing Food, Drink and Tobacco Other Manufacturing and Mechanical Pursuits Trade and Transportation Labourers (not otherwise specified) Professional, Domestic and Personal Service andl Agricultural Pursuits j 7,474 10,769 123 280 2,711 1,188 1,589 2,959 1,690 4,424 6,584 25,360 10,635 9,371 17 183 862 503 221 353 6,010 89 531 982 843 4,732 170 10,903 7,491 10,952 985 783 2,932 1,541 7,599 3,048 2,221 5,406 7,427 30,092 10,805 20,274 All Occupations 85,157 26,399 111,556 American-born employees are mainly engaged in mercantile pursuits, in offices and positions of trust connected with the various industries, and in the more highly-skilled occupations, whilst those of foreign origin form the great mass of the manual workers. Those of German birth or of German parentage predominate in skilled occupations and in the breweries, where the wages agreement in operation is printed in German as well as in English. Poles are engaged in occupations requiring a considerable amount of physical strength, a large proportion of the moulders belonging to this nationality, particularly where smaller and less complicated castings are made. This supply of Polish MILWAUKEE. 261 labour recently enabled local employers to defeat the moulders in a prolonged strike. A large number of Poles also work in machine shops, where the work is highly specialised, and wages vary according to the grade of skill required in each operation. The more recent immigiviuts, like the Russian Poles and Austrian Slavs, are largely employed in tanneries, where most of the work is unskilled. The Italians, who are not relatively so numerous, are mainly engaged as navvies and labourers, whilst in dock labour the less progressive of the Germans and Irish, as well as the more recent immigrants, are largely represented. The labour laws of the State of Wisconsin contain important provisions relating to the sanitary conditions of factories and workshops, and the protection of employees where machinery is in use, and where building operations are carried on. In factories and work- shops in which any process causes dust or fumes to arise, or the air to become exhausted or impure, efficient fans or other mechanical devices have to be installed. With regard to sweating establishments, the law provides that " no room or apartment in any tenement or dwelling house, or in a building situated in the rear of any tenement or dwelling house, shall be used for the manufacturing, altering, repairing or finishing therein, for wages or for sale," of clothing and other articles specified unless a licence is secured for that purpose. Application for a licence must be made to the Commissioner for Labour, and it is only granted after the factory inspector has inspected and reported satisfactorilj' on the sanitary state of the premises and the conditions relating to the health of the employees, and the licence may be revoked should the provisions of the law be violated. In respect of hours of labour the law states that in all engagements to labour in any manufacturing or mechanical business, where there is no express contract to the contrary, a day's work shall consist of eight hours, and all engagements or contracts for labour in such cases shall be so construed ; but this provision does not apply to any contract for labour by the week, month or year, and in practice the eight-hour working day is not observed very widely. In the case of women and of young persons under the age of 18 years employed in factories, workshops or other places used for mechanical or manufacturing purposes, the hours of labour must not exceed eight in any one day ; no child under the age of 1 6 years may be employed at any " gainful occupation " longer than 55 hours in any one week, nor more than 10 hours in any one day, nor more than six days in one week ; and no child under the age of 14 years may be employed in a factory, workshop, bowling alley or in or about a mine ; neither may a child under 14 years of age work at any other gainful occupation at any time except during the school vacation. All employers are required to keep a register of child- workers under 16 years of age in their employ, such register to be subject at all times to examination by the factory inspector. The administration of the labour laws falls on the State Bureau of Labour. During the 21 months ended July 1st, 1908, the number of prosecutions for violations of the labour laws in Wisconsin was 63, nearly all relating to the employment of child labour. It is stated that it was seldom necessary to take action against employers for failing to comply with orders issued concerning the safety of appli- ances or buildings, sanitation, &c. In Milwaukee, 3,696 orders were issued, 2,270 relating to machinery and polishing wheels ; 675 to ventilation and sanitation ; 501 to buildings, &c. (including fire protection) ; 46 to the employment of children, and 204 to other matters. As to child labour permits, a report of the Wisconsin Bureau of Labour states that since the law of 1907, which reduced the hours of children under 16 years from 60 to 55 per week, a number of establishments which formerly employed children have discontinued the practice, and that an examination of 320 establishments in which children were employed prior to 1907 showed a reduction of 32 per cent, in this class of labour, whilst the reduction in the case of adult workers for the same period was only 8 per cent. With regard to the liability of employers for industrial accidents the State Law provides that an employee cannot recover damages if he has been even partially responsible for the accident unless he is an employee of a railway company, and with the same exception the law does not make the employer responsible when the accident was caused by the negligence of a fellow servant, or when no one can be proved responsible. A report issued, by the Wisconsin Bureau of Labour for 1907-8 states that, according to returns made by doctors to the Bureau of Vital Statistics, the total number of industrial accidents throughout the State to employees while at work was 7,186 during the year ended October 1st, 1907, and 5,003 in the following year. It is stated, however, that doctors fail to report many cases of accident, a Milwaukee newspaper in one year recording at least 50 fatal cases which were not reported. Citing the incomplete returns made by doctors regarding accidents in railway shops as compared with statistics 16576 R 3 • 262 MILWAUKEE. obtained by the Wisconsin Railway Commission, the report states that if the same incompleteness applied to all classes of acjidents the total number of industrial accidents in 1908 would be increased from 5,003 to about 10,000. Of the total number of accidents reported 2'8 per cent, were fatal in 1906-7, and 2'7 per cent, in 1907-8, whilst those resulting in permanent injury formed 14*4 per cent, of the whole in 1906-7 and 11-5 per cent, in 1907-8. Classification of the accidents of 1907-8 according to severity showed that 13*9 per cent, were slight, 70'8 per cent, severe, 12'6 per cent, serious and 2*7 per cent, fatal. One of the four Free Labour Registries maintained by the State of Wisconsin is located in Milwaukee, and in the year ended 30th June, 1908, this registry was instru- mental in filling .5,271 situations as compared with 6,537 in the previous year. Of the 5,271 situations filled, 4,194 were for males, the great majority being for unskilled men, and 1,077 for females. Very little is done in the way of " welfare work " by local firms. One of the largest engineering works provides its workmen, for the charge of lOd., with a substantial lunch of four courses with coffee in a large and comfortable room on the premises. The trade union movement is strong in the building, ])rinting and brewing industries, and the various unions are in a position to regulate wages and hours for practically the whole of these industries. Unions exist also for moulders, machinists and leather workers, but, with the exception of men working in the railway shops, they are not sufficiently strong to make union rates of wages effective, sub-division of labour and the extensive use of machinery having enabled employers to introduce immigrant labour to a considerable extent. According to the State Report on Factory Inspection for 1907-8, out of a total of 73,739 employees included in returns from Milwaukee, 64 per cent, worked ten hours daily, 19 per cent, nine hours and 11*5 per cent, eight hours. In the building trades rates of wages are fixed annually by the Contractors' Association of each trade in concert with trade union representatives. Printed lists ot contractors who are pledged to observe the agreements made with the unions are published, and the " closed shop " is the rule. The eight-hour day is general, and many carpenters and plasterers and most plumbers work only four hours on Saturdays. Bricklayers work on an average about nine months in the year. In the foundries and machine shops (other than those belonging to the railway company) no agreements regulating wages and conditions of labour are in existence, nor do uniform rates of wages obtain for any class of labour, the wages paid being determined by the degree of skill required for the particular kind of work done by the various firms. The hourly rates for men covered by the term " machinists " vary fi-om 10c?. to Is. 8d. per hour. Rates of from Is. 3d. to Is. Sd. are paid to the machinists proper — the more skilled men — comparatively few of whom, however, receive more than Is. o^d. per hour ; the men receiving from lOd. to ll^d., and in some cases up to Is. O^d., are drill press men or " handy men,' while those receiving from is. O^d. to Is. 3d. are more or less skilled machine operators. Time rates are the general rule for all classes of men except the moulders, though even among these the piece work system does not predominate, as the output of standard parts of machinery is not on a large scale. Two firms, one employing about 1,500 men and the other over 500, have in operation a premium bonus system, but the earnings of the men are not materially affected thereby, except in the case of the more rapid workers, the bonus being counteracted by lower time rates. One large firm has intro- duced a bonus system by Avhich employees who have worked for the firm one year but less than three years receive 6 per cent, of their total wages for the year ; employees of thfee years' but less than seven years' continuous service receive 7 per cent. ; and employees of seven or more years' standing receive 8 per cent, of their total wages for the year. In 1908 300 men received a bonus of 6 per cent., 107 a bonus of 7 per cent., and 25 a bonus of 8 per cent, the first jmyments of bonus on this system being made on January 10th, 190S. As this firm pays current rates of wages, the bonus can be con- sidered as a real addition to the wages of the men. The usual weekly hours of labour are from 55 to 60 in foundries and 55 in the machine shops, a half-holiday on Saturday being observed in the largest works. In the railway shops minimum rates of wages and hours of labour ftre fixed by agreement, as are also the conditions of apprenticeship and the qualifications of competent mechanics. A machinist is defined in this agreement as one who " has served an apprenticeship or has had four years of varied experience at the machinist trade, and by his skill and experience is qualified and capable of fitting together the metal parts of a locomotive or any machine, and is competent to do shaping, or boring, or turning, or skilled drilling, or finishing and adjusting the metal parts of any machine whatsoever." MILWAUKEE. 263 A blacksmith to be considered a competent man in his class must be able to take a piece of work, and with the use of drawings and blue prints prosecute the same to a successful completion within a reasonable time. The agreement also contains regulations relating to grievances and to the reduction of working hours during slack periods. Over- time pay is at the rate of time-and-a-half, and must be paid for work done on Sundays and legal holidays, which are New Year's Day, Lincoln's Birthday, Washington's Birthday, Decoration Day, Independence Day (July 4), Labour Day, Thanksgiving Day and Christmas Day. The wages given in the Table for the printing trades are those of the agreements in operation, as the " closed shop " prevails practically throughout the industry, and the scale is very seldom exceeded, excejjt by machine compositors when on piece work. The wages given for men working in breweries are those fixed for each class of labour by the agreement concluded by the Milwaukee Brewers' Association and the various unions. Free beer, to the extent of one quart at noon and one quart at 5 p.m. after working hours, is given to each man as stipulated in the agreement. The agreement also regulates the general conditions of labour, the most noteworthy provisions being that overtime, Sunday labour, and work done on legal holidays shall be paid at the rate of time-and-a-half, but when it is necessary to work nine hours, the extra hour is to be paid at the rate of single time ; wages are to be paid every two weeks after working hours ; men are not to be discharged on account of slack work, but to be laid off in rotation for not longer than one week, nor less than four hours ; disputes respecting the terms of the agreement are to be settled by a Board of Arbitration consisting of two representatives of each side, who, if unable to agree, are to elect a fifth member, whose decision is to be binding on both parties ; while none but union workmen in possession of a member's card may be employed. The agreement remains in force until March, 1912.* In the case of dock labour the only men who are regularly employed are those engaged in loading cars for the coal companies which ship coal by rail to the West. These labourers receive 8|J. per hour and work 60 hours per week during open navigation, from the middle of April to the early part of December ; during the winter they work 54 hours per week. Casual labour is performed by freight handlers, whose rate is Is. Sd. per hour, very few men being paid on a tonnage basis, and by coal shovellers, who sup- plement the work of the clam shell bucket at the coal rigs and move round wherever work is to be had, being paid uniformly Is. Sil. per hour during the open season, and working during winter in ice and lumber camps. The great majority of dock labourers are Poles and other Slavs, Irish- Americans and German- Americans. Wages are paid after every boat is loaded or discharged. With regard to men employed in the public utility services, wages are not quoted for garbage collectors and teamsters, only men who own their own horses being employed by the municipality, which pays wages to cover the hire of the horse and cart. Tramway motormen and conductors are paid according to a scale which in February, 1909, began at 9Jrf. per hour for the first year's service and increased ^d. per hour each year to a maximum of Is. In September, 1909, a new scale was introduced beginning at lOd. and reaching a maximum of Is. O^d. Each man when seeking employment signs an agreement binding him to submit to medical examination and to pay the fee of 4s. 2d., also to deposit £5 4s. 2d. as surety with the company, or to deposit 20s. 10c?. and furnish a surety bond of £20 16s. Hd. satisfactory to the company. The agreement also requires each man to provide his own uniform."!" The following Table shows the predominant weekly wages and hours of labour in the principal trades and occupations in February, 1909 : — Predominant Weekly Wages and Hours oj Labour of Adult Males in the Principal Occupations in February, 1909. Predominant Predominant Weekly Weekly Wages. Hours of Labour. Building Trades : — Bricklayers ,.. 120s. 48 Stonemasons 120s. 48 Stonecutters lOOs. 48 Carpenters ... 73s. id. to 75s. 44 to 48 Plasterers ... 110s. to 125s. 44 „ 48 Plumbers ... 103s. -Id. 44 Structural Iron Workers ... lOOs. 48 Painters ... 7os. 48 Hod Carriers, Bricklayers' and Plasterers' Labourers 60s. 48 16576 • See Appendix, pp. 436-7. t See Appendix, pp. 438-9. R i i64 MILWAUKEB. Predominant Weekly Wages. Predominant Weekly Hours of Labour. Foundries and Machine Shops : — Irenmoulders < t>. , "" ( Piece work Machinists Machine Operators Drill Press Men and Handy Men (Machinists) Blacksmiths Patternmakers ... Labourers Railway Shops : — Ironmoulders 66s. M. 75s. 68s. 2d. bis. id. 45s. lOd. 66s. Qd. 68s. 9d. 39s. to 69s. lOd. „ 80s. M. „ 80s. 3d. „ 68s. M. „ 51s. Id. „ 74s. 6d. „ 80s. M. „ 43s. M. Machinists Blacksmiths Boilermakers ... Rivetters (Pneumatic) Cabinetmakers ... Rough Carpenters Car Repairers ... Helpers... Labourers Printing Trades : — Newspaper — ( Time work... ] Piece work... Compositors, Hand and Machine | -j^?^ ^"'^ Book and Job- Hand Compositors Machine Compositors Pressmen ( ^J^^^^ ^"^^^^^^ \ Platen Presses ... Tanning : — Hidehouse Handlers Yard and Drum Handlers Beamhouse Handlers Finehairers Unhairers Fleshers Setters ... Machine Splitters rg--^^ ight work Labourers Brewing and Malting : — Malt Millers Malthouse Men Brewhouse Men Cellar Men Bottlers ... Coopers Keg and Bottle Beer Deliverers Teamsters Yardmen Stablemen General Drivers, Teamsters : — One horse Two horses Three horses Dock Labour — See text. Public Services : — Street Construction, Paving and Cleaning — Paviors (Contractors' Men) Paviors' Labourers (Contractors' Men) Road Menders (Municipal) Road Sweepers „ Water Works (Municipal) — Labourers Gas Works (Company) — Gas Stokers Labourers Electric Light and Power Works (Company)- Wiremen Stokers Labourers Electric Tramwavs — See text. 68s. 2d. 88s. 2d. 85s. 6d. 66s. 56?. to 78s. 2d. 90s. 64s. 2d. 60s. to 67s. &d. 49s. Gd. 45s. 41s. 8d. to 45s. 40s. 83s. id. 100s. 70s. IQd. 100s. 87s. 6c?. 50s. to 66s. 8d. 41s. 8d. to 45s. lOd. 41s. 8d. „ 45s. lOd. 43s. 2d. „ 45s. lOd 50s. 50s. 50s. 50s. to 54s. 26?. 75s. „ 83s. id. 83s. 46?. „ 95s. lOd. 37s. 6c?. „ 45s. lOd 66s. M. 64s. 7c?. 62s. 6c?. to 66s. 8d. 62s. 66?. „ 66s. 8d. 50s. 62s. 6c?. to 70s. 66s. 8c?. 58s. 4c^, 56s. M. 56s. 3d. 41s. 86?. to 50s. 50s. „ 54s. 26?. 58s. id. 112s. 6c^. to 125s. 50s. 438. 2d. 43s. 2d. 50s. 72s. lie?. 43s. 96?. 52s. lid. to 72s. Id. 57s. 86?. 48s. 55 to 60 55 „ 60 55 55 55 55 55 55 to 60 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 60 48 48 48 48 48 48 59 to 60 59 „ 60 59 „ 60 59 „ 60 59 „ 60 59 „ 60 59 „ 60 59 „ 60 59 „ 60 59 „ 60 48 48 48 48 48 48 54 54 48 63 60 to 72 60 „ 72 60 „ 72 54 to 60 54 „ 60 48 48 48 70 57 70 70 70 MILWAUKEE. 265 Taking wages at New York as the base, = 100, in each case, the wages index numbers for Milwaukee are — building trades, skilled men 95, hod carriers and brick- layers' labourers 87 ; foundries and machine shops, .skilled men 83, unskilled labourers 99 ; printing, hand compositors (job work) 81. Milwaukee provides considerable opportunities for female labour, which is employed principally in the clothing trades, and also in the tanneries, in the bottling departments of breweries and in boot and shoe and cigar factories. The State Bureau of Labour has issued a report of investigations made by a special officer of the Bureau into the condi- tions of the women workers in the tanneries of Milwaukee. The report states that this particular industry was selected for detailed study, because in it women and girls have only recently supplanted men in some of the occupations, the earliest date of their employment in considerable number being the year 1903, following upon an unsuccessful strike by the men. Most of those now employed belong to the families of later immigrants, mainly of the Slavonic races. In February, 1908, the number of females employed in one of the largest establishments was between 300 and 400, all of whom were engaged in the finishing processes of ironing, sorting, trimming, seasoning, the finer unhairing and glazing. The employment of female labour has been rendered possible by the recent introduction of machinery and the consequent sub-division of labour. The report gives the following summary of earnings, based on pay-rolls for the last six months of 1903 and the first six months of 1904 and of 1906. Of 36 employed continuously for six months in the store and sorting room, where time work is the rule, 53 per cent, earned under 20s. lOd. per week, and 47 per cent. 20s. lOd. but under 33s. id., nearly all of these, however, earning from 20s. lOd. to 25s. ; in colouring and Russia finishing, out of 31 females who worked for six months without a break, 36 per cent, earned under 20s. lOd., 61 per cent. 20s. 10c?. but under 33s. id. and 3 per cent. 33s. id. but under 41s. 8d. ; in the chrome finishing room, where practically all of the work is paid by piece, of 112 workers employed for a period of six months 15 per cent, averaged under 20s. lOd., 66 per cent. 20s. lOd. but under 33s. id. and 19 per cent. 33s. id. but under 41s. Sd. ; and in the ironing room, where piecework is the rule, out of 36 workers whf) were employed continuously for six months, 38 per cent, earned 20s. lOd. but under 33s. id., 56 per cent. 33s. 4c?. but under 41s. Hd. and 6 per cent. 41s. 8d. but under 50s. ; of the total workers in the above departments, taken together, 22 per cent, earned less than 20s. lOd. weekly, 58 per cent. 20s. lOcZ. but less than 33s. id., 18 per cent. 33s. id. but less than 41s. Sd. and 2 per cent. 41s. 8c/. and over. Of the workers whose earnings averaged between 20s. lOd. and 33s. 4c?., more than half, viz., 57 per cent., averaged 20s. lOd. but under 27s. Id. per week. Employment is fairly steady throughout the year, as the industry is not seasonal, though rush seasons occur, when overtime has to be worked, for which only ordinary rates are paid. The report states that a reduction in piece rates is practised not only when earnings are considered to be too high by employers, but also when the output of the machines does not satisfy the manager, a reduction of rates in this case being found to stimulate the workers to greater exertions. These reductions, however, have to be made with discretion, since female workers, although unorganised, have their own standard of wages, and refuse to accept a wage or piece rate which does not approximate to this standard. Girls not living at home, but boarding with families, were found to pay from 9s. od. to 14s. 7c?. per week for board and lodging. Housing and Rents. The working-class population of Milwaukee resides mainly in the north-western and southern portions of the city, but the small Grhetto and Italian districts are situated close to the centre. As the houses are distributed over a large area the conditions as regards light and ventilation are on the whole very satisfactory, and there are few congested areas. The working-class districts generally present a pleasing appearance, the streets being as a rule lined with trees, and most of the houses set back from the pavement. The buildings are almost invariably of wood and as a rule detached and provided with front porches or verandahs. " Back " houses are comparatively rare, though rear flats are fairly common in some districts, particularly near the centre of the city. The pleasing appearance of the houses in all save the poorest districts is largely due to the fact that the custom prevalent amongst working-class people of purchasing their homes has led to greater variety of design in structure and ornamentation than is found in English towns. According to the United States Census of 1900, the average number of femilies per dwelling-house at Milwaukee was 1*3, whilst the percentage of families living in dwelling-houses occupied by one family was 57"9, by two families 31"4 and by three or more families 10-7. The percentage of 266 MILWAUKEE. homes owned free of debt by their occupants was 16"5, the percentage owned encumbered 19"4 and the percentage rented 64'1. Since the date of the last Census the habit of purchasing the home has continued to spread, until to-day the rental lists of estate and house agents everywhere are small, and in various parts of the city visited in the course of the enquiry a majority of the tenants owned their dwellings. Amongst the Germans and Poles this habit is more marked than is the case with any other nationality, the determination to possess their homes leading them to practise great self-denial, and to accept considerable risks in the confidence that the rapid and continuous development of the city will greatly increase site values. As a rule a working-class house is constructed in the form of two fiats, one upstairs and one downstairs, one of which is sub-let in order that the rent obtained may assist the owner in paying off the purchase-money. In the South Side district, where ;i large class of the poorer section of the Poles live, the custom is to erect first a four-roomed frame dwelling. When this has been paid for, it is raised on posts to allow a semi-basement dwelling to be constructed underneath, the lower portion being banked round with clay to afford protection against the snow in winter. This basement or the upstairs flat is then let by the owner, who, as soon as his funds permit, substitutes brick walls for the timber of the basement, but the ambition of a Polish house-owner is not crowned until he is able to have cement walks and iron railings in front of his house. In tlie above district a very large number of these serai-basements of wood can be seen, and although the outer aspect of the dwellings is not unpleasing, they are in general undeniably insanitary, being damp,' as the floor of the basement rests on the ground. Such houses, which when completed contain eight rooms, are frequently occupied by four or five families as well as boarders, and as Polish families are generally large this overcrowding is a serious evil. Anxiety to clear off the debt on the home often results in the mother going out to work, and in the sending of children to work at the earliest opportunity, so that considerable vigilance is necessary on the part of factory inspectors to prevent permits being issued to children under age. High infant mortality occurs in a district of this kind, and in the opinion of those who, by reason of their medical and social work, have an intimate knowledge of the prevailing conditions, the higher interests of the family are far too often sacrificed in a struggle to purchase the home. Five co-operative loan and building societies have been established amongst the Poles, and nearly all save the poorest are said to be members. In these societies each shareholder who receives an advance pays back at the rate of $^ per $100 share (.$1 = 4s. 2d.) per week plus interest at 5 per cent, per annum, until principal and interest amount to the value of the share, the period occupied being six years. The usual site for a house has a frontage of from 25 to 30 feet and a depth of from 70 to 100 feet, and it costs from £125 to £250 according to situation, while the cost of erecting a four-roomed house varies from £200 to £250, a six-roomed house usually costing from £300 to £325. The majority of the working-class tenants of Milwaukee occupy flats of four, five or six rooms, those consisting of three and seven rooms being exceptional. The more skilled workers, principally of German nationality, live for the most part in the north-western and the western portions of the city, but good houses are met with in every district. The suburbs of West AUis and South Milwaukee, though exclusively working-class in character,- are small, and a very large proportion of those who work in these suburbs travel to and from work by the trams, those employed at West AUis paying 7^d. for the double journey daily. There is great variety in the character of the housiiag in the better working-class districts, but the predominating type of house of this kind is a detached frame building bf two stories, standing from the pavement at varying distances, and having a frontage of from 22 to 24 feet, and a depth of from 38 to 48 feet. The front of the site is usually 30 feet, and the depth from 120 to 140 feet. Houses are generally 6 feet apart, except in poorer districts where the s])ace is 4 or 5 feet, and rest on a brick or stxjne foundation, the ground floor being several feet above the street level. At the kick is open grt)und or garden with wood shed and closet. The upstairs and downstairs flats are self-contained, having separate front and back entrances. In Polish districts outside stairs lead to the first-floor flat, in front of which is a porch, but elsewhere the stairs are inside the house and ascend from a small vestibule. The rooms genenilly open into each other, an arrange- ment wliicli facilitates the heating of the flat by means of one large stove. Modern flats have, in addition, a bathroom containing a water-closet, and the more expensive of them have a cellar with cemented floor and a large furnace which supplies heat by means of steam pipes to every room above. These dwellings are known as steam-heated flats, and are only occupied by the most highly-paid \vorkmen. Pantries (frequently dark) MILWAUKEE. 2()7 and clothes cupboards or closets are generally provided. The kitchen serves the purpose also of a scullery, the sink being placed in it as well as the cooking stove, which is always the property of the tenant. Gas fixtures are general, as are gas cooking stoves, except in the flats of the poor. Typical rooms measure 12 or 13 feet by 11 or 12 feet. Water- closets are now fairly general in all districts. Tenement blocks are but little inhabited by working-class families. There are only about 300 of these blocks in the city, and most of them are occupied by business and professional people, being of a modern and expensive type. Out of a total of 2,293 houses intended for occupation by more than one family erected during the years 1898 to 1905, those of the two-family type formed 94*0 per cent., three-family houses 0"5 per cent., and four-family houses 2'3 per cent., the remainder containing five or more flats. Tlie city building regulations require a permit for every building to be erected, direct light for every room, and a minimum of 9 square feet of glass for each 100 square feet of floor space. The small Ghetto district contains some dilapidated dwellings in dirty surroundings, but the buildings are not so crowded together as is the case in Chicago. The worst types of dwelling are found in the Ghetto and the Italian quarter, but as yet they are not relatively numerous, and as far as air and light are concerned, they compare favourably with slum districts in large European cities. The latest immigrants, from Eastern and South-Eastern Europe, congregate mainly in lodging and boarding-houses scattered about in various districts, and principally situated over drinking saloons, where the boarders spend their leisure time and much of their money. According to a report issued by the State Bureau of Labour, the conditions existing in these houses are bad in the extreme, the dwellings being dilapidated and insanitary, and the rooms crowded with beds. The following Table shows the predominant weekly rents paid by working-class families of Milwaukee in February, 1909 : — Predominant Remits of Working-class Dwellings, Xumber of Rooms per Dwelling. Four rooms Five rooms Six rooms Predominant Weekly Rents. 6s. M. to Us. 6d. Ds. Id. „ Us. M. ]2s. 6r/. „ 17,9. 4d The level of rents at New York being represented by 100, the rents index number for Milwaukee is 66. These rents include water charges, city water being supplied to most houses. Rent is paid monthly and in advance. No local taxes are paid directly by working-class occupiers unless they own their houses, in which case they are liable to the real property tax. Retail Prices. Milv.^aukee is well situated as regards its food supplies. The State of AV^isconsin is largely agricultural, and the authorities of the Experimental Station have been particularly successful in promoting more scientific methods of farming, particularly dairy farming and stock raising. Abundant supplies of grain, vegetables, milk, cheese and cattle are in consequence produced in the State, and the major part of the flour used is milled locally. Although several large shops in the city have an extensive grocery and provision trade, the lack of branch shops and competing shops of outside " multiple " firms has thrown the working-class trade into the hands of the family grocer, who as a rule sells on the credit system, for which custom the method of paying wages monthly and semi-monthly in the local works is partly accountable. There is no co-operative society. As regards dietary the Germans have to a large extent become Americanised, and their staple diet is similar to that of the ordinary American workman, except that they eat more veal, half-rye bread, and sausage. The Poles, however, living as they do in a large colony and having their own shops, tend to maintain their old habits as regards food. The bread eaten by them consists mostly of mixed rye and wheat, and the vegetables principally of potatoes and cabbage, after which come carrots, peas and pickles. Poles are not large consumers of milk, which is used principally with coffee. The fish mostly eaten by them are herrings, selling largely at the rate of three for 2Jrf., lake fish costing bd. to Qd. per lb. and perch costing 3|c?. and M. per lb. 268 MILWAUKEE. Groceries and other Commodities. Three kinds of bread are baked, viz., wheaten, half-rye (a nominal description, the proportion of wheat to rye being one to three), and full-rye, the principal sale being for wheaten bread, next to which comes half-rye. Comparatively little full-rye bread is sold locally. The predominant weight of the wheaten loaf in September, 1909, was 12 to 13 oz., and the price uniformly 2^d. Half -rye bread sells in 2^d. loaves weighing from IG to 18 oz. Double loaves at 5d. are also sold. Bread is not sold by weight, but the weighing of a large number of sample loaves sold by the principal bakers in various parts of the city showed the weights stated above to be predominant. The 7nilk supply is obtained within a radius of twenty miles, and public inspectors visit the farms supplying milk to the city. There is a daily supply both by train and by wholesale dealers' wagons, nearly the whole of this being delivered by 9 a.m. Inspectors meet the trains daily and take samples to be analysed in the city laboratory, three per cent, of fat being required to pass the standard. Several large dairy companies (one of which distributes 8,000 gallons daily) pasteurise all their milk. About 1,000 shops (mostly grocers' shops) are licensed for the sale of milk, which they are only allowed to keep in sealed bottles in a separate ice box. Tea is comparatively little drunk by the working-class population, coffee being pre- ferred, but so far as tea is bought the Japan sorts are most in favour. The cheaper grade of Santos coffee sells largely amongst the poorer classes at 7^d. per lb., but the prices most generally paid are lOd. and Is. O^d. per lb. White granulated is the only kind of sugar used to any extent by the working classes. Bacon is the belly part only, the back not being sold. By the piece, or " strip," it retails at Sd. to dd. per lb., but if sliced at M. to lie?, per lb. In February the price for eggs was, for local fresh 7 or 8 a shilling and for cold storage 10 a shilling, the latter being more generally consumed by the working classes. Much of the cheese sold is made in the State, and from full milk, the law not permitting the separation of the cream. An American Limburg of stronger flavour than the cheese of State origin sells largely amongst Germans and Poles. The butter sold is mainly local and made in creameries, for which the State is famous. Both anthracite and bituminous coal is in demand amongst the working classes, the poorer households buying exclusively the bituminous variety, which comes mainly from Illinois and Ohio. Both kinds are sold mostly by the ton of 2,000 lb., the bituminous usually costing, in February, 1909, from I85. dd. to 20s. iOd., and the anthracite 33s. ^d. per ton, the half-ton being sold at Is. O^d. more than one-half of the price per ton. The following Table shows the predominant prices paid by the working classes for groceries and other commodities in February, 1909 : — Predominant Prices paid by the Working Classes in February, 1909. Commodity. Predominant Price. Tea per lb. Is. bid. to 2». Id. Coffee »f lOd. „ Is. 0^. Sugar : — White Granulated „ 2K Brown >, 2W., 2|d. 85. to 9d. Bacon, Breakfast — Boneless .. ?t Eggs :— Fresh per Is. 7,8 Storage ?» 10 Cheese, American per lb. M. Butter f) is. M. to Is. 5d. Potatoes, Irish per 7 lb. 4|rf. ., Id. Flour, Wheaten — Household 99 lUd. lltd. Bread, White . per 4 lb. Milk . per quart. aid. Coal : - Anthracite . per cwt. Is. lO^rf.' Bituminous • »9 Is. OM. to Is. 2d.* Kerosene . per gallon 6d. * By the ton of 2,000 lb. MILWAUKEE. 269 Meat. Part of the meat supply is local and part comes from Chicago, and there is severe •competition both in price and quality between the packers of both places, the customers reaping the benefit whilst this competition continues. Inspection of meat is carried out by officers of the Health Department. Meat is sold almost exclusively in butchers' shops, and is invariably hung in cold chambers. The method of cutting differs little from that general in American cities. The consumption of meat in order of importance is beef, pork, veal and mutton, the last-named being little in demand. The cuts of beef most in favour are chuck ribs, pot roast and round steak, flank and brisket being largely bought for stewing. Corned beef is also much in demand. The following Table shows the prices most generally paid for certain cuts of meat in February, 1909 : — Predominant Prices paid by the Working Classes in February, 1909. Description of Cut. Predominant Price per lb. Beef :— Roasts — Round „ Ribs prime „ Ribs second cut „ Chuck or short ribs ... Steaks — Round „ Sirloin... Shin without bone Flank Plate, Brisket < r, ,, ■" V' ' \ Salt or corned Mutton or Lamb : — Leg Breast Loin Chops Shoulder Neck Veal :— Cutlets Rib chops Loin chops Breast Neck Pork :— Fresh — Loin „ Spare rib „ Shoulder „ Chops Corned (wet salt or pickled) ... Dry salt Ham ... Shoulder, salt or smoked M. to Id. %d. „8d. hhd. „ Id. hd „ (5; d. ., 7:d. &d. Id. „ dd. M. „ 6d. M. M. M. „ id. Id. toSd. Hd. „ ihd. dd. „ M. M. „ 9d. Hd. „ Id. M. „ 6d. M. to lOd. nd. „ M. M. „ 9d. 5d. „ 6M M. Id. 4d. to 7irf. „ nd. o^d. „ Hd. Id. „ nd. Id. Id. 5W. to 7irf. dd. „ 6d. Prices at New York being taken as the base, = 100, in each case, the index number for the price of meat at Milwaukee is 87, for other food it is 95 and for food prices as a whole 93. For rents and food prices combined the index number is aboar every month. No person under the age of 16j years may be employed before 7 a.m. or after 7 p.m. except on Saturday and during ten days before Christmas. Certain occupatioiis y)rejudicial to health or morals are closed to persons under Iti years of age. A system of factory inspection by inspectors of both sexes appears to be in effective operation. Trade unions exist for practically all the branches of the building, engineering and printing trades, and for the tlour milling industry. With tlie exception of the printing trades, however, none of the unions are strong enough to impose their conditions on employers, and the principle of the " open shop" is generally maintained. Time rates of wages are the general rule in Minneapolis and St. Paul, the machine compositors, who are paid sometimes by time and sometimes by piece, constituting the sole exception among the occupations included in the Table beloA'. One small firm has introduced the premium-bonus system for moulders, only a small percentage of whom, however, are able to increase their earnings as a result. Moulders employed by other firms are paid by time. As a rule, wages are paid by the calendar month or semi-monthly and by cheque. Workmen in the building trades, however, are paid in cash weekly at Minneapolis and fortnightly at St. Paul. The season in the building trades runs from the beginning of April into November, but work is frequently carried on in winter (the mortar being heated) when contracts for business premises have to be completed to time. In foundries and machine shops the wages paid to moulders show a wide range, as no two firms do the same class of work, and men are paid according to their skill. Machine moulders, who receive wages lower than those stated in the Table, are not a numerous class. As regards the wages of machinists, there is much variation, there being no recognised system of apprenticeship qualifying men to receive any particular rate of wages. The simplest class of work is done by " handy men " and drill press men, whose rates range from oOs. to 62s. 6d. per week. The wages quoted for machinists are for vice and lathe men of ordinary ability ; those whose wages exceed the limit sfcited in the Table are not a numerous class, and are experts in certain lines or possess all-round training. In railway repair shops work is more uniform than in the other machine shops, and accordingly rates of wages show little variation. In the printing trades the rates of wages and hours of labour of hand and machine compositors on newspaper work at St. Paul are regulated by agreement between leading newspaper companies and the trade union, while at Minneapolis there is no agreement, but union rates of wages are usually paid. For compositors employed by the day, the St. Paul agi-eement stipulates Is. lO^d. per hour on day work and "Js. Id. per hour on night work, seven hours constituting a minimum day's work. For those employed by the week the scale is 91s. Hd. for day work and 104s. 2d. for night work, a week's work consisting of 48 hours. The union rate at Minneapolis is 9,5s. 1 0(/. for day work and 108s. 4rf. for night work for a week of 48 hours. Machine compositors, whether on time or piece work, generally receive wages in excess of those required by agreement or by the union. Wages and hours agreements exist covering several occupations in the book and job jjrinting and bookbinding trades at Minneapolis, but there are no agreements in these trades at St. Paul. The Minneapolis rate for compositors on day work is Is. 6frf. per hour. The wages for pressmen and their assistants vary considerably according to the number and kind of presses operated. The bookbinding scale is also very detailed, but the rates for most of the workmen are either Is. od. or Is. 7rf. per hour, the week's work consisting of 49 hours. In the woodworking factories the wages of cabinetmakers show a wide range, running from 56s. od. to lOOs. per week. Of those doing superior work, however, three- quarters receive 75s. per week, whilst of those engaged on ordinary work the great majority receive from 62s. 6d. to 68s. dd. The setters are men who in large factories adjust machines to various grades of work for the feeders and sawyers. Work in the flour mills is fairly continuous the whole year round, Minneapolis being well supplied with large stoi'es of both winter and spring wheat, and wages show con- siderable uniformity. Work is carried on in three eight-hour shifts daily, but millwrights, loaders, packers and nailers, and, labourers do not work on the shift system. Packers and nailers, though nominally working a nine-hour day, more generally work only eight hours. The wages and hours in the brewing industry are entirely regulated by agreement. 1657U S 2 276 MINNEAPOLIS ST. PAUL. The same company works the tramways in both cities. Motormen and conductors are paid according to a scale ranging from lO^d. to Is. O^d. per hour, the rate increasing ^d. per hour for each year of service. As the proportions of the total number of men receiving the various rates were fairly equal, the whole range of payment has been quoted. The company does not provide uniforms. The following Table shows the predominant wages paid to adult males in the prin- cipal trades and industries of Miimeapolis — St. Paul, wdth the corresponding hours of labour, in February, 1909 : — Predominant Weekly Wa<^es and Hours of Labour of Adult Males in the Principal Occupations in February, 1909. Predominant Predominant Weekly Weekly Wages. Hours of Labour. Building Trades : — Bricklayers 120s. 48 Stonemasons ... ... ... l(X)s. 48 Stonecutters 100s. to 112s. M. 48 Carpenters 90s. 48 Plasterers n2s. 6f/. 48 Plumbers 112s. Gd. 48 Structural Iron Workers 100s. 48 Painters 85s. 48 Bricklayers' Labourers 45s. to 56s. M. 54 Plasterers' Labourers 50s. „ 67s. 6d. 48 to 54 Foundries and Machine Shopa : — Ironmoulders ... 68s. 9rf. to 90s. 54 to 60 Machinists 68s. 9d. „ 75s. 8d. 55 „ 60 Drill Press Men and Handy Men 50s. „ 62s. 6d. 55 „ 60 Blacksmiths 68s. 9f/. „ 80s. M. 55 „ 60 Patternmakers 74s. Gd. „ 90s. 55 „ 60 Labourers 41s. M. ., 50s. 55 „ 60 Railway Workn .— Locomotive Shops — Machinists 90s. 53 to 54 Blacksmiths 90s. 53 „ .54 Blacksmiths' Strikers ... ... ... 51s. dd. to 52s. lid. 53 „ 54 Boilermakers 93s. bd. 53 „ 54 Boilermakers' Helpers 49s. 6d to 50s. Hd. 53 „ 54 Labourers ... ... ... 41s. Sd. „ 42s. M. 53 „ 54 Car Shops — Cabinetmakers ... ... ... 71s. M. to 75s. 59 Carpenters ... ... ... 63s. M. 59 Car Repairers 42s. 9d. to 50s. 8rf. 53 to 59 Labourers 41s. -dd. „ 43s. M. 59 Woodworking — Sash and Doormaking : — Cabinetmakers 62s. 6d to 75s. 60 Machine Operators { ^^^^^- ; ; ;;; "; 62s. 6rf. „ 75s. 37s. 6rf. „ 50s. 60 60 Frame Makers 56s. M. „ G-2s. 6d. 60 Labourers 43s. 9rf. „ 50s. 60 Printing and Bookbinding Trades .- — Newspaper — Hand Compositors j g^.^work" .:. Z 78s. 9d. to 90S. lOd. 87s. 6rf. „ 108s. id. 42 to 48 42 „ 48 Machine Compositors { ^^'^^^ ^ ": 95s. lOd. „ 104s. 2d. 958. lOd. „ 116s. 8d. 39 „ 48 36 „ 48 Book and Job — Hand Compositors 75s. to 81s. M. 48 to 49 Pressmen | Cylinder Presses Small Presses 79s. „ 93s. 48 „ 49 47s. „ 66s. 8d. 48 „ 54 Bookbinders 69s. 5r/. „ 83s. 4rf. 49 Flour MiUivg .- — Millers, Bolters and Grinders 70s. 48 Machine Tenders bSs. 48 Smutters 47s. to 52s. 48 Millwrights 75s. ., 75s. &d. 60 Packers and Nailers 54s. „ 62s. 6rf. 48 Oilers • 473. 48 Loaders 55s. 54 to 60 Labourers 50s. to 55s. 60 MINNEAPOLIS ST. PAUL. 277 Predominant Predominant Weekly Weekly Wages. Hours of Labour. Brewing : — Brew-house, Malt-house, Wash-house and Cellar 75s. 48 Men. Beer Bottlers ... 56.S. 48 Baking : — Bench Men ... 62s. 6d. to 66s. Sd. 60 Oven Men ... 66s. Sd. „ 70s. lOd. 60 General Drivers, Teamsters : — One horse • •• 43s. M. to 50s. 60 Two horses ... 48s. Id. „ 54s. 2d. 60 Public Services : — Street Construction, Paving and Cleaning (Muni- cipal) — ^ . f Creosote Paviors { Brick and Stone ... 62s. 6d. 48 81s. M. 48 Paviors' Labourers, Road Menders and Road 40s. to 56s. M. 48 Sweepers. Water Works (Municipal) — Labourers ... 50s. 48 Gas Works (Company)— Gas Stokers 57s. Sd. 77 Labourers . . 43s. M. to 51s. Id. 66 to 70 Electric Light and Power Works (Company)— Switchboard Men . 74s. 6d. to 86s. 6d. 84 Linemen ... 69s. M. „ 72s. 54 Labourers *.. 50s. 60 Electric Tramways (Company) — Motormen and Conductors 58s. 2d. to 69s. 3d 66i Taking wages at New York as the base, = 100, in each case, the wages index numbers for Minneapolis — St. Paul are — building trades, skilled men 97, hod carriers and bricklayers' labourers 74 ; foundries and machine shops, skilled men 88, unskilled labourers 109 ; printing, hand compositors (job work) 89. Housing and Rents. Minneapolis. — Practically all the working-class dwellings are situated within the city, and are distributed all over its area, with the exception of the business centre and a district in the west which is occupied by the mansions and villas of the wealthy inhabitants. A network of tram-lines reaches all parts of the city, and the fare being uniformly 2^d., the cost of travelling to and from work has little or no effect on the relative rent level of different localities, rent being determined by other conditions. Certain districts, however, are predominantly working-class in character. Thus, the South Side is mainly occupied by the poorer yet respectable Scandinavians, who are mostly Swedish, and in this locality are found the principal churches of the Swedish Lutheran faith, but also several Norwegian churches. The northern district is also to a large extent working-class in character, and is inhabited by the families of men working in lumber yards and sash and door factories. The poorest class of labourers, and particu- larly the later immigrants of the Slavonic race, live in a small district fringing the western bank of the Mississippi, one portion of which, called " The Flats," situated below the Falls of St. Anthony, lies very low, and is at times flooded by the river. A large district on the East Side of the river, close to some large woodworking factories and railway shops, emjiloying a considerable number of well-paid mechanics, represents the aristocracy of labour, so far as housing conditions are concerned. In this district the overwhelming majority of the houses are being purchased by the occupants on the instalment plan. They are pretty frame buildings of two stories, detached, and having open grass plots both at the front and back. In other localities, this habit of purchasing the home is characteristic of a large section of the working- class population, especially the Scandinavians, who are home-loving to a remarkable degree. Although Americanised to a considerable extent, the Scandinavians still retain the frugal habits of their race, denying themselves many ordinary amuse- ments, and generally maintaining a simpler standai-d of dietary and clothing than American workmen of the second genei-ation. According to the Fedei*al Census of 1900, 28"7 per cent, of the homes in the city were in that year owned by their 16576 S 3 278 MINNE.\POLIS ^ST. PAUL. occupiers, 16'1 per cent, of all homes being owned free of debt, and since that date the percentage of house owners amongst the working classes has probably increased. There are no co-operative or philanthropic building societies, all the purchases being effected through private agents, who foster the system of house purchase, accepting pay- ment by easy instalments, a plar. which lessens the risk of bad debts. In times of depression many agents make loans to purchasers, whilst they have always the ultimate right of foreclosure when the debt is mounting too high. The State Law of Exemp- tion, which prevents the distraint of furniture up to a certain value, and the legal difficulties in the way of ejecting tenants naturally cause agents to encourage the purchase system, and none of them has a large rental list. A common practice with agents is to accept an initial deposit of 10 per cent, of the total value of a house and site, and to receive the balance in mcmthly instalments as low as 41s. 8d. By this means an ordinary house, together with the land, can be bought outright as a rule in ten or twelve years. When, however, the local taxes, special assessments for the cost of street-making and improvements (a large number of streets are still unmade), and the heavy cost of repairs to frame dwellings are taken into consideration, it is evident that house-ownership entails considerable self-denial on the part of those who are not receiving the higher wages of skilled mechanics. The usual size of a site is 40 to 50 feet by 100 to 150 feet, and the cost of such a site varies from ^50 to £125, according to situation. The average cost of a frame house of four rooms is about £175, and of one of six rooms from £300 to £425, modern conveniences such as bathroom and basement with heating furnace not being included. Sometimes houses are bought in combination with life insurance. Two marked results of this system of house purchase are variety in style of construction, a matter to- which agents pay special attention, and the clean and well-kept appearance of the dwellings which are being bought by their occupants. Broadly speaking, the working-class housing conditions make a very favourable impression. The prevailing custom of erecting detached houses secures healthy condi- tions as regards light and ventilation, particularly as Minneapolis is a new city, and is spread over a large area with many intervening open spaces. Congestion of dwellings such as obtains in older cities is almost non -existent. Broad streets and wide passages between back gardens are the general rule, and trees are planted along both sides of all streets in residential districts. There is no large slum area, although houses in a more or less dila|)idated condition are by no means infrequent, and there are small blocks of tenement dwellings which leave much to be desired in the matter of cleanliness and sanitary conveniences. The heavy cost of sewering so large an area as Minneapolis covers and of laying water pipes accounts for somewhat primitive sanitary conditions in certain localities, but these cannot be said to be typical. The only available figures bearing on the question of congestion of population are those of the Federal Census of 1900, which /jhowed that the percentage of families at that date living in dwelling-houses occupied ijhy one family was 56, indwelling-houses occupied by two families 31 and in dwelling- houses occupied by three or more families 13. Observation of conditions in all parts of the city made in the course of the investigation leads to the conclusion that this favourable state of things still continues. As the great majority of the houses are built for sale there is no approach to uniformity as regards either appearance, design or dimensions, the aim of the builders and agents being to present as much variety as possible in any given street in order to make the houses attractive to purchasers. Kented dwellings also vary to such an extent that predominant types can hardly be said to exist. The two-storied frame cottage approaches a predominant type as far as it is possible to generalise, but as a rule it is occupied by its owner. Generally speaking this house is detached and set back from the pavement at varying distances ; an open grass plot in front runs unbroken from one end of the street to the other ; and each house has open ground behind where the wood shed and in the older type the privy are situated, more modern dwellings having instead of the latter a water-closet in the bathroom. A verandah or " jjorch " usually extends along the front of the house. The floor of the dwelling usually rests on a stone or cement foundation, raised about three feet above the gi-ound. I^obbies or vestibules are common, and on the ground floor the rooms consist of parlour, dining room and kitchen-scullery, which contains the sink and stove or gas-cooker, the stove being invariably the property of the occupier ; a food pantry is also a common feature, 'i'he floor above is divided into three or four rooms and in dwellings of the more modern type contains also the bathroom with water-closet. Clothes closets are usually provided, and the walls as a rule are papered. A cellar or basement is general, this in more modem houses having a cemented floor and containing MINNEAPOLIS — ST. PAUL. 279 a heating furnace and laundry facilities. The whole house is heated by the furnace, from which hot air pipes are carried to all the rooms above, steam pipes being only met with in the more expensive houses or blocks of flats occupied by the well-to-do classes. Rented dwellings are mainly flats of from three to six rooms. The labouring classes generally occupy flats of three or four rooms in dwellings of the older type, whilst mechanics occupy flats of the more modern kind with from three to six rooms. The prevalence of the bathroom and water-closet in the latter class of dwellings is a marked feature in Minneapolis. Flats are found in two-storied frame dwellings, in rows of brick structur'es or in detached blocks of two and three stories, and often over shops. Large frame-built tene- ment blocks exist, but are not numerous. The three or four-roomed flat of the older type is usually found in a seven-roomed frame house, having three or four rooms on each floor. First floor tenants frequently have to carry water and wood upstairs, in which case the inconvenieoce caused is compensated for by a lower rent being charged, sometimes as much as Is. lid. per week less than that for the downstairs flat. One front entrance serves both flats, but separate back entrances are generally provided, wooden stairs with a small landing leading from the open ground behind to the upstairs flat. In many cases water and sink are supplied to upstairs tenants, but the water-closet or privy is as a rule shared by both families. Modern flats are frequently situated in a brick tenement block having one main entrance admitting to a hall, where flats are entered right and left, while stairs ascend to landings on the upper floors. These flats are conveniently arranged, but as the blocks are built rather close together, defective lighting is fairly frequent, since the lateral windows look out upon the wall of the adjacent block a few feet away. At the back flights of wooden steps with a landing at each floor give access to the various flats from the courtyard. Bathrooms with water-closets are invariably found in these flats. Measurements of rooms in typical dwellings taken in various parts of the city varied from 11 feet by 12 feet to 11 feet by 16 feet for larger rooms and from 6 feet by 9 feet 6 inches to 9 feet by 12 feet for smaller ones, the height being from 7 to 8 feet. Modern flats furnished with steam heating, the charge for which is included in the rent, are nearly all occupied by fiiirly well-to-do households ; occasionally a compositor or superior mechanic may be found amongst the tenants, but as a rule working people who can aflbrd the high rents of such flats prefer to purchase their own homes. The older type of dwelling is heated by a stove in the living room in whicii anthracite coal is usually burnt ; the kitchen stove, in which bituminous coal is burnt, being used for cooking only. Gas cooking stoves were observed to be in common use. Building regulations do not apply, as regards the structures, in the case of dwelling houses, and builders are not even required to submit plans for approval before beginning operations. The requirements of prospective tenants or owners are the only conditions which builders feel bound to consider. The collection of ashes and garbage is undertaken by the city, but metal cans to contain the refuse have to be provided by the owners or the tenants. The sanitary inspection of houses is regularly exercised by a staff of officers belonging to the Health Department. Whenever dwellings are found to be in an insanitary state and the owners or agents neglect to obey the instructions of the Health Department, a large card is affixed to the wall stating that the dwelling is unhealthy and should not be occupied until put in a sanitary condition. This method of dealing with recalcitrant owners is said to be very effective. Taxes are levied by the municipal authority upon real and personal property, one tax levy covering all State, County and City purposes. Under persontil property are included household furnitui-e and effects of every kind, wearing apparel and dogs. Every citizen is required annually to make a written and detailed declaration of the value of his personal property, and the various items are revised by the assessor. Real estate is assessed at from 45 to 55 per cent, of its actual value, personal property at its full value, less a deduction of £21 ; the tax-rate has varied during the last five years from 2"45 to 2'89 per cent, of the assessed value. St. Paul. — The foregoing description of housing conditions in Minneapolis will serve also to indicate the general conditions prevailing in St. Paul. In the style and character of the houses, and in the general level of accommodation, there are no material differencer., while the rents charged for similar dwellings were found to be the same in both cities. I(i."i76 s i 280 MINNEAPOLIS ST. PAUL. Minneapolis — St. Paul, — The following Table shows the rents most generally paid by working-class tenants in Minneapolis and St. Paul in February, 1909 : — Predominant Rents of Working-class Dwellings. Number of Booms per Dwelling. Three rooms Four rooms Five rooms Six rooms Predominant Weekly Rents. Older Dwellings. Modem Dwellings. 5s. 9d. to 7s. M. Is. M. „ 9s. Id. 9s. Id. „ 12s. M. lis. 6d „ 17s. id. 8s. 8rf. to 10s. Id. ] Is. 6rf. „ 15s. 5rf. Us. bd. „ 19s. M. 19s. M. „ 21s. 8d The level of rents at New York being represented by 100, the rents index number for Minneapolis — St. Paul is 77. These rents include water charges and also local taxes on real estate, in so far as these can be assumed to enter into rent. Rent contracts are rarely used, and the rule is to pay rent monthly and in advance. Retail Prices. As the State of Minnesota is largely agricultural, and as Minneapolis and St. Paul form an important railway centre, ehe Twin Cities are highly favoured in the matter of food supply. Farming grows yearly more varied in character under the stimulus imparted by the Agricultural Experimental Station situated between the two cities. Since the growing of wheat has passed westward to the Dakotas, increased attention has been paid to dairy farming and the growing of vegetables and fruit, and large quantities of farm and garden produce are sent to Minneapolis for distribution in various parts of the country. Fine creameries abound in the State, and Minnesota butter commands a good price in the United States generally. Formerly large consignments were shipped east- ward, but of late years the home demand has grown to such an extent, particularly in Minneapolis and St. Paul, that the major portion of this product is now consumed within the State, and since 1905 the price has risen 2\d. per lb. Although Minneapolis is the greatest milling centre in the world, flour is not so cheap as might be expected, the local mills enjoying a monopoly. In the retail trade of both cities there is keen competition, and prices for the same quality of commodities show very little variation. In addition to numerous small dealers there are also large " department stores," several of which cater for the working-class trade. As wages generally are only paid once or twice monthly, working-class customers mainly purchase on the credit system from the family grocer. There is no co-operative society. The dietary of the Scandinavians is less varied than that of the American-born, and consists m|i,inly of meat, fish, bread, butter, potatoes, milk and eggs. The Scandinavians retain their partiality for rye bread, most of which is baked at home. Only a small per- centage of the bread made in local bakeries is of rye ; much of the so-called rye bread contains 60 per cent, of wheat. Groceries and other Commodities. A large amount of bread is made in local bakeries. One of these, which bakes 13,000 loaves daily, is a model of its kind in regard to cleanliness, the use of modern machinery and the conditions under which the employees work. Over 80 per cent, of the bread baked is said to be wheaten, the remainder being either pure rye or mixed rye and wheat. In 1905, a Minneapolis city ordinance required all loaves to be of the standard weight of one or two lb. This ordinance w^as amended in 1907, and bakers are now allowed to make loaves of any weight provided that each loaf bears a label giving the weight, and the name and address of the baker. The majority of the bakers by agreement fix the weight of the loaf from time to time, according to the fluctuations in the price of flour. In February, 1909, the weight of the 2^d. loaf was 14 oz., a 28 oz. loaf retailing at od. Bread remaining unsold at the grocers' shops at the end of the day is returned next morning to the bakeries, where it may be purchased at 1 ^d. per small loaf, or 2^d. for two such loaves. As a rule rye bread and bread of mixed wheat and rye have the same weight as wheaten, and retail at the same price. The food inspector confiscates all bread found to weigh less than stated on the label. MINNEAPOLIS ST. PAUL. 281 The consumption of tea is small compared with that of coffee, and prices frequently ranjred from Is. M. to 35. Urf. per lb., but the kinds most in demand are black and green teas at 'Is. \d. per lb. Coffee h sold roasted and ground. Mechanics purchase principally a quality selling at Is. 'M. per lb., and labourers inferior grades at Is. Q\d. or 10(/. The only kind of sugar consumed to any extent by the working classes is white granulated, costing 4s. 2d. for 16, 17 or 18 lb. Bacon is mainly supplied by a St. Paul branch of one of the principal Chicago 7)acking firms, and is sold in butchers' shops at from 9rf. to Wd. per lb. sliced, and usually at 'l\d. or 8rf. per lb. by the piece or " strip," which is a cut corresponding to the part called streaky in England There is a large supply of local fresh eggs, while the cheese., bulter and potatoes are mostly the produce of the State of Minnesota. For inargarine there is practically no demand. The price of milk per single quart is uniform at the rate of A\d. per quart English from September to April, and d\d. for the remainder of the year. The custom prevails of purchasing a dollar's worth of quart tickets. The number of tickets per dollar (4s. 2d.) was generally 16 during the winter of 1908-9, and 18 during the following summer. (It must be remembered that an American quart is % of an English quart.) Since 1905 milk has risen \d. per quart. Very little skim milk is bought by working-class customers. All cows from which milk is supplied to the city have to be examined annually by the veterinary officei' of the Health Department or by a duly licensed veterinary surgeon for the purpose of detecting the presence of tuberculosis. No one is allowed to sell milk who is not duly licensed by the health authorities. Fines may be imposed where milk is found to contain less than 3| per cent, of fat, and cream to contain less than 20 per cent, of fat. The supply of milk is obtained from the surrounding country, and is mainly distributed by creameries, one of which sells 5,000 gallons a day. Some of the creameries pasteurise the whole of their milk and retail it in sealed bottles, a stock of wlrcli is also kept by many grocers. As the sale of coal is entirely in the hands of a few large firms, prices are uniform throughout both cities. The prices most generally paid by the working classes of Minneapolis and St. Paul for certain groceries and other commodities are shown in the following Table : — Predominant Prices paid by the Working Classes in February, 1909. Commodity. Predominaut Price. Tea per lb. Coffee „ Sugar: — White Granuliited... ... „ Brown ... ... ... „ Bacon, Breakfast — Boneless „ Eggs :— Fresh per Is. Storage ... ... ... „ Cheese, American ... ... per lb. Butter... ... ... ... „ Potatoes, Irish per 7 lb. Flour, Wheaten— Household „ Bread, White per 4 lb. Milk per quart Coal :— Anthracite ... ... ... per cwt. Bituminous ... ... „ Kerosene per gallon 2s. Id. Is. Ok?, to Is. id. 2|rf., M. 2id. to :5(/. 7|rf. „ M. 7 „ 8 10 „ 12 lOd. Is. 3d to Is. 5irf. Hd. n^d. to Is. O^rf. n^d. iid. 2s. Oy.* Is. did. to Is. 4d» 6d. * By the ton of 2,000 lb. Meat. The main sources of the meat supply are the Chicago packing firms, one of which has a large establishment at St. Paul, and those of Omaha and Kansas City. Practically all the meat sold is either chilled or frozen, the latter kind being an inferior grade. Except- ing the " department stores," meat is sold as a rule in separate shops called " meat markets," in all of which uncut quarters of meat hang in ice-chambers usually provided with glass panels so that they are in view of the customers. In Minneapolis 40 of the 282 MINNEAPOLIS ST. PAUL. better-class firms display all their smaller cuts in " refrigerating counters," which are enclosed in glass and provided with ice chambers at both ends, and the sanitary authorities hope to make the use of such counters compulsory. American-born workmen consume mainly beef and pork, and in a less degree mutton, but veal is little in demand amongst them. The principal sale of veal is to the Scandinavians, who also buy largely the cheaper grades of beef and pork, and show a preference for stewing meat. Inspectors regularly visit all shops where meat is exposed for sale. Veal particularly is examined, as the by-law requires that all calves killed for consumption shall be not less than five weeks old. The following Table shows the predominant prices paid for meat by the working classes at Minneapolis and St. Paul in February, 1909 : — Predominant Prices paid by the WorMng Classes in February^ 1909. Description of Cut. Beef :— Roasts — Round... „ Ribs prime „ Ribs second cut „ Chuck or short ribs .. Steaks — Round... „ Sirloin Flank I'l^*«'^"«^«*{saUor'corned Mutton or Lamb : — Leg Breast Loin Chops Shoulder Neck Veal :— Cutlets Rib chops Loin chops Breast Neck Pork :— . Fresh — Loin „ Spare rib „ Shoulder „ Chop-i Corned (wet salt or pickled) .. Dry salt ... Ham . Shoulder, salt or smoked Predominant Price per lb. (■)id. to l\d. ^d. to l\d. bd. „ 6id. Gid. „ ^d. l\d. „ M. ■id. 2irf. to M. 2|rf. „ M. nd. M. to M. lid. „ M. 7^. „ dd. id. to 5d. M. Gid. to l^d. lid. „ 9d. id. „ bd. id. „ bd. G^d. 5d. bd. Gid. to lid. Gyd. „ lid. 6|of. „ 7|rf. Gid. „ lid. 4^d. „ bid. Prices at New York being taken as the base, = 100, in each case, the index number for the price of meat at Minneapolis — St. Paul is 85, for other food it is 99 and for food prices as a whole 95. For rents and food prices combined the index number is 91. iJ83 MUNCIE. Muncie, which lies on the south side of the White River, in the State of Indiana, affords a very interesting example of rapid industrial changes during recent years. The city owes its development to the discovery of natural gas in the neighbourhood nearly thirty years ago, a discovery which resulted in the establishment there of important glass works, the products of which raised Muncie to a leading position among the glass manufacturing cities of America. In course of time, however, the supply of natural gas was threatened with exhaustion ; gas could no longer be obtained in the same abundance, and the consequence was that glass works tended to move elsewhere. This tendency was strengthened by the introduction of machine processes which were favourable to the concentration of the industry in the hands of large firms. Muncie has retained one of the large bottlemaking firms, which absorbed smaller works in other places, but it has lost a number of other glass works, including those that were engaged in the window-glass industry, which has entirely left the neighbourhood. Following glass works came steel rolling mills, making sheet steel for the building trade. Concentration, however, affected this industry also, and small works had to close down. At the time of the investigation there were no rolling mills in operation, but one controlled by the United States Steel Corporation was expected to re-open directly the trade depression passed away. In spite of the vicissitudes of the glass and steel industries, Muncie has had a pros- perous career on the whole, apart from the temporary set-back of 1908. Other industries have sprung up to take the place of those which have declined. The manufacture of automobiles and parts has become important, and there are many miscellaneous works which, in the aggregate, give employment to a large number of men. The more important of these works are engaged in boilermaking, the manufacture of structural steel, malleable castings, carriage wheels and coffins and the pre])aration of canned vegetables. The following Table gives the population of Muncie at the Censuses of 1890, 1900 and 1910, together with the intercensal increases : — Year. Population. Increase. Percentage Increase. 1890 1900 1910 11.345 20,942 24,005 9,597 3,063 84-6 14-6 Figures showing the extent to which different nationalities enter into the composition of the population are not available, but in so small a place there is not much difficulty in ascertaining the primary facts in a matter of this kind. There is no foreign quarter, but a few foreign-born people were found here and there. Formerly Belgians used to work in the window-glass industry, and Roumanian labourers were employed in the rolling mills, but when these industries declined, nearly all the Belgians and Roumanians migrated elsewhere. As a consequence the American- born population is strongly predominant. The numbers of births, deaths and deaths of infants under one year old recorded in each of the years 1905-8 are shown in the following Table : — Year. Number of Births. Number of Deaths. Number of Deaths under One Year. 1905 1906 1907 1908 491 552 534 466 350 315 310 317 80 80 77 70 Outside a small business centre, Muncie has almost a rural aspect. The streets in the residential quarters are all lined with trees on either side. Dwelling houses of all classes are almost entirely frame-built, and stand detached on plots 30 to 40 feet wide. There is, consequently, no lack of space and air, a circumstance which should be favourable to the public health. Unfortunately these conditions are accompanied, in large portions of the pity which are occupied by the working classes, by a corresponding rural simplicity in sanitation and water supply, with the result that typhoid fever and small -pox are not 284 MUNCIE. SO rare as they should be. Modern drainage and water supply have been installed in all the districts inhabited maiiil}' by the middle classes and the more highly-paid wage-earners, but elsewhere water is often obtained from wells of shallow depth, whilst privy- vault closets contaminate the soil, which is of a rather porous nature. All the public services, water, gas, electricity, and tramways, are in the hands ot companies. Natural gas is supplied for domestic use at 2s. Id. per 1,000 cubic feet. In so small a city as Muncie the frequent service of tram cars which exists in larger cities is impossible, and bicycles are used to a great extent by working men for going to and from their work. The extensive use of bicycles is quite rare in larger cities in America, partly owing to the excellent tramcar service, and partly owing to the roughness of the stone setts with which the majority of streets are paved. In Muncie the traffic is light, and the roads, which are macadamised outside the business centre, where asphalt is used, are kept in a sufficiently good state of repair to make the use of bicycles quite practicable. Brick ])aving is now being laid down in some streets in place of macadam, as being more durable, while smooth enough for cycling. Occupations, Wages and Hours of Labour. As has been stated^ the industries of Muncie have undergone many changes during recent years, and at the ]iresent time glassworks, foundries, machine shops and automobile works afford the principal sources of employment. The glass industry comprises the manufacture of bottles, preserve jars and telegraph insulators. The old system of blowing by mouth has been replaced by a mechanical process, generally known as pressing. The men who work the pressing machines are paid by piece, and earn very high wages. Gatherers also work by piece, but do not earn so much as pressers. General unskilled labourers, of whom a considerable number are employed, are paid from 6|rf. to Sd. per hour. A number of women are employed in the glass works, especially as packers, earning about 206'. lOd. per week. The glass works close down during July and August as a general rule, for repairs to the furnaces. The pressers and gatherers do not work during these months, but a number of the unskilled workers obtain employment on repairs and cleaning. In addition to two automobile firms quite recently established, there are in Muncie several small jobbing machine shops and foundries, a firm making lawn-mowers and a foundry for malleable steel castings. Ironmoulders in the general machinery shops earn 125. 6d. per day of nine hours, but those working on malleable steel castings are on piece work, and their earnings show a wide range. On the whole a much lower degree of skill is required for this work, which is largely repetition work, and earnings are less than those of machinery moulders. The fact, already mentioned, that important industries have left Muncie has naturally been unfavourable to the expansion of the building trades, and workpeople have not, in all cases, been able to maintain union rates of pay. Bricklayers were being paid rates varying from 2s. Id. to 2s. 6d. per hour in February, 1909, and carpenters on tlie whole maintained the union rate of Is. 7d. per liour, and plasterers the rate of 2s. Id. The hours of Avork in the building trades are in general 48 per week, but in some cases a nine-hour day is worked. Carpenters and painters have a nine-hour day with a short day on Saturday, making 50 hours for the week. Plasterers sometimes, and plumbers usually, work M hours per week. The printing trade is not very important, though Muncie has both a morning and an evening newspaper. In May, 1907, an agreement fixing rates of pay for newspaper work was concluded by the firms concerned and the men's union, providing for gradual increases each year for the following three or four years, according to the occupation. The rates given in the Table below, for February, 1909, were those of the second year of the agreement, [n several cases increases have been made since, in accordance with the agreement, for the third year, commencing May 2nd, 1909. As natural gas only is used in Muncie, there are no gas works in the sense usually understood. The scale of pay for motormen and conductors on the tramways is 8d. per hour for the first six months, S^d. for the second six months, M. for the second year, 9^rf. for the third and fourth years and for the fifth year and afterwards, lOd. per hour. Eleven hours daily represent full time, and men may work seven days per week, though in practice they usually take one day off each week. The following Table shows the predominant weekly wages and hours of labour in some of the principal occupations in February, 1909 : — MUNCIE. 285 Predominant Weekly Wa(jes and Hours of Labour of Adult Males in the Principal Occupations in February, 1909. Predominant Predominant Weekly Weekly Wages. Hours of Labour. Building Trades .- — Bricklayers lOOs. to 120s. 48 Stonemasons 100s. 48 Stonecutters 100s. 48 Carpenters 79s. 2d. 50 Plasterers 100s. to 112s. &d. 48 to 54 Plumbers 81s. 3rf. 54 Structural Iron "Workers 62s. 6d. to 68s. 9d. 60 Painters ... ... ... ... ... ... 69s. 2d. „ 72s. lid. 50 Hod Carriers ... ... ... ... ... ... 50s. „ 60s. 48 General Labourers ... ... .•• ..• ... 39s. 5d. „ ibs. 54 Foundries and. Machine Shops : — Ironmoulders ... ... .*• ... ... ... 75s. 54 Machinists . . ,,. 50s. to 68s. 9rf. 59 to 60 Blacksmiths ... ... •.. ... ... 73s. 9t/. „ 86s. Id. 59 „ 60 Patternmakers ... ... ... ... ... ... 62s. Gd. „ 86s. Id. 55 „ 60 Labourers ... 37s. dd. „ 43s. 9d. 54 „ 60 Glass Works:— Pressers ... ... ... ... ... 125s. to 141s. M. 53 to 54 Gatherers ... ... ... ... ... 75s. „ 104s. 2d. 53 „ 54 Gasmakers ... ... ... ... ... 58s. id. „ 62s. 6f/. 84 Labourers ... ... ... ... ... 33s. M. „ 40s. 60 Printing Trades : — Newspaper — Hand Compositors I Day work 1 Night work 75s. 79s. 2d. 48 48 Machine Compositors 1 Day work ... ] Night work 79s. 2d. 87s. 6d. 48 48 Pressmen ( Day work 1 Night work 62s. 6d. 91s. 8^. 54 63 Book and Job — Hand Compositors ••• •■■ <•• •>• *•< 66s. Sd. to 6Ss. M. 48 Pressmen (Small Presses) 62s. Gd. „ 68s. M. 48 Public Services .• — Street Construction, Pa% ing and Cleaning — Municipal Workmen : Koad Menders, Scavengers, Road Sweepers and ) Drivers ) 45«. 54 Contractors' Workmen : Paviors ... ... ... ... ... 62s. 6d. to 87s. 6d 60 Paviors' Labourers, Road Menders and Drivers... 37s. Gd. „ 43s. dd. 60 Water Works (Company) — Labourers 43s. 9d. 60 Electric Light and Power Works (Company)— Stokers ... ■•• ... ... ... 57s. Sd. 84 Linemen ... ... ... ... ... 56s. M. 60 Labourers .■• .*. •.• .•• ... 52s. 6d. 84 Electric Tramways — See text. Taking wages at New York as the base, = 100, in each case, the wages index numbers for Muncie are — building trades, skilled men 83, hod carriers and bricklayers' labourers 80 ; foundries and machine shops, skilled men 81, unskilled labourers 97 ; printing, hand compositors (job work) 77. Housing and Rents. Detached and semi-detached frame houses occupied by single families form the great majority of the homes of wage-earners. Most of the houses containing less than seven rooms are of one story, and are entirely detached, standing on plots 30 to 40 feet wide and 100 to 130 feet deep. As there is practically no smoke nuisance, the houses are usually painted a light colour and look clean and cheerful. The white houses set in an abundance of trees give quite a bright and pleasant aspect to the town, in strong contrast to the dull, monotonous appearance of most industrial towns which are built of brick. All except the very cheapest houses have a verandah, or at least a porch. The rooms vary in number from three to seven, but four, five or six rooms are most frequently found in working-class houses, five and six rooms predominating. These rooms are seldom large, from 12 to 13 feet square being a common size. Halls 28iB MUNCIE. are rarely found. The arrangement of the rooms is exceedingly varied, but usually the front entrance leads into the principal living room or parlour, which communicates directly with the kitchen, the bedrooms being reached through one of these rooms. Cellars are rare. The floors are i-aised slightly above the level of the ground by brick foundations. The rooms are plastered and ceiled in the usual way, but sometimes there is a " summer kitchen " with unplastered walls and roof. Gas cooking stoves are used to a considerable extent, as natural gas costs only 2s. Id. per 1,000 cubic feet. Oil fuel also is used by many households in summer time. Rents in Muncie were particularly low at the time of this investigation, mainly owing to the fact that the closing down of the steel rolling mills had caused the departiire of a number of people from the town. Ctnnpared with the level of 1907, rents in 1909 had declined about 20 per cent. Houses without modern sanitation, containing four rooms, were rented at 4s. IQd. to (is. M. per week ; those with five rooms cost as a rule from Gs. 9d. to 9s. 7d. per week, but those at the higher figure were usually connected with the city drainage and Avater, while at rents of 12s. pet week, houses with five or six rooms and bathroom could be obtained. A few flats over shops containing five rooms and bathroom also rented for 12s. per week. In Muncie, as in many American cities, the best types of houses occupied by wage-earners are those which are purchased on the instalment plan. Quite a number of occupying owners Avere found in the types of houses already mentioned, but the proportion increases with the value of the houses. This is most noticeable in the case of seven-roomed houses. There are really two distinct classes of seven -roomed houses, the two-storied, serai-detached house, which is found to a certain extent in the suburbs, and is without modern sanitation or bathroom, letting for hardly more than houses with five or six rooms on one floor, smd the modern-built, detached, two-storied house, containing seven rooms and a bathroom. The last-mentioned type of house is occupied to some extent by the better paid wage-earners, who usually own their dwellings, but a few were found rented at from 14s. 5d. to los. 0(/. per week. Normally the rent of such houses would be from 16s. id. to ITs. 4*^/. per week, but the trade depression had led to a reduction. In the Federal Census returns for 1900 the average number of families per dwelling-house is given as 1"1, a ratio which clearly indicates that the one-family house is almost universal. The percentage of houses owned by their occupants free of encumbrance was in that year 17*9, that of houses owned with encumbrance 14"8 and that of rented houses 67"3. These figures indicate a higher proportion of house-owners than in most of the larger towns. The following Table shows the predominant ranges of rents paid in 1909 for the types of houses usually occupied by wage-eai"ning families : — Predominant Rents of Workinij-c/ass Dwellhigs. Number of Rooms per Dwelling. Predominant Weekly Rents. Four rooms Five rooms Six rooms 4s. lO/. to 6s. 9d. 6s. 9rf. „ 9s. 7(t. 7s. ^d. „ 12.5. The level of rents at New York being represented by 100, the rents index number for Muncie is 44. The rents include the charge for water where this is supplied by the city ; many households obtain their water from wells. Rents are paid monthly. Retail Prices. There is no public market at Muncie. With the exception of one branch of a " multiple " grocery firm, all the shops are individual concerns, which sometimes combi*ie the sale of meat and groceries. As Muncie lies in a fertile agricultural plain, there is a good supply of all kinds of farm produce. Groceries and other Commodities. Bread is sold in 2Jrf. loaves which, at the time of the investigation (June, 1909), weighed from 12 oz. to 14 oz. ; in February, 1909, when flour was cheaper, the weight of the loaf was from 14 oz. to 16 oz. The majority of Avage-earning families, however, do their own baking. E;/<^s are consumed largely in early summer, when the price is about lid. per dozen. .17 ?7^, delivered regularly by dairies, cost i^/. per quart; ^retailed over the counter by gfocers, or delivered in bottles along with other orders, it cost '6^. per quart. Both bituminous and anthracite coals are used for domestic purposes, MUNCIE. W but most wage-earning families use bituminous, costing from 165-. 8^7. to 18s. dd. per short ton of 2,000 lb. Sometimes this kind of coal is bought in quantities of 400 lb. for 4s. 2d., and in bags of from 80 to 100 lb. for Is. Okd. Anthracite coal costs from 31s. 3^/. to 32.S. Hd. per short ton. The following Table shows the predominant prices of some of the principal groceries and other commodities in February, 1909 : — Predominant Prices paid by the Working Classes in Februari/, 1909. Commodity. Predomimint Price. Tea CofiEee Sugar : — White. Granulated Brown Bacon, Breakfast — Boneless... Eggs Cheese, American Butter Potatoes, Irish Flour, Wheaten — Household Bread, White Milk Coal :— Anthracite Bituminous ... Kerosene per lb. per Is. per lb. per 7 lb. per 4 lb. per quart per cwt. per gallon • By the ton of 2,000 lb. Meat. Most of the meat sold in Muncie is killed locally. Beef and pork, especially the latter, are mainly consumed. Veal is bought to a small extent by the families of skilled workers. The predominant prices of the principal cuts of meat in February, 1909, were as follows : — Predominant Prices paid by the Working Classes in February, 1909. Description of Cut. Predomimint Price per lb. Beef :— Roasts — Round 6id!. to 7^. 6|rf. „ 7K „ Ribs prime „ Ribs second cut &\d. „ Chuck or short ribs 6W. Steaks — Round l\d. „ Sirloin IM. to M. Shin without bone 5d „ &\d. Flank 5d. Plate, Brisket— Fresh id. to 5d. Mutton or Lamb : — Leg Is. O^d. Breast 6id. Loin Chops .. lOd. to Is. 0^. Shoulder 7^d Neck 5rf. to 6{d. Veal :— Cutlets lOd. Rib chops 7id to 9d. Loin chops dd. Breast 5d. to 6W. bd. „ Gid. Neck Pork :— Fresh — Loin !¥■ „ Spare rib 5d to 61d „ Shoulder 6Jrf. „ Chops l\d. Corned (wet salt or pickled) 6id. to 1^. Dry salt 6w. „ nd. l\d. „ 93. Ham Shoulder, salt or smoked bd. „ &id. \ Prices at New York being taken as the base, = 100, in each case, the index number for the price of meat at Muncie is 97, for other food it is 98 and for food prices as a whole 98. For rents and food prices combined the index number is 85. • 288 NEW ORLEANS. New Orleans, the largest city in Louisiana, is situated nt the same latitude as Cairo in Egypt, 30° N., and lies on the eastern bank o£ the Mississippi, about 100 miles distant from the mouth of the river, at a point where the river makes a bend, giving the city a crescent shape. The position was selected in 1718 by the early French colonists as the nearest point to the mouth of the river at which tolerably firm and dry land could be found. All the land for several hundred miles from the mouth is alluvial deposit brought down by the river, which has a constant tendency to silt up its bed and raise itself gradually above the level of the surrounding country. A large part of the site of New Orleans is now slightly below the level of the river, which is prevented from overflowiDg by extensive embankments known as levees. To prevent flooding after rains, there is now in operation a great pumping system, which discharges the surface water into Lake Pontchartrain, a salt water inlet which forms the northern boundary of the city. To a considerable extent the streets and avenues follow the rectangular plan usual in America, but owing to the bending of the river this plan is modified, many of the streets following the crescent shape of the river bank, whilst the cross avenues tend to converge like the radii of a circle. The business centre of the city is towards the river in Canal Street and the neighbourhood. Canal Street is a very broad thoroughfare, dividing the city into unequal parts, and has four lines of tramway tracks. All the tramway routes converge upon this street, which is therefore exceedingly busy and rather noisy. Excepting for its great width, it is quite of the ordinary modern American type, comprising huge blocks of office buildings, tall hotels and large dry-goods stores. There is nothing about these business buildings that suggests even a different climate from that of Massachusetts or Minnesota, and the same thing may be said of the entire business quarter which lies to the west of Canal Street. The old quarter lies on the east side of the city. It is commonly known as the French quarter, though nearly all the buildings date from the end of the eighteenth century, when Louisiana belonged to Spain, for a fire in 1788 destroyed almost the whole of the original town. French names and the French language still prevail, however, with a considerable admixture of Italian, whilst the prevailing architecture is predominantly Spanish. The houses and shops are built of brick and stone, in contrast with the all-pervading frame buildings of the American residential districts. Hand-wrought iron railings round the balconies on the first floor are a noticeable peculiarity of the streets, which in other respects are not unlike the older quarters of many European towns. The streets are rather narrow, and many of the houses, built close up to the pavement, which formerly were the homes of the well-to-do, are now let out piecemeal to poor families. In Esplanade Avenue, however, the old houses of the French aristocracy stand in their own grounds, and are inhabited by the descendants of the old familiew, who lead an exclusive life and have little connexion with the business world of modern New Orleans. A strip of grass planted with trees runs down the centre of this thoroughfare, and within this strip the tramway rails are laid, so that the overhead wires are partially concealed by the foliage. This arrangement has been imitated in a number of the more important residential streets in the newer parts of the city, adding greatly to their attractiveness. St. Charles Avenue, in which are the residences of the wealthy business men, is a particularly fine street, especially when the trees are in leaf and the flowers in bloom. The poor streets, as might be expected, are found in the neighbourhood of the river, the banks of which are lined with wharves and railway tracks. The streets gradually improve as one goes inland from the river, until St. Charles Avenue is reached. Further inland still are districts occupied mainly by the middle classes and some of the upper working classes. There are areas of some magnitude in which no coloured people live, and some districts which are almost exclusively occupied by them. It is only in this inland district that the two races are separated to any considerable extent. All along the belt between Magazine Street and the river bank, white and coloured people live in close proximity. Beyond the old French quarter, going further east, is another large working- class district, in which there are both white and coloured people, but rather more separated than is the case in the districts near the river on the west side. The area comprised within the city boundaries, which have not been altered since 1870, is 196 square miles, but a great part of this is uninhabited, and much, in fact, is swampy land. The inhabited area is about 50 square miles. NEW ORLEANS. 289 It is unquestionable that the modern development of the city would have been more rapid but for the fact that the Mississippi river is no longer the great highway for traffic which it used to be. The railways have taken away nearly all the traffic both in passengers and goods. Some coal is floated down in barges all the way from Pittsburg, and cotton is brought by water from those plantations which are close to the river or its tributaries, but the river is only of minor importance as a means of general inland transportation. This is a fact which is always noted with regret in New Orleans, because there are many other ports which have good railway connexions, and the destruction of the river traffic means the loss of the special advantages of situation which New Orleans used to enjoy. It is largely in the liope of regaining some of the trade which has been diverted to a number of rival centres that the people of New Orleans are taking an active part in the project of a " Lakes to the Gulf Deep Waterway." At present only vessels drawing not more than seven to eight feet of water can reach St. Louis regularly, and the shifting of sandbanks makes the voyage precarious. From New Orleans downwards there is already a very good depth of water, and at the mouth of the river a minimum depth of 30 feet is maintained by dredging. A new channel at the mouth ia l)eing prepared which is to have a depth of 35 feet. The principal export trade of New Orleans is in raw cotton, timber, cotton-seed oil and cake, wheat, maize, wheat flour and tobacco. The trade in cotton has been somewhat stationary of late, owing to the development of other ports equally accessible by rail, but the lumber industry has increased. It is a great disadvantage to New Orleans that its import trade is comparatively small, the country within easy reach being thinly ])opulated. For the five years ended June 30th, 1905-9, the total values of imports and exports and the tonnage of vessels entered and cleared in the foreign trade have been as follows : — Tonnage Entered and Year ended June 30th. Cleared in the Foreign Trade. Value of Imports. Value of Exports. Tons. £ £ 1905 3,778,245 7,069,437 31,445,197 1906 3,555,654 8,221,871 31,349,860 1907 4,138,541 9,593,078 35,533,839 1908 4,032,502 8,913,676 33,219,953 1909 4,186,670 9.523,562 30,204,505 By far the largest item in the list of import values is coffee, the imports of which in the year ended June 30th, 1909, amounted to J^4, 181,293. Sugar was the next largest item, amounting to £1,595,364. The only other lai'ge items were fibres and manufactures of fibres, and bananas. The population of New Orleans, as returned at the Censuses of 1870-1910 is shown in the following Table : — Year. Population. Increase. Percentage Increase. 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 191,418 216,090 242,039 287,104 339,075 24,672 25,949 45,065 51,971 12-9 12-0 18-6 18-1 The population in 1900 contained 27'1 per cent, of negroes and 10*3 per cent, of foreign-born whites. Of the latter, 28"8 per cent, were born in Germany, 19'3 per cent, in Italy, 17'8 per cent, in Ireland, 14-6 per cent, in France and 5*0 per cent, in Great Britain. Since that date, Italian immigration has been considerable, especially from the South of Italy and Sicily. The natives of France constituted only about 1^ per cent, of the entire population, but there are a number of descendants of the early French settlers, 16576 T 290 NEW ORLEANS. who are not an important factor in tlie industries of the city, but are found to a considerable extent m the retail trades. It is probable that in New Orleans there is a larger number of white and negro people in very much the same economic position than in any other American city, or anywhere else in the world. The industries of New Orleans are of a kind which employ mainly unskilled or semi-skilled labour, with the result that both white men and negroes are found doing the same kind of work and earning the same rates of pay. Moreover, the unskilled and semi-skilled white labourers are not merely Italians, but include Americans, German- Americans and still more Irish- Americans. It must not be supposed, however, that social equality of the two races is recognised, even amongst the unskilled labouring population, for on the wh(5le the " colour line " is drawn with all the strictness common to the Southern States, The two races will work side by side, but they will not play together, go to the same schools, or sit together in tramway cars. In the North exactly the opposite conditions are apt to prevail. Amongst children in the streets of New Orleans there is a certain approximation to the Northern attitude. White boys will occasionally play baseball with negro boys, but they will not allow them to compete in the sale of newspapers. Vigorous and successful efforts have been made in recent years to improve the health of New Orleans. The pumping system already mentioned has greatly diminished, the prevalence of malaria, and the number of deaths due to this cause has declined from 300 or 4uO per annum twenty or thirty years ago to thirty or forty per annum. It is confi- dently hoped that yellow fever has been practically eradicated. The dissemination of this disease by the stegomjjia mosquito is now understood. This mosquito breeds only in clear standing water, so that the task of preventing the occurrence of an epidemic of yellow fever reduces itself to that of seeing that all cisterns are effectively screened and any other standing water covered with a thin layer of paraffin oil. This work is undertaken by the Board of Health at a cost of about £8,000 per annum. The last epidemic of yellow fever occurred in 1905, but there were only 437 deaths from this cause out of a total of 7,329 deaths. The greatest single cause of mortality is tuberculosis, which carries off very large numbers of negroes especially. In recent years about one-seventh of the total deaths have been due to tuberculosis, which is now on the list of diseases which must be notified. The general death-rate, as estimated by the Board of Health, has ranged from 20 to 22 per thousand of the population during recent years, that amongst the whites only being between 16 and 19 per thousand, including deaths in public institutions and hospitals. Absolute accuracy cannot be claimed for these figures, however, owing to uncertainty regarding the total population and the proportion of negroes since the last Census. Nevertheless, it is clear that the death-rate has diminished during the past twenty years. In the decade 1890 to 1900, the general death-rate w^as estimated at between 25 and 30 per thousand, and it was much higher in earlier years. The climate during six months of the year is quite temperate, and frosts and snow- falls are experienced occasionally. The principal drawback is the fact that most rain falls in the hot season, rendering the climate very trying during that period. Mention has already been made of the comprehensive system of surface drainage which has been introduced, with the effect of rendering the land reasonably dry. A sewage system is also being carried out, but as yet the great majority of houses, including almost all those occupied by the wage-earning classes, are without sewer connexions. Owners of property are not compelled to make connexions even when the drains have been laid in the streets. In all middle-class districts such connexions are always made as soon as practicable, because the tenants wish to have them, but many of the poorer families are indifferent and are unwilling to pay any additional rent to compensate the owners of property for the expense of installing modern sanitation. The new city water supply is being pushed forward, and meets with a readier demand than the drainage system, but the majority of working-class homes still depend for their Avater upon huge butts which collect the rain from the roofs. This supply is liable to give out in a spell of dry weather, especially in crowded tenement districts where many families live under one roof. At the time of the investigation 2,500 out of 70,000 houses had sewer connexions, and 4,000 had water connexions. The tramway system, the gas supply and the electric lighting works are in the hands of a company. Gas is sold at 45. 9^rf. per thousand cubic feet. Another company has recently been negotiating for the introduction of natural gas, which would be sold at a much lower price than the coal gas. The wharves or docks are public property, with the e\cei)tioii of the Stuyvesant Docks, owned by the Illinois Central Railroad Company. The public docks are administered by a board api)ointed by the Government of the State of Louisiana. NEW ORLEANS. 291 An importaut public enterprise is the Public Belt Railroad, whicli is a railway line along the river front affording a convenient means of transferring freight cars from one railway system to another. This line, which is now about ten miles in length, was built by funds provided by the city, and is managed by a board appointed by the mayor, on the advice of leading business organisations. The cost was small, as the ownership of the river front had been retained by the State. The charges for the haulage of trucks are low, but the revenue is sufficient to pay expenses. The city owns a large number of markets at which most of the retail trade in meat and vegetables is transacted. A net revenue of about £42,000 per annum is obtained from the markets, but the greater part of the city revenues is derived from the general property tax. The poll tax bi'ings in less than one per cent, of the total revenue, and liquor licences about 3J per cent. Little revenue is derived from the public utility service companies excepting under the general property tax. Occupations, Wages and Hours of Labour. The following Table shows the distribution of the population of New Orleans according to employment at the Census of 1900 : — Number of Persons of 10 years of aye and over engayed in Occupations in New Orleans in 1900 :— Occupations. Males. Females. Total. Building Metalworking and Engineering Cotton Other and not specified Textile Boot and Shoe Making ... Clothing ... Woodworking and Furnishing Paper and Printing Food, Drink and Tobacco Other Manufacturing and Mechanical Pursuits Trade and Transportation Labourers (not otherwise specified) ... Professional, Domestic and Personal Service and 1 Agricultural Pursuits j All Occupations 5,;t25 3,068 225 117 1,147 480 1,970 846 2,954 3,744 29,313 20,875 12,723 9 6 452 138 21 4,700 18 56 650 163 2,478 334 19,278 83,387 28,303 5,934 3,074 677 255 1,168 5,180 1,988 902 3,604 3,907 31,791 21,209 32,001 111,690 It is not surprising that the largest number of occupied persons come under the headings " Trade and Transportation," " Labourers not otherwise specified " and " Professional, Domestic and Personal Service and Agricultural Pursuits." New Orleans is not a great manufacturing centre, though, like every other large city, it has many miscellaneous industries. Some of the most imjx)rtant of these industries are sugar refining, tobacco manufacture, brewing, sawmilling, printing and general machinery manufacturing and repairing. One of the most distinctive t)f local industries, however, is the handling of cotton. The bales come in from the country only partially pressed, and, to save space on board ship, they are put into powerful presses in New Orleans and reduced to much smaller bulk. The men employed at the cotton presses and warehouses, and those who load the bales into the ships, are strongly organised. The various unions combine in maintaining the Dock and Cotton Council, which dominates the entire business of compressing, carting, and loading cotton. The members of all unions affiliated to the Council contribute 5 per cent, of their earnings towards the support of the unions, and by aiTangement with the employers, earnings, as returned by the men to their union officials, are checked by reference to the employers' books. The main part of the Avork in the cotton compresses is performed by three gangs of men, the compress gang, the yard gang and the truck gang, who are all paid on a piece work basis. These men are busiest, as a rule, in winter, and have not full employment in summer. The growth of rival shipping ports has had a prejudicial effect on the earnings of all workers engaged in pressing and shipping cotton, so that even during the winter season of 1908-9 earnings were poor. A compress gang consists of thirteen men, who divide the earnings amongst themselves on a scale arranged by the trade union. The largest share goes to the tie hands, of whom there are . six in a gang. They sometimes earn as much as 125s. each in a week, but average earnings for the whole year, when trade is fairly good, are equal to from 50s. to 545. 2d. per week, though the average is much 16676 T 2 292 NEW ORLEANS. less ill a poor year such as 1908-9. During a fairly good winter season earnings average from 66s. Sd. to 70s. lOd. per week. The yard gang consists of three men, half the gangs being white and half coloured men, and by arrangement between the Dock and Cotton Council and the employers, work has to be impartially apportioned between the white gangs and coloured gangs. In a good season earnings average as much as 75s. per week through the winter, and from 58s. 4d. to 62s. Qd. for the twehe mouths, but in a poor year they may not average half as much. A truck gang consists of from three to five men, and, like the yard gangs, half are white and half are coloured gangs. Their earnings average from 54s. 2d. to 62s. Qd. weekly all the year round, but they fluctuate greatly with the state of trade. In some weeks a man mav earn nothinji: at all, and in other weeks his earnings will be very large. The earnings of the gangs depend to a considerable extent on the activity of speculation in cotton. When dealings are active much cotton has to be moved and the gangs are kept busy. As particular bales, which are numbered, have to be sorted out, there is a very large element of chance in the earnings. If the numbers required happen to be on the top, a large sum of money is quickly made. But it may happen that a few bales are required from the bottom of the stack, and a hard day's work may then yield scarcely anything, since there is no pay for shifting the bales which are not required. Cotton teamsters, who are all coloured men, are paid at the rate of 125. Gd. per day, but engagements are by the quarter day of two and a half hours. Work is irregular, like all work connected with the handling of cotton. The loading of ships with cotton and tobacco is done by a special class of men known as screwmen, from the fact that screws are used to pack the bales tightly together in the hold. This practice is now being abandoned by some of the steamship companies, but the name of screwmen remains. These men work in gangs of five, consisting of a loreman and four helpers. The former are paid at the rate of 25s., and the latter at the rate of 20s. lOc^. for a full day of nine hours. Engagements are by the quarter of a day. Longshoremen, who load and unload general cargoes, are paid at the rate of Is. Sd. per hour during the day. The recognised hours are from seven a.m. to noon and from one p.m. to five p.m. For work after five p.m. the rate of pay is 2s. 6d. per hour, and for Sunday work it is 3s. Ad. Both white and coloured men Avork as screwmen and longshoremen, each race having its own union, affiliated tt) the Dock and Cotton Council, and employers have to divide the work evenly between the white men and the coloured men, jjrovided that a sufficient number of each are available. The white and coloured gangs of screwmen Avork on opposite sides of a ship, but longshoremen have frequently to Avork together regardless of colour. Owing to the fact that organised workmen have to contribute a percentage of their earnings to the union funds, a record of earnings has to be kept and it was therefore possible to obtain a fairly correct estimate of the average actual earnings of longshoremen in 1908. These earnings pointed to an average of from 37s. 6d. to 54s. 2d. per Aveek, the mean being just about half the rate of earnings for a full week, viz., 90s. The year 1908 was not a very good year, hoAvever, and 50s. per week is considered to be a. fair average earnings in ordinary years. The white longshoremen and screwmen are mainly of Irish descent. Italians, Avho are not organised, Avork at the unloading of bananas, Avhich is a special business. The rate of pay for this work is Is. O^d. per hour. The work is perhaps rather less irregular than that of longshoremen, but the Ifcilian banana carrier certainly earns less than the negro or Irish longshoreman. In the building industry both coloured and white men Avork at some of the skilled trades. There are said to be more coloured than white bricklayers, and, as organisation is fairly strong, the majority receive the union rate of 2s. 7\d. per hour. Amongst carpenters the greater proportion of the skilled men are Avhite. The union rate is Is. lO^d. per hour, but many men outside the union receive lower rates. Many coloured men are employed as rough carpenters and helpers. Plasterers are mainly negroes ; they are strongly organised and maintain the union rate of pay, which is 2s. Id. per hour. Plumbers are white men and about half are said to be in the union, receiving 2s. 4^d. per hour. Structural iron workers, who are not very numerous, are also Avhite men, and are generally paid the standard rate of 2s. Id. per hour. The majority of painters are white men, but the union is weak ; the union rate is Is. 8d. per hour, but many painters are employed at lower rates. Labourers are all coloured men ; the plasterers labourers have a strong union, but the other labourers are not organised effectively. Skilled labour in the engineering trades is not so easily obtained as in some Northern toAvns, and union rates are fairly Avell recognised. Sugar-house machinery is one of the principal machine shop jjroducts. NEW ORLEANS. 293 The principal tobacco industries are the manufacture of cigarettes and the prepara- tion of pipe tobacco. The cigarettes are made by a machine which requires little supervision. Stripping and packing are performed by women and girls working by piece. Cotton manufacturing has not been extensively developed in N"ew Orleans, but one firm owns several mills. All the weaving is done by. women, who earn from 4s. 2d. to 6s. M. per day. Frame spinners earn from 2s. Qd. to 5s. 'i^d. per day. The hours are 60 weekly. The employment of children under 14 years of age is now prohibited, and a lady inspector sees to the enforcement of the law in cotton mills and large shops in New Orleans. In newspaper printing offices, linotype operators are on piece work, and hand compositors on time work. These men do not work more than six days per week at the most, and many work only four or five days. The actual hours worked daily are usually rather less than eight. The wages quoted in the Table are for a full six days. The breweries in New Orleans are engaged in the manufacture of light lager beer. The extensive prohibition of the sale of alcoholic liquors in the Southern States has seriously affected this industry. In saw mills a comparatively small number of skilled men are required ; the majority are engaged in feeding machines or moving and stacking timber in the yards. Cypress wood from the swamps of Louisiana is the most important kind of timber dealt with. There is a considerable manufacture of barrels for holdino- sugar. The bulk of the manufacture is done by machinery, but some hand work is required, especially in making " tight " barrels for molasses, and in " trimming " the casks for sugar. The gas manufactured in New Orleans is water gas, so that stokers, in the sense usually understood in England in connexion with gas works, are not employed. The wages quoted refer to engine-room stokers, or " coal passers," as they are called. Motormen and conductors on the tramways are all white men. About 25 per cent, of them are " extras," who do not get a full week's work. The following Table shows the predominant weekly wages and hours of labour in some of the principal occupations in February, 1909. The particulars relate to white men, except in the case of plasterers, road menders and unskilled labourers and drivers and teamsters generally, who are mainly coloured. The w^ages and hours stated for bricklayers apply equally to white and coloured men. Predominant Weekly Wages and Hours of Labour of Adult Males in the Principal Occupations in February, 1909. Predominant Weekly Wages. Predominant Weekly Honrs of Labour. Building Trades : — Bricklayers ... 125s. 48 Stonemasons .. ... ■■- ... 100s. to 112s. 6d. 48 Stonecutters .. ... ... ... ... 90s. „ 100s. 48 Carpenters... ,, ... ,,^ ,,, ,,, 80s. „ 90s. 48 to 54 Plasterers ... ... 100s. 48 Plumbers .. ... ••• ... ... 100s. to 112s. 6d. 48 Structural Iron Workers .. ... ... ••• ... 100s. 48 Painters .. »•« ... ... ... 70s. to 80s. 48 Hod Carriers and Bricklayers' Labourers 50s. „ 70s. 48 Plasterers' Labourers 60s. „ 70s. . 48 Foundries and Machine Shops : — Ironmoulders ... 81s. 3d. 54 Machinists 81s. 3d. 54 Blacksmiths 81s. M. to 87s. 6d. 54 Patternmakers ... ... ... ... ... 81s. 3d. „ 87s. 6d. 54 Labourers 43s. 9d. 54 Saiv Mills .— Bandsawyers ... ... ••• ... 125s. to 175s. 60 Machine Feeders ... ... ... ... ... ... 37s. M. „ 43s. 9d. 60 Yard Labourers ... ••• ... ... ... 33s. 9d. „ 37s. 6d. 60 Drivers — One horse ... ... .. . ... 35s. „ 37s. 6c?. 60 Two horses • .. 37s. 6d. „ 40s. 60 ler.Tfi T 3 294 NEW ORLEANS. Predominant Weekly Wages. Predominant Weekly Hours of Labour. Coopering : — Hand Coopers and Trimmers ... .... Machine Minders and Labourers Printing Trades : — Newspaper — Hand Compositors — Night work Machine Compositors — Night work ... Book and Job — Hand Compositors t, I Cylinder Presses Pressmen < o, . r, \ Platen Presses Breiving : — Cellar Men and Kettle Men Wash-house Men Heavy Carting (see also under Satv Mills) : — Drivers, Teamsters — Two mules Three or four mules Dock Labour and Cotton Pressing — See text. Public Seri'ices : — Street Construction, Paving and Cleaning — Paviors ... ... I Paviors' Labourers > Contractors' Men Road Menders ... I Road Sweepers (Municipal) Water Works (Municipal) — Labourers Water Gas Works (Company) — Engine-room Stokers Construction Labourers Electric Light and Power Works (Company)- Dynamo Tenders Stokers Labourers Electric Tramways (Company) — Motormen and Conductors 50.9, to 62s. 6d. 37s. 6d. „ 43s. M. 116s. M. to lis.'*. M. 120s. lOd. „ 145s. lOd 75s. „ 83s. 4^. 75s. „ 83s. 4rf. 62s. Gd. 68s. 9d. to 75s. 62s. ed. „ 68s. 9d. 37s. 6rf. to 50s. 54s. 2d. „ 56s. M. 87s. 6d. to 100s. 43s. IW. „ 50s. 37s. 6d. 50s. 51s. Id. 51s. Id. 37s. 6d. 115s. bd. to 120s. 2d. 58s. id. 51s. Id. 64s. 2d. 54 to 60 60 46i to 47i 48 ■ 48 to 54 48 „ 54 48 .. 54 51 to 70 51 „ 70 60 to 66 60 „ 66 60 60 60 54 70 84 60 56 56 63 70 Taking wages at New York as the base, = 100, in each case, the wages index numbers for New Orleans are — building trades, skilled men 94, hod carriers and bricklayers' labourers (negroes) 87 ; foundries and machine shops, skilled men 94, unskilled labourers (negroes) 104 ; printing, hand compositors (job work) 90. Housing and Rents. Although there are tenement house districts of some importance in New Orleans, the predominant type of dwelling occupied by the working classes is the one-family frame house. At the Census of 1900, 77'2 per cent, of the families enumerated lived in dwelling-houses occupied by one family, 11'6 per cent, in dwelling-houses occupied by two families and 11'2 per cent, in dwelling-houses occupied by three or more famihes. The tenement houses consist almost entirely of old buildings, most of which were formerly the homes of well-to-do families, or retail shops, but are now divided and let as tenements of one, two, three or more rooms. Whilst some of these houses are in good repair, and are occupied by a good class of tenants, many are very dilapidated. The floors frequently rest directly on the earth, and the boards are rotting ; the plaster has largely fallen away from the walls and the roofs are in a bad condition. Most of the tenement houses were built long ago, when air and light were not value 1 verj' highly, and one may find houses, which evidently have been inhabited by people of means at one time, with very dark rooms in the rear, and only a narrow dark courtyard. Some of the larger houses of this kind in the French quartar are built with a small courtyard in the centre, the rooms opening off this yard on the ground floor, and off a gallery above. Sometimes a house of this type is let off in .single rooms to a dozen or more families of negroes or Italians. White families, other than Itaiians, live in the tenement houses to .some extent, NEW ORLEANS. 29o but tlie Italians are most given to overcrowding. The city government has recently undertaken an enquiry into the condition of tenement houses, with a view to taking steps for their improvement. Rents in these old houses vary considerably. The front room is often very large and well lighted, and may let for 5s. 9d. per week, whilst the small dark rooms at the back may not cost more than Is. lid. per week ; the usual rent is about 2s. lid. per week per room. In the extensive area outside of the older tenement house districts, the intersecting streets and avenues enclose rectangular " blocks," commonly about .300 feet square, occupied by 40 or 50 frame houses. As a general rule the houses face one or other of the streets which form the boundaries of the block. Sometimes, however, an alley leads to some houses built within the block, but this is seldom the case wi^h houses occupied by white tenants, and it is not very common in any class of house in the modern districts. Frame houses occupied by \vorking men are mainly of the type known as the "gun-barrel." On a site 30 feet wide and 100 to 130 feet deep is built a pair of semi- detached houses, with the rooms all on one floor, one behind the other, with no passage by which the middle rooms can be separately entered, though a narrow passage at the side of the house gives access to the yard in the rear, and affords independent access to the kitchen. When there are five rooms to a house of this kind, the building occupies a large proportion of the total length of the plot. A water-butt, a shed and a privy leave only a small amount of yard space, and there is no room for a garden. Such a semi- detached house is commonly from 12^ to 13 feet wide outside, so that the rooms have a width of about 12 feet. The front room, and perhaps one of the others, may be 14 or 15 feet long, and the remainder about 12 feet square, or 12 feet by 10 feet. The kitchen is often a lean-to erection, and what is known as a " box kitchen," that is to say, the walls are not plastered. Some of the older types of houses have the kitchen detached from the main building, and it is not uncommon for such a detached building to consist of two stories, with stairs outside leading to the upper room, which is used as a bedroom. Sometimes both front and back buildings are two-storied, and a bridge connects the upper floors. This device would appear to have been adopted in the days before electric tramways encouraged the greater diftusiou of the population, with the result that the worst-lighted rooms could be avoided by building houses on larger plots. Even in the case of more modern houses, the back portion often consists of two stories when the front has only one, but the rear is not how built detached from the rest of the house. The modern house with a two-storied rear has usually more rooms than the ordinary " gun-barrel " house, and the rent exceeds what working men can pay. The front of the ordinary type of working man's house has almost invariably a heavy projecting cornice. The better types are set back from the road, and have verandahs in front. Terraces of ten or twenty houses, built connected, exist, but they are rare. These terrace houses as a rule contain two small rooms and are inhabited by negroes. Basements for furnaces are not required in the climate of New Orleans, and cellars of any kind are very rare, since it is only in recent years that the surface drainage system has been in operation to a sufficient extent to prevent frequent flooding. Few of the houses occupied by wage-earning families are connected with the sewer system as yet, and not very many have water laid on. Partly for this reason, rents are not so high in New Orleans as in many American cities. Where these improvements have been added, rents are from Is. to Is. lid. per week higher. Another circumstance of some importance as bearing on the question of rents is the slower rate of increase of population in New Orleans compared with many cities, as a result of which land has not acquired such a high speculative value. Further, as four and fi^'e-roomed houses in New Orleans are usually built semi-detached, they do not occupy so large a frontage as houses with the same number of rooms in, for instance, Birmingham. . In the inland portion of the city, away from the dock district and the negro popula- tion, _rents are higher than they are towards the river front. Four-roomed houses in this district let for IBs. 6d. per week, and five-roomed houses with bathrooms for 19.s. M. per week, city water being charged for extra when supplied. The number of working men living in these houses is small, however, compared with the great mass who live in the more typically working-class neighbourhoods. Industrially New Orleans is mainly a town of unskilled or semi-skilled workmen, and their houses predominate in determining the level of rents. 16576 T 4 29(5 N£W ORLEANS. The following Table shows the predominant ranges of rents tor houses and tenements occupied by wage-earning families, according to the number of rooms, in February, 1909 :— Predominant Rents of Working-class Dwellings. Number of Booms per Dwelling. One room Two rooms Three rooms Four rooms Five rooms Predominant Weekly Rents. Paid by Coloured Tenants. Paid by White Tenants, 2s. lid. to 38. lOrf. 4s. lOrf. „ 6s. 9rf. 7s. M. 8s. M. 9s. Id. lis. M. (Js. M. to 9s. Id. 9s. Id. „ lis. lid lis. dd. ,, lis. 5d. The level of rents at New York being represented by 100, the rents index number for New Orleans is 72. The one and two-roomed tenements occupied by Italians are scarcely, if at all, better than those occupied by negroes. The white people who occupy the three-roomed class are mainly the poor and unthrifty, and agents prefer letting houses of this type to coloured people, because as a rule only a steady type of coloured tenant takes a three-roomed house. The four-roomed house is the type most commonly occupied by> white working men, other than Italians. Negroes also occupy such houses in appreciable numbers, but not uncommonly in family combinations, such as two married sisters, or father and mother and married daughter. The white tenants occupy, on the whole, a slightly higher i-ented class of four-roomed houses. The difference, which is almost entirely due to situation, is less than one might expect, because many negro families are willing to pay a good rent for a house so situated that the husband can walk to his work and the wife or daughter find employment in a middle-class household not too far away. Five-roomed houses are not occupied by negro wage-eamuig families to any great extent. Retail Pkices. The public markets are a very important factor in retail trade. Practically all the meat and most of the fruit and vegetables consumed in New Orleans are purchased in the markets, which are open from 8 a.m. until noon. The stalls are rented largely by persons of French and Italian descent. Goods are sold in a rather primitive fashion, usually without actual weighing, 5, 10 or 25 cents' worth (the cent is equivalent to one half- penny), as the case may be, being judged by eye. It is consequently difficult to ascertain the exact price per lb. of an article so sold. Vegetables in particular are bought by 5 cents' worth. Groceries and meat are more commonly bought in the larger units of 10 and 26 cents' worth, except by negroes who, more than any other class, buy from hand to mouth, and consequently often pay higher prices than they would otherwise, the price per lb. being often much cheaper tor the larger quantities. The following quantities at 10 cents and 25 cents respectively, obtained from a shop in a poor quarter by workers at a Social Settlement, illustrate this fact : — flour, Ij lb. and 6|; lb. ; sugar. If lb. and 4| lb. ; grits, 2 J lb. and 7 J lb. ; beans, 1^ lb. and 3^ lb. ; maize meal, 2 J lb. and 7 J lb.,; tea, 2 oz. and 12 oz. ; soap, 2 lb. and 6 lb. ; rice, 1 lb. and 3 lb. In the cases of coiFee, butter, macaroni and lard no loss was incun-ed through buying the smaller quantities. Many kinds of canned goods are sold in tins at 5rf. per tin, or three tins for 1«. O^d. The same system of selling applies to meat. Thus, when 1 lb. costs bd. 3f lb. are offered for Is. 3c?. ; 1| lb. of roast ribs can be bought for lOrf., 2| lb. for Is. M., and 3^ lb. for Is. Hd. The practice of buying in small quantities is doubtless partly due to the climate, wliich makes it difficult for poor families to store things, and the difficulty is increased by the swarms of small red ants which find their way into every corner of a building in New Orleans. Groceries and other Commodities. Owing, probably, to the warmth of the climate, home baking is not practised so extensively in New Orleans as in many American cities. The bakery business is therefore considerable, and the price of bread is lower than in most cities. NEW ORLEANS. '2d7 Flour is usually retailed in quantities smaller than is general in most American cities ; the fixed unit of sale is nsually the price, the weight, on the other hand, varying. Potatoes are generally sold in similar fashion, IJ lb. or 2 lb. being retiiiled for 2^d. in February, 1909. When sold by the half- peck, however, the price of potatoes was 7d. per 7 lb., and, for purposes of comparison with other places, this latter price has been taken. Macaroni is a staple food with the Italians, who maintain their customary diet to a greater degree in New Orleans than more northerly cities of America. Two jirincipal kinds of macaroni are used, viz., imported, of which the price is 5d. per lb., and American- made, which is considerably cheaper. Many Italians, however, even though poor, prefer to buy the higher-priced imported article, and it is the same with regard to olive oil. Those who have been brought up on the genuine article dislike the cheap substitutes which are produced in America. Quite poor families will pay 2s. 6d. or more per quart for imported Italian oil, though American substitutes cost only Is. ^d. or less. Imported Italian cheese is also bought by all classes of Italians, in spite of the high price which has to be paid for it. The Italians in New Orleans drink wine in preference to beer, which has become their drink in many places in America. Californian wine is purchased at about 2s. pei gallon and forms an important item in their familj' budget. Negroes are more addicted to the " hog and hominy " diet in this warm climate than in northern places, but a large consumption of cabbage is also characteristic of them. A'^egetables generally are abundant. Italian market-gardeners have established themselves on the western side of the Mississippi opposite New Orleans, and they not only provide vegetables for the neighbouring city, but send them far uj) the Mississippi Valley and to Chicago, as they are produced early in the latitude of New Orleans, Milk is expensive, retailing at Qd. per quart. The land in the neighbourhood is not suitable for cattle, and the warmth of the clhnate makes it difficult to keep milk fresh. Hence condensed milk is used extensively. Coal is not much used by the working classes. The chief fuels used are oil and charcoal, whilst poor families can collect drift wood from the river free of charge. The following Table shows the predominant prices of some of the principal groceries and other commodities used by the working classes in February, 1909 : — Predominant Prices paid by the Working Classes in Februari/, 1909. Commoditj, Tea CoflEee Sugar : — White Granulated Brown Bacon, Breakfast — Boneless... Eggs Cheese, American Butter Potatoes, Irish Flour, Wheaten — Household Bread, White Milk Coal, Bituminous Kerosene ... per lb. 1? per Is. per lb. per 7 lb. per 4 lb. per quart per cwt. per gallon Predominant Price. Is. 8d. lOd. 2^. to 3^d. 2d. „ 2yi. lOd 8 to 10 lOd Is. ^d. Id. Hid. to Is. 2\d. 9K „ lOrf. M. Is. 'i\d. to Is. Hd-* 6rf. * By the barrel of 1801b. Meat. Considerable quantities of meat are shipped to New Orleans from the great packing centres, Chicago and Kansas City, but the Butchers' Association maintains an abattoir at which Texas cattle are slaughtered. The climate naturally has some influence on the consumption of meat, which is below the average for America, whilst poultry and fish are consumed to a considerable extent. _ Local poultry is not of good quality, but is cheap. Catfish, a rather coarse fish caught in the river, is consumed largely by negroes. Redsnapper, from the Gulf of Mexico, is a fish of better quality, consumed by the middle classes and the better-paid working-class households. 298 NEW ORLEANS. The following- Table shows the prices in February, 1909, of the priucipal cuts ol meat of the qualities mainly consumed by the wage-earning classes : — Predominant Prices paid hi the Workiny Classes in February^ 1909. Description of Cut. Predominaut Price per lb. Beef :— Roasts — Round Hd. „ Ribs prime ... Ud. „ Ribs second cut lold. „ Chuck or short ribs bd. Steaks — Round 6id. „ Sirloin 7irf. Plate. Brisket |£-^;-^^^- -■ 3^/. to bd. bd. Mutton or Liimb : — Leg Sd. to lOrf. Breast bd. Loin l^d. to U)d. Chops lOrf. Shoulder bd. to l^d. Neck bd.' Veal :— Cutlets M. to Is. O^rf. Rib chops Ud. to lOcf'. Loin chops lid. „ lOd. Breast •did. „ bd. Neck 2hd. „ 4d. Pork :— Fresh — Loin 7hd. „ Spare rib bd. to 6W. bd. „ lid. „ Shoulder „ Chops lid. Prices at JSew York being taken as the base, = 100, in each case, the index number for the price of meat at New Orleans is 88, for other food it is 105 and for food prices as a whole 100. For rents and food prices combined the index number is 93. S599 NEWARK. ITewark, one of the principal manufacturing cities in the United States and the largest city in the State of N'ew Jersey, lies to the west of New York City, from which it is distant some eight miles by rail and some fifteen miles by water. It is situated on the right bank oF the River Passaic, the centre of the city being about three miles above Newark Bay. Being within the immediate zone of influence of New York, like New Jersey, Hoboken and Paterson, and on the direct Ime of communication between New York and Philadelphia, Newark in its traffic with the South and West shares in most of the advantages of railway communication enjoyed by the chief city of the United States. One of the characteristics of the industry of Newark is the great variety of manu- factures carried on upon an important scale within its area. The most considerable of these are lead and copper smelting and refining (for which industry, however, statistics cannot be shown separately without disclosing the operations of individual establish- ments), the leather industry, engineering, jewellery and precious metal working, brew- ing, hatmaking, clothing and the chemical industry (particularly paint and varnish making) . Newark is a settlement of ancient date, having been founded in 1666, while the charter of its incorporation was issued in 1713. Its growth during the last eighty years has been remarkable: in 1830 the inhabitants numbered less than 11,000. The following Table shows the population at each Federal Census 1870-1910 : — Year. Population. Increase. Percentage Increase. 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 105,059 136,508 181,830 246,070 347.469 21,449 45,322 64,240 101,399 29-9 33-2 35-3 41-2 In 1900 the American-born of native-born parents formed 29*1 per cent, of the popula- tion and Americans of foreign-born parents 39*2 per cent., while immigrant aliens (whites) contributed 28'9 per cent. The negroes formed an inconsiderable proportion of the population, being only 2'7 per cent. Persons born in Germany constituted the largest proportion of the foreign-born element (35'2 per cent.); those born in Ireland came next (17*9 per cent.), and after them the natives of Italy (12*0 per cent.). The percentages of inhabitants born in Great Britain, Austria-Hungary and Russia were respectively 10"8, 7"9 and 7"7. The following Table shows the general death-rate and the death-rate from tuber- culosis in Newark for each of the five years 1904 to 1908. The births were stated to have been incompletely returned up to October, 1908, when registration of birth within five days was made obligatory : — Year. 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 Death-rate per 1,000 of Population. 19-8 17-7 19-1 19-1 17-1 Death-rate from Tuberculosis per 1,000 of Population. 2-85 2-76 2-93 2-83 2-61 I The city covers an area of 23"4 square miles, but of this there are eight square miles of undeveloped meadow lands. The surface is mainly level, and the streets, with an average breadth of 60 feet, are wide and well -laid, while many of them are bordered with trees. On January 1st, 1909, there were 194 miles of paved and 86 miles of unpaved streets. Apart from the more central districts and the factory premises, wooden structures 300 NEWARK. predominate, and in the period from January Ist, 1900, to June 80th, 1909, the permits issued for dwelling-houses to be built of wood were four times as numerous as for those of brick (6,859 as against 1,708). The appearance of the city suggests very active business life and considerable prosperity. An indication of the rapid development of Newark in recent years is afforded by the great increase in investment in building enterprise. Tn 1903 and 1904 the estimated cost of buildings for which permits were issued by the city was stated at £1,140,371 and £1,335,893 respectively ; both in 1905 and 1906 the corresponding cost exceeded two million pounds ; the figures for the two succeeding years showed a decrease, but the estimated cost of buildings for which permits were issued in the six months ending June 30th, 1909, was £1,812,838. The total tax valuation of the city (real and liersonal property) increased from £31,007,251 in 1900 to £61,620,999 in 1908. The post office receipts have also shown great expansion : in 1900 they were returned at £91,113, while in 1907 and 1908 they amounted respectively to £186,962 and £191,684. The municipality owns several pretty parks within the urban area, with a total of 655 acres, while there are county parks with an aggregate area of 3,178 acres. There are a number of notable public and private buildings in the centre of the city, and many fine churches exist. The electric tramway system is very complete : twenty-one lines, with 102 miles of track, are in operation. In addition to the public parks, the city owns the water works and the public library (with 140,000 volumes and a circulation of 851,000 volumes in 1908), and maintains the public educational system. The gas works, the electric light and power works and the tramway system are controlled by a single company. Several important communities, either I'esidential or industrial in character, adjoin Newark or lie near to it. Of these the four Oranges (Orange, and West, East and South Orange), which in 1905 contained 66,026 inhabitants, are to some extent mere suburbs of New York. Bloomfield, with a population in 1905 of 11,668, although mainly residential, has several important industrial establishments, while Harrison, on the left bank of the Passaic opposite Newark, and for all practical purposes one with the city, is an essentially manufacturing centre with a population in 1905 of 12,823. The city of Elizabeth, with 60,509 inhabitants in 1905, is a considerable manufacturing centre — one firm alone employs 8,000 people — some five miles to the south of Newark. These places, with others of im2)ortance, are connected with the city by tramways, and by one or more lines of railway with both it and New York. Many of the better residential districts of Newark itself contain a notable number of houses of New York business people. Occupations, Wages and Hours of Labour. The following Table shows the number of persons of ten years of age and over engaged in occupations in Newark at the time of the Federal Census of 1900 : — Number of Persons o/ 10 years and over engaged in Occupations in Newark in 1900. Oocnpations. Males. Females. Total. Building 7,228 33 7,261 Metalworking 9,816 874 10,690 Cotton 205 655 860 Other and not specified Textile 247 472 719 Leather 3,293 150 3,443 Boot and Shoe Making 1,636 337 1,973 Hat and Cap Making 1,527 541 2,068 Other Clothing 1,694 3,558 5,252 Woodworking and Furnishing 1,304 107 1,411 Paper and Printing ,. 1,295 407 1,702 Food, Drink and Tobacco 3,001 375 3,376 Other Manufacturing and Mechanical Pursuits 8,004 3,532 11,536 Trade and Transportation 22,693 4,216 26,909 Labourers (not otherwise specified) 7,578 265 7,843 Professional, Domestic and Personal Service andl Agricultural Pursuits. j 9,086 8,662 17,748 All Occupations 78,607 24,184 102,791 NEWARK. aOl Since the Census of 1900 was taken the population has increased by over 40 per cent. While, therefore, the figures of the Table only approximately represent the occupational classification of the population at the present time, they indicate the essen- tially industrial character of the city, and this character tends every year to be more marked. Since 1900 the industries which then specially distinguished the city, such as the manufactures of leather, jewellery, celluloid and varnish, have (iontinued to develop ; the metal trades, already of great importance, have increased in volume and variety of output, and many new factories for different articles have been established. The weekly hours of labour show a considerable range. In the building trades a week of 44 hours predominates ; in the printing and brewing trades, both highly organized, the weekly hours are 48, in the metal and jewellery trades 54 to 55 and in the leather trade 59 to 60. The short Saturday is not usual, except in the building trades. Work generally begins at seven or eight a.m., and rarely extends beyond six p.m. Trade organisations are numerous and in some cases strong in Newark. Workers in the printing and brewing trades are able to enforce their union rates of wages, hours of labour and other conditions, and in most branches of the building trades the union con- ditions are accepted by employers. In the foundries and machine shops the ironmouldei's and patternmakers are well organized, while certain classes of the leather workers have obtained recognition of their rates. As in Providence, the workpeople in the jewellery industry are here iniorganised. The high degree of specialisation and the great diversity of the production ui this trade in Newark, by dividing the workers into numerous small groups, militate against the growth of a close community of interest among bodies of workers sufficiently numerous to exert influence. Apart from the clothing trade there is no staple industry in Newark in which women predominate or are numerically equal to the male workers, yet in the great variety of industries carried on here a considerable amount of employment is available for them in many directions. In the jewellery trade they form nearly one quarter of all employed, being mainly occupied in certain branches of polishing, in the making of small chains and in enamelling. Among the miscellaneous trades which, according to the report of the State Bureau of Industrial Statistics, afforded employment for women in 1908 may be mentioned boxmaking, threadmaking, tlie manufacture of cigars, buttons, hats and caps, corsets, confectionery, rubber goods, and watch cases and watch materials, and the needle trades common to every city. Notes are added regarding the conditions which prevail in the more important trades. Building Trades. — Most of the labour employed in the skilled occupations is organized and the union rates appear to be fairly well maintained. The unskilled workers consist largely of Irish and Italians. The hod carriers and bricklayers' labourers are organized, and in most cases receive the union rate of Is. b^d. per hour, while general labourers receive rates varying from 7Jd to lOd. per hour. Stonecutting is an important industry in Newark, material being worked not only for local needs but also for distant markets. There are three union rates of wages for freestone stonecutters, applicable according to. individual skill, viz., IGs. 8df., 18s. 9(/. and 20s. 10^/. per day, and these rates are usually observed. • Metalworking Trades. — This group of trades employs the largest individual aggregate of industrial workers in Newark. It will be seen from the Table given that the number of those occupied in the metalworking trades in 1900 exceeded 10,000, being about 10 per cent, of the total population engaged in occupations. The foundry and machine shop production of Newark and the adjoining disti-ict of Harrison is highly important both as regards volume and variety : machine tool construction is one of the principal branches of this industry. Jewellery 'Trades. — Newark is one of the principal seats of the manufacture of gold jewellery in the United States. The output of the Newark industry, which is stated to date from 1805, is on the whole of a higher grade than that of Providence, and in this respect these two cities are said to stand in much the same relation the one to the other as do Hanau and Pforzheim in Germany. The occupations require for the most part skill of a high chai'acter. Being largely engaged in the production of articles of luxury, the industry is very sensitive to the general conditions of trade, and it suffered severely in the financial crisis of 1907. The majority of the workers in this trade are American-born. The municipality encourages the trade by giving instruction in jewellery design in the municipal drawhig school. 302 NEWARK. Famish Manufacture. — The production couipi'ises must ui' the varieties used for industrial purposes, but the finer kinds are principally made. In some cases the making of varnish is combined with the making or mixing of paints. Although this trade occupies a high place among the Newark industries, some of the firms being among the largest of the kind in the country, the number of persons employed is not great in proportion to the capital invested. Leather Industry. — This industry is of considerable importance. The chief production is of fancy and enamelled leathers for upholstering, carriage and motor-car linings, fancy goods, etc. Little shoe or boot leather, save tan patent leather, is made. The workers are mainly semi-skilled or unskilled men, but some of the later processes, such as splitting (machine) and japatming, require considerable skill. Public Services. — The municipality contracts for the bulk of the street paving work, and the number of men directly employed by the city on repau- work is small. The rates shown in the 'J'able for paviors are those paid by contractors. The granite block paviors are strongly organised, and receive 205. lOd. per day of eight hours, only four ht)urs being worked on Saturday, but the vitrified brick paviors have a weak union, and not only are their earnings generally much below those of the granite paviors, but their hours are also longer. The work of collecting and disposing of garbage is also done by contract. Road sweepers are employed by the city, being paid lOd. per hour, but their hours are so irregular that it is not jjossible to state normal weekly earnings. In February, 1909, one gang worked only 12 hours in the week, a second 11 hours, a third 15 hours and a fourth 20 hours. The hours worked appear rarely to exceed from 30 to 40 weekly. As already stated, the supply of gas and of electric light and power and the tramway system are in private hands. The motormen and conductors on the tramways are paid time wages according to length of service ; they receive lOd. per hour during the first year, lO^d. during the three succeeding years, lid. from the fifth to the tenth year and ll^d. during any subsequent service. They work ten hours a day seven days a week. The following Table shows the predominant weekly earnings and weekly hours of labour in certain important occupations in Newark in Februaiy, 1909 : — Predominant Weekly Wages and Hours of Labour of Adult Males in the Principal Occupations in February, 1909. Predominant Predominant Weekly Wages. Weekly Hours o! Labour. Buildhig Trades -. — Bricklayers 119s. 2d. 44 Stonemasons 119s. 2d. 44 Stonecutters 91s. Sd. to 114s. Id. 44 Carpenters 91s. 8d. 44 Plasterers * 119s. 2d. 44 Plumbers 100s. lOd. 44 Structural Iron Workers 103s.2rf. toll4s. 7rf. 44 Painters 75s. 2d. 44 Hod Carriers, Bricklayers' and Plasterers' Labourers 64s. 2d. 44 General Labourers 37s. 6d. to 50s. 54 to 60 Fmmdries and Machine Shops : — Ironmoulders 75s. to 87s. 6d. 54 Coremakers 75s. 54 Machinists ... . 67s. 6d. to 75s. 54 Blacksmiths 62s. 6d. to 68s. 9d. 54 Labourers 43s. 9rf. 54 to 60 Jewellery Trades: — Bench Hands 75s. to 100s. 54 to 55. Stone Setters 125s. „ 166s. 8d. 54 „ 55 Stampers (" Drop " hands) 63s. „ 91s. Sd. 54 „ 55 Engravers 100s. „ 125s. 54 „ 55 Die Cutters 116s. Sd. „ 145s. lOd. 54 „ 55 Small Tool Makers 83s. 4d. „ 104s. 2ii. 54 „ 55 Polishers 62s. 6d. „ 83s. ■kl. 54 „ 55 NEWARK. 303 Predominanc Weekly Wages. Predominant Weekly Hours of Labour. Varnish Making : — Melters' Helpers, Shippers, Packers Unskilled Men Printing Trades : — Newspaper — Composiiors, Hand and Machine — Day Work Pressmen Book and Job — Hand Compositors Machine Compositors Tanning : — Fleshers Unhairers ... Limers Japanners ... Labourers Brewing: — Wash-house Men Cellar Men Kettle Men Fermentiug-rooni Men ... Engine Men Firemen Route Drivers Depot Drivers Shipping-room Men Public Services : — Street Construction, Paving and Cleaning (Contract) — Granite Paviors Brick Paviors Paviors' Labourers Scavengers Drivers ... Water Works (Municipal) — Labourers Gas Works (Company) — Gas Stokers Labourers Electric Liglifc and Power Works (Company) — Electricians Linemen... Stokers Labourers Electric Tramways — See text. 50s. to 62s. Gd. 41s. Sd. 108s. 4rf. 95s. lOd. 7Cs. 6d. to 87s. 6^. i)ls. M. „ 100s. 58s. M 50s. to 54s. 2d. 45s. lOd. to 50s. 75s. to 104s. 2d. 41s. Sd. 66s. M. 75s. 75s. 75s. 91s. M. 75s. 75s. 66s. M 75s. 114s. Id. 75s. 37s. 6d. 41s. Sd. 50s. to 5Ss. 4d. 41s. Sd. 51s. If/. 40s. lOd. 65s. Sd. 68s. 9d. 71s. 6d. 51s. Id. 50 48 48 48 48 59 to 60 59 „ 60 59 „ 60 59 „ 60 59 „ 60 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 44 60 60 60 60 50 84 70 70 54 56 70 Taking wages at New York as the base, = 100, in each case, the wages index numbers for Newark are — building trades, skilled men 98, liod carriers and bricklayers' labourers 93 ; foundries and machine shops, skilled men 87, unskilled labourers 104 ; printing, hand compositors (job work) 94. I Housing and Rents. The bulk of the wage-earning families in Newark live in houses that contain two or three families. At the Census of 1900, the percentage of families living in dwelling-houses occupied by one family was 30"2, that in dwelling-houses occupied by two families 29'4, that in dwelling-houses occupied by three families 21-'6 and that in dwelling-houses occupied by four or more families 19"1. ATorking people appear to live for the most part in dwellings of four and five rooms, but a small proportion of them, who are in receipt of large and steady wages, occupy dwellings of six rooms. There are in Newark four fairly distinct types of working-class dwellings. One of these is the tenement dwelling found in blocks containing three and six tenements. These blocks are for the most part of fairly modern construction, but represent a very wide range of convenience and rental. They are three stories in height, and contain one or two tenements on each floor. The second type is found in a much larger tenement block, often built of brick, containing sometimes as many as sixteen dwellings. 304 NEWARK. Seme of these blocks are very old and somewhat irregular in construction, while others are quite modern and conform to a more or less definite plan. The third type consists of old houses of a cottage pattern, many of which were built for occupation by only one family. Some are still so occupied, but others have with slight alteration been adapted so as to contain two families. Others, again, though of the same general type, were originally built for more than one household and are still so occupied. The fourth and last type is the two-family house of modern construction. This is a dwelling of excellent appearance and great convenience. Such houses are found in considerable numbers, but although they cannot be excluded from the list of working-class dwellings, they repre- sent the accommodation of the professional and business classes rather than the manual workers, the workpeople who occupy them being as a rule artisans of exceptional skill and wage-earning power, though a few of these houses, somewhat below the average in quality, bear a more decided ^orking-class stamp. These four types may now be considered in greater detail. The three-storied house containing three or six tenements is almost invariably built of wood and is bay-fronted. The tenements on each floor are of the same pattern and of the same size except that the ground-floor dwelling has sometimes one room less than those above, the extra accommodation upstairs consisting of a small room built over the ground floor hall space. The dwellings are, as a rule, accessible from both the front and the back by staircafes. The back staircase is often an extei'nal one, and the upper tenements have almost invariably small balconies at the back. As a rule there is only one entrance from the street, the hall being used in common by all the tenants. In the better class houses of this type the street door is usually kept latched. Speaking tubes commu- nicating between the fi'ont porch and each flat are a common feature, and a caller having announced himself through the tube usually finds the door opened to him by means of a neat electrical appliance controlled from the tenement to which he desires access. Each tenement, though entered from the common hall or staircase, is entirely self-contained, having its own conveniences and all its rooms accessible either from a small interior corridor or hall, or intercommunicable, the latter arrangement being the more common. The flats of this type seldom contain less than four or more than six rooms, which as a rule are of fairly large dimensions. In one typical house three of the five rooms, namely the kitchen, parlour and chief bedroom, each measured about 16 feet by 14 feet ; the second bedroom was about 12 feet square, and the third was somewhat smaller. The rent of this tenement was 14s. hd. per week. In the older or more central parts of the city are many scattered blocks of tenements of much larger size than the type which has just been described. They are usually four stories high and contain from eight to sixteen dwellings. Some are well placed and well appointed and in appearance suggest the middle-class flat familiar in London, but on the whole their location and general arrangement lead to their becoming the homes of the less well-to-do among the working classes. Many of the blocks have been built under the new Tenement Law and show a wise forethought for health and safety from fire. Others, however, are old and represent housing conditions at their worst so far as Newark is concerned, having many unsatisfactory features in the shape of rooms entirely unlighted or lighted only very dimly from another room or a passage, confined yards and dirty and unventilated conveniences. A type of tenement frequently found in these old blocks is one known colloquially as a " railroad " tenement, i.e. one consisting of four rooms all in line from back to front. In such a tenement only the two outer rooms are directly lighted : the others have only borrowed light, and in the case of some that have not yet come under the observation of the tenement house inspectors and been amended in accordance with the law, no light at all. These old tenements, however they may have been adapted in strict compliance with the law relating to old tenement houses, are as a rule very inferior to the dwellings that have been erected according to the elaborate rules of the Tenement House Commission. The rooms in the tenements of this type are generally smaller than those in the three-tenement house previously described, but the fittings and appointments in the more modern ones are very similar. In the old large tenement blocks a water-tap with sink in the kitchen is often the only " improvement " provided in a self-contained dwelling, for as a rule there is no bathroom and the sanitary convenience is shared in common with other tenants in the same black. The one-family and two-family cottages forming the third type of house were erected before Newark had a large industrial population. They usually have rather high-pitched roofs and contain two or three attics. Structurally they are in all essential features similar to the superior type of two-family house to be described below, but they are without the attractive ap])earance, the spaciousness and the conveniences of the latter type. The rooms are generally small and bathrooms are rare. Some still contain only one family, NEWARK. 305 but these are probably the minority ; usually they were either built for two families or they have since with slight adaptation, such as the provision of water-tap and sink in the kitchen, been converted into two-family houses. The single-family cottages that still remain often appear to offer good value for the rent charged. The fourth and best type of dwelling in Newark is the two-family house of modern construction. These houses are almost invariably fitted with all the usual modern improvements, such as were described above in connexion with the three-family house. In addition they have the advantage, as a rule, of a much superior appearance and also — there being only two tenants — a greater degree of privacy. The rooms in these houses are often heated by a furnace in the basement. In the houses at the lower rentals, the furnaces are in the care of the respective tenants : in the superior houses heating is sometimes included in the rent, l)ut such houses are seldom occupied by the working classes. The two-family houses have usually three attics, which are assigned to the tenants according to arrange- ment. Sometimes they are unplastered and are used only as store rooms : in other cases they are used as bedrooms. The houses have usually a fairly deep porch in front and often a balcony on the first floor. The style of architecture lends itself to great variety, and the houses of this type represent a wide range of rentals, though comparatively few can be obtained for less than 19s. M. per week for a suite of five or six rooms, including one or two attics. The following Table shows the predominant rents of dwellings containing four, five and six rooms at Newark in February, 1909 : — Predominant Rents of Working-class Dwellings. Number of Rooms per Dwelling. Four rooms Five rooms Six rooms Predominant Weekly Bents. 9.S. 7(1. to 12.S-. G(7. Us. 6(1. „ 16s. id. Us. 5d. „ 19s. M. The level of rents at New York being represented by 100, the rents index number for Newark is 78. The a'oove rentals include the cost of water. No taxes fall directly on the tenant. Tenement houses in Newark, and indeed in the whole of New Jersey, are under the supervision of a State Board which acts in accordance with the Tenement House Act of 1904. This is a rather elaborate measure, containing over two hundred clauses, which regulates with much detail the construction of new tenement houses, and also provides within certain limits for the alteration of existing tenement houses. A tenement house is defined by the law to be a " house or building or portion thereof which is rented, leased, let or hired out to be occupied or is occupied as the house or residence of three families or more living independently of each other and doing their cooking upon the premises, or by more than two families upon any floor so living and cooking, but having a common right in the halls, stairways, yards, water-closets, privies or some of them." The Act pays particular attention to the provision of means of escape in the event of fire, requiring that both new and old tenement houses shall be provided with duly approved and specified fire escapes. These fire escapes usually consist of iron stairways, built outside, and often detract from the appearance of the house, but no one can doubt their value as a pre- cautionary measure in the case of closely packed tenement buildings four stories high. Great attention is also paid to securing sufficient air space around the new tenement blocks, and to the proper ventilation of inner courtyards where such exist. It is also provided in the case of such new houses that every apartment shall open to the outer air. As has already been mentioned, many of the old tenements have dark rooms, and in these cases the Act requires that a sash window of specified size opening into an adjoinmg room shall be provided. This is probably all that can be done in. the circumstances without wholesale rebuilding, but the measure of relief is not great, for in many cases where the law has been comphed with the room still remains very unpleasantly dark and close. Among the less technical provisions of the law may be mentioned the follo^nnng. In every tenement house the owner is required to keep a proper light burning in the entrance hall at night time, and if the house contains more than two stories, another light on the second floor. No basement or cellar dwelhng may be occupied without a written permit, and this permit is granted only after compliance with various conditions. No wall paper may be placed upon any wall or ceiling of any tenement house unless all old wall paper is first removed and the wall or ceiling thoroughly cleaned. In every new 16576 306 NEWARK. tenement house there must be a water-closet within each dwelling, while in every existing tenement house there must be at least one water-closet for every two families. Each dwelling in a new tenement house must also be provided with a sink. A similar pro- vision applies to tenement houses existing at the time of the passing of the Act, except in cases where a sink had already been installed on each floor. It should be observed that the provisions of the Tenement House Act and the work of the State Board are supplementary to the ordinances and duties of the local sanitary and building authorities. The State Board has its own staff of inspectors, who are engaged on the one hand in supervising the erection of new tenement houses and on the other hand in inspecting old buildings and gradually bringing them into compliance with the law. Occasionally there may be some overlapping of the State and the municipal authority, and instances arise where either authority could take action. These cases are easily settled by agreement, though there is no doubt that where persons of considerable local influence are affected, the cities occasionally find it convenient to leave the exercise of coercive powers to the State Board. Retail Prices. There is one retail market in Newark, but, relatively to the size of the city, it is not of great importance. ]\Ieat is sold at twenty stalls, and fruits, vegetables, groceries and provisions at about one hundred stalls. One large meat firm, with shops in New Jersey, has eight shops in Newark, while another general shop has nine. Two multiple firms are represented, and two large general shops in particular carry on a considerable trade with the wage-earning classes. There are no co-operative societies. Groceries and other Commodities. The bulk of the bread consumed at Newark is bought, for there is little home- baking. Wheaten bread is mainly eaten, but the Jews and some recent immigrant races eat a got)d deal of bread made of rye and wheat mixed. The 2^d. white loaf is supposed to weigh 16 oz., but loaves tested in different retailers' shops were found to weigh from 14 to 16 oz. A loaf at the somewhat unusual price of M. was also met with, this loaf weiehino- 16 oz. The sugar generally purchased is white granulated. In addition to the ordinary American cheese, Limburg and Swiss cheese is much eaten, the Limburg being sold at 10(/. or l\d. per lb., and the Swiss at Is. OJrf. if American-made and at Is. b^d. if imported. Coal is usually bought by the ton (of 2,000 lb.) or the half-ton, but it is also bought from hawkers at the price of bd. for about 20 lb. The following Table shows the predominant prices for certain commodities in February, 1909 :— Predominant Prices paid by the Working Classes in February, 1909. Commodity. Predominant Price. Tea per lb. Is. M. to 2s. M. •- Coffee „ Is. Q\d. Sugar : — White Granulated „ u. Browa „ M. Bacon, Breakfast — Boneless... „ Wd. Eggs ... ... ... ... per is. 8 to 10 Cheese, American per lb. 9rf. „ nd. Butter „ Is. 4rf. „ Is. ^d. Potatoes, Irish per 7 lb. Id. „ l^d. Flour, Wheaten — Household „ Is. 0\d. „ Is. l^d. Bread, White per 4 lb. lOd. „ Is. Milk per quart i\d. „ Aid. Coal, Anthracite per cwt. Is. 5id.'> Kerosene per gallon 6fl. to lid. * By the ton of 2,000 lb. Meat. The beef comes mainly from the Western packing centres, but there are meat packing firms near Newark. Much of the pork consumed is produced in and near the city. There is no municipal slaughter house. NEWARK. 307 The bulk of the meat sold is chilled. Beef and mutton are in greatest favour, pork being less popular in Newark than elsewhere among the working classes. There is practically no difference in price between mutton and lamb, except in the shops frequented by the wealthier classes, and there a difference of from Id. to l^d. per lb. is made. The following Table shows the predominant i:)rice8 of the various cuts in February, I :— 1909 :— Predominant Prices paid by the Working Classes in February, 1909. Description of Cut. Predominant Price per lb. Beef :- Roasts — Round 8(/. to [)d. „ Ribs prime Sd. „ lOd. „ Ribs second cut Id. „ Sd „ Chuck or short ribs ... 5d. „ Id. Steaks — Round Od. „ lOd. „ Sirloin... lOr/. „ lid. Shin without bone Of/. Flank id. to 6d. Plate, Brisket] ^If^^ "• ,^^- ' 1 Salt or corned id. „ id 3r/. „ id. Mutton or Lamb : — Leg Id. to 9d. Breast id. „ Ml. Loin 9d. „ lOd. Chops lOd. „ lid. Shoulder Id. „ 9f/. Neck id. „ 6d. Veal :— Cutlets Is. to Is. O^f/. Rib chops Sd. „ lid. Loin chops Sd. „ lid. Breast 6d. „ Sd Neck Gd. „ Id. Pork :— Fresh — Loin Sd to 9r/. „ Spai'e rib id „ &d. „ Shoulder 6f/. „ lid. „ Chops Sd. „ dd. Corned (wet salt or pickled) ... Id „ 9f/. Dry salt l^d. „ 2d. Ham lid. „ Sd. Shoulder, salt or smoked 6d. „ Id. Prices at New York being taken as the base, = 100, in each case, the index number for the price of meat at Newark is 108, for other food it is 106 and for food prices as a whole 106. For rents and food prices combined the index number is 99. 1657fi ri> 308 PATERSON. Paterson is in the State of Xew Jersey, about 16 miles to the north-west of New York, at a point on the Passaic river where there is a considerable fall, affording good opportunity for obtaining water power. It was on this account that the site was selected for the first experiments in founding new industries in America by the Society for the Promotion of Useful Manufactures, an association which had been founded by Alexander Hamilton, the celebrated statesman and advocate of protection for America's infant industries. Cotton manufacture was the industry which it was intended first to introduce into Paterson, but the earliest efforts were unsuccessful. In course of time, however, both cotton manufactures and machinery works were established, and they continued to be the principal industries in Paterson for a considerable time. About the middle of the nineteenth century silk manufacture was introduced, the first successful venture being that of an Englishman from Coventry. The silk industry steadily increased in importance, receiving considerable impetus from the immigration of Englislimen from Macclesfield, while the cotton industry tended to concentrate in New England. It is said that the nature of the water supply, which is favourable for silk dyeing, has been an important factor in making Paterson the centre of the silk industry. The engineering trades are now mainly represented at Paterson l)y locomotive building works and firms making textile machinery. Paterson differs in appearance from English manufacturing towns mainly on account of the prevalence of light-coloured frame houses and the large area over which they extend. These characteristics, together with the sunnier climate, give to the town a brighter aspect than English people usually associate with manufacturing centres. The silk factories are distributed in all directions. Some of them are near the river, and lease water power from the Society for the Promotion of Useful Manufactures, which still retains the Avater rights, thougli not itself engaged directly in manufacturing. The majority of the mills, however, use steam power, yet Avhile chinmeys are plentiful they are not very conspicuous, as the silk mills are not of large size. The business portion of the city was entirely destroyed by tire in 1902, and much damage was done in the followmg year by a great flood. The city appears, however, to have quite recovered from these disasters. The business quarter has been entirely rebuilt and now contains at least two public buildings with some architectural merit, viz., the City Hall and the Post Office. Tall blocks of office buildings and hotels are noticeably absent, the proximity of New York limiting the need for offices and hotel accommodation. Stone and brick have been used in the re-building, so that this portion of the city has nmch the same appearance as an English town. The streets are fairly well maintained in the central and better suburban distincts, but the poorer and outlying streets are neglected. A certain amount of excuse for this neglect is to be found, no doubt, in the expense of maintaining the great lengtli of streets required by the system of detached frame houses. A compensating feature, however, is afforded by the trees which line many of the residential streets. The surrounding country consists, towards the south and east, of a fairly level wooded plain, dotted with small towns, mainly residential suburbs of New York, while on the western side are thickly wooded rocky hills, barren tut picturesque. The falls of the Passaic at Paterson have been robl)ed of much of their attraction by the drawing-off of most of the water for power ])roduction, but above the town the river is pretty, especially where it flows by the i>ark. The river is not navigable for commercial purposes in the neighbourhood of Paterson. PATERSON. 309 The growth of population is shown in the Table given below. The great increase shown from 1870 to 1890 was mainly the result of the expansion of the silk industry. The area of the city is approximately 8i square miles. Year. Population. Increase. Percentage Increase. 1870 33,5Z9 1880 51,031 17,452 52-0 1890 78,347 27,316 53-5 1900 105,171 26,824 34-2 1910 125,600 20,429 19-4 The number of nationalities represented in Paterson is considerable. At the Census of 1900 foreign-born persons formed 36*9 per cent, of the total population. Persons born in Germany, Ireland and England were represented in nearly equal numbers, forming respectively 17*3, 17*0 and 16*2 per cent, of the foreign-born population, while Holland contributed 12'6 per cent., Italy 11"0 per cent, and Scotland 7*2 per cent. The most noticeable fact about the foreign-born population is the unusually large proportion from the l^ritish Isles. A considerable Irish element is common in American cities, but the percentage of English and Scottish people is seldom so large as in Paterson. A visitor from England soon perceives that there must be an appreciable number of his countrymen in this city from the fact that boys may frequently be seen kicking Association footballs on vacant spaces, while he may see regular games played in fields in the sviburbs. In American cities generally it is quite a rare thing to see games of football or even of baseball played on Saturday afternoon, apart from professional and college games. In a few of the Eastern cities, however, where British immigration has occurred to an appreciable extent in recent years, Ass(Jciation football, both amateur and professional, is said to l3e making headway. Many of the Dutch immigrants are dyers' helpers and are comparatively unskilled, but the women and gii-ls are in request in the weaving mills, where they have a reputation for steadiness. The Italians, whose numbers have probably further increased since the last Census, are mainly engaged in unskilled labour of various kinds, but all nationalities are found amongst the silk weavers. Owing to events which occurred some years ago, there is a prevailing impression that Paterson is specially associated with anarchists of a dangerous type. This is by no means the case at the present day, and probably never was true in the degree commonly supposed. There were, at the time of the memorable strike at the dye works some years ago, Italians who advocated violent attacks on the property of the comjianies ; but appeals to violence of that kind may occur in America during labour disputes, quite independently of the nationality of the workers or of their political labels, and Paterson has no worse record in this respect than other industrial centres in America. In regard to the number of arrests for crimes in ordinary years, Paterson compares lavourably with most cities of corresponding size. The mortality statistics of Paterson indicate fairly healthy conditions. The death- rate during the last few years has been from 15 to 17 per 1,000 of the population. In regard to births, the annual reports of the Board of Health indicate that registration is often neglected, on which account it is impossible to estimate the birth-rate. The public gas, water and electric light and power supply services, as well as the tramways, are in the hands of companies, which receive their charters from the State. The city derives no revenue from these undertakings, which are not even liable to the local property tax. This tax is the most important source of municipal revenue, but liquor licences provide about ten per cent, of the total. The tramways are part of an extensive system which connects all the principal cities of New Jersey. Apart from the through traffic, there is a considerable local traffic of people going to and from their work, but as the mills are scattered over the city the workers do not need to use the cars so much as in many cities. 16576 U 3 310 PATERSON Occupations, Wages and Hours of Labour. The nature of the predominant industries in Paterson is clearly indicated in the following Table, based on the Census of 1900, in which all occupied persons over ten years of age are classified according to employment : — Number of Persons of \0 years of age and over engaged in Occupations in Paterson in 1900. Occupations. Males. Females. Total. Building ... Metal working and Engineering Silk Bleaching and Dyeing ... Other and not specified Textile Boot and Shoe Making Clothing Woodworking and Furnishing ... Paper and Printing Food, Drink and Tobacco ... Other Manufacturing and Mechanical Pursuits Trade and Transportation Labourers (not otherwise specified) Professional, Domestic and Personal Service and 1 Agricultural Pursuits J All Occupations 2,816 3,881 6,.o36 2,014 1,363 236 371 275 213 038 2,107 7,111 3,051 3,324 34,239 25 6,066 12 1,060 3 1,303 2 72 22 173 1)92 25 2,504 12,268 2,825 3,906 12,602 2,026 2,423 239 1,677 277 285 960 2,280 8.103 3,076 5,828 46,507 The dominant position taken by the silk industry is clearly shown by the foregoing return. The largest works in this industry are in the dyeing branch, which is almost entirely in the hands of two firms. Weaving firms are seldom of any considerable size, the largest number of workpeople employed by any one firm being about eight hundred. Most of the mills are shared by several firms, who rent space and power. The silk-throwing firms are still smaller, the largest having only one hundred and twenty employees. Men and women are employed in about equal numbers at weaving, and their earnings for full time do not differ very widely, the principal difference being that women lose more time than men. Earnings of weavers for a full week are difficult to ascertain with accuracy, because no record is kept of the hours of attendance. All weavers lose a certain amount of time owing to changes of warp, and in silk weaving, where patterns are changed fairly often, the interruptions may make a considerable total. Whenever a firm is at work on orders which require varieties of pattern, the earnings of weavers will vary greatly according to the degree of continuity in their work ; but independently of this cause of irregularity, there are seasonal fluctuations affecting all firms, while changes of taste which help one firm hinder another. Ribbon weavers, on the whole, earn more than broad -silk weavers, and those on Jacquard looms earn rather more than those doing plain work. In broad- silk weaving, two looms to a weaver is the general rule, but a system oi four looms with automatic stop motion is being tried. Weekly earnings of weavers appear to range mainly from 45s. lOd. to 66s. ^d. for a full week's work. Loom fixers, twisters and male warpers, who are strongly organised, are paid 75s. per week. Women warpers, who are employed to a considerable extent, earn from 52s. \d. to 62s. Qd. per week. The younger women and girls, and those who have not the requisite skill to become weavers, are employed as winders and pickers, and earn from 20s. lOrf. to 33s. M. per week. Silk thn)wing employs a considerable number of young persons of both sexes. The youngest girls and boys (from 14 years upwards) are employed as bobbin carriers at about 12s. Qd. per week. They then go on to reeling, winding, doubling and twisting. Not much more than 29s. 'Id. per week can be earned in the throwing mills, excepting sometimes on piece work, at which some youths earn from 33s. 4• ■■■ ■•• 58s. id. 55 Labourers 33s. M. 55 16576 U i 312 PATERSON. Pretlominant Weekly Wages. Predominant Weekly Hour;* of Labour. Printing Tnides: — ■ Newspaper — Hand Compositors ( Day work I Night work Machine Compositors Book and Job — Hand Compositors Machine Compositors ( Day work .. I Night work Public Services : — Street Construction, Paving and Cleaning (Muni- cipal) — Road Menders ... Scavengers Road Sweepers ... Water Works (Company) — Labourers Gas Works (Company)— Gas Stokers Labourers ... ... ... ... Electric Light and Power Works (Company) — Electricians Linemen Stokers Labourers Electric Tramways — See text. (OS. 87.'(. 6d. 81s. M. 93.S. M 75.s\ 81.S. M. 40s. iOs. 40s. 55 55 55 .37s. 6d. to 4:is-. 9rf. 60 51s. Id. 40s. lOf^. 84 70 65s. Sd. 68s. 9d 71s. Gd. 51s. Id. 70 54 56 70 48 48 48 48 48 48 Taking wages at New York as the l)ase, = 100, in each case, the wages index numbers for Paterson are — building trades, skilled men 91, hod carriers and bricklayers' labourers 73 ; foundries and machine shops, skilled men 80, unskilled labourers 82 ; printing, hand compositors (job work) 86. Housing and Rents. Tenement houses, two-family houses and one-family houses are all liiirly numerous in Paterson, but the two-family frame house is the most frequent type of working-class dwelling. The report of the United States Census of 1900 throws some light on the comparative importance of the different types. The average number of families per dwelling-house at the date of that Census was 1*7, and of the total number of families 46'5 per cent, were resident in dwelling-houses occupied by two families, 27'1 per cent, in dwelling-houses occupied by one family, 16"3 per cent, in dwelling-houses occupied by three families and 10*1 per cent, in dwelling-liouses occupied by four or more families. When it is considered that these figures relate to the city as a whole, it is safe to say that more than half of the wage-earning population occupied the two-family type of dwelling-house. Tenement houses are occupied mainly by Italians and foreign Jews, and they include a number of quite good dwellings. Paterson, however, has a legacy of old, unsatisfactory tenement houses, built before State building regulations came into force. The State of New Jersey has had for several years an elaborate code of regulations and a large staff of tenement house inspectors, who are actively engaged in examining premises both with a view to preventing the erection of new tenement houses of a bad type, and to improving those which exist. In Paterson the evils of overcrowding and dark rooms are relatively less serious than in the larger cities of New fTersey, but there are a number of dilapidated old tenements. Some good new tenement buildings of brick, with plenty of light in all rooms, staircases and halls, have been built recently, but the cost is greater than that of similar accommodation in two-storied frame houses. Some of the Jews and Italians, however, prefer this class of building to the suburban house. In a new tenement house four rooms, measuring about 11 feet by 12 feet cost from 10s. 7 if. to 12s. Gd. per week, whereas four rooms of larger size can be obts-med in two-family frame houses for from 7.s'. Sd. to 10s. 7d. per week. PATERSON. W;i The frame houses are built on plots of very varying size. Tliey are usually detached, with a space ranging from 3 feet to 15 feet between two houses, the usual distance approximating to the larger figure in the suburban districts. Access to the upper floor is o-enerally obtained by a stairway at the back of the house, but in the better liouses the stairway is inside and is reached by a door at the side of the house. Water is almost always laid on inside the house, while the closet is usually in the garden, and is connected with the sewers. There is seldom any scullery, but cellars are usual. Rooms open off one another Avithout the intervention of passages. Some idea of the accommodation provided in flats in two-family houses may be obtained fi'om the following notes regarding dwellings visited in the course of the enquiry : — 1. Two-family house, upper floor, five rooms, rent lis. Id. per week ; kitchen 13 feet by 11 feet, tiining room 13 feet by 11 feet, parlour 15 feet by 12 feet, bedroom 8 feet by 11 feet and attic bedroom. 2. Two-family house, each floor four rooms, rent 7s. Sd. per week ; kitchen 8 feet by 12 feet, dining room 15 feet by 12 feet, bedrooms 13 feet by 12 feet and 7 feet by 10 feet, also a very small room, only large enough for a baby's cot. 3. Two-family house, the owner occupying the upper half, which had five rooms and a small bathroom, estimated rent 12s. 6d. per week ; kitchen 10 feet by 15 feet, dining room 10 feet by 15 feet, parlour 10 feet by 14 feet and two bedrooms 8 feet by 10 feet ; the kitchen and bathroom were built out on pillars. Lower half similar minus kitchen and bathroom, the four I'ooms being let at 9a'. 7d. per .week ; kitchen 10 feet by 15 feet, parlour 10 feet by 14 feet and two bedrooms 8 feet by 10 feet. Newly built one-family houses, containing five or six rooms and a bathroom, are rented at about 17a'. 4d. per week. They are not occupied by wage-earning people to any considerable extent, though ia some cases such houses are built to the order of better paid working men who have saved some money and can borrow the remainder of the cost. In Paterson, liowever, it is more usual for such men to purchase or build a two-family house, living in one half and letting the other. By this means five rooms and a bathroom can be obtained at less expense than in a one-family house. It might be thought that difficulty over the use of the garden would arise between tenants of the upper and lower flats, as there is no partition such as is sometimes seen in the gardens of London suburbs where the two-storied flat system is adopted. Little difficulty arises, however, because no use is made of the garden. Occasionally there may be " clothes-line quarrels," but if one tenant should, by a rare chance, wish to plant flowers, the other tenant would not be likely to insist on planting them himself. According to the Census of 1900, 76*8 per cent, of all houses in Paterson were hired by their occupiers, 14*0 per cent, were owned subject to encumbrance and 9*2 per cent, were owned absolutely. The following Table shows the predominant weekly rents for working-class dwellings in Paterson. The rents include the charge for water and are paid monthly : — Predominant Bents of Workimj-dass Dwellings. Number of Rooms jier Dwelling. Three rooms Four rooms Five rooms Six rooms Predominant Weekly BentB. ^s. 9d. to 6s. iki. 7s. Sd. „ 10s. Id. 'Js. Id. „ Vis, Gc?. lis. ed. „ I6s. id. The level of rents at New York being I'epresented by 100, the rents index number for Paterson is G2. Ketau. Pkicks. Several " multiple " firms have grocery shops in Paterson, and do a considerable ■business, but the greater part of the retail trade falls to local men with individual shops. 314 PATERSON. As tlie city is not very large, most of the shopping of all classes is done in the central business streets, but the " corner grocery " exists to some extent in the residential districts. Groceries ami other Commodities. Coffee is the popular drink with Americans, Germans and Dutch. Italians drink coffee to a less extent, taking cocoa and chocolate instead. The British races maintain to a considerable extent their national taste for tea, but they also drink much coffee. Sugar — of the white granulated variety — is retailed principally in bags of 3^ lb., selling for 9.^rf. To an appreciable extent the Italians maintain their national preferences in diet. A common price for macaroni is Is. Q\d. for 3 J lb, Olive oil costs from \s. 6d. to I5. 9d. per pint, but some qualities are dearer. Italian cheese, which is preferred, costs from 1*-. -id. to Is. 6c/. per lb. Wine is bought at from 3s. to 3s. 6c?. per gallon. Italians buy more bakers' bread than the majority of Americans, patronising bakers of their own race, who retail at rather lower prices than the ordinary American bakers, a 2^d. Italian wheaten loaf weighing slightly over 1 lb. The English and Scotch buy bread from the bakers more than other races, in preference to baking at home. Germans buy some rye bread, but they buy more flour than bread on the whole. The Dutch buy very little bread, but considerable quantities of flour for home baking. Anthracite coal is the principal fuel used for domestic purposes. It is frequently bought several tons at a time, to last through the winter. Charcoal is retailed by grocers in bags of S^ lb. for 2Jcf., and is much used by poor people when they have not enough money or sufficient storage accommodation for a ton or half-ton of coal. The following Table shows the predominant prices of certain commodities of common consumption in February, 1909 : — Predominant Prices paid by the Working Classes in February, 1909. Commodity, Predominant Price. Tea Coffee Sugar : — White Granulated Brown Bacon, Breakfast — Boneless... Eggs Cheese, American Butter Potatoes, Irish Flour, Wheaten — Household Bread, White Milk Coal, Anthracite Kerosene per lb. per 1.?. per lb. per 7 lb. per 4 lb. per quart per cwt. per gallon Is. bid. to 2s. Id. Is. Oid. 2id. 2id. lOd. 8 to 10 9d. „ lOrf. Is. 5d. „ Is. 5id. Id. „ 9id. Hid. „ Is. Oid. lid. „ Hid: 4fd. Is. 5W.» 6d. to lid. By the ton of 2,000 lb. Meat. A large proportion of the meat supply comes from the West. The State of Ncav Jersey supplies much of the veal consumed locally, but the consumjition of this meat is small, so far as the working classes are concerned. Beef forms a larger proportion of the total meat consumjition in Paterson than in most cities. The Italians are not great meat-eaters, but in Paterson jjoultry constitutes a notice- able feature in their dietary. They purchase the fowls alive and dress for themselves. The following Table shows the predominant prices of the various cuts of meat of the kinds mostly consumed by the wage-earning classes in February, 1909 : — FATEKSON. Predominant Prices paid by the Working Classes in February, 1909. 315 Description of Out. Predominant Price per lb. Beef :— Roasts — Round 6d. to Id. „ Ribs prime M. „ Id. „ Ribs second cut M. „ 6rf. „ Chuck or short ribs od. Steaks — Round Id. to M. „ Sirloin Sd. „ 9d. Shin without bone Ad. „ M. Flank id. Plate, Brisket ( a'Tf ^ "\ ' \ Salt or corned 2\d. to 3d. 2\d. „ 3d. Mutton or Lamb : — • Leg &\d to Id. Breast M. „ Sid. Loin Id. „ Sd. Chops Sd. Shoulder 5d. to 6d. Neck 3d. „ M. Veal :— Cutlets M. to Is. Rib chops Id. „ Sd. Loin chops Sd. „ lOd. Breast id. „ 6d. Neck id. „ ed. Pork :— Fresh — Loin Id. to Sd. „ Spare rib id. „ 6d. „ Shoulder 5d. ,. 7d. „ Chops Id. ,; Sd. Corned (wet salt or pickled) &d. „ Sd. Dry salt 6d. „ Sd, Ham 6d. „ Sd. Shoulder, salt or smoked 5d. „ 7d. Prices at New York being taken as the base, = 100, in eacli case, the index number for the price of meat at Paterson is 87, for other food it is lOo and for food prices as a whole 100. For rents and food prices combined the index number is 91. *16 PHILADELPHIA. Philadelphia was founded undei' royal patent granted to William Penn in IGSl, and the city was laid out by commissioners acting under his instructions in the ft)llowing year. As then planned, Philadelphia had an area of about two square miles. The two main intersectitig thoroughfares, now called Broad and Market Streets, were of the excep- tional width of 120 and 100 feet, but of the rest of the streets none were more than 50 feet wide, and these narrow streets alterpated with others still narrower — an arrangement believed by majUy to have had the object in \'iew of providing permanently for the juxta- position of the richer and the poorer members of the community. Upon this small original site the figure of the founder now looks down from the tower, 548 feet in height, of the great City Hall which has been erected at the point, originally forming a central square, where Broad and Market Streets cross. The two square miles as first planned ha^-e now become a great city, and since the Consolidation Act of 1854 the total municipal area has covered 130 square miles. The township originally planted by the River Delaware has spread for manj- miles along its banks, while west from the Delaware it has crossed the Schuylkill River, and in the part known as West Philadelphia, lying on the other side of this river, possesses now a population that is a city in itself. Northwards many townships, including Germantown, have been absorbed by the extension of Philadelphia ; southwards, in the broad tongue of land formed by the confluence of the two rivers, the city is also spreading towards the United States Naval Yard at League Island, while east of the Delaware, on the New Jersey side of the river, is the city of Camden, which, according to the State Census of 1905, had then a population of 83,363. Camden, although a place of considerable manufacturing importance, owes its development to a large extent to that of Philadelphia, and lies indeed much nearer to the centre of that city than does much of Philadelphia itself, while a project, already sanctioned, for the construction of a tunnel under the Delaware will make this New Jersey neighbour of increasing importance to Philadelphia by, in effect, increasing a central area available for residential purposes. At present communication is by ferry with a charge of l|f/., or ten tickets for Is. 0J(/. The area covered by Philadelphia is generally level, rising genti}' to the northwards, and the site, lying 90 miles south-west of New York, is about 50 miles in a direct line from the ocean and 96 miles by the Delaware. Three trunk lines, including that of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, of which Philadelphia is the headquarters, establish connexion with most parts of the country. The symmetrical arrangement of the streets has been retained throughout the greater part of the city, with the result that, apart from a very few avenues running diagonally and districts lying at some distance north-east and north-west of the centre, nearly the whole of the city is laid out on a rectangular plan. Streets running east and west are given distinctive niimes such as those contained in an old mnemonic rhyme of the three chief streets lying to the north and the four to the south ofMarket Street — " Market, Arch, Race and V^ine, Chestnut, Walnut, Spruce and Pine," while those running north and south are simply numbered. The numerical system starts^ from the Delaware and is adopted throughout with two exceptions, First Street being known as " Front," and Fourteenth by its more distinctive name of " Broad." Running- north and south, that is along the numbered streets, fi-om eight to fourteen — according to locality — of the blocks or squares made by the chief intersecting thoroughfares go to the mile, while east and west ten or twelve similar squares make up the same distance. The numbering of the houses is as systematic as the naming of the streets, and the River Delaware and Market Street are the starting points in the plan adopted. Each scjuare begins a new hundred, continuously from the river westwards, but from Market Street commencing at the unit both north and south. West from the river and north of Market Street, where the areas available for expansion are greatest, the numbering of the houses thus runs up to several thousands, but when once mastered the plan adopted makes it possible with great ease approximately to localise an address in most parts of the city. With the two exceptions mentioned, no streets at the centre being more than 50 feet wide, there is no room for a double line of tramway, and thus the cars in nearly all cases PHILADELPHIA. 317 run always in one direction alono- any single street ; for instance, always north along Thirteenth Street and always south along Fifteenth Street, or always east along Spruce Street and always west along Pine Street. Philadelphia is in various ways celebrated in the annals of American history. It was here, for instance, that the first Congresses were held, and that the Declaration of Independence was signed, while for about ten years Philadelphia Avas the Capital City of the New Federation. In finance and industry, as in political history, Philadelphia has a distinguished record. The first bank in America and the first mint were established here. Here in 1685 the first j)rinting press set up in the middle colonies was constructed, and in 1784 the first daily newspaper in the United States was published. The first American steamboat was built at Philadelphia in 1790, and the fii'st American locomotive was built here, on an English model, in 1827. In the middle of the 18th century Philadelphia assumed the first place in population which had previously been held by Boston, but since 1810 New York has led. Twenty years ago Chicago also outstripped Philadelphia in point of population, but although the latter now ranks as the third city in the Federation it is still one of the great cities of the world. Philadelphia is pre-eminently an industrial centre, but the position of the city as a seaport must not be overlooked, and the following statistics afford some indication of the extent of the oversea trade of Philadelphia : — Year ended June 30th. Tonnage Entered and Cleareil in the Foreign Ti'ade. Value of Imports. Value of Exports. Number of Passengers arriving at the Port. 1905 ... 1906 ... 1907 ... 1908 ... 1909 ... Tons. 3,651,624 4,331,5:53 4,665,059 4,916,556 4,.500,01] £ 12,-537,688 14.750,265 16,639,571 13,215,001 14,3.50,864 £ 13,182,931 17,200,914 19,756,767 22,762,799 17,559,675 27,929 27,839 .34,767 20,049 18,335 It is, however, as perhaps the first manufacturing city of America that the distinctive position of Philadelphia can be best understood. Invaluable and even essential as an adjunct to many of its productive operations, the jiort nevertheless occupies a position of secondary importance in the economy of the city, of which the dominating characteristic is a scope of manufacturing enterprise of almost unequalled distinction and range. As with many other world cities, for instance, London, New York, Paris, Berlin, which are apt not to be regarded as manufacturing centres because no single industry assumes dominating importance, so it is with Philadelphia. But in this city the mass of its industries is the outstanding feature of the situation, and while in some directions, as, for instance, in its manufacture of locomotives, carpets and worsted goods, industries almost " staple " in their character may be mentioned, the great fact is the comprehensive- ness of its manufacturing interests and their general supremacy as compared with all other of the component elements of the life of great cities — social, political, financial or commercial. With few great natural advantages, apart from the port and the facilities for obtaining raw materials for many of its manufactures that are offered by that channel, the early start in industry has been profited by, and the momentum of a prolonged experience and the trading connexions established still secure for Philadelphia its gi-eat position. Pro- ductive industry is, indeed, supreme in Philadelphia, and the annual output of its win-ks, yards, factories and workshops is, from the economic point of view, its chief claim to attention. From a sociological point of view Philadelphia is of special interest on account of the character of its housing and, in spite of deterioration in some districts, its superior claim to the title of " A City of Homes " may still be justified — not, however, because the proportion of home-owners is greater than in any other city, but rather because of the groat numbers who are living in separate dwellings. Philadelphia may or may not be pre- eminently " The City of Brotherly Love," its other well-known descriptive name, but the claims made on its behalf that it is " The world's greatest workshop" and "America's largest home city " are less disputable. 318 PHILADELPHIA. The business centre of the city may be said to He along both sides of Market Street, chiefly to the south, from Third or Fourth Street to about Sixteenth Street, and the tendency has been for the area around the intersecting point of liroad and Market Streets to increase in importance. Market Street itself is a gi'eat shopping thoroughfare as also is its neighbour to the south, Chestnut Street, and on less expensive lines Eighth Street. The part of Chestnut Street lying further west, together with two or three other streets to the south of it, are the fashionable central streets of Philadelphia. Themselves main- tfiining for the most part an air of distinction, the district for which they stand neverthe- less abuts on some of the poorest quarters of the city, and while in some directions north of Market Street the same congested and unsatisfactory area is spreading, it is to the south, mainly on the east side of Broad Street, that the largest and best-known foreign and coloured districts are found. As usual these are not far either from the older parts of the city or from the points of arrival. Although the above-mentioned is a typical foreign and coloured quarter, Philadelphia is nevertheless rightly regarded as being one of the most " American " of the great cities. At the Census of 1900, 40*4 per cent, of the total population were American-born whites of American-born parents, or about twice the proportion, for instance, in either New Yoi'k or Chicago. Of the remainder, 32"0 per cent, were American-born whites of foreign-born parents and 22'7 per cent, were foreign-born whites. Of the foreign-born whites them- selves 33-3 per cent, were born in Ireland, 24-2 per cent, in Germany, 15'7 per cent, in Great Britain, 1)"8 per cent, in Russia and 6"0 per cent, in Italy. In the most thickly populated ward of the district just referred to the predominant foreign population was described in 1904 as being composed of Italians, Jews from Slavonic countries, Poles and Swedes, and the salient features have not greatly changed in the interval. The number of immigrants who actually land at this port is comparatively small, and in 1908 and 1909 an average of only about 15,000 came. The following Table gi\'es the population of the city, the area of which has remained unaltered during the period covered, in each Census year 1870-1910 : — Year. Population. 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 674,022 847,170 1,046,964 1,293,607 1,549,008 Increase. 173,148 199,794 246,733 255,311 Percentage Increase. 25-7 23-6 23-6 19-7 In Philadelphia, although there are many houses in multiple occupation, there is no district of large tenement dwellings, and the city is thus free even in its most populous wards from any abnormal congestion of population, The greatest density reached is about 205 per acre in the Third Ward. The health conditions of the city are generally satisfactory and show signs of improvement, the death-rate of 17*2 for 1908 being the lowest ever recorded in Philadelphia. Since 1892, when the rate was 22'3, the movement has not been uniformly downwards, but this has been the general tendency. The completion of a new filtration plant at a cost of about £5,500,000 is expected to secure greater immunity from typhoid fever than the city has enjoyed in the past. In 1908 there were 533 deaths from this cause, but a considerable proportion were then attributed officially to contaminated milk and to individuals who had contracted the disease during hohday absences. The number of deaths from tuberculosis of the lungs in 1908 was 3,068, or 2*0 per thousand of the population, a rate which, although showing an improvement, still leaves the Bureau of Health anxious for greater preventive jiowers, including that of compulsory removal and the establishment of a corps of health missioners. Puhnonary tuberculosis, pneumonia and congestion of the lungs between them accounted for 5,916 deaths or 22*5 per cent, of the total. No death from smallpox was recorded during the four years 1905-8, this immunity following on a period of four years in which the average number of deaths from this disease had been about 220. There has been no year of serious smallpox epidemic since 1881, when the number of deaths was 1,33(5. PHILADELPHIA. 319 The following Table gives the official rates of births, deaths and infant mortality for the years 1 904-8 :— ' Year. Birth-rate per Death-rate per 1,000 of Population. { 1,000 of Population. 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 22-8 23-0 23-5 23-1 23-7 18-4 17-2 18-6 18-3 17-2 Infantile Mortality per 1,000 Births. 157 153 168 159 146 Direct municipal enterprise in Philadelphia proceeds mainly upon what for America are normal lines, one exception being found, however, in the gas works which, tirst established in 1835, were taken over by the city a few years later, and until 1897 were under municipal management. Since that year the works have been leased to the United Gas Improvement Company. T'he lease was for 30 years but included the option of resumption in 1907, which option was not exercised. An alternative proposal was, indeed, put forward in 1905 which would have extended the period of the lease until 1980. Terms were included, however, which were disapproved and became the immediate cause of an agitation that led to a period of municipal reform in this city. Although this period was of short duration the fresh gas proposals were dropped. The channel of the river has been deepened in recent years from 26 to 30 feet by means of Federal, State and Municipal grants, and the way has thus been prepared for an increasing use of this port. Other subsidiary improvements are projected, but the Mayor's Annual Message for 1908 contains the admission that " Philadelphia's neglect of her harbour improvements has been more marked than that of any other American municipality." More than 90 per cent, of the eight miles of water front of the Delaware was either in the hands of the railway companies, which control about half of the total, or of private owners — " a condition which," it is said, " would not be allowed in any active port were the citizens alive to the interests of the city." The water supply is a great municipal undertaking and the filtration system recently completed, and made necessary by the previous pollution of the Avater supply, was described in the Mayoral Message for 1908 as "the greatest undertaking the citj' of Philadelphia has ever planned or executed." Other important municipal responsibilities are the public schools, of which there are 320 ; hospitals, including an extensive municipal hospital for contagious diseases, to which 2,783 patients, about half of them suffering from diphtheria, were admitted during 1908, and a large general hospital in which 14,470 patients were treated during 1908 ; a fire department ; public baths ; museums ; and a free library. The last-mentioneii dates ■only from 1894, but there are now in addition to the main library 19 branches, together with a department for the blind, more than 70 collections of books distributed in various places, including the fire stations and police sfcitions, and other features. Building extension has been aided by a great bequest from Mr. Andrew Carnegie, and the rapidly increasing usefulness of this recent enterprise has been marked. During 1908 more than two million volumes were taken out by readers and many others were consulted. The playground system of Philadelphia is in its infancy and small squares and parks are not numerous, but in the Fairmont Park, covering 3,341 acres and extending along both banks of the Schuylkill River for about four miles, Philadelphia possesses one of the largest city parks in the world and one of which it is justly proud. Some of the very numerous private endowments of Philadelphia, including the Oirard College, for the education and maintenance of orjjhan boys, and the Drexel Institute, are well knoAvn, and the Pennsylvania University ranks now as one of the largest in America. The telephone system, which is in the hands of two companies, and electric lighting are private enterprises. The tramway system is now controlled by the Philadelphia Rapid Transit Company. The company is private but under the complicated terms of a concession granted in 1897 the Mayor and two citizens chosen by the City Council sit as repre- sentatives of the city upon the Board of Directors. A service of only moderate efficiency is provided and on more than one occasion during quite recent years the management has become involved in serious labour disputes. I 320 PHILADELPHIA. There are 866 churches in the city, and in addition to the public schools there are 223 other centres of education composed of other schools under religious control, colleges and libraries. The licensed theatres number 36, but a fen- of these have been converted, at least temporarily, into moving picture shows. The total number of these shows, a form of amusement that began in a small way in 1903 and at first increased slowly, had reached to 180 by 1909. There are 336 hotels and apartment houses ; 350 hospitals, asylums and buildings used for benevolent and charitable purposes ; 134 breweries, distilleries and malt-houses ; and in 1909 1,965 saloons were licensed. In the assessment of real estate no analysis is made of the values as between land and "improvements," (i.e., buildings). The total receipt from the tax levy on real estate in 1908 was over £3,800,000, raised on 345,253 buildings of all kinds at an assessed valuation, including the land, of over £260,000,000. The net public debt of the city at the beginning of 1909 was about £16,600,000, and the balance of the local borrowing capacity, which is fixed by law at seven per cent, of the assessed value of taxable real estate, stood at £1,200,000. Occupations, Wages and Houus of Labour. The industries of Philadelphia are widely scattered and, with partial exceptions in South and West Philadelphia, are found in almost every direction. Some find a natural localisation along the water front ; the printing trades are as usual mainly at or near tlie centre of the city ; northwards are the Midvale steel works ; while the main Baldwin locomotive works, with Cramp's shipbuilding yards, perhaps the best known of all the industrial enterprises of Philadelphia, are only about half a mile from the City Hall and hence in a situation that, in view of the development of the city, appears strangely close to its business centre. The Baldwin works cover several acres, and although the numbers employed have on occasion exceeded 18,000 they were then overcrowded, and 15,000 was regarded as about the number with which the most efficient working could be obtained. While the general character of this spacious city is industrial, and although in moving about in most directions it is a common experience to come across some factory or works tending to become a nucleus of localised industrial life, one quarter is in an exceptional degi'ee the manufacturing district of Philadelphia. This lies to the north- east of the city in and around Kensington. Although the River Delaware forms the eastern boundary of this district, and the river-side industries include the extensive Cramp's shipbuilding yards, the quarter is predominantly a centre of factor^' enterprise, including not only the various textile industries, of which in the aggregate it is perhaps the greatest centre in the United States, but the metal, hat, leather and many other industries. In various instances the existence of important industries in Philadelphia apjiears to be traceable to fortuitous causes, which gather weight with years and success, but are distinct in kind from an industrial development that can be explained largely by the command of natural resources. Thus shipbuilding, sometimes regarded as the premier indiastry of the city, although relatively less important now than formerly, dates from its promotion almost at the outset by the founder of the city himself. It is recorded that from 1781 to 1790 162 ships were built in Philadelphia, and that just before the outbreak of the Civil War the pioneer armoured battleship of the American navy was built in the Cramp ship and engine-building works, which had been started in 1830. The extensive yards of the New York Shipping Company are a little further down the river on the New Jersey side of the Delaware. The founder of the well known Baldwin locomotive works Avas a manufacturing jeweller of great mechanical ability, and his engagement to put together one of the first locomotives imported from England quickly led to the construction of one of domestic manufacture, and thus in later years to the growth of what have become the largest works of the kind in the world. • The carpet industry of Philadelphia is mainly the growth of the last sixty years. Of the more general causes that explain the localisation of industries — chance, personal initiative, experience, momentum, a supply of the necessai-y labour, including an unusually varied body of skilled labour, and of the necessary capital, with, as regards some industries, nearness to a considerable market — appear to afford a more complete explanation of the growth of Philadelphia than do such causes as the nearness of the sources of supply of the raw material, or any special advantages such as those traceable to climate or natural water power. Thus ajmrt from the command of a good but imperfectly developed harbour, and the not very distant Peunsylvanian coalfields, the PHILADELPHIA. 321 expansion and the industrial magnitude of Philadelphia appear now to be due to an extent above the ordinary to the human and personal factors in industry, rather than to those more obviously traceable to physical and geographical causes. The Census of 1900 is still the latest authority for the numbers of persons engaged in occupations of every kind and in certain broad classes the following Table gives informa- tion on this point : — Number of Persons of 10 years of age and over engaged in Occupations in Philadelphia in 1900. Occupations. Males. Females. Total. Building ... Metal working and Engineering Textile :— Cotton ... Woollen Silk Hosiery ... Bleaching and Dyeing Carpet Making ... Other and not specified Textile Leather Boot and Shoe Making ... Clothing Woodworking and Furnishing ... Paper and Printing Brick and Tile Glass Food, Drink and Tobacco Other Manufacturing and Mechanical Pursuits Trade and Transportation Labourers (not otherwise specified) Professional, Domestic and Personal Service and Agricultural Pursuits. All Occupations 33,637 124 33,761 40,608 760 41,368 1,035 1,408 2,443 1,971 1,391 3,362 426 1,022 1,448 1,702 5,175 6,877 3,148 77 3,225 3,827 2,045 5,872 11,309 11,621 22,930 5,269 598 5,867 5,171 931 6,102 10,978 25,252 36,230 8,669 500 9,169 9,967 3,725 13,692 1,204 2 1,206 1,611 95 1,706 16,557 2,165 18,722 36,783 8,434 45,217 129,992 22,270 152,262 41,082 635 41,717 56,324 59,423 115,747 421,270 147,653 568,923 Among the occupied classes the native whites, including those born in America with one or both parents foreign, are the mainstay of industry in Philadelphia. The great exception to this rule is found in the case of labourers, and there are also a few skilled occupations of which the statement does not hold good, as, for instance, cabinetmakers and tailors, but in general it is true in spite of the large minority of foreigners often found. Among foreigners, Irish, Germans and English rank next in importance to the native- born and the occupations followed by these three nationalities are unusually varied. In few of the more important occupations followed by males is any one of the three predominant in any marked degree, but in the case of carters, teamsters, steam and street railway employees, plumbers and blacksmiths, and a few other occupations of less importance, the foreign element appears to be predominantly Irish. Among bakers, cabinetmakers and butchers the chief foreign element appears to be German, while carpenters and joiners, machinists, boot and shoe makers, tailors, and tobacco and cigar workers may be mentioned as instances in which the nationalities employed are unusually mixed. Apart from unskilled labourers and teamsters, bricklayers and stonemasons and brick and tile makers are among the very few instances in which the minority of coloured labour assumes other than diminuti\'e proportions, and although the occupations followed by the coloured race are, as usual, varied, the numbers by which it is represented in the skilled trades are very small. In Philadelphia as in the cities lying further to the north, the industrial field open to the negro, although somewhat wider in the building trades, remains extremely narrow. Italians, mainly from the south, and Russian Jews appear to be the foreign races that have been increasing most rapidly during the past decade, and it is in areas occupied mainly by these two nationalities, by the coloured people, and on their confines by Irish and Americans, that the silent conflict for local predominance is taking place in and around the most distinctly foreign district in Philadelphia to which reference has been already made. 16570 X 322 PHILADELPHIA. In the textile industries the nationalities employed are becomino; more mixed, and the past relative predominance of the English-born is diminishing. The present position may be illustrated by the following general information furnished by three employers with reference to those in their service : (1 ) " English or those of English descent form the majority " ; (2) " The Americans predominate now, that is, there are fewer English-born. A few Poles are employer!, but Italians form the chief foreign element and in the weaving department young Italian girls are employed in spinning and reeling " ; (.S) "All nationalities are found in the mill, but those employed are now mostly American-born." On dock work comparatively few Irish are now employed, but there is a good deal of coloured, Polish and Italian labour. In the garment industry Russian Jews are numerous. The most generally recognised working week for unskilled labour in Philadelphia is 60 hours, and the same number still holds good for many skilled workers, including those in various grades employed in the metal and textile industries. In the former group the 56^-hours week is becoming common, however, and in some cases the 54-hours week is observed, 9| hours being then generally worked on five days and the balance of 5;^ hours on the Saturday. In the textile group the predominant range a))pears to be from 57 to (iO hours per week The short Saturday is often conceded even when 60 hours are worked, as, for instance, by adopting the following time table : — -Monday to Friday, 6.45 a.m. to noon and from 12.40 to 6.15 p.m. ; and on Saturday from 6.45 a.m. to 12.85 p.m. In the felt hat trade the week is usually from 50 to 55 hours. In the printing trades the 48-hours week prevails generally, but in the buildiqg trades, while the working week is often longer, 44 hours predominate. This is especially true in the superior branches of the trade known as " construction " w^ork as distinguished from those branches concerned with the erection of small dwellings, which are still multiplying in i'hiladelphia. In London the counterpart of these two branches of the tratie might be illustrated by, on the one hand, a contract for the erection of a large block of City offices, and on the other by that for a street of cottage dwellings in the suburbs. In a 44-hours week in the building trades the usual hours are from 8 a.m. to 4.30 p.m., with an interval of half an hour at noon, from Monday to Friday, and from 8 to 12 on Saturday. 48, 50 and 54 hours per week are also mentioned in the returns obtained, and sometimes when 44 hours are exceeded the length of the working week in the hottest summer months is shorter than during the rest of the year. In an ordinary year bricklayers were considered to be employed on an average for about 9 months, but for 1908 the average period was estimated at from 7 to 8 months. In Philadelphia the most usual holidays are New Year's Day, Easter Monday, Memorial Day, Independence Day, Labour Day, Thanksgiving Day and Christmas Day. Under a trade agreement the brewers have a special trade holiday in September known as Brewers' Day. For this day they are paid, but as a rule for this class of worker as for others holidays involve loss of pay. The brewing trade is one of the few trades in Philadelphia in which labour ie completely organised, those ranking with it in this respect being a few of the smaller sections of the building trades, including tile-layers, tile-layers' helpers, elevator constructors, granite cutters and two specialised sections of painters ; and several iniscellaneous occupations, as, for instance, theatrical stage employees and tramway men. The strength of the trade union formed among the last is (juite recent, and followed on a successful strike in 1909 that, despite its violence, was accompanied by much public sympathy, which, apparently alienated by the company through the withdrawal of privileges with regard to fares to which the public considered itself entitled, was diverted to those in the tramway service. Among the strongly but less completely organised bodies of wage-earners are the main sections of the building trades, particularly in the more important " construction " branches to which reference has been made. Among these sections may be mentioned plasterers and bricklayers, and to a less extent structural iron workers, carpenters and lioiise painters. Bricklayers as compared with such a grade as carpenters are generally in a stronger position as being mainly a city product, while airpenters, on the other hand, can be drawn from the country districts, where they are relatively far more numerous and where their rates of wages are lower. In the cities generally, where frame houses are becoming less common, the position of the carpenter, both employer and employed, is becoming relatively of less importance, PHILADELPHIA. 323 and as one consequence of this the former is now found to be less generally the chief contractor, who sub-lets the other branches of the building work and with whom the client deals. The plasterers' labourers and hod carriers also have strong societies, the latter being composed of coloured men. In general the employers in the building trades appear to be more closely associated than the workpeople. The printing trades were mure strongly organised than they are at present up to 1906, when a strike for a reduction of hours took place. Most of the news])aper and printing tirms in Philadelphia are now non-union, but there appears, nevertheless, to be a general observance of trade union rates of wages so far as ordinary time is concerned, although not of the whole body of trade union conditions. The Hatters' Society is said to have about a thousand members, but employers in several of the factories, including the largest, do not recognise the union. The attempt to enforce the trade union label led to difficulties in this trade recently. In the metal trades, moulders and patternmakei's appear to possess the strongest organisations and machinists and blacksmiths the weakest. The largest firms employing the above grades are non-union and there is much piece work. Apart from the cutters, organisation in the garment industry is not strong, and the " open shop " is also the general practice in most branches of the textile and leather industries. In the carpet industry, however, there is a strong union among the Wilton and Brussels weavers and its rates prevail. Altogether Philadelphia is not a strong centre of trade unionism and a City Ordinance approved in December, 1901, requiring that no person shall be employed on municipal contracts who is not qualified to receive and is not paid " such rates of wages and for such hours of work as shall be the established and current rates of wajjes paid for such hours by employers of organised labour in the doing of similar work," has less practical importance than would otherwise be the case. The following Table shows the predominant weekly wages and hours of labour for adult males engaged in certain of the principal trades and industries of Pliiladelphia in February, 1909 : — Predominant Weekly Wages and Hours of Labour of Adult Males in the Principal Occupations in February, 1909. Predominant Predominant Weekly Wages. Weekly Hours of Labonr. Building Trades: — Bricklayers 114s. Id. 44 Stonemasons '.Us. 8rf. 44 Stonecutters 87s. Id. to 91s. M. 44 Carpenters 82s. &d. 44 Plasterers 108s. lOrf. 44 Plumbers 80s. M. 44 Structural Iron Workers 103s. 2d. 44 Painters ... 64s. 2d. to 73s. id. 44 Hod Carriers and Bricklayers' Labourers 55s. to 64s. 2d. 44 Plasterers' Labourers 68s. M. 44 Metal, Engineering and Shipbuilding Trades : — Ironmoulders 72s. &d. to 80s. 54 to 60 Machinists 58s. 7c?. „ 68s. 9rf. 54 „ 60 Blacksmiths 68s. M. „ 87s. M. 54 ., 60 Patternmakers ... 81s. M. „ 83s. M. 54 „ 60 R-^"- {Eine::; ::: ::: ::: ::: 62.V. Grf. „ 68s. M. 83s. 4fl!. „ 91s. M. 56 „ 60 56 „ 60 Caulkers 62s. 6d. „ 70s. 4rf. 56 „ 60 Holders-up 35s. 2d. „ 40s. lOd. 56 „ 60 Labourers 37s. M. „ 39s. M. 54 „ 60 Woollen and Worsted Industry .- — Wool Sorters 66s. 8rf. to 75s. 57 to 60 Wool Scourers 41s. M. „ 50s. 57 „ 60 Warpers 66s. M. „ 77s. Id. 57 „ 60 Loom Fixers lbs. „ 77s. Id. 57 „ 60 Weavers 55s. lOd. „ 62s. 6f/. 57 „ 60 Menders 50s. 57 „ 60 Hosiery .- — Boarders... 58s. id. 59 to 60 Tapestry and Curtains .- — Loom Fixers 66s. Sd. to 79s. 2d. 57 Beamers... ... 7()s lOd. ., 75s. 57 Weavers... 62.'J. 6d. „ lbs. 57 16576 X 2 324 PHILADELPHIA. Predominant Predominant Weekly Wages. Weekly Hours of Labour. Carpeta and Rugs : — Loom Fixers 66s. M. to 75s. 58 to 60 . Weavers 50s. „ 83s. id. 58 „ 60 Djers 50s. „ 75s. 58 „ 60 Felt'iHats .— Sizers 66s. Sd. to 83s. 4d. 50 to 55 Finishers 75s. „ 83s. id. 50 „ 55 Leather Trades : — Semi-skilled Men 50s. to 62s. 6d. 55 to 60 Unskilled Labourers .. 37s. 6c?. „ 43s. 9rf. 55 „ 60 Printinc/ and Bookbinding Trades : — Newspaper — Hand Compositors { ggj^r^tk" ^ "; 81s. M. 83s. id. 48 48 Machine Compositors { ^ Jh7wk" '.'.'. '.'.'. 91s. M. 104s. 2d. 48 48 Book and Job — Hand Compositors 75s. 48 Prpssmen / Cylinder Presses fressmen | s^all Presses 83s. id. to 91s. 8d. 48 45s. lOd. „ 58s. 4c?. 48 Bookbinders — Forwarders 66s. Sd. „ 75s. 48 Bookbinders — Finishei-s 83s. id. 48 Brewing .■ — Kettle, Cellar and Fermenting Hoom Men 66s. 8c?. to 75s. 54 Washers '. b2s. 6c?. „ 75s. 54 Maltsters 75s. 54 Coopers 66s. 8c?. 54 Engineers 87s. 6d. 56 Firemen 66s. Sd. 56 Koute-Drivers 75s. 54 to 60 Labourers 41s. Sd. to 50s. 54 „ 60 Cigarmakers 62s. 6rf. to 83s. id. 50 „ 60 Transport Trades : — Dock Labourers — On shore Is. 01n 330 PHILADELPHIA. In the following paragraphs particulars of some of the dwellings and districts visited in the course of the present enquiry are given. North. 1. In one of the older districts in which the dwellings were mainly of two and three stories, 80 years or more old, and mostly with six and seven rooms but with occasional rows of smaller dwellings : (a.) A two-storied brick house containing six rooms with a shed kitchen, standing on a plot 15 feet by 70 feet. Dimensions of three bed- rooms : — 10 feet by 14 feet, 8 feet by 9 feet and 8 feet by 12 feet ; height 8 feet 6 inches. In the second bedroom a fixed bath. Water-closet in garden. Rent ISs. 6c?. per week. (Jj.) Three-storied brick house. Seven rooms with bathroom and shed kitclien. Dimensions of four bedrooms : — Two 15 feet by 12 feet and two 8 feet by 12 feet, height 8 feet 6 inches. Two water-closets — one in house and one in garden (flushed). Chickens kept. Occupiers, a Yorkshire moulder, out of health, wife and five children. He had moved in from a more suburban district to cheaper accommodation. Rent 17*. 4rf. per week. (c.) Two-storied brick house. Four white marble steps, projecting on pathway, to front door. House flush with street. Built in a row. Shutters. Trees planted in roadway, which was macadamised. Six rooms and bath. Water-closet in yard. Occupier Irish. Owner of house. Rent put at Hs. bd. per week. 2. In a new building area about 4J miles north-east of the City Hall. Two- storied brick bouse, containing six rooms and bathroom. One water-closet inside the dwelling and a second one outside. Heater in cellar for hot air system. Rent, which had been recently reduced from 195. 3(/., 17*'. 4^/. per week. 3. Two-storied brick house. Plot 15 feet by 85 feet. Depth of building 47 feet. Six rooms, including a " reception hall," but exclusive of bathroom and small laundry. Verandah along the front of the house. Fixed range and dresser. Built on certificate and by advance to speculative builder from one of the local Trusts. Rent put at 22s. \d. per week. For sale at d^700. Many dwellings are being built in Philadelphia on a plan such as that indicated above and the financial operation involved apparently explains the general description of this class of building as " operation " work, as distinct from the '• construction " work to which reference has been already made. It is in this speculative cottage building that chere appears to be the greatest departure from the more recognised wage scale and wage conditions of the city. It is also on such building that showy and unsatisfactory workmanship is often noticeable, threatening, in the absence of early demolition, trouble in the future. 4. Two-storied brick houses built in a row. Porch, balcony and bay windows. Dimensions: — of sitting room 13 feet 6 inches by 11 feet by 9 feet ; of- building 14 feet by 27 feet ; of plot 14 feet by 43 feet. P'our rooms and bathroom. Rent 13s. 11^. per week. 5. New two-storied brick dwellings in a principal street. Built in row. Porch and verandah. Six rooms, bathroom and laundry. Dimensions : — Parlour 10 feet by 13 feet 6 inches ; dining room 11 tieet 3 inches by 14 feet ; kitchen 12 feet by 10 feet ; laundry 5 feet by 10 feet ; bedrooms : — 15 feet by 14 feet, 9 feet bv 13 feet and 11 feet by 10 feet ; bathroom 5 feet 6 inches by 7 feet. Height 9 feet. Size of building site 15 feet by 44 feet. Size of plot 15 feet by 70 feet. For sale at £580 or probably for cash £540. Rent 19s. M. per week. 6. Small two-storied brick dwellings, built about 25 years ago. Supplied with heater, but this out of order. Four rooms, bathroom and shed kitchen ; water-closet in yard. Occupier, insurance agent, with wife, mother and one child. Comfortable home. Rent lis. Qd. per week. 7. Small two-storied brick houses in a small street. Four rooms, with water- closet in yard. Rent from 8s. Sd. to 9s. ~d. per week. 8. In Gerniantown new two-storied brick houses with large hall, saloon parlour, dining room and kitchen on ground floor, with shed kitchen behind, and upfetuirs fchir bedrooms and batbrtiora. Rent 20s. id. per wdek. PHILADELPHIA. . 33 1 Houses of exactly the same size, but with smaller hall and with the saloon parlour divided into two small rooms, were rented, although nominally containing one room more, at 19s. 3c?. per week. South. 1. Two-storied red brick dwellings, built about 20 years ago, constructed without heaters, but with fixed range for hot and cold water. Gas. Dimensions of plot : 14 feet by 48 feet; of building : 14 feet by 36 feet. Houses flush with street. Front doer approached by the conventional marble steps. Small comfortable home. Occupier American. Six rooms and bathroom with shed kitchen. Rent V?>s. 6d. per week ; if fitted with heater • 14s. 5d. per week. 2. Two-stoned brick houses ; marble steps. Parlour and kitchen on ground floor ; three bedrooms on first floor including one formed above the " bay extension." Water-closet underdrained in yard. Occupiers American, a few Italians, &c. Rent, without fixed range and leaving tenant to buy both stove and gas stove, 10s. 7d. per week ; with fixed range lis. 6d. per week. 3. In a main street two-storied brick dwelling with 16 feet frontage. Seven rooms, one a large comfortable saloon parlour, bathroom and shed kitchen ; rent 19s. 3c?. a week. West. West Philadelphia contains in part the most compact area of small dwellings to be found in Philadelphia and has witnessed the most rapid expansion in recent years. From a slight elevation a great part of this district, with its long stretches of almost flat roofs, presents a remarkable semi-oriental a])pearance. Although other districts, both north and even south, are not very dissimilar. West Philadelphia is perhaps the most interesting and distinctive development and represents an area that as much as, if not more than, any other helps to maintain the claim of Philadelphia to be still regarded as pre-eminently a " city of homes." 1. Two-storied brick dwellings in a side street. Dimensions of plot : — 14 feet 6 inches by 71 feet 6 inches. Seven rooms, bathroom, small laundry, porch and verandah. Water-closet in the house. Rent 17s. Ad. per week. 2. In a main street new two-storied brick houses, containing seven rooms, bath- room, small laundry, and fitted with steam heat. Porch and verandah. Dimension of jjlot : — 15 feet by 70 feet. Rent 24s. per week. 3. In a side street a row of two-storied brick dwellings. On ground floor : parlour, dining room (dark) and kitchen. On first floor, three bedrooms and bathroom. Comfortable home, not of recent type. Porch and verandah. Grass in the small yard behind. Rent 15s. 5d. per week. 4. In an older part- : two-storied brick houses with ])orch and verandah. Heater in cellar. Fixed range. Gas laid on. Water-closet in yard. On ground floor a parlour and dining room. Kitchen just outside the main building but in permanent use, constructed of galvanised iron and not of wood as is the case with the real shed kitchen. On first floor, two bedrooms and bathroom. Rent 13s. 6d. per week. 5. In a pleasant side street well planted with trees a row of two-storied brick dwellings with porch and verandah. On the ground floor : parlour, dining room, kitchen and shed kitchen. On the first floor, three bedrooms and bathroom. Rent 16s. 4d. to 17s. 4d. per week. 6. In a side street a row of two-storied mottled brick dwellings. Dimensions : — of plot, 15 feet by 42 feet ; of building, 15 feet by 32 feet (including the verandah). Only four rooms and bathroom, but these of good size. Rent 13s. 66?. to 14s. od. per week. For purposes of the present enquiry, numerous rentals were obtained of working-class dwellings mainly in the occupation of single families, and the predominant figures shown in the following Table are the results thus yielded. The shed kitchen has not been counted as a " room." The high maximum reached for the five-roomed dwelling is doubtless explained by the fact that dwellings of this size are relatively scarce in the city. It will be observed that the predominant range of rentals for six-roomed dwellings — the most important class — was from 13s. 66?. to 17s. 4c?. per week. The apparent discrepancy in the case of seven and eight-roomed dwellings is ■explained by the fact that those of the latter size in the occupation of wage-earners are often of an older and relatively less expensive type, and also by the more Uberal planning of the rooms that is often adopted in the modern seven-roomed dwellings. 332 PHILADELPHIA. Predominant Bents of Working-class Dwellings. Number of Rooms per Dwelling. Three rooms Four rooms Five rooms Six rooms Seven rooms Eight rooms Predominant Weekly Renta. Is. Sd. to 11.9. Gd. 9s. Id. „ 14s. 5a!. 10s. Id. „ 17s. id. 13s. Gd. „ 17s. id. lis. 5d. „ 20s. 2d. 17s. id. „ 19s. -id. The level of rentu at New York being represented by 100, the rents index number for Philadelphia is 79. Rents paid by the coloured race for dwellings of the same character appear, as in many other cities, to be somewhat in excess of those paid by whites. When a street is solely occupied by the coloured race, however, this disparity becomes less marked, and in the opinion of some as regards the more central and poorer districts no longer holds good. In the coloured tenements controlled by the Octavia Hill Association the average rental per room in 1906 was 3s. 6c?. per week, as compared with a general average for all the tene- ments of the Association of 3s. S^d. It was among the coloured people, however, that the largest number of single-room tenements existed, and this fact would tend to raise the average per room. But in any case the excess shown is very slight. The more general tendency has been for rents to rise somewhat since 1905, but in those properties managed on a purely competitive basis of rapidly changing rentals there has been a considerable set-back from the level reached in 1907. In new dwellings a free month was being often given. Rents in all cases include water and taxes. The water-rate, including 12s. 6d. for a bath, is usually 37s. dd. per annum. Save for a poll tax of 2s. Id., legally due every year, but in practice only paid once in two years, working-class tenants are thus free from all direct taxation. Written agreements are the general rule, with three months' notice on either side, but, usually, the law making the recovery of arrears difficult, rents are fixed on a monthly basis and are paid in advance. According to the Census of 1900, 12" 1 per cent, of the houses were owned by their occupiers free of encumbrance, and 10"0 per cent, were owned but not free, while the remaining 77 "9 per cent, were hired. The percentage of dwellings owned by their occupiers in Philadelphia is unexpectedly low for a city where not only are the individual homes small and thus more easily acquired than in some cities, but where also the building and loan associations were first started in the United States and where, without the intervention of these societies, builders and trust companies also offer their own special inducements for the purchase of real estate. It may be observed, however, that ownership of a dwelling does not necessarily involve its occupancy, and it appears to be an open question both at Philadelphia and elsewhere whether, in the belief that a greater mobility is secured thereby, the practice of purchasing dwellings by wage-earners as an investment rather than as a home is or is not increasing. The first building and loan association in Philadelphia is said to have been established in 1831, and of these associations there are now some 600 in the city. In 1907 their resources were returned at £14,423,930, £12,409,606 being represented by loans on real estate. Of the liabilities £12,048,819 was represented by the amounts due to shareholders on account of instalments paid for stock held. The receipts for the year amounted to £8,646,438, including £1,740,354 borrowed. The other chief items of the receipts were dues and other charges incidental to the holding of stock, returned at £3,839,790, and mortgage, stock and other loans repaid, returned at £2,513,271. None of the societies in Philadelphia are individually of great size, a feature that is regarded by some as being more in keeping with the character of these institutions than great concentration, but it is evident from the above figures that in the aggregate their transactions are extensive. These institutions began as " terminating " societies, and the practices adopted have been described as follows in the proceedings (1908) of the United States League of [iocal Building and Loan Associations : — " The earlj societies were small neighbourhood affairs, managed at night with the utmost economy. The members agreed to contribute to a fund, to be advanced to so- called borrowers among their own number ; that the shares should have a par value of PHILADELPHIA. J133 $200 (£41,lo6'. id.), and should be paid for in instalments of one dollar (4s. 2d.) per month ; that borrowers should pay six per cent, interest on their loans ; that loans should be made only on real estate or society stock security ; that if two or more wanted to borrow the available funds, they should bid premiums (i.e., a higher rate of interest) for priority ; that members neglecting to pay their dues should be fined ; that all shares of stock should participate equally in the gains of the society, and that when the dues paid, together with the gains, should reach the par value of $200 (£41 ISs. id.), the funds should be distributed and the society dissolved." With the important difference that societies are generally perpetual and not termi- nating, the practices outlined in the above quotation are still in general observed. Shares generally take about twelve years to mature, and if no loan has been granted in the interval holders are then entitled to receive $200 (£41 13s. 4^.) in cash. Loans are not limited to members, but members have the first claim. The English principle known as tenant co-partnership, where ownership consists in easily transferable shares in a joint enterprise and not in the individual dwelling, has not yet been introduced. While the potential social value of the building and loan association and cognate institutions is peculiar to themselves, alternative methods for purchasing a dwelling are numerous, and are being constantly brought to the attention of the public. A common plan involves (1) the payment of a certain proportion of the price down — say $500 on a house and site, the price of which is $3,.'i00, and which is rented at $25 per month ; (2) taking out a first mortgage for say $2,200 on such a house as the above ; and (3) a second mortgage for the balance of $800, repayable in equal annual instalments in eight years. On such a plan as the above, the combined yearly charges for the first eight years, including taxes and water-rate, amount to just over $25 per month, and after the eighth year to a little less than $13 per month — an obvious economy, assuming that the house can be kept in good repair at reasonable cost, over the method of simple renting. Retail Pkices. Philadelphia is not far removed from a farming district that is still of importance in America, and although the value of this to the city has diminished with the growth of its own population, and with the increasing concentration of the sources of the agricul- tural and pastoral food supplies westwards, Philadelphia is still, from the point of ^-iew of the consumer, a rather favourably situated place. The machinery of distribution which it possesses requires only brief comment. As regards foods, the individual shop is of chief importance, although the " chain " or " multiple " cash stoi'es are tending to weaken the position of the more old-fashioned " corner " or " neighbourhood " store. On the whole, modern changes are beneficial to the working-class consumer, tending as they do to weaken the practice of giving credit in all branches of the trade, cceteris paribus to lower prices, and incidentally to introduce a more uniform level of prices throughout the city. These tendencies are strengthened by the practice of free delivery by large stores more centrally placed. ' The " department store " itself is not important as regards the sale of foods, only one of the large central establishments having retained this branch. On the other hand, as regards the dress and household requisites of various kinds, the " department stores " of Philadelphia are famous, and the interesting suggestion has been made in explanation of their comparative magnitude that, while the great area covered by the city tends to make people more willing to buy food in their own neighbourhoods, the purchase of dress is regarded as having a greater degree of importance, and inducing as it does the desire to compare what is being sold, the force of fashion thus makes itself felt, and that this makes for centralisation. But as regards meat and groceries, &c., since it is then rather a mere question of quality and quantity, requirements can be more easily met and met anywhere. Although the importance of the " multiple " shop is tending to increase, and the use of the " trading stamp," also connected with cash payments, is also for the present affecting the shopping practices of considerable numbers, the " neighbourhood store " is in general holding its own, and the store-keepers have a strong association of their own. Notwithstanding that cash payments are becoming more common in the trade generally, it is noteworthy that the credit given by the " neighbourhood store " during the depression of 1908 was accorded a prominent place by the local Society for Organ- ising Charity among the various aids by which the difficulties of that year were surmounted. 384 PHILADELPHIA. The old-fashioned grocer is no longer the more common class of retailer, however, and, although there are a large number of separate butchers, groceries, meat, fish, poultry, provisions, vegetables and fruit are all now apt to be sold at a single establishment. In the hot weather little meat is exposed for sale, and stock is usually kept in the cool chamber. In the home the ice-chest is in common use. Sepai-ate fishmongers are much more exceptional than separate butchers, and owing partly to traditional custom and partly to the practices of the Roman Catholic Church, the sale of fish is largely a Friday trade, and is thus coTnparatively unsuitable as the sole source of livelihood. Including these combined establishments or " markets," there are in all some 6,000 retailers of meat throughout the city. In certain sections of the city the Italians, and still more the Jews, are opening shops, largely for the sale of fruit and vegetables and sjiecial commodities of racial consumption. Markets in the English sense of the word have been of considerable importance in the past, but, although still found, are falling relatively into disuse. This appears to be mainly explained by the diminished importance of the neighbouring farmers who, by attending the markets, played a far greater part formerly in supplying the city. Some of the covered markets are still busy centres of trade, and the South Street open market is, on occasion, one of the busiest shopping streets to be found anywhere. But, in general, the markets are of secondary importance, and the one that is best known and most used is frequented by the middle-class rather than the working-class consumer. Co-operative stores have secured no foothold. Groceries and other Commodities. Wheaten bread is generally consumed, and although cheaper bread could be obtained, the predominant price per ] 6 oz. loaf in February, 1909, was 2^d. Rye bread, when sold, was somewhat cheaper than wheaten, and in the summer a " rough rye " loaf of various weights was being sold at l^rf. per lb. as in New York. At the large factories two wheaten 2.W- loaves " one day old " were being sold at half-price. Home baking appears to be chiefly confined to the smaller forms of bread substitutes, such as rolls and biscuits. By the Italians noodles and macaroni are, as usual, often made at home. For tea, which is much less consumed than cofFet;, a common unit of sale is J lb., whereas for coffee, mainly sold in the berry, it is the full pound. Milk is sold with great uniformity at 4|rf. per quart, and in the regulation of its price a Milk Exchange appears to be an effective influence. Storage eggs are consumed largely. Potatoes are frequently sold by the " basket," a circular receptacle, the inside measurements of which are 13^ inches across at the top, 9 inches at the bottom and 13 inches in height, and which contains about 2 pecks when filled. The predominant price of potatoes in February was 7d. to Sd. per 7 lb. At the beginning of September prices noted were per quarter-peck (about 3| lb.) 3|-rf., per half-peck 6^d. and per " basket " 25. Id. and 2s. f)(f. Tomatoes were at that date in full season and, as being a perishable commodity, much cheaper than potatoes. Thus, at one establishment where potatoes were priced at 2,s. 6d. per " basket," tomatoes were Is. i)^d. Turnips were being sold at the same place for 2s. Gd. per " basket," and cabbages at Is. O^d. Anthracite coal is in general used, and by State law the " long " ton of 2,240 lb. is adopted. For this quantity the price in February, 1909, was 28s. l^d. for any of the domestic sizes known as " egg" " stove " or " nut," and 19s. 7d. for that known as " pea " coal ; nut (or chestnut) and pea coal are the sizes in most usual consumption. The price of the former is reduced to 26s. O^d. in April, and by monthly advances of 5d. the maximum of 28s. l^d. is reached again in September. For this variety there has been no change in price since October, 190.5, but pea coal has advanced Is. O^d. in the interval, having been 18s. 6^d. at the earlier date. In this variety there is no seasonal Variation in price. The advance of the price of pea coal since 1905 is explained by the fact that its consumption has increased in recent years, largely owing to the modern construction of the ranges, in which the spaces between the bars are now being made narrower, so that the smaller variety of coal can thus be used. The standard stjuare mesh used for this coal is |-inch as compared with l'|-inch in the case of nut coal. Pea coal is still regarded by the collieries as of the natui'e of a by-product, but now ranks really as a domestic coal ol low price. Many consumers are said to mix the two sizes, as doubtless some small dealers PHILADELPHIA. 335 also do. Tlie large dealers do not as a rule sell less than half a ton, and the ton or half- ton appears to be the more common amount purchased. In small quantities coal is often sold by the bucket of from 18 to 22 lb. for about 4d. Apart from its petty branches, uniform prices and uniform movements of prices in the coal trade are secured by a general understanding among the coal producing companies. The following Table shows the predominant prices paid by wage-earning families in February, 1909 :— Predominant Prices paid by the Working Classes in February, 1909. Commodity. Predominant Price. Tea per lb. Is. Sd. Coffee j» lOd. to Is. Qid. Sugar : — White Granulated ji 2kd. Brown , ,; 2\d., 2^d. Bacon, Breakfast — Boneless 11 M. to lOd. Eggs, Storage per Is. 12, 13 Cheese, American per lb. °id. to lOd. Butter „ Is. M. „ Is. Id. Potatoes, Irish per 7 lb. Id. ., M. Flour, Wheaten — Household ,» Is. OJd. Bread, White per 4 lb. lOd. Milk per quart 4|d. Coal, Anthracite : — Nut per cwt. Is. bd.* Pea »9 Hid.* Kerosene ... per gallon b\d. to &d. ■ • By the ton of 2,240 lb. Meat. Although there are more than 150 private slaughter-houses in Philadelphia, most of the meat consumed, especially of beef, comes from the West, and the explanation of the extent to which live meat is brought from there to this city is again found in the local Jewish demand. " Kosher " meat was described as being the backbone of the local industry. In the retail trade the distinction between mutton and lamb is very often quite loosely drawn, but in the " legitimate " trade there is said to be a diflference of about 2c?. per lb. as between the two kinds of meat. A partial explanation of this frequent lack of clear distinction appears to be the ignorance both of retailers and of the public, but a more important cause is a change that is said to have taken place during the last ten years in the age of killing. The practice of rearing the wether to full growth is being aban- doned, and those parts of the flock which are destined primarily for meat and not for bi-eeding being killed earlier, " lamb " becomes the most common description dealt with in the meat shops. Real lamb, however, in February would be from lambs dropped in the previous autumn and would be of prohibitive price as regards the general run of working- class consumers. An explanation is given by the foregoing of such remarks as those made by one butcher who " only sold lamb," that most of it would be " about a year old," and of another that " the real mutton of the two-year-old wether is hardly obtainable," and that " much yearling meat is sold as lamb." At one establishment prices were in fact given separately for " mutton " and for " yearling meat." For these reasons no distinction has been drawn in the following Table of the predominant prices as between mutton and lamb. A considerable advance in the price of meat took place during the summer of 1909, and this advance had not been arrested in 1910. The local agitation in connexion with increased cost of living appears to have been connected primarily with the prices of agricultural and dairy produce. By one firm, employing about 1 ,000 persons, conditions were met in the spring of 1910 by a uniform percentage advance on previous time rates that was equivalent in this case to about 26'. ^d. per week ibr adult male workers. 33« PHILADELPmA. The following Table shows the predominant prices for various cuts of meat paid by working-class consumers in February, 1909 : — Predominant Prices paid by the Working Classes in February, 1909. Description of Cut. Predominant Price per lb. Beef :— Roasts — Round „ Ribs prime ... „ Ribs second cut „ Chuck or short ribs Steaks — Round „ Sirloin... Shin without bone Flank f Fresh \ Salt or corned Plate, Brisket Mutton or Lamb Leg Breast Loin Chops Shoulder Neck Veal :— Cutlets .. Rib chops Loin chops Breast Neck Pork :— Fresh — Loin „ Spare Rib „ Shoulder „ Chops Corned (wet salt or pickled) Dry salt , Ham Shoulder, salt or smoked M. to M. Id. „ M. Crf. „ Sd. hd. „ 6d. M. „ M. M.. „ Ud. id. „ 5rf. id. 3d. to 3y. •did. „ id. Id. to M. M. „ 3W. «d „ lOrf. Sd. „ Ud. bd. „ &d. id. „ M. lOd. to Is. 0\d Sd. „ M. M. „ lOrf. M. M. Id. to 8rf. M. 6d 7hd. to M. Id. Id. toM &hd. „ M. M. „ M. Prices at New York being taken as the base, =100, in each case, the index number for the price of meat at Philadelphia is 95, for other food it is 97 and for food prices as a whole 96. For rents and food prices combined the index number is 92. Philadelphia does not appear to be very favourably situated for the supply of fish, but in this trade, as in many others, the practice of cold storage is common, and thus dependence upon local supply is diminished. Prices noted in September, 1909, were for haddock bd. per lb. and for halibut Is. OJc/. per lb. Poultry is often sold undressed, and prices also noted in September were for fowls lOrf. and for chickens Is. O^d. per lb. 337 PITTSBURG. Pittsburg, the. second largest city in Pennsylvania, is situated in the south-west of that State at the point where the rivers Allegheny and Monongahela meet to form the Ohio, and in proximity to the States of Ohio and West Virginia. The distances to other great cities by rail are — to New York and Philadelphia respectively 439 and 349 miles to the east, to Chicago 468 miles to the west, to St. Louis 613 miles to the south-west and to Cleveland on Lake Eric L39 miles to the north-west. Pittsburg, which was originally the French settlement Fort Duquesne, passed into English hands in 1758, when it was named Fort Pitt (after William Pitt the elder), and was from the first the centre of a considerable trade with the Indians. It received its charter of incorporation in 1816, and, owing to its situation both at the head of the Ohio and on the main trade routes to the West, its commerce grew rapidly. Industry quickly took root in the city, coal being easily obtainetl from the surrounding hills, while ore was brought from the Allegheny mountains ; but its great expansion began with the develop- ment of the Lake ore regions, the proximity of great supplies of coal, petroleum, good limestone and, later, natural gas leading to the estiiblishment of the great industries for which it is conspicuous. During the past thirty years Pittsburg has not only increased continuously in importance as an industrial city, but it has also seen the growth of many manufacturing towns in its neighboui'hood, and the name of Pittsburg, industrially sjjeaking, is indeed commonly understood to include the area comprised within a radius of some forty miles from the city. The predominating industries of this district, for the most part situated in Allegheny County, are the production of iron and steel, and the mining of bituminous coal. In Allegheny County alone the output of pig iron in 1907 was 5,438,232 tons and in 1908 (a year of great depression) 3,917,924 tons, being respectively 48*1 and 56*2 per cent, of the total output in the State of Pennsylvania ; the pro- duction of steel in 1907 amounted to 6,444,804 tons and in 1908 to 3,943,524 tons, being 53*3 and 53'4 per cent, respectively of the total State production ; and the manu- factures of rolled iron and steel in 1907 to 6,739,834 tons and in 1908 to 4,356,624 tons, representing respectively 52*0 and 55*3 per cent, of the total produced in the State. Although the main output of Allegheny County in iron and steel is the crude material (blooms, billets, &c.), which is worked elsewhere into finished products, the manufactures of rails and structural material, and foundry and machine shop products of very many kinds, including electric machinery and supplies, gas engines, steel cars, nuts, Ixilts, &c. are highly important. The bituminous coal mined in Allegheny County amounted to 17,443,122 net tons (2,000 lb.) in 1907 and to 14,186,542 net tons in 1908, this output forming 11-7 percent, of the total bituminous coal production of Pennsylvania in 1907 and 12'0 per cent, in 1908. There was no production of anthracite coal in Allegheny County. According to a statement furnished by the Chamber of Commerce, there were in Pittsburg and district in September, 1909, 51 blastfurnaces, 190 open hearth furnaces, 14 Bessemer converters and 33,036 coke ovens. No coal mines are now in operation in the city, and the glass factories are now situated almost exclusively in the outlying towns. Some years ago glass factories were numerous in and about the city, especially on the left bank of the Monongahela, but, partly owing to the increased valuation of city sites, and partly owing to improved facilities for obtaining supplies of gas, fuel and other materials, they have been trans- ferred to the country districts. One steel company, employing 12,000 workpeople in the heart of the city, had almost completed in the autumn of 1909 large new works (with twelve blast furnaces, billet and blooming mills, &c.) some miles down the Ohio, and it was stated that other companies also contemplate removing their works into the country in the near future. This general movement of industry outwards has been encouraged by the fact that the railway companies charge the same freight rates which apply to the city proper for goods carried to and from all points within the Pittsburg District. There is, indeed, much evidence that Pittsburg is fast becoming primarily the administrative and commercial headquarters of the local iron, steel, coal, coke and glass industries, and the general distributing centre for commodities required in the surrounding manu- facturing area. The industrial establishments in the towns along the rivers and upon the railway systems have already for the most part their central offices in the city. The population of Pittsburg, which was only 21,115 in 1840, had grown to 86,076 in 1870. Shortly after the Census of that year the city received a large accession of 16576 Y 338 PITTSBURG. population by the incorporation of the district on the left bank of the Monong'ahela known as Birmingham ; other enlargements of the city area, together Avith influx of people from other districts and natural increase, brought its population in 1900 to 321,616. In December, 1907, Allegheny City, which lies on the opposite bank of the river of the same name, and which was already socially and commercially one with Pittsburg, was incorporated along with other less important areas, Avith the result that the inhabitants of the Pittsburg of 1910 numbered 533, 905. The following Table shows the population of Pittsburg (and Allegheny) at each of the Federal Censuses 1870 to 1910 : — Year Population. Increase. Percentage Increase. Pittsburg. Allegheny. Pittsburg. Allegheny. Piitsburg. Allegheny. 1870 1880 1890 1900 86,076 156,389 238,617 321,616 53,180 78,682 105,287 129,896 70,313 82,228 82,999 25,502 26,605 24,609 81-7 52-6 34-8 48-0 33-8 23-4 1910 533,905 82,393 18-2 At the Census of 1900, Americans of American-born parents formed 32-6 per cent, of the combined population of Pittsburg and Allegheny, and the percentage of Americans of foreign-born parentage was 37'4, while white inhabitants of foreign birth formed 25'5 per cent, of the whole and negroes 4'5 per cent. Of the foreign-born population, persons born in Germany formed 28"9 per cent., in Ireland 20'6 per cent., in Great Britain 15'5 per cent., in Poland 10*3 per cent., in Austria- Hungary 9*6 per cent, and in Italy 5'6 per cent. In the early days of the city's development the Irish from Ulster — Scotch-Irish, as they are called in the United States — were the principal immigrants, and after them came the Southern and Western Irish, Welsh, English and Germans. The first immigrants are stated by American observers to have left the most marked impress upon the character of the city. In certain matters obvious to visitors, such as the rigid observance of Sunday and the closing of all licensed houses on that day, Pittsburg might well be a large Ulster or Scottish town. Since the 'eighties, however, a strong stream of immigration has set in from Eastern and Southern Europe, and since 1900 this immigration has particularly increased in the industrial towns of the district, where the percentage of the foreign-born is now probably greater than in the city. In one representative steel mill, employing over 6,700 workpeople in 1907, there were only 1,900 white Americans and 800 British and Irish, while 1,900 were Slovaks, 500 Magyars, 400 lioumanians, 300 Russians and 200 Poles. At another metalworking estabUshment in the district, of over 9,500 men employed in March, 1909, 5,940 were of foreign race, 4,210 of these not being naturalised. Among them, as enumerated, 910 were Slavs of different races, 660 Austrians, 540 Hungarians, 650 Poles, 370 Russians, 190 Italians, 170 Magyars and 110 Croatians, while of the Northern Europeans 390 were born in England, 360 in Ireland, 510 in Germany, 290 in Scandinavia and 140 in Scotland. t)f some 38,000 workpeople em])loyed in 1907 in a group of iron and steel mills situated in Pennsylvania and Oliio (about 21,000 of them being in the Pittsburg District), only 10,700 w^ere classed as Americans. Of a staff of between 7,000 and 8,000 men employed by an electrical works in 1909 only one-third were found to have been born in America. In the coal mines of the district foreign-born labour forms a still higher proportion of the whole, the Poles and other Slavs and the Italians alone forming a majority. The nationality of 137,647 white workpeople occupied in bituminous mining in Pennsylvania in 1908 was reported to the State Bureau of Industrial Statistics and it was found that there were only 42,353 Americans (American-born or naturalised) as against 95,294 foreigners. In the Pittsburg district the relative strength of the foreign element in the mines is still greater ; the secretary of the district miners' union stated that it was sometimes a matter of difficulty to secure suitable English-speaking men to fill the offices in local unions. The negro population in Allegheny County in 1900 numbered 27,753 (showing more than a six-fold increase since 1870), and 73 per cent, lived in Pittsburg and Allegheny City. During the last ten years the negroes have been settling in the city and district in increasing numbers, and they appear to be advancing both materially and in social impor- tance. The negro children have attended the public schools with the white children since 1874, and all the educational facilities offered in the city are open to them. A special trade school for their benefit was established and endowed by a Methodist clergyman two PITTSBURG. 339 generations ago. Some negroes have entered the learned professions, and at the present time some twenty practise medicine in the district, and a few are lawyers and dentists. Quite a hmidred negroes are employers in business, as printers, grocers, hairdressers, keepers of restaurants, carters, &c. Many are employed by the municipality as police- men, firemen, messengers, postmen and clerks. A large number of workpeople in the building and iron and steel trades are negroes, some being found in highly-skilled occupa- tions, but they show little disposition to work in the coal mines. Driving is a favourite employment with the negroes, and almost half of all the drivers and carters in the city belong to the coloured race. Some forty churches and missions exist in Pittsburg to meet the religious needs of the negroes ; more than three-fourths of them are Baptist, but the list includes ten Methodist churches, one Presbyterian, one Protestant Episcopal and one Roman Catholic church. They have also many clubs and some houses of a charitable character (for orphans, aged Avomen, &c.), antl they publish two small news- papers. The flat tongue of land known as the Point, which lies between the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers, was the site of early Pittsburg, and business is now concentrated in this vicinity within an area measuring about a mile by half-a-mile. Here are located many lofty office buildings of the " sky-scraper " type, several of which have over twenty stories, the great wholesale and retail firms, the railway termini, the principal river bridges connecting the North and South Sides with the main city, the public buildings (City Hall, Court House and Post Office), the large banks and trust companies, and the leading hotels and clubs, theatres and other places of amusement. There are over sixty tramway routes radiating from Pittsburg to various points in the district, and nearly all the tramcars start within this area. The heavy traffic incidental to this centre leads to a constant congestion of the streets, many of which are narrow, yet relief has hitherto been impossible owing to the fact that the eminences known as Grant's Hill and Herron Hill have acted as barriers to the extension of the business district inwards from the water, while behind them is a i?uccession of hills and valleys, upon the slopes only of which are bvxilt dwelling houses and shops. The situation is a serious one when it is remembered that within a radius of some fifty miles there is a large number of towns, with up to 40,000 inhabitants, all dependent upon Pittsburg as a business centre. In November, 1909, a loan was authorised for the purpose of many municipal improvements, including the removal of the Hump, a portion of Grant's Hill, and the completion of ttiis undertaking will afford considerable relief to the congested district. The North Side, which is the former city of Allegheny, is also extremely hilly. The river is crossed by several bridges, and in 1909 tolls were still levied on some of them. At some points the hills enclosing the river valleys i-ecede, leaving spaces of varymg width and evenness upon which factories and dwellings have been built. The river banks are lined by an almost unbroken series of iron and steel mills and machine shops, and railway lines run along both banks of the Monongahela. The steep rocky bluffs along this river are traversed by two tunnels, one being used by the tramway system, while inclined railways for passengers or for jjassengers and vehicles ascend at several points. The hills overlooking the rivers are bare, largely owing to the effects of smoke and ore dust, and present a desolate aspect ; debris of all sorts lies in heaps upon the river banks, and the rambling wooden steps and iviean wooden houses which clamber up the hillsides at convenient points add to the general appearance of neglect. The atmosphere at Pittsburg is generally charged with smoke which, arising mainly from the riverside mills, is confined within the high and narrow valleys. The use of bituminous coal in the mills, furnaces and coke ovens largely accounts for the great murkiness of the city — throughout the United States Pittsburg is popularly known as the " Smoky City " — for whatever the original colour of the houses it is quickly changed to a dark drab. Organised efforts are now being made to remedy the smoke evil, however, and large powers have been given to the four officials recently appointed to deal with the matter. Natural gas, first used in Pittsburg in 1886, was for some years the ordinary domestic and factory fuel, but the local supplies were soon exhausted and West Virginia is now the principal source of supply. Its cost, however, makes the use of coal more advantageous in steel and other mills. The professional and well-to-do classes of the population live in the eastern portion of the city, of which Schenley Park and Highland Park form roughly the boundaries, while the working classes as a rule inhabit the districts adjoining the business area already mentioned and the banks of the Monongahela, the Allegheny and the Ohio. In these parts there is a great deal of dingy squalor and overcrowding of sites, and the bad housing conditions generally prevalent create upon the visitor a very 16576 Y 2 340 PITTSBURG. depressing effect. The impression of dinginess is intensified by the predominance in these quarters of wooden dwellings which, unless kept in good repair and frequently painted, soon acquire a mean and squalid aspect. The death-rates per 1,000 of po^iulation for the five years 1904-8 were as follows:— 1904, 19-7; 1905, 19-5; 1906, 19-2; 1907, 18-;}; 1908, KVO. The figures for 1904-7 relate to the city of Pittsburg as then constituted, while the rate for 1908 refers to the enlarged area, including the former city of Allegheny. The decrease in tlie number of deaths from typhoid fever was the most remarkable feature in the mortality returns of 1908, inasmuch as this disease had been almost endemic for a number of years. The decline was probably attributable in large measure to the establishment of a municipal filtration system, by which all the water furnished to the inhabitants of old Pittsburg (as distinguished from Allegheny) is filtered, but also to the temporary removal, owing to trade depression, of a considerable portion of the foreign population, especially young unmarried men, among whom typhoid has always been very common, and to the energy with which certain sanitary improvements were insisted upon by the public health authorities in the tenement house districts inhabited by the foreign population and elsewhere. The filtration system is to be extended to Allegheny. Pittsburg is a very important railway centre, and its means of communication with all parts of the country are extensive and rapid. As regards goods, apart from its considerable local traffic, it is a meeting-point for a large traffic, passing to and from the East, West and North ; two of the greatest railway systems in the United States, the Pennsylvania and the Baltimore and Ohio, pass all their business between East and West through the Pittsburg district. The rivers are also of great importance, especially for the transportation of coal. The Monongahela gives access to the immense and fast developing coalfields of West Virginia, and the Allegheny to the coal and oil district of Western Pennsylvania, navigation being possible in both cases for about one hundred miles. The Ohio opens up communication witli the whole Mississippi system, and barges laden with coal from Pittsburg may be seen as fiir south as New Orleans. Difficulties occur in river navigation at periods of slack, water, and fleets of barges may run aground when the rises in the river outstrip and leave them behind. Large sums have been spent in building dams and locks on the rivers to provide against this danger. Besides the transport of heavy goods, passengers and light merchandise are carried by regular services of steamers plying on the three rivers. One of the serious problems confronting the city is the provision of efficient and cheap means of communication between the ^'arious parts of Pittsbui'g and the neighbouring towns. At present no underground or elevated railways for passenger or goods traffic exist, in contrast to Chicago, for instance, where relief is afforded to street traffic by the tunnels from the railway depots which run direct to the great wholesale and retail shops. At Pittsburg the conformation of the land, the rivers and the concentration of business within a restricted area of the city and of industrial activity upon the available strips of land on the river banks create a problem of great difficulty. Great congestion of traffic is also caused by the arrangement whereby the tramway services for the most part converge in a narrow area. The inadequacy of the tramway accommodation itself is evidenced by the fact that in the morning hours, and still more in the evening after five o'clock, the cars are crowded both inside and outside, every foot of standing space, even to the steps and the ledge encircling the outside platform, being occupied. No reduction of fares is made to working men, and no transfer tickets ai-e issued to serve between Pittsburg proper and the North and South Sides, although transfers are allowed within either of the three sections of the city and between these sections and their adjacent suburbs. The effect of the limited transfer arrangements is that a working-man student living on the North Side desiring to attend evening classes at the Carnegie Technical Schools would have to pay bd. each way, although the distance from the boundary of Allegheny is not quite three miles. The public services in the hands of the municipality are the water supply and the cleansing of the streets ; the gas works, electric light and power works and tram- way system belong to companies, while street construction and paving are done by contract. The city water, except in Allegheny, as already stated, has been filtered since 1907. The price of artificial gas is bs. per 1,000 cubic feet (or 4*. 2d. if the bill is paid within ten days), but the consumption of artificial gas is not great owing to the use of natural gas for cf)oking and of electricity or oil for light. Electric light costs bd. per kilowatt and kerosene from l\d. to ^d. per gallon. PITTSBURG. 341 Altliougli prohibition laws have not been enacted for Pittsbnrg, the public sale of liquor is not permitted on Sundays, and public places of amusements are closed on that day. There appears, however, to be much Sunday drinking in the foreign quarters, especially in the boarding houses, beer being the beverage most in favour with the mill workers. There are several public parks and open spaces in the city, only four of which, however, are of considerable extent. Two of these lie between the Allegheny and the Monongahela, viz.. Highland Park (366 aci-es), in the extreme north-eastern limits of the city, some five miles up the Allegheny and Schenley Park (422 acres), in the south-east nearly three miles from the centre, not far from the Monongahela River ; while River View Park (240 acres) is a beautiful natural park near the boundaries of the city on the North Side. The only park readily accessible to the working-class district is Allegheny Park (100 acres), situated in the centre of the North Side. A feature of American cities is the amusement park, generally situated on the outskirts, where concerts, scenic railways, donkey and pony I'iding, facilities for dancing, swinging and other popular forms of entertainment are provided in ihe summer months, and are mainly patronised by working people. There are six of these parks in and around Pittsburg, only one being actually within the city. Where admission to these places of resort is not free the charge is very small, while the various entertainments range in cost from 2|c/. to Is. O^d. Great interest is taken in the national game of baseball at Pittsburg by the middle and relatively leisured classes, but the mill workers have little opportunity for watching the games played by the professional ])layers or playing themselves, as there is no free half-day on Saturdays. The general apathy of the working classes as regards physical exercise is partly explained by the fact that the bulk of the wage-earners come from countries where outdoor games are little in vogue, but the long hours worked in the mills and the difficulty of procuring suitable open spaces are contributory causes. Places of indoor amusement for the workiDeople are numerous in Pittsbiarg. There are sixteen theatres and music halls, of which four or five are large, while moving picture exhibitions are abundant and are largely patronized. The charge for admission to the moving picture halls is 2^d. or 5d., a charge which generally gives the right to stay through a programme lasting half-an-hour or an hour. Skating rinks are also numerous. As regards educational preparation for industrial life Pittsburg contains the Carnegie Technical School, one of the most important foundations of the kind in the United States. There are four separate dejoartments, viz., (1) a School of Applied Science giving instruc- tion in engineering (electrical, chemical, civil, mechanical, metallurgical, mining and commercial, in the sense of training commercial travellers for their function as salesmen, of commodities produced by this industry) ; (2) a School of Apprentices and Journeymen ; (3) a School of Applied Design ; and (4) a School for the education and training of women for the home as well as for trades requiring technical knowledge. No students under sixteen years are admitted to the day courses, or under eighteen years to the night courses ; persons belonging to Pittsburg pay tuition fees amounting to £4 3s. 4rf. per annum for the day courses and 20s. lOd. for the night courses, while others pay £6 5s. and 29s. 2d. respectively. In addition to the tuition fees, general fees, amounting to 41s. 8rf. for day and 20s. 10c?. for night courses, are also charged, these fees being required to defray the cost of material, apparatus, etc. The present number of students exceeds 2,000 and there are 135 teachers. The first diplomas were awarded in 1908. The Technical School is part of a large building scheme, for which the funds were provided by Mr. Andrew Carnegie and the site by the Corporation. The city has also a School of Fine Arts (which holds an important annual exhibition), a Museum (with picture gallery), one of the four great museums oi America, and a public library, well housed and equipped. The library, which is a municipal institution, has seven branches in various parts of the city and over a hundred distri- buting agencies — for the most part clubs and reading rooms. Pittsburg is also the seat of a growing University, with art, law, medical and engineering faculties, as well as a School of Mining. There are four theological seminaries, two of which are Presbyterian. The public or council schools are numerous, but there is little co-ordination in their administration owing to the educational independence of each ward, and the school buildings, interior equipment and staffs in the various wards present marked contrasts. One of the factors operating against the speedy assimilation of the immigrant races is the absence of public evening schools for adults offering instruction in English and other subjects of special interest to the immigrant races. Some social settlements and quasi- religious organisations endeavour to meet the need, but their number and means are unequal to the demand. 16576 ' Y 3 342 PITTSBURG. Occupations, Wages and Hours of Labour. The following Table shows the number of persons of ten years of age and upwards engaged in occupations in Pittsburg and in Pittsburg A\ith Allegheny as enumerated at the Federal Census of 1900 :— Number of Persons of If) years of age and over em/aged in Occupations in Pittsburg and in Pittsburg with Allegheng in 1900. Pittsburg. j Pittsburg witli Allegheny. Occupations. Males. Females. Total. 1 1 Males. Females. Total. Building 7,277 42 7,319 1 10,962 48 11,010 Metalworking and Engineering 15,513 141 15,654 22,814 217 23,031 Textile 76 24 100 131 52 183 Boot and Shoe Making 452 8 460 662 14 676 Clothing 784 3,296 4,080 1,170 5,063 6,233 Woodworking and Furnishing... 773 288 1,061 1,507 440 1.947 Paper and Printing 1,075 236 1,311 1,562 383 1,945 Brick and Tile 475 11 486 541 11 552 Glass 1,859 125 1,984 1,972 142 2,114 Food, Drink and Tobacco 2,128 629 2,757 3,552 1,629 5,181 Other Manufacturing and Me- 1 chanical Pursuits ... ) 12,858 338 13,196 17,740 622 18,362 Trade and Transportation 29,703 4,889 34,592 42,461 7,495 49,956 Labourers (not otherwise ) specified) | 23,430 319 23,749 .31,213 409 31,622 Professional, Domestic and j Personal Service and Agri- V 11,499 13,272 24,771 15,646 18,038 .33,684 cultural Pursuits ... I All Occupations 107,902 23,618 131,520 151,933 34,563 186,496 The importance of the metal and engineering trades is clearly sh<.)wn by this Table. The large numbers included under the heading of trade and transportation ai'e explained both by the enormous traffic originating at or passing through Pittsburg, and by the fact that the city is a distributing centre for a district containing about a million inhabitants. Among other trades which employ large numbers of Avorkpeople mav be particularly mentioned the food (canning of meats, fruit and vegetables, preserves, pickles and baking), drink (brewing and distilling) and tobacco trades. Although Pittsburg is the commercial headquarters of the American glass trade, the manufacture of glass within the city limits has practically ceased, save as regards glass bottles, in the making of which some six hundred persons are employed. The transference of glassmaking from Pittsburg to other centres was mainly due to the discovery of cheaper fuel and to the less difficult labour conditions elsewhere, and also to the increased valuation of city sites. The leather industry, which formerly flourished on the right bank of the Alleghenj', is now in a languishing condition. The foregoing Table shows that in 1900 female workers were numerous in the clothing, food, drink and tobacco trades. The industrial employment of women has increased in recent years, and in Pittsburg at the present time they are engaged not only in the clothing, laundry, tobacco, canning, confectionery, cork, papier, soap, paint and printing trades, but also in the glass industry as decorators, ])ackers, rivetters and foot press operators in lamp Avorks, and in the metal trades as coremakers in foundries, in screw and bolt factories, in mica-splitting, in electrical works as coilers and insulators, in .sheet and tinplate mills as openers and in various other metal works. There are no public lalx)ur registries in Pittsburg, but a number of employment agencies are maintiiined by private individuals of different races, and the larger industrial establishments have their own special registries. Workpeople in the coal and metal industries do not stay long at any particular place of work, and employers assert that the number of new men whom a firm has to engage in the course of a year is often equal to or even greater than the normal number employed. This restlessness of the workers is largely attributed to the readiness with which unskilled or semi-skilled steelworkers, forming together quite seventy per cent, of all workers in the steel mills, are able to find fresh em- ployment, to the fact that the majority are immigrants without fixed local ties and that a large PITTSBURG. 343 proportion of them are unmarried, but also to the high pressure and dangerous character of much of the work in Pittsburg mills, and the unusually high rents which have to be paid even for houses of an unsatisfactory character. The number of accidents, both fatal and non-fatal, in the industrial life of T'ittsburg appears to be unduly large. Attention has been called in more than one Ileport of the Pennsylvania State Bureau of Industrial Statistics to the " startling " number of accidents occurring in connexion with the various industries in the State. In 1907 and 1908 respectively there were reported 1,422 and 1,348 fatal accidents ; and in 1908 12,610 non- fatal accidents were notified. As the result of a comprehensive enquiry made under the auspices of the Russell Sage Foundation known as "The Pittsburgh Survey" it was ascertained that in Allegheny County alone in the year July 1, 190G to June 30, 1907, 526 men were killed by accidents when at work. During the same year the hospitals of the county received over 2,000 men injured in such accidents. Of those killed 195 were engaged in steel manufacture, 125 on the railways, 71 in coal mining and 135 in other industries. An analysis of the ages showed that 42 per cent, were from 21 to 30, and 26 per cent, from 31 to 40. The weekly wages received were ascertained for 440 of those killed, showing that 16 per cent. Avere earning under 41s. 8<^/. per week, 16 per cent. 41s. 8d. but under 50s., 20 per cent. 50s. but under 62s. 6d., 36 per cent. 62s. 6d. but under 83s. 4:d. and 12 per cent. 83s. 4d. or over. The accidents were attributed to various causes : thus, according to the examination of the available indications by the investigators of " The Pittsburgh Survey," responsibility lay in 32 per cent, of the cases with the victim, in 14 per cent, with his fellow workmen, in 12 ])er cent, with foremen, in 36 per cent, with the employer (meaning thereby his neglect to provide proper protection for his machinery, or the crowding of his machinery within too narrow limits, inadequate inspection or absolute defects in plant or appliance), while in 29 per cent, of the cases the evidence did not justify any definite assignment of cause. The system of factory inspection in the city and district appears to be in a state of transition. At present the headquarters are located at Harrisburg, which lies five hours distant by express train from Pittsburg, and there is no local office of the State Factor}- Inspection Department in the city. Working-class organisation is weak in the dominant iron and steel trades. Prior to 1892 the principal organisation for the skilled workers engaged in these trades was the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers, but from that date, the year of the Homestead strike, its power began to wane, and gradually the mills shook themselves free of union restrictions. The complete non-recognition of unionism in the steel industry appears to have followed on the formation of the United States Steel Corporation, which little by little has eliminated unionism from its works. To-day union rates and conditions are recognised in none of the Pittsburg steel works, and in only four iron works. In the engineering trades there are several unions, but they are unable to make their rates effective. On the other hand, union rates are recognised in all the coal mines in the Pittsburg district, yearly agreements being signed. The workpeople in certain of the building trades are well organised and are able to enforce union rates, and in the newspaper printing trade and the brewery trade union rates are also paid ; in the latter trade closed shops are general. Works rarely rest on Saturday afternoon, although in some trades work ceases eai'lier on that day. In the iron and steel trades only two days in the yeai' — Christmas Day and Independence Day — are recognised holidays, but in other trades three or four additional days are generally observed. In the following paragraphs reference is made to special conditions prevailing in the more important industries of Pittsburg : — Building Trades. — The large contractors employ union labour, and in many non- union or open shops the union ^rates are paid to the majority of skilled men. Bricklayers, stonemasons and plumbers had the strongest unions in 1909 and were able to secui'e their rates, but the plasterers' unions were not so strong as formerly, and the painters' and carpenters' unions were weak. The slackening in building operations in 1908 adversely affected the unions in general, but a revival took place in 1909 and the General Council of the Building Trades was successful in obtaining in August signed agreements from three important firms for all trades except that of the bricklayers. The bricklayers' organisation holds aloof from the other organisations in this group of trades. The hod carriers — who in America are, like the bricklayers, not so numerous relatively to the other 1657G Y i 344 PITTSBURG. occupations as in England — are largely negroes and have a fairly strong union. Many of the building trades work only four hours on Saturday during the sununer months, the 48-hours week being made up in some cases by working additional time on other days. It is usual to pay time-and-a-half for overtime and double time for Sundays and holidays. Coal Mining. — There are no coal mines within the city limitj, but several pits are worked at a distance of seven or eight miles. The mines are for the most part situated in the hills, but many are close to the rivers, and the coal, which is entirely bitumnious, lies near the surface in seams mostly ranging from four to eight feet in thickness. In the Pittsburg district yearly agreements* are signed with the employers, but in the adjoining coalfields of Irwin and Connellsville, each of which has a larger mining population than Pittsburg, the miners are unorganised. In the Pittsburg (No. o) District of the United Mine Workers of America there are some 35,000 organised workers. The hours of work for underground men are eight daily, viz., from 7 to 12 o'clock and from 1 to 4. The men go in about 6.30 a.m. as they undertake to maintain the mines in operation for eight hours. One shift only is worked as a rule, but day and night work is paid at the same rates. Men employed at the surface usually work eight or ten hours daily, but enginemen and firemen have a day of twelve hours. The recognised holidays are New Year's Day, April 1 (in commemoration of the establishment of the eight-hour day). Decoration Day (in May), Independence Day, Labour Day, Thanksgiving Day and Christmas Day. Wages are paid every two weeks in the mines, on the second and fourth Saturdays, but if there are five Saturdays in the calendar month, payments are made on the third and fifth Saturdays. Owing to the variety of conditions and the wide ranges in earnings it was found impossible to obtain satisfactory evidence as to the predominant weekly earnings of men working with electric and other mining machines, and accordingly the wages of these men do not appear in the Table on p. 347. A considerable number of the mines are owned by steel companies, and although the companies refuse to recognise the unions in their mills they conclude agreements with the miners. Other manufacturing concerns, as well as railways, also possess mining pro- perties, but the greater part of the coal production is in the hands of a few large companies. The percentage of foreign-born miners in the Pittsburg district is greater than in the other bituminous fields of Pennsylvania. The Americans are generally employed as engineers, foremen, weigh and check men, and in the better surface positions, while the foreigners mostly work underground. The Poles, Hungarians, Slovaks, Russians, Lithuanians and Italians are the chief foreign elements, the Slavonic races predominating. The Italians are largely employed as cutters and loaders. There are small numbers of Belgians, and also of Germans from the Ruhr district. Some notes on the organisation of the miners in America may be given conveniently here. The federation known as the United Mine Workers of America has a total membership of some 300,0l0, and its scheme of organisation comprises national, district, sub-district and local unions. The jurisdiction of the national union extends over the coal-producing States, while the district unions generally have jurisdiction over single States, though States where coal mining is of unusually great importance, as Pennsylvania and Indiana, are subdivided. Thus in Pennsylvania there are several disti'icts for both the anthracite and bituminous coal fields, and District 5 covers only the Pittsburg or western bituminous field of this State. The sub-district unions are subject to the district unions, and uTider the jurisdiction of the sub-district unions are the local unions, which are generally composed of the workers at a single mine, the minimum number of members to constitute a local union being ten. Every January a convention is held consisting of representatives elected by all the local unions on the basis of one vote for each hundred members (or less), but no delegate can give more than five votes upon any question. The powers of this assembly are absolute, and it can legislate upon any subject relating to the organisation of the unions. The officers are elected every December, and hold office from April 1 to March 31. The j)owers of the president are very great ; in matters of policy his decision is final, and on due cause shown he can suspend or remove members of the executive board itself. No strike in any district can be ordered without his written consent, unless in the event of his refusal appeal has been made successfully to the board. The financial position of the national union is strong, each member of a local union contributing od. per month out of regular per capita dues of Is. O^d. in addition to any other levy which may be made by the national board. The various • See Appendix, pp. 437-8. PITTSBURG. 345 district unions are also often well provided with funds, and at various times they have contributed large sums towards the carrying on of strikes. Blast Furnaces and Steel Works. — There were in the Pittsburg district in 1909 fifty-one blast furnaces, of which some forty were in Allegheny County. Work is continuous and is arranged in twelve hour shifts, which are changed every week : on Sunday morning the men in the day shift of the previous week, having worked twenty- four hours without a break (from Saturday morning to Sunday morning), give place to the night shift of the previous week. The work, therefore, alternates between six periods of twelve hours and six periods of twelve hours and one of twenty-four within a fortnight. More than one-half of the workmen at blast furnaces are unskilled labourers, and time rates of wages a])ply to these, to keepers, hot-blast men and nearly all other men. Wages are paid twice monthly in this and all other branches of the iron and steel industry. Of the 190 open-hearth furnaces in the district in 1909, 140 were situated in Allegheny County. The majority of the men at these furnaces work six shifts of twelve hours per week, but a large number are also obliged to work on Sunday afternoons. Tonnage rates of payment are usual for skilled men in this branch of steel production, but labourers, who constitute about one-third of the total number of workmen, are on time rates. Bessemer converters are not numerous in the Pittsburg district. n In the rolling mills payment by output predominates for skilled and semi-skilled workers, but the unskilled men are paid by time. The earnings of the highly skilled men such as rollers show a wide range according to the nature of the production as well as the capacity and the regular working of the individual mills. The "hours worked by the majority of the men are 72 weekly, though in certain mills 66 hours are usual, but some Sunday work also falls to the lot of some men in most steel mills. In 1910 definite instructions were issued by the executive head of the Steel Corporation to the effect that in all mills under his authority Sunday work was to be restricted to absolutely essential operations, exception being made in the case of the blast furnaces. In respect to systems of remuneration bonuses are not paid to workmen in steel mills, biat foremen and superintendents, when paid regular wages, as they usually ai"e, often receive considerable gratuities. The United States Steel Corporation in particular maintains a fund out of which such rewards are paid. The amount distributable varies according to the profits of the Corporation : when the annual profits reach £16,666,667, one per cent, of this amount is allocated ; when the profits are greater, a higher percentage is set aside, the maximum being 2^ per cent, should the profits reach £31,250,000. The Corporation has also established a scheme under which its work- people may purchase stock of the Corporation at an advantageous price and pay for it by instalments to be deducted from their wages. ^in"- The statistics of population already given show the strength of the foreign elements in the population of Pittsburg, and the composition of the working staff of large and typical steel mills has already been cited in illustration of the predominance of foreigners in the steel industry. Iron Works. — -The production of iron has fallen into quite a secondary position in the Pittsburg district, and it is estimated that not more than 6,500 men are now employed in the trade, compared with 65,000 in the steel trade. Union rates of wages are usually paid. The rates for puddlhig are fixed for periods of sixty days, and in 1909 they ranged from 21s. \\d. to 24s. per ton (2,240 lb.). Formerly the puddler always divided his earnings with his helper, who received 36| per cent, (one-third plus five per cent, of the balance), but most puddlers now share in equal parts with a second man ; if they have two helpers, the first is paid in the old manner as stated above, and the second receives merely a labourer's rate of pay. Puddlers' earnings now average from 12s. 6c?. to 14s. Id. per day. Unskilled labourers at iron works are paid l^d. or ^d. per hour for 59 or 60 hours a week. Wages are paid every two weeks. The firms which recognise the union observe Christmas Day, Decoration Day, Independence Day, Labour Day and Thanksgiving Day as holidays. Engineering and other Metalworking Trades. — The more important branches of these trades include the manuflxcture of steel cars, air brakes, bridges, tubes and pipes, electrical machinery and supplies, rolling mill machinery, locomotives, and i-ivets, nuts and bolts. Over 8,000 men are employed in steel car making in the immediate vicinity upon the banks of the Ohio, and there is another large works within the district. Air brakes and electrical machinery and supplies are manufactured in separate works by a firm located 346 PITTSBURG. some twelve miles from the city. The town of Ambriclge (about sixteen miles down the Ohio) owes its existence to the admirably designed bridge works there, which employ from 2,500 to 2,800 men. Nuts, rivets and bolts are made in great quantities in the city, the largest firm being able to manufacture alone from 300 to 400 tons in a day. The manufacture of pipes and tubes is carried on in two establishments in the city and is the predominant industry of McKeesport, where 7,500 men are employed therein. The great railway systems have repair shops at Pittsburg and afford a large amount of employment. The machinists had a strong organisation until a few years ago, but in 1907 and 1909 general or partial strikes in these trades resulted in the defeat of the men, and the open shop now prevails throughout the district. Time rates predominate. Printing Trades. — Although the newspaper offices pay union rates, all maintain open shops. The hours var}- from 42 to 48 per week and time rates are general. Eight daily newspapers are published, one of which is in German. In the jobbing offices, where the principal work is general commercial printing, the workpeople are for the greater part unorganised ; the working week is nominally 54 hours, but often only 52 or 53 hours are actually worked. Some women are employed both at hand and machine com- position and as feeders. In bookbinding the business is mainly in blank books, ledgers, &c., and time rates are paid. Cigar Manufacture. — Pittsburg is noted for the manufacture of rough and cheaply- made cigars, known as " stogies," which have a very large local sale. There are in the city half-a-dozen important factories, mostly controlled by the tobacco combination, where " stogies " and other cheap cigars are made, but the immber of small workshops employing fi'om four to ten or twelve persons is very large. Women are largely employed in this industry, and in the large factories they predominate. Russian and Polish Jews resident in the Hill District of the city form the bulk of the " stogie " and cheap cigar makers. Food and Drink Trades. — Women are largely employed in the food-canning estab- lishments. They sort and bottle pickles, prepare and bottle vegetables, fruits, &c., and label the bottles and cases. At certain seasons much overtime has to be worked in order to ])revent the loss of perishable raw material. The manufacture of sweets, including chewing gum, also affords women a large amount of employment. Biscuits are manufac- tui'ed in several establishments, employing a total of some 1,500 people, the majority of whom are women, men being engaged as oven hands and in the occupations requiring phj-sical strength. The brewery workers are well organised, and wages agreements covering every class of worker are signed by the unions and the employers. There are seventeen breweries in Pittsburg, and four more in two neighbouring towns, employing altogether over 1,500 men. One company employs over two-thirds of this total. Transport Trades. — Save the brewery men, the drivers, carters and other workers employed in the handling of goods are not well organised. The ordinary carter is paid from 41.S. d-d. to 50*. per week of no fixed hours. The various railway companies employ a large number of men for the handling of their great traffic ; the freight handlers, who are usually paid on a tonnage basis, earn from 52^'. l\d. to 54s. 10^/., the many classes of men engaged in the switching operations and in the yards are paid time rates, and the men working the trains (engineers, firemen, brakemen and con- ductors) are paid a combination wage based on time and distance travelled. Public Services. — The construction and repair of the streets is usually undertaken by contractors, though sometimes such work is perfonned by the nmnicipalitj', which also carries out the cleaning of the streets. The water works belong to the city, but the gas and electric light Avorks and the tramways are in the hands of companies. Gas production is small in amount owing to the supplies of natural gas, and only about 100 men are employed in the gas works. Tlie motormen and conductors on the tramways are paid \s. (i\d. per hour for the first two years, l^-. Ofrf. for the third year, and Is. \\d. for succeeding years. Agreements with the company are signed yearly. The number of hours Avorked is irregular, but the longest per day is 10 hours 40 minutes, and men may take a day (jfF once a week. I'ew men stay long in this employment. The great majority are Americans ; in 1909, out of a total of 2,950, only about 200 were foreign-bom, principally Jews from Eastern Europe and Italians. The following Table shows the predominant weekly wages and hours of labour of men engaged in some of the principal occup.itions of Pittsburg in Februarj-, 1909 : — PITTSBURG. 347 Predominant Weekhj Wages and Hours of Labour of Adidt Males in the Principal Occupations in February, 1909. Predominant Weekly Wages. Predominant Weekly Hours of Labour. Building Trades : — Bricklayers Stonemasons Stonecutters Carpenters Plasterers Plumbers Structural Iron Workers Painters... Hod Carriers and Plasterers' Labourers General Labom-ers Coal Mining : — Hewers (Pickmen) Roadmen Timbermen Drivers ... Labourers, Underground Blast Furnaces^ : — Keepers Hot-blast Men Keepers' Helpers and Labourers Steel Making {Open Hearth Process^ . Melters Melters' Helpers Steel Pourers ... Labourers Steel Rolling'* .— Heaters Heaters' Helpers Rollers ... Shearmen Labourers Foundries and Machine Shops : — Ironmoulders ... Machinists Patternmakers ... Labourers Printing and BooJchimling Trades .- — Newspaper — Compositors, Hand and Machine { 5^^, 7°^"'^, ^ 1^ >. ight work Book and Job — Hand Compositors Pressmen (Cylinder Presses)... Bookbinders Fruit and Vegetable Canning : — Preserve Men ... ... ... ... . . . Coopers Labourers Brewing : — Brew-house and Cellar Men ... Wash-house Men Bottlers Route Drivers ... Bottle Beer Drivers Stablemen Labourers and Yardmen Transport Trades : — General Drivers, Teamsters ... Railway Freight Handlers ... 119.9. 2d. 110s. lOOs. 87s. M. 112s. &d. n2s. 6f/. 112s. &d. .SOs. to S5s. 70s. 43s. M. liOs. to 75s. 64s. C4s. 64s. r>^s. TZs. lid to 77s. 4f/. .'iSs. \»i. „ 67s. Id. .52s. &d. „ 61s. M. 108s. 4d to 125s. 70s. 10c?. „ 79s. 2d. 79s. 2d. „ 89s. Id. 45.S. „ 49s. 6d. 137s. M. to 150s. 64s. Id. „ 70s. lOfZ. j 145s. lOd. „ 208s. M. ! 83s. id. „ 104s. 2d. I 45s. „ 49s. 6d. 82s. Id to 90s. 72s. „ 73s. 2d. 81s. 3d „ 84s. 5d .33s. 9d „ 41s. 3d 96s, 3d to 110s, 105s. „ 120s. 75s. „ 83s. 4d 75s. „ 8.3.S. 4d 75s. „ 83s. 4d 45s. lOd. SOs. to 62s. 6d. 37s. 6d. 70s. lOd 66s. 8d 62s. 6d. 79s. 2d to 87s. 6d 75s. 62s. 6d 58s. 4d 41s. Sd. to 50s. 52s. lid „ 54s. lOd. 44 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 84 84 84 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 54 54 54 54 to 60 42 to 48 42 „ 48 52 52 54 54 54 58| 48 48 48 49 49 52 48 Variable * The hours of labour stated for men employed at blast furnaces, open hearth furnaces and steel rolling mills are inclusive of intervals. 348 PITTSBURG. Predominant Weekly Wapes. Predominant Weekly Hours of Labour. Public Services .• — Street Construction, Paving and Cleaning — Municipal Worlcmen — Paviors Paviors' Labourers ... Road Menders Scavengers Road Sweepers Drivers, Teamsters Contractors' Workmen — Paviors Paviors' Labourers ... Road Menders Drivers, Teamsters ... Gas Works (Company) — Gas Stokers Labourers ... . Electric Light and Power Works (Company) — Electricians Engineers Stokers ... Repair Men Labourers Electric Tramways — See text. 125s. 75s. 50s. 50s. 50s. 56s. M. 140s. 93s. 'del. 43s. M. 45s. lOd. 62s. M. 37s. &i. 79s. Id. 72s. lid. 59s. Of/. 57s. M. 51s. lOd. 48 48 48 48 48 48 60 60 60 60 84 60 80 80 62 65 65 Taking wages at New York as the base, = 100, in each case, the wages index numbers for Pittsburg are — building trades, skilled men 98, hod carriers and bricklayers' labourers 102 ; foundries and machine shops, skilled men 95, unskilled labourers 90 ; ])rinting, hand compositors (job work) 90. Housing and Rents. The majority of the wage-earning classes live in those inner districts of Greater Pittsbui'g that surround the " down-town " or business centres, and in the quarters clustering along the river fronts. Although there is a certain diffusion of races, most nationaUties show a tendency to live together in distinct localities. The Hill district, which begins close to the Union Station, is inhabited by negroes, Russian Jews and a sprinkling of Italians and Syrians. In 1900 72 per cent, of the negroes in Old Pittsburg lived in seven wards, 49 per cent, living in the Seventh, Eighth, Eleventh and Thirteenth wards of the Hill district. The influx of negroes from the South in recent years has increased their number in these wards. The white Americans move when negroes come into a street inhabited by them, but the Russian Jews do not appear to object to them as neighbours. Poles are very numerous in the Pennsylvania Avenue and Butler Street area along the Allegheny as far as Fiftieth Street, but they also inhabit other parts of the city. Other Slavs, while numerous along the left bank of the Allegheny, form the leading element of the population in Woods Run, in the streets neiir the river on the South Side, and in the Second Avenue district. Bohemians concentrate for the most part in the North Side, and Italians in various parts of the original Pittsburg. Germans predominate in the better streets of the South Side and in parts of the North Side, such as the East Street and Spring Garden districts, but in recent years they have moved to less central districts and to suburbs like Knoxville. Although at the Census of 1900 they formed the largest single group of foreign-born inhabitants, viz., 28*9 per cent, of the whole, they have not maintained this proportion. Immigration from Germany into the United States has greatly diminished, and its direction has been mainly to the VV^est. Irish immigrants to Pittsburg have also decreased in numbers, the labour formerly done by them in the mills and in construction and railway work falling now for the most part to Slavs, Italians and other South-Europeans. The housing problem has become a serious one at Pittsburg during the last decade. The development of the manufacturing industries has led to a large influx of immigrants, and as the housing accommodation has fallen far short of the demand, much overcrowding has taken place, an evil which has been intensified by the low standard of comfort to which the majority of the immigrants have been accustomed. The natural peculiarities of the site of Pittsburg have further accentuated the difficulty, as they prevent the easy passage of people from the factory districts to the suburbs, while the long and irregular hours (changing shifts, &c.) worked at the iron and stcol mills make it inconvenient for the workers to YwQ at a distance. As a result there is much congestion of buildings upon prrTSBTJRG. 349 sites, and much overcrowding of the dwellings themselves in the districts near the mills. The Poles and Slavs generally are much addicted to living in boarding houses, and the practice conduces to very unsatisfactory conditions. A large projx)rtion of the immigrants of these races are unmarried, and accordingly live with people of their own nationality, generally a man and his wife, who lodge and board any number of them up to twenty. Each lodger pays from 10s. bd. to 14s. Id. per month for sleeping accommodation (which may consist of a bed for his exclusive use, though quite as often he may have to shai'e a bed or allow his bed to be used by another lodger in his absence), for the cooking of his food and the washing of his clothes. The food is bought by the woman, and the food bill is settled every fortnight. The amount paid for food in some twenty houses of this kind visited in the course of the investigation ranged from 14s. Id. to 20s. lOrf. per man per fortnight. The crowding of the sites is worst along the rivers, where all available space left between the workshops and the hills is utilised for dwellings, so that little yard space remains for the tenants. Congestion of this kind, however, is common in most working- class districts in Pittsburg, The Census of 1900 showed that in the combined cities of Pittsburo' and AUeo'henv 62*4 per cent, of all families lived in dwelling-houses occupied by one family, 26*6 percent, in dwelling-houses occupied by two families and 11"0 per cent, in those occupied by three or more families. The figures showed that at Pittsburg nearly 7 per cent, more families (64'3 as compared with 57 "5) lived in dwelling-houses occupied by single families than at Allegheny,. but the percentage in dwelling-houses occupied by three or more families was almost identical in the two cities, viz., 1 1'l and 1 1*0 respectively. Since 1900 a considerable number of additional flat buildings have been erected in the working-class and other dis- tricts, and many houses once occupied by single families now contain two or more families. Considerable light is thrown upon present aspects of the housing question by the results of an enquiry into the tenement houses made in 1908 by the Bureau of Health, a tenement house being defined as a building occupied by three or more families. These results showed that the total number of perstms living in such dwelling-houses was 45,899, made up of 12,300 fomilies containing 42,699 persons, and of 3,200 boarders, who were living in the houses of 1,532 families. About 8 per cent, of the total population of the city, therefore, lived in tenement houses. The families were classified as follows : — 47*4 per cent. Amei-ican, 16*7 per cent, l^olish, 8*8 per cent. Hebrew, 7'8 per cent. German, 4"9 percent. Negro and 3*6 per cent. Italian. It follows from the two enumerations just given that the predominant type of dwelling at Pittsburg is the single-family house, though the double-family house is also important. As regards the working classes in particular, several weeks of investigation into housing conditions clearly pointed to the continued predominance of the single-family house, and showed that dwellings containing four, five and six rooms are most typical of American and German working-men, while the small two-family houses, containing from five to seven rooms, are occupied in the main by the later immigrant races, princi- pally from Austria- Hungary, Italy and Russia. The single-family house of four or five rooms has two or three rooms on the ground floor and two on the first floor, while the six-roomed house generally has three rooms on the ground floor and three on the first floor. On the second floor there is often an attic, but unless of good height it is not counted as a room, though it is sometimes used for sleeping when there is a large family. Most houses have a lobby or vestibule entrance, but only those more recently built and letting at a good rent have corridors as well. The staircase is mostly placed either in the kitchen or between the front and second rooms ; less commonly it faces the street entrance. Forecourts to workmen's houses are practically unknown in Pittsburg, and the rear spaces are small. Both gas and coal ranges are used in the kitchen, gas ranges being generally supplied when the rent exceeds 17s. Ad. per week. As natural gas is obtainable at a reasonable price, gas ranges are probably more used than coal ranges for cooking. "Until recently the closets were mostly of the privy- vault kind and almost invariably outside the houses. In the case of the older houses the majority are still in the yards, but the water-flush system has been installed. Durijig the administrative year 1908-9, 10,000 privy-vaults were replaced by water-closets in various parts of the city, and the authorities are rapidly discarding the vault system. In the case of the newer houses the closets are generally inside, often in the cellars of the single-family houses. Bathrooms are rare in working men's houses, builders having only just begun to put them in dwellings of this class. A water-tap is found in tlie kitchen , in the better houses, but often the only water supply is from a hydrant in the yard, sometimes so placed in the boundary between two houses that it may serve for both. The two-family houses are mainly of two and three stories, or two stories with an 350 PITTSBURG. attic story. When built or adapted for the accommodation of two famiUes, the family living upstairs has usually a separate entrance, generally in the yard, access to which is sometimes obtained by a tunnel passage running from the street. When the house contains seven rooms, four generally fall to the upstairs tenement, three only being on the ground floor. The newer houses have an independent inside water supply and separate closets, but in the older houses these conveniences are generally used by both families. A considerable number of four and five-roomed houses are occupied by two families, implying that dwellings of two and three rooms are numerous. The tenement houses, that is, the houses occupied by three or more families, are very diverse in character, but they fall into two main groups, viz., flat buildings constructed as such, with self-contained dwellings, and buildings in which sets of rooms lying more or less compactly together have been arranged as tenements, but where conveniences such as water supply and closets are often shared by at least two tenants. The houses of wage-earners are for the most part built in terraces, few being detached or semi-detached, and the greater number are probably still frame, although the use of timloer for building is going out of fashion, the newer houses being of brick. There is no appi'eciable difference in the letting value of a brick as compared with a frame house, but the sale value of the former is considerably higher, mainly owing to its superior durability. The frame buildings are more easily erected on the hilly sites which abound in the district. Owing to the conformation of the land there is considerable irregularity in structure, and houses with at least one story more at the front than at the rear, or vice versd, are numerous in the hilly districts. Bay-windows are rare, and the I'oofs are either flat or slightly pitched, with, in many cases, projecting attic windows. Cellars or basement rooms are universal, and in many houses the basement rooms are used for living purposes. The municipal by-laws define a cellar as a " story more than one-half below the street or ground level," and the use of cellars for habitation is forbidden. If the basement rooms are 8 feet 6 inches high and properly lighted and ventilated, they may be so used. Basements may contain one or two rooms, the entrance being usually beneath the steps leading to the street door. In the foreign quarter these basement I'ooms ai'e usually supplementary to rooms rented in the body of the house. In 1901 the municipal authorities took an important step forward in the improvement of housing conditions by the adoption of a by-law making unlawful the existence of cess- pools and privy-vaults on any building site contiguous to a public sewer, and the rigorous enforcement of this by-law during the last three years has had excellent results. The previous condition of great numbers of the yards, owing to the privy-vaults not being systematically cleansed, was not only highly discreditable to a great city but was a menace to public health. In new tenement houses a separate water sup^jly is required for every dwelling, and in existing buildings one is required for every floor. A water-closet must be placed in every dwelling in new tenement buildings, except where the dwelling contains only one or two rooms, while in existing tenement buildings one is necessary for every two dwellings. All tenement houses in the city must be registered under penalty, in order that the by-laws affecting them may be enforced. In all new dwellings, whether in tenement buildings or in single and two-family houses, the cellars must extend under the whole structure, must be ventilated from both ends, and in the case of low, damp, ground must be paved with bi'icks, concreted or asphalted to the depth of three inches. All new dwelling houses must have an open space at the back or side not less than 144 square feet in area. The following Table shows the rents most usually paid by the working classes in February, 1909, for dwellings of two, three, four, five and six rooms : — Predominant Bents of Working-class Dwellings. Number of Rooms per Dwelling. Two rooms Three rooms Four rooms Five rooms Six rooms Predominant Weekly Rents. 6s. 9d. to 8s. M. 8s. 8d. „ 12s. Gd. lis. Gd. „ 17s. M. Us. bd. „ 19s. M. 17s. 4d. „ 2l8. 2d. The level of rents at New York being represented by 100, the rents index number for Pittsburg is 94. PITTSBURG. 361 These rents include the water charges and also the local taxes, in so far as the property taxes can be said to affect the tenants. Rents are paid monthly in advance. Leases are customary, and a month's notice is usual on both sides. Sub-letting is generally allowed, but landlords often exact an additional payment of about 25. per week for each family taken in, while in the case of professional boarding houses a small rent is. sometimes fixed, and the tenant pays Is. per week more for each boarder. The immi- grants in general, like the negroes, apjiear to pay more in rent than Americans or German- Americans for similar accommodation. When Poles, the pooi'er immigrants, enter a neighbourhood in which English-speaking people live the property depreciates, for, just as in Southern cities houses once occupied by negroes cannot afterwards find white tenants, so in Pittsburg, houses occupied by Poles and other Slavs or Italians are rarely taken later by American, German or British-American tenants. In the Tenement House Enquiry of 1908 it was found that the rents per room per month showed an extreme range of from lis. to 33s. 4rf. and averaged 21s. 3rf. In four of the " down-town " wards of Allegheny, mainly occupied by the working classes, viz., the Third, Fourth, Seventh and Eighth, the average monthly rents per room were 19s. 2d., 18s. 5d., 14s. 9d. and 15s. 7d. respectively, while in three wards a little removed from the river, the Twelfth, Thirteenth and Fourteenth, the average rents were 15s. Sd., 15s. 8d. and 15s. respectively. In the Monongahela River wards of Pittsburg, the Twenty-fourth, Twenty-seventh, Twenty-eighth and Twenty-ninth, the average rents per room in tenement houses were I5s. bd., 13s. llrf., 16s. M. and 16s. Gd. respectively. The following notes relate to working-class dwellings in Pittsburg which were visited in the course of this enquiry : — Spring Alley. — Six brick houses in the down-town foreign district containing four rooms with attic and let at 13s. 6d. per week. There were no halls or passages, the street door opening into a room, and the staircases were in the back rooms. The back and front rooms measured 12 feet by 13 feet by 9 feet, but the size of the back room was reduced by the staircase. The closets and water supply were in the small yard. Fifteenth Street. — A court containing six brick houses, each with three tenements of two rooms, let at 7s. 8d. per week. Poles lived in sixteen of the eighteen tenements, and many tenants had boarders. In one dwelling there lived a family consisting of parents and two children, with another married couple as boardei's, paying 6s. 9d. per week for lodging, cooking and washing. All the rooms were alike in size (14 feet 6 inches by 11 feet 6 inches by 8 feet 6 inches), and the closets and water were in a narrow court between the houses. Butler Street near Thirty-sixth Street. — Two brick houses containing five rooms and an attic room which were let at 21s. 2d. per week. The measurements were : parlour and dining room 11 feet by 13 feet ; kitchen 17 feet 6 inches by 10 feet ; front bed- room 15 feet by 13 feet ; back bedroom 11 feet 6 inches by 12 feet, while the attic was 25 feet by 15 feet, with a height of from 4 to 6 feet. On the ground and first floors the height was 9 and 8 feet respectively. Leech Street, near Thirty-fifth Street. — Four brick houses occupied by Americans, containing three rooms on the ground floor and three rooms on the first floor, and rented at 17s. Ad. per week. There was a hall 4 feet wide in each house, but no bathroom. The measurements were : ground floor, front room 12 feet by 10 feet by 9 feet ; middle room 14 feet by 12 feet by 9 feet ; kitchen 14 feet by 10 feet by 8 feet. Upstairs, front and middle rooms 14 feet by 12 feet by 8 feet ; back room 12 feet by 9 feet 6 inches by 8 feet. In the same street there were ten houses containing four rooms and attic also occupied by Americans, and let at 13s. 6c?. per week. Charlotte Street, near Thirty-seventh Street. — Three houses of four rooms and an attic, let at 14s. od. per week. There were no halls. The front rooms on the ground and upper floors measured 12 feet by 13 feet by 8 feet and the back rooms 13 feet by 13 feet by 8 feet, the attic being 25 feet by 13 feet, with a height varying from 4 to 6 feet. Forty-sixth Street, near Davison Street. — -Two small houses built of wood, containing four rooms, and let at 9s. 7d. per week. The front and rear rooms on the ground floor measured 11 feet by 11 feet by 8 feet, while the upper rooms were 12 feet by 11 feet by 7 feet and 13 feet by 11 feet by 7 feet. Pennsylvania Avenue, near Thirty-third Street.— -Five houses hnilt of wood, containing five rooms and let at l.'js. 5d. per week. The front and middle rooms on the ground floor measured 12 feet by 11 feet by 8 feet and the kitchen 9 feet by 11 feet by 7 feet, while the upper rooms measured respectively 14 feet by 11 feet by 8 feet and 13 feet by 11 feet by b feet. The street door opened into the front room. Mam Street (on the North Side). — Two rows of thirteen new brick houses containing four rooms, and let at 125. 6d. per week. The fi-ont rooms on the ground and first floor's 352 PITTSBURG. measured 14 feet bj' 11 feet by 9 feet, while the back rooms were 11 feet by 11 feet by 9 feet. There was water in the kitchen, but the closets were in the yards, which were very small. East Street {on the North Side). — Two houses merged in one and occupied by four American families. There were two dwellings of fonr rooms let at 12s. 6rf. and 13s. Qd. per week respectively, one of three rooms let at 10s. \d. and one of two rooms let at 8.S. 9>d. per week. The four water-closets were in the yard, which had been newly concreted, and there was cellar space for each tenant. The dimensions of the three rooms in the tenement on the ground floor were : kitchen 10 feet by 9 feet, back room 14 feet by 13 feet and front room 13 feet (5 inches by 12 feet 6 inches, the height being 9 feet 9 inches. Howard Street. — Two inferior tenements of three rooms in a frame building let at 9s. 2d. per week. The rooms measured 15 feet by 11 feet by 9 feet. A third tenement of three rooms let at 9s. Id. per week, two of the rooms measuring 14 feet by 10 feet and the third 14 feet by 11 feet, the height being 10 feet. The houses here are built on a declivity, and in this case while there were four stories in the rear, there were only two stories in Howard Street. On the opposite side of the street were other houses with one more story at the back than at the front. In one of these were three tenements of three rooms, two let at 7s. Sr/. and one at 8s. 8c?. weekly. The occupants wore Germans. The dimensions of the rooms in the dwelling on the first floor were 14 feet 6 inches by 13 feet, 13 feet (5 inches by 7 feet (5 inches and 15 feet by 14 feet, the height in each case being 8 feet 6 inches. Glenwood Avenue. — Twenty-eight red brick houses in a row containing four rooms each, fourteen let at 13s. and fourteen let at lis. &d. weekly, the latter houses being farther up the hillside. The houses were occupied for the most part by workmen employed in the railwaj' repair shops, mainly Americans. The street door opened into the parlour, and there were no yards. The closet was in a cellar or basement room behind, which was well lighted, owing to the steep slope of the ground. The rooms measured 12 feet by 11 feet 9 inches by 9 feet. Renova Avenue. — Five good red brick houses with open spaces in front (but with little space behuad owing to the declivity) containing five rooms with a bathroom and let at 19s. Zd. per week. Each house had a hall and passage. The front room on the ground floor measured 15 feet by 10 feet, the middle room 17 feet by 13 feet, and the kitchen 12 feet by 10 feet, the height in each case being 9 feet 6 inches. The tenants were Americans, employed in the railway repair shop and in a large machine shop. Herbert Alley. — Four houses built of wood, containing four rooms, rented at lis. M. per week, and occupied by Italians. The front rooms measured 14 feet 6 inches by 11 feet by 9 feet and the kitchen 13 feet 6 inches by 11 feet by 9 feet, the stairs reducing the available space of the latter. The closets (vault system) were in the yard. In the rear wei'e four frame houses of four rooms in very bad condition let to Syrians and Slavs at 8s. 8c?. per week. Manner and Seventh Street {South Side). — Two rooms occupied by a Polish pipe- worker earning about 16s. 8c?. per day, let at 8s. 2d. per week. Although there were two children, four and sometimes six boarders were kept, each paying 3s. 2c?. per week for sleep- ing accommodation, cf)oking and washing. Two men slept in each bed. For board they paid according to what they ate, but the housewife, who bought everything for them, stated that the cost varied from 16s. 8c/. to 25s. per fortnight. The dimensions of the rooms were 14 feet by 15 feet and 12 feet by 13 feet, with a height of 9 feet. Manner Street. — A house occupied by three Polish families. One family occupied two rooms on the ground floor and a basement room, and paid 8s. 2c?. per week, another paid 7s. Sd. for two rooms on the first floor and a third paid 6s. 3c?. for two rooms on the second floor. In each case the two rooms measured 18 feet by 12 feet and 16 feet by 12 feet, with a height of 8 feet on tlie second floor, of 8 feet and 9 feet on the other floors. In the same street in a house occupied by four Polish families, one basement room was let at 3s. 4c?. weekly ; two tenements of two rooms (on the ground and first floors) were let at 7s. Sd. weekly ; while the two attic rooms cost 6s. 3c?. The rooms on the first floor measured 15 feet by 14 feet by 9 feet and 15 feet by 12 feet by 9 feet respectively and there were six boarders in addition to the husband and wife. Each boarder paid 2s. llrf. per week for sleeping accommodation, cooking and washing. Jane Street. — Twelve brick houses, each with two dwellings' containing three rooms on the ground floor and four rooms on the upper floors. The three-roomed dwellings were let at 9s. 7d. weekly and the four-roomed dwellings at 10s. 7fl?. The entrance to the latter was from the rear, access being had to the small yard by a tunnel passage. The following were the dimeusioDB of the ground floor rooms : front room 14 feet by PITTSBURG. 353 14 feet, middle room 10 feet by 16 feet and kitchen 10 feet by 12 feet, the height being 9 feet 6 inches. Water supply and privy-closet were in the yard. The rooms of the upper tenement measured : first floor — front room 14 feet by 14 feet by 9 feet, kitchen 14 feet by 16 feet by 9 feet ; second floor — front room 14 feet by 14 feet by 8 feet, back 14 feet by 11 feet by 8 feet. There was a water-tap in the kitchen. Larkins Alley. — Twelve red brick houses, containing four rooms and let at 12s.' weekly. There were no vestibules nor passages (the street door opening into a room), no gas fixtures and the water supply was in the yard. The staircases were in the kitchens. The rooms measured 10 feet 6 inches by 13 feet 6 inches by 9 feet, except that the available space in the back room was curtailed by the stairs. These were all one-family houses and were occupied by eight German, two English and two Polish families. Rebecca Street. — A block of 60 flats, called Phipps Model Tenements, erected in 1908, 50 flats containing four rooms and bathroom and ten containing three rooms and bathroom. The flats with four rooms were let at from 15s. %d. to 17s. 9rf. per week ; 30 flats on the ground, first and third floors costing 17s. 9c?., ten on the fourth floor 16s. 8(i. and ten on the fifth floor 15s. 8c?. ; while the rent of the three-roomed flats on the fifth floor was lis. Gd., on the fourth 12s. Qd. and on the remaining lower floors 13s. Id. The dimensions of the four-roomed flats were : parlour and bedroom 12 feet 3 inches by 7 feet 6 inches, third room 12 feet 8 inches by 10 feet 3 inches, kitchen 12 feet 8 inches by 9 feet 6 inches, bathroom 5 feet by 9 feet 6 inches, entrance lobby 6 feet 6 inches by 5 feet 3 inches, the height being 8 feet 6 inches. The rooms in the ten three- roomed flats were smaller, viz., kitchen 10 feet 3 inches square, bedroom 9 feet 3 inches square, third room 9 feet 3 inches by 10 feet 3 inches and the bathroom 10 feet 3 inches by from 4 feet 3 inches to 6 feet 3 inches, the height being 8 feet 6 inches. Gas ranges were supplied in the kitchen, and steam-heat radiators were placed in all rooms instead of fire-places. There were sinks with hot and cold water-taps in the kitchen, and in the bathroom, which contained the closet, was a lavatory with hot and cold water. These flats were occupied by Americans. Smallman Street. — A house of five rooms, let at 14s. bd. weekly. The dimensions of the two ground-floor rooms were 15 feet by 12 feet and of the kitchen 10 feet by 11 feet, the height being 9 feet. There was a through passage containing the staircase. Eight Croatians boarded in the house, sleeping in the two bedrooms upstairs, and each paying 22s. 1 \d. per fortnight for board and lodging. In the same street were visited : — (1) A house containing four rooms and an attic and let at 15s. 5c?. per week. It was occupied by a man and wife, and fourteen Slovak boarders, who divided eight beds between them, each paying 10s. 5c?. for sleeping accommodation and from 18s. 9c?. to 20s. 10c?. for food per fortnight, (i!) Another house of six rooms with attic, the two rooms and kitchen on the ground floor being let atl 2s. 6c?. per week to Poles, who took in boarders, and the three upper rooms with attic at 13s. 6c?. to Slavs (husband and wife), who lodged 14 boarders at 12s. 6c?. per head per fortnight for sleeping accommodation, washing and cooking, their board costing 14s. Id. to 16s. 8c?. per head for the same period. The front bedroom contained four beds. The rooms were close and squalid in the extreme. Spruce Alley. — Houses containing four rooms, let at lis. Gd. per week and occupied by Slavs and Croatians. The rooms were small, being 11 feet by 12 feet and the closets were all vault privies, while the yard was badly paved with bricks and full of holes and dirt. In one house there lived, in addition to a man and his wife and two children, four boarders, in another there were no children but four boarders and in the third one child and five boarders. Off Spruce Alley. — A row of houses containing three rooms, one above the other, and let at 8s. M. per week. All the rooms measured 10 feet by 12 feet by 9 feet, and the inhabitants were all Slavs. In one house there were six boarders, in two others there were four, in addition in each case to man, wife and child. The sum charged for sleeping accommodation, with cooking and washing, was 12s. 6c?. per man per fortnight, while the cost of boarding, with meat at three meals daily, was stated to vary between 20s. 10c?. and 25s. for the same period. Mulberry Alley, near Twenty-Ninth Street. — One tenement of two rooms occupied by Italians, who paid 7s. 8rf. per week. The rooms measured 14 feet by 14 feet by 9 feet and 14 feet by 16 feet by 9 feet respectively. Three similar tenements of two rooms, at the same rent, were occupied by Poles, while there was one house with four rooms let at 1 Is. %d. per week and tenanted by English people. Prebel Street. — Three tenements with three rooms each in a large frame building (one of several similar buildings in the neighbourhood) rented at 6s. ^d. per week. The rooms of one dwelling measured : 19 feet by 16 feet by 9 feet, 14 feet by 12 feet by 9 feet and 7 feet by 11 feet by 9 feet ; the family consisted of husband, wife and child, and 16576 z 354 PITTSBURG. there were two boarders. The use of the closets was shared with another tenant. The street is situated on a steep hillside, and is a Polish settlement. Webster Avenue. — Six red brick houses at the top of a steep hill, each containing three flats of four rooms and bathroom, let at 21s. 2d. to 22s. Id. per week to negro tenants. The rooms were small, having the following dimensions : kitchen 10 feet by 7 feet 6 inches, other rooms 10 feet 3 inches by 10 feet, 13 feet 6 inches by 10 feet and 11 feet by 10 feet, with a height of 9 feet 3 inches. The bathroom contained a lavatory with hot and cold water. There was no yard space. Webster Avenue. — A flat building in a working-class locality occupied by whites, largely Jews, and erected in 1908. The fiats, some 12 in number, contained four rooms and bathroom, and were let at about 23s. per week each. The measurements wei'e : kitchen 11 feet by 9 feet, two rooms 13 feet by 12 feet and the fourth room 11 feet by 12 feet, the height being 9 feet. The kitchens had sinks and were fitted with gas stoves. The municipality has not undertaken any housing schemes for the benefit of the Torking classes, but some manufacturing firms have built dwellings which they let to their workpeople. One company in a near suburb owns some 250 houses which contain four and five rooms and are let at lis. 6d. and 12s. 6d. per month, but these houses have nothing to recommend them. They lie in rows with no dividing line between them, and are without modern inside conveniences. The houses owned by the United States Steel Corporation in Pittsburg are not numerous, nor are they of a high standard, though improvements have been effected lately. Some of the railway companies own working- class house property, much of it of an inferior kind. The companies have often bought existing houses near their lines partly to avoid claims for possible damage, and partly to provide for extensions, but as these houses are avoided by the workmen of the better class on account of their situation, and gradually come to be occupied by South-Europeans of an inferior type, there is little inducement to keep them in good condition. Working-class property in the more central parts of the city and along the rivers is to a large extent concentrated in the hands of a few landlords, who appear to go to little expense on accoimt of maintenance. In the case of one large estate, great improvements have been taken in hand recently, but strong measures are needed to remedy thoroughly the bad housing conditions which exist in these districts. Working people do not own their homes to any considerable extent. In the com- bined cities of Pittsburg and Allegheny in 1900 only 15"5 per cent, of all homes — whether working-class or otherwise — were owned by their occupiers free of liability, 11*2 per cent, were owned encumbered, while 73'3 per cent, were rented. Many Americans in easy circumstances buy or build their houses, and of the immigrant races the Germans in particular show a desire to own their homes, while the Lithixauians, Poles and Negroes often buy (but rarely build) houses on the instalment plan by the aid of building societies. The municipal inspection of dwelling houses is recognised as inadequate. There are a number of inspectors of tenement houses (that is, houses in which three or more families live separately), but they have no authority to examine regularly the single and two- family dwellings which form the predominant types and house about ninety per cent, of the population. The housing conditions in the mill towns of the Pittsburg district closely resemble those existing in the city. Single and two-family houses predominate here likewise, and while the Americans and the skilled workers of other nationalities live in houses containing from four to six rooms (rarely with bathrooms), the semi-skilled and unskilled workers occupy dwellings containing from two to four rooms. In many of these towns — notably McKeesport, Homestead and McKees Rocks — there is serious congestion of building space and overcrowding of dwellings in the districts inhabited by the later immigrants, and the boarding system largely prevails among the Slavonic races. The mining communities lie generally isolated in the valleys and hills, and the main body of the workers at a particular pit live in houses belonging to the company. In one typical mining village the company owned a large area around the muie and had erected thereon nearly 200 houses, of which 160 contained four rooms, and the remainder three rooms and an attic. The larger dwellings were let at 75. 8d. and the smaller at Gs. dd. per week. The four-roomed dwellinfrs had two rooms downstairs and two above, all of the same dimensions, 13 feet by 14 feet by 8 feet, while in the other houses the two rooms downstairs measured 11 feet 3 inches square and 15 feet by 14 feet respectively, both rooms being 8 feet in height and the upper room 15 feet by 14 feet 6 inches by 7 feet 6 inches. All the houses were built of wood, painted red, were semi-detached and had plots of ground adjacent. The closets (privy-vaults) were outside, and the water was obtained from pumps, but city water also was supplied to the village. The miners of PITTSBXJRG. 355 different nationalities lived apart as far as possible, the Italians being in one quarter, the Poles in another and the Hungarians in a third. The company had erected a school- house and a church in which monthly services were held. In some newer mining villages the housing conditions are of a superior kind. At Mariana brick houses containing four, five and six rooms with bathrooms are provided for the miners at a rental of Is. lid. per room per week, which is indeed the accepted rate in mining villages throughout the district. The mining companv owns a large area around the mines. It has given a park, an amusement hall and other advantages to the miners, but it refuses to allow the introduc- tion of a public-house. Retail Pkices. The workpeople have not organised any co-operative societies, and the retail pro- vision trade is mainly in the hands of the small dealers. There are two important national " multiple " firms selling groceries and provisions, one of which has twenty-two shops and the second nineteen in the district, and one local firm has six branches. Several meat dealers have two or more establishments — one has six^and some of the large general stores sell groceries and other foodstuffs, including, in at least one case, meat. Three of the five public markets are large, and are frequented by all classes ; one of these is situated in the centre of the city near the Point, another on the North Side, and the third on the South Side ; the two small markets are in the city proper. Truck shops are rare, save in the mining communities, where they are practically the sole source of supply, the companies as a rule not permitting the establishment of retail shops Avithin the areas owned by them around the mines. Carts are sent regularly once or twice a week from neighbouring towns to many of the villages, but the miners complain that they are almost compelled to buy the bulk of their goods at the companies' stores. The check system is in vogue, i.e., when a sum is earned the man may draw a check up to that amount before pay day for use at the store. In one typical mining village from 20 to 25 per cent, of the monthly wages bill was regularly spent at the truck store, where meat, groceries, provisions, clothes and various household necessaries were stocked. The inspection of food in Pittsburg is carried out by four meat inspectors, four milk inspectors, one dairy inspector and one fruit and vegetable inspector. There is no municipal abattoir, but in the city animals are slaughtered at over seventy establishments, of which six, under Federal inspection, are stated to kill the greater part of the home- killed meat. In dealing with retail prices, an important feature of the American retail trade must be borne in mind. In the interest of a quick turnover of their stock the retailers resort not only to special sales and to season sales, but also to special day or even special hour sales. Moreover, inducements are held out to customers to buy two or more units of a commodity instead of one unit ; for example, it is common to sell two or more pounds of coffee at a considerable reduction on the price of a single pound. Thus, as an extreme instance, of a quality of coffee quoted at lOd. per lb., 2 lb. were being sold for as low as Is. 3c?. Groceries and other Commodities. Coffee is the almost universal domestic drink of the working classes, tea being little consumed even by the Russians. The sugar sold is almost exclusively granulated, and, owing to the special inducements offered, it is generally bought in large quantities. Several kinds of cheese are in demand, but American cheese is most popular, varieties of Limburg and Swiss cheese being also much bought. Butter substitutes are in considerable demand among certain sections of the workpeople. Bread is sold at various prices according to its weight, but the weight given for 2^d. in February, 1909, was from 14 oz. to 15 oz., save in the Jewish and some Slav districts, where the weight was 16 oz. A cut-price in the city was 14 oz. for 2d., but when bread is sold at this price the object is to attract custom for other goods. A good deal of rye bread is eaten by the Poles and other Slavs. Bituminous coal mined in the district is used in the city, but natural gas takes its place to a great extent as a fuel. Coal usually costs 5^d. or 5|af. per bushel of 76 lb. on the level ground when a minimum of 50 bushels is taken, the price on the hill being 6d. to 6\d. for at least the same quantity. For under 50 bushels 6^d. per bushel is charged on the level, but the coal merchants do not make a delivery of less than 50 bushels on the hill. The following Table shows the predominant prices paid in February, 1909, for groceries and other commodities by the working classes of Pittsburg : — 16576 S t 356 PITTSBURG. Predominant Prices paid by the Working Classes m February, 1909. Commodity. Tea Coffee Sugar : — White Granulated Brown Bacon, Breakfast — Boneless Eggs Cheese, American Butter Potatoes, Irish Flour, Wheaten — Household Bread, White... Milk Coal, Bituminous Kerosene per lb. per Is. per lb. per 7 lb. »^ per 4 lb. per quart. per cwt. per gallon. Predominant Price. Is. Sd. to 2s. 6d. lOd. 2\d. to M. 2\d. „ 3d lOd. „ Is. O^d. 9,10 M. to lOd. Is. M. 5fd l\\d. 10|d 4K 8d 7irf. Is. M Id. Is. Old. ll^d. 4Jd nd." M. * By quantities of 50 bushels (34 owtj. Meat. The beef and pork supply comes mainly from Chicago meat firms, but a considerable quantity of meat is also killed in the local slaughter houses. Beef and pork are the most popular kinds of meat. The consumption of veal is larger than that of mutton. JBO' The following Table shows the predominant prices paid for the principal cuts of beef, mutton, veal and pork at Pittsburg in February, 1909. The prices of home-killed and Western meat do not show much difference in the city. Most of the meat eaten by the working classes is chilled Western meat. Predominant Prices paid by the Working Classes in February, 1909. Description of Cut. Predominant Price per lb. Beef :— Roasts — Round l^d. „ Ribs prime 7W. to 9d „ Ribs second cut 6id. „ nd. „ Chuck or short ribs 6id. Steaks — Round - l^d. to 9d. „ Sirloin M. „ lOd. Shin without bone bd. Flank 5d. Plate, Brisket { ^,7^' or corned Z id. bd. Mutton or Lamb : — Leg M. Breast S:*- Loin ' Chops \M. Shoulder &\d. to l\d. Neck 5d. „ Gid. Veal :— Cutlets lOd. to is. Oid. Rib chops 9d. Loin chops 9d. to lOd. Breast 6H „ 7K Neck eid. Pork :— Fresh — Loin ... 7id to lOd. „ Spare rib id. „ G\d. „ Shoulder m. „ 7id. „ Chops l\d. „ lOd. Corned (wet salt or pickled) Hd. „ ihd. Dry salt Gid. „ M. Ham lid. Shoulder, salt or smoked io\d. to l\d. Prices at New York being taken as the base, = 100, in each case, the index number for the price of meat at Pittsburg is 103, for other food it is 102 and for food prices as a whole 102. For rents and food prices combined the index number is 100. 357 PROVIDENCE. Providence is the capital and chief city of the small but industrially important State of Rhode Island, It is situated on the main railway route between Boston and New York, being nearly 50 miles from the former and over 180 miles from the latter. Standing at the head of a long inlet, Narragansett Bay, Providence was formerly of con- siderable importance as a port, but this is no longer the case, its shipping activities being now overshadowed by its large and varied industries, and by its position as the financial centre of the State. The city is of attractive appearance. It has large well-to-do residential districts, both on the east and west sides, the former containing the old residences of many of the wealthier families, and the latter the equally pleasing villas and apartment houses of the middle classes. The east and west portions of the city are separated by a river or creek, which forms the northern arm of the bay. The first settlements were built along the eastern bank of this inlet, but the commercial and industrial importance of the east side is now small as compared with that of the west. The central or business district of the city is immediately to the west of the river. Practically the whole of this area con- sists of land which, in the early part of last century, was gradually reclaimed from what was then a shallow bay, bordered by salt marshes. The central district contains a number of large office blocks, some of which have decided architectural merit, and several fine public buildings — notably, the imposing State House, which, surrounded by a carefully tended green plot, stands on an eminence a short distance from the busiest thoroughfares of the city. Little or no regularity is observable in the general plan on which the city is laid out, and the narrow and tortuous character of some of the most important business streets sufficiently indicates the considerable age of the city and its somewhat casual growth. Nearly 200 miles of the streets are laid with gravel and crushed stone ; but in the central districts granite blocks are much used, about material 33 miles of streets beino^ laid with this Providence possesses a number of open spaces having a total area of over 600 acres ; but several of these spaces, which have been purchased or provided for the purposes of parks or playgrounds, have not yet been laid out. The principal park, named after Roger WilUams, who founded the city in 1636, is a large well-wooded and carefully-kept tract on the western edge of the city, somewhat beyond convenient reach on foot by any large section of the working classes. The population of Providence, as returned at the Federal Censuses of 1870-1910, is shown in the following Table : — Year. 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 Population. 68,904 104,857 132,146 175,r)97 224,326 Increase. 35,953 27,289 4:5,451 48,729 Percentage Increase. .52-2 26-0 32-9 2r8 Two changes in the area of the city have been made during the period covered by the above Table. In 1870 the area of the city was only about 9 square miles, or less than half its present area. In 1874 part of the town of North Providence was added, increasing the area of the city by 67 square miles, and the population by about 15,000. A further increase took place in 1898, when a portion of Johnston, with a population of about 8,000, and an area of about 2"o square miles, was absorbed. The area of the city is now 18'29 square miles. Taking into account the increase in the area of the city, the growth of population has not been very rapid relatively to that of some other American cities. This is largely due to the fact that much of the increase has been 16576 z 3 358 PROVIDENCE. drawn off by the neighbouring and almost contiguous urban areas of North Providence, East Providence, Cranston, Johnston and Pawtucket, where the possibiUties of expansion are much greater. The most considerable of these areas is Pawtucket, which is itself a city, and which had in 1905 a population of over 43,000. Pawtucket, though only a short car ride from Providence, and though connected in many ways with the larger city, has nevertheless its own economic and social life, and can properly be considered as an independent unit from the point of view of the present investigation. The proportion of foreign-born persona in Providence is high, amounting to 33'1 per cent, of the total number of inhabitants in 1905. Of the foreign-born population at that date, 26-1 per cent, were born in Ireland, ld. for payment within ten days. The water supply is municipal and is obtained from the Pawtucket River. The following are the more important rates charged in the case of dwelling-houses occupied by one family : — One faucet 255. ; each additional faucet 8*. 4d. ; one bath tub 20s, lOd. ; one water-closet of approved kind 20s. lOd. ; each additional water-closet 12s, 6d. ; set wash tub 12s. 6d. ; each additional set wash tub 4s, 2d. No dwelling-house can be charged more than £S 6s, 8c?, Each family having separate fixtures is charged as if living in a separate house, but if using the same fixtures an extra fixed charge of 20s, 10c?, per family is made. For measui'ed or estimated water a charge of 10c?, per 1,000 gallons is made for quantities up to 100,000 cubic feet, and for quantities in excess of this amount the cliarge diminishes to od. per 1,000 gallons. Many of the houses have conveniences of the vault or cesspool type. The work of emptying and cleaning these is done by private persons, being a matter of arrangement PROVIDENCE. 359 between the landlord and the tenant. House refuse, however, is removed by the city, the work being done under contract with a private firm. The principal vital statigtics for the years 190o-7, as shown in the rejjort of the City Registrar, are reproduced in the following Table : — Tear. 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 Birth-rate per 1,000 of Population. ! Death-rate per 1,000 ; Infantile Mortality of Population. per 1,000 Births. 26-7 26-7 26-2 26-9 28-3 211 18-6 17-5 18-8 19-2 182 156 133 158 142 The average death-rate from phthisis during the same period Avas 2'0 per 1,000 of population. As in many other American cities, the prevention and cure of tubercular diseases have attracted much attention in Providence during recent years, and three organisations, a District Nursing Association, the League for the Suppression of Tuber- culosis and the Charity Organisation Society, co-operate closely with one another and with the hospitals in prophylactic and curative work. The State maintains a sanatorium for curable cases, and provision is also made for cases at the State almshouse. Public assistance to the indigent in Providence consists for the most part of outdoor relief. Its administration is for practical purposes in the hands of the Overseer of the Poor. Although this officer is elected and holds his position from year to year, there have been only two overseers during nearly 50 years. Relief is given usually in the form of food, fuel, medical care and shoes for school children. Money is rarely given. The city possesses an institution known as the Dexter Asylum, whei-e a certain number of aged persons and other classes of the more or less incapacitated poor are accommodated. The benefits of this institution are confined to those havins: leffal settle- ment in Providence, and as settlement is in some respects difficult to obtain, many of the city poor who cannot be properly relieved in their own homes are sent to the almshouse maintained by the State. In the winter between October and May a lodge, with a wood- yard adjoining, is maintained in which relief is given to casuals. A wandering man can obtain shelter and food here for two or three nights on the condition that he does a certain task of work. This work may be done either in the afternoon before or in the morning after relief is given, an option which gives the man an opportunity, should he be disposed, of seeking work during the early hours of the day, but which at the same time does not exclude from relief the man who arrives too late to do his task in the afternoon. The city revenues are derived principally from taxes, licence duties and receipts from concessions of public utility undertakings. The tax levied on real and personal property in 1908 was at the rate of 1"65 per cent., of which 0*18 per cent, was levied on account of State expenditure. The total valuation of personal property in 1908 was £12,091,175, and that of real property £36,366,513. The per capita valuation of personal property is less than half what it was in the year 1868, a fact which results rather from a change in the practice and rigour of assessment than from a diminu- tion of individual wealth. There is also a poll tax of 45. 2d. per head on all male citizens 21 years of age and upwards who do not pay property tax, with certain exemptions for those in extreme poverty, those who served in the Civil War, &c. Wholesale and retail liquor licences yielded in 1908 £52,208, of which sum one-quarter was paid to the State. By an Aci of 1908 the number of licences is limited to one for each 500 inhabitants. The maximum tax on liquor manufacturers and wholesale dealers is £312 10s. and on first-class retail dealers £208 65. 8c?. The franchise taxes, so far as the tramway, gas and electric lighting companies are concerned, have already been mentioned. In addition, the telephone company pays 3 per cent, of its gross earnings, this being equal in 1908 to £3,914. Occupations, Wages and Hours of Labour. The relative importance of the principal industries of Providence is shown by the results of a Census made by the State of Rhode Island in 1905, according to which the following numbers of persons 13 years of age and upwards were engaged in the occupations named : — 16576 Z 1 360 PROVIDENCE. Number of Persons of 13 years of at/e and over engaged in Industrial Occupations in Providence in 1905, classified according to Occupation and Sex. Occupations. Building ... Metal working (non-precious) and Engineering Gold and Silver Working Jewellery, Clock and Watch Making Cotton Woollen and Worsted ... Dyeing Other and Unspecified Textiles Clothing ... Woodworking and Furnishing Paper and Printing Food, Drink and Tobacco Transport Labourers ... Other and Insufficiently Defined Total Males. Females. Total. 5,029 8,582 l,16o 3,807 483 4,164 1,111 1,064 1,401 770 895 1,116 5,313 5,275 4,548 44,724 704 48 2,005 1,303 5,154 220 .506 3,739 29 193 69 1 42 743 14,756 5,029 9,286 1,214 5,812 1,786 9,318 1,331 1,570 5,140 799 1,088 1,185 5.314 5,317 5,291 59,480 It will be seen that the textile trade grou]) of occupations takes the first place in this enumeration, employing 14,()0o persons, or 28"o per cent, of the total classified above, while the second place is taken by the metalworking (non -precious) and engineering trades with a total of 9,286, equal to 15'6 per cent, of the whole and the third place by the gold, silver, jewellery, &c., trade group with a total of 7,026, equal to 11 "8 per cent. of the Avhole. The cotton mill operatives present, in contrast to those employed in the woollen and worsted mills, a comparatively small group in Providence. This is, however, no indication of the relative importance of cotton manufacturing in the State of Rhode Island as a whole. The Census of 1905 showed the total number of persons employed in woollen and worsted manufacture in the whole of the State to be 20,807, while those employed in cotton manufacture numbered 22,349. The fact has already been mentioned that most of the cotton mills are found along the Blackstone Valley, stretching away from the north of the city through Pawtucket and Woonsocket, where water power is available to a considerable extent. On suitable sites mill villages have grown up, peopled chiefly by French Canadians. Statistics of the wages paid in several mills so situated have been obtained, the results being shown in a subjoined Table, and it must be borne in mind, therefore, that these figures relate not strictly to Providence itself but to the district around, and indicate the earnings of a population living in rural rather than urban surroundings. Within the borders of Providence itself the woollen and worsted is the most important single industiy. In this industry' there is much variety of output, and no one class of goods can be described as predominant. The mills are mostly situated in the Olneyville district, on the north-west side of the city. The employees as a rule live in independently owned dwellings, though a number of workers, mostly of the unskilled class, still find accommodation in some tenement blocks which were originally part of the mill property. The foreign-born population and those born to foreign fathers are largely represented in the textile mills of Ivhode Island. Here, as elsewhere in New England, it is the cotton much more than the woollen and worsted industry that attracts the French Canadians ; while the total number employed in the former industry in the whole State was 34 per cent, of the total of all nationalities, in the latter industry it was only 18 per cent. The Irish and English and those born to Irish and English fathers form important groups in the textile trades, but while the Irish show preference for the woollen trades, the English are more numerous in the cotton industry than in the woollen. Though the three nationalities mentioned, together with persons of American parentage, constitute the great bulk of the workers employed, the balance is made up of a great variety of nationalities, among Avhom the Italians are the most important. Italians, however, are mostly found in Providence, where, so far as the textile trades are concerned, they are employed principally in the woollen and worsted industry. The varied admixture of nationalities m the textile trades is regarded by many manufacturers as a heavy handicap. The difficulty of language no doubt places obstacles in the way of supervision and instruction. On the other hand it probably exempts the PROVIDENCE. 361 employer from a good deal of the pressure on the part of labour organisations which might be expected if all the workers were of one nationality and if the stream of immigration did not offer an alternative supply of labour. As it is, the organisations in the textile trades of Providence appear to exercise but little influence in determining wages. As regards the city of Providence itself, the following Table shows the distribution by nationality of persons employed in the various occupation -groups. The total number employed in each group, classified according to sex, is given in the Table on the preceding page. Number of Persons of li\ years of age and over engaged in Industrial Occupations in Providence in 1905, classified according to Occupation and Birth-place of Father. Occupations. ITnited States. Canada. English. Building Metalworking (non-precious) and En- gineering ... ■Gold and Silver "Working Jewellery, Clock and Watch Making ■Cotton ... Woollen and Worsted Dyeing Other and Unspecified Textiles Clothing Woodworking and Furnishing Paper and Printing Food, Drink and Tobacco Transport Labourers Other and Insufficiently Defined Total 1,468 ?,211 .^568 1,870 551 1,134 218 296 1,608 278 560 266 2,109 695 2,048 257 324 28 158 21 183 17 45 162 43 30 20 162 64 218 French. 15,680 1,732 422 308 24 207 527 501 19 108 178 68 24 69 178 170 195 2,998 Ireland. 1,261 2,870 193 1,607 368 2,953 386 467 1,356 152 224 227 1,605 1,401 1,240 16,310 Great Britain. 621 1,671 402 677 136 1,541 566 229 361 69 154 81 336 245 742 7,831 Italy. 389 384 6 237 139 2,103 38 100 521 17 9 175 129 2,201 214 other Countries. 6,662 611 1,518 193 1,056 44 903 87 325 954 172 87 347 795 541 6:54 8,267 h It will be seen that persons born of American fathers are fairly evenly distributed throughout the various occupational groups and are proportionately most numerous in the paper and printing trades — the only group in which they constitute more than one- half of the total number employed — and in the transport trades, while the number of American labourers is comparatively very small. English Canadians are in no group very numerous, but the French Canadians are present in considerable numbers in the cotton and woollen and worsted industries. Persons of Irish and British descent are numerous in all branches of employment, particularly in the metal and engineering and in the woollen and worsted groups. While, however, the number of British labourers is not large, the Irish labourers outnumber those of any nationality except the Italian, which furnishes •over 40 per cent, of all labourers. About one- third of the Italians are labourers, and a similar proportion are found in the woollen and worsted industry. As regards nationalities not distinguished in the above Table, the only point worthy of remark is the employment in the metal and engineering trades of 568 persons of Swedish descent. After the manufacture of woollen and worsted o-oods, the most distinctive of local industries is the making of jewellery, together with the allied trade of silversmithing. The grade of jewellery made is chiefly that known as "medium." but there is also a large manufacture of cheap and imitation wares. As a jewellery making centre Providence is usually coupled with 2^orth Attleborough and South Attleborough, two towns a few miles distant over the Massachusetts border, where the manufacture of jewellery and jewellers' findings is practically the sole industry. Most of the jewellery making establishments in Providence and the surrounding neighbourhood are comparatively small, as there is ■a constant tendency for the more highly-skilled and original workmen to set up in business for themselves and trade upon their own specialised knowlerlge and ideas. In Providence and the Attleboroughs there are about 450 jewellery making establishments, and according to the estimate of a member of the trade, well qualified to judge, not more than one-tenth of these are of more than twenty years standing, such is the rapidity ■with which concerns dependent mainly upon the energy or ability of one or two individuals come and go. The output of the industry comprises rings, chains and general jewellery work. As might be expected the trade fluctuates greatly both with the general state of business and with the seasons. The amount of local unemployment in 862 PROVIDENCE. this industry in 1908, ti year of depression, was proportionately much greater than in any other clearly defined trade. From returns made by employers in connexion with an investigation by the State into tlie subject of unemployment it appeared that 262 establishments, which employed 12,163 persons in 1907, employed only 9,70i on a corresponding date in 1908. The seasonal fluctuation is also considerable, though there are no accurate means of measuring it. No definite answer can be given to the question as to what is usually done during slack times by those thrown out of employment in this trade, though more than once in reply to such an enquiry the occupation of motorman or conductor on the street cars was mentioned, a reply which at least illustrates the facility with which the American workman in case of need turns from one field of employment to another. In addition to the manufacture of jewellery, there is also a large silver and plated ware industry. One large firm in this industry, whose output is noted both for its extent and its high quality, is well known for the enterprise which it has shown in carrying out various schemes for the benefit of its employees. Toolmaking and engineering are represented by some large Avorks. One firm, engaged in making machine tools, employs from 3,000 to 4,000 men, its establishment being one of the largest of its kind in the world. This and most of the other engineering firms in Providence are " open," that is to say, they employ both union and non-union labour. There are relatively few shops where none but trade unionists are employed. In Pro\'idence, as in many other cities in the United States, the trade unionists are confronted with a difficulty in the machine shops in the fact that the work is much more minutely sub-divided than under the English principle of working. Men performing mechanical and only semi-skilled tasks are known as " machinists " equally with the most highly-skilled operatives, and there is consequent difficulty in so fixing a standard rate of wages that it will be adequate, and no more than adequate, for all degrees of efficiency. Besides a large number of small firms, there are in Providence several building con- tractors who undertake extensive forms of work both in the city and elsewhere. The building trades are somewhat closely organised. There are sixteen unions representing various building trades, and these are federated into a local Building Trades Council. The brewing industry in Providence is important, the products having a sale throughout a large part of New England. The total number of employees is not large, but they form a completely organised body. All the breweries are covered by a compre- hensive agreement which determines wages and conditions of employment, not only for the brewers properly so called, but also for the firemen, engineers, draymen, &c. Coal teamsters form another group of workers who are highly organised, practically all of them working under a trade agreement. Other unions having agreements which affect a considerable proportion of the members of the trades affected are those of the carpenters, painters, bar tenders, compositors and other workers in the printing trade, musicians and ironmoulders. A system of factory inspection is enforced in Rhode Island, and the employment of children in the mills is also controlled by law. The principal provisions relating to child labour are as follows. A child before being employed must show a certificate to the effect that he or she is not less than 14 years of age. No young person under 16 years of age may work before 6 a.m. or after 8 p.m. Children employed in shops, however, may work any number of hours on Saturday and also during the four days preceding Christmas. These provisions have been in force only since 1st January, 1907 ; before that date much child labour was employed. No educational qualification is imposed as in the neighbouring State of Massachusetts. Those benevolent and social activities known in America under the general title of " welfare work " are displayed in Providence by a few large firms. The principal machine tool factory has established a sickness and provident society. The large silver- smith works maintain a " casino " containing a meeting and dining hall and a library. A " regular " dinner is served each day to employees for Is. O^d., and meals are also served a la carte at low prices. The factory is attractively situated upon a well-kept estate, where an athletic field for employees is provided. Two benefit societies are managed by the workmen, each having as its principal aim the provision of medical advice. The individual contributions amount to about 8s. M. a year. The company has also a pension scheme financed entirely by itself. The scale of pension payments is one per cent, of the monthly wage paid at the time of superannuation for each year of service, but no pension may exceed i,20S 6s. 8d. a year. The age of retirement varies from 60 to 70 years, according to length of service. One of the largest woollen mills maintains a lunch room, a gymnasium and recreation hall, and a library and reading room. PROVIDENCE. 363 The following Table shows the predominant wages and hours of labour in some (jf the principal occupations : — Predominant Weekly Wages and Hours of Labour of Adult Males in the Principal Occupations in February^ 1909. Predominant Weekly Wages. Predominant Weekly Hours of Labom-. Building Trades : — Bricklayers Stonemasons Carpenters Plasterers Plumbers . Painters ... Hod Carriers and Bricklayers' Labourers General Labourers Foundries and Machine Shops : — Ironmoulders ... Coremakers ,,,.., j Skilled Machinists j gemi-skilled Blacksmiths Patternmakers ... Labourers ... ■Cotton Trades : — Card Grinders Card Strippers Slasher Tenders Mule Spinners Loom Fixers Weavers ... Labourers Woollen and Worsted Trades : — "Wool Sorters Card Strippers and Grinders Mule Spinners Wool Scourers Loom Fixers Weavers Dye-house Men Labourers Jewellery Making : — Jewellers or Bench Hands Stampers Stone Setters Engravers Polishers Printing Trades .• — Newspaper — Hand Compositors I Day work ( Night work Day work .. Night work Machine Compositors Book and Job — Hand Compositors Pressmen / Cylinder Presses \ Small Presses Baking : — Bakers Unskilled Men and Labourers Brewing : — First Cellar, Fermenting Room and Kettle Men Other „ „ „ First Wash-house Men Other „ Yardmen Firemen ... Route Drivers Depot „ lOd. 100s. lOd. 82.S. Gd 75s. 2d. 91s. Sd. to 100s. 91s. M. 64s. M. to 68s. dd. 50s. 43s. M. 68s. '3d. to 81s. M. 54s. 2d. 56s. M. 41s. 8d. 56s. M. 62s. Gd. 33s. 4d. 62s. Gd. 66s. 8f/. 56s. 3d. 79s. 2d. 83s. id. 41s. Sd. 41s. Sd. to 45s. lOd. 64s. Id. to 76s, 10^7. 41s. 8d. „ 59s. 5d. 50s. „ 63s. Id. 33s. 4d. „ 52s. Id. 31s. M. „ 35s. M. 50s. to 62s. M. 37s. 6d. „ 41s. M. 50s. 33s. -kt. 63s. Id. 50s. 34s. id. 31s. -Sd. 62s. 6d. 42s. lid. lbs. 66s. M. 37s. 6d. 37s. 6d. 62s. Gd. to 87s. Gd. 50s. „ 87s. Gd. 62s. Gd. „ 112s. Gd. 75s. „ 87s. Gd. 50s. „ 75s. 87s. 6^/. 100s. 87s.6dtol04s.2rf. 100s. „ 125s. 75s. to 83s. id. lbs. „ 91s. Sd. 58s. id. to 75s. 58s. id. to 66s. Sd. 37s. Gd. „ 50s. 77s. Id. to 85s. bd. 68s. [)d. 72s. lid. to 77s. Id. 64s. Id. 56s. '6d. GSs. M. 72s. llrf. GSs. M. 44 44 44 44 44 44 48 48 to 54 54 to 55 54 „ 55 54 „ 55 54 „ 55 54 „ 55 54 „ 55 54 „ 55 58 58 58 58 58 58 58 58 58 58 58 58 58 58 58 59 59 59 59 59 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 54 to 63 54 „ 63 54 :a 54 54 54 56 54 54 364 PROVIDENCE. Predominant Weekly Wages. Predominant Weekly Hours of Labour. General Drivers, Teamsters : — One horse Two horses Three horses Public Services .- — Street Construction, Pavingand Cleaning (Municipal)- Paviors ... Paviors' Labourers Scavengers Road Sweepers ... One horse ... Two horses... Water Works (Municipal) — Labourers Gas Works (Company) — Gas Stokers Labourers Electric Light and Power Works (Company) — Electricians Linemen... Stokers ... Labourers Electric Tramways — see text. Drivers 50s. 54s. 2d. 58s. id. 63s. 38s. Sd. 38s. M. 38s. M. 43s. M. 50s. 38s. M. 80s. '6d. 51s. Id. 75s. 68s. 9d. 58s. id. 37s. 6d. 60 60 60 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 84 84 48 60 60 60 Taking wages at New York as the base, = 100, in each case, the wages index numbers for Providence are — building trades, skilled men 79, hod carriers and brick- layers' labourers 73 ; foundries and machine shops, skilled men 79, unskilled labourers 90 ; printing, hand compositors (job work) 90. The above rates relate only to adult male labour. Female labour in Providence is however, very important. The Census figures already quoted show that in the textile trades the female workers outnumber the male by a considerable proportion ; while in the jewellery-making shops female labour forms more than one-third of the total. In the cotton mills men and women are employed in common in several occupations. The women's more exclusive employment, however, is found in tending the first and second intermediate and the jack or fly frames, in warping, ring spinning, spooling and dra wing-in. The usual earnings of ring or frame spinners are fi'om 205. lOd. to 33s. 4d. fer week. The weekly earnings of women warpers range from about 29s. 2d. to 35s. 5d. n the woollen mills women combers earn about 29*. 2d. per week, and women weavers frt)m 41s. Sd. to 62s. 6d. per week. Carding machine feeders are mostly women, though in some mills men also are employed. The earnings of the women are usually about 29s. 2d. to 33s. Ad. per week. In the jewellery manufactories women and girls are employed as carders, enamellers, casemakers and to some extent as stonesetters. The wages of the carders are usually from 2os. to 37s. 6d. for a full week. With reg-ard to the tramways it may be noted that the staff of motormen and con- ductors is usually increased during the summer by about 200 men in order to meet the necessities of heavier trafiic. About half of these men remain on and become regular employees. They are paid 10c?. per hour during the first year of service, and receive an increase of ^d. per hour for each year of service, rising to a maximum of Is. O^d. per hour after five years' service. Housing and Rents. The typical working-class dwelling in Providence is a flat. The disposition to fivvour dwellings of this type is not confined, however, to the wage-earners. Many large,, well-equipped, and sometimes handsome houses of the kind exist in various parts of the city for the accommodation of a well-to-do, if not a rich class. With the exception of a few large blocks of the New York " apartment "or London " mansion " type of dwelling, which are to be found in the fashionable East Side of the city, the flats of this superior type seldom accommodate more than two families. Among the working classes, however, while the two-family house is very common, larger blocks containmg four, six or even more separate dwellings under one roof must also be considered as typical. The buildings are almost invariably of wood, and show that entire lack of uniformity in the smaller details of construction and finish which appears to be characteristic of American housing conditions. PROVIDENCE. 365 There is a wide variation in age as well as in the other features of the working-class houses. Considered generally, the oldest houses are, as would be expected, in the more central parts of the city ; but the tendency which Providence has shown to grow by absorbing neighbouring villages and clusters of houses surrounding old-e.'^tablished mills, once beyond the city boundaries, makes necessary a qualification of this rule and, in almost all parts, houses manifestly upwards of fifty years old stand side-by-side with modern structures. The old houses are seldom more than two stories in height, and with the exception of a hood over the doorway are usually of quite plain appearance. A type which occurs frequently has the entrance in the middle of the house, with two dwellings, one upstairs and one downstairs, on each side. Such houses usually offer little in the way of general conveniences. The old houses seldom have baths and usually the *' toilet " is in the cellar. A faucet and sink are as a rule provided in the kitchen. Very frequently, in the case of both the old and the new houses, there are attics, which are shared among the occupiers of the tenements and are used as sleeping rooms or store rooms. The newer types of houses are as a rule more pretentious in frontage appearance than the old, and generally attract a better class of tenants. A common modern type of dwelling is three stories high and is bay-fronted. The tenements in such a house are usually large, containing five, six or seven rooms, often with a bathroom and separate " toilet." Sometimes the third story is built in a steeply sloping roof, and is let as a separate tenement, but though providing the same nominal accommodation it is of course much less desirable and is less highly rented than the lower dwellings. A six-roomed tenement on the ground or first floor in a building of this type in a fair neighbourhood is usually rented at from los. 6rf. to 16s, 4d. per week. At and beyond the upper limit of the range, however, such a dwelling is typical of an exceptionally skilled workman, a shopkeeper or a clerk rather than of the wage-earning class as a whole. Tenement houses are in practically all cashes detached buildings. On the old and fashionable East Side, previously mentioned, there are a few rows of " terrace " houses, but both as regards single-family houses and tenements, the building almost invariably stands by itself. Yard spaces, often irregular in shape and usually small, are generally provided, and there appears to be a tendency in the case of the more modern houses to fence oiF these yards so as to secure some degree of privacy. As a rule, the yard is easily accessible, and the house is more commonly entered by the back than the front way. Except in the case of a small Italian colony on the outskirts of the city, little attempt is made to cultivate gardens. The general arrangement ol the rooms within a tenement is fairly uniform whatever the number of rooms may be, and in view of the climate of the New England States it presents many advantages. In a typical small tenement all the rooms open off one another : there are no passages. As a rule the kitchen — usually a large room 14 to 16 feet square — is the centre of the dwelling, and its large stove, standing well out in the room, distributes its occasionally oppressive warmth among the other apartments. In tenements of three or four rooms, for example, all the apartments are directly accessible from the kitchen, and the stove in the latter is often the only means of heating the dwelling. In the larger tenements, however, one or two of the rooms may be accessible from the kitchen only through some intervening room, and in such cases the room used as a parlour is also provided with a stove. In summer the usual arrangement of com- municating rooms, which in winter facilitates the warming of the tenement, is also useful, since the communicating doors can be opened and an uninterrupted draught of air be secured through the whole dwelling. The foreign nationalities in Providence, as has been remarked, show a tendency to live together, and all of them have their distinctive " quarters." With the exception of the Italians and to a less extent the Jews, however, there is no such degree of concentration as necessitates special description. The Poles, for example, are found in a number of small clusters, anywhere, in fact, near the mills, where accommodation cheap enough for their narrow means and frugal habits can be secured. The French Canadians similarly, though coalescing in small groups here and there, are distributed throughout the city as a whole. The Jews, however, have a considerable colony in the neighbourhood of the State Capitol. The houses are mostly old and present no special characteristics. The Italians have three well-marked settlements : by far the largest is that bordering on Attwell's Avenue, not far from the centre of the city. Here the general impression is decidedly foreign. The shops bear almost exclusively Italian names and Italian labels, and the faces seen in the street are swarthy. In the middle of the district is an Italian theatre. The houses, though conforming to the ordinary tenement type, have a 366 pROvroENCE. distinctive appearance due, in many cases, no doubt to Italian ownership. The fronts are frequently ornate and the variety of construction and aspect which is characteristic of the city as a whole here becomes so prodigal as to be picturesque. Though of great social interest the character of the various foreign homes in Providence is not a matter that lends itself to easy or confident generalisation.. Certain features, however, appear to stand out with some distinctness. The Polish homes are for the most part bare and impoverished, pointing to three important facts regarding their occupiers, namely, their poverty, their frugality and their low standard of comfort. The poor Irish homes are also very unattractive, though here the fault is more often traceable to a shiftlessness on the part of the housewife. As a rule thei'e is a sufficiency — some- times indeed a superfluity — of furniture, but it is badly arranged and ill kept. On the other hand the French Canadians, though often found in juxtaposition to the Irish, appear to be possessed of considerable house-pride. Their homes, though sometimes very poor and usually selected with a view to a rigid economy in rental, are clean and neat. The Italians in their principal quarters show a tendency to overcrowd. As regards the appearance of their homes wide differences exist. Sometimes in the same house and even on the same floor two tenements will be found, one dirty and untidj- in the extreme and reeking with bad odours, the other clean, fresh and wholesome. According to an investigation made by the State Government in 1905 it appears that the 44,648 families resident in Providence at the time were distributed among tenements and other dwellings of various sizes as follows : — Number of Rooma Number of Occupied. Families. 1 348 2 645 3 3,339 4 7,613 5 8,364 6 8,634 7 4,857 8 4,388 9 2,220 10 1,623 11 557 12 739 Over 12 1,421 So far as the wage-earning classes are concerned the dwellings of four, five and six rooms must be considered as the predominant types. Three-roomed tenements, though numerous, are usually somewhat poor in character. Of the 44,648 families above enumerated, 21*7 per cent, lived in houses which they owned. It should be observed that these figures relate to the number of families, and not to the number of separate houses. In a city where the tenement system pre^'ails, and where two or more families to one house is accordingly the general rule, it is obvious that it is possible for only a certain proportion of families to own their own dwellings, and that the percentage quoted is therefore significantly high. It is a common form of investment for a workman to buy or build a two or three-family house and to occupy one of the tenements and let the others. Loan associations and real estate agencies are usually ready to afford the necessary financial assistance. As regards rentals, investigation showed that the most usual amounts charged for accommodation of a working-class character and of the general types already described were as follows : — Predomittant Rents of Working-class DweUim/s. Nnmber of Booms per Dwelling. Predominant Weekly Rents. Four rooms ' 7s. 8c/. to 9s. 7d. P'ive rooms ... ... ... ... , 8s. 8c?. „ lis. 6d. Six rooms lis. 6d. „ lis. bd. PROVIDENCE. 367 The level of rents at New York beiag represented by 100, the rents index number for Providence is 59. Though there are some signs of congestion in the more central parts of the city, and though overcrowding often takes place in individual tenements, especially among some of the foreign-born populations, the practice of building each tenement house as a detached block usually secures to the tenants a sufficiency of light and air. Nevertheless, the sanitary arrangements of the dwellings leave much to be desired. Even in the most populous quarters they are often of a very primitive type, and since their proper main- tenance is not a municipal function, a good deal of neglect occurs. Mention should be made of a quasi-philanthropic association known as the Improved Tenement Corporation, which was established about eight years ago and has built a few tenement houses of a type somewhat above the usual working-class standard but intended for and occupied by working-class tenants. The collectors appointed by the Corporation interest themselves in the lives of the tenants, and a beneficial influence is said to be exerted in this direction. Retail Prices. In addition to the ordinary smaller retail shops in Providence, there is a large establishment with four branches doing a strictly cash trade. The part which this stores plays in the retail food trade of Providence is very important. All kinds of food, including meat and provisions, are sold, and a specialty is made of fruits and vegetables not in common use among the working classes but which, owing to favourable conditions in tlie wholesale market, can be brought within their means. Much of the vegetable food con- sumed in Providence comes from a distance, but the city is fortunate in having an important local source of supply, one of the largest market gardens in the country — having -an area of about 1,000 acres- -being in the neighbourhood. Groceries and other Commodities. There is a well-marked Italian quarter in Providence where a number of shops cater exclusively to the national taste. The bread consumed by the Italians requires special mention, not so much on account of difference in composition as difference in weight and appearance. Though varying greatly as between different Italian shops, the bread is much cheaper than that used by the English-speaking people. The following details regarding the form, weight and price of bread sold were obtained from three Italian bakers : — (i.) Long loaf (about 18 inches), 2 lb. 14 oz. ... Round loaf (about 12 inches in diameter), 2 lb. 14 oz.* Large round loaf (18 inches in diameter), 6 lb. 1 oz. Small round loaf, 2 lb. Round loaf, 3 lb. 4 oz. (ii.) Round loaf, 1 lb. 4 oz. •• Z ID. V OZ. ... ... ... Long loaf, 9) )> 5 lb. 10 oz. 1 lb. 6 oz. 2 lb. 8 oz. 14 oz. (iii.) Long loaf (about 24 inches long and 4 inches section), J5 ( 5> ^^ )> 4 ,, ), » >■ " . " ^ " )' Round loaf (14 inches diameter), 2 lb. 8 oz. „ (17 „ ), 5 lb. 8 oz. 2 lb. 8 1 lb. 2 14 oz. bd. 5d. lOd. M. 2d. bd. lOd. 2d. hd. Ihd. bd. 2^d: Hd. bd. lOd. Macaroni, which is of course largely in use among the Italians, is retailed at the large cash stores at4|i. per lb. (S lb. for Is. O^d.) first quality, and 3|t/. per lb. (4 lb. for • This is the most popular. 368 PROVIDENCE. I5. OJrf.) second quality. Broken macaroni is sold at 2^(1. per lb. Olive oil is also largely used, and the kind sold is usually of good quality. The coal commonly used in Providence is a small anthracite known as " White Ash." In February, 1909, the price was uniform among nearly all retailers, namely 30s. 2^d. per ton of 2,000 lb. or 8s. IJrf. per quarter-ton. There is also a considerable trade in coal sold by the " basket," this measure containing about 80 lb. The uniform price for a basket of coal was Is, 8rf., a rate which differs little from that for larger quantities. The basket, however, is not the smallest unit by which coal is purchased. Most grocery shops sell bags of coal containing about 17 J lb. and selling at a uniform price of 5d. Coke also is sold to a very large extent by grocers. The weight of a bag varies somewhat more than that of a bag of coal, the usual weight being from 16 to 1"^ lb. The usual price of a bag of coke is 5d., though in a few shops it may be obtiined for Ad. The predominant prices of various articles are shown in the following Table : — Predominant Prices paid by the Working Classes in February, 1909. Commodity. Tea Cofifee Sugar : — White Granulated Brown Bacon, BreakfaBt — Boneless Eggs Cheese, American Batter Potatoes, Irish Flour, Wheaten — Household Bread, White ... Milk ... Coal, Anthracite Kerosene per lb. per Is. per lb. per"? lb. per 4 lb. per quart per cwt. per gallon Predominant Price. Is. Oid. to Is. Sd. lid. „ Is. Oid. 2id. 2id. nd. 8 9d. Is. 2d. Hd. M. '6d. °id. 12 lOd. Is. 4d. Id. Is. md. Is. old. ll^d. lOrf. ^\d. Is. 8id* ; Is. 9|dt ; 2s. M.X nd. By the ton of 2,000 lb. + By the quarter-ton (500 lb.). I By the basket (80 lb.). In the above Table the predominant price of bread is based upon the returns of bakers having either a mixed trade or a trade exclusively among the English-speaking classes. The cheaper bread made by the Italian bakers is not sufficient in quantity to aflfect materially the predominant price for the city as a whole. Meat. The meat consumed in Providence is mostly Western-dressed, with the exception of veal, most of which is local. Much variation exists in regard to the price of veal, since much which is too young or too old to provide good eating is put on the market and sold by the poorer-class butchers. One butcher questioned was selling the best cuts of veal at Sd. per lb. at a time when medium quality calves were worth 6^d. per lb. whole. The local method of cutting up meat requires no special comment, being generally similar to that adopted in other New England cities. Rounds of beef are not often sold for roasts, but are usually cut into steaks. As regards mutton, the front leg usually goes with the breast and is not sold separately as a shoulder. The consumption of meat among Italians in Providence appears to be somewhat less than among the same nationality in many other American cities, and is decidedly less than among American and British working-class families in Providence, though it probably cannot be considered low from European standpoints. It must be borne in mind that in Providence the Italians find their chief employment in the textile mills, where the work, although often arduous and unpleasant, makes no particularly great demand on muscular energy. The Italians usually buy the cheapest cuts of meat. PROVIDENCE. 369 The following Table shows the predominant prices of the principal cuts of meat as sold at working-class shops in Providence : — Predominant Prices paid by the Working Classes in February, 1909. Description of Cut. Predominant Price per lb. Beef :— Roasts — Ribs prime M. to M. „ Ribs second cut l^d. „ M. „ Chuck or short ribs bd. „ Id. Stealfs — Round lyi. „ n^d. „ Sirloin Is. Ohd. „ Is. M. Shin without bone id. „ bd. Flank 2\d. Brisket, "Fancy" 6d to ^d. Mutton or Lamb : — Leg Did. to M. Breast 45. „ bd. Loin M. „ l\d. Chops 9d „ Is. 0\d. Shoulder bd. Neck 2\d. to 3^. Veal :— Cutlets M. to Is. 3d Rib chops IM. „ Is. Ohd. 9d. „ Is. Ohd. Loin chops Breast bd. Neck 3id. to bd. Pork :— Fresh — Loin ed. to l^d. „ Spare rib bd. „ Shoulder bd. „ Chops Ghd. to M. Corned (wet salt or pickled) &d. Dry salt bd. to Id. Ham 6d. „ Id. Shoulder, salt or smoked 5d. Prices at New York being taken as the base, = 100, in each case, the index number for the price of meat at Providence is 103, for other food it is 95 and for food prices as a whole 97. For rents and food prices combined the index number is 88. 16576 2 A 370 ST. LOUIS. St. Louis, in the State of Missouri, lies on the western bank of the Mississippi, 20 miles below the junction of that river with the Missouri, nearly 300 miles by rail south-south-west of Chicago, and over 1,000 miles by rail from New York. Originally a French fur-trading post, and subsequently a great river port, when river traffic was at its height, it is now a railway, distributing and manufacturing centre t)f growing importance. The main east and west traffic goes through Chicago, but St. Louis holds an important position in relation to the increasing traffic between the northern and southern portions of the Mississippi Valley, and to that of the rapidly growing States of the South-West, Arkansas and Oklahoma. The extensive coal fields of Southern Illinois lie close at hand across the river, furnishing cheap fuel for manufacturing purposes. The city has a broad front on the Mississippi, extending almost twenty miles. Inland the city boundary forms an arc, the greatest distance of which from the river is about seven miles, enclosing an area of 62^ square miles. Practically all this land is well above the level of the river, rising gradually higher towards the west, but with no hills steep enough to form any obstacle to the expansion of the city. At present the river is spanned by only one road bridge, upwards of a mile in length, across which tramway cars are run far into the State of Illinois ; but as a toll of 2^d. is charged for the journey over the bridge alone, there is not very much inducement for working men employed in St. Louis to live on the other side of the river, while the low- lying character of the land renders it unattractive as a residential place for the wealthy. The city of East St. Louis is on that side of the river ; it has its own industries (meat- packing in ])articular) and can scarcely be regarded as a suburb of the larger city, nor can it ever be incorporated with St. Louis, inasmuch as it lies in a different State. The movement of population which has resulted everywhere from the introduction of electric traction has been, in St. Louis, towards the south, west and north, where suburban building has taken place to an enormous extent. The tramways in 1908 had 350 miles of single track within the city boundary and 120 miles within the county area outside the city. The municipal boundaries are so wide, however, that they include very nearly all the population which depends on the city for employment. The steam railways have not developed subui'ban traffic, and as it takes fully three-quarters of an hour to reach the city limits in any direction by tramway car from the centre, and as the cars are always overcrowded in the mornings and evenings, there is not much inducement for people to live further out. Population has grown rapidly since 1880, as the following Table shows. Additions were made to the area included within the city limits from time to time in the decades 1880 to 1890 and 1890 to 1900, but since the latter year there has been no further addition. Year. 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 Population. 310,864 350,518 ■151,770 575,238 687,029 Increase. Percentage Increase. 39,654 101,252 123,468 111,791 12-8 28-9 27-3 19-4 At the Census of 1900 74*5 per cent, of the population were returned as American-born and 19'3 per cent, as foreign-born whites, but since that date there has been a considerable influx of immigrants from South- Eastern and Central Europe, viz., Italians, Poles, Hun- garians, Bohemians, Russian Jews and Gi-eeks. Of the foreign-born population in 1900, o2'8 per cent, were born in Germany, 17'4 per cent, in Ireland, 6"5 per cent, in Great Britain and 5*1 per cent, in Austria- Hungary. Until the last decade, St. Louis received its immigrants in two streams, one from the Southern States, the other from the Northern. The former stream, which was strongest in the first half of last century, consisted of American-born whites and negro slaves : the latter stream, which predominated during the second half of the century, consisted of Americans of British descent and of uiure ST. LOUIS. 371 recently arrived German.s. The German stream has declined very much in recent years, and has been replaced by immigrants from South-Eastern Europe. Most of the labour employed on street and tramway construction is Slavonic and Italian, and the same races supply the unskilled labour of the car shops, foundries, and brickworks. Negroes, who in 1900 formed 6'2 per cent, of the total population, are employed largely as carters and at the wharves on the river front, and to some extent on street work. In the building trade they constitute the great majority of hod carriers, having the muscular strength required for this work. Germans and men of German descent are found both as employers and employed in the great breweries, but they are met with in most trades and pi'ofessions. Of the original French influence, practically nothing remains except in the names of streets and public places. The south side of St. Louis, near the river, used to be the German quarter, and to some extent it is so still ; but latterly this quarter has been invaded by the newer immigrants, Avhilst the Germans have tended to move still further south, where newer and better housing accommodation is found. The Slavonic and Italian immigrants are found in small scattered communities in many parts of the city, especially in the older and comparatively inferior districts round the centre and towards the river front. A few isolated communities are found in the more outlying parts, where large works exist. There is, for instance, a considerable body of Italians near the brick works in the extreme west. The death-rates for the years 1903-7, based upon the local estimates of population, have been as follows :— 1903, 17-3 per 1,000 of population; 1904, 16*8 ; 1905, 14-9 ; 1906, 14"0 ; 1907, 14"5. It is noticeable that the rate of mortality shows a tendency to decline. In regard to this the report of the Health Department for 1908 states — "The general decrease in disease and death-rate may be very properly attributed to the increased efficiency in the city's sewer system, the oiling and general elimination of ponds, the marked progress in street paAdng and cleaning, the excellent water supply and the more rigid enforcement of the general sanitary and quarantine laws." Sanitation is still by no means all that might be desired. The old-fashioned privy- vault system is still extensively used. Although the sewer system in 1908 embraced 639 miles of sewers, many unconnected vaults exist in the older crowded districts and most of the connexions which exist in these districts are untrapped. The Italian settlement near the brick works, being situated in an outlying district, has no sewer connexions, and the vaults are emptied only once a year, so that they overflow for some time before that operation takes place, causing offensive streams along the i-oadside. The inhabitants of this district, who happen to be occupied to a large extent in the manufacture of sewer pipes, have petitioned to have sewers put in, but so far without success. The sanitary conditions of the city generally, in fact, are such as would lead one to expect a higher rate of mortality than is actually experienced. There are two important facts which possibly help to explain the moderate death-rate. One is that St. Louis, like all the rapidly-growing cities in America, has not a normal proportion of infants and old persons in its pojjulation. The other is the fact that the immigrants — largely South Italians and Russian Jews — who occupy the worst tenement districts in the city come from conditions which are often much worse than those of their present surroundings, and it is probable that in the course of generations they have acquired some degree of immunity from the diseases incidental to overcrowding and defective sanitation. On coming to America these people are also much better fed and it is not surprising to find that they are fairly healthy. Further, St. Louis, in the main, is a town of detached buildings, having a sufficiency of air and light. There are comparatively few of the tall closely- packed tenements which are found in NeAV York, and this circumstance must have a favourable influence on the rate of mortality. Of the public services the water supply is undertaken by the municipality, being drawn from the river some miles above the town. Gas, electric lighting and tramways are in the hands of companies, but the municipality draws revenue from them. Parks are not very conveniently situated. Forest Park, where the great Exhibition was held in 1904, is a splendid domain, but to reach it entails a considerable journey. There are a number of small parks here and there and recently several recreation gi-ounds for children have been opened in the more crowded districts. These grounds are equipped with gymnastic apparatus and aj)pliances for games and amusements, which are under the supervision of a director and assistants employed by the municipality. 16o70 2 A 2 372 ST. LOUIS. Occupations, Wages and Hours of Labour. The following Table shows the distribution of occupations in St. Louis as recorded at the Federal Census of 1900. As might be expected in a great mercantile centime, large numbers of persons are employed in " trade and transportJition " and in " professional, domestic and personal service" : — Number of Persons of 10 years of age and over engaged in Occupations in St. Louis in 1900. Occupations. Males. Females. Totals. Building Metal working and Engineering Textile ..; Leather Boot and Shoe Making Clothing Woodworking and Furnishing Paper and Printing Brick and Tile Glass Food, Drink and Tobacco Other Manufacturing and Mechanical Pursuits Trade and Transportation Labourers (not otherwise specified) Professional, Domestic and Personal Service and Agricultural Pursuits All Occupations ... 15,995 14,978 339 1,079 4,383 2,964 5,789 3,630 950 452 8,836 14,931 69,191 20,663 26,662 190,842 28 53 576 30 1,777 10,871 207 1,232 2 12 1,900 1,602 8,761 434 27,021 54,506 16,023 15,031 915 1,109 6,160 13,835 5,996 4,862 952 464 10,736 16,533 77,952 21,097 53,683 245,348 The foregoing Table may be supplemented by a return for 1907, based on figures published by the Bureau of Labour Statistics of the State of Missouri, showing in greater detiiil the numbers employed in the important manufacturing industries of St. Louis : — Industries. Males over 16 years. Females over 1 6 years. Children under 1 6 years. Total. Boot and Shoe Making Car Works Foundries and Machine Shops Brewing Tailoring Brick and Tile Making Printing and Bookbinding ... Furniture Tobacco 7,109 10,083 6,836 6,156 2,310 4,008 2,649 3,015 1,700 4,107 296 68 624 4,059 8 1,217 120 1,439 593 20 40 1 64 88 99 43 21 11,809 10,399 6,944 6,781 6,433 4,104 3,965 3,178 3,160 The building trade has been very active during the greater part of the last decade, owing to the growth of population and to the demand for better housing. The stream of immigrants has consisted mainly of peasaiats and of miscellaneous workpeople who are unable to work at the skilled trades, even in building, tor as a rule they have not been accustomed to the kind of building in vogue in American cities. This immigration, therefore, has been a factor tending to i-aise rather than to lower wages in the skilled trades, and above all in the building trade, because all these new annvals increase the demand for houses. The strength of the demand for skilled workmen naturally tends to raise the level of wages, not only in the ordinary way in which an increasing demand for a commodity tends to raise its price, but also by enabling trade unions to secure a firm footing and to enforce their rates. All branches of the building trade in St. Louis are strongly organised. The various unions are represented on the Building Trades Council, and they 8U]>port one another in cases of dispute. The depression of 1907 had not very much effect on the majority of the recognised mtes. Bricklayers, however, suffered a reduction from '2s. lid. to 2s. S^d. per hour, but the former rate was restored in the summer of 1909. The plasterers' labourers, who have a union, were unable to maintain their rate of 2s. 4:^d. per hour all through the period of depression. Throughout the building trade the working hours are 44 per week. ST. LOUIS. 373 In the brewing and printing trades also the unions are very strong. Brewery- workers have; printed agreements fixing wages and iiours. The eight-hour day is recognised in most departments, but drivers' hours are liable to be longer. Route drivers, according to the agreement, " shall not make more than two trips per day, but on short routes more if necessary, six days to constitute a week's work ; they should also clean their team on Sunday between the hours of 7 a.m. and 9 a.m." Other drivers " shall not exceed eleven consecutive hours, including one hour for meals. Stablemen and extra drivers working seven days per week shall receive one holiday every two weeks." Both in job and newspaper printing union i-ates of pay are general. Where they are departed from, it is only because some particular kind of skilled labour is scai'ce, and the best men are paid more than the union rate. Machine compositors in the newspaper offices are paid by piece, and earn very high wages. The strain, however, is rather severe, so that many men do not regularly work six days per week, the maximum number allowed. Nominally the hours are eight per day, but compositors in the newspaper offices usually work rather less. Pi-essmen in job offices have a long schedule of rates for different kinds of presses, but the majority of the men earn the highest rate of 93. • 128. 6rf. and under 16s. M, 16s. M. 20s. lOrf. 20s. lOrf. \* 25s. 25s. 29s. 2f/. 29s. 2d. 33s. M. 33s. id. 1) ij 37s. &d. 37s. M. 1) »» 41s. M. 41s. 8rf. 1) 50s. 50s. ») 62s. M. 62s. 6f/. 83s. M. 83s. M. »» )* 104s. M. 104s. )id. and over. • ■•• Total Males over 16 years. 244 326 314 462 485 518 514 852 1,167 1,584 482 161 7,109 Females over 16 years. 104 173 363 495 579 539 423 418 494 326 187 4,107 Children under 10 years. 94 211 128 101 59 593 Motormen and conductors on the tramway cars are paid on a scale which begins at IQd. per hour for the first year, rising i*/. per hour each year until the maximum of \s. Q^d. per hour is reached. In February, 1909, more than half the men were stated to be earning is. O^d. per hour. Street construction and paving are done by contract. Granite paviors have a strong union, and receive 2s. Qd. per hour, working eight hours daily. Wood block and brick paviors are not organised to the same extent ; they receive Is. ?)d. to Is. b^d. per hour and work ten hours daily. The predominant weekly wages and hours of labour in certain principal trades and industries of St. Louis are shown in the following Table : — Predominant Weekly Wages and Hours of Labour of Adult Males in the Principal Occupations in February, 1909. Predominant Weekly Wages. Predominant Weekly Hours of Labour. Building Trades : — Bricklayers 119s. 2d. 44 StonemasonB 110s. 44 Stonecutters 103s. 2d. to 114s. Id. 44 Carpenters 110s. 44 Plasterers 1378. 6d. 44 Plumbers 114s. Id. to 137s. 6d. 44 Structural Iron Workers 110s. „ 119s. 2d. 44 ST. LOUIS. 375 Predominant Weekly Wages. Predominant Weekly Hours of Labour. Building Trades — cont. Painters 91s. M. to 103s. 2d. 44 Hod Carriers and Bricklayers' Labourers 77s. Ud. „ 82s. 6d. 44 Plasterers' Labourers 91s. 8d. 44 Foundries and Machine Shops :■— Ironmoulders 78s. 9d. 54 Machinists ... ... ... , ... 56s. M. to 74s. 3d. 54 Blacksmiths 76s. 6d. „ 90s. 54 Patternmakers 87s. 6d. „ 94s. 6d. 54 Labourers 37s. 6d. „ 43s. 9d. 54 Car Building : — Steel Car Builders 65s. to 77s. Gd. 60 Box and Tramway Car Body Builders 50s. „ 70s. 50 to 60 Machine Woodworkers 45s. „ 62s. 6d. 50 „ 60 Painters 50s. „ 66s. 9d. 50 „ 60 Labourers 31s. M. „ 33s. 9(/. 50 „ 60 Printing and Bookbinding Trades : — Newspaper — 96s. llrf 108s. 9d. Hand Compositors {Sjhrwm-k" '.'.'. .': 46 45 to 47i f DsLV work" Machine Compositors |^j|j^^^^j.j^-- ;;; ;" 118s. 9^. to 137s. Gd, 137s. 6d. „ 156s. M. 39 „ 42 43 „ 47i Pressmen { ^i Jh^wm-k ::; ::: ::: ::; 81s. 3f/. 50 81s. 3d. m Book and Job — Hand Compositors 76s. 48 Machine Compositors 100s. to 104s. 2d. 48 Pressmen (Cylinder Presses) 93s. 9d. 48 Bookbinders 66s. 8d. to 79s. 2d. 48 Brick and Fireclay Works : — Tilemoulders 62s. Gd. 60 Kiln Firemen 50s. to 65s. Sd. 70 to 72 Clay Miners ... 58s. 4.d. 48 Labourers 40s. 60 Boot and Shoe Making : — Upper Cutters 62s. 6c?. to 79s. 2d. 59 Outsole Cutters 75s. 59 Inseamers (Goodyear Welters) 87s. Gd. to 116s. 8f/. 59 Goodyear Stitchers 75s. „ 87s. Gd. 59 McKay Operatoi-s 62s. Gd. „ 70s. lOf^. 59 Lasters and Pullers-over 62s. Gd. „ 75s. 59 Edge Trimmers and Setters ... 83s. id. „ 100s. 59 Treers 61s. id. „ 69s. 5d. 59 Brewing : — Cellar Men, Maltsters, Kettle Men and Fermenters 72s. Ud. 48 Wash-house Men 68s. 9rf. 48 Bottlers 50s. 48 Fillers and Corkers • • ■ • > ■ ■■ 56s. 3d. 48 Firemen 70s. 56 Boiler Washers 62s. Gd. 58^ Engineers ... ., . 95s. lOd. 56 Oilers 62s. 6f/. 48 to 56 Freight Handlers -• ... ... 55s. 48 Ice-plant Workers 50s. 48 Labourers ... ,., 50s, 48 Draymen — City Drivers and Four-horse Shipping Drivers ... 72s. lid. Variable Stablemen and Extra Drivers 54s. 2d. n Two-horse Bottle-Beer Drivers 62s. Gd. )> One-horse Bottle-Beer Drivers 54s. 2d. n Tobacco Manufacture .- — Lumpmakers 41s. 3d. 60 Twisters 61s. 6d. 60 Wrappers-oiE 62s. Gd. 60 Labourers 36s M. 60 16576 2 A. i 376 ST. LOUIS. Predominant Predominant Weekly Wages. Weekly Honrs of Labour, Public Services : — Street Construction and Paving (Contract) — Paviors (granite) 120s. 48 Paviors (wood and brick) ... ... 75s. to 87s. G(L 60 Paviors' Labourers .. 43s. 9(/. to ibs. 60 Road Menders ... 3f)s. to 43s. 'M. 60 Drivers ... 43s. 9d. 60 Koad Sweepers (Municipal) 37s. 6r/, 48 Water Works (Municipal) — Labourers ... 50s. 48 Gas Works (Company) — Gas Stokers ...' 72s. Ud. 84 Labourers ... ! 43s. 9f/. 70 Electric Light and Power Works (Company) — Switchboard Men (i8s. 9d. to 83s. id. 56 to 70 Dynamo Men Stls. 6d. 70 Stokei's 65s. Sd. 84 Overhead Linemen 72s. Id. to 93s. 9f/. 48 to 70 Labourers 43s. 9d. „ 50s. 60 „ 70 Electric Tramways (Company) — Motormen and Conductors 72s. lid. 70 Taking wages at New York a.s the base, = = 100, in each case, the wages index numbers for St. Louis are — building trades, skilled men 108, hod carriers and bricklayers' labourers (negroes) 117 ; foundries and machine shops, skilled men 89, unskilled labourers 97 ; printing, hand compositors (job work) 87. Housing and Rents. The strong German influence which prevailed in St. Louis at an early period of its history and the proximity of good brickmaking clay probably account for the fact that brick flats predominate instead of the frame houses which are so common in America. The type of dwelling most commonlj' inhabited by the working classes is a flat of three rooms, in a red brick building, generally two stories in height, but sometimes three stories, each flat, as a rule, going right through from front to back, an arrangement which enables the middle rooms to be lighted from the side, though it may be rather imperfectly in many cases where the space between two buildings is narrow. A great many of the l)uildings, especially the more modern ones, contain only two flats, one on each floor, this being what is usually known in America as a " two-family house." Comparatively few buildings contain more than four flats when the building has two stories, or more than six flats when it has three stories, and in these cases front and back flats are seldom found, l^arge blocks of flats Avith front and back tenements are rare, and even continuous terraces are not very numerous, in comparison with small detached blocks, except in the more central districts. At the Census of 1900 the average number of families per dwelling-house in the city as a whole was 1'5. The proportion of families living in dwelling-houses occupied by one family was 41'4 per cent., whilst 40*2 per cent, lived in dwelling-houses occupied by two and 18'4 per cent, in dwelling-houses occupied by three or more families. At the same date 14*2 per cent, of all homes were owned free by their occupiers and 5'6 per cent, were owned encumbered, 77'() per cent, being rented. Like most large and gi-On'ing cities St. Louis has its slum districts, where old houses are insanitary and overcrowded, and no very active steps have yet been taken by the authorities to deal with structural defects. A private association, the Civic League, has caused a careful investigation to be made in one district, proving the existence of the evils which are almost invariably found in the older portions of great cities, and a parti- cularly bad sttite of sanitation. The trouble in St. Louis, as elsewhere, is that many of the old and unsatisfactory buildings are on land which is becoming valuable for business purposes, and the owners are therefore unwilling to spend money on repairs and structural alterations. The following paragraph from the report of the Housing Committee of the Civic lieague summarises their conclusions regarding the district which they investigated : " In St. Louis the old residences down town on Washington Avenue and Olive Sti'eet are in process of rapid elimination, after a period of dilapidation, cheap rents and cheap boarding houses, by large wholesale mercantile establishments. Wash, Carr, ST. LOUIS. 377 BicWle and O'Fallon Streets are waiting for the factories. Meanwhile, the aged houses are in a state of almost complete decrepitude, and the system of sanitation held over from the time of village gardens and stable lots has scai'cely altered to suit the conditions of even town life, and is outrageously ineffective in a crowded city." The Committee further express the opinion — which the present investigation confirmed — that " the same evils, though in a lesser degree, are to be found in half a dozen other sections of the city." New building regulations are now in force, but it is only vei'y recently that a law has been passed prohibiting dark rooms, of which there is a considerable number, many being found even in what are, in other respects, t^uite good modern flats. Sanitary regulations also have been adopted, and as there is a corps of inspectors to see to their enforcement they should ensure good conditions in new buildings, but the expense of remedying the structural defects of old houses has yet to be undertaken. Fortunately since the introduction of electric tramways there has been ample facility for the growth of the city, so that excessively close building is not generally found outside the old quarters. The ground-floor flats of houses occupied largely by Poles and other foreign immigrants, in the quarter which was originally the German quarter but which now ■contains manv nationalities, consist of a fi'ont room, entered directly from the street without passage or hall, a middle room, entered through the front room, and a small kitchen. The two principal rooms are commonly about thirteen feet square. The kitchen varies considerably in size, but is usually smaller than the other rooms, and is used only for cooking and washing. The upper story flat is similar, excepting that entrance is obtained by a staii'case at the rear of the building, and the kitchen is the room by which the flat is entered. The rents of such flats range from 6s. dd. to 9s. Id. per week. Flats of three rooms, renting for 9s. Id. to lis. Qd. per week, which are the most typical and numerous kind, are similar to those already described, excepting that they are in better neighbourhoods and are more modern, that the kitchens are not so small and that gas is generally supplied. Flats at lis. 6rf. and over have generally separate entrances in front, but most of those under 14s. bd. are rather poorly provided with pantries, cupboards and sculleries. To some extent the commodious cellar makes up for these deficiencies. Heating is effected by stoves provided by the tenants. As a general rule the stoves are in the rooms, not in the basement ; the great majority of flats which have basement stoves are too expensive for wage-earners. Basement cellars are almost invariably found, and in the modern buildings they ai*e used for laundry Avork and are quite commodious. An attic room is also common, but it is very low and is used only for drying clothes in winter. Its use is shared by the tenants of the flats. The attic is less common in the modern than in the older types of dwelling. The modern building has generally a flat tarred roof, this being the most noticeable ■external difterence between buildings in St. Louis and in red brick English towns. An important type of thi'ee-roomed dAvelling is the modern flat having three rooms and a bathroom, with a fair-sized gai'den shared by the tenants of the block. Such flats rent for 14s. 5c/., lo.s. bd. and 16s. 10c/. per week, according to the size of rooms and the situation. Buildings containing only two such flats, one on each floor, are very common, the owner frequently living in one flat and letting the other. Blocks of four are also numerous, the owner living in one of them. Many of the better paid working men prefer three rooms and a bathroom to four rooms without a bathroom, but this type of dwelling is occupied to a considerable extent also by clerks, shop managers, travelling salesmen, &c. The fronts of these flats are more ornamental than those of the cheaper kind, marble steps and porches are not uncommon, but the bay window is very rare. It is noticeable that even good flats of three and four rooms with bathroom commonly have no hall, entrance to the middle room being through the front room or the kitchen. Four- roomed flats are mainly modern built, in twos and fours, like the flats -containing three rooms and bathroom. All sorts of rents may be paid for them, but genuine working men seldom pay more 1han 19s. '6d. per week and more frequently from 14s. bd. to 17s. if/. A good modern flat containing four rooms and bathroom costs 17s. 4id. and upwards per week. These flats and also the modern three-roomed flats are provided with cujiboards and the bathroom also has a water-closet, sometimes with no ventilation, excepting into the bedroom. In general, when there is no bathroom, there is no water-closet inside the house, but a vault-closet in the yard connected with the sewers. Si 378 ST. LOUIS. Flats of five rooms are pi-actieally outside the range of working-class dwellings, iniless they happen to be old, or in some neighbourhood where property has depreciated. Single-family houses have been built in considerable numbers in recent years in the outer suburbs, at a distance involving a car ride of h'om 40 to 50 minutes to reach the centre of the city. These houses are seldom rented in the ordinary way. It is customary to build them for sale on the gradual payment plan. They are particularly numerous in South St. Louis, where they are occupied very lai'gely by people of German descent. Frame houses containing three good rooms on a plot 30 feet by 120 feet can be purchased for about £310, but sometimes for rather less where gas and sewers are not available. Frame houses with three or four rooms and bathroom, where sewers and gas have been put in, can be bought for between ;£420 and £520. Brick houses contaming five I'ooms and bathroom on one floor and a commodious cellar underneath cost about £670 ; they are rather beyond the reach of most working men, but are bought by foremen and sometimes by working-class families when 'there are several wage-earners. Some brick houses consisting of five rooms and a bathroom have kitchen, dining room and bathroom in the basement, and in that case the cost is about £580. Houses of this kind containing four rooms and bathroom cost fi'om £520 to £560. The methods of payment vary considerably, but are based on the principle of paying 6 per cent, interest on the unpaid portion of the price. If the cost of the house is £520, the purchaser will pay perhaps £104 in cash, and the balance of £416 is divided into two halves. One half will be paid off by instalments of 62s. Gd. per month, together with the accrued interest on each instalment only, so that the monthly payments increase slightly each month. The other half of the balance is not paid off' by instalments, but either remains as a mortgage or is paid off in one sum, interest being paid half-3'earl}'. Legally, if a purchaser fails to meet his payments, he may lose all he has already paid, so that people whose incomes are liable to suffer through trade depression incur some risk when they purchase in this way. Reputable firms, who wish to work up a good business, are willing to accommodate jiurchasers who get into difficulties, provided there is a prospect of their meeting their payments ultimately ; but it sometimes happens that a purchaser cannot continue his payments and has to find some one to take the house off his hands at short notice, and that may mean the loss of a great part of what he has paid. As a general rule, those who purchase homes are steady people who are ready to make great sacrifices to secure full possession, and often they improve the value of their properties by laying out pretty gardens and adding outbuildings. Rented one-family houses let for about the same amount per i-oom as flats. ¥ov both classes of dwellings rents are high, even for America. Most of the conditions which tend to make rents high are present in St. Louis. It is a large Western city, with the high level of wages characteristic of the West ; it is also growing i-apidly, with a good prospect of future expansion, with the consequence of high land values, and capital is in great demand for all kinds of enterprises and commands a higher rate of interest than in older and less progressive places, a circumstance which has much to do with the level of rents. In addition, the houses are built of brick, a more expensi\'e method of obtaining a given amount of cubic space for dwellings than building with wood. This fact probably helps to account for the higher level of rents in St. Louis than in Chicago, where frame buildings are numerous. Another circumstance which accounts in some degree for the higher rent per room in St. Louis than in some other large cities where brick is the principal building material, such as Baltimore and Philadelphia, is the fact that more land is used by the method of building which is in vogue in St. Louis than by the terrace system which has been followed in the two cities mentioned. The size of rooms also is larger in St. Louis than in, for example, New York and Philadelphia. Some idea of the accommodation in typical medium -priced flats in St. Louis can be obtained from the following particulars relating to a few of those visited in the course of the investigation : — 1. A one-family house of brick; three rooms 13 feet square, with porch and verandah, no passages. Rent lis. 6d. per week. 2. Modern-built flats in a two-storied detached brick building ; kitchen 12 feet by 15 feet, middle room (dark) 14 feet square, front room 14 feet by 16 feet, no bathroom. Occupied by motormen. Rents 10s. Id. and lis. 6d. per week. 3. Flats, similar to above ; front room 15 feet by 12 feet, middle room 13 feet by 12 feet, kitchen 13 feet by 9 feet. Rent 10«. Id. per week. ST. LOUIS; 379 i. Flats, similar to above, but with four rooms and attic for drying clothes ; measurement of rooms 15 feet by 13 feet, and 13 feet square. Rent 13.9. (vl. per week for the upper Hats and 14*\ od. per week for the lower. 5. Flats, in two-sioried terrace houses, with three rooms and bathroom ; measure- ■ment of rooms 13 feet by 14 feet, 11 feet by 12 feet and 13 feet by U feet. Rent 17.s'. Ad. per week. 6. Flat containing four rooms and bathroom ; measurement of kitchen and two bedrooms 13 feet square, front room 14 feet by 13 feet, no passage through, poor light in middle rooms. Bathroom, containing w.c, opened into one of the bedrooms, which had no window to the outside. Rent 17s. 4d. per week. The following Table shows the predominant rents for dwellings of two, three and four rooms. The rent per room in the four-roomed class is higher than in the other clai^ses, because £our-ro(jmed dwellings are for the most part of a modern type, and hardly any but well-paid working men have dwellings of this size in St. Louis. The rents stated include the charge for water. Predominant Rents of WorJcing-dass Dwellings. Number of Booms per Dwelling. Two rooms Three rooms Four rooms Predominant Weekly Rents. 4s. lOd. to 7.S. Sd. 8s. Sd. „ 12s. Gd. Us. 5d. ., 17s. id. The level of rents at New York being represented by 100, the rents index number for St. Louis is 101. Retaii. Prices. There are no special features in the shopping conditions in St. Louis. Meat and oTOceries are sold almost entirely by independent shopkeepers. Vegetables are sold to a considerable extent at the Union Market and at a few smaller markets ; a meat business also is carried on at the Union Market, but it is mainly wholesale. " Multiple " firms are not of any appreciable importance either in the meat or grocery retail trade. Groceries and other Commodities. Granulated sugar is sold at prices varying according to the quantity bought and the class of shop. In large shops doing a considerable popular trade, working-class and middle-class, the price is commonly Is. O^d. for 4 lb., whilst a single pound is sold for 3|rf. At cheaper shops, doing a trade with the poorer classes, the price works out at 2^d. per lb. when several pounds are bought at one time, or 2 lb. for o^d. Bread is made by several large bakeries and also by small " corner bakeries." The usual price in February, 1909, was 2^d. for a loaf weighing from 14 to 16 oz. and made with some skimmed milk and a little lard or cotton-seed oil. The smaller bakeries doing a trade with Italians, Poles, etc., have frequently a ticket system, that is to say, from 24 to 30 tickets can be bought for a dollar (4s. 2d.) and the loaves are purchased as required with the tickets. Stale bread is bought by poor families at half or nearly half price. Rye bread is bought by many of the Slavonic peoples and some Germans, at a price slightly lower than that of wheaten bread. Milk is sold at very varying prices from 9d. per quart downwards. Skimmed milk, which is used to a considerable extent, sells for from 2d. to 3d. per quart. The 9d. milk is known as " guaranteed milk," i.e., milk which is produced by dairies which are regularly inspected by a private society of medical men to ensure the complete freedom of the herds from disease and scrupulous cleanliness in the handling of the milk at all stages of transportation. All milk sold in St. Louis must be bottled. The popular price of full milk, containing at least 3 per cent, of fat, is i^d. per quart. Sweet potatoes are consumed to a considerable extent in the autumn and winter months. Green maize is a popular vegetable. In the season cobs are sold at 5d. per dozen in the market, but there is a wide range in qualities, and the choicer varieties cost Is. Ojrf. to Is. Bd. per dozen. Coal is quoted by the bushel of 80 lb., but is mainly sold by the ton and half-ton. The price for popular qualities is from 10s. rid. to 13s. Q^d. per ton of 2,000 lb. This coal is bituminous and comes from Southern Illinois ; it is not of so good a quality as most of the domestic coal produced in the Pittsburg district. S80 ST. LOUIS. The following Table shows the predominant prices in February, 1909, of some of the principal groceries and other commodities consumed by the wage-earning clasaes : — Predominant Prices paid by the Working Classes in February, 1909, Commoditv. Tea Cofifee Sugar : — White Granulated ... Brown Bacon, Breakfast — Boneless... Eggs CJieese, American Butter Potatoes, Irish Flour, Wheaten — Household Bread/White Milk ... Coal, Bituminous Kerosene ... ... per lb. per Is. per lb. per 7 lb. ?' per 4 lb. per quart per cwt. per gallon Predominant Price. 2s. Id. to 2s. 6d. lOd. „ Is. O^f/. 2id. „ 3ir/. 2^. „ 3d. 7^1. „ lOf/. 7 „ 10 lOr/. ],s. Oif/. 7r/.- lld. to ll|f/. \0d. „ IIM ^d. Id. to 9f/.* 6r/. .. 9r/. * By the ton of 2,000 lb., or the half-ton. Meat.. There are large branches of the great packing-houses of Chicago in East St. Louis, from which the city of St. Louis is supplied with a considerable part of its meat, but much comes also from Kansas City and Chicago, and some is slaughtered in the town. The following Table shows the predominant prices in February, 1909, of the principal cuts of meat of the qualities mainly consumed by the wage-earning classes : — Predominant Prices paid by the Working Classes iti February, 1909. Description of Cut. Predominant Price per lb. Beef -.-^ Roasts — Round 6W. „ Ribs prime 6id. to 7V/. „ Ribs second cut 5d. „ 6^1. „ Chuck or short ribs bd. Steaks — Round 6id. to 7^d. „ Sirloin 7^d. Shin without bone bd. to bi-d. Flank 'id. „ id. Plate, Brisket j ^^if,, ,„, ^^ Z 3d. „ id. id. Mutton or Lamb : — Leg 1\d. Breast bd. to 6k/. l\d. „ lOf/. Loin Chops 7^. „ lOr/. Shoulder G\d. Neck bd. Veal :— Cutlets 1(V/. to 1.-.-. Ok/. Rib chops 1\d. Loin chops l\d. to 8^f/. Breast G\d. , Neck Pork :— Fresh — Loin „ Spare rib „ Shoulder „ Chops Corned (wet salt or pickled) Drj' salt Ham Shoulder, salt or smoked bd. to 5,801 448,425 £ 12,967,674 13,508,240 13,133,297 12,853,194 10,604,199 The countries sharing principally in the trade of Savannah are Germany, Great Britain, France and S^jain. The principal articles of export are cotton and naval stores (rosin and turpentine). The value of upland cotton exported in the year ended June 30th. 1909, was £8,5ol,ol0, and in addition to this export of upland cotton there was an export of Sea Island cotton valued at £129,627. SAVANNAH. 383 The export of rosin in the same year was 699,287 barrels of 280 lb. each, tlie total value being £472,592, while the export of spirits of turpentine was valued at £450,104. The na^-al stores dealt in by Savannah are obtained from the large pine forests which cover much of the interior of the State. The distillation and other work involved in the maiiu- tacture is usually done near the sources of supply, the spirits and rosin being brought into Savannah ready for export. In addition to the above principal articles there is also a considerable export trade in phosphate rock, cotton-seed oil, oilcake and meal, cotton seed and timber. The timber shipped from the port is almost entirely Georgia pine, which is used lai'gely for building purposes. On the whole, it is not of very high quality, much of it being from "cut ' trees, i.e., trees from Avhich the rosin has been extracted. The wharves are for the most part in the east of the city, many of them being just outside the city boundaries, where they are exempt from the city taxes. The growth of the city has been mainly from north to south, that is, away from the river ; the growth from east to west has been relatively very small. The business centre is in the north of the city but, except immediately upon the water front, the important activities of the city as a shipping centre do not obtrude themselves. The cotton wharves and the naval stores yards, with their acres of closely ])acked barrels, reveal themselves to the ordinary visitor only if he goes expressly in search of them. The annual mean temperature of Savannah calculated from the experience of the last 37 years is 66 degrees. The seasonal temperature means are 52 degrees for December, January and February ; G^ degrees for March, April and May ; 81 degrees for June, July and August ; and 67 degrees for September, October and November. The annual mean rainfall is about 50 inches. The city has adapted itself to a fairly hot climate both in regard to the character of its residential buildings and also its business habits. Practically all commercial, professional and official business is suspended between 2 and 4 o'clock in the afternoon, luncheon being taken at this time and usually combined with a siesta. After 4 o'clock business is resumed until about 6 o'clock. This practice of resting during the heat of the afternoon does not affect the manual working classes. In their case work goes on uninterruptedly from morning till evening, the only break being the dinner interval from 1 till 2 o'clock. The whole of the water sujjply of Savannah is obtained from artesian wells which, with a minimum depth of about 400 feet, can be profitably sunk in this region. Some of the wells are natural flowing, while others must be pumped. Being obtained fi-om this source, the water is quite pure and forms one of the best supplies in the United States. The water works are owned and controlled by the city authorities. The following is the scale of water charges for the smaller dwelling-houses : — Valuation. Charge per annum. £104 and under Over £104 and not exceeding £208 „ £208 „ „ £313 „ £313 „ „ £417 )? 20s. 10c/. 31s. M. 41s. Sd. 50s. For these charges all dwellings are allowed the use of water for yard, kitchen, pantry, wash tubs, two bath tubs and two water-closets. The sanitary administration of the city is under the practical control of a Health Officer appointed by the Mayor and Aldermen. In this capacity he acts as the executive officer of a Board of Sanitary Commissioners. This Board is appointed by the Mayor and consists of two Aldermen and three citizens, together with the Health Officer and the Mayor himself as ex officio members. In addition to the Health Officer and the clerical staff, the sanitary force consists of one chief inspector, eight inspectors for the investigation of ordinary nuisances, and one food inspector. A system of house-to-house inspection is established, and the sanitary requirements are enforced with vigour, especially in the poorer coloured quarters. The proper supervision of such portions of the city is no doubt a difficult task, but a large measm-e of success appears to have been achieved. After much schooling at least an outward conformity to the law has been secured on the part of some of the most unpromising subjects, and the lanes and yards in the coloured quarters are kept free from litter, &c., to an extent which is very creditable to those responsible. 384 SAVANNAH. The principal vital statistics for the period 1904-8 are shown in the following Table : — Year. Number of Births. White. Coloured. Number of Deaths. White. Coloured. Number of Deaths under one year. White. Coloured. 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 745 677 762 797 896 904 899 990 998 986 521 546 517 547 467 1,107 1,07;^ 980 1,025 939 73 80 65 94 93 223 205 214 265 213 When it is considei-ed that the negroes, according to the Census of 1 900, formed .51*8 per cent, of the total population, it will be seen from the above Table how marked is the difference between the vital statistics for the coloured and for the white sections of the population. As regards infantile mortality the difference is most striking. The deaths under one year among white children yield an average rate of 105 per 1,000 births, a very satisfactory figure ; while among coloured children the rate was as high as 235. Tuberculosis is a much more prolific cause of mortality among the coloured than among the white population. The average annual number of deaths from this disease alone during the period 1904-8 was 53 among the whites and 145 among the negroes. In addition to discharging the ordinai'y functions of a corporation, Savannah has the power of making regulations in regard to the harbour and wharves, and it also appoints inspectors for the examination of naval stores passing through the port. It is provided by State law that " no person shall ship or put on board any vessel for exportation from this State any pitch, tar, rosin or turpentine, before the same is inspected and marked, provided there be at the port of exportation a sworn inspector of such articles." In its own charter the city has power to appoint " inspectors of everj' sort, gangers and measurers," but in practice only the Naval Stores Inspectors are appointed. It is also interesting to note that the jurisdiction of the city extends for special purposes beyond the corporate limits. Municipal control of the river extends as far as Tybee. For one mile beyond the corporate limits the Mayor and Aldermen have power to prohibit rice culture if regarded as injurious to the health of any portion of the inhabitants of the city. For sanitary and certain police purposes, including the " preserving of peace and good order, on the Sabbath," the limits of jurisdiction extend two miles beyond the corporate boundaries. Savannah maintains a public market, a public library (for the whites) and a " Pest House," or infectious diseases hospital. The tramways and the gas and electric supplies are controlled by private enterprise. The city charter gave Savannah plenary powers in respect of taxation and borrowing, no limits being set as to amount. The city revenues are derived principally from the taxes on real and personal property, from licences and to a small extent from market and harbour dues, the sale of cemetery plots and other miscellaneous sources. The taxation of property is similar in its essential features to the system prevailing in most American cities, a percentage levy being made on the capital value of all property with the exception of certain forms specially exempted bj' State or Federal law. Real estate is assessed by the tax assessors, the basis of valuation in the case of new property being two-thirds of the cost. Personal property is declared on forms supplied for the purpose to all residents in the city. In practice, personalty under £10 8s. 4d. is exempt, and no special steps are taken to secure returns from those who are not likely to be liable. On this account most of the negroes and many of the poorer whites escape this form of direct taxation. In 1907, the city tax-rate was IJ per cent, of assessed value, and the valuatioir of real estate and personalty together amounted to £9,873,136. From the other important source of the city's revenues, namely the licences, the amount derived in 1907 was £22,984. In that year the licences were those granted to retail liquor dealers, druggists, keepers of dogs, auctioneers and a few others. From the 1st January, 1909 a new Ordinance came in force, chiefly as the result of the prohibition of the sale of alcoholic liquors, and the consequent loss of revenue from the lapse of saloon keepers' licences. Under this new ordinance practically all kinds of businesses industrial, commercial and professional, are subject to licence duties. In addition to the city taxes, taxes are levied by the county both on its own account and on behalf of the State. The subject of taxation is real and personal property and SAVANNAH. 38o the general principles oH assessment, &c., are similar to those wliich apply in the case of the city taxes. The total rate thus levied is also 1|; per cent, of assessed value, of which f per cent, represents the county levy and I per cent, the State levy. This latter rate is the maximum which may l)e imposed by the State according to the present law. In addition to the tax on pro})erty, the county raises a sum by means of a poll tax of 4s. 2d. on every male between the ages of 21 and 60 years, with exemptions in the case of the blind, the maimed, &c., soldiers who served in the Confederate Army and also those persons who have been assessed to property tax. In the whole of Chatham County, in which Savannah is situated, the number of persons assessed to property tax in the year 1907 was — white 5,351, coloured 2,03opulation. It is of the bungalow type, with a fairly spacious porch. It is usually of rather moi-e substantial construction and better finish than the ■corresponding house in the coloured districts. The rooms also are larger, hallways are more common, and in many cases there is a bathroom. Five-roomed dwellings comprise one-family cottages and also the chetxper types of "apartments." An "apirtment," as already described, consists of one floor of a-two-storied house. The rooms are usually of large size, most of them being 14 feet square. Bathrooms are almost always found in this type of dwelling and both the upper and lower floors usually have spacious verandahs in front. Five-roomed houses are of one story, and are very varied in appearance and construction. Some are plain and of poor character : others are very picturesque and commodious, and afford accommodation to well- to-do families. The houses are detached and have, as a rule, a fair amount of ground around them. A common feature of this type of house is a deep piazza, on which are s SAVANNAH. 391 usually found one or two rocking chairs and possibly a hammock, articles of furniture common to most American homes. Six and seven-roomed houses are usually two stories in height, and diflPer as a rule only in the fact that in the seven-roomed house the space over the hall allows of the addition of a small room. The better class houses have the \-erandah or balcony which is so- characteristic of the domestic architecture of the South. Many of the six and seven- roomed houses are bay-fronted. The following Table shows the rents most generally paid for the leading types of working-class accommodation : — Predominant WeeUy Rents of Working-class Dwellings. Number of Rooms per Dwelling. Two rooms Three rooms Four rooms Five rooms Six rooms Seven rooms Predominant Weekly Rente. Paid by White Tenants, Paid by Coloured Tenants. Is. M. to 10s. Id Is. 8(1. „ 12s. 9s. 7c?. „ 14s. bd. 14s. mJ. „ 16s. id. 17s. 4d. „ 19s. M. 2.«. Ud. to 4s. lOd. is. lOd. 5s. M. to 6s. 9(/. 6s. M. „ 10s. 1(7. The level of rents at New York being represented by 100, the rents index number for Savannah is 71. It will be seen that the rentals for dwellings inhabited by coloured tenants are much below those for dwellings of corresponding nominal accommodation occupied by whites, but the difference is no greater than can be accounted for by the inferioi'ity of the former as regards both construction and general convenience. In the dwellings of the white working classes bathrooms are common, but they are seldom found in the houses of the predominant types inhabited by the coloured population. In most cases the water is laid on in the houses, and the water charges are included in the rentals, which are almost always paid monthly. Standpipes in the yards are not common even in the case of the smaller houses. Practically all the houses in Savannah have conveniences on the water carriage system. The sewage is discharged without treatment into the river. The yard space at the rear of the houses is almost invariably small, and in many instances is decidedly cramped. In some of the coloured districts where the front street" is narrow this is probably a real evil, but as a rule the streets are very wide and the total air space available to the houses is ample. Except in a few instances on the borders of the city there appears to be no attempt to cultivate gardens. Many of the houses have small green plots in front, however, and frequently clematis or other creepers are trained over the porch, while everywhere the abundance of grass and trees about the streets usually prevents any appearance of dreariness or monotony. Retail Prices. The dietary in Savannah has fairly well marked characteristics, of which probably the most prominent is the large consumption of rice and other cereals. Among both the white and the coloured people rice and hominy, the latter known locally as " grits," are used in large quantities, both taking the place of potatoes to a considerable extent. Maize, both on the " cob " and as meal, is also very popular, particularly with the coloured section of the population. " Grits " can be obtained for Is. 3J(/. per peck and rice for 2s. Id. to OS. bd. per peck, the former price being for what is known as "cracked" rice. A popular old-time dish among the negroes, known as " Hop and John," is formed by a mixture of peas and rice. The consumptit)n of tomatoes and lemons among the coloured people is also very large. Sweet potatoes are popular and are obtainable practically all the year round. Oatmeal and various patented breakfast foods have an extensive sale among the white people, the statements of food consumption made by working-class families showing that a particularly large use is made of these articles of diet. None of the retail shops in Savannah are of very large size, and the predominant prices shown in the subjoined Table are based chiefly upon returns supplied by shops of moderate size situated conveniently near the Avorking-class residential districts, and represent various gi-ades of custom. Though there are a few shops kept by negroes, they represent only a small part of 16576 2 B 1 392 SAVANNAH. the total trade among the coloured people. Some shops in close proximity to the negro -. 7(2.+ m 125*. 47 Boston 80*. 3c7. „ 90*. 44 to 48 TIO*. 44 87*. 6(2. to 100*. 48 Brockton 82*. 48 110.V. 48 91*. 8(2. 44 Chicago 110*. 44 126*. 1(2. 44 126*. 1(2. 44 Cincinnati 82*. %d. 44 114.S. 7r2. tollo*. 11(2. 44 to 44i 92*. 9(2. to 103*. 2(2. 44 to 44J Cleveland 80*. to 90*. 48 103*. 2(2. 44 112*. 6(2. 48 Detroit (iO*. „ 70*. 48 100*. 48 81*. 3(2. to 93*. 9(2. 48 Duluth 90*. 48 12.5*. 48 12.5*. 48 Pall River 75*. 48 105*. 48 81*. 3(2. 48 Lawrence 57*. Ul. to 75*. 44 to 48 100*. 10(2. 44 75*. 48 Louisville 62*. lod. ., 75*. 48 114*. 7(2. 44 75*. to 100*. 48 to 54 Lowell 70*. 48 87*. 6(2. 48 81*. 3d. 50 Memphis / 80*. to 101*. 3d.f \ 54*. 2d. „ 67*. 6d.t 48 to 54t- 52 „ 54t } 114.$. 7(2. 44 100*. to 126*. 48 Milwaukee 73*. id. „ 75*. 44 .. 48 110*. to 125*. 44 to 48 103*. 2(2 44 Minneapolis — St. Paul 90*. 48 112*. 6(2. 48 112*. 6d. 48 Muncie 79*. 2d. 50 100*. to 112*. 6(2. 48 to 54 81*. 3(2. 54 New Orleans 80*. to 90*. 48 to 54 100*.+ 48$ 100*. to 112*. 6(2. 48 New York Wis. 2d. „ 114*. 7d. 44 12G.S. 1(2. 44 114*. 7d. 44 Newark 91.?. 8(2. 44 119*. 2(2. 44 100*. 10(2. 44 Paterson .;. 82*. ad. to 87*. 1(2. 44 100.V. 10(2. to 110*. 44 91*. 8(2. 44 Philadelphia 82*. (id. 44 108*. 10(2. 44 80*. 3(2. 44 Pittsburg 87*. 6(2. 18 112*. 6(2. 48 112*. 6(2. 48 Providence 75*. 2(2. 44 91*. 8(2. to 100*. 10(2. 44 91*. 8(2. 44 St. Louis 110.*. 44 137*. 6(2. 44 114*. 7(2. to 137*. 6r?. 44 Savannah 62*. 6(2. to 75*. 48 62*. 6(2. to 90*.J 48J 87*. 6(2. „ 100*. 48 The wages and hours of labour in the building trades relate to the summer period of 1 909. t White men. j Coloured men. 39f) WAGES AND HOUKS OF LABOUR. (A.) Skilled Building Trade Operatives*— co^i/^wee/. Structural Iron Workers. Painters. Town. Weekly Weekly Hours of Wetkly Wages. Hours of Weekly Wages. Labour. Labour. Atlanta 90*. to lOU. Sd. 54 61*. Urf. to68*. 9rf. 54 to 60 Augusta — — 56*. 3d. 54 Baltimore 100*. 48 62*. 6d. to 7."i.v. 48 Blrminirham 112*. 6d. 54 / 70.V. „ 80*.t 1 50.1. „ 75*.t 48t 60t Boston 90*. to 100*. 48 72*. 5rf. ,. 77*. 44 Bro3ktou — 75*. 48 Chicago 114*. Id. 44 100*. lOd. 44 Cincinnati 100*. 48 85*. 48 Cleveland 120*. 48 75*. 48 Detroit 62*. Gd. and 75*. 48 and 60 60* to70.«. 48 Duluth 87*. 6d. to 100*. 48 87*. 6rf. .. 90*. 48 Fall River — — 68*. 9d. 48 Lawrence — — 62*. ed. 48 Louisville 67*. 6d. to 90*. 54 75*. 48 Lowell — — 62*. M. 48 Memphis 100*. to 112.t. 6fZ. 48 to 54 ( 80*. to 90*.t \ 60*. ,. 80*.+ 48t Milwaukee 100*. 48 7.5*. 48 MinueapoUs — St. Paul 100*. 48 85*. 48 Muncie 62*. 6d. to 68*. 9d. 60 69*. 2d. to 72.x. ll(f. 50 New Orleans 100*. 48 70*. „ 80*. 48 New York 103.«. 2(«. 44 80*. ad. 44 Newark 103*. 2d. to 114*. Id. 44 75*. 2d. 44 Paterson 100*. IQd. 44 75*. 2d. 44 Philadelphia 103*. 2rf. 44 64*. 2d. to 73*. id. 44 Pittsburg 112*. 6(f. 48 80*. .. 8.5*. 48 Providence — — 64*. 2d. „ 68*. 9d. 44 St. Louis 110*. to 119*. 2d. 44 91*. Sd. „ 103*. 2d. 44 Savannah ""• — 62*. 6d. „ 68*. 9rf. 48 ' The wages and hours of labour in the building trades relate to the summer period of 1909. t White men. J Coloured men. (B.) Skilled Men in Foundries and Machine Shops. Weekly Wages. Weekly Hours of Labour. Town. Machinists, Ironmoulders. Machinists, Blacksmiths. Patternmakers. Iron- moulders. Black- smiths and Pattern, makers. Atlanta 62*. 6rf. to 79*. lid. ()1*. 6d. to 81*. 3d. 68*. 9d. to 86*. Id. 59 to 60 59 to 60 Augusta 68*. yd. 68*. 9d. 62*. 6d. „ 75*. 59 and 60 69 and 60 Baltimore 68*. 9d to 7,5*. 63*. 4d. to 75*. 62*. 6d. to 75*. 75*. „ 87*. 6d. 64 54 Birmingham 78*. 9d. 78*. 9d. 78*. 9d. „ 103*. 9d. 78*. yd. „ 85*. 60 60 Boston 75*. 61*. lid. to 72*. 56*. 3d. „ 67*. 6d. 68*. 9d. „ 90*. 54 54 to 56 . Brockton — 62*. 6d. „ 67* 6d. 62*. 6d. 54 Chicago 81*. id. 81*. 3d. 81*. 3d. to 101*. 3d. 101*. Sd. 54 54 Cincinnati 75*. to 80*. 56*. 3d. to 70*. lOd. 67*. 6d. „ 103*. 2d. 72*. lid. to 81*. 3d. 55 55 Cleveland 75*. 62*. 6d. „ 75*. 70*. „ 75*. 85*. „ 95*. 54 54 to 60 Detroit 68*. 9d.f ; 75*.+ 63*. „ 68*. 9d. 6S*. „ 66*. 3d. 68*. 9rf. „ 87*. 6d. 60 64 .. 60 Duluth 78*. 9d. to 81*. 'Ad. 78*. 9d. „ 87*. 6d. 75*. „ 79*. Ud. 92*. 2d. „ 93*. 9d. 54 to .59 54 „ 59| Fall River 62*. Gd. „ 75*. 50*. „ 70*. lOd. — 75*. 58 58 Lawrence 70*. lOd. 57*. 4d. „ 62*. 6d. 60*. 5d. to 75*. 54 55 to 60 Louisville 68*. 9d. to 75*. 68*. 9d. „ 75*. 68*. 9d. „ 75*. 75*. 60 60 Lowell 58*. 4d. ,. 79*. 2d. 45.«. lOd. „ 51*. 7d. 50*. „ 62*. 6d. 62*. Gd. to 70*. lOd. 56 55 Memphis 75*. „ 81*. 3d. 78*. 9d. ,, 87*. 6d. 87*. 6d. 87*. 6d. „ 95*. 8d. 54 54 Milwaukee j 56*. Sd. to 69*. lOd.i 75*. „ 80*. 3d.t U8*.9d.„ 80*. 3d. 66*. 6d. to 74*. 6d. 68*. 9d. „ 80*. 3d. 55 to 60 55 Minneapolis-St. Paul 58*. 9d. „ 90*. 68*. 9d. „ 75*. 8d. 68*. 9d. „ 80*. 3d. 74*. 6d. „ 90*. 54 „ 60 65 to 60 Muncie 75*. 50*. „ 68*. 9d. 73*. 9d. ., 86*. Id. 62*. 6d. „ 86*. Id. 54 55 „ 60)1 Jf ew Orleans 81*. 3d. 81*. 3d. 81*. 3d. „ 87*. 6d. 81*. 3d. „ 87*. 6d. 64 54 New York 81*. Sd. 66*. 8d. to 81*. 3d. 90,'<. „ 112*. 6d. 90*. „ 112*. 6d. 54 54 Newark 75*. to 87*. 6d. 67*. 6d. „ 75*. 62*. 6d. „ 68*. 9d. — 54 54 Paterson 72*. 3d. 51*. 7d. „ 68*. 9d. 68*. 9d. „ 75*. 74*. 6d. to 87*. 6d. 56 56 Philadelphia 72*. 6d. to 80*. 58*. 7d. „ 68*. 9d. 68*. 9d. „ 87*. 6d. 81*. 3d. „ 83*. 4d. 54 to 60 54 to 60 Pittsburg 82*. Id. ., 90*. 72*. „ 73*. 2d. — 81*. 3d. „ 84*. 5d. 64 54 Providence 68*. 9d. „ 81*. 3d. 56*. 3d. „ 66*. 8d. 56*. 3d. to 79*. 2d. 62*. 6d. „ 83*. 4d. 54 to 55 54 to 56 St. Louis 78*. 9d. 56*. 3d. „ 74*. 3d. 76*. 6d. „ 90*. 87*. 6d. „ 94*. 6d. 54 54 Savannah 75*. 87*. 6d. 87*. 6d. „ 96*. 3d. 87*. 6d. „ 100*. 60 60 * The wages and hours of labour relate to February, 1909. t Time. t Piece. g Machinists and blacksmiths, 54 to 59 hours ; imtternmakers, 59 hours. II Machinists and blacksmiths, 59 to 6<» hours ; patternmakers, 55 to 60 hours WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOUR. 397 (C.) Labourers in the Building Trades, and in Foundries and Machine Shops.* Plaster** rs* li^irbo ndries Hod Carriers and .irers. Labourers in Fou Bricklayers' Labourers. JL &K^7 U VA Vf A. tj JJ.M'J^J and Machine Shops. Town. Weekly Weekly Weekly Weekly Wages. Hours of Labour. Weekly Wages. Hours of Labour. Weekly Wages. Hours of Labour. Atlanta 30«. to 31.?. 3s. 9d. to 8*. id. as.9d. ,, 7s. -Ad. Ss. 2d. to I2s. 7d. 12*. to 17*. Urf. 17*.llrf.tol9*.10rf. Augusta .. 2«. Ud. „ is. 2d. is. 2d. ., 6s. 9d. 6s. 'Jd. to 9s. 7d. lls.6d.to\As.6d. — Baltimore — is. lOd. „ 7s. 8d. 6s. 9d. „ 7s. Sd. i 9«.7s. 9d, „ Ss. Sd. Ss.Sd. „ Us.6d lls.6d. „ lis.od. — Lowell — — 6s. M. to 9s. 7d. 7s. Sd. to 10*. 7d. 9*. 7rf. to !1*. 6d. r White tenants Memphis -! I Coloured tenants is. lOrf. to 5«. 9d. 7s. Sd. to Us. 6d. ns. 9rf. „ 9*. 7d. 12.«. „ \is. nd lis.5d.to2is. — Milwaukee — — 6s.9d.toUs.6d 9*. 7d. to 14*. od. 12*. «rf. to 17*. id. Minneapolis- rOW«'^'^^«'""g^ - St. Paul. (Modern dwellings — OS. 9d. to 7s. Sd. Ss. Sd. „ \0s. 7d. 7s. Sd. „ 9s. 7d. lU.6d. „ IBs.Bd 9s. 7d. „ 12*. 6d. lis. od. „ 19*. 3rf. Us. 6d. ,. 17*. id. 19*. Hd. ., 21*. Sd. Munoie — — is. md. ,. 6s.i>d. 6*. 9d. ., 9s. 7d. 7s. Sd. „ 12*. r White tenants New Orleans-! I Coloured tenants ... is. Idd. to 6*. 9rf. 6s. 9d. to 9*. 7d. Is. Sd. „ 9«. 7d. 9s. 7d. „ Us.6d Ss.Sd. „ Us.6d Us. 6d. „ lis. od. — New York — 9s. 7d. „ 13». 6d. I2s. 6d. „ \6s. id los. od.to21s. 2d. — Newark — — 9s. 7d. „ 12s. 6d 12*. 6d. „ 16*. id. 14*. od. ,, 19*. 3rf. Paterson — hs. 9d. to 6s. 9d. 7s. Sd. „ 10«. 7d 9*. 7d. „ 13*. 6d. 11*. 6d: „ 16*. 4(/. Philadelphia — 7s. Sd. „ 1 1«. 6d. 9s. 7d. „ lis. od 10*. 7d. „ 17*. id. 13*. 6rf. „ 17*. id. Pittsburg 6s. M. to 8*. M. Ss. Sd. „ I2s. 6d. Us.Gd. „ I7s.id lis. od. „ 19*. 3d. 17*. id. „ 21*. 2>l. Providence — — 7s. Sd. ,, 9s. 7d. Ss. Sd. „ lis. 6d. Us. 6d. ., 14*. od. St. Louis it. lOd. to 7s. M. Ss. Sd. to I2t. 6d. Us. od. „ 17». id — — • White tenants Savannah Coloured tenants 2x. Wd.tois. \0d. 7s. 3d. „ 10*. 7d. is. \0d. 7s. Sd. „ 12*. OS. 9d. „ 6s. 9d. 9i. 7d. to 14*. od: 6s. 9d. „ 10s. Id. Us. od. „ 16*. id. ' Older dwellings. t Modern dwellings. Note. — Dwellings of one room are frequently occupied by coloured working-class tenants in Louisville, Memphis and New Orleans, and dwellings of more than six roomn are frequently occupied by white working-class tenants in Cleveland, Philadelphia and Savannah. (For rents in these cases see the respective town reports.) BETAIL PRICES. 39» III. PREDOMINANT PRICES PAID BY THE WORKING CLASSES AT FEBRUARY, 1909. (A.) Tea, Coffee, Sugar and Bacon. Town. Tea. Coffee. Sugar, White Granulated. Sugar, Brown. Bacon, Breakfast — Boneless. Per lb. Per lb. Per lb. Per lb. Per lb. Atlanta 2s. 6d. Is. Oid 3id. to 3id lOd. to Is. O^d Augusta . . . 2s. M. lOd 2id „ 3d. 2d to 2id 8|d „ lljd. 9d „ lOd Baltitnore ... Is. M. to 2s. Ud. 9d to lOd %\d., 2fd 2id. Birmingham 2s. Id. „ 2s. 6d. lOd 3d, 3id 2\d. to 3\d. d. 4J f/. to 4|d. < |-ton Is. Hid. \ IM. to 8k/. ( |-ton 2s. lid. Is. bid. ) Fall River ... Gd. to Id. 4id. 4-ton Ton 2s. OK to 2s. IM Is. SV/. ) lid. „ 9d. Lawrence . . . bid. „ Id. ^d. to 4|d ^-ton { 1-ton Is. M. Is. 10k/. i - lid. „ lid. Louisville ... Id. „ ^d. 4|c/. Ton ( Ton Is. lOirf. lUd. i _ 1 Gd. „ l^d. Lowell Gid. „ 7c?. ^d. < i-ton Is. lOU lid. „ 8irf. ( 1-ton 2s. Oid. ) Memphis ... Id. „ Sid. Gd. 1,800 lb. — Is. Oid. 5^0'., Gd., Od. Milwaukee... i^d. „ Id. Sid. Ton Is. lQ\d. Is. Oid. to Is. 2d. Gd. Minneapolis bid. iid. Ton 2s. Old. Is. Sid. „ Is, id. 6d. —St. Paul. Muncie Id. Sid. to iid. Ton Is. 9d. to Is. 9|f/. Hid. „ Is. 0^. lid. to Od. New Orleans Id. Gd. 180 lb. Is. S-id. „ Is. Gid. Gd. New York ... Id. to 9J(/. Sid. /Ton 1 80 lb. is. 2d.: Is. Gid. Is. 5k/. } -, lid. to lid. Newark Id. „ lid. iid. to iid. Ton Is. 5|rf. Gd. „ 7^0?. Paterson Id. ., 'i\d. i^d. Ton Is. ok/. — Gd. „ 7|rf. Philadelphia Id. „ Sd. iid. Ton ll|f/. ; Is. bd. — 5|c?. „ 6rf. Pittsburg . . . bid. „ Id. iid. to iid. 3,800 lb. ( Ton Is. 8]f/. Sd. to '^d. 7irf. „ 9^. Providence... bid. „ Id. iid fton ( 80 lb. Is. 9-Jf/. 2s. id. } lid. St. Louis ... Id. iid. /Ton 1 i-ton — Id. to iV/. 7rf. „ 9f/. } Gf^. to 9d. Savannah . . . Sid. to 9id. Gd. Ton — Is. e^rf. 1 9d. The ton is of 2.000 lb., except at Baltimore and Philadelphia, at which towns it is of 2.21'> lb. 16.^70 -' » 404 BUDGETS. IV.— BUDGETS OF WORKING-OLASS FAMILIES. (A. 1.) American-British (Northern) Group. "Weekly Expenditure per Family. Limits of Weekly Family Income. — Under £2 and £3 and £4 and 1 £5 and i £6 and £7 and £Sand £2. under £3. under £4. under under under £7. under over. £5. £6. £8. (1.) (2 •) (3.) (4.) (S.) 1 (fi.) (7.) (S.) Number of Returns 67 532 1,036 545 437 224 131 243 £ s. £ S. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ .9. d. £ s. d. Average Weekly Family Income 1 16 2 11 0* 3 9 10 4 8 5 5 7 3 6 8 11| 7 8 6 10 6 10 Average Number of Children 1-78 2-06 2-46 2-88 3-07 3-63 .3-82 4-20 living at home. Average Number of Persons 3-78 4-08 4-54 5-02 5-27 5-82 6-10 6-38 per Family." s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. Bread, Wheaten 1 H 1 h 1 8^ 1 Hi 2 Oi 2 Of 2 4 2 7f .. Kye 1^ 2 2i 1| r 2i 11 3i „ Other — OJ Oi OJ 1 01 Oi Flour, Wheaten 1 6 1 3: 1 5 1 74 1 10 2 2f 2 li 2 2i ,. Kye — Oi Oi Oi Oi Oi 04 „ Buckwheat and Other ... Oi o| Of 1 li 1 Oi 2 Maize and Maize Meal \\ 1 IJ 1^ li 11 If 2 Cakes, Crackers, Doughnuts ... li 7 lOi 11^ 1 H 1 3i 1 4* 1 H Rolls, Buns, Biscuits 2i H i> 6| 6| 8i 8 10 1 Macaroni, Noodles, Spaghetti ... H n 2^ 2f 2% 2i 3i 3 Rice, Barley, Sago, &c. 2| n 3f 3| 4 4i 4i 4f Oatmeal and Breakfast Cereals 2^ 3i 4i 5 5^ 5f 0% 6^ Potatoes (Irish) 1 23 1 •if 1 5| 1 8| 1 9f 1 llf 2 -4 2 4 Sweet Potatoes, &c OJ- 31- Oi li 2 If 3 21 4i Dried Peas and Beans 3^ 3i 3| 4i 4| 5i 4^ Sweet Corn \\ '1 2 3: 3 4i 5 7 Green Vegetables, &c 9 I i| 1 -H 1 8- 1 lOi 2 2 2 2f 2 7 Canned Vegetables 4f 4i 6i T- 9 9i lOi 9f Beef (fresh and corned) 2 U 3 1 3 8i i 3- 5 Oi 5 2 G 3i 7 1^ Mutton and Lamb 3| .5- 7l lOi- 1 0; 1 4^ 1 9i 1 9 Pork (fresh and salt) lOf 1 2; 1 3| 1 ^ 1 4 1 8j 1 m 2 1 : Bacon, Ham, Brawn, dec. 8i 10| 1 Oi 1 3i 1 4 1 7i 1 lOi 2 2i , Veal 2i ■4 Gi 7 8 9i 9i 11 'Sausage 2 3 4 4J .''. 5i 7i 64 Poultry Oj 24 5i ' (Vf 8i 74 1 1 1 51 Fish of all kinds 3f 5| 7* 9f S^ lOi 114 1 o| 1 li Lard, Suet, Dripping 7 n 8| 10 lOf 1 Oi 1 U ,Butter 1 \\ 1 i lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. Tea 0-21 0-27 0-28 0-36 0-38 0-45 0-48 o-4(; Coffee 0-63 0-T7 0-93 0-99 1-07 1-09 1-10 1-38. Cocoa and Chocolate 0-02 0-04 0-07 0-10 0-12 0-15 0-21 0-21 Sugar ... . 3-56 3-7S 4-45 5-67 5-81 6-81 7-20 7-28. pints. pints. pints. pints. pints. pints. pints. pints. Molasses and Syrup 0-25 0-33 0-40 0-45 0-41 0-56 0-57 0-54 This figure includes boarders sharing the family food. 16576 2 D 2 406 BUDGETS. IV.— BUDGETS OF WORKING-CLASS FAMILIES— coni/nwed (A. 2.) American-British (Southern) Group. Weekly Expenditure per Family. Limits of Weekly Family Income. £2 £3 £4 £5 £C £7 1 Under and under and under and under and under and under and under *» £2. £3. £4. £5. £6. £7. £8. and over. (1) (2.) (B.) (4.) (5.) (6.-) (7.) (»■) Number of Returns 32 116 131 109 80 42 27 43 £ s. d. £ s. d. £ S. d. £ S. d. £ H. d. £ s...rf. £ S. d. £ s. r/. Average Weekly Family 1 14 7^ 2 9 10^ 3 10 6^ 4 7 8i 5 7 11 6 8 3 7 8 5 10 3 lOi Income. Average Number of Chil- 1-81 2-33 2-68 3-07 3-43 3-92 4-11 4-04 dren living at home. Average Number of Per- 3-84 4-42 4-84 5-lG 5-60 6-09 6-48 6-37 sons per Family.* 1 s. d. s. d. s. d. .•*. d. S. (/. s. rf. s. d. s. d. Bread, Wheaten 6i Hi 1 6| 1 7i Ir 1 n 1 10 2 2 2 7 „ Rye Oi 01 Oi Oi 0| 2 Oi „ Other 0; Oi Or 0\ 0: 2 2 — 0| Flour, Wheaten 1 8J 1 8:- 2 2i 2 Oi 2 4| 3 1| 2 9 ,, Rye — . — Oi Oi t — — „ Buckwheat and — 0^ li 0^ li Or 2i li Other. Maize and Maize Meal ... 8 7 7i ^ 5J G 6f 1 ^. 8 Cakes, Crackers, Dough- 2i 3| 7| 8| 11 1 3f 1 Of nuts. Rolls, Buns, Biscuits Of 2| 1 21 4} 2 2f 3i 2| 3i 61. Macaroni, Noodles, Spa- 4 4 4 5| 7i ghetti. Rice, Barley, Sago, &c. ... H 7i 8 8 8i 7j fv 10| 1 H Oatmeal and Breakfast IJ 3i 3| 5| 5 6i 6| Cereals. Potatoes (Irish) 6J 9 1 Oi 1 n 1 2 I 1^ 1 of 1 4i Sweet Potatoes, &c. 3^ 7| 84 9| iH 10| 1 10 Dried Peas and Beans ... 5| 7 Qi 6: 6f 7; 7r 8| Sweet Corn of 1 l| 2i 2 2 3; 4f (Jreen Vegetables, &c. ... 10 11 1 3 1 5i 1 9i 1 11 2 4i: 3 1 Canned Vegetables 5i 7i 9i 1 1 Oi 1 2i 1 2 1 4 Beef (fresh and corned)... 1 5' 2 li 3 6i 3 8; 4 34 5 8i 5 Hi 6 9 Mutton and Lamb 2^ li 2 2, 2i 5" 3 3i Pork (fresh and salt) lOj 1 3 1 7 1 9| 2 4i 1 6 2 4- 2 10; Bacon, Ham, Brawn, &c. 1 li 1 4 1 8| 1 Hi 1 10 2 4i 2 10 3 0| Veal 1 2i 1| 3 2 2f 1 6 Sausage 2 5i 2| il 5 U 8| 6i ^ 1 u Poultry — 3i H 1 5| 1 2 1 9: Fish of all kinds 4:\ 6 6i % n ^ 10 1 2|. Lard, Suet, Dripping 10| 1 1| 1 7^ 1 oj 1 9" 1 11 1 11; 2 14 Butter 8f 1 M 2 2i 2 7| 2 lOi 2 9J 2 lOi ; 4 3j ■ Oleomargarine — Oi Oi — Of li 3 1; Olive Oil Of Of 0^ u li OJ 0| 2 Cheese 2} 5 5.i si 8 lOi 10 II3 Milk (fresh) 4i 9 1 li 1 li 1 3| 1 Oi 1 5i 2 0, „ (condensed) &l n Ik 8 lOi 10 Hi 1 10 Eggs ^ 111 1 'H 1 8i 1 8J 2 Of 2 1 2 6 Tea li 3 4 b\ 4i 5 7i 7 Coffee 9 lOJ 1 li 1 Oi 1 u 1 5 1 Ji 1 7 Cocoa and Chocolate 0^ Oi li li li 1 2i 3 Sugar 9i 111 1 'ih 1 5i 1 7i 1 8i 1 10 1 Hi Molasses and Syrup 3i 5i H 6i 8i 7i 73 8i Vinegar, Pickles and Con- 1 2i 3J 4i 4 6 5i 6 diments. Fruits and Jams 2 4i 6| lOi 11| 1 4 1 3J 1 5i Other items — ol 1 IJ 2i 3S OJ 3 Meals away from home ... 1^ 3 6i 7 1 9i 8 1 H 2 5i Total 16 6f 23 6J 31 10 35 1% 40 4i 43 7| 19 51 58 Oi * This figure includes boarders sharing the family food. t Value under Jrf. BUDGETS. IV.— BUDGETS OF WORKING-CLASS FAMILIES— continued. (A. 2.) Amebican-British (Southern) Group. Weekly Consumption per Family. 407 Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under £2. £2 and under £3. £:i and under £4. £1 and under £5. £5 and under £t;. £6 and under £7. £7 and under £8. £8 and over. (1> (2.) (3.) (I.) (a.) (6.) (7.) (8.) Number of Returns 32 IIG 131 109 80 42 27 43 £ s. d. £ s. d. £ S. d. £ S. d. £ S. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. Average Weekly Family 1 14 71 2 9 10| 3 10 6i 4 7 8i 5 7 11 6 8 3 7 8 5 10 3 lOi Income. Average Number of Chil- 1-81 2-33 2-68 3-07 3-43 3-92 4-11 4-04 dren living at home. Average Number of Per- 3-84 4-42 4-84 5-16 5-60 6-09 6-48 6-37 sons per Family.* ^ lb. b. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. Bread, Wheaten 2-37 4-20 9-28 7-45 7-77 8-19 9-78 11-56 „ Rye 0-22 0-12 0-14 0-57 014 0-34 0-97 0-18 „ Other 0-05 0-19 0-14 0-08 0-07 — 0-34 Flour, Wheaten 10-19 10-74 13-32 12-79 14-76 13-78 19-83 17-23 „ Rye ~~ — 0-10 0-07 0-03 0-12 — — „ Buckwheat and 0-19 0-47 0-26 0-50 0-19 0-85 0-41 Other. Maize and Maize Meal ... 5-53 5-19 5-31 4-27 4-05 4-57 5-56 5-8.S Cakes, Crackers, Dough- 0-64 0-91 1-62 1-62 1-82 1-85 2-53 2-31 nuts. Rolls, Buns, Biscuits 0-17 0-28 0-Gl 0-45 0-57 0-78 0-77 0-98 Macaroni, Noodles, Spa- 0-80 1-21 0-92 0-83 0-80 1-08 1-37 1-29 ghetti. Rice, Barley, Sago, &c. ... 1-64 2-44 2-31 2-42 2-15 2-40 3-46 4-66 Oatmeal and Breakfast 0-81 1-81 1-47 2-13 1-32 2-97 2-18 2-49 Cereals. Potatoes (Irish) 5-23 6-79 10-37 10-42 12-68 10-81 16-07 14-63 Sweet Potatoes, &c. 2-88 6-67 7-35 7-55 10-75 8-45 10-88 10-08 Dried Peas and Beans ... 2-30 2-76 2-01 2-23 2-09 2-23 2-20 2-83 Beef (fresh and corned)... 2 (is 3-92 5-60 6-13 6-97 9-26 9-36 10-68 Mutton and Lamb 0-27 0-15 0-26 0-25 0-26 0-55 0-41 0-47 Pork (fresh and salt) ... 1-60 2-13 2-63 3-03 3-92 2-38 3-74 4-68 Bacon, Ham, Bi-awn, &c. 207 2-37 2-93 3-01 3-11 3-61 4-51 4-61 Veal 0-16 0-28 0-25 0-34 0-24 0-32 0-11 0-66 Sausage 0-35 0-81 0-84 0-90 1-00 1-14 1-30 2-04 Poultry — 0-23 0-.31 0-65 1-00 1-94 1-48 2-63 Fish of all kinds 0-78 0-98 0-91 1-60 1-27 1-29 1-83 2-14 Lard, Suet, Dripping 1-87 2-43 3-21 3-31 3-40 3-92 3-80 4-08 Butter 0-55 1-10 1-76 2-09 2-25 2-16 2-19 3-20 Oleomargarine ... — 0-03 0-02 — 0-04 0-12 0-15 0-07 Olive Oil pints. 0-03 pints. 0-04 pints. 0-04 pints. 0-07 pints. 0-07 pints. • 0-03 pints. 0-03 pints. 0-10 lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. Cheese 0-26 0-49 0-54 0-81 0-81 1-06 0-99 1-11 Milk (fresh) qts. 1-22 qte. 2-01 qts. 2-84 qts. 2-95 qts. 3-73 qts. 2-17 qts. 3-30 qts. 5-50 lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. „ (condensed) 1-18 1-26 1-35 1-42 1-92 1-75 1-98 1-79 No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. Eggs 5-78 11-34 16-85 20-43 18-78 25-05 25-04 31-40 lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. Tea 0-06 0-13 0-16 0-20 0-17 0-18 0-24 0-27 • Coffee 0-87 1-07 1-28 1-20 1-25 1-53 1-45 1-64 Cocoa and Chocolate 0-01 0-08 0-07 0-13 0-12 0-06 0-13 0-14 Sugar 311 4-18 4-53 6-09 6-40 6-91 7-62 7-66 Molasses and Syrup pints. 0-92 pints. 1-06 pints. 1-34 pints. 1-41 pints. 1-87 pints. pints. 1-80 pints. 1-85 • This figure includes boarders sharing the family food. 16.576 2 D 3 408 BUDGETS. IV.— BUDGETS OP WORKING-CLASS FAMILIES— cowimwed. (A. .'5.) American (Southern)— Broken Families. Weekly Expenditure per Family. Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under £2. £2 and under £3. and under £4. £1 and under £5. £5 and under £6. £6 and under £7. £7 and under £8. £8 and over. (1.) c-2.) (3.) 1 (4.) C^-i.) (6.) (7.) (8.) Number of Returns 13 £ s. d. 7 £ 8. d. 12 £ 8. d. 9 £ s. d. 4 1 Average Weekly Family 1 12 IH 2 9 7 3 14 6^ 4 8 6 Income. Average Number of Chil- 2-46 3-00 3-00 3-78 dren living at home. Avei'age Number of Per- 3-46 4-29 4-17 4-89 sons per Family.* s. d. s. d. .s. d. s. d. Bread, Wheaten 1 Of 1 7 1 6 2 llf „ Rye — — — 2| „ other — — — — Flour, Wheaten 1 H llf 2 1 Si „ Rye — — — — „ Buckwheat and IJ 2i 0^ Oi Other. Maize and Maize Meal ... 8 2| 61 7i Cakes, Crackers, Dough- 0^ Of 7| 73 nuts. Rolls, Buns, Biscuits ... U 3; 3i li 2| Macaroni, Noodles, Spa- 2| 3i 4i ghetti. Rice, Barley, Sago, &c. ... 4^ 9f 7 1 6 Oatmeal and Breakfast 2 1 4} 43 • . Cereals. 0) Potatoes (Irish) 4^ 7| H 1 1 1 0| a a Sweet Potatoes, &c. 6| 9 6j i -d r^ Dried Peas and Beans ... 43 31 5^ 7- k ^ -M & Sweet Com — IJ I 1 2 £ « i Green Vegetables, &c. ... 9ii 1 oi 1 8 1 If >f >> 2 Canned Vegetables 3f 2| 1 2i 9 -4-^ +3 a % & Beef (fresh and corned)... 1 1 3 5 2 .5i: 3 lOi .2 .2 s 2 Mutton and Lamb — Of 4;: 8; 1 Pork (fresh and salt) ... 104 1\ 3 8. 2 10 g ^ "A 15acon, Ham, Brawn, &c. 1 Oi 9| 1 33 2 b\ -e A^ Veal 1 — Of 1 4; Sausage li OJ () 13 5 Poultry — — 74 s| 9i Fish of all kinds ^ — 1 0\ Lard, Suet, Dripping ... •0 10 1 1 I .5 1 3 Butter lOf 1 33 2 Oi 2 8| Oleomargarine — — Olive Oil Of 13 2 — Cheese 4 23 6i 2 Milk (fresh) 9i 2i 93 Hi „ (condensed) H 73 6^ lOi Eggs Hi 1 ol 1 2i 1 5i Tea li 4i 33 9i Coffee 93 114 1 4i 1 8 Cocoa and Chocolate — 03 Oi 1 Sugar m 1 21 11 1 6i ^[ Glasses and Syrup (» 2 4| 2f 3i Vinegar, Pickles and Con- 13 l| 3 ^ diments. Fruits and Jams 24 4i n 5i Other items — If 4^ — Meals away from home... — 64 4i 2 3f Total 17 2 21 03 32 Oi 44 If * This figure includes boarders sharing the family food. BUDGETS. IV.— BUDGETS OF WORKING-CLASS VAMILlEii— continued. (A. 3.) American (Southern) — Broken Families. "Weekly Consumption per Family. 409 Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under £.2. £2 and under 1 £3 and under £4 and under £5 and under £6 and under £7 and under £s £.. £6. £7. £8. and over. (1.) (2.) (3.) (4.) (5.) (6.) (T.) («.) Number of Returns 13 £ s. d. 7 £ s. d. 12 £ s. d. 9 £ s. d. 4 1 Average Weekly Fumily 1 12 Hi 2 9 7 3 14 6h 4 8 6 Income. Average Number of Chil- 2-46 3-00 3-00 3-78 dren living at home. Average Number of Per- 3-46 4-29 417 4-89 sons per Family.* lb. lb. lb. lb. Bread, Wheaten 5-03 7-14 6-82 14-33 » Rye — — 0-89 „ Other — — Flour, Wheaten 10-69 5-89 12-77 11-61 ,, Rye — — „ Buckwheat and 0-46 1-00 0-17 0-22 Other. Maize and Maize Meal ... 6-31 2-29 4-67 6-28 Cakes, Crackers, Dough- 0-10 0-14 1-50 1-44 nuts. Rolls, Buns, Biscuits 0-27 0-71 0-4G 0-78 Macaroni, Noodles, Spa- 1-.35 0-64 0-75 1-11 ghetti. Rice, Barley, Sago, &c. ... l-.-iO 3-29 1-98 4-89 Oatmeal and Breakfast 0-58 0-14 1-21 1-89 Cereals. '6 TS Potatoes (Irish) ... 4-79 5-30 10-33 10-61 f) ■ ^iS 89 £ s. d. 10 16 3 4 -6:) 6-72 Fjread, Wheaten ... » Rye „ other Flour, Wheaten ,. Rye „ Buckwheat and Other. Maize and Maize Meal ... Cakes, Crackers, Dough- nuts. Rolls, Buns, Biscuits Macaroni, Noodles, Spa- ghetti. Rice, Barley, Sago, &c. ... Oatmeal and Breakfast Cereals. Potatoes (Irish) Sweet Potatoes, Ike. Dried Peas and Beans ... Sweel Corn Green Vegetables, &c. ... Canned Vegetables Beef (fresh and corned)... Mutton and Lamb Pork (fresh and salt) Bacon, Ham, Brawn, &c. Veal Sausage Poultry Fish of all kinds Lard, Suet, Dripping ... Butter Oleomargarine ...• Olive Oil Cbeese Milk (fresh) „ (condensed) Eggs Tea ... CofEee Cocoa and Chocolate Sugar Molasses and Syrup Vinegar, Pickles and Con- diments. Fruits and Jams Other items Meals away from home... Total .s. d. IH 9 1 4 2:- 2 Of 44- H 10| Oi 3i 9 2\ 2 7 If 1 2i 6 2 2i' 0~2i 9i 1_1| OJ 3i 1 4^ 2i 9f 34 9^ l| 8 H 3 4i Of s. d. 1 4| m -t 1 2 Oi Of 1 b\ If 4i 23- 3* 1 H 1 Oi 3f 2 llf U 4i 1 3f ^ 5f 7f 2i 4i ^ 1 2i Of Of 4i 1 H 3i 1 2i 2f 11^ Of 9 2i 2f 6f Of 6i s. d. 1 4i 9i 0| 1 3 0| Of 1 11 8i 2i 4| ^ s. d. 9 Oi- 1 3^ Oi Oi 1 10 9 If 4i 3i 18 4i 24 4J 30 7f 1 Oi Oi 11 34 5f 1 s. d. I 7i 7f 1 6i H Oi Of 1 2i lOf 2f oi 3| 1 11 li 4i 2i 1 n 6 4 4 lOf 1 7 1 Oi 1 4i 64 ll| 8 lOi 2 8 Oi 1 8 2 3 2i 2 4 4f 1 4i 2i 1 1 IJ 3f 1 4i 2 1 5i 38 9f s. d. 1 5| 1 of Oi 2 If 1 Oi Oi 1 3i 2f 4i 3 2 3f 2 4i 2i 2 6i 6i 5 OJ 10 2 5f 1 5J 1 8i 7f 9 7 1 Oi 3_7i li H 2 2 6f 4 6i 1 9i If 1 3i li 3f 1 lOi li 2 3f 47 4i d. 7 Oi 1 6i If Of Of 1 2i 1 4i 2i 4f 5i 2 If 3i 4 2 1 lOf 5i 4 lOi 4i 3 3f 8i 1 6| 9i 11 2 Hi Oi 2 6f 2 8i 4i 2 7f 5i 1 2" 1 3 2i 3i 1 llf If 3 h s. d. 2 Of 7i Oi 1 lOi Oi 1 If 1 8 1 H 3 5f \\ 2 3f 2i 4 4i 2 2 8 5 8i 1 7 2 6 1 6i 1 n 9i 1 8. ■ 9i 1 Oi 4 Oi m 2 Of 2 lOf 2 3 8 6 1 lOi 2i 1 4 2i 4 2 •'} \^ 4 3f 47 Of .5.T Ti * This figure includes boarder.s sharing the family food. t Value under id. BUDGETS. 411 IV. BUDGETS OF WORKING-CLASS FA'SllLIEii— continued. (B.) German Group. Weekly Consumption per Family. Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under I £2. ,i;2 i and under and under £-4 and under £5 and under £() and under £7 and under £8 and over. £3. &i. £.-.. £6. £7. £8. Url^V^ V * x.** ■ (1.) (2.) (3.) (4.) (5.) («•) (7.) (8.) Number of Returns 15 163 246 107 123 60 43 89 £ H. (1. £ S. (1. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ S. d. £ .S-. d. £ 8. d. Average Weeklj' Family 1 10 Oi 2 10 lOi 3 9 2i 4 8 Oi 5 7 5 6 8 4 7 7 5 10 16 3 Income. Average Number of Chil- 1-73 2-26 2-44 2-88 3-38 3-73 3-72 4-65 dren living at home. Average Number of Per- 3-67 4-27 4-51 5-01 5-47 5-95 5-86 6-72 sons per Family.* lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. Bread, Wheaten 4-37 0-00 6-22 0-53 7-49 6-81 6-90 8-91 „ Rye 4-22 4-76 4-07 3-77 3-22 5-08 5-24 2-98 „ Other — 0-01 0-18 0-18 0-48 0-10 0-09 0-22 Flour, Wheaten 9-4r. 7-55 8-23 8-60 10-00 12-86 10-32 12-12 „ Rye 0-07 0-20 0-37 0-25 0-52 0-47 0-88 0-21 „ Buckwheat and — 0-37 0-32 0-27 0-14 0-06 0-47 0-48 Other. Maize and Maize Meal ... 0-13 0-58 0-66 0-70 0-50 0-33 0-58 0-90 Cakes, Crackers, Dough- 0-60 1-50 2-45 2-09 2-99 3-45 3 -.52 4-25 nuts. Rolls, Buns, Biscuits ... 0-G7 1-48 2-20 2-57 2-88 3-53 3-88 5-78 Macaroni, Noodles, Spa- 0-13 0-38 0-55 0-34 0-54 0-58 0-57 0-67 ghetti. Ric-e, Barley, Sago, &c. ... 1-12 1-OG 1-05 0-94 1-20 1-01 1-08 1-32 Oatmeal and Breakfast 0-40 0-t)S 0-94 0-91 J -03 0-82 1-22 lOL Cereals. Potatoes (Irish) 11-37 18-25 21-36 23-35 25-66 29-48 29-70 30-59 Sweet Potatoes, &c. n-13 0-59 1-06 0-67 1-23 0-93 2-19 1-94 Dried Peas and Beans ... 113 1-33 1-04 1-08 1-29 1-45 1-30 1-23 Beef (fresh and corned)... 5-47 5-06 6-17 6-55 7-00 7-94 7-14 8-77 Mutton and Lamb 0-27 0-66 0-77 1-06 1-40 1-12 2-01 2-19 Pork (fresh and salt) 210 2-14 2-52 2-99 2-55 3-84 3-22 3-85 Bacon, Ham, Brawn, &c. 0-83 1-04 1-17 1-41 1-31 1-90 1-46 1-98 Veal 0-27 0-78 1-34 1-44 2-01 2-54 1-94 2-46 Sausage 0-40 1-26 1-15 1-04 1-01 1-21 1.53 1-65 Poultry — 0-27 0-59 0-88 1-17 1-20 1-92 2-00 Fish of all kinds 0-40 0-85 1-11 1-09 1-42 1-28 1-70 1-08 Lard, Suet, Dripping ... 1-43 1-28 1-38 1-38 1-60 1-06 1-00 1-80 Butter 0-85 0-90 1-44 1-84 2-04 2-75 2-34 3-19 Oleomargarine — 0-07 0-09 0-08 0-02 — 0-02 0-06 pints. pints. pints. pints. pints. pints. pints- pints. Olive Oil 0-03 0-06 0-05 0-09 0-08 0-10 0-25 0-10 lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. Oheese 0-43 0-47 0-04 0-67 0-80 ( ) - 85 0-72 1-04 qts. ([tS. qts. qts. qts. qts. qts. qts. Milk (fresh) 3-43 3-97 5-18 0-05 0-45 7 • 10 7-06 8-10 lb. lb. lb lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. „ (condensed) 0-41 0-63 0-44 0-65 0-42 0-09 0-72 0-33 No. JTo. No. No. No. No. No. No. Eggs ... 10-00 12-83 17-94 20-37 24-71 28 -(13 28-12 39-28 lb. lb. lb. tb. lb. lb. lb. lb. Tea 0-14 0-12 14 0-10 0-21 0-24 0-21 0-22 Coffee ... l-OO 1-08 1-15 1-27 1-47 1-75 1-58 1-85 Cocoa and Chocolate 0-05 0-04 0-08 0-10 0-14 0-10 0-12 0-12 Sugar 2-80 3-19 3-00 4-28 4-48 5-21 5-33 5-53 pints. pints, pints. pints. pints. pints. pints. l)ints. Molasses and Syrup 0-2S 0-40 0-34 0-.53 0-37 0-31 0-49 0-39 This fixture inclndos boarders sharing the family food. 412 BUDGETS. IV. BUDGETS OF WORKING-CLASS VAMlLlEH—conhtmefi. (C.) Scandinavian Group. Weekly Expenditure per Family. Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under £2. (10 £2 and ander £3. (2.) £» and under £4. (3.) and under £5. (^•) £.-) and under £U. (5.) £G and under £7. (6.) £7 and under £8. (7.) £8 and over. (8.) Number of Returns Average Weekly Family Income. Average Number of Chil- dren living at home. Average Number of Per- sons per B'amily ' Bread, Wheaten ... „ Rye „ Other Flour, Wheaten » Rye „ Buckwheat and Other. Maize and Maize Meal ... Cakes, Crackers, Dough- nuts. Rolls, Buns, Biscuits Macaroni, Noodles, Spa- ghetti. Rice, Barley, Sago, &c. ... Oatmeal and Breakfast Cereals. Potatoes (Irish) ... Sweet Potatoes, &c. Dried Peas and Beans ... Sweet Corn Green Vegetables, &c. ... Canned Vegetables Beef (fresh and corned)... Mutton and Lamb Pork (fresh and salt) Bacon, Ham, Brawn, &c. Veal Sausage Poultry Fish of all kinds ... Lard, Suet, Dripping Butter Oleomargarine Olive Oil Cheese Milk (fresh) „ (condensed) Eggs Tea Coffee Cocoa and Chocolate Sugar Molasses and Syrup Vinegar, Pickles and Con- diments. Fruits and Jams Other items Meals away from home ... Total QQ o 35 £ s. d. 2 11 11 2-06 89 £ s. d. 2-54 -1-60 73 £ *. d. i 8 3i 3-04 0-15 61 £ s. d. 5 G 10 3-59 (;-02 s. d. 8| 0_4| 1 5 2i 1" 1] 4] 4i 1| 3| 4i s. d. 7i H 1 10 3i Of Of 71 s. d. 9.', 6| 0^ 1 8 3^ 04 0^ 8ii 7i 25 2 ^ 7.^ li I 2 4 4i ! 5j 1 2^ OJ 4i 30 5 s. d. 8 If 0' 2 6 4i Oh 31 28 £ s. d. C 8 ih 3-78 5-89 s. d. H 7i 2 5i- 6i OL 3| Gi 1 Oi i 5| Hi 1 U 5i 6^ 9| 7 3 81 Of Oi 7i 2 9' 2 2 2 2^ 1 H 2i 1 3^ 1| H 1 3i 2i 10 35 4| 61, % 39 9i 43 9 48 6^ 17 £ s. d. 7 7 7i 4-23 6-35 s. d. 9| 1 01 2 5^ u () 0] 2 &\ 2 li 12 10^ 0| lOi 8^ 2\ 4i 6i 1 i\ U 5| 3i 1 11 10 5 10 11 1 10| lU 1 ll 2i 6 1 l\ 10| 4 7| Oi 6i 3 8 Oi 2 11| 3| 1 H 4 2 4i 3| 3 2 5i 3 3 Of 32 £ s. d. 10 6^ 3-69 6-00 s. d. 1 3 7| 8i 1| 5:^ 5| 1 10 3 ^f 4 2 0; 6 5 Oi 2 0^ 3i 5} 2 1 9' 6i 1 1 2i 4 1 4 li Of 2I 1 2 11| 2\ 3 1 2i 111} 2 2i 2 3^ 54 4 ll 51 9i ' This figure includes boarders sharing the family food. BUDGETS. 413 IV. BUDGETS OF WORKING-CLASS FA'SIILIES,— continued. (C.) Scandinavian Group. Weekly Consumption per Family. Limits of Weekly Family Income. &2 £3 £i £5 £6 £7 Under £2. and under £3. and under m. and under £5. and under £6. and under £7. and under £8. £8 and over. (I-) (2.) (3.) (+.) (5.) (6.) (7.) (8.) Number of Returns 35 89 73 61 28 1, 32 £ s. d. £ 8. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. Average Weekly Family 2 11 11 3 9 &h 4 8 3i 5 6 10 6 8 4^ 7 7 7i 10 6i Income. Average Number of Chil- 2-06 2 -.54 3-04 3 -.59 3-78 4-23 3-69 dren living at home. -\verage Number of Per- -1-09 4-60 5-15 6-02 5-89 6-35 6-00 sons per Family.'* lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. Bread, Wheaten 3-30 2-68 3-27 2-85 1-83 3 -.51 5-41 „ Rye 1-8G 2-38 2-55 0-67 2-90 4-81 3-07 „ Other 0-14 0-06 — 0-06 — Flour, Wheaten ... 8-90 11-47 10-77 16-07 15-38 15-07 15-57 „ Rye 1-59 1-86 1 - 92 3-01 3-95 1-35 1-.31 „ Buckwheat and 0-49 0-34 0-24 0-21 0-21 0-12 0-75 Other. Maize and Maize Meal ... 0-83 0-49 0-38 0-56 0-.39 0-94 0-50 Cakes, Crackers, Dough- 0-87 l-,57 1-87 1-.56 1-77 2-25 2 13 nuts. Rolls, Buns, Biscuits ... 1-Gl 1-13 1-84 0-98 1-70 2-47 2-76 Macaroni, Noodles, Spag- 0-34 0-32 0-38 0-41 0-48 0-41 0-30 hetti. Rice, Barley, Sago, &c. ... 0-84 0-95 1-08 0-84 1-12 1-00 1-39 Oatmeal and Breakfast 1-43 1-90 1-75 1-80 2-31 1-69 1-49 Cereals. Potatoes (Irish) 13-71 18-10 22-73 27-73 25-23 21-15 26-69 Sweet Potatoes, &c. 0-40 0-20 0-27 0-58 0-70 1-47 2-91 Dried Peas and Beans ... 1-09 1-09 1-07 1-13 1-07 1-88 1-.59 Beef (fresh and corned) . 5-20 5-2G 5-25 6-26 7-13 8-88 7-53 Mutton and Lamb 1-09 1-47 1-56 2-03 1-91 1-35 2-72 Pork (fi-esh and salt) ... -4J 1-96 2-61 2-27 3-53 2-96 2-79 3-42 Bacon, Ham, Brawn, etc. ^ © 0-95 1-19 1-29 1-60 1-63 1 • 29 2-00 Veal ft 0-47 0-65 1-77 1-27 1-07 1-77 1-17 Sausage P 0-74 0-81 0-87 0-76 0-78 0-65 0-95 Poultry « 0-34 0-37 0-64 0-86 0-89 0-59 1-47 Fish of all kinds &5 1-61 1-87 1-45 1-18 2-09 2-59 2-61 Lard, Suet, Dripping ... 0-84 1-04 1-02 1-22 1-54 1 • 53 1-81 Butter 1-80 2-36 2-96 3-48 3-44 3-79 3-24 Oleomargarine — 0-02 0-07 0-02 — — 0-06 pints. pints. pints. pints. pints. pints. pints. Olive Oil 0-02 0-02 0-02 0-03 0-04 0-02 Oil lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. Cheese 0-44 0-61 0-80 0-71 0-90 0-74 1-30 (its. qts. qts. qts. qts. qts. qts. Milk (fresh) 5 ■ 92 7-62 8-02 9-61 9-13 11-01 8-86 lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. „" (condensed) 0-.53 0-40 0-35 0-18 0-33 0-10 0-41 No. No. No. No. No. No. No. Kggs 17-77 21-08 24-12 29-31 31-29 .33-77 35-56 lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. Tea 0-09 0-09 0-10 0-09 0-14 0-15 0-24 Coffee ... 0-93 1-15 1-29 1-38 1-57 1-21 1-52 Cocoa and Chocolate 0-06 0-11 0-15 0-17 0-13 0-19 0-13 Sugar 4-50 5-14 5-38 6-74 7-75 9-82 8 -.52 pints. pints. pints. pints. pints. pints. pints. Molasses and Syrup 0-42 0-52 0-35 0-.59 0-67 0-,59 0.54 ■ This figure includes boarders sharing the family food. 414 BUDGETS. IV. BUDGETS OF WORKING-CLASS FAUlLmH—contimied. (D.) South European Group. Weekly Expenditure per Family. Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under £.-2. £2 and under £3. £3 and under £4. £4 and under £.".. £5 and under £6. £0 and under £7. £7 and under £8. £S and over. (1) (2.-) (3.) (4.) (•V) (fi.-) (.T) (».-) Number of Returns 60 1H5 151 73 50 29 15 2G £ s . d. £ 6 . d. £ «. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ t .d. £ s. d. £ S. d. Average Weekly Family 1 i;5 '.H 2 10 Oi 3 8 '.) 4 8 1 5 6 5i 6 7 8i 7 7 11 9 11 2 Income. . Average Numberof Child- 2-33 2-85 2-93 3-66 3-82 4- 55 4-41 4-54 ren living at home. Average Number of Per- 4-33 4- 92 5-09 5-9G 6-14 G- 90 6-60 7-27 sons per Family." s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. Bread, Wh eaten 2 0| 1 101 2 3 3 3f 3 9i 5 7| 3 2i 4 3i „ Rye o| H 1^ 2i li 2i G 4f „ Other - - o.v u Oi li Oi — — Flour, Wheaten 8f 1 2i 1 4 1 3 1 5 1 Cf 1 3 1 ^ ,. Rye - -t Oi — — Oi — „ Buckwheat and - - Oi Of Oi Oi 0| Oi li Other. Maize and Maize Meal ... (» Oi li Of u li Oi 1 If Cakes, Crackers, Dough- 4i 4i 6 8' lOi 6i lOi 1 2i nuts. Rolls, Buns, Biscuits 0^ 2 5i 5f 5i 4i 7f 8i Macaroni, Noodles, Spa- 1 0^ 1 n 1 Gi 1 10 2 7i 2 5i 1 Oi 1 10 ghetti. Rice, Barley, Sago, &c. ... u 4 4f 7 Gf 8 4i 8 Oatmeal and Breakfast o| li 1 li If 0| If li Cereals. Potatoes (Irish) 6 8 11 1 Oi 1 3i 1 8 1 If 1 2f Sweet Potatoes, &c. . . Oi OS 1 li 3 n Of 3f Dried Peas and Beans ... H 5| Gi 8' 10 1 H lOf 1 Oi Sweet Corn 0* 1 li 2i 5 n 3i 4l Green Vegetables, &c. ... 8| 1 n 1 9f 1 lOi 2 8i 4 Oi. 2 8f 3 Hi Canned Vegetables 3i 3| ^ 7" 6| H 5i 1 2" Beef (fresh and corned)... 1 81 2 2i 2 ^ 2 11 3 4| 3 8i 4 2f :5 GJ Mutton and Lamb n 34 Hi 3 1 9| 4 ;) 2 lOf 5 Ot Pork (fresh and salt) 1) ;h 6* 8i 10 n 11 1 li 1 li Bacon, Ham, Brawn, &c. H 3i G H 9| 8i 1 8: Veal 4i 4| llj 1 Oi 1 Of 1 2 2 Oi 1 8; Sausage 3i H 6 8f 5i iH 4 Poultry 0* ^i 6i 7| 5f lOi 9J 1 8f ■ Fish of all kinds 51 9| 1 2i 1 1 1 5 1 8; 1 10 Lard, Suet, Dripping ... 8 8i lOi Hi llJ 1 1 1 4: 1 4f Butter 2i 6^ 9| 1 5f 1 5 2 3i 1 Gf 2 gI Oleomargarine oj Oi Of Oi -t 4i — Oi Olive Oil '.) 1 2i 1 6 2 oi 2 li 2 8 3 74 1 6| 2 8 Cheese 73 111 1 2 1 g| 1 6 2 Of 1 11 Milk (fresh) 1 l| 1 51 1 8i 2 7f 2 2i 2 9i 2 10 3 3| „ (condensed) If n 2i 3 Of Of 1 5i Eggs 8 1 3| 1 7i 2 li 2 7 2 2i 3 2| 3 5 Tea H 2* 3i 2 3} 3i 3: 1# Coffee 7 ^ lOi I 11 1 Of W 1^ 1 Gi Cocoa and Chocolate Oi o| 1 2 If 2 4i Sugar 71 81 94 1 OJ 111 1 4 1 2; 1 5| Molasses and Syrup Oi 1 Of 1 Of Of 1; Oi Vinegar, Pickles anil Con- 01 u 2J 3i 3| 4f 4 4i diments. Fruits and Jams 6| 8 1 1 1 5i 1 8i 2 8i 2 9| 2 6} Other items 1 1 -t 14 4: If li Of li — — Meals away from home... 8i 7| 2 4i 1 2i 3 2 2 0| Total 16 7 23 n 30 3i 39 8i 44 li 54 1 9 52 5f 59 2i * This figure includee boarders sharing the family food. t Value under Jrf. BUDGETS. 415 IV. BUDGETS OF WORKING-CLASS FAmLlY.ii— continued. (D.) South European Group. Weekly Consumption per Family. Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under £2. £2 and under £3. £3 and under £4. £-1 and under £.-,. £.-, and under £1). £ti and under £7. £7 and under £8. £8 and over. (!.") (2.) CH.) ii.^ (•■o «i.) (7.-) (s.-) Number of Returns 60 195 151 73 50 29 15 26 £ .s. (I. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ S. d. Average Weekly Family- 1 13 9h 2 10 0^ 3 8 9 4 8 1 |5 6 .5^ 6 7 8i 7 7 11 9 11 2 Income. Average Number of Child- 2-33 2-85 2-93 3-66 3-82 4-55 4-41 4-54 ren living at home. Average Number of Per- 4-33 4-92 5-09 5-96 6-14 6-90 6-60 7-27 sons per Family.* lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. Bread, Wheaten 9-58 9-12 11-08 15-44 19-26 27-87 17-57 22-10 Rye 0-20 0-74 0-79 1-02 0-80 1-19 2-09 2-62 Other — 0-29 0-73 0-07 0-56 0-07 — — Flour, Wheaten 4 -94 7-84 8-96 7-51 9-04 9-93 7-33 8-67 „ Rye 0-03 0-16 — — 0-24 — — „ Ikxckwheat and — 0-13 0-28 0-04 0-14 0-21 0-13 0-39 Other. Maize and Maize Meal ... 0-26 0-90 0-48 0-83 1-17 0-28 0-33 0-96 ■Cakes, Crackers, Dough- 0-81 1-02 1-49 1-74 2-40 1-25 2-53 2-62 nuts. Rolls, Buns, Biscuits ... 0-12 0-62 1-54 1-83 1-81 1-33 2-93 2-26 Macaroni, Noodles, Spa- 3-73 5-14 4-74 5-36 7-97 6-79 5-03 5-12 ghetti. Rice, Barley, Sago, &c. ... 1-20 115 1-25 1-89 2-04 2-07 1-07 1-96 Oatmeal and Breakfast 0-23 0-49 0-26 0-38 0-66 0-24 0-53 0-39 Cereals. Potatoes (Irish) 5-10 7-08 11-71 11-56 14-94 22-25 12-57 14-44 Sweet Potatoes, &c. 0-30 0-69 0-95 1-52 3-24 1-40 0-67 3-92 Dried Peas and Beans ... 2-16 1-92 2-15 2-61 3-07 5-75 3-50 3-35 Beef (fresh and corned)... 3-50 3-85 4-18 4-95 5-42 5-62 6-20 5-27 Mutton and Lamb 0-43 0-.51 1-53 4-50 2-69 7-45 4-30 7-27 Pork (fresh and salt) ... 0-55 0-98 1-08 1-36 1-31 1-40 1-50 1-83 Bacon, Ham, Brawn, &c. 0-20 0-37 0-73 0-94 1-25 0-99 1-33 1-01 Veal 0-60 1-06 l-.')2 1-49 1-62 1-71 3-10 2-62 Sausage 0-4G 0-66 0-56 0-74 1-15 0-62 1-23 0-41 Poultry 0-06 0-52 0-70 0-81 0-64 1-10 0-93 2-04 Fish of all kinds 1-41 1-84 2-11 2-72 2-73 3-50 4-57 4-23 Lard, Suet, Dripping 1-51 1-42 1-07 1-92 1-86 2-38 2-53 2-71 Butter 0-15 0-42 0-62 1-07 1-10 1-62 1-17 1-81 Oleomargarine 0-02 0-02 0-05 ()-03 0-01 0-28 — 0-01 pints. jnnts. pints. ]jints. pints. pintfi. pints. pint,s. Olive oil U-5'.) 0-86 1-10 1-54 1-.>S 2-28 2-83 2-42 lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. Cheese 0-54 0-78 0-99 1-24 1-28 1-62 1-23 1-57 qts. qts. qts. qts. qts. qts. qts. qts. Milk (fresh) 3-16 4-09 4-93 7-68 6-20 7-84 8-44 9-51 lb. lb. lb. lb. • lb. lb. lb. lb. „ (condensed) 0-30 0-51 0-37 0-56 0-11 0-12 0-18 0-93 No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. Kggs 7-55 14 -.59 18-05 2 '.-45 28-95 24-10 34 -.53 36-00 lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. Tea 0-08 0-11 0-13 0-09 0-14 0-14 0-14 0-06 Coffee 0-71 0-78 0-85 1-01 0-90 1-10 0-81 1-40 Cocoa and Chocolate 0-03 0-05 0-05 0-10 0-10 0-10 0-12 0-19 Sugar 2-85 3-18 3-30 1 4-50 1 4-15 5-30 4-97 5-84 pints. pints. pints. pints. pints. pints. pints. pints. Molasses and Syrup 0-11 0-19 0-13 1 0-18 0-14 0-06 0-39 0-06 * This figure includes boarders sharing the family food. 416 BUDGETS. IV. BUDGETS OF WORKING-CLABS FAMILIES— cotitinued. (E.) Slavonic and Allied Peoples Group. Weekly Expenditure per Family. Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under £2. £2 and under £3 and under £4 and under and /5 under £6 and under £7 and under £8 £3. £4. £.-.. £«. £7. £8. and ovei (1) (2.) (3.) (*•) ( 5.) (ti.) (7.) (8.) Number of Returns ;>5 182 162 82 5 9 33 20 25 £ .s. cl. £ i !. cl. £ S. d. £ s. d. £ 3. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. Average Weekly Family 1 15 5^ 2 11 2 3 9 4^ 4 8 2i 5 C 8^ 6 10 01 7 8 b\ 10 4 7^ Income. Average Number of Child- 1-86 2' 30 2-77 3-05 3-49 4-36 4-50 4-56 ren living at home. Average Number of Per- 3-8G 4-34 5-05 5-Gl 6- 27 7-09 6-85 6-76 sons per Family.** s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. Bread, Wheaten 1 3f 1 2 1 6i 1 n 1 2f 2 4f 1 7f 1 lOi „ Rye 8i 1 21 1 3i 1 o| 1 n 1 10^ 1 5 1 2f „ Other — () 0| Oi oj 1 Of li Flour, Wheaten lOi 1 0! 1 6 1 7i 1 lOi 1 lU 2 2i 1 5 » Rye 3i 1 15 If 3i li 6i U „ Buckwheat and — Oi 0| 0| 1 li H 3' Other. Maize and Maize Meal .. ?.{ 2i 2h If li If 1| 3 Cakes, Crackers, Dough- 4 tH n Hi 1 1 5 1 10 1 oi nuts. Rolls, Bnns, Biscuits 2 51 7i m 1 n 1 3i 1 6 2 li Macaroni, Noodles, Spa- 2i 3i 3J 4i 2f 3 f)| 3 ghetti. Rice, Barley, Saso, itc. ... 4f 5| (H 7i 6 7f H H Oatmeal and Breakfast 2i if 2| 3i 3f 3i b\ 5i Cereals. Potatoes (Irish) 1 H 1 3| 1 n 1 Hi 2 H 2 2f 3 Oi 2 1 Sweet Potatoes, &c. Oi OJ If If If 2 3i 2: Dried Peas and Beans ... 3* 4.i 5 f) 4i 5| 4i 7: Sweet Corn o| Oi 1 1 U 1 3f 9 Green Vegetables, &c. ... 6 •'i 11 Hi 1 2' 1 2« 1 2f 9f Canned Vegetables If •j'. 4 5 5f 8 6| 5 Beef (fresh and coi'ned)... 2 2 2 h 3 3i 3 6i 4 If 4 2\ 4 li 3 5 Mutton and Lamb li 4 Ci 10 9i 7f lOf 1 n Pork (fresh and salt) (t 9.i 1 IH 1 111 2 5 3 3 n 3 1 3 1 Bacon, Hani, Brawn, &c. 3f 8 1 u 1 H 1 5i 1 10 1 n 1 ei Veal 2% (1 6 n 1 3i 1 1* 1 3i 1 i\ 1 4i Sausage 10^ '•4 m 9f 11 1 7| 1 9i 1 3 Poultry — -i (•) 5| H} 10^ 1 1 1 9i Fish of all kinds 23 H n 9i 'H 1 li 1 3i 1 9r Lard, Suet, Dripping (1 (U 8i lOi 1 Oi 1 li 1 H 1 9i 1 oi Butter 6| n 1 li 1 7i 1 7f 2 4 2 6| 2 8i Oleomargarine 2h u 2i 1 1 — Of 1| Olive Oil (t 0-J 1 1 li 0^ 1 2 2 Cheese 2i 2S 4 5i 5 8i 7i 10 Milk (fresh) 1 3 1 H 1 10| 2 3 2 9| 2 lOl 3 4 3 „ (condensed) 2.', n 3 l| 1* of 1 2i Kggs 1\ 1 H 1 H 2 4^ 2 t'i 2 9i 3 H 2 10' Tea li 2 3 3| 6i 6^ 1 H 7i Coffee 104 lOf 1 Oi 1 2J 1 2i 1 5i 1 5 1 4 Cocoa and Chocolate — Oi Oil li H 2 4i n Sugar •> H 1 01 1 2 1 3 1 6| 1 Hi 1 5i Molasses and Syrup Oi ll if If 1 1| ll H Vinegar Pickles and Con- 2i ^ 2f 3i 3i 5i 7i 5 diments. Fruits and Jams 2* H (1 14 10.:, 1 2f 1 G 1 Oi 1 4 Other items m 1 li 1 li H li li Meals away from home . . . l' 6} 1 li 1 1| 1 5i 1 3i 6 91 10 yi Total 17 5 23 81 31 3.1 30 2i 41 9 47 Hi 57 Hi 56 m * This figure includes boarders sharing the family food. BUDGETS. 417 IV. BUDGETS OF WORKING-CLASS FA},nUES— continued. (E.) Slavonic and Allied Peoples Group. Weekly Consumption per Family. Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under £2. £2 and under £S. £3 land under £4. £4 and under £5. £.-) and under £6. £6 and under £7. £7 and under £8. £8 and over. (!■) (2.) (3.) (+•) (■-.) (fi.) (7.) (8.) Number of Returns .-^,5 182 162 82 59 1 33 20 25 £ s. d. £ S. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. Averaare Weekly Family 1 15 5| 2 11 2 3 9 4^ 4 8 2i 5 6 8J h 10 Oi 7 8 51, 10 4 7^ Income. Average Numberof Child- 1-86 2-30 2-77 3-05 3-49 1 4-36 4-50 4-56 ren living at home. Average Number of Per- 3-86 4-34 5-05 5-Gl 6-27 7-09 6-85 6-76 sons per Family.* lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. Bread, W beaten 5-50 4-92 6-70 6-98 5-30 11-42 7-44 8-14 Rye 3-20 5-86 6-20 5-06 8-98 9-39 7-72 8-09 „ Other — 0-31 0-20 — 0-31 0-39 0-30 0-55 Flour, Wheaten 4-68 6-79 9-65 10-27 11-64 12-77 13-80 8-92 „ Rye 1-04 0-68 1-07 1-20 2-14 0-87 3-65 2-64 „ Buckwheat and — 0-14 0-35 0-28 0-42 0-39 0-60 1-17 Other. Maize and Maize Meal ... 1-77 1-29 1-42 0-83 0-67 0-80 0-85 1-26 Cakes, Crackers, Dough- 0-93 1-47 2-10 2-48 2-72 3-49 4-89 3-40 nuts. Rolls, Buns, Biscuits 0-39 1-57 1-90 2-61 3-89 3 -.58 4-65 7-88 Macaroni, Noodles, Spa- 0-47 0-77 0-82 0-92 0-64 0-65 1-30 0-60 ghetti. Rice, Barley, Sago, &c. ... 1-10 1-50 1-56 1-82 1-51 1-83 1-78 214 Oatmeal and Breakfast 0-G2 0-55 0-81 0-99 1-10 1-14 1-31 1-12 Cereals. Potatoes (Irish) 13-05 16-97 21-49 25-02 26-23 28-03 38-90 25-08 Sweet Potatoes, &c. 0-33 0-56 1-41 1-58 1-29 2-00 2-85 1-64 Dried Peas and Beans ... 0-118 1-33 1-51 l-,54 1-42 1-53 1-40 2-12 Beef (fresh and corned) 4-71 4-54 5-94 6-58 7-33 7-56 8-14 5-54 Mutton and Lamb 0-20 0-55 0-90 1-39 1-30 1-08 1-45 1-61 Pork (fresh and salt) 1-47 3-06 3-36 4-09 4-84 5-83 4-95 4-70 Bacon, Ham, Brawn, &e. 0-41) 1-05 1-47 1-67 2-29 2-51 2-15 2-27 Veal 0-34 0-84 1-23 2-01 2-15 1-94 2-68 2-14 Sausage 1-85 l-.)0 1-74 1-78 1-92 3-20 3-28 2 -.56 Poultry — 0-32 0-67 0-64 1.30 1-21 1-28 2-60 Fish of all kinds 0-45 0-91 1-45 1-91 1-97 2-36 2-98 4-02 Lai'd, Suet, Dripping ... 1-03 1-28 1-64 2-04 2-07 2-08 3-30 2-04 Butter ... * 0-36 0-57 0-84 1-26 1-27 1-83 2-08 2-10 Oleomargarine 0-26 0-14 0-18 0-10 0-14 — 0-05 0-16 pints. pints. pints. pints. pints. pints. pints. pints. Olive Oil 0-11 0-14 0-11 0-12 0-05 0-10 0-16 0-08 lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. Cheese 0-34 0-39 0-51 0-76 0-70 1-02 0-74 1-14 qts. qts. qts. qts. qts. qts. qts. qts. Milk (fresh) 3-^8 4-47 5-61 6-57 8-17 8-29 8-74 8-83 lb. lb. 11). lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. „ (condensed) 0-41 0-39 0-55 0-29 0-32 0-13 0-20 0-60 No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. Eggs 6-37 13-75 17-82 24-99 30-63 28-73 39-65 26-40 lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. Tea 0-06 0-11 0-15 0-16 0-26 0-27 0-.56 0-31 Coffee ... 1-20 1-19 1-28 1-46 1-41 1-73 1-43 1-18 Cocoa and Chocolate — 0-02 0-04 0-08 0-08 0-11 0-24 0-23 Sugar 3-01 3-29 4-31 4-70 5-11 6-36 7-26 5-62 pints. pints. pints. pints. pint?. pints. pints. pints. Molasees and Syrup Oil 0-25 0-34 0-33 U-18 0-41 0-19 0-24 * This figure includes boarders sharing the family food. 418 BUDGETS. IV. BUDGETS OF WORKING-CLASS VAMlLIEH—continuea. (F.) Jewish Group. Weekly Expenditure per Family. Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under £2. (I.) £2 and under £3. (2.) £3 and under £4. (3.) £4 and under £5, (4.) Number of Returns Average Weekly Family Income. Average Number of Chil- dren living at home. Average Number of Fer- sonB per Family." Bread, Wheaten » Rye ., Other Flour, Wheaten ,. Rye „ Buckwheat and Other. Maize and Maize Meal ... Cakes, Crackers, Dough- nuts. Roll.?, Buns, Biscuits Macaroni, Noodles, Spa- ghetti. Rice, Barley, Sago, &e. ... Oatmeal and Breakfast Cereals. Potatoes (Irish) Sweet Po*'atoes, &c. Dried Peas and Beans ... Sweet Corn Green Vegetables, &c. ... Canned Vegetables Beef (fresli and corned)... Mutton and Lamb Pork (fresh and salt) Bacon, Ham, Brawn, &c. Veal Sausage Poultry Fish of all kinds... Lard, Suet, Dripping ... Butter Oleomargarine Olive Oil Cheese Milk (fresh) „ (condensed) Eggs Tea Coffee Oocoa and Chocolate Sugar Molasses and Syrup Vinegar, Pickloe and Con- diments. Fruits and Jams Other items Meals away from home... Total <1> a m a, a o 119 £ s. d. 2 12 5i 2-4.5 4-50 I 242 £ s. d. 3 8 9 2-79 4-88 148 £ s. d. 4 7 10 5 49 £5 and under £6. 6-..) 88 £ S. d. 5 G 7 4-10 6-19 £6 and under £7. CG.-) 57 £7 and under £8. (7.) 36 £ .s. d. £ s. d. 6 7 1\ 4-71 6-88 7 7 7 4-28 6-25 £8 and over. 63 £ s. d. 10 9i. 4-93 7-11 s. d. 10^ 1 9 1 7 Oi ! I Oi ! 6| 10 Oi 4J %h \\h 0| 3| H s. d. 1 r'! 1 n Oi 9 8i ol 0| 1% 1 0] H 5f 31 s. d. 1 1 6| H 9J Oi Of Oi 9i 1 41 1 6i 4' s. d. 2 H 1 6| Oi 10 0} 1 li 9| 1 8i 0| 6 3i llj Oi 4 2^ 1 8, 2 1 2 1 ] 1 31 1 H 4 4* H 2i 1 0| 1 U H H 5 5i G ^ 2i 6| s. d. 2 3| 2 3 2| 1 3 Oi li 1 of 1 9i H 6i 5J 1 lOi 3 4i 2f 2 Oi H 7 6} 7^ s. d. s. d. 2 4f 3 1^ 1 9« 1 9; OJ 2- 1 0^ 1 2t - H U u 1 2i 1 8i li 6i 4| 1 5| 3| 4f 5J 1 73 4i 6 4i 1 6i 1 n 3i 4 U 2 3i 24 3 10| 2i 10^ 4 0| If 1 7 2 3 2 1 2 10 1 "4 8^r 2| 5A 3| 0| 74 63 10^ TliiB figure includes Ijoarders sharing the family food. BUDGETS. 419 IV. BUDGETS OF WORKING-CLASS FAMIWEB.— continued. (F.) Jewish Group. Weekly Consumption per Family. Limits of Weekly Family Income . T Jnder £2 and £H and £4 and £r. and £6 and £7 and £8 and £2. under £3. tinder £4. under £5. under £6. under £7. under £8. over. (1.) (2.) (3.) (*■) (5.) (6.) (7.) (8.) Number of Returns 5 119 242 148 88 57 36 63 £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. Average Weekly Family 2 12 5^ 3 8 9 4 7 10 5 6 7 6 7 1\ 7 7 7 10 9i Income. Average Number of Chil- 2-45 2-79 3-36 4-10 4-71 4-28 4-93 dren living at home. Average Number of Per- 4-50 4-88 5-49 619 6-88 6-25 7-11 sons per Family.* lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. Bread, Wheaten 3-91 6-71 7-62 9-21 10-07 10-00 13-98 „ Rye 9-39 8-25 7-60 7-39 9-61 8-76 8-14 „ Other 0-59 0-28 0-91 0-08 1-29 0-31 0-92 Flour, Wheaten . . 3-63 4-39 4-91 5-16 7-82 6-30 6-84 ,, Rye — 0-06 0-07 0-16 — — 0-06 „ Buckwheat and 0-15 0-25 0-30 0-51 0-21 0-59 0-71 Other. Maize and Maize Meal ... 0-29 • 0-37 0-37 0-91 0-96 1-03 1-07 Cakes, Crackers, Dough- 1-35 1-71 2-24 2-17 3-11 3-03 413 nuts. Rolls, Buns, Biscuits 2-75 4-25 5-52 7-25 6-04 7-07 9-80 Macaroni, Noodles, Spa- 0-14 0-32 0-20 0-19 0-31 0-31 0-50 ghetti. '^ Rice, Barley, Sago, &c. ... 03 1-07 1-52 1-62 1-56 1-71 1-86 2-Ot; Oatmeal and Breakfast 0-71 111 1-19 0-78 1-60 1-19 1-87 Cereals. £ Potatoes (Irish) a. 12-02 13-41 15-99 16-08. 22-51 17-89 18-75- Sweet Potatoes, &c. ^ 0-68 1-05 1-22 1-98 2-84 2-81 1-44 Dried Peas and Beans ... ki 1-08 1-24 1-42 1-05 1-49 1-57 1-58- Beef (fresh and corned) .. 7-22 9-24 10-37 11-67 12-28 9-81 15 -70 Mutton and Lamb 'u 0-14 0-34 0-77 0-43 0-98 2-01 1-47 Pork (fresh and salt) ... SB — — — — — — — Bacon, Ham, Brawn, &c. — — — — — — — Veal o 1-05 0-87 * 1-49 1-24 1-46 1-83 2-17 Sausage ^ 0-29 0-47 0-56 0-52 0-87 0-75 0-43 Poultry 1-64 2-38 3-31 3-70 4-49 4 -.58 5-3» Fish of all kinds 2-26 3-02 3-63 4-05 4-59 4-87 4-5;>- Lard, Suet, Dripping ... 0-24 0-26 0-28 0-48 0-81 0-65 0-55- Butter I-IS 1-61 1-96 2-09 2-55 2-23 2-85 Oleomargarine — — — — — — — pints. pints. pints. pints. pints. pints. pints. Olive Oil 0-11 0-14 0-14 0-12 0-16 0-09 0-26 lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. Cheese 0-63 0-71 0-87 0-98 1-33 1-17 1-36 qts. qts. qts. qts. qts. qts. qts. Milk (fresh) 6-81 6-91 8-51 8-21 8-95 9-48 12-87 lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. „ (condensed) 0-05 0-16 0-17 0-20 0-11 0-12 0-25 No. No. No. No. No. No. No. Eggs 16-67 24-18 28-44 29-93 34-18 35-83 44-83 lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. Tea 0-15 0-21 0-20 0-26 0-37 0-33 0-28^ Coffee 0-55 0-73 0-93 0-82 1-08 1-01 1-26 Cocoa and Chocolate 0-25 0-10 0-19 0-28 0-24 0-25 0-23 Sugar 4-07 4-40 4-76 5-07 6-68 6-74 7-94 pints. pints. pints. pints. pints. pints. pints. Molasses and Syrup 0-17 0-07 0-10 0-23 0-24 0-17 0-23 This figure includes boarders sharing the family food. 16576 2 E 420 BUDGETS. IV. BUDGETS OF WORKING-CLASS FAMILIES.- (G. 1.) Negro (Northern) Group. Weekly Expenditure per Family. continued:. Limits of Weekly Family ] income. Under £2 and £3 and £4 and £5 and £6 and £7 and £8 and £2. under £3. under £4. under £5. under £6. xinder £7. under £8. over. (i.-; (2.-) (3.) (4.) (5.-) (6.) (7.) (8.) Number of Returns u 115 96 39 20 13 4 2 £ 8. d. £ s. d. £ 8. d. £ S. d. £ S. d. £ s. d. Average Weekly Family I 17 h\ 2 9 6i 3 8 5 4 8 1 5 7 1 6 8 04 Income. Average Number of Chil- 2-07 2-22 2-91 316 3-70 4-16 dren living at home. Average Number of Per- 3-93 4-30 5-01 5-31 6-05 6-62 sons per Family.* s. d. s. d. H. d. s. d. .s. d. s. d. Bread, Wheaten ... 5^ 10 1 3i 1 21 1 41 93 ., Rye — — -t — „ Other — -t — — — Flour, Wheaten ... 1 H- 1 5| 1 9 1 11 2 73 3 9 ,, Rye — — — — „ Buckwheat and — Oi 0^ 03 24 0| Other. Maize and Maize Meal ... 3i 3^ 4 41 41 84 Cakes, Crackers, Dough- 21 41 4i 63 81 81 nuts. Rolls, Buns, Biscuits Oi 1^ 21 13 31 03 Macaroni, Noodles, Spa- li 1 2i 21 24 3| ghetti. Rice, Barley, Sago, &c. ... 3 3i 51 5 G 81 f-3 'S Oatmeal and Breakfast 2 2i 31 6 54 41 -2 5 Cereals. I Potatoes (Irish) 0. 9 101 1 21 1 3j 1 1 1 74 2 Sweet Potatoes, &c. 3 ^ 41 6. 91 93 3< §" Dried Peas and Beans ... 3 3| 3f 5, 7 8 u u Sweet Corn — 1 11 l\ 1 34 :3 Green Vegetables, &c. ... 8 1 2i 111 11; 1 4 lOJ 5? a Canned Vegetables 6i 4J 7i 9: 1 0^ 1 34 • ^ o '3 Beef (fresh and corned)... 1 Of 1 6J 2 7| 3 6: 3 5 2 8 SB a Mutton and Lamb 10 41 9i 1 Oi 114 1 U CO CD Pork (fresh and salt) ... 5i 1 31 1 63 1 2 3 2 64 -4^ o ^ ■§ Bacon, Ham, Brawn, &c. 1 51 1 81 2 2 9 1 61 2 03 'A ;?; Veal IJ 3i 4i 7 6i Sausage 2i 61 53 73 74 1 03 Poultry 3i n 1 5 2 04 2 21 2 64 Fish of all kinds 8 io| 1 2i 1 63 2 34 1 71 Lard, Suet, Dripping 11 1 113 1 4 1 74 1 84 Butter 1 Of 1 u 1 6 1 11 2 14 2 74 Oleomargarine — Oi OJ — — Olive Oil — Oi 1 1 2| — Cheese 2 14 24 31 33 3i Milk (fresh) 4 10 1 2i 9i 1 04 1 11 „ (condensed) 2 2 21 31 14 2 Eggs 7 10^ 1 2 1 21 1 44 1 44 Tea 5| 3i 4i 71 54 6 Coffee 3S ^ 91 71 93 9| Cocoa and ^Chocolate — Oi 1 OJ 13 21 Sugar 8J 111 1 Of 1 34 1 53 1 9 Molasses and Syrup Oi 21 1 2 14 23 Vinegar, Pickles and Con- It li 1 2i 14 31 diments. Fruits and Jams 6i 91 71 94 1 01 6i Other items — 11 3i 2 -li 1: Meals away from home... — 9 7 1 44 3 of 4, Total ... 15 9i 21 9 28 li 33 51 40 14 39 14 1 * This figure includes boarders sharing' the family food. t Value under Jrf. BUDGETS 421 IV. BUDGETS OF WORKING-CLASS FAMILIES.— contimied, (G. 1.) Negro (Northern) Group. Weekly Oonsumptioti per Family. Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under £2 and £o and £4 and £5 and £6 and £7 and £8 and £2. under £3. under £4. under £5. under £6. under £7. under £8. over. (1-) (2.) (3.) (+.) (5.) («.) (7.) (8.) Number of Returns 14 1 115 96 ■. 39 20 13 4 2 £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ S. d. £ S. d. £ s. d. Average Weekly Family 1 17 H 2 9 6^ 3 8 5 4 8 1 5 7 1 6 8 Oi Income. Average Number of Chil- 2-07 2-22 2-91 3-16 3-70 4-16 dren living at home. ' Average Number of Per- 3-93 4-30 5-01 5-31 6-05 6-62 sons per Family.** lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. Bread, Wheaten 213 3-66 5-70 5-14 5-98 3.- 48 » Rye — — 0-01 — — — „ Other — 0-03 — — — — Flotir, Wheaten 8-39 8-85 10-45 11-64 15-85 23-12 „ Rye — — — — — — „ Buckwheat and — 0-09 0-27 0-36 1-10 0-31 Other. Maize and Maize Meal ... 2-40 2-75 2-89 3-23 3-23 6-39 Cakes, Crackers, Dough- o-5t; 0-83 0-94 1-25 1-74 1-77 nuts. Rolls, Buns, Biscuits 0-04 0-34 0-44 0-39 0-63 0-18 Macaroni, Noodles, Spa- ghetti. Rice, Barley, Sago, &c. ... 0-31 0-21 0-50 0-51 0-57 1-15 0-76 :0-87 1-28 1-28 1-54 1-87 Oatmeal and Breakfast 0-71 0-74 i-k; 2-10 1-78 1-27 Cereals. 1 Potatoes (Irish) 9-44 11-10 15-06 16-95 15-51 21-73 m m Sweet Potatoes, &c. 2-91 4-31 4-65 7-42. 1-6'T 10-09 10-33 ft 1. Dried Peas and Beans ... 1-02 1-17 0-99 2-24 2-39 £ Beef (fresh and corned)... !■% 2-95 4-63 6-17 5 - 45 5-08 ^ >> Mutton and Lamb 1-68 0-57 1-39 1-53 1-25 1-.54 ^ Pork (fresh and salt) ... 0-71 2-10 2-66 1-65 3-25 4-04 4 9: Green Vegetables, &c. .. li| l| 8i 1 0| 1 H 1 31 c 2 Canned Vegetables 4^ 61 11 7 .£ _D 1 H Beef (fresh and corned).. 1 Oi 1 ^ 2 2 3 2| 4 9| 50 i 6 10 Mutton and Lamb Oi 1 4 2J — f3 QQ 1 2 Pork (fresh and salt) 1 n 1 ft 1 71 2 3^ 1 31 -w 2 63 Bacon, Ham, Brawn, &c Si- 1 5 1 5 1 lOi 1 3i 'A 2 71 31 Veal 0| 1 Of 1; 4 Sausage .. m 5 51 8 8^ 1 53 Poultry 31 2j 9| 1 0^ 1 5i 2 51 Fish of all kinds 6| 10 91 1 5i 1 4 1 41 Lard, Suet, Dripping .. lOJ 1 0^ 1 21 1 5| 1 8- 1111 Butter 6| 11 1 2| 1 91 1 11 2 li Oleomargarine -t — 01 11 — Oj Olive Oil 01 Oi Oi 4 Cheese 21 3| 6 9| 8| 8 Milk (fresh) 2 41 7| 10 1 2 1 41 „ (condensed) 4| 6h 7 6i 6 10 Eggs 4 7| 11| 1 4| 1 4J 1 113 Tea 2 21 5 i 6i 8 Coffee 7 9 91 9 94 1 1 Cocoa and Chocolate 01 0^ 0| 21 1 2 Sugar 8J lOj 1 H 1 4 1 H 1 10 Molasses and Syrup 3 4^ 4 6 5| 8i Vinegar, Pickles and Con- 1 n .3 3| 21 9| diments. Fru i ts and .lams 2 2f 53 7i 6i 1 2i 8: Other items 0| 01 3i 21 l| Meals away from home... 2| 11 4 3i 41 1 0; Total • 14 11 19 111 25 91 33 63 34 8| 52 53 * This figure includes boarders sharing tlie family food, t Value under ^d. BUDGETS. 423 IV. BUDGETS OF WORKING-CLASS FAUlLlEii— continued. (G. 2.) Negro (Southern) GRorp. Weekly Consumption per Family. Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under £2 and £:i and £4 and £.") and £6 and £7 and £8 and £2. under £3. under £4. under £5. under £6. under £7. under £8. over. (1) (^.) (3.) (+•) (5.) (6.) (7.) (8.) Number of Returns 52 90 50 28 18 12 5 21 £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ S. d. Average Weekly Family 1 13 6^ 2 9 4 3 9 li 4 7 lOi 5 7 11 9 18 7 Income. Average Number of Child- 1-79 1-83 2-10 3-21 2-78 4-10 ren living at home. Average Number of Per- 3-79 3-90 4-20 5-29 4-83 6-10 sons per Family.* lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. Bread, Wheaten 2-ti4 2-83 4-2.5 4-43 3-90 6-22 „ Rye 0-02 0-07 0-08 0-05 — 0-11 „ Other — 0-07 0-,50 — — — Flour, Wheaten 7-70 9-78 9-47 10-85 13-28 13-83 „ Rye — — — 0-18 — — „ Buckwheat and 0-02 0-19 0-70 0-32 1-22 1-67 Other. Maize and Maize Meal ... 5-63 6 -.53 3-79 8-98 6-58 9-88 Cakes, Crackers, Dough- 0-30 0-4-) 1-2.5 0-93 1-85 3-43 nuts. Rolls, Buns, Biscuits 0-21 0-20 0-13 0-64 0-92 1-60 Macaroni, Noodles, Spa- 0-90 1-09 1-2;-) 1-13 1-11 1-83 ghetti. Rice, Barley, Sago, &c. ... 2-25 3-07 3-47 3-10 2-82 5-10 Oatmeal and Breakfast 0-61 0-82 0-97 1-45 0-97 ,_: rs 1-07 Cereals. £ .2 Potatoes (Irish) 3-02 4-33 .5-92 6-89 7-17 aj S (U 9-49 Sweet Potatoes, &c. 3-28 4-70 6-22 6-58 7-35 1 12-08 Dried Peas and Beans ... 1-75 2-07 2-24 1-66 2-47 2-82 Beef (fresh and corned)... 2-37 3-10 4-62 4-86 8-47 t u 12-21 Multon and Lamb 0-02 0-14 0-42 0-25 — K% >% ^ 1-62 Pork (fresh and salt) 3-28 2-56 2-67 4-03 2-25 Qj a 4-42 Bacon, Ham, Brawn, &c. 1-44 2-64 2-49 3-16 2-10 'o '3 4-12 Veal 0-06 0-15 0-08 0-14 0-53 se m 0-35 Sausage 0-78 0-90 0-90 1-48 1-48 2-86 Poultrv ••• 0-37 0-26 1-11 1-43 2-11 c t 2-63 Fish of all kinds 1-24 1-72 1-.52 2-84 2-81 •^ ^ 2-81 Lard, Suet, Dripping 1-99 2-24 2-56 3-00 2-72 4-12 Butter 0-49 0-70 0-9;5 1-57 1-48 1-77 Oleomargarine ... 0-01 — 0-04 0-14 — 0-02 pints. pints. pints. pints. pints. pints. Olive Oil — 0-01 0-03 0-02 0-02 0-28 lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. Cheese 0-2.^ 0-40 0-60 0-98 0-90 0-80 qts. qts. qts. qts. qts. qts. Milk (fresh) 0-74 1-24 1-56 1-99 2-88 3-09 lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. „ (condensed) 0-81 1-14 1-30 1-19 1-07 1-73 No. No. No. No. No. No. Eggs 4-21 7-68 11-5G 16-68 17 -.56 25-38 lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. Tea 0-09 0-11 0-21 0-18 0-24 0-32 Coffee 0-66 0-85 0-76 0-77 0-78 1-19 Cocoa and Chocolate 0-02 0-04 0-09 0-14 0-07 0-12 Sugar 3-02 3-68 4-64 5-44 6-17 8-21 pints. pints. pints. pints. pints. pints. Molasses and Syrup 0-58 1-04 0-85 1-35 1-29 1-27 This figure includes boarders sharing the family food. 16576 2 £ S 424 APPENDICES. 1.— A. WAGES AGREEMENTS, WORKSHOP AND COLLIERY RULES AND PROVISIONS FOR SETTLING DISPUTES B. APPRENTICESHIP REGULATIONS C. FACTORY BENEFIT FUNDS D. MUTUAL PROVIDENT FUNDS AND ASSOCIATED CHARITIES ... E. BUILDING AND LODGING HOUSE REGULATIONS F. WORKING MEN'S BUILDING SOCIETIES G. HOUSE AGREEMENTS H. LAWS AND REGULATIONS RELATIVE TO THE PREPARATION AND SALE OF FOOD K. THE CRUSADE AGAINST TUBERCULOSIS IN NEW YORK L. RACIAL CLASSIFICATION OF IMMIGRANTS M. THE EMPLOYMENT OF NEGROES IN SKILLED TRADES N. NATIONAL NEGRO BUSINESS LEAGUE II.— UNEMPLOYMENT IN THE UNITED STATES '". III.— SPECIMEN FORMS USED IN ENQUIRY PAGE 425 443 447 453 456 463 467 468 488 492 492 495 497 49a 425 APPENDIX I. A— WAGES AGREEMENTS, WORKSHOP AND COLLIERY RULES AND PROVISIONS FOR SETTLING DISPUTES. (1.) RULES AND REGULATIONS FOR MACHINISTS AND MACHINISTS' APPRENTICES, CHARLESTON AND WESTERN CAROLINA RAILWAY COMPANY (January 1, 1907). 1. Ten hours will constitute a day's work. 2. One hour and one-half will be allowed for each hour's service in excess of ten hours. ;'). One hour and one-half will be allowed for each hour's service on Sunday, January 1st, February 22nd, Memorial Day, July 4th, Labour Day, Thanksgiving Day and December 25th ; when legal holidays fall on Sunday the above will apply on the following Mondaj'. 4. Emploj-ees called back to the shop after having performed their regular day's work will be paid for not less than five hours. 5. When employees are sent out on the road, they shall be allowed time and one-half from time they are called out until they return, they to pay their own expenses. This does not apply to the wrecking forces, or to others regularly assigned to road service. 6. There will be one apprentice for each shop, and in addition, not more than one apprentice for everj' five mechanics. It is understood that in shops where the ratio is more than the above, no change will be made until the ratio has reduced itself to the proper ratio by elapse or expiration of existing contracts. The apprentices at large will be confined to the districts in which the shops to which they are assigned are located. In computing the number of apprentices to be employed in each divisional shop, all of the mechanics employed at outlying points under the jurisdiction of that shop shall be counted. 7. When a reduction in force is necessary, employees who have others dependent upon them for support will be given preference of employment, seniority and proficiency to govern. 8. Except for intoxication, insubordination, gross negligence, incompetency or reduction of force, employees will not be dischai'ged without a hearing. '.1. When an employee has a grievance he shall make a personal effort to adjust same with the general foreman and the master mechanic ; if not settled in this manner satisfactorily he may then place it in the hands of a committee of employees who shall try to settle it with the master mechanic ; failing to do so the committee may appeal the matter through the master mechanic to the general superintendent. If an employee considers he has been unjustly discharged he may appeal to the general foreman and master mechanic within three days after his dismissal ; if the matter is not satisfactorily adjusted he may appeal higher in accordance with the preceding paragraph. If it is decided that he has been unjustly discharged, or suspended, he will be reinstated and be paid for the time lost. 10. When vacancies occur, employees will be given consideration for promotion — proficiencj', character and seniority to prevail. 11. Shop employees will be given the same privilege in regard to free transportation over this line as other employees. 12. When an employee is discharged or leaves the service, he shall be paid his wages within three days. 13. Handy men will not be used to the detriment of machinists. (2.) WORKING RULES OF BRICKLAYERS AND STONEMASONS IN CHICAGO. Section 1. — Workinff Hours. — Eight hours shall constitute a day's work to be performed between the hours of 8 a.m. and 5 p.m., except on Saturdays, when work may stop at 12 o'clock noon, with four hours' pay for that day. All bricklayers shall be on the scaffold ready to start work at starting time. Section 2. — Night Work. — Eight hours shall constitute a night's work, which shall commence at 7 p.m., when two gangs are employed but when three gangs are employed, one shift may follow the other immediately and in that way work may be continuous. Shifts to start as follows : First at 8 a.m., second at 4 p.m. and third at 12 midnight. Section ?>. — Overtime. — Time and one-half to be paid for overtime. Work done between the hours of .') p.m. and 8 a.m., also on Saturday afternoons, shall be paid for as overtime, when one or two shifts of men are employed on the job. No contractor shall work his men overtime except in case of actual necessity, the contractor to be the judge of the necessity, and for such overtime time and one-half shall be paid. Notice shall be given to the ofiBce of the Bricklayers' Union before 12 noon when a contractor desires to carry on his work on Saturday afternoons. Section 4. — DinMe Time Holida\is. — Double time to be paid for work done on Sundays throughout the year, and also for work done on the following five holidays (or days celebrated as such) : New Year's Day, Decoration Day, Fourth of July, Thanksgiving Day and Christmas Day. Section 5. — Shift Work. — Where work is carried on with three shifts of men, working eight hours each, then only single time shall be paid for both night and day work during week days and double time for Sundays and the above-mentioned holidays ; this does not apply to cupola lining, retort or conduit work. No work shall be done in the 24 houi-s on Labour Day. Work done 16576 2 E 4 426 APPENDIX I. between the hours of twelve o'clock Saturday night and twelve o'clock Sunday night, shall be considered as Sunday work and be paid for at the rate of double time. This applies also to the five holidays before naentioned. Section 6. — Wages. — The minimum rate of wages to be paid bricklayers and stone masons shall be sixty-seven and one-half cents [2s. '.)|d] per hour, payable in lawful money of the United States, or checks. Section 7. — Reduction of Premium Wages. — Hereafter, when more than the minimum rate of wages is paid, no employer shall make a reduction in the wages of a bricklayer or stone mason without giving said man or men due notice the day previous to making said reduction. If an employee, upon receiving such notice, desires to terminate his employment he shall be paid the same as though he had been discharged. Section S.—Pay Day. — It is hereby agreed that the journeymen shall be paid on the job and before one p.m. every week on Saturdays. When a journeyman is discharged he shall be paid in full, and also when he is laid off if he demands it, except when the lay-off is caused by bad weather or joists high. When a journeyman quits of his own accord he shall receive his pay at the next regular day. Journeymen shall receive no subs. .Journeymen shall be paid up to Thursday night. Section 9. — Time Checks. — Time checks payable at the office of the employer shall be considered valid, providing the journeyman be allowed a half hour's extra time for each mile he has to travel to get to the office ; said travelling time shall be added to the time check by person issuing same. If he is not paid promptly upon his ai-rival at the office, and if he remains there during working hours until he is paid, he shall be paid the regular wages for such waiting time. Section 10. — Branches of Work. — The following branches of work are covered by this agree- ment : Laying of rubble stone and bridge masonry ; all kinds of brick work (except main sewer work) ; setting of cut stone and setting and trimming of terra cotta. Section 11. — Stone Work. — The stone masons shall cut and trim all broken ashlar, range, rock- faced and worm work, and all rough jambs and quoins in building work, and all rough, pitched face, bridge, viaduct and pier work, cut from limestone in the County of Cook, provided that there can be had a sufficient number of competent stone masons to do said work ; otherwise the contractor or contractors, after giving previous notice to the president of the U.O.A.B. & S.M., No. 21, of the City of Chicago, County of Cook, of the B. & M.I.U. to furnish said men, has the right to employ stone cutters to finish said job. Section 12. — The levelling off of all footing stone shall be done by stone masons. No stone cut by convict labour will be set. Section i;5. — Cutting of all window and door openings and joist holes in brick, stone or tile walls, and bedding of all iron plates shall be done by a practical mason. Section 14. — The line on brick work shall be put up but one course at a time, except in case of obstruction of piers, and then only with the consent of the masons doing the work. Section 15.— Members of the O.U. of A.B. & S.M., No. 21, of Cook County, City of Chicago, of the B. & M.I.U. holding a bricklayer's card, will not lay stone, and those holding a stone mason's card will not lay brick, but the foreman and apprentice may do both. The exceptions to this rule are in case of areas, or step or pier foundations, that do not exceed one cord of stone, and then only in case no stone mason is at hand, when a bricklayer may lay the stone in said areas or pier foundation. Plastering and pointing of foundation walls shall be done by stone masons, but may be done by bricklayers if stone masons are not on the job when the above work is ready to be done. Sectioti 16. — No stone setting contractor that does not employ one journeyman stone setter shall set stone himself. Section 17. — Foundations and walls, either of brick, stone or concrete, shall be done under the supervision of a practical mason. Section 18.— Members of the U.O.A.B & S.M., No. 21, of the City of Chicago, County of Cook, of the B. & M.I.U., will not work on any building for any contractor or firm where two or more members in the same firm work on the wall laying brick, rubble or dimension stone or set cut stone or terra cotta. The contractor or the members of the firm working must be a practical mason. Section 19. — Members of the both parties will not work on or take contract for any building or job where there remains money due to members of either of the parties to this agreement. Section 20. — All bricklayers shall be obliged to have a trowel, brick hammer and plumb rule of their own, on all jobs of mason work. The bricklayer not furnishing said tools, after being given one day's notice, can be laid off and shall wait until pay day for his money. Contractors shall arrange a suitable place to keep tools. Section 21. — Contractors are to observe the following rule : When a contractor applies to the Bricklayers' Hall for men, he shall notify that office Avhen he has enough men on his job. Contractors advertising for bricklayers shall sign their names to all such advertisements. Section 22. — Each employer shall have the right to teach his trade to apprentices, but no contractor or firm shall take more than one new apprentice each year, and they shall serve for a period of not less than three years, and be subject to the control of the Joint Boanl of Arbitration. (3.) WORKING RULES OF HOD CARRIERS AND BUILDERS' LABOURERS IN CHICAGO. Eight hours shall constitute a day's work, to be performed between the hours of 8 a.m. and 5 p.m. All labourers shall start ten (10) minutes before starting time in the morning and at noon for the purpose of preparing for the bricklayers and stone masons, so that they can start on time. If it becomes necessary to work before ten (10) minutes to 8 in the morning, to be ready for mechanics to go to work at 8 o'clock, such work shall be paid for at the rate of time and one half. Work performed between hours of 5 p.m. and 8 a.u). and also on Saturday afternoons, shall be paid for at the rate of time and one-half. No contractor shall work his labourers more than four hours on Saturday in any shift unless time and one-half is paid for all time worked more than four hoars. WAGES AGREEMENTS, WORKING RULES, ETC. 427 Double time to be paid for work performed on Sundays throughout the j-ear, also for work done on the following five holidays (or days celebrated as such) : New Year's Day, Decoration Day, Fourth of July, Thanksgiving Day and Christmas Day. "When work is carried on with two or three shifts of men working eight hours each, except as provided in Rules 1, 2 and iJ, then only single time shall be paid for both night and day work during week days and double time for Sundays and the above-mentioned five holidays. Wages thirty-seven and one-half cents [Is. C-lrf.] per hour from July 1st, 1909, to May 1st, 1912* payable in lawful money of the United States, or checks. The wages for caisson digging and lagging from July 1st, 1909, to May 1st, 1912, fifty-two and one-half cents [2s. 2]^/.] per hour ; for windlass and nigger-head men, forty-seven and one-half cents [Is. ll|fZ.] per hour. Labourers shall be paid on the job and before twelve-thirty (12.;-50) p.m. every week on Saturdays. When a labourer is discharged he shall be paid in full, and also when he is laid off, if he demands it, except when the lay-ofiE is cau^d by bad weather or joists high. When a labourer quits of his accord he shall receive his pay at the next regular pay day. Labourers shall receive no subs. Laboui-ers shall be paid tip to Thursday night. Time checks, payable at the office of the employer, shall be considered valid, provided the labourer be allowed a half-hour's time for each mile he has to travel to get to the office. If he is not paid promptly upon his arrival at the office, and if he shall remain there during working hours until he is paid, he shall be paid the regular wages for such waiting time. The labourers shall do all the labour work pertaining to masonry, in all its branches, and any other work directed by the contractor, his agent or foreman. The building of all scaffolding for mason work. Concrete work within the walls of any building or job. The raising, moving and shoring of all buildings. The labouring work excluded is the general excavations for buildings to the bottom of the basement floor level. If there are sub-basements or cellars covered by the whole building, then the general excavation shall be considered to extend to the bottom of floor of same, provided excavated material is loaded directly into wagons in the cellar and pulled out by teams without any intermediate handling. The wrecking work excluded is where a whole building is entirely wrecked and removed to clear the site of same, but where a building is only partly wrecked or parts torn down for the purpose of building additions, alterations, remodelling, or repairs to same, such work is covered by this agreement. Any ti-ench going ten feet below the first basement floor shall be considered as caisson digging, and paid for at caisson rates. (4.) AGREEMENT BETWEEN THE CARPENTERS' AND BUILDERS' ASSO- CIATION AND THE CARPENTERS' EXECUTIVE COUNCIL OF CHICAGO, COOK COUNTY AND VICINITY. (In effect from April 1st, 1909 to April 1st, 1912.) Article 1. — This agreement made this 28th day of January, 1909, and in effect from the 1st day of April, 1909 (to April 1, 1912), by and between the Carpenters' and Builders' Association (Employers) and the Carpenters' Executive Council, party of the second part, for the purpose of preventing strikes and lockouts and facilitating a peaceful adjustment of all grievances and disputes which may arise from time to time between the employer and mechanics in the carpenter trade in Chicago and Cook County and vicinity. Article 2. — No Outside Interference. -A\\ parties to this agreement hereby covenant, contract and agree that they will not tolerate or recognize the right of any other Association, Union, Council or body of men not directly parties hereto, to interfere with the carrying out of this agreement, and that they will use all lawful means to compel their members to comply with the arbitration agreement and working rules as jointly agreed upon and adopted. Article?). — Principles Upon Which This Agreement Are Based. — All parties hereto, this day hereby adopt the following principles as an absolute basis for their joint working rules, and to govern the action of the Joint Arbitration Board as hereinafter provided for. Section 1. That there shall be no limitation as to the amount of work a man shall perform during his working day. Section 2. That there shall be no restrictions as to the use of machinery or tools. Section 3. That there shall be no restriction of the use of any manufactured material, except prison made. Section 4. That no person shall have the right to interfere with the workmen during working hours. Section h. The use of apprentices shall not be prohibited. Section 6. The foreman shall be the agent of the employer. He shall be a Union carpenter, a competent mechanic at the trade and subject to the decision of the Joint Arbitration Board. Section 7. That all workmen are at liberty to work for whomsoever they see fit. Section S. That all employers are at liberty to employ and discharge whomsoever they see fit. Article 4. — Hours. — Eight hours shall constitute a day's work between the hours of 8 a.m. and 5 p.m., except on Saturday when work shall stop at 12 o'clock noon, with four hours' pay for that day. Article i). — Overtime and Holidays. — Double time shall be paid for all work done after the regular workday and there shall be an intermission of not less than thirty minutes before resuming work. Double time shall be paid for all work done from 12.30 Saturday noon until Monday morning 7.30 a.m. and the following five holidays or days celebrated as such : Decoration Day, Fourth of July, Thanksgiving Day, Christmas Day and New Year's Day. Sunday and holiday time to cover any time during the twenty-four hours of said calendar day. 428 APPENDIX I. Article 6. — Extra Shifts. — When work is carried on in two or more shifts the second and third shifts shall receive eight hours' paj- for seven hours' work, any less than seven hours to be considered as overtime, unless owing to bad weather or conditions beyond control of contractor the sime men shall not work on more than one shift. Double time for all Sundays and above-mentioned holidays. Article 7. — Labour Day. — No work shall be done on Labour Day except by consent of the two Presidents. Article 8. — Wages. — The minimum rate of wages to be paid from April 1, 1909, until July 5. 1909, shall be 56^ cents [2s. 4^rf ] per hour, and from July ,5, 1909, until April 1, 1912, the wages shall be 60 cents [2s. 6rf.] per hour, payable in currency of the United States. The party of the second part shall receive the wages agreed upon by the Joint Arbitration Board in this trade under all circumstances, and it is further agreed by the parties of the first part to hire no one in this trade except whom he or they shall pay the wages agreed upon by the Joint Arbitration Board. Article 9. — Pay Day. — It is agreed that the workmen shall be piid on Tuesday of each week. The wages to be paid on the work in full up to and including the Saturday night preceding pay day, and not later than quitting time. When the workman quits of his own accord he shall receive his pay on the next regular pay day. When a man is discharged or laid ofi', if he so requests, he shall be paid either in cash on the work or given a time check, with one hour extra for travelling time. Said extra hour to be added by the person giving the time check, which shall be paid upon the presentation at the office of the employer. And if it is not paid promptly upon his arrival at the otHce, and if he remains there during working hours, he shall be paid the minimum wages for such waiting time, Sunday or holiday time excepted. Article 10. — Piece Work. — No member of the parties of the first part shall sublet piece or lump out their carpenter work. Neither shall any Journeyman who is a member of the party of the second part be permitted to take piece or lump work in any shape or manner nor work for any owner or contractor who does piece or lump work, whether he be a member of the party of the first part or not. Contracting firms having two or more members, then only one of them shall use the tools on any job. Article 11. — The following items of carpenter work are covered by this agi'eement : The furnishing of all material by the party of the first part. By the party of the second part the labour required for all carpenter work in the erection and completion of any and all buildings and jobs. The erection of all staging and scaffolding (except that built by masons with horses and planks), all false wood work, all floors, wood centres for all arches, sidewalk and building protections, boxing for all concrete foundations, wall and piers, and all wood work in connection with other trades, cutting for butts, fitting and hanging of transoms and doors, including wardrobe and china closet doors, boring for locks, cutting for letter plates, coping and mitreing base, chair rail and plate rail ; butting and nailing in all stops, building and erecting all stairs, fitting and applying all hardware. Article 12. — Worhing With Non-Union Men. — The party of the second part shall not work with carpenters except they are affiliated with the Carpenters' Executive Council, and no member or members affiliated with the party of the second part shall leave his work because non-union men in any other line of work or trade ai"e employed on any other building or job. No member or parties to this agreement shall work on any building or job where labourers or any other trade are permitted to do carpenter work of any kind. In case of any violation of this agreement the same shall be reported at once to the presidents of the association and union, or their representatives, parties hereto, and in case the presidents or their representatives cannot secure a settlement of such violations within 24 hours, work shall stop. Article 115. — Steward. — Wherever two or more journeymen members of the second party are working together, a steward shall be selected by them from their number to represent them, who shall while acting as steward be subject to the rules and decisions of the Joint Arbitration Board. Na salary shall be paid to a journeyman for acting as steward. He shall not leave his work or interfere with the workingnien during working hours, and shall perform his duties as steward so as not to interfere with his duty to his employer. He shall always while at work carry a copy of the working rules with him, and shall report all violations of this agreement. Article 14. — Arbitration. — All parties hereto agree that any and all disputes between any member or members of the Employers' Association on the one side and any member or members of the Union • on the other side, during the life of this agreement shall be settled by arbitration, in the manner hereinafter provided for and for that purpose all parties hereto agree that they will at their annual election each year, elect an arbitration committee to serve one year, except the Carpenters' and Builders' Association of Chicago. See Section Three of Article Five of their constitution — and until their successors are elected and qualified. In case of death, expulsion, removal or disqualification of a member or members of the Arbitration Committee such vacancy shall be filled by the Association or Union at its next regular meeting. The Arbitration Committee of each of the two parties hereto shall consist as follows : Five members from the Carpenters' and Builders' Association, and five members from the Carpenters' Executive Council, and they shall meet not later than the second Thursday in October of each year in joint session when they shall organise a Joint Arbitration Board by electing a president, secretary and treasurer and umpire. Said board shall meet in time to report complete findings on new agreement not later than the first of December of that year. The Joint Arbitration Board shall have full power to enforce this agreement entered into between the parties hereto and enforce all lawful working rules governing both parties. When a dispute or grievance arises between a journeyman and employer, parties hereto or an apprentice and his employer, the question at issue shall be submitted in writing to the presidents of the two organizations and upon their failure to agree and settle it, or if one party to the dispute is dissatisfied with the decision it shall be submitted to the Joint Arbitration Board at their next regular meeting. If the Joint Arbitration Board is unable to agree, the umpire shall be requested to sit with them, and after he has heard the evidence, cast the deciding vote. All verdicts shall be decided by a roll call, be rendered in writing and be final and binding on all the parties to the dispute. Article lo. — Wfio are Qualified to Serve on the Arbitration Board. — No member who is not actively engaged in the trade or who holds a public office, either elective or appointive, under the municipal, county or state or national government, shall be eligible to sit as the representative in this WAGES AGREEMENTS, WORKING RULES, ETC, 429 Trade Arbitration Board, and any member shall become disqualified to sit as a member of this Joint Arbitration Board and cease to be a member thereof immediately upon his election or appointment to any public oflBce or employment. Article 16. — Umpire. — An umpire shall be selected who is in no wise affiliated or identified with the building industry, and who is not an employee or an employer of labour nor an incumbent of a political office. Article 17. — Meetings. — The Joint Arbitration Board shall meet to transact routine business the first Thursday in each month, but special meetings shall be called on three days' notice by the presidents of the two organizations, or upon application of three members of the Joint Arbitration Board. Article 18. — Fines. — The Joint Arbitration Board has the right to summon any member or mem- bers affiliated with any of the parties hereto, against whom complaints are lodged for breaking this agreement or working rules, and also appear as witnesses. The summons shall be handed to the president of the association or union to which the member belongs, and he shall cause the member or members to be notified to appear before the Joint Arbitration Board on a date set. Failure to appear when notified, except in the opinion of the board valid excuse is given shall subject the member to a fine of !|25.()0 for the first offence, .*50.0() for the second and suspension for the third. Article 19. — Salaries. — The salary of each representative on the Joint Arbitration Board shall bo paid by the association or union he represents. Article "20.— Quorum. — Seven members present shall constitute a quorum in the Joint Arbitration Board. If one or more members of the Arbitration Committee of either of the parties to this agree- ment be absent the other Arbitration Committee shall cast an equal number of votes on a division in the joint arbitration. Article 21. — Fines as Result of A rh it ration. — Any member or members affiliated with either of the two parties hereto violating any part of the agreement or working rules established by the Joint Arbitration Board shall be subject to a fine from fflO.OO to .|!200.00. Such fines shall be imposed by the association or union in accordance with the rules and laws of the association or union, parties hereto, and all such fines shall be collected within thirty days after the date of levying of the fine and all fines collected shall be paid to the association or union to which the member or members belong. In no case shall the parties hereto be permitted to employ or work for any one who has been found guilty of violating any part of this article, if said fine is not collected within thirty days. Article 22. — Rules for Arbitration Board and Parties Hereto. — All disputes arbitrated under this agreement must be settled by the Joint Arbitration Board, and in conformity with the principles and agreements herein contained, and nothing herein can be changed by the Joint Arbitration Board. No by-laws or rules conflicting with this agreement or working rules agreed upon shall be passed or €nforced by either parties hereto, against any of its affiliated members in good standing. Working Rules to Govern Members of the Catyenters' Executive Council of Chicago and Cook County. Ride No. 1 . — No member shall work after a regular pay day established, without receiving his wages in full each week. Any violator of this rule shall be subject to a fine of not less than $10.00, ruled oflf the job, or both, for one year. Rule 2. — Any member accepting less than the minimum rate of wages on any job or shop shall be subject to a fine of not less than .§10 and shall not be permitted to work in said shop or on said job or for said contractor for a period of one year. Rule 3. — No member shall be permitted to work with a member who has been suspended or fined unless said suspension or fine has been settled to the satisfaction of the Union, under penalty of a fine ■of not less than $5.00. Rule L — Any member found guilty of returning part of bis wages or who solicits or gives part of his wages for the purpose of making presents to the foreman, time keepers or any other representa- tives of the employer shall be fined ^lO.OO, ruled off the job or both. Ride 5.— Any member guilty of repairing, fitting or grinding his tools on his own time while ■employed by a contractor or builder shall be ruled off said job for one year and fined not less than $10.00. Rule 6. — Any member guilty of excessive rushing or work shall be reported, tried and fined not less than $10.00, ruled off the job for one year, or both. Rule 7. — Any foreman who makes a practice of hiring more men than he needs and not putting them to work shall be warned for the first offence, and if the offence is repeated shall be fined $25.00, ruled off the job or both. The same penalty shall apply for using abusive language or rushing the men. Rule 8. — No member shall work on any building or job where labourers or any other men are permitted to handle cai-penter's tools or do carpenter work of any kind ; any violator of this rule shall be reported by the steward or any other member who becomes aware of the violation and any member or members guilty of working under these conditions shall be subject to a fine of not less than $10.00 for each offence. Rule 9. — Any member refusing to give the actual conditions of a building or job when so requested by a business agent shall be reported and fined not less than $5.00. Rule 10. — Any member refusing to stop work when ordered by the business agent to do so, or using abusive language or acting in a way unbecoming a brother workman shall be fined not less than $10.00. Rule 11. — Any member or members going to or remaining on a job when the job is on strike, unless authorized to by the business agent shall be fined $25.U0 and ruled off the job. Rule 12. — Any member bringing a sledge hammer, spike maul or a patent mitre box on any building or job shall be fined not less than $5.00. Rule 13. — No member shall be permitted to take contracts for carpenter work unless he furnishes material as well as labour for the same, under a penalty of not less than a fine of $25.00. Rule 14.— Any member bringing his tools on a job before securing work shall be fined not less than $5.00. 430 APPENDIX I. Rule 15. — No member shall be permitted to work on Saturday afternoon unless the steward on the job has secured a permit from the president of the G.E.C. under penalty of not less than a fine of $10.00. Rule 16. — Any member or members putting up, or allowing to be put up any scairs not bearing a label adopted by the Carpenters' Executive Council shall be fined not less than ^JlO.Ol). Rule 17. — Steward. — Where two or more journeymen are working together a steward shall and must be elected from their number, who while acting as steward shall be subject to the decisions of the C.E.C. He shall not leave his work unless in case of a dispute, when he shall immediately notify the ofHce. Or in event of an accident to one of our members, in which case he shall take charge of the injured, gather the evidence showing the cause of the accident, and if necessary accompany the injured to the home, the hospital or the doctors. Anj- time lost while taking care of the injured shall be paid for by the C.E.C. The steward while at work shall and must always carry a copy of the working rules, and must make a monthly report of the conditions and number of men at work on the job, and shall report all violations to the C.E.C. Clause 2. — The steward shall inquire of all carpenters on the job as to how thej- stand in their union, and must see that they are in possession of the current working card of the C.E.C. A steward must be elected on all building jobs and shops under a penalty of .|10.00 on all members working on a building, job or shop where this section is not complied with. Clause 3. — Each steward shall provide himself with a book, in which he must keep a coiTect list of the names and addresses of all members on the job and also record the number of the working card and the local or branch of which the member belongs. Clause 4. — Any member while acting as steward shall have the power at any time when so requested by business agent or any other member on the job, to demand of any member to see his money and pay envelope, so that he maj' know if the member is receiving full wages or not. Any member refusing to comply when so requested by business agent, steward, or any member acting as steward, shall be reported and upon proof of guilt shall be fined not less than $20.00. Clause 5. — Each steward shall report to the C. E.C. office the exact location of the job, the name of the contractor, of the owner, and of the architect and of the foreman, and also the general conditions of the job. Any violator of this rule shall be fined not less than $5.00. Clause 6. — In no case shall a steward be discharged from any job because he has acted as steward, and should the steward be discharged the business agent shall stop all carpenter work on said job and in no case shall the members be permitted to return to work until the steward has been re-instated. These rules may be amended by a resolution which shall be read at a regular meeting of the C.E.C, and if approved shall be sent to the District Council and Managing Committee for submissal to a referendum vote of the members. Submitted by the By-Law Committee, Feb. 12, 1906, and approved on the same date by the Carpentere' Executive Council, (5.) AGREEMENTS IN THE PRINTING TRADE IN NEW YORK. (i.) Neicsjyaper Offices. 1. Under this heading is included the production of all kinds of type-setting or type-casting machines. 2. Offices where all body type is set on machine shall be known as machine offices. 3. In machine composition all work must be time work. Piece work can not be allowed in any case. 4. All members of the Union employed on morning newspapers, except as hereinafter provided for, shall receive not less than $5.16§ [21s. G-gd.'] per night, eight continuous hours (including thirty minutes for lunch) to constitute a night's work, the hours to be between 6 p.m. and 3 a.m. (Overtime per hour 96J cents [4s. O^gd.'].) 5. Men employed at day work for morning newspapers shall receive day rates (subject to third shift provision). Men employed at night work for evening newspapers shall receive night rates (subject to third shift provision). 6. All members of the Union employed on evening newspapers, except as hereinafter provided for, shall receive not less than $4.66| [19s. 5^^.] per day, eight continuous hours (including thirty minutes for lunch) to constitute a day s work, the hours to be between 8 a.m. and 6 p.m. (Overtime per hour 87i cents [3s. 7|r7.].) When called to work at or before 5 a.m., $2 [8s. 4f/.] extra shall lie charged in addition to the overtime ; and when called to work at or before 7 a.m., $1 [4s. 2f/.] extra shall be charged in addition to the overtime. [The latter part of Section 6 has been interpreted to mean that men called between 5 a.m. and 6.30 a.m. shall receive two dollars [8s. 4c?.] in addition to the overtime ; and that men called between 6.30 a.m. and 7 a.m. shall receive one dollar [4s. 2d.'] in addition to the overtime.] 7. Members of the Union employed on evening newspapers publishing Sunday editions, except as hereinafter provided for, shall receive not less than $4.83^ [20s. 31^.] per day, eight continuous hours, including thirty minutes for lunch, to constitute a day's work, ithe hours to be between 8 a.m. and 6 p.m. (Overtime per hour, 90" cents [3s. 9iV^.].) The rate for Saturday night shall be not less than $5.66| [23s. 7.\r/.] per night of seven continuous hours, including thirty minutes for lunch, the hours to be between 6 p.m. and 3 a.m. (Overtime per hour, $1.21? [os. 0-[\^d.'}.) Extras to receive fifty cents per day or night in addition to the above scale, with the exception of Saturday night, when the" pay shall be $5.66J [23s. 7^^.]. When called to work on Simdays between 8 a.m. and 6 p.m., shall be paid at the rate of $1.00 [4s. 2r/.] per hour ; but in no case shall a member receive less than a day's pay. Overtime shall be paid for at the rate of time and a half. When called at or before 5 a.m., $2 [8s. 4f7.] extra shall be charged in addition to the overtime, and when called at or before 7 a.m., $1 [4s. 2d.'\ extra shall be charged in addition to the overtime. The provisions of this paragraph will apply also to work done on holidays, on which the paper publishes no issue. The section of the scale providing for time for luncheon will also apply. WAGES AGREEMENTS, WORKING RULES, ETC. iSl S. The scale for a " tliird shift " shall be $5.66| [23s. 7^.] per day, eight continuous houi-s (incliuling thirty minutes for lunch) to constitute a day's work, the hours to be between 2 a.m. and 10 a.ni. (Overtime per hour, #1.06| [4s. 5Jrf.].) 9. Newspaper offices using a third force are privileged to put on one inake-up between the hours of 6 a.m. and 2 p.m. at the rate of .*5.6fiJ [23s. l^ff.] per day, the same to be considered a regular situation. 10. Overtime, which shall apply to work done before as well ass after the hours speciiied, shall be charged at the rate of one hour and a half, based on the regular scale for the specified hours, for every hour or fraction thereof so employed. 11 . When a member accumulates overtime equivalent to a day's pay in a newspaper office he shall take a day off within the next financial week and put on a substitute. Chairmen are instrl^cted to report all violations of this law to the open meeting of the Union. 12. No member working in the chapel is exempt from taking his overtime off, except the foreman of each shift. 13. Six days at day work or six days at night work shall constitute a situation, and no situation of a less number of days shall be allowed. 14. Extras may be put on in machine offices, either day or night, and shall receive 50 cents [2s. Id.'} in addition to the regular scale, except as provided in Section 7. Such extras must be put on from day to day. 15. In no case shall less than a day's pay be accepted by any member of the Union. 16. In machine offices no stints or slides shall be allowed. 17. No one holding a situation shall be allowed to work in any other office. 18. No " sub " shall be allowed to fill a situation and work as extra on morning or evening newspapers on the same day. 19. On all matter set in daily newspapers proofs shall be read and copy held by a member of the Union. [The decision of the National Arbitration Board regarding Section 19 of the New York Typographical Union scale, decided by national arbitration on July 18, 1907, is that the section in question shall be interpreted to mean that none but union men shall be employed as proof readers or «opyholders, but proof readers shall not be held responsible for errors when no copyholder is furnished.] 20. No member of the Union shall be held financially responsible for errors occurring in an advertisement, nor shall any member of the Union be held responsible for errors appearing in railroaded matter. 21. In reducing force foremen can not lay off regular employees until the end of the fiscal week. 22. All compositors employed in offices where machines are introduced must have the exclusive privilege of learning and becoming familiar with their operation. No obstruction or restriction whatever shall be placed upon or stand in the way of learners other than that they are not practical printers. 23. Where an office introduces machines it shall take compositors from those already members of the chapel and instruct them. The minimum of competency shall be 24,000 ems per day or night of «ight hours. 24. The officers of the Union are empowered to enter into a contract for at least one year with •offices adopting the all-time scale. 25. All Union machine offices are prohibited from supplying machine composition to non-union offices. 26. The practice of a foreman selecting or designating a substitute is in direct contradiction to the regulations of Typographical Union No. 6 and of I. T. U. law. The regular shall be the person io select his own substitute, and shall in no way be responsible for the work performed by the same, but no foreman shall be compelled to accept a substitute who is incompetent or otherwise incapacitated, and if the regular's selection should fail to appear on time or should be incapacitated, the foreman shall direct the chairman to select or designate another substitute. A substitute selected according to the foregoing pi'ovisions shall receive a regular day's pay. Otherwise, 50 cents [2s. Id."] additional as an extra. 27. The practice of interchanging, exchanging, borrowing, lending or buying of matter previously used, either in form of type, matrices or photo-engraved plates, between newspapers or job offices not -owned by the same individual, firm or corporation, and published in the same establishment, is unlawful and shall not be allowed. Provided, that the reproduction of the original of such type, matrices or plates in type within four days shall be deemed a compliance with this law. 28. Offices have the privilege of using blocks or cuts furnished by out-of-town concerns who make yearly contracts, but this does not apply to transient out-of-town advertisements, which nmst be re-set before using. 29. On advertisements or other matter set for daily newspapers in job offices, the difference between the job and newspaper scale must be paid. 30. Advertisements reproduced in photo-engraving room must be re-set by compositors, except in instances where it is impossible to set said advertisements completely in the composing room. 31. Any member may be assigned work in any position in the composing room other than the position for which he was engaged, in case of emergency, and if such emergency position carries with it a higher rate of wages than the scale, he must receive while filling that position the rate paid for the same. This section shall not apply to the foreman. 32. On morning and evening newspapers twelve hours must intervene between the time of ■quitting and starting work, but no member of the Union shall be allowed to work more than twelve hours in any twenty-four. This shall not apply on Saturdays or Election day to evening newspapers publisliing Sunday editions or to unusual emergencies. 33. Offices publishing morning and evening papers have the right to use advertisements and reading matter set up for the morning paper in the evening paper, and vice versa, or in both. 34. Chapels may provide for the time to go to lunch, but the foreman cannot keep an employee more than four hours before allowing lunch, except in cases of emergency. A second lunch time fihall be allowed when more than two hours o-« ertime are required. 432 APPENDIX I. Scale, Rules, &c. ffovettiing MacMne-Temlers in Newspaper OfficesJi^j'- f^i^ 81s. 3f/.] })er week. 87.S. t)rf.] per week. 104s. 2(1-1 l**^*" week. 116,s. 8rf.] per week. 125.S-.] per week. 35. The scale for machine-tenders shall be : — For 1 or 2 machines ^^19. 50 For 3 or 4 machines .i!21.00 For 5 to 8 machines .f 25.00 For 9 to 12 machines $28.00 For 13 or more machines $30.00 36. Machine-tenders working at night shall receive $5.00 [20s. lOf/.] per week in addition to th.^ above day scale. 37. A machine-tender shall have charge of all repairs on type-setting machines in plants of four machines or more. No printer member shall be allowed to act as machinist on any plant of more than three machines. 38. The regular working time of a machine-tender shall be six days or nights per week of as many hours each as are the regular hours of the operators in the office employed in operating the machines. 39. All time worked over and above these hours shall be considered as overtime, and shall be charged at the rate of one hour and a half for every hour so employed, based on the regular scale for the specified hours. 40. When a machine-tender shall have accumulated eight hours overtime he shall take a day off and put on a substitute. 41. No machine-tender holding a regular situation in an office will be permitted to attend to the repairs on machines in any office other than the situation in which he is employed, except in case of emergency, all such cases to be reported to the president of the branch as soon as possible. 42. Assistants to machine-tenders shall be classed as helpers or apprentices ; all helpers and apprentices shall be registered in the books of the branch and the Union by the machine-tender or member under whose supervision they are employed ; a helper having worked as such, and been registered for three consecutive years in any one office shall bs entitled to be registered as an apprentice. 43. All offices of four machines or more shall be entitled to employ one helper and one apj)rentice- to each machine-tender employed ; said helpers and apprentices shall be under the direct supervision, of the machine-tender, who shall instruct the apprentice in all branches pertaining to the type-setting machines in their respective places of employment, and shall work during the same hours as the machine-tender, under whose supervision they are employed ; a heljjer shall do all necessary cleaning, but shall not handle tools, make repairs or adjustments, and where no helper is employed the apprentice shall do the helper's work. 44. Offices of three machines or less shall be entitled to employ an apprentice, said apprentice to be under the direct supervision of the member in charge of the plant, and to be subject to the samf rules and regulations as govern apprentices in offices of four machines or more. 45. The term of apprenticeship of machine-tenders shall be at least four years. 46. The scale for apprentices shall be :— Year. 1st. „ 1, . .. I $9.00 $10.00 $12.00 $13.50 per week. For 1 to 5 machines ■■■ ] •:n rj ■- - -- -- - V c. 1- u- ( $10.00* lor b to la machmes ••••141, «^ r? ic- ( $12.00' For 16 or more ) "iOs 47. Machine-tenders, machine-tenders' helpers or apprentices shall not be allowed to be in charge^ of the operation of machines casting slugs or type that take ink in printing. A2'>pi'entices. In newspaper offices, declared as such by the Union, apprentices may be employed in the ratio of one to every twenty men or a majority fraction thereof, but no more than four shall be permitted in any office. In the first year an apprentice may be required to perform general work in the composing room at the discretion of the foreman. In the second year an apprentice shall be employed at least fifty per cent, of his time at hand composition and distribution. In the third year an apprentice shall be employed at least seventy-five per cent, of his time at hand composition and distribution, and shall receive one-half of the regular scale. In the fourth year an apprentice shall be employed at least seven hours each day at hand composition and distribution, and shall receive one-half of the regular scale. In the fifth year an apprentice shall be employed at least seven hours each day at hand com- position and distribution, and in machine offices may practice on the machine, and shall receive two-thirds of the regular scale. Api)rentices shall be registered on the books of the Union and shall at all times be under the supervision of the chairman. All registered apprentices shall be between the ages of sixteen and twenty-one. This age limitation shall not api)ly to any person employed on newspapers who shall register his desire to become an ai)])rentice within sixty days after adoption of this scale. Office boys (not apprentices) will be allowed to work proof presses, carry proofs and coi)y, and type on galleys, but shall not be allowed to handle tyi)e, proofs, copy or any printing material in any other manner whatever. Weekly, Semi-Weekly and Tri-Weekly Papers. On weekly, semi-weekly and tri-weekly papei-s the Book and Job Scale shall govern. 2nd. 3rd. 4th. $10.00 $12.00 $13.50 41s. M. 50s. 56.S-. 3cl. $12.00 $13.50 $15.(X> 50s. 56s. 3rf. 62s. 6d. $13.50 $15.00 $18.00 56s. 3rf. 62s. 6d. 75s. WAGES AGREEMENTS, WORKING RULES, ETC. 433 Priority Law {amended January bth, lyOS). 1. "To decrease the force, such decrease to be accomplished by discharging first the person or persons last employed, either as regular employees or as extra employees, as the exigencies of the matter may require. Should there be an increase in the force the persons displaced through such cause shall be reinstated in reverse order in which they were discharged before other help may be employed." 2. Priority of all members who received positions prior to January 1, 1907, shall date from time of receiving their positions. 3. Priority of all members who are substitutes and who held positions prior to January 1, 1907, and were laid off on account of slackness in work, shall date from time of receiving their positions. 4. Priority of all members who are substitutes, except those as provided above, shall date from time of depositing their cards in the office for the purpose of seeking situations. 5. Substitutes shall be classified by departments and shall only maintain priority in such department as they elect to substitute in. 6. Priority ceases upon the withdrawal of the card, provided said withdrawal shall be for the purpose of seeking employment elsewhere. Under this provision a Chairman is granted permission to ])ermit a substitute to take employment elsewhere for a period of not longer than two weeks. 7. Any substitute may waive his claim to a situation without impairing his seniority, viz. : If A and B waive a situation and C takes it and then A and B receive situations the man receiving his position last shall be the first man laid off. S. Shifts shall not be classified as departments. (ii.) Book and Job Work. Time Charges. TH. Time, work as per scale. 7-1. Eight hours shall constitute a day's work, the hours to be between 7.30 a.m. and 5.30 p.m. Six days of eight hours shall constitute a week's work, the hours to be between 7.30 a.m. and 5.30 p.m. 75. Oflaces are permitted to arrange for a 48 hour week, provided, first, that each and every day's work shall be the same as to hours and minutes. Second, that on no one day shall the regular working time exceed eight hours and forty-five minutes, the hours to be between 7.30 a.m. and 5.30 p.m. Third, the time thus made up to be deducted from the regular working hours on Saturday. (See paragraphs 101 and 102.) 76. Men taken from piece work for time work, or time hands, shall not charge less than I, ^, f or full hour. 77. The office must make its corrections according to copy on one proof, but the compositor must make these corrections on further proofs if they are rendered necessary through his neglect. Author's proofs and alterations from copy shall be paid for at the regular time charges. 78. When a compositor working by the piece is required to turn for sorts, or to take out bad letters and replace them, in consequence of faults in the casting, miscasts, or worn-out founts, he shall be paid at the regular time charge. 79. When a compositor working by the piece receives copy of contents, indices, or any other copy where more than the usual quantity of capitals, figures, periods and italics are \ised, the establishment shall furnish the compositor with the necessary sorts. 80. When a compositor working by the piece is required to make up furniture for letter press, stereotype or electrotj^pe formes, he shall be paid for such work at the regular time charge. 81. Make-up shall be time work. 82. When compositors working by the piece are required to cut leads, rules, etc., or otherwise prepare material for use in composition, they shall charge for such time consumed. When matter set in a foreign language is distributed by piece hands for English composition, such distribution shall be paid for on time. 83. Members shall receive a full day's pay when called in to work on extra jobs, unless they are •employed for a full day immediately following their engagement, in which case they shall only be paid the actual time worked. This shall not apply to men discharged for incompetency after two hours' trial. 84. Diagrams in circles shall be set on time. 85. Time occupied by alterations from copy, by casing or distributing letters not used by the •compositor, etc., to be paid for at the scale rate for time hands. 86. When time clocks are used in an office sufficient time shall be allowed to " ring up," such time to be mutually agreed to between the office and the men. 87. Any member may be assigned work in any position in the composing room other than the position for which he was engaged, in case of emergency, and if such emergency position carries with it a higher scale than the scale which he has been receiving, he must receive, while filling that position, the scale provided for the same. 88. In the event of the emergency position carrying a lower scale than he has been receiving in his regular position, the payment for such emergency work must be at the same rate as that of his regular position. Alterations. 89. Alterations from copy, as enumerated below, shall be " rung " by the proofreader and -corrected by the office. 90. A change in the spelling of proper names, words from foreign languages, etc. 91. A change from the copy not provided for by any style of the office, nor by instructions given to the comj)ositor when the copy is given out. 92. A change in the spelling or division of words not in accordance with the dictionary given by ;the office as a guide, and not provided for as above. 4B4 APPENDIX I. Ovvrtime. 93. Overtime Based on the Minimum Scale. — All rates. stipulated in the scale of prices are based on the minimum rate of wages, and members receiving in excess of the wages provided in the scale cannot refuse to work for seale rates when required to work overtime. 94. When piece compositors work beyond regular hours, thej- shall be paid at the scale rate for overtime of piece hands in addition to the matter set up ; such extra time to be between the hours of 5.30 p.m. and 7.30 a.m., except as provided in paragraph 75. 95. When overtime is done, if work continues two or more hours one-half hour shall be allowed for meale and paid to both time and piece hands. Piece hands to receive the sum of thirty-three cents. This shall not apply to Saturday half-holiday. 9fi. When day hands are kept continuously employed till after 12 midnight, one-half hour shall be allowed for lunch ; piece hands shall be allowed thirty-three cents. 97. Piece hands detained after the regular hours of composition shall be paid for any standing time at the scale rate for time hands' overtime. Legal Holidays. 98. The following are the recognized legal holidays : Jan. 1, Feb. 12, Feb. 22, May 30, July 4, Labour Day, Election Day, Thanksgiving and Christmas. When men are required to work on legal holidays thej' shall receive double price and be employed for a full day. Siinclays. 99. When men are required to woi-k on Sunday they shall receive double price and shall be employed for not less than one-half day. 100. If required to work after 12 o'clock midnight Saturday until midnight Sunday the following prices shall be paid : Time Hands. — From 12 o'clock midnight Saturdaj- to 7.30 a.m. Sunday, and from 5.30 p.m. Sunday to 12 o'clock midnight Sunday, triple time per scale, and from 7.30 a.m. to 5.30 p.m. Sunday, double time per scale. Piece Hands. — From 12 o'clock midnight Saturday to 7.30 a.m. Sunday, and from 5.30 p.m. Sunday till midnight, double time in addition to matter set ; and during Sunday, from 7.30 a.m. till 5.30 p.m., double matter set. Saturday Half -Holiday . 101. During the mouths of June, July and August the regular working time on Saturday must end by 12.30 p.m. Members required to work beyond that hour on Saturdays during these months shall receive overtime, as per scale. Offices are permitted to arrange for a forty-eight hour week during these months as provided for in paragraph 75. 102. When members are employed for less than a full week they shall be paid single price for the regular working hours agreed npon by the office for making up for the Saturday half- holiday. 103. All piece compositors working on Saturday half-holidays shall be paid at the scale rate of overtime for piece compositors. Foreign Languages. 104. Work in foreign languages shall be at the scale rates of the particular union having jurisdiction. Provided that in no case shall English composition be at a lesser rate than that of the Typographical Union. Nor shall foreign composition in English offices be done at a lesser rate or longer hours than is in vogue in offices under jurisdiction of such foreign language union. Machine Scale. — Book Work and Weekly Papers. 105. Under this heading is included the production of all kinds of type-setting or type-casting machines. All jobs set partly or wholly by machine shall be considered machine jobs, and machine jobs must be all time-work, excepting as set forth in i)aragraph 110. Machine jobs shall be paid for at the scale rate. The hours to be between 7.30 a.m. and 5.30 p.m., except as heretofore provided for Saturdays. (See paragraphs 75, 101 and 102.) 106. Compositors employed on type-setting machines on weekly newspapers, periodicals, books, pamphlet work, or such work as is done in job or book offices, shall receive not less than machine operators' scale per week of 48 hours. The hours to be between 7.30 a.m. and 5.30 p.m. 107. Distributors on machines, unless journeymen or apprentices in the last year of their apprenticeship, shall not be allowed to distribute headlines, etc., neither shall they be allowed to practice on tlie keyboard or any part of the type-setting machine, correct proofs or lift matter from formes. 108. Overtime for day forces shall apply to work done before as v/ellas work done after the hours and specified, shall be charged at the scale rate. 109. Compositors taken from the case to learn to operate machines shall be paid at the rate of $15 [62s. 6f/.] for the first four weeks, .$18 [75s.] for the next four weeks, and thereafter the full scale. No obstruction or restriction whatever shall be placed upon or stand in the way of learners. 110. In offices where the number of piece compositors exceed the number of Avorking machines in the ratio of 3 to 1, or more, jobs may be set partly on the machines and partly by piece-hand composition, provided (1) that the copy be run without discrimination, with no culling of phat for the machines; (2) that the piece competitors be given at least forty hours composition during the week of forty-eight hours, or time work at the scale rate per hour in lieu thereof ; (3) that all tinio work on job (except as above mentioned) shall be paitl for at the scale rate for time hands. WAGES AGREEMENTS, WORKING RULES, ETC. 435 111. Operators shall receive full day's pay when called in to work on extra jobs, unless they we employed for a full day immediately following their engagement, in which case they shall only be paid actual time worked. This shall not apjily to men discharged for incompetency after two hours' trial. 112. When an office introduces machines it shall select its operators from members who have been employed in its composing-room for a period of at least three months. Wlien the machines liave been covered by one set of learners for the time specified in this scale, the office shall be free to select its operators from outside ; provided that offices introducing machines to the number of two or more shall be entitled to engage one experienced operator from the outside. 113. A machine operator shall not act both as machinist and operator on any plant equipped with more than three machines. 114. Machinists may cast slugs and dashes. 115. The scale for night forces in book and job offices shall be $27 [112s. 6c/.] per week, 8 hours per night, G nights to constitute a week's work, the hours to be between (5 p.m. and 5 a.m., provided that if a third shift be put on the hour,-: fdr the third shift shall be from 3 a.m. to 10 a.m., G nights a week, $30 [125s.]. Twenty minutes to be allowe.l for lunch to men employed during the hours above specified. IIG. Overtime for night forces shall apply to work done before as well as after the hours specified, and shall be charged at the rate of one hour and a half, based on the regular scale for the specified hours, for every hour so employed. 117. When members working on night shifts are required to work Sundays or legal holidays they shall receive double price. 118. Extras (meaning operatoi-s employed for less than a week) shall be entitled to 50 cents [2s. M.] per day extra. This does not apply to operators holding regular situations in the oHice. 119. Broken Weeks for Regulars. — An operator in a book office, holding a regular situation, when laid off part of a week for lack of copy shall not be considered an extra, the extra being distinctively an operator not holding a regular situation. 120. When operators have been employed for a full week, even thoujjh the week covered portions of two fiscal weeks, they are not to be considered as extras. Machine-Tenders. 121. In accordance with legislation of the Executive Council, I. T. U., June 28, 1898, the machine-tenders of this union shall maintain a branch, to be known as " The Machine-Tenders' Branch of No. 6, I. T. U." 122. The officers of the branch shall consist of a committee of five members, to be elected annually in July by the members of the branch ; one member of the committee shall be elected by the branch to serve as president of the branch, and one of the committee shall be elected to serve as secretary of the branch. 123. All machine-tenders of this union shall be enrolled on the roster of the branch ; all applications for machine-tendpr's card shall be referred to the committee of the branch for investiga- tion, who shall report the result of the same to the Membership Committee of this union. 124. The branch shall hold a regular monthly meeting during the week preceding the regular monthly meeting of this union ; the meetings shall be conducted in conformity with the provisions of the rules of order of this union and Cushing's Manual ; any matter affecting the interests of the trade in general or the interest of the machine-tenders' branch of the trade may be discussed ; political or religious discussions shall not be allowed. 125. The expenses of holding branch meetings shall be defrayed by this union ; the branch shall incur no expense in addition to that required for the holding of regular monthly meetings except by permission of the Executive Committee of this union. 12G. All complaints of machine-tenders regarding infractions of the scale, or rules of the union, shall be submitted to the committee of the branch, who shall decide them, pending a meeting of the branch. Should any machine-tender feel aggrieved at the action of the branch, he shall have the right to appeal to the Executive Committee of the union, when the committee of the branch shall prepare and submit its case to the Executive Committee of this union, whose decision shall be binding until reversed by a two-thirds vote of the union at a regular meeting. 127. The committee of the branch shall meet at least once a week, and shall have authority to regulate and apportion the substitutes in order that the six-day and overtime law may not be violated. 128. Machine-tenders seeking subbing shall apply to the committee of the branch at the regular weekly meeting of the committee for such subbing, and it shall be the duty of the committee to immediately examine the applicant's qualification, and apportion him such subbing as may be in its power, within his qualifications ; such substitutes will be required to report at the committee's headquarters between the hours of 8 to 10 a.m. and 5 to 7 p.m. daily. It shall be the ditty of the committee to keep on file a list of all such substitutes and their addresses. 129. All records, proceedings, actions, etc., of the branch shall at all times be subject to the inspection of the Executive Committee of this union, or its duly authorized representative. 130. Machine-tenders' overtime must be based on machine-tenders' minimum scale. 131. A machine tender shall have charge of all repairs on type-setting machines. 132. A helper shall do necessary cleaning on type-setting machines, but shall not handle tools, make repairs or adjustments. 133. All book and job machine offices shall be entitled to one helper and one apprentice to each machine-tender. Boys or men employed as attendants on Lanston castinar macliines shall be classed as labourers and are not to be confused with machine-tenders, apprentices or heln-irs. 134. Helpers and apprentices shall be under the direct' supervision ol "the machine-tender, who shall instruct the apprentices in all branches pertaining to the tj'pe-setting machines in thoi' respective places of employment, and shall work during the same shifts as the macliine-tender under whose supervision they are employed ; where no helper is employed the apprentice shall do all necessary cleaning. No helper or apprentice will be permitted to take charge of any plant or repairs. 16570 a f 436 APPENDIX I. 135. The term of apprenticeship shall be at least four years. 136. The scale for machine-tenders shall be : For lor 2 Machines $21 00 [87s. fir/.] per week. For 3 or 4 Machines 23 00 [9o,s. lOf/.] per week. For 5 to 8 Machines 20 50 fllOs. 5rf. | per week. For 9 to 12 Machines 29 50 [1228. lid] per week. For 13 or more Machines 31 50 [131s. 3r/.] per week. 137. Machine-tenders woi-king at night shall receive $5 [20s. lOrf.] per week in addition to the above scale. 138. The regular working time of the machine-tenders shall be six days or nights of as manj', and the same, hours per day and week as the time of the reguhir operators on the machines in the same office as employed in ; all time worked over and above this, except Sundays and holidays, shall be considered as overtime and shall be paid for at the rate of time and one-half on the above scale ; Sundays and Legal Holidays to be paid for at the rate of double time ; Saturday half-holiday to be time and onelialf. 139. The scale for apprentice machine-tenders shall be : No. tff Ist 2nd 3rd 4th Machines. Year. Year. Year. Year. -. . r f *9 00 ifclO 00 $12 00 $13 50 ^^^ '^ i 37s. 6d 41s. 8d 50s. 5Gs. 3d ^■1- . f $10 00 .$12 00 $13 50 $15 00 '^^^^^ \ ils.M. 50s. 56s. 3rf. 62s. 6d ,^ / $12 00 $13 .50 $15 00 $18 00 ib or over | .(j^. 56s. 3d 62s. Gd 75s. 140. All apprentice machine-tenders shall apply for probationary card at the expiration of the fourth year of their apprenticeship, dating from the date of registry as machine-tender apprentice. 141. All probationary machine-tender apprentices shall apply for machine-tender's card at the expiration of one year from the date of receiving probationary card ; provided, however, that the Executive Committee of this 'union shall have discretionary power to extend a probationary card another year. 142. Any matters arising not fully provided for in these rules shall be governed by the established rules and regulations of the I. T. C. 143. All resolutions and laws for the government of machine-tenders of this union not embraced in and a part of these laws, except as herein specified, are hereby declared null and void. Apprentices, 144. The term of an apprentice shall be five years. During such time he may be assigned to do any work connected with the brancli of the trade he is learning which his employer or foreman may deem proper, except as hereinbefore provided. 145. One apprentice shall be allowed to any office employing up to eight men. All offices having an excess over eight shall be entitled to one for every eight or major fraction thereof ; not to include co})yholders or ei-rand-boys ; such copyholders or boys to be allowed to sort and put away leads, furniture, cuts and plates, to set i)ie, to handle and prove galleys ; but not to set, make up or distribute type, nor break up formes, nor act as bankman ; nor shall copyholders or apprentices be allowed to read or revise (iroof. Provided, however, that no office shall be allowed more than seven aj)preiitices. 146. .\pprentices in the last year of their term shall receive not less than two-thirds of the regular scale. 147. All boys in an office, other than copyholders and errand-boys, shall be recognized as apprentices, and all ap])rentices shall be registered in a record book kept for that purpose, and be granted an ajjprentice's certificate, endorsed for each year of service. 148. Apprentices in their fifth year nr.iy revise proofs if so required, but shall not be allowed to do first reading. 149. Apprentices shall not bo allowed to set any live matter on machines until the last three months of their apprenticeship. 1.50. .\ll registered apprentices shall be between the ages of 14 and 20 years, and fifth year apprentices between the ages of 20 and 24 years. (6.) AGREEMENT BETWEEN THE MILWAUKEE BREWERS' ASSOCIATION AND UNION No. t), UNITED BREWERY WORKMEN (March 6th, 1909). This Contract made between the Milwaukee Brewers' Association and Union No. 9 of the International Union of the United Brewery Workmen of America to be in force in Milwaukee County from the day of its date until the Ist day of March, 1912. 1. All workmen employed must be in possession of a working card issued by the Union. If union men of respective craft cannot be liad, other men can be employed, who must, upon application, be taken into the Union. Watchmen and foremen who do not perform manual labour are exempt from belonging to the Union. 2. Eight Iiours, interrupted )>y one hour for ilinner, constitute a day's labour. Six days shall constitute a week. Work to commence at 8 a.m. excepting in case of necessity, and then not earlier than 7 a.m : this not to apply where shifts are worked, nor to men loading peddlers. Night shifts to nave off or cliauge every four weeks. 3. Scale of wages to be paid .... Present higher wages are not to be reduced. 4. Overtime, Sunday labour and work done on holidays to be paid at the rate of one and one-half time. When necessary to woi-k nine hours the extra hour to be paid single time. Wages to be paid every two weeks after working hours. WAGES AGREEMENTS, WORKING RULES, ETC. ' 437 0. New Year's Day, Washington's Birthday, Decoration Day, Fourth of July, Labour Day, Thanksgiving Day and Christmas Day shall be considered legal holidays except for maltsters. 6. The following is work belonging to brewery men : Malthouse, brewhouse, cellars, washhouse, pitchyard, handling of full and empty packages, driving hoops, whitewashing on brewery premises, elevator men and packing cars. 7. One apprentice to every twenty-five brewery workmen can be employed, or where less than twenty-five men are employed in a brewery. Apprentice must not be over twenty-one years old at time of employment and apprenticeship shall be two years, during which time he is to work in all departments. Apprentice must have malthouse experience. 8. Workmen shall not receive beer during working hours, but shall receive one quart at noon and one quart at 5 p.m. after working hours. 9. Union made malt shall have the preference. 10. Members of this union being appointed on committee work or for any other service for their organization, shall be granted leave of absence. 11. Reason for discharge shall be given men. In case of sickness they should not be discharged, but will be re-employed in place assigned them by foreman. Substitute employed to fill vacancy can be discharged. But men shall not be discharged on account of slack work. They shall then be laid off in rotation for not longer tlian one week nor less than four hours. 12. Any difference of opinion arising in regard to the terms of this contract shall be decided by a Board of Arbitration, constituted in the following manner : Two shall be selected from the Milwaukee Brewers' Association and two from the local Executive Committee of the United Brewerj- Workmen of Milwaukee, within 48 hours, and in case these cannot agree the members of the Board shall elect a fifth member and his decision shall be binding to both parties. Men shall not leave work while arbitration may be pending. 13. If at any time during the life of this contract any Union or organization which is affiliated with, or a member of the American Federation of Labour, declares the product of any one of the Undersigned brewing firms boycotted or unfair, notice of such action by said organization should be given by the Milwaukee Brewers' Association to the International Executive of the United Brewery Workmen, and such International Executive hereby promises to investigate such matter immediately and if after investigation it is found that the respective brewer has not violated any existing contract, then a public declaration shall be issued by the National Executive denouncing said boycott, and in case of refusal then this contract to be null and void. (7.) AGREEMENTS IN THE COAL MINING INDUSTRY. (i.) Toledo Inter-State Agreement {April 17, 1908). It is hereby agreed between the Operatoi-s' and Miners' representatives of Western Pennsylvania, Ohio and Indiana : First : That the mining rates, day wage scale and general prices in existence in Western Pennsylvania, Ohio and Indiana in the year 1007 be reaffirmed. Second : That internal differences both as to prices and conditions be referred for adjustment to the various districts affected. Third : That the screen hereby adopted for the state of Ohio, Western Pennsylvania and the bituminous district of Indiana shall be uniform in size, six feet wide by twelve feet long, built of fiat or akron-shaped bars of not less than five-eighths of an inch surface, with one and one- fourth inches between bars, free from obstructions, and that such screen shall rest upon a sufficient number . of bearings to hold the bars in proper position. Fourth : That the Block Coal District of Indiana may continue the use of the diamond screen of present size and pattern, with the privilege of run-of-mine coal, the mining price of which shall be determined by the actual screenings. Fifth : That the eight hour day of forty-eight hours of six days per week is hereby reaffirmed. Sixth : That an eight hour day means eight hours' work in the mine at usual working places for all classes of inside day labour. This shall be exclusive of the time required in reaching such working places in the morning and departing from same at night. Regarding drivers, they shall take their mules to and from the stables, and the time required in so doing, shall not include any part of the day's labour, their work beginning when they reach the change at which they receive empty cars, but in no case shall the driver's time be docked while he is waiting for such cars at the point named. Seventh : That when the men go into the mine in the morning they shall be entitled to two hours' pay whether or not the mine works the full two hours. But after the first two hours the men shall be paid for every hour thereafter by the hour, fur each hour's work or fractional part thereof. If for any reason the regular routine work cannot be furnished the inside labour for a portion of the first two hours, the operators may furnish other than the regular labour for the unexpired time. Eighth : That the term of this contract shall begin April 1st, 1908, and expire March 31st, 1910. Ninth : That a general resumption of operations in Western Pennsylvania and Ohio (the mines in Indiana now being in operation) shall take place on Monday, April 20th, 1908. Tenth : That the renewal of the mining rates, day wage scale and general prices existing in 1907 is on the condition of the approval of a two years' contract by referendum vote of the United Mine Workers of America. Resolved, By representatives of the Interstate .loint Convention, composed of the operators and miners of Western Pennsylvania, Ohio and Indiana, that we condemn in the most vigorous and positive manner tlie practice of suspending the operation of mines, pending the investigation and adjustment of disputes arising under the terms of joint agreements in the various districts and sub- districts iinder the jurisdiction of this Interstate movement ; and we recommend that such provision be agreed upon by the operators' and miners' representatives in the various districts and sub-districts as will require the mine managers and mine workers to comply with the terms of the contract, and to adjust disputes without delay and without suspending the operation of mines. 16576 2 F 2 438 APPENDIX I. (ii.) Mine Rules, Pittsburg District No. 5, Pennsylvania. 1. The hours of day labour at the mines to be from 7 o'clock a.m. until 12 o'clock noon, with one full hour for dinner, and from 1 o'clock p.m. until 4 o'clock p.m. 2. Wet entries to be agreed upon between Mine Boss and Miners. 3. On the question of thick slate in rooms and entries : All slate over 12 inches shall be considered " thick slate," and is to be paid for at the rate agreed upon between the Miners and Mine Boss, and in case they cannot agree, then it shall be left to the Superintendent and Miners for adjustment. 4. it is especially agreed that the run of mine price shall be. in thin vein pick mines '5817 cents per ton, and in thick vein pick mines "4964 cents per ton, and that two days' notice shall be given to miners when change is to be made from the run of mine to screened coal. .5. No mine to go on a run-off mine basis unless mutually agreed to by operator and miners. (5. That on the day that death by accident occurs in a mine, for that day only the miners may cease work, but under no circumstances shall a mine be laid idle for any funeral. This is, however, not to prevent individuals from attending a funeral. 7. The general conditions existing shall continue for the Scale Period April 1, 1908, to March 31, 1910. 8. Where a miner is required by the mine foreman to leave his work at the face to perform other labour, he shall be paid at the rate of .92.56 [10s. 8f/.] per day. Where a miner has no work at the face and is given other labour, he shall be paid the scale rates for such labour. 9. No miner or loader shall be required to unload slate in his room, except where the price is mutually agreed to between the miner and mine foreman. 10. All inside labour not mentioned on the scale is to receive a proportionate advance over 1905 prices. 11. The wages of the checkweighman will be collected through the pay office semi-monthly, upon a statement of time made by the checkweighman. The amount so collected shall be deducted on a percentage basis from the earnings of all miners engaged in mining coal, and shall be sufficient to pay the wages and legitimate expenses incident to the office. 12. The pay-statement shall be signed by the checkweighman, and his wages can be drawn from the office by the representative of the miners. Deductions for checkweighman's wages are to be given precedence over all others. 13. Deductions for Union dues as at present will be made through the office on properly signed authority from any man inside the mine. The amount of such deductions shall be stated by and paid to the Mine Committee, subject to the instructions of the men. When requested, the company will furnish a list of those paying. No deductions will be made for initiation fees, unless locally agreed between the Operators and Miners. There shall be no coercion or intimidation used to secure paj-ment of Union dues by any man, but when Union dues are paid they shall follow deductions for Checkweighman, Accident and Deatli Benefit, Rent and Smithing. 14. Drivers will not bo required to clean the company's stock. 1."). Two loaders will have two rooms under ordinary conditions. 16. In turning rooms, it is understood that the present equivalent plan in the scale is based on twenty-one feet of stump, and room twenty-one feet wide, thicker stumps to be paid extra in the same proportion ; also, that where pick work has to be done in room turning to allow machine to cut, pick prices will be paid, except where only sufficient pick work is done to allow machine to turn, when the present practice at the various mines is to continue. 17. Where twelve foot places are driven by machines, a proportionate rate based on entry price shall be paid. 18. Where slate comes down, or is to be taken down, in breakthroughs between rooms, and has to be removed by loader, entry price shall be paid. 19. Where the mine foreman narrows a room down to twelve feet or less in going through a claj'-vein or spar, narrow work prices shall be paid. 20. An equal turn shall be kept as far as practicable. This is not to interfere with development or necessary work. 21. All slate over twelve inches in thickness shall be paid for, not averaged with slate below twelve inches in thickness. At any mine where the weight limit exists on cars, it shall be abolished. 22. We hereby jointly agree to renew the scale and agreement in effect from April 1, 1906, to March 31, 1008, for a period of two years, commencing Api'il 1, 1908, and ending Marcli 31, 1910. (8.) CONDITIONS OF EMPLOYMENT WITH THE MILWAUKEE ELECTKIC RAILWAY AND LIGHT COMPANY^ Agreement. — In consideration of being permitted to make application for employment by T. M. E. R. & L. Co. in accordance with its regulations, I hereby agree by and with said T. M. E. li. & L. Co. as follows ; — (A) To submit to a medical examination by said Company's doctor and pay for the same One Dollar [4s. 2rf.] ; {B) Before entering upon work of trial period, to deposit with said Company, without interest, the sum of Twenty-five Dollars [£5 4,v. 2d.'] as a surety fund for faithful performance of my^duty, and that said sum is to be held and applied by said Company in accordance with the receipt which it shall give me for said si:\m ; or to deposit with said Company, without interest, the sum of Five Dollars [20s. lOf/.] as a surety fund for the faithful performance of my duty, and" that said sum is to be held and applied by said Company in accordance with the receipt which it shall give me for said sum ; and in addition, to furnish a surety bond of One Hundred Dollars [.£20 16s. 8rf.] that will be satisfactory to T. M. E. R. & L. Co., and to pay for said bond the annual premium of One Dollar [4s. 2d.] ; (C) To work under instruction on and during trial period, without pay, for such time as said Company may deem necessary ; [D) That if I am discharged, cr leave said Company's service voluntarily at any time during or aft<>r said trial period, I shall have no claim against said Company for services rendered or expenses incurred by me during said trial period ; WAGES AGREEMENTS, WORKING RULES, ETC. 439 {K) That wages are to be paid me only for such time as I am actually engaged in operating or running a car for said Company, or in actually doing such other work as may be assigned by said Company (except snow duty and watch duty) computed at the following rates : — 20 cents [10c?.] per hour platform time for first jear's continuous service with the Comi any. 21 cents [lO^d'.] per hour platform time for second year's continuous service with the Company. 22 cents [llf/.] per hour platform time for third year's continuous service with the Company. 23 cents [ll|rf.] per hour platform time for fourth year's continuous service with the Company. 24 cents [Is.] per hour platform time for fifth year's continuous service with the Company. 25 cents [Is. O^d.'] per hour platform time after five years' continuous service with the Company. One-half of the above wages to be paid me when I am assigned to "Watch Duty." Twenty-seven cents [Is. l^r/.] per hour wages to be paid me when I am assigned to " Snow Duty." (F) That these wages are satisfactory to me, and if I am employed by said Company, I will serve it honestly, faithfully and contentedly ; ((?) That I will make no charge, claim or demand against said Company for the time spent in reporting for duty at the request of said Company, or any foreman or agent thereof or waiting after so reporting before actually beginning work ; (H) To provide myself with a standard uniform in accordance with the rules and regulations of said Company after being placed on the extra list ; (7) To abstain from the use of intoxicating liquors at all times while on dutj-. (J) To study carefully and comply faithfully with all rules, regulations and orders of said Company, and, upon leaving its service, to return in good order the badge and any other property in my care belonging to said Company, or pay to said Company the price thereof fixed by it, the said Company. I have read and clearly understand the foregoing, and am willing to abide by each and every provision or part thereof. In witness whereof, T have herexinto set my hand and seal, &c. Application for Employment as Conductob or Motorman. {Must Be Filled Out in Ink by Applicant.) Name in Full Position Applied for Address Number Street City Place o£ Birth". Date of Birth City or Town State Height ft in. Weight lbs. Married, Single, Widower Colour of Hair Colour of Eyes Complexion Housekeeping or Boarding Persons Dependent on Me for Support Were you ever employed by an Electric or Steam Railway — if so, when, where and in what Capacity.? Why did you leave the service? Have you a Trade or Profession ; if so, what ? Where were you last employed, and in what capacity ? When and why did you leave ? Do you use intoxicating liquors ; if so to what extent ? Have you ever been in the saloon business or employed in a saloon ? Do you belong to any Lodge, Society, Association, Fratei'nal, Beneficial, or Labour Organization ; if so give name ? Were you ever convicted of a crime or misdemeanour ? (9.) LABEL OF THE INTERNATIONAL LADIES' GARMENT WORKERS' UNION. {Extracts from Constitution.) Rules governing the Label. 1. The label, or label stamp, shall be granted to aiij' firm willing to abide by the conditions provided by the LL.G.W.U. for issuing the same. 2. The label, or label stamp, shall be attached to any garment that has been both cut, trimmed ami made in union shops under the jurisdiction of the l.L.G.W.U. 3. Wherever the members of more than one union are employed in the making of garments requiring the label, said iinions shall jointly select a label secretary to control the said label, or label stamp. 4. The label secretary shall fill out a blank statement furnished by the General Secretary-Treasurer, giving the names of the firms requiring the label, or label stamp, the location of the shop in which the garments are to be made, and the General Secretary-Treasurer shall supply the label secretary with the number of labels required, or with a label stamp if such is required. 5. All proper sanitary rules must be observed in each shop using the label, or label stamp. 6. Custodians of the label, or label stamp, who shall violate any of the rules governing the use of the same, shall, if found guilty after proper investigation, be punished according to the severity of the offence, and if the Local Union or District Council fail to discipline such violation, the General Executive Board shall prosecute the case. No officer or member of the l.L.G.W.U. shall be dis- criminated against by any firm using the label, for enforcing the laws governing the same. 16576 2 F 3 440 APPENDIX I. 7. In all localities where there is no District Council the General Executive Board shall appoint a label secretary-, who shall have charge of the distribution of the labels, and have control oT the label stamp. The said secretary shall distribute the labels to a label custodian in each shop where the garments are cut, who shall in turn supply the custodian in each shop where the garments are made ; the label stamp is to be supplied only to the custodian in the shop where the garment is made ; care being taken that a system be used that will result in the legal and correct use of the label. 8. It shall be tlie duty of the General Executive Board tc carefully supervise the work of the label secretaries from time to time, and should they discover that the label, or label stamp, is being misused, they are authorized to appoint a label secretary in that locality to take charge of the distribution of labels, and have control of the label stamp, until the next general convention of the I.L.G.W.U. 9. The label secretary should have a complete list of all the shops that are entitled to the use of the label, or label stamp, and when labels are called for, instead of giving the label personally to the contractor, it should be the duty of the label secretary to take the amount of labels recjnired by the label contractor, visit the shop personally and satisfy himself as to the amount of work for which labels are wanted and hand them to the shop chairman. 10. The label secretary in performing such duties will be required to give his entire time if a large number of shops are to be placed in his control. 11. The label secretary to be paid for his services by the Local or Local Unions interested. (10.) TRADE UNION LABEL CONTRACT (MINNEAPOLIS). Agi-eement entered into this day of 190 , by and between manufacturer of hereinafter called the Employer, and the International Union of Flour and Cereal Mill Employees, with headquarters at i$16 Corn Exchange, Minneapolis, Minnesota, hereinafter called the Union, witnesseth : 1. The Union agrees to grant and lease to the Employer the right and privilege to have printed or stamped upon all packages containing Hour and cereals manufactured in the mill or mills of said Em))loyer, the following label, called herein'ifter the Union Label. The Union agrees to furnish to the Emi)loyer free of charge and without cost, either of the following facilities for the placing of the Union Label on his products, viz. : rubber stamp or electrotypes. The Union agrees to furnish above named facilities within reasonable time after the Employer notifies the officers of the Union of his election of the manner in which he desires to place the Union Label on his products. 2. In consideration of the above valuable privileges the Employer agrees to hire as employees and workers in his mill or mills only members of the International Union of Flour and Cereal Mill Employees, in good standing in said Union, and further agrees not to retain any employee or worker in his employment for more than thirty days after having received notice from the Union that such employee or worker is in arrears for his dues, or assessments, or is not in good standing with the Union. Provided, however, that membership in the International Union of Flour and Cereal Mill Emploj-ees will not be required of Engineers and Firemen who are members, in good standing, of the Union controlling their respective crafts. ;5. The p]mployer agrees that he will not cause or allow the Union Label to be placed upon packages containing products not manufactured in his mill ortiills. The Employer further agrees that he will not fill orders from the owners or managers of mills the employees of which are on a strike which has been sanctioned by the International Union of Flour and Cereal Mill Employees. 4. It is mutually agreed that the Union will not cause or sanction any strike, and that the Employer will not lock out his employees while this agreement is in force. All question of wages or conditions of labour which cannot be mutually agreed upon shall be submitted to a Board of Arbitration chosen as follows : — The Employer shall select one member, who shall not be connected in any way with the Employer in business; the Urion shall select one member, who shall not be a member of the Union, and the two members thus selected shall select a third member. The decision of a majority of this Board of Arbitration shall be binding on the Employer, the Union and the employees. 5. The Union agrees to assist the Employer in procuring competent and experienced mill workers and employees to fill the places of any employees who violate Section Four of this agreement, or who may withdraw or be expelled from tlie Union. 6. The Employer agrees that the collector of the Union, whose credentials in writing shall be signed by the president of the Local Union, shall not be hindered or obstructed in the collecting of dues ni; members working in the mill or mills of the Employer. 7. The Employer agrees tliat the Union is the lawful owner of the Union Label, and that the Employer has only such rights and privileges as are specifically granted in this contract. 8. The Union agrees that no person except the international Secretary of the Union, or his deputy, upon his written order, shall have the right to demand or receive the rubber stamp or electro- types from the Employer. 9. Should the Employer violate this agreement, he agrees to surrender, at once, to the Inter- national Secretary, or to his deputy, upon his written order, all rubber stamps or electrotypes bearing the imprint of the Union Label, and that the said International Secretary, or his deputy, upon his written order, may take such rubber stamps or electrotypes, wherever they may be, without being liable to damage or otherwise. The Employer further agrees that he will diSi?ontinue and stop using the Union Label in any form whatsoever upon any and all packages containing the product of his mill or mills, within fifteen tlays after receiving notice from the International Secretary that the Union considers that the Employer has violated this agreement or any part thereof. 10. Should the Employer, lor any cause, fail to deliver the said rubber stamps, or electrotypes, he shall be liable to the International Secretary of this Union in the sum of Fifty Dollars as liquidated damages, to be recovered by the International Secretary, for the, benefit of the Union, against the JbJmployer. WAGES AGREEMENTS, WORKING RULES, ETC. 441 Should the Employer fail to discontinue and stop using the Union Label upon any and all packages containing the products of his mill or mills, within fifteen days after receiving -written notice from the International Secretary as provided in Section Nine of this agreement, he, the Employer, shall be liable to the International Secretary in the sum of Five Hundred Dollars as liquidated damages, to be recovered by the International Secretary in an action of contract, brought in the name of the International Secretary, for the benefit of the Union, against the Employer. 11. This agreement shall be in force until ,190 Should either party desire to alter, amend, or annul this agreement, said party must give a written notice thereof to the other party at least two months before the expiration of the agreement ; and if the parties fail to give such notice this agreement shall continue in force for another year, and so on from year to year until such notice is given. 12. In case the Employer shall cease to do business, or the business or any major part thereof shall be transferred to other person or persons, firm or corporation, this agreement shall be ended and the above named rubber stamps and electrotypes shall be returned to the Union, and all rights and privileges appertaining to the use of the Union Label shall be forfeited, when a new agreement of similar tenor to this may be entered into. (11.) JOINT ARBITRATION PLAN IN THE NEW YORK BUILDING TRADES. Joint Arbitraiion Plan between tlie Building Trades Employers' Association and the Unions of the Building Trades of the City of Neiv York. Sec. 1. This Arbitration Plan shall govern the relations between the members of the Building Trades Employers' Association and the Unions, parties to this Plan, employed by them on buildings or structures under construction or alteration, and in such shops as were unionized and recognized as union shops by the Building Trades Employers' Association on or after .luly 3, 1903, and in the shops where trade agreements provide that this Plan shall govern ; and it shall apply within all the territory known as Greater New York, unless otherwise specified in trade agreements. This plan applies to the mechanics of the trades and those helpers' organizations from which the mechanics of the trades are largely derived. Sec. 2. The Unions as a whole or as a single Union shall not order any strike against a member of the Building Trades Employers' Association, nor shall any number of Union men leave the works of a member of the Building Trades Employers' Association, nor shall any member of the Building Trades Employers' Association lock out his employees. Sec. 3. The Employers parties to this Arbitration Plan agree to employ members of the trade unions only, directly or indirectly, through sub-contractors or otherwise, on the work and within the territory as described in Section 1 of this Plan. Sec. 4. There shall be a General Arbitration Board, consisting of two representatives from each Employers' Association affiliated with the Building Trades Employers' Association and two representatives from each Union recognized as a party to this Plan. Sec. 5. The General Arbitration Board shall exercise the powers delegated to it by the several provisions of this Plan ; shall determine the manner of adjustment of any dispute which is not spscifically covered by this Plan ; shall adopt and amend a Code of Procedure ; and shall determine the manner in which and by whom the expenses of Special Arbitration Boards shall be paid. Sec. 6. Each Association of Employers and each Union of Employees, parties to this Plan of Arbitration, shall elect semi-annually, two arbitrators and two alternates, who shall serve for six months or until their successors are elected. In case of the inability of an arbitrator and his alternate to attend, an Association of Employers or a Union of Employees may appoint a temporary substitute. All representatives of Employers' Association on the General Arbitration Board shall be engaged in, or officers of a corporation engaged in the trade they represent. All representatives of the Unions on the General Arbitration Board shall be working at their trade. Sec. 7. Regular meetings of the General Arbitration Board shall be held cnce each month. Special meetings may be called by the Chairman or the Executive Committee, and shall be called upon the filing with the Secretary of a written request from five organizations represented in said Board. Sec. 8. At all meetings of the General Arbitration Board and the Executive Committee a majority vote shall carry any question, including the election of X)fficers ; except a member call for a division, when, in order to carry a question or to elect an officer, it shall require a majority vote of the representatives of each side present and voting. In case of disagreement and inability of the body to agree upon a motion a conference committee shall be appointed, which shall report a motion or motions to the meeting. Sec. 9. The Chairman and the Vice-Chairman of the General Arbitration Board shall be elected semi-annually by and from the members of the General Arbitration Board, and shall hold office until their successors are elected. One of these officers shall be an employer and the other an employee. Sec. 10. The General Secretary shall be elected by the General Arbitration Board for a term of one year and shall serve until his successor is elected. Sec. 11. The cost of maintaining the headquarters of the General Arbitration Board, including the salaries of the Secretary and his assistants, shall be divided equally between the Building Trades Employers' Association and the Unions collectively. Sec. 12. The general arbitrators must be given power by the organizations they represent. Sec. 13. The headquarters of the General Arbitration Board shall not be the meeting room nor the club rooms of any Association of Employers or Employees. Sec. 14. There shall be an Executive Committee of the General Arbitration Board, which shall consist of twelve members of said Board, six of whom'shall be elected by the representatives of the Unions in the General Arbitration Board, and six of whom shall be elected by the Employers' representatives in the General Arbitration Board. Sec. li). The Executive Committee shall exercise the powers delegated to it by the several provisions of this Plan ; shall have control of all receipts and expenditures ; shall act as a Board of Conciliation ; shall exercise all the powers vested in the General Arbitration Board between the 16676 2 F 4 442 APPENDIX I. regular meetings of said Board, except the power to amend the Code of Procedure and fix the expenses of Special Boards. It shall report all its proceedings to the General Arbitration Board. The Committee shall meet once a week or upon the call of the Secretary. Sec. 16. The Executive Committee first elected shall divide itself by lot into six classes, so that one employer and one employee shall serve one, two, three, four, live and six months, respectively. At the expiration of the term of each committeeman his successors shall be elected to serve for a period of six months. Sec. 17. All decisions of the Executive Committee shall be final and binding upon all the parties to this Arbitration Plan unless disapproved by the General Arbitration Board, in the following manner: Upon the receipt of the report of the Executive Commitiee any decision of the Executive Committee may be subject to review by the General Arbitration Board at the request in writing of an Association of Employers or Employees under seal of the organisation and endorsed by a majority vote of the representatives of either side present and voting. In the case of such review the question before the Board shall be, " Shall the decision of the Executive Committee be disapproved ? " If the decision is disapproved the General Arbitration Board shall proceed to dispose of the question. Sec. 18. All complaints shall be addressed to the Secretary, in writing, who shall endeavour to adjust them and leport them to the Executive Committee. Sec. 19. Where a trade agreement exists between an Employers' Association and a Union, all disputes in that trade shall be settled by a Trade Board of Arbitration with an umpire, if necessary. The ilecision of said Board or Umpire shall be final. Should the Trade Board fail to agree upon an umpire, or should either side fail to abide by the decision of the Trade Board or the umpire, the question shall be referred to the General Arbitration Board, for action, within twenty-four hours after such failure or refusal. Sec. 20. Should a dispute arise in a trade in which there is no trade agreement between the Employers' Association and the Union of the trade, or between an Employer and a Union between whom there is no trade agreement, said dispute shall be referred to the General Arbitration Board. Sec. 21. In the case of a dispute concerning a question of jurisdiction of trade or a dispute caused by conflicting provisions of two or more trade agreements, the complainant shall notify the General Secretary, and the Secretary shall immediately call a conference of the Unions and Employers' Associations interested. The conference shall settle the dispute by conciliation, if possible, or refer it to arbitration, if necessary. Pending the adjustment of the dispute, the work shall be performed by such mechanics members of unions parties to this Plan as the trade contractor for the work may have elected to employ. In case of refusal or failure on the part of any Union or Employers' Association concerned to adjust such a dispute in the manner above described, within twentj--one days after the filing of the complaint, the dispute shall be submitted to the General Arbitration Board or the Executive Committee, which shall determine whether the question at issue is a subject for arbitration. Should the General Board or Executive Committee decide that the question is a subject for arbitration, it shall refer the case to a Special Board, provided the dispute cannot be adjusted by conciliation. Sec. 22. The work that has been heretofore recognized to be in the possession of a trade shall not be submitttd to arbitration ; provided, wl.en possession is claimed by a party or parties to a jurisdiction of trade dispute, that question shall be decided by the Executive Committee, and in case of a disagreement the Executive Committee shall refer the question to an umpire. If the Executive Committee or the umpire decides that the work has not been in the possession of a trade, the question of who shall perform the work shall then be referred to a Special Board of Arbitration. Sec. 2;5. " Unskilled trades " are hereby defined to be those of labourers, helpers or workers from whose ranks mechanics of a particular trade are not regularly recruited. Any difficulty arising in the unskilled trades may be adjusted in accordance with the provisions of this Plan, through the mechanics of the trade in which the unskilled are working ; and should the mechanics of a trade repeatedly refuse to file a complaint it may be presented upon the written request of five organizations, parties to this Plan. Sec. 24. Special Arbitration Boards shall consist of not less than four members, and shall be chosen from the members of the General Arbitration Board. They shall meet within twenty-four hours when notified by the General Secretary. Sec. 25. It shall be the privilege of any Union or Employers' Association, through its representatives on the General Arbitration Board, to select the members of a special board to act for them, but no general arbitrator can act when the dispute is occurring in the trade which he represents. In case of the failure of any party to a complaint to select arbitrators within two weeks after an arbitration by a special board has been ordered, the Executive Committee shall select the necessary arbitrators. Sec. 20. The Arbitration papers are to be drawn by the General Secretary, and shall contain a specific statement of the question in dispute, and a provision that all parties agree to abide by the decision of the Special Board or the umpire. The umpire must be selected before the case is opened. In case of refusal of any party to sign the arbitration papers, the Executive Committee shall determine, from the papers in the case, the specific question to be arbitrated. Sec. 27. The Arbitration papers must be properly signed and sealed by the contending parties, each party receiving its copy. After a careful hearing of the case, stenographically reported, the verdict obtained by a majority vote, cast so as to include at least one representative of each of the contending parties, or a decision of the umpire shall be final and binding. No organization of Employers or Employees shall be permitted to alter, or amend, any decision or part thereof rendered by the General Board, Executive Committee or a Special Board of Arbitration. Sec. 28. Members of Special Arbitration Boards who may be in the employ of members of the Building Trades Employers' Association are guaranteed re-employment by their firm or corporation when the Special Board on which they shall have served has disposed of the case. APPRENTICESHIP. 443 Sec. 29. No lawyer is to act as arbitrator, counsel or advisor at any proceeding held under this Plan. Sec. 30. Business agents of the unions, parties to this plan, shall be permitted to enter all shops, buildings or structures described in Section 1. Sec. 31. When the conditions established by this Arbitiution Plan are not maintained in a shop or on a job by employers or employees, not parties to this Plan, the Plan shall not apply in this particular shop or on the particular job for the time being ; provided, the non-maintenance is proven to the satisfaction of the Executive Committee of the General Arbitration Board and the dispute cannot be adjusted by it within twenty-four hours. Sec. 32. The Building Trades Employers' Association agrees that its members and the labour unions collectively agree that the several unions and their members shall faithfully observe and abide by the provisions of this Plan, and the labour unions collectively agree to maintain the wages, hours and other conditions of employment prescribed by the several trade agreements and this Arbitration Plan, wherever members oE any trade union, parties to this Plan, are employed within the territory covered by this Plan. Sec. 33. After the date of the adoption of this Plan, no union shall become a party thereto without the consent of the General Arbitration Board, but should the General Arbitration Board disagree on the question of admitting a union, it shall refer the case to arbitration. B— A.PPRENTICESHIP REGULATIONS.* (1.) RULES GOVERNING EMPLOYMENT OF REGULAR MACHINISTS' APPRENTICES. {Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway Company.) The age of a regular machinist apprentice entering the service must not be less than sixteen or more than twenty-one years. He must be of good character and able to pass a physical examination, also a written examination at the olBce of the Superintendent of Motive PoWv^r with an average of not less than 75 per cent, in reading, writing, spelling, definition of words and arithmetic, including practical examples in mensuration. Apprentices entering the shops of this Company will be given every reasonable opportunity for acquiring a knowledge of the trade for which they are apprenticed. An apprentice who manifests no desire to learn, or adaptability for the trade, or who is negligent of or fails to conform to the rules of the shop, or who is ungentlemanly to his foreman or fellow workmen, will be dismissed from the service. Apprentices shall serve four years and shall not in any case leave the service of the Company without good -and just cause, except, however, that should an apprentice prove disqualified during the first six months, he may quit or the Comjiany may transfer or dismiss hi m. The following compensation will be allowed for a Regular Machinist Apprentice : 1st year ... ... ... ... ... ... 10 cents (J>d.) per hour. 2nd „ 12 „ (6rf.) „ 3rd , 16 „ {8d.) „ 4th „ 20 „ (lOd) „ At the expiration of the term of apprenticeship, if the apprentice has become proficient in his trade and has been entirely satisfactory in his work and conduct, and the conditions of the service warrant, he may be advanced to the rank of machinists. If so I'etained, he shall receive journey- men's pay. No apprentice shall be permitted to work overtime, or on night shifts, during the first three years of his apprenticeship, except in cases of emergency. I^o apprentice shall be sent out on the road during his apprenticeship term, except to secure information on the trade or when doing test work. If required to work overtime, apprentices shall be allowed the usual excess time as is given regular mechanics for overtime work. The first and each succeeding year of the apprentice's term of service will end twelve months from the date of entering the employ of the Compan}' as such, providing he has been on duty 279 days. This provides for an absence of twenty six days in addition to the eight Legal Holidays on which the shops are closed. If absent in excess of this time, it must be made up before the next j'ear begins. In case the shop is working less than ten hours per day, it will not effect the termination of the apprentice's year, as every day the shop runs and he is on duty, will be counted as one day in making up the total time for each year of service. The apprentice who takes an interest in the work and makes usual progress in acquiring knowledge of the trade will be given an opportunity to obtain three months' instruction in Test Work provided there is any, and three months in the Drafting Office. The time in the Drafting Office may be extended to six months, the last three months to be after the conclusion of the four years' course but at the same rate of pay as the fourth year apprentice receives, providing he has acquired sufficient knowledge of the principles of Mechanical Drawing by private instruction and otherwise. It must be distinctly understood that the opportunity for experience in test work and in the Drafting Office is to be afforded only to those who have learned the principles of drafting as outlined above. The Company will furnish all opportunity possible for the apprentice to secure a complete knowledge of the machinists trade during his apprenticeship. He may serve three years on the * See als, apprenticeship olauaes in " wages agreements, working rules, etc.," Appendix I. A. 444 APPENDIX I. diflFerent machines and special jobs and he shall not serve more than six months on any one machine or special job, and one year on tlie floor, the course and time allotted to each class of work for the regular machinist apprentice will be as follows : — Machines (Small Lathes, Shapers, &e.) 6 months. Floor 9 „ Rods and Driving Wheels 3 „ Pistons and Guides 3 „ Valve Motion 3 „ Air Brakes and Injectors ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 3 „ Machines (Large Tools, Lathes, Planers, Blotters and Boring Mills) ... 9 „ Roundhouse ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 6 „ Test Work and Drafting Office 6 „ If an apprentice fails to qualify for or does not desire the experience in Test Work or Drafting Office, the time allotted for this work will be equally distributed between floor work and large machine tools. It will be the duty of the General Foreman to see that each apprentice is advanced to the different classes of work and it will be the privilege of the apprentice to call his attention in writing whenever transfers are not made in accordance with the above schedule. Apprentices in shops not equipped with a Testing Department or Drafting Office, may, if they desire, be transferred to Milwaukee Shops for the last six months of their apprenticeship. An apprentice is to be governed by all shop rules and regulations that are in effect during his term of service or apprenticeship. At the expiration of an apprentice's term of service a certificate will be issued to him stating the class of work he has finished. (2.) TERMS OF APPRENTICESHIP FOR MACHINISTS EMPLOYED l',Y A PROVIDENCE ENGINEERING FIRM. 1. Applicants for admission to apprenticeship must be not less than sixteen nor more than eighteen years of age. They must be physically sound, of good moral character, and have received an education equivalent at least to that required for graduation from the public grammar schools of the City of Providence. 2. Application must be made in person ; and, if accepted, the applicant's name will be registered and due notice given when he will be required to commence work. 3. The first six hundred and sixty hours (twelve weeks) of service shall constitute a term of trial. If the apprentice shall, during this term, prove satisfactory, and shall before the expiration thereof, execute, together with his father or guardian, — or if he have no father or guardian, then with some other responsible party, — an agreement in the form hereto annexed, then his apprenticeship shall date from the beginning of the term of trial and shall continue for the full term, unless sooner terminated as hereinafter stated. 4. Apprentices will be required to serve for the term of four years, — each year to consist of two thousand seven hundred working houi-s, which with the usual working week of fifty-five hours, is equal to two hundred and ninety-five working days. The remaining working days in each year will be allowed apprentices for recreation, at such time or times as the Company shall direct. 5. Apprentices will be required to perform their duties with punctuality, diligence and fidelity, and to conform to the rules and regulations which are or may be adopted for the government of the shops. 6. Apprentices are not allowed to use tobacco in the shops during working hours. 7. Apprentices shall make up lost time at the expiration of each year, at the rate of wages paid during said year ; and no year of service shall commence until the apprentice shall have fully made up all time lost in the preceding year. 8. The Company reserves the right, whenever the state of business demands it, to shorten the hours of labour, or whenever for any reason it shall stop the works, to suspend apprentices wholly or in part ; and the making up of time so lost shall be at the discretion of the Company. 9. The Company also reserves the right, in its sole discretion, to terminate its agreement with any apprentice also to discharge him from its employment for non-conformity with its rules and regulations, want of industry or capacity, indifference to his duties or improper conduct within or without the shops. 10. Apprentices will be paid for each hour of actual service (not including time allowed for recreation or time when work is suspended) the following wages : — for the first year, eight cents [4rf.J; for the second year, ten cents [.^f/.j ; for the third year, twelve cents [6rf.] ; and for the fourth year, fourteen cents [7rf.]. If the Company shall terminate the apprenticeship during the time of trial, it will pay at the rate of eight cents [id.] per hour for the time worked. 11. Wages will be paid on the regular pay-days of the Company, as they may be established from time to time. 12. The Company will faithfully instruct the apprentice in the machinist's art and trade, in their shops, during the term of apprenticeship. 13. Graduates of the Providence Manual Training High School, well recommended by the Principal, may have their term of apprenticeship shortened at the discretion of the Company. APPRENTICESHIP. 445 (3.) .APPRENTICESHIP CLAUSES OF THE MEMPHIS TYPOGRAPHICAL UNION, No. 11. Sec. 12. This Unioa insists that proprietors and foremen, in making their selection of apprentices, shall employ boys of studious and moral hibits, and recommend tin indeature or full term contract system whenever practicable. After the tirst six months of apprenticeship this Union shall have control of and use its best effort for the moral, technical and practical training of apprentices in offices under its jurisdiction. Sec. 13. The continuance of the term of apprenticeship of any apprentice after the first six months shall be contingent upon a satisfactory report from, a committee of the Union relative to such person's educational and moral qualifications. Sec. 14. Four years shall be the minimum term of service for an apprentice. Sec. 15. Apprentices, upon entering offices under the jurisdiction of this Union, shall be registered by the Recording Secretary of this Union, and the term of apprenticeship shall date from such registration. A record shall be kept of such apprentices and a certificate issued to each, which certificate shall be presented to the union when application is made for membership, said certificate to be as follows : — Certificate of Apprenticeship. (Memphis Typographical Union No. 11.) This is to certify that has on this date entered the employ of as an apprentice. Chairman of Office. Recording Secretary. Date Sec. IG. In offices where more than one apprentice is employed they shall be classed as senior and junior apprentices ; the senior apprentice may become a probationary member of this Union at the end of his third year of apprenticeship, and shall receive two-thirds of the wages of a journeyman at the existing scale of prices. Application for probationary membership shall be accompanied by the regular initiation fee. A ballot for apprentice applicants shall be taken in the same manner and governed by the same rules as those applying to the admission of journeymen. All apprentices, upon their admission, shall subscribe to the following obligation : — "I, , do most solemnly promise that I will never divulge to any person or persons whomsoever, under any circumstances, anything I may see or hear at the meetings of this Union, or which may come to my knowledge through other means touching any business or legislation intended. All this I promise without any mental reservation." Sec. 17. Offices employing less than three journeymen regularly shall be entitled to only one apprentice. Offices employing more than three and less than fifteen journeymen regularly shall be entitled to two apprentices, and no office shall be entitled to more than three apprentices. Offices having more than three apprentices must have a separate and distinct foreman to each depirtment. Sec. 18. All apprentices employed on daily or weekly newspapers, job or book offices must be employed the last two years of their apprenticeship on the case, and at all the intricate handiwork of the craft. More specifically speaking, this means that during the last two years of apprenticeship all apprentices in newspaper offices must be given an opportunity to thoroughly learn the different branches of newspaper work, with the exception that during the last six months they shall be given an opportunity to learn the typesetting machine ; and in book and job offices they must be given an opportunity, during the last two years of apprenticeship, to learn those two branches of the crafc by practically composing book or commercial job work at least four hours each day. Specializing apprentices is not considered advantageous to the apprentice and should be discouraged. Sec 19. During the last two years of apprenticeship the apprentice shall furnish the Chairman of the office with proofs and specimens of his work at least once every three months, which shall be properly indorsed by the Chairman and foreman and referred to the Investigating Committee, together with any other information bearing thereon. In offices where there is no Chairman, such proofs and specimens shall be submitted to the Chairman of the Executive Board. Sec. 20. No apprentice shall leave one office and enter that of another emploj'er without the written consent of his first employer or the President of the Union, and the date of each change of offices by the apprentice shall be recorded on the books of the Union. Sec. 21. Any member of this Union who knowingly invites, entices or in any way influences an apprentice to use intoxicating liquors or drugs, to gamble or otherwise debauch or debase himself ; or any member who participates with such apprentice in drinking, gambling, or other debasing practices, shall, upon conviction thereof, be deemed guilty of conduct unbecoming a union man and shall be fined $5.00 for the first ofiience, and $10.00 for each succeeding offence. Sec. 22. Any apprentice or boy employed as "cub" in any union office who, prior or subsequent to such employment, has formed habits of immorality --drinking, gambling, etc. — and who persists in those habits, shall be recommended by the executive officers of this Union for discharge. (4.) APPRENTICE RULES IN THE CHICAGO BUILDING TRADES. Apprentice Rules adopted by the Joint Arbitration Board of the Carpenters' and Builders' Association and the Carpenters'' Executive Council of Chicago and Cook County. Carpenters' Apprentices. — Sec. 1. Each responsible party to this agreement shall have the right to teach his trade to apprentices and the said apprentices shall serve four years as prescribed in the apprentice rules as agreed upon by the Joint Arbitration Board, and shall be subject to the control of the said Arbitration Board. Sec. 2. Appi-entices shall be under the jurisdiction of the Joint Arbitration Board, which has the authority to control them and protect their interests subject to approved indentures entered into with their employers and the rules adopted by the Joint Board. 446 APPENDIX I. Sec. 3. The applicant for apprenticeship shall not be more than seventeen years of age at the time of making application, except under conditions satisfactory to the two Presidents. Applicants more than seventeen years old must bring satisfactory proof of having ■worked at the trade. Sec. 4. The contractor taking an apprentice shall engage to keep him at work in the (rade for nine consecutive months in each year, and see that during the remaining three months of the year the apprentice attends school during January, February and March, and a certificate of attendance from the principal of the school attended must be furnished to the Joint Arbitration Board as a compliance with this requirement, before he is allowed to work during the coming year. Sec. 5. A contractor taking an apprentice shall keep him steadily at work or school ; failing to do so, he shall pay him the same as though he had worked for him. Sec. 6. In case an apprentice at the end of his term of four yeai-s, for want of proper instruction in his trale, is not a proficient workman, and if, after a thorough investigation the Joint Arbitration Board finds that the contractor to whom he was apprenticed did not give him proper instruction and an opportunity to learn his trade, he may be required to serve another year, with whom he and the Joint Arbitration Board may determine and at a rate of wages (less than minimum) in his trade they may determine ; the difference between said rate and the minimum scale in his trade shall be paid him through the Joint Arbitration Board by the contractor to whom he was apprenticed. Sec. 7. A contractor entitled to an apprentice may take one on trial for two weeks, provided that applicant holds a permit from the Joint Arbitration Board, and if after said trial, conditions are satisfactory to both parties, they will be required to sign indentures agreeable to the Joint Arbitration Board. If not satisfactory the contractor is not bound to indenture him, but he will be required to pay the boy six dollars per week for the two weeks. No boy will be allowed a trial with more than two contractors, or a contractor with more than two boys, consecutively. Sec. 8. The rate of wages of an apprentice at the date of indenture shall in i.o case be less than $312 for the first year, $364 for the second year, $442 for the third year, and $.')72 for the fourth year, payable in lawful money of the United States, and shall be paid in fifty-two weekly instalments at the following rate per week of : $6 [25s.] for the first year, $7 [21\s. 2d.'] for the second year, $8.50 [35s. 5rf.] for the third year and $11 [45s. lOrf.] for the fourth year. Sec. 9. The issuing of permits for an apprentice to work for another contractor when the one to whom he is apprenticed has no work, shall be left to the Joint Arbitration Board. Sec. 10. All apprentices shall report to the Joint Arbitration Board at ils meetings on the first Thursday of January and April of each year. Sec. 11. The contractor shall not have more than two apprentices at any one time. Sec. 12. Contractors shall be allowed apprentices on the following basis : Yearly average of four journeymen, one apprentice. Yearly average of ten journeymen, two apprentices. It is agreed by the parties that this agreement shall be in force between the parties hereto until April 1, 1912. (5.) MINOR'S LICENCE IN THE CITY OF BOSTON. City of Boston. — Revised Regulations of 1898, Gliapter 2, as amended by the Regulations of 1900, Chapter 1, and the Regulations of 1902, Chapters 1 and 3. Minors' Licences. Sec. 1. No minor between the ages of fourteen and twenty-one years shafl, in any street or public place of the city of Boston, work as a bootblack, or sell or expose for sale any books, newspapers, pamphlets, fuel, fruits, provisions, ice, live animals, brooms, agricultural implements, hand tools used in making boots and shoes, agricultural products of the United States, or the product of his own labour or the labour of his familj', unless he has a minor's licence, granted to him by the mayor and aldermen of said city, and issued to him by the clerk of committees of said city, for so working, or for so selling said articles, nor unless he complies with the terms of such licence. Sec. 2. The clerk of committees of the city of Boston shall receive the application of the parent or guardian of a minor, or of any responsible citizen of Boston, for a licence for such minor to work as a bootblack, or to sell any or all the articles enumerated in the preceding section, and shall, when the mayor and aldermen pass a vote to that effect, issue a minor's licence and badge to such minor to go about from place to place in the city of Boston, and on the sidewalks in said city, to sell newspapei-s, or to work as a bootblack, or in the streets and other public places in said city to sell any or all of the other articles enumerated in the preceding section. Every such licence shall be issued and accepted on the condition that the minor shall comply with the terms of the following section, and said section shall be printed in the licence. Sec. 3. The minor shall conform to the statutes, the ordinances of the city of Boston, and the regulations of the board of aldermen of said city ; shall surrender his licence and badge to the clerk of committees of said city when notified that his licence has been revoked ; shall not transfer or lend his licence or badge, nor furnish any unlicensed minor with newspapers or other articles to sell ; shall not sell newspapers in or on any part of a I'treet other than the sidewalk, nor in or on a street car without the i)ermis8ion of the comjjany oi)erating such car ; shall not at any time while engaged in working as a bootblack, or selling articles in public places, congregate with other pea-sons, nor make any unnecessary noise, nor in any way disturb or annoy pei-sons as they pass, nor obstruct free passage on any sidewalk, crosswalk or entrance to any public place, nor occupy any stand with any other person, nor allow any unlicensed minor to assist or accompany him, nor allow idle persons to assemble or congregate around him, or around any stand occupied by him, nor so work or sell in any other place than that specified in his licence, when a place is so specified, nor at any time while so working or selling, fail to wear conspicuously in sight the badge furnished to him by said clerk of committees, nor fail to exhibit his licence to any police or other oilicer of said city if requested by him so to do. Any minor who violates any of said terms will be deprived of his licence and badge, and be fined. FACTORY BENEFIT FUNDS. 447 C— FACTORY BENEFIT FUNDS. (I.) UULES OF THE EMPLOYEES' BENEFIT ASSOCIATION OF THE INTERNATIONAL HARVESTER COMPANY, CHICAGO (CONTRIBU- TORT) (Organised September 1, 1908). Object. \. The object of the Benefit Association is to provide its members with a certain income when sick, or when disabled by accident, either on or off dutj*, and to pay to their families certain definite sums in case of death : to create and maintain a fund which shall belong to the employees, be used in paj'ment of benefits to them, and cost them the least money possible considering the benefits received. Organization. 2. International Harvester Company, International Harvestei- Company of America, and subsidiary companies, have associated themselves with such of their employees as may join the same in the formation of this Benefit Association. 3. The Benefit Association is in the executive charge of a Board of Trustees consisting of members representing the plants and departments of the International Harvester Company, the International Harvester Company of America, and subsidiary companit s, and a Superintendent. The headquarters of the Superintendent will be at the general office of the Company in Chicago. 4. Definitions of terms. 5. The Benefit Fund will consist of contributions from members of the association, income or profit from investments, gifts or legacies to the Fund, and such contributions as may be made by the Company from time to time. Compan;/'s Contribution. 6. At the end of each year, if the average membsrship in the Benefit Association during that year has equalled SO per cent, of the average total number of employees in the Companies' manufacturing plants, the Company will contribute $2.5,000.00 to the fund, and if such average membership has equalled 75 per cent, of such total number of emplo\^ees, the Company will contribute $50,000.00 to the fund. The Company agrees to temporarily advance funds when necessary for payments of benefits at due date ; to guarantee the safety of the fund and to pay semi-annual interest on the average balances at four ]ier cent. Handling of Fund. 7. The contributions from members shall be used only for the payment of benefits due to members of the Association, and the expenses of administration. If a surplus shall accumulate it shall remain under the control of the members of the Association, through their representatives on the Board of Tiustees, and if a deficit arise the Company will make temporary advances to pay same. Board of Trustees. 8. There shall be a Board of Trustees of thirty members to be chosen annually in December, to serve for one year from the first day of January next succeeding and until their successors shall take office, as follows : — One half shall be chosen by the employees who are members of the Association ; one representative to be chosen by employees from each Works, including the Works of subsidiary and affiliated companies and the field force of the Sales and Collection Departments of the International Harvester Company of America. An equal number shall be chosen by the Board of Directors of the Company. The President shall be ex-otficio, a member and chairman of the Board of Trustees, and entitled to vote. He shall have the power to appoint a temporary chairman to serve in his absence. The number of Trustees may be increased or decreased after the first year by a majority vote of the Trustees, but at all times one-half shall be elected by the employees and one-half appointed by the Company. The Superintendent of the Association shall be Secretary of the Board. He shall have no vote. The Board of Trustees shall appoint and have general supervision over the Superintendent, and of the operations of the Association, and see that they are conducted in accordance with its regulations. Trustees shall hold stated meetings, quarterly, on the fourth Thursday of January, April, July and October, at the general ofifice of the Company, Chicago, and shall meet at other times at the call of the Chairman. It shall be the duty of the Chairman to call special meetings of the Trustees upon the written request of seven of its members. The necessary travelling expenses of Trustees, actually incurred, and pay or wages of such members for time engaged in travelling to or from meetings of the Board and attending same, shall be paid by the Company. Annual Reports. 0. The Fiscal Year of the Association shall begin with the first day of January of each year. The first fiscal year shall be from September 1, 1908, to January 1, 1910. The condition of the Fund at the close of each year shall be audited and reported on by a competent person or persons selected for that purpose by the Trustees elected by the members of the Association. A detailed report, including all receipts and disbursements, shall be printed annually, and members may procure copies on application. The books shall be open at all times to members. 448 APPENDIX I. Superintendent. 10. The Superintendent of the Benefit Association shall be appointed by the Trustees. Under the direction of the Board, he shall have charge of all business of the Association : employ necessary clerks and other assistants ; prescribe the forms and blanks to be used ; certify all l^ills and paj' rolls ; sign all orders for payments of benefits, furnish to the Board such reports as tbey may require, and decide all questions properly referred to him. He shall have authority to appoint physicians, medical examiners, and visiting nurses, and shall have general supervision of all medical and surgical affairs of the Association. Medical Examiners. 11. Medical examiners shall make the required physical examination of applicants for member- ship in the Benefit Association, prepare applications, report the condition of sick or injured members, decide when members are disabled and when they are able to work, wiiether any disability shall be considered a relapse or original disability, and whether cause of disability shall be classed as due to sickness or accident, and perform such other duties as may be required of them by the Superintendent. Medical examiners of the Association shall in each case make an examination of disabled members in order to report intelligently, and each member must choose and pay for his attending physician. No bills for medical or surgical attendance are paid by the Association unless the medical examiner finds it necessary to provide additional or different medical or surgical treatment, or to remove patient to a hospital in order to make possible reasonably prompt recovery. Bills to cover such cases will be paid by the Association after proper certification by the medical examiner. Memhership. 12. All employees of the International Harvester Company, International Harvester Company of America, and subsidiary companies who apply for membership and conform to the regulations, shall be members of the Association. 1)5. Eligibility. — (a.) Any employees in service on or before September 20, 1908, may become a member of the Association without medical examination and without age limit at any time prior to January 1 . 1909. (&.) Thereafter, any employee not over forty-five years of age may, upon passing a satisfactory medical examination and upon approval of his application by the Superintendent, become a member. (f.) Further, any employee over forty-five years of age may, upon passing a satisfactory medical examination, and upon approval of his application by the Superintendent, become a member under the same regulations, except that the death benefits in such cases shall be only $100.(10. 14. Temporary Lay-off. — Any member who is temporarily relieved from service for a period not exceeding ninety days may retain his membership during such absence by paying his contributions each month in advance, the amount of contributions during such absence to be based upon previous two months average contributions. 15. Leaving Service. — When a member resigns from the service or leaves the service without notice, or absents himself without notice (unless he afterwards gives reasons satisfactory to the Superintendent), or is discharged, or is laid off for a period longer than ninety days, — his membership in the Association shall terminate with his employment, and he shall not thereafter be entitled to any benefits except for disability beginning and reported before such termination of employment and continuing without interruption. Any employee leaving the service who has been a member of the Benefit Association for one year, or who was a member of the Association January 1, 1909, and has been in the service five years, may continue his membership in respect only of the minimum death benefit which he has held during the last year of employment, or of any smaller amount, upon making supplementary applica- tion therefor before termination of employment or within five days (hereafter. 16. Beitistatements. — Any member paying full contributions during temporary leave of absence may be reinstated within ninety days without physical examination. If any member contributing for death benefits only is re-employed, he shall resume full membership upon passing a satisfactory physical examination. Applications. 17. Membership in the Benefit Association shall be based upon an application in the following form : — Application for membership in Employees' Benefit Association of International Harvester Company. No Dept. or Works ... To the Superintendent of Employees' Benefit Association of International Harvester Company : I, .being yearsof age, and residing at No Street, in the City of , in the County of , and State of , now employed by , do herebyapply for membership in said Employees' Benefit Association, and agree to be bound by the regulations of said Association, a copy of which has been by me received, and by any other regulations of said Benefit Association hereafter adopted and in force during my membership. I also agree, request and direct that said Company, by its proper agents, and in the manner provided for in such rules, shall, during the continuance of my employment, apply as a voluntary contribution from any wages earned by me under said employment two (2) per cent, of my wages for the purpose of securing the benefits provided in the regulations for a member of said Association. FACTORY BENEFIT FUNDS. 449 Unless 1 shall hereafter otherwise designate in writing with the approval of the Superintendent of the Benefit Association, death benefits shall be payable to my wife (husband), if I am married at the time of my death ; or, if 1 have no wife (husband) living, then to my children, collectively, each to be entitled to an equal share, including as entitled to the parent's share the children of any dead child, or if there be no children or children's children living, then to if living, and if not living, to mj' father and mother jointly, or the survivor ; or if neither be living, then to my next of kin, payment in behalf of such next of kin to be made to my legal representative ; or if there be no such next of kin, or if proper claim is not made to the Superintendent within one year from the date of my death, the death benefits shall lapse, and the amount thereof shall become and remain a part of the Benefit Fund. I also agree, for myself and those claiming through me, to be governed by the regulations providing for final and conclusive settlement of all claims for benefits or controversies of whatever nature, by reference to the Superintendent of the Benefit Association, and an Appeal from his decision to the Board of Trustees. I also agree that any untrue or fraudulent statement made by me to the Medical Examiner, or any concealment of facts in this application, or any attempt on my part to defraud or impose upon said Benefit Association, or my resigning from or leaving the service of said International Harvester Company, International Harvester Company of America, or subsidiary company, or my being relieved or discharged therefi'om, shall forfeit my membership in the said Benefit Association, and all rights, benefits and equities arising therefrom, except that such termination of my employment shall not (in the absence of any of the other foregoing causes of forfeiture) deprive me of any benefits to the payment of which I may be entitled by reason of disability beginning and reported liefore and continuing without interruption to and after such termination of my employment, nor of the righ to continue my membership in respect of death benefit only, as provided in said rules. I certify that 1 am correct and temperate in my habits ; that, so far as I know, I am now in good health, and have no injury or disease, constitutional or otherwise, except as shown in the accompanying statement made by me to the Medical Examiner, which statement shall constitute a part of this application. In witness whereof I have signed my name hereto at , in the County of , State of this day of A. D. 19... ; this application to take efi'ect on such date as may be designated by said Superintentlent. Signature of Applicant. Witness : The foregoing application is approved at the office of the Superintendent of the Emidoyees' Benefit Association, International Harvester Co., at Chicago, Illinois, this day of A. D. I'J... ; to take efiEect the day of A. D. 19... Superintendent of Employees' Benefit Association. Applications shall take effect on the date when approved by the Superintendent, and a Certificate of Membership shall be issued. Note. — For employees who are not required to pass a medical examination upon application, part of clause (a) and part of clause (b) referring to medical examination will be waived. 18. Physical Defects. — If any applicant for membership has physical defects which would prevent the approval of his application if ])resented unconditionally, his application may nevertheless be approved ; provided that he executes an agi'eement in writing, satisfactory to the Superintendent, to the effect that he shall not be entitled under his membership to any benefits for disability caused by, arising from, or growing out of such defects ; such agreement to be attached to and to be made a part of his said application, and such modification of the prescribed forms of application is hereby authorized. Guidributiuns. 19. The word " Contribution " wherever used in these rules shall be held and construed to mean such designated portion of the wages payable by the Company to an employee as he shall have agreed in his application that the Company shall apply for the purpose of securing to him the benefits of the Benefit Association, or such cash payments as it may be necessary for a member to make for said purpose. 20. Contributions from Wages — Due Z)a. Tliat no dealer shall be prosecuted under the provisions of this Act when he can estab- lish a guaranty signed by the wholesaler, jobber, manufacturer, or other party residing in the United States, from whom he purchases such articles, to the effect that the same is not adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of this Act, designating it. Said guaranty, to afford protection, shall contain the name and address of the party or parties making the sale of such articles to such dealer, and in such case said party or parties shall be amenable to the prosecutions, fines, and other penalties which would attach, in due course, to the dealer under the provisions of this Act. Sec. 10. That any article of food, drug, or liquor that is adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of this Act, and is being transported from one State, Territory, District, or insular possession to another for sale, or, having been transported, remains unloaded, unsold, or in original unbroken packages, or if it be sold or offered for sale in the District of Columbia or the Territories, or insular possessions of the United States, or if it be imported from a foreign country for sale, or if it is intended for export to a foreign country, shall be liable to be proceeded against in any district court of the United States within the district where the same is found, and seized for confiscation by a process of libel for condemnation. And if such article is condemned as being adulterated or misbranded, or of a poisonous or deleterious character, within the meaning of this Act, the same shall be disposed of by destruction or sale, as the said court may direct, and the proceeds thereof, if sold, less the legal costs and charges, shall be paid into the Treasury of the United States, but such goods shall not be sold in any jurisdiction contrary to the provisions of this Act or the laws of that jurisdiction : Provided, however. That upon the payment of the costs of such libel proceedings and the execution and delivery of a good and sufficient bond to the effect that such articles shall not be sold or otherwise disposed of contrary to the provisions of this Act, or the laws of any State, Territory, District, or insular posses- sion, the court may by order direct that such articles be delivered to the owner thereof. The proceedings of such libel cases shall conform, as near as may be, to the proceedings in admiralty, except that either party may demand trial by jury of any issue of fact joined in any such case, and all such proceedings shall be at the suit of and in the name of the United States. FOOD REGULATIONS. 471 Sec. 11. The Secretary of the Treasury shall deliver to the Secretary of Agriculture, upon his request from time to time, samples of foods and drugs which are being imported into the United States or offered for import, giving notice thereof to the owner or consignee, who may appear before the Secretary of Agriculture, and have the right to introduce testimony, and if it appear from the examination of such samples that any article of food or drug offered to be imported into the United States is adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of this Act, or is otherwise dangerous to the health of the people of the United States, or is of a kind forbidden entry into, or forbidden to be sold or restricted in sale in the country in which it is made or from which it is exported, or is otherwise falsely labeled in any respect, the said article shall be refused admission, and the Secretary of the Treasury shall refuse delivery to the consignee and shall cause the destruction of any goods refused delivery which shall not be exported by the consignee within three months from the date of notice of such refusal under such regulations as the Secretary of the Treasurj' may prescribe : Provided, That the Secretary of the Treasury may deliver to the consignee such goods pending examination and decision in the matter on execution of a penal bond for the amount of the full invoice value of such goods, together with the duty thereon, and on refusal to return such goods for any cause to the custody of the Secretary of the Treasury, when demanded, for the purpose of excluding them from the country, or for any other purpose, said consignee shall forfeit the full amount of the bond : And provided further, That all charges for storage, cartage, and labour on goods which are refused admission or delivery shall be paid by the owner or consignee, and in default of such paynaent shall constitute a lien against any future importation made by such owner or consignee. Sec. 12. That the term " Territory " as used in this Act shall include the insular possessions of the United States. The word '* person " as used in this Act shall be construed to import both the plural and the singular, as the case demands, and shall include corporations, companies, societies and associations. When construing and enforcing the provisions of this Act, the act, omission, or failure of any ofiBcer, agent, or other person acting for or employed by any corporation, company, society, or association, within the scope of his employment or office, shall in every case be also deemed to be the act, omission, or failure of such corporation, company, society, or association as well as that of the person. Sec. 13. That this Act shall be in force and effect from and after the first day of January, 1907. (2.) MUNICIPAL FOOD REGULATIONS OF CLEVELAND. Title I.— Cattle, &c. Sec. 1. No person shall sell or offer for sale the meat or other product of any cattle, sheep, or swine other than that bearing the official stamp or license of the Government inspector or of the City Inspector. Sec. 2. No person shall slaughter any cattle, sheep, or swine, except in the slaughter houses licensed by the Board of Health, or in the slaughter houses under government inspection. Sec. 3. It shall be unlawful for any person in the city of Cleveland to engage in the business of slaughtering animals for food, packing them for market or rendering the offal, fat, bones or scraps from such animals, or any dead carcase, or any animal matter whatsoever, or to engage in the manufacture of or production of fertilizer or glue, or the cleaning or rendering of intestines, unless he shall, upon recommendation of the Chief Veterinarian have obtained a permit for such business. The City Clerk is hereby authorized to issue a permit for such business only to such person or persons who have first applied in writing for the same to the Superintendent of Sanitation and are by him recommended ; such permit to be signed by the Mayor. In all such cases the application shall specify the place and the character of the business for which a permit is desired, and the applicant shall pay into the City Treasury for such permit, when the same covers four footed animals, the sum of ten dollars per annum, and when the permit is limited to the slaughtering and preparation for food of chickens, ducks, geese, turkeys, game birds and other fowls, the sum of two dollars per annum, which said sum shall be credited to the sanitary fund. Sec. 4. Any proprietor or other person in charge of any slaughter house or abattoir, upon making application to the Health Office for a permit shall file a sworn statement, that said slaughter house or abattoir complies in every way with the sanitary regulations of the Board of Health, and specifically with the following requirements : (a.) All killing floors to be constructed of cement or closely joined, oiled boards. All other floors to be constructed of cement or of closely joined, sound boards. All killing floors to be supplied with sufficient supply of hot and cold water. All floors to be so constructed that they can be readily flushed and drained, (i.) Vats for holding blood to be constructed of non-absorbent material, (c.) Tankage for offal to be sufficient and of a design approved by the Chief Veterinarian. {d.) All rooms except the cooler to have one square foot of window space for every four square feet of floor space, (fi.) All yards, where animals are kept before slaughtering, to be covered, paved and drained. (/.) All coolers to be provided with proper ventilation sulsject to the approval of the Chief Veterinarian. {g.) Proper toilet facilities for all employees, including wash stands with hot water, and sanitary closets, to be provided, (/i.) The building to conform to the provisions of the building code for such class of construction. • Any person making application to the Health Office for a permit to slaughter and prepare for food chickens, ducks, geese, turkeys, game birds, and other fowls shall file a sworn statement that the place for slaughtering and preparing the same complies with the following requirements : (a.) To have a cement floor, at least 10 x 12 feet in area, properly drained and connected with a sewer. (6.) To contain a receptacle for scalding, having a hood and proper vent, (c.) To be provided with sufficient coops having closely joined, sound floors. 16576 2 H 3 472 APPENDIX I. Sec. 5. No person shall bring into the city for sale or offer for sale, or shall sell or ofiPer for sale, the meat of any cattle, sheep, swine, fish, f?ame. fowl or poultry which ia blown, tainted, heated, /«oured, raised, stiiflfed, putrid, impure, or which for any other reason is unfit for human food. Sec. 6. No person shall bring into the city for sale, or shall sell or offer for sale any;cattle,'sheep, Bwine, fish, game, fowl or poultry which is diseased, unsound, unwholesome, or which for any other reason is unfit for human food. Sec. 7. No person shall bring into the city for sale, or shall sell or offer for sale the meat of any cattle, sheep, swine, or game which, when killed, were within two weeks of parturition. Sec. 8. No person shall bring into the city for sale, or shall sell or offer for sale the meat of any cattle, sheep, swine, fish, game, fowl or poultry which may have died from accident or disease and which has not been properly killed or slaughtered, bled, cleaned and dressed. Sec. 9. No person shall bring into the city for sale, or shall sell or offer for sale, the meat of any calf which when killed, was less than four weeks old. Sec. 10. No person shall bring into the city for sale, or shall sell or offer for sale the meat of any pig, which, when killed, was less than five weeks old. Sec. 11. No person shall bring into the city for sale, or shall sell or offer for sale the meat of any lamb, which when killed, was less than eight weeks old. Sec. 12. No person shall carry or transport through any street, alley or thoroughfare the carcase or meat of any cattle, sheep, swine, fish, game, fowl or poultry, except it be covered so as to be thoroughly protected from dust and dirt. Sec. 13. No person shall keep any (jattle, sheep, swine, game, fowl or poultry in any place in which water, food, and ventilation are not sufficient for the preservation of a healthy and safe condition. Sec. 14. Any person having for sale the meat of any cattle, sheep, swine, fish, game, fowl, or poultry, shall keep the place in which it is stored or offered for sale in a cleanly and wholesome condition, and free from noxious odours. Sec. 15. No person shall permit the carcase, body, or meat of any cattle, sheep, swine, fish, fo\vl or poultry to lie or hang or be offered for sale outside of any market or similar place, or in any open window or doorway. Sec. It). No person shall keep the carcase, body or meat of any cattle, sheep, swine, fish, fowl or poultry, in any refrigerator or ice box except such as is constructed in accordance with the provisions of Sec. 5, Title XII., Part IL, of the Plumbing Code. Sec. 17. No person shall sell, or offer for sale, any cattle, sheep, swine, fish, game, fowl or poultry or the meat thereof, which any Government or City Inspector or Market Superintendent or assistant thereof has condemned. Title II. — Rules Governing the Inspection of Meat by the Meat Inspectors. Sec. 1. No person shall bring into the city for sale, or shall offer for sale or sell any carcases, parts of carcases, or meat products, which cannot by marks, brands, labels or transfer slips be identified as being duly inspected and passed by an Inspector of the Board of Health or of the United States Government. Sec. 2. No carcases, parts of carcases, or meat products, which cannot by marks, brands, labels or transfer slips, be identified as being duly inspected and passed by an Inspector of the Board of Health or of the United States Government, shall be allowed to enter a slaughtering establishment. Sec. ii. The slaughtering of animals shall be conducted on week days, between the hours of G.30 a.m. and 5.30 p.m., except in certain cases of emergency, when permission to slaughter may be granted by the Chief Veterinarian, or except in the case of injury or other extraordinary cases, when it is necessary to kill animals out of established hours, in which case the carcases of all such animals, with the viscera attached, and all other viscera identifiable, shall be held for inspection and duly^ identified by the inspector or his assistants at the abattoir with a signed statement from the manager of the abattoir, stating the whole number of each head of animals so slaughtered. No slaughtering shall be conducted on Sundays after 12 o'clock, noon, except in cases of emergency, without the permission of the Chief Veterinarian, such permission to be obtained 24 hours in advance. Managers of abattoirs shall inform the inspector in charge or his assistant when slaughtering has been concluded for the day, and the hour at which it will begin on the following day. Sec. 4. An ante-mortem examination shall be made of all animals arriving at the stock yards and intended for slaughter at abattoirs, at which the Board of Health has established inspection, when said animals are weighed ; or, if not weighed, this inspection shall be made in the pens. All animals found upon ante-mortem examination to be aff'ected with any of the conditions or diseases named below shall be marked by placing in the ear a metal tag bearing the words : " Cleveland Rejected," and a serial number, or by such other marks as may be necessary to insure their identification. (a.) Hog cholera. (b.) Swine plague. [^c.) Anthrax or charbon. (d.) Rabies. (e.) Malignant epizootic catarrh. (/.) Pyaemia and septicaemia. {g.) Mange, or scab (unless the animals are satisfactorily dipped.) (h.) Actinomycosis, or lumpy jaw. (i.) Pneumonia, pleurisy, enteritis, peritonitis, and metritis. (J.) Texas fever. (A.) Tuberculosis. (1.) Hemorrhagic septicaemia. (w.) Blackleg. (rj.) Animals in an advanced stage of pregnancy (showing signs of preparation for parturi- tion) or which have recently (within ten days) given birth to young. (o.) Any disease or injury which, causing elevation of the temperature or affecting the system of the animal, will make the flesh unfit for human food. FOOD REGULATIONS. 473 (;'.) Animals too young and immature to produce wholesome meat. (q.) Animals which are badly bruised, injured, or show tumors, abscesses or snperating (sic) sores. (r.) Animals too emaciated and anaemic to produce wholesome meat. Such rejected or condemned animala shall at once be removed by the owners from the pens containing animals which have been inspected and found to be free from disease and fit for human food, and shall be satisfactorily disposed of. When animals so tagged are taken to an inspected establishment for slaughter, they shall be accompanied by a permit signed by the inspector in charge of the yards ; this ]iermit shall, upon the arrival of the animals at the abattoir, be deliverc d to the inspector on post-mortem duty at the time. and the animal shall be duly identified by an employee of the abattoir to such inspector on the killing floor and before the skins are removed. When the animals are not inspected in the stockyards the inspector in charge of an establishment or his assistant shall carefully inspect all animals about to be slaughtered in the pens of said establish- ment and no animal shall be allowed to pass to the slaughtering room until it has been so inspected. Animals rejected when showing signs of preparation for ])arturition shall not be slaughtered, nor for ten days alter parturition. Pregnant and parturient animals may be removed by permit for stock or dairying purposes except when they are affected with or have been exposed to the contagion of any disease. Sec. .5. The inspector or his assistant shall carefully inspect at the time of slaughter all animals slaughtered at said establishment and make a post-mortem report of the same to the Health Office. The head, tail, caul, or fat enclosed in the omentum of the animal and the entire viscera shall be retained in such manner as to preserve their identity until after the post-mortem inspection has been completed, in order that they may be identified in case of condemnation of the carcase. Should the carease of any animal on said post-mortem examination be found diseased or otherwise unfit for human food, it shall be marked with a condemnation fag, the same to be attached with wire and sealed, and the diseased organs or parts thereof, if removed from the carcase, shall also be marked with a condemnation tag. The condemnation tag shall accompany the condemned carcase or its parts into the tank. Sec. (i. All animals rejected on ante-mortem examination and all animals passed on ante-mortem examination which are slaughtered at inspected abattoirs, and are found upon post-mortem examina- tion to be affected with any other diseases or conditions named below shall be disposed of according to the following instructions. It is to be tinderstood, however, that owing to the fact that it is impracticable to formulate rules covering every case, and to designate at just what stage a process becomes loathsome or a disease becomes noxious, the final dispositimi of those not specifically covered by these rules will be left to the judgment of the inspector in charge. [List and description of diseases.] Sec. 7. All inspected abattoirs shall provide a suitable room in which condemned carcases and parts shall be held until such time as the inspector or his assistant may be present to supervise the tanking thereof. Such room shall be arranged for locking with a padlock, which will be furnished by the Health Office, the kej' of the same to remain in the possession of the inspector or his assistant. (a.) If, after inspection has been established a reasonable length of time, the abattoir management does not provide a suitable retaining room of sufficient size, or fails to tank condemned carcases regularly on the day of their condemnation, such condemned carcases shall be saturated with kerosene, as described below, and locked on the rail pending their final disposition. Sec. 8. All condemned carcases and parts shall be tanked as follows : After the lower opening of the tank has been sealed by an irspector the condemned carcases and parts shall be placed in the rendering tank in the morning, and immediately a sufficient force of steam shall be turned into the tank to destroy effectually the meat for food purposes before the killing for the day is completed ; or the condemned portions may be placed in the tank at the close of the day, or when killing is suspended, and both ends of the tank sealed, after which steam shall be turned into the tank until the meat is destroyed. Wire and lead seals shall be provided by the Health Office for sealing tanks. (rt.) A sufficient quantity of low grade offal (uteri, floor scrapings, trimmings from gutters and benches, skimmings from catch basins, unemptied intestines, omasa, paunches emptied but not washed, &c.), shall be tanked with all condemned carcases (except those tanked for lard) to effectually render the ultimate product unfit for human food, or, if such offal cannot be obtained, the carcases may be thoroughly slashed with a knife, then saturated with kerosene and j)laced in the tank. (h.) The seals of tanks containing condemned material shall be broken by an inspector, when the tank is emptied during regular hours, and at other times satisfactory arrangements for the breaking of such seals shall be made with the inspector in charge. Sec. 0. When an establishment has no facilities for thus destroying condemned carcases, such carcases shall be removed from the premises, upon numbered permit, issued by the inspector in charge, to rendering works designated by him, and there destroyed under his supervision in the manner described above. Sec. 10. Carcases may be taken to the cooling room after marking with the condemnation card, in cases where only a portion of the carcases is condemned, and when such portion cannot be removed without damage to the carcase until it is properly chilled. After chilling, the condenmed portions shall be cut out and removed to the tank or to the retaining room, as provided for whole carcases. Condemned parts that can be removed without damage to the carcase shall be tanked as described above. Sec. 11. All condemned carcases and parts shall be disposed of only in the presence of an inspector, and the report of the disposition shall be made by him upon the blank form provided therefor. Sec. 12. All carcases or portions thereof that are condemned by the inspector shall be disposed of or rendered unfit for food in any manner that the inspector in charge shall indicate. In case any I)erson fails to comply with these instructions, the Board of Health shall have the power to revoke his licence. Sec. 13. No persons shall remove tags, labels, or brands from condemned carcases or parts thereof. 16576 2 H 4 474 APPENDIX I. Sec. 14. CarcaBes or parts of carcases which leave an oEBcial establishment shall be marked by the inspector with a numbered label or brand issued by the Health Otfice for this purpose, and a record of the same shall be sent to the Health Office. (a.) Carcases or parts of carcases which go into the cutting room of an abattoir or are used for canning purposes shall not be labeled. Those which are to be shipped from one abattoir to another for canning or other purposes shall not be labeled. (h.) Managers of abattoirs shall give due notice to the inspector or his assistant of all intended shipments and of all expected receipts of meat in cars, and no meat or meal products shall be received at an official establishment unless the inspector or his assistant has full knowledge concerning the same. (c.) The seals upon cars in which meat is received at official abattoirs may be broken when it is necessary to unload such cars during the absence of the inspector or his assistant, provided the seals which are broken, together ■with a memorandum of the initials, number and contents (pieces and weight) of such car be promptly delivered by the owners or managers of the abattoir to the inspector or his assistant. Sec. 15. Each article of food product, whether in cans, barrels, firkins, kits, boxes, canvas, or other wrappers, made from inspected carcases, shall bear a label containing the official number of the establishment from which said product came, and also a statement that same has been properly inspected. Sec. 16. No stamps, tags, labels, &c., shall be allowed to remain loose about the abattoir or office, and. inspectors are instructed to use such additional safeguards, as in their judgment will be necessary properly to account for every stamp, tag, label, &c., issued, and to have the work of affixing so care- fully supervised that nothing but inspected products will be marked. (o.) Any stamps, tags, seals, or labels damaged or not used shall not appear upon the reports as having been affixed to inspected articles, but shall be returned to the inspector in charge and a report made as to the reasons for their return. (b.) No meat or food product shall C()ntain any substance which lessens its wholesomeness, nor any drug, chemical, or dye (unless specifically provided herein), or preservative, other than common salt, sugar, wood smoke, vinegar, pure spices, and saltpetre. Inspection and sampling of prepared meats and meat food products by employees of the Department of Health and Sanitation shall be conducted in such manner and at such times as may be necessary to secure a rigid enforcement of this regulation. Sec. 17. Reports of the work of inspection carried on in every establishment shall be daily forwarded to the Health Office by the inspector in charge, on such blank forms and in such manner as may be specified by the Board of Health or the Superintendent of Sanitation. Sec. 18. The inspector in charge shall promptly notify the Superintendent of Sanitation of any changes in the firm names of the otficial establishments at his station. Sec. 19. Whenever an abattoir suspends operations, the inspector shall promptly notify the Superintendent of Sanitation of all employees whose duties are etffected by such suspension, and forward his recommendation as to the number to be furloughed without pay. During such suspension only such employees shall be retained as are actually necessary to supervise the shipments of inspected products from the abattoii'. Title in.— Milk. Sec. 1. No person shall bring into the city for sale, or shall sell or offer for sale, any milk without a permit from the Superintendent of Sanitation. Sec. 2. No pereon shall bring into the city for sale, or shall sell or offer for sale, any milk which has been obtained from any milk dealer, dairyman or other person not having a permit or the official licence based on the approval of the Chief Veterinarian. Sec. 3. Any dairyman, milk dealer or other person, upon application to the Health Office for a permit to sell or deliver milk shall tile a sworn statement giving his name and address, the number of cows he owns or has charge of, the average amount of milk (estimated) which he sells each day, the names, addresses and licence numbers of all persons from whom he buys milk, the average amount of milk (estimated) which he buys from them each day, the average amount of milk (estimated) sold by each of them each day and the number of cows owned by or in charge of each. Sec. 4. No persons shall bring into the city for sale, or shall sell or offer for sale, any milk : (a.) Containing more than " 88 per cent." of water or fluids. (6.) Containing less than " 12 per cent." of milk solids, (fi.) Containing less than three per cent, of fats. (d.) From which any part of the cream has been removed, (e.) Having a specific gravity of less than 10 and 29 hundredths (10.29). (/.) Containing any boracic or salicylic acid, formaldehyde or other foreign chemical. (g.) Containing any pathogenic bacteria. (h.) Containing bacteria of any kind, more than 500,000 per cubic centimeter. (/.) Drawn from any cow having a communicable disease, or from a herd which contains any diseased cattle, or from a herd th,e attendants of which are afflicted with or have been exposed to any communicable disease. ij.) Drawn from any cow within 15 days before or after parturition. (/c) Drawn from any cow which has been fed on garbage, refuse, swill, moist distillery waste, or other improper food. (I.) Having a temperature, or which has been kept at a temperature higher than 55 degrees Fahrenheit, (m.) Which has existed or has been kept under conditions contrary to the provisions of this Code. Provided that the first five sub-divisions of this Section shall not apply to milk sold under the name of " Skimmed Milk," as provided in Section 5. of this Title. Sec. 5. No person shall bring into the city for sale, or sell or offer for sale, milk from which the cream has been removed, either in part or in whole, unless sold as skimmed milk, and unless on both sides of the vehicle from which such milk is sold, in letters not less than one inch in height the words FOOD REGULATIONS. 476 " Skimmed Milk," or if not sold from a vehicle, npon each and every vessel from which such milk is sold, there be painted a bright, red band in width at least one-tenth the height of said vessel, or displayed in plain and legible manner, the words " Skimmed Milk." Sec. 6. No person shall bring into the city for sale, or sell or offer for sale, any so-called skimmed milk containing less than nine and three-tenths per cent, of milk solids. Sec. 7. No person shall ship or store any milk in any basement, cellar, refrigerator, milk house, dairj', or other place unless such place have one square foot of window space to each four square feet of floor space. Such place shall be provided with a cement floor, properly drained and shall contain a vat made of non-absorbent material large enough to store all milk. Windows and doors shall be provided, from May 1st to September 30 inclusive, with sound screens, of mesh sufficiently fine to keep out flies and other insects. Sec. 8. No person shall store any milk in any basement, cellar, refrigerator, milk-house, dairy, or other place which is within 15 feet of any closet or privy vault or cesspool or any horse or cow stable or any chicken or poultry yard or coop. Sec. 9. Every person using in the sale or distribution of milk a delivery wagon or other vehicle, shall keep the same at all times in a cleanly condition and free from any substance liable to con- taminate or injure the purity of the milk. Sec. 10. Kvery person using in the sale or distribution of milk a delivery wagon or other vehicle, shall keep the name of the owner thereof, and the number of the wagon licence, in letters not less than two inches in height, upon the side of said delivery wagon or other vehicle. Sec. 11. Every person using in the sale or distribution of milk a delivery wagon or other vehicle, shall, from May 1st to September 30th inclusive, have and keep over said delivery wagon or other vehicle, a covering of canvas or other material, so arranged as adequately to protect the contents thereof from the rays and the heat of the sun. Sec. 12. No person shall bottle any milk upon any delivery wagon or vehicle, or in any other place than a milk house, dairy or other building where milk is regularly stored and sold. Sec. 13. No person or dealer shall give, furnish, sell, or offer for sale, or deliver anj' milk, butter- milk, whey, sour milk, skimmed milk or cream in quantities less than one gallon, except in sanitary bottles, sealed with a suitable cap or stopper, and except where the milk is sold at the milk-house or dairy, when the same may be dipped (and the dipped milk shall not be carried on the street in any other than a covered vessel), but the milk-house, dairy or other place in which milk is handled or stored shall be located no less than 1.5 feet from any water closet or privy vault or cesspool, or auy horse or cow stable or any chicken or poultry yard or coop, and the milk house, dairy or other place shall be a room which is not used for any other purpose than the handling and storing of milk. Sec. 14. No person shall transfer any milk intended for sale from one can, bottle, or receptacle into another can, bottle, or receptacle, on any street alley or thoroughfare, or upon a delivery wagon or other vehicle or in any exposed place in the City of Cleveland, except in a creamery, milk depot, or in the enclosed premises of the customer of the dealer in milk. Sec. 15. No person shall remove from any dwelling in which exists any case of communicable disease, any bottles or other receptacles which have been or which are to be used for containing or storing milk, except with permission of the Health Ofiicer. Sec. 16. No person shall use any milk ticket more than once. Sec. 17. No person shall keep any cow without a permit from the Health Office. Sec. 18. No person or dealer shall sell, offer for sale or deliver any milk, buttermilk, whey, sour milk, skimmed milk, cream, Dutch cheese or other milk product in quantities exceeding one gallon unless the can or receptacle containing the same is securely sealed by lock and chain, wire or other con- trivance equally efficient, provided, however, that the persons or dealers engaged exclusively in the wholesale delivery or sale of milk, buttermilk, whej', sour milk, cream, skimmed milk, Dutch cheese or other milk pi-oduct from wagons not carrying milk in bottles, may deliver the same from unsealed cans or receptacles ; and provided, further, that said wagon or wagons shall have inscribed conspicuously thereon in plain letters, not less than three inches in height, the words : " Wholesale Delivery." Title I V. — Rules Governing the Inspection of Milk by the Dairy Inspectors. Sec. 1. The dairies of all persons shipping milk for sale in Cleveland will be inspected and rated according to the following provisions : — (a.) Guws. Condition and Healthfulness — Perfect Score 10. (Two points will be deducted if cows are in poor flesh, and eight points if not tuberculin tested.) Cleanliness — Perfect Score 5. (All cows clean, 5 ; good, 4 ; fair, 3 ; medium, 2 ; poor, 1 ; bad, 0.) (b.) Siables. Construction of Floors — Perfect Score 5. (If the floor is of cement or stone flag in good repair, 5 ; brick or matched board in good repair, 4 ; ordinary wooden floor in good repair, 3 ; one half wood and one half cement, 3 ; half wood, cement or other material and half dirt, 2 ; any material in poor repair, 1 ; if no floor allow 0.) Cleanliness — Perfect Score 5. (If stables are thoroughly clean, including windows, walls and ceiling, 5 ; deduction will be in proportion to dirt, cobwebs, &c.) Light — Perfect Score 5. (For four square feet per cow 5 points will be given ; 3 square feet per cow, 4 ; two square feet per cow, 3 ; one square foot per cow, 2 ; six square inches per Cow, 1 ; less than six square inches per cow, 0.) Ventilation — Perfect Score 4. (If ventilation is good 4 points will be given ; deductions will be made in proportion for lack of ventilation ; if all windows are closed and no attempt at ventilation is made will be allowed.) 476 APPENDIX I. Cubic Space per Cow — Perfect Score 3. (If five hundred cubic feet per cow, 8 points will be allowed ; less than five hundred and over four hundred cubic feet i)er cow, 2 ; less than four hundred and over three hundred cabic feet per c6w, 1 ; less than three hundred cubic feet per cow, will be allowed.) Removal of Manure — Perfect Score 2. (If manure is hauled to the fields daily, 2 points will be allowed ; removed thirty feet from stable, ] ; otherwise, 0.) Stable Yard— Perfect Score 1. (If stable yard is in good condition and well drained, 1 point will be allowed ; otherwiee, 0.) (c.) Water Supply. For Cows — Perfect Score 5. (If cows are supplied with pure running water, 5 points will be allowed ; running well water from wind mill or otherwise, 4 ; ordinary well water, 3 ; pond or other muddy water, 0.) For Milk House — Perfect Score 5. (If milk house is supplied with pure, clean running water, 5 points will be allowed ; pure well water, 3 ; otherwise, 0.) (d.) 31ilk House. Construction — Perfect Score 5. (If the floor is of cement or tight boards well drained, if the walls and ceiling are sound and the milk house is well lighted and ventilated and not attached by doorway to any other building, 5 points will be given ; if the milk house is in a barn or house, 2 points will be deducted and deductions will be made in proportion to deficiency in construction, light and repair. If there is no milk house will be allowed.) Equipment — Perfect Score 5. (If hot water is installed for cleaning utensils, 1 point will be given ; proper pails used for no other purpose, I ; proper strainers, I ; areator {sic), 1 ; soda or washing powder for utensils, 1 ; 1 point will be deducted for absence of any.) Cleanliness of Interior — Perfect Score ^. (If the interior is absolutely clean, including windows, 5 points will be allowed ; good condition, 4 ; medium, 3 ; fair, 2 ; poor, 1 ; bad, 0.) Cai-e and Cleanliness of Utensils — Perfect Score 5. (If all utensils are thoroughly clean and kept on suitable racks, 5 points will be allowed ; 2 points will be deducted for absence of rack ; deductions will be made for rusty utensils or careless washing. The lighting and ventilation of the milk house together with its location in regard to other buildings will be taken into consideration.) (e.) Milkers and Milking. Health of Attendants — Perfect Score 5. (If the attendants are all in a healthy condition, 5 points will be allowed ; if any of the attendants are sick or a contagious disease exists in the family, will be allowed.) Cleanliness of Milking — Perfect Score 10. (If milking is done in special suits for milking, with clean, dry hands and with attention to cleanliness of udders and teats before milking, 10 points will be given ; all of the above except special suits, 7 : in addition 4 points will be deducted for unclean teats or udder and 3 points for dirty hands ; if wet milking is done, will be allowed.) (f.) Handling the Milk. Prompt Cooling — Perfect Score 5. (If milk is poured from pail into cool receptacle as soon as milked, 5 points will be given ; if poured into can and can is put into cold water as soon as filled, 2 ; otherwise, 0.) Efficient Cooling — Perfect Score 5. (If the milk reaches a temperature of 60 degrees before being shipped, 5 points will be given ; a temperature of 65 degrees, 3 ; a temperature of 70 degrees, 1 ; above 70 degrees nothing will be allowed.) Storing at Low Temperature — Perfect Score 5. (If milk is stored at a temperature of 60 degrees, 5 points will be given ; a temperature of 65 degrees, 3 ; a temperature of 70 degrees, 1 ; above 70 degrees, will be allowed.) Sec. 2. All dairies will be scored by the inspector upon a card in the following form : — Owner or lessee of farm Town State Number of cows Quarts of milk produced daily Is product sold at wholesale or retail ? If shipped to dealer give name and address Permit No Date of inspection 190 Cows. Condition (2) Health (8) Cleanliness Stables. Construction of floors Cleanliness Light ... Ventilation Cubic space per cow Removal of manure (2) Cleanliness and drainage, stable yard (1) Perfect Score ■■ • 10 •• 5 5 5 5 4 3 FOOD REGULATIONS. ^77 Water Supply. For cows 5 For milk house ••• 5 Milk House. Construction... ... ... ... •-- .•- ••• ••• ••• ^ Equipment .. ... ... ... ••• ••■ ■•• ••• ■•• ^ Cleanliness ... ... •.• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• •* Care and cleanliness of utensils 5 Is house detached ? Lighted? Ventilated? Milkers and Milking. Health of attendants 5. Cleanliness of milking 10 Handling the Milk. Prompt cooling 5 Efficient cooling 5 Storing at low temperature 5 Total score 100 Sanitary conditions are — Excellent Good Medium Poor Suggestions by inspector Milk or cream from dairies falling below 4,'> in the rating as indicated above, will be excluded from sale in Cleveland during 190H ; milk or cream from dairies falling below .W will be excluded from sale in Cleveland during 190*.'. «• Title V. — Vegetables, Fruit, Bread, Pastry, Confections, &c. Sec. 1. No person shall bring into the city for sale, or shall sell or offer for sale, any decayed or damaged vegetables or fruit. Sec. 2. No person shall manufacture, or shall bring into the city for sale, or shall sell or offer for sale, bread stuffs, cake, pastry, candy, confections or other articles of food : (a.) Containing any substance which lowers, depreciates, or injuriously affects its quality, strength, purity or wholesomeness. (&.) Containing any cheaper or inferior substance than it is represented to contain, (c.) Which is in imitation of or sold under the name of any other article, (rf.) From which any valuable or necessary ingredient has been abstracted or omitted, (e.) Which is coloured, coated, polished, powdered or by any other means is made to appear of greater value than it is. Sec. 3. No person shall expose, sell or oflEer for sale, any bread stuffs, cake, pastry, candy, con- fectionery, or dried fruits, outside of any building, in any open window or doorway, or on any sidewalk, street, alley, or thoroughfare, except they be covered so as thoroughly to protect them from dust and dirt. Sec. 4. No person or dealer shall sell, offer for sale, or deliver any oysters in quantities less than five gallons, except in earthenware crocks or vessels of non-absorbent material. Sec. 5. No person shall sell or offer for sale any butter or cheese except the same be covered so as to protect it thoroughly from dust and dirt. Title VI. — Bake Shops and Confectionery Establishments. Sec. 1. Any place used for producing, mixing, compounding or baking, for selling or for the purpose of a restaurant, bakeshop, or hotel, any bread, biscuit, crackers, rolls, cake, macaroni, pie, or any food products, of which flour or meal is the principal ingredient, shall be deemed a bake shop. The regulations of this title shall apply also to places, rooms or buildings where candy is prepared or manufactured. Sec. 2. Any place used as a bake shop shall be provided with floors of closely-joined impervious material which can be thoroughly cleaned. Sec. 3. Every baker or other person in charge of any bake shop shall keep the floors, side walls, ceilings, woodwork, fixtures, tools, machinery and utensils in a thoroughly clean and sanitary condition ' and every bake shop shall be provided with adequate ventilation so as to insure a free cii'culation of air at all times. Sec. 4. The door and window openings of every bake shop shall, from May 1st to September 30th inclugive, be provided with sound screens of mesh sufiiciently fine to keep out flies and other insects. Sec. 5. The side walls and ceilings of every bake shop shall be well plastered or sheathed with metal, wood or tile. All plastered walls or ceilings shall be kept lime washed or calsomined or shall be painted with oil paint, and all wood work in every bake shop shall be well oiled and painted and washed clean. Sec. 6. Every bake shop shall be provided with adequate plumbing, including suitable wash stands and water closets. No water closets shall be entered from or shall be in direct communication with the bake shop. Every wash stand in a bake shop shall be provided with clean towels at all times. Sec. 7. No person shall sleep in a bake shop, and the sleeping places of persons employed in bake shops shall be kept separate from the place where flour or meal or food products are handled . or stored. Sec. 8. No domestic animals shall be permitted in a bake shop or place where flour or meal is stored in connection with a bake shop. 478 APPENDIX I. Sec. 9. Every owner or pei-son in charge of a bake shop shall be required to keep himself and his employees in a clean condition and suitably clothed while engaged in the production, handling, or selling of bakery products, and shall provide a dressing room separated from the bake shop and from the place where flour and meal is stored or kept. Sec. 10. Receptacles for expectoration of impervious material, cleaned at least once in every 24 hours, shall be maintained and kept by the person in charge of every bake shop and no attendant or other person shall spit on the floor, side walls or on any place in such a bake shop. Sec. 11. Smoking, snuflfing, or chewing tobacco is forbidden in a bake shop. Notice forbidding all persons to use tobacco or to spit on the floor or side walls shall be posted in every bake shop. Sec. 12. No person who has tuberculosis, a venereal, or other communicable disease shall work in a bake shop and no person in charge of such bake shop shall require, permit, or suffer such a person to be employed. Sec. 13. Every bake shop which shall not be kept in a cleanly condition, free from rats, mice and vermin and from matter of an infectious or contagious nature, is hereby declared to be a public nuisance and it shall be the duty of the Superintendent of Sanitation to cause the same to be abated. (3.) MUNICIPAL REGULATIONS RELATIVE TO THE HANDLING AND SALE OF MILK IN CHICAGO. (i.) Milk Depdts. Licence. Rule 1 . Application for Licence. — Application for a milk licence shall be made in writing to the Commissioner of Health. Such application shall set forth the name and residence of the applicant, if an individual, and the names and residences of the principal officers if the applicant is a corporation, together with the location of the place for which such licence is desired. Such application shall also state whether the milk is to be sold in a store, depot, or also from a delivery wagon. It shall further state whether the milk and cream is to be sold in bottles exclusively or in bulk and bottles. It shall also state if cows are to be kept, and if so shall state the number. Rule 2. Inspection and Investigation of Previous Record. — No application for licence shall be approved by the Commissioner of Health after May 1, 1908, if the records of the milk division show that the depot, store or any part of the establishment in which the business is to be conducted is in an unsanitary condition. If the applicant's record is not on file in the office, or if he is newly engaging in the milk business, an inspection of his place shall be made within five days after making the application, to determine the sanitary conditions. No application for licence shall be approved if applicant has a bad record. The applicant if refused a licence on account of bad sanitary conditions, or for repeated adultera- tions of milk and cream, may make application to the Commissioner of Health for a hearing. The Commissioner of Health may then recommend the applicant for a licence, if he is satisfied that the regulations of the Department will be complied with in the future. Rule 3. Revoking of Licence. — If at any time after the granting of such licence the holder fails to comply with the sanitary regulations of the Department, or repeatedly sells or offers for sale, or has in his possession for the purpose of selling, milk and cream below the grade prescribed by the ordinances or rules of the Department of Health, the Chief Food Inspector shall recommend to the Commissioner of Health that his licence be revoked with or without further notice. Said Commissioner of Health may grant the defendant a hearing, if he deems this necessary. Rule 4. Re-issuing of Revoked Licence. — If all the regulations of the Department have been complied with the Commissioner of Health may recommend that the licence be re-issued. Rule 5. Licence Exhibited. — Every milk dealer shall post his licence in a conspicuous place on the premises for which it has been issued. Milk Depots. Rule 6. Definition. — By " Milk Depot " is meant any place, house or room where milk is received from the farm, or large wholesale dealer in bottles or cans and prepared for distribution. The milk depot shall not be used for any other purpose, nor shall any other business be conducted therein. Rule 7. Where to be Established. — No milk depot shall be established or maintained in a room or rooms which communicate directly with any living rooms, kitchen, sanitary closet, laundry or stable and places where animals are kept or slaughtered. No milk depot shall be maintained which communicates in any way with a horse or cow barn and shall be separated therefrom by an air and odour proof partition or wall. After May Ist, 1908, milk depots shall not be maintained in any building where horses and cows are kept. The immediate vicinity of the milk depot, especially the place within ten feet of the doors and windows thereof, shall be kept free from the accumulations of rubbish, garbage, manure and any other putrefying, decomposing, infectious and bad smelling substances. Rule 8. Construction. — The floor shall be smooth, free from crevices and defects, and water tight. When below the street level it must be constructed of impervious material, such as cement, asphalt or tiles laid in cement. It shall be well drained and the drains must be trapped and ventilated. The walls and ceilings shall be smooth, tight and free from unnecessary projections, niches, &c., and kept well painted or lime washed. Windows. — Glass space corresponding to fifteen per cent, of the floor space shall be provided. All windows must be so located as to admit light freely, and be unobstructed. Screens. — Between May 1st and November 1st all windows shall be provided with fly and dust screens and all doors shall be provided with self-closing door screens. Ventilation. — All dep6ts shall be provided with adequate ventilation by means of windows, air shafts, air ducts or other mechanical apparatus, if required, so as to ensure free circulation of fresh air at all times. Rule 9. Wash Rooms. — Wherever milk is bottled or otherwise prepared a separate room shall be maintained for the purpose of receiving, storing and cleaning cans, bottles and utensils, known as the ♦* wash room." This shall be separated from that part of the milk depot where the milk is stored and FOOD REGULATIONS. 479 bottled, known as the " milk room," by a complete partition and door. The wash room shall be bo located that dirty utensils do not have to pass through or be received in the room where the milk is handled or prepared. The floor of the wash room shall be so arranged that its drainage does not run into the milk room. Dirty cans and utensils shall not be taken into, kept, or stored in the milk room. Rule 10. Appliances. — Vats shall be constructed preferably of impervious material and should have a smooth inner surface. They shall be provided with dust-proof covers and be drained indirectly into the sewer. The water in the vats shall be kept clean, sweet and free from sediment and odour. The vats shall always be kept clean, free from dust, slime, sediment or milk crusts. The temperature of the water shall not be above fifty degrees F. Refrigerator and Ice Boxes. — The inner wall of the compartment of the refrigerator and ice boxes where the milk is kept shall be smooth and preferably metal or porcelain lined. The floor shall be drained indirectly into the sewer. The milk compartment shall be kept clean and free from any odour. Nothing but milk, cream and butter shall be stored in the ice box. Bottling Machine. — The bottling machine shall be so constructed that it can readily be taken apart and cleaned, especially the springs and jilungers. It shall be cleaned thoroughly every daj', and when not in use it shall be kept covered with a clean cloth. Drying Racks. — Drying racks shall be provided on which bottles can be placed in an inverted position, for proper drainage and drying. In no instance shall bottles be inverted in bottle cases for the purpose of draining and drying. Pasteurizers and Separators. — Pasteurizers and separators shall be so constructed that all parts, including pipes, can be readilj' cleaned and sterilized. These appliances must be kept scrupulously clean, inside and outside, at all times. Rule 11. Utensils. — All shipping cans, bottles, dippers, skimmers, measures, strainers, stirrers and other utensils must be so constructed that all parts are absolutely free from spaces where milk can accumulate or hoak in, so that it cannot be removed by simple washing. The surface coming in contact with milk and cream must be smooth and free from excessive rust. All utensils must ba kept scrupulously clean, inside and outside, at all times. Utensils must be kept in good repair and free from rough suKfaces of any kind. When not in use they should be kept dry, inverted and on specially provided i-acks or hooks, when possible. Bottle caps must bo kept in clean, covered, dry and dust proof receptacles. Rule 12. Maintenance and Care. — The floor shall b(! kept clean and scrubbed. Dry sweeping and dusting is not to be permitted. The walls and ceiling, shelves, windows and all other surfaces must be clean and kept free from di7st by washing or wiping with a damp cloth. Unnecessary articles such as boxes, old utensils, reserve stock, blankets, harnesses, lanterns, paint cans, oil cans, and other articles not required in the milk business shall not be kept in the milk depot. Dogs and cats should be kept out. Children should not be permitted to play or gather in the milk depot. Rule 1;5. Attendants. — Every person in charge of such milk depot shall keep himself and his employees in a clean condition and cleanly clothed while engaged in the bottling, pouring, measuring, and skimming of milk. Smoking, snuffing or chewing of tobacco is forbidden in a milk depot, and a plain notice shall be posted forbidding all persons from using tobacco or spitting on the floor. Rule 14. Communicable Diseases. — No person with consuraj)tion, venereal diseases or communi- cable skin disease shall M'ork in a milk depot or engage in the handling of milk. When typhoid, scarlet fever, diphtheria, small pox, measles or chicken pox occur in the house or families of any one engaged in the handling of milk, it shall be the duty of the milk dealer to notify the Division of Food Inspection at once of this fact, so that the necessary regulations can be enforced in co-operation with the Bureau of Contagious Diseases to prevent the spread of disease. No one afflicted with or convalescent from typhoid, scarlet fever, diphtheria, small pox, measles, chicken pox, or any other communicable disease shall engage in the handling of milk or cream, nor enter a milk depot. When typhoid fever, scarlet fever, diphtheria or small pox exists in the house or families of any one engaged in the handling of milk, he shall at once discontinue his work in the milk depot and vehicles. The depot and wagon shall be declared infected, if any one witji or convalescent from typhoid, scarlet fevei', diphtheria, or small pox, or residing in a house or apartment where these diseases exist, has worked therein, together with all milk and cream therein, except such cans as are still properly sealed and closed and have not been opened smce they were closed and sealed in the country. No person convalescent from contagious disease or living in houses or premises in which contagious disease exists shall re-engage in the handling of milk until the Bureau of Contagious Diseases has enforced suitable quarantine regulations and the necessary disinfection has been done by the department. No individuals residing in a quarantined house or place shall be permitted to enter a milk depot. Rule 15. Operation. — All milk shall be stored at a temperature not above fifty degrees F. No can or bottle of milk shall be completely submerged in impure water or water from impure or insanitary ice. Impure ice, especially such ice sold for refrigerating purposes only, must not come in contact with milk and milk utensils or be used in water of milk vais. Sour milk must not be permitted to stand in the farmers' cans. Nothing except milk, cream or butter shall be permitted in the milk vats, ice boxes, and coolers. Returned empty bottles and other utensils must be thoroughly cleaned and sterilized before being taken into the milk room. City Dairies. No cow or cows shall be kept in the city for the purpose of producing milk, except in conformity with the following rules : — Rule 36. Permit to keep Cows required. — A permit to keep cows must be secured from the Health Department for each location, meaning thereby each barn or closely related system where such cows are to be kept. The a])plication for this permit must show : — (a) the number of cows : (b) the cubic feet of air space ; (c) the facilities for disposing of manure ; (d) the ventilation ; (e) the distance from human habitation ; (/) the facilities, for excluding flies, 480 APPENDIX I. Rnle 37. Location. — No cows Bhall be stabled within thirty feet of a residence, the distance being measured in a straight line from the nearest point of the stable to the nearest point occupied by a person. Rule 38. Construction. — A permit shall not be issued unless the facilities are such that the stable shall have ample ventilation, to wit : three thousand cubic feet of fresh air per cow or other animal per hour, or unless the stables are clean, well lighted and capable of being so maintained. Manure and urine must be cared for so as not to become a nuisance. The barn must be so constructed that flies cannot reach the animal or the manure. Rule 39. Revoking of Permit. — The permit shall be cancelled if the premises are not kept clean, or the manure is allowed to accumulate, flies breed or congregate therein, or the place becomes or is allowed to become a nuisance. Rule 40. Cows must be Free from Tuberculosis. — Cows kept for the purpose of producing milk shall be tested with tuberculin once each year. The results of such tests shall be open to the inspection of the Health Department at all times. No tubercular cow or markedly under nourished cow shall be allowed in any herd or stable, except a special permit be granted therefor. The milk from such cows shall be pasteurized at a temperature not less than one hundred and seventy-five degrees F. for more than thirty seconds in a stream not more than one-quarter of an inch thick before it shall be deemed tit for human food. Rule 41. Keeping and Care of Milk. — Milk from cows held in the city shall not be kept in the same room with the cows nor anj^ other animal, nor in any place ventilating into such room. Rule 42. Standards of Purity for such Milk. — The milk in all particulars shall conform to the same rules and regulations as those pertaining to country produced milk. Rule 43. Maintenance. — The stables shall be cleaned every day. The manure shall be hauled away every day from May 1st to October 1st and once a week for the remainder of the year, prov ided the stable is within two hundred feet of a house. If the distance to the nearest house is over two hundred feet then it shall be hauled away not less often than once a week. Rule 44. Keeping of Cows. — No cows shall be confined in any yard or tethered on any street or common within thirty feet of any dwelling, church, school, store or hall. Where an owner tethers a cow on a street or common he shall maintain the tether zone free from anything which may make it a nuisance. Rule 45. Maintenance of Nuisance Prohibited. — Nothing in these rules shall be construed as allowing the maintenance of a nuisance. Rule 57. Sanitary Standard for Milk. — All milk sold, ofl:ered for sale, kept with the intention of selling or sent to the city for the purpose of selling must be free from dirt, foreign material and sediment. Not more than a perceptible sediment shall be left on a piece of white linen cloth four inches square when a quart of well mixed milk is strained through it. .Milk on arrival in the city must not contain more than one million bacteria per cubic centimeter from ]\Iay 1st to September 30th and not over five hundred thousand bacteria per cubic centimeter between October 1st to April 30th. Milk for delivery to the consumer shall not contain an excessive number of bacteria. The sale of milk containing over three million bacteria per cubic centimeter is prohibited and the dealer selling or offering for sale such milk shall, after three examinations of his milk on successive days by the bacteriologist and showing bacterial counts above three million, is prohibited from selling milk until the method of production and handling of his milk supply has been properly regulated by the depart- ment. Tlie sale of milk containing tubercle, typhoid, diphtheria or other pathogenic bacteria is ])rohibited. The sale of milk containing excessive numbers of putrefying and gas producing micro- organisms is prohibited. Milk Delivery and Milk Vehicles. Rule 23. Transported in Closed Receptacles and in Covered Wagons. — Milk shall not be trans- ported in open or improperly closed cans aud receptacles. It shall be properly protected from the dust and the sun's niys with adequate covering. This covering shall bo clean, non-odourous and free from dust. Wagons used for the delivery of milk to consumers shall be covered with material that will allow of washing and shall always be kept clean. The interior of the wagon shall be kept clean, free from milk crusts and odour of any kind. Drivers' seats shall be divided off from the compart- ment or compartments where the milk and cream are kept. The compartments where milk and cream are kept shall be tight and opened only when necessarj' for the removal of their contents. Rule 24. Preparing and Bottling of Milk on Street Prohibited. — Milk and cream shall not be prepared or bottled in the street or in a vehicle. The distribution of milk and cream into specially constructed pouring cans shall be done in the milk depot, and is prohibited upon the street. Milk for delivery in bulk shall be carried in covered pouring cans, provided with a spout or faucet. Milk shall not be dipped from farmers' or stock cans for delivery to the consumer. Rule 25. Temperature of Milk. — The milk for delivery to the consumer on the wagons shall not be above seventy degrees F. Rnle 26. Utensils.— Here the same rules shall apply as for utensils used in the milk depot. See Rule 10. Rule 27. Attendants and Communicable Diseases. — Same rnle shall apply as for milk depots. See Rules 13 and 14. (ii.) Stores. f Ace t ice. Rule 1. Application for Licence. — As above. Rule 2, Inspection and Investigation of Previous Record. — As above. Rule 3. Revoking of Licence. — As above. Rule 4. Re-Issuing of Revoked Licence. — As above. Rule 5. Licence Exhibited. — As above. FOOD REGULATIONS. 481 Stores. Rule 28. Definition. — These shall include all places and rooms where milk is sold together with other foodstuffs, such as groceries, meats, bakery goods, delicatessen articles and confectionery. Rule 29. Location. — Such stores must be separated by tight fitting doors and a complete partition from living rooms, kitchen, laundries, sanitary closet, sleeping rooms and from places where horses, cattle, fowl and other animals are kept or slaughtered. Rule 30. Construction. — Stores where milk is sold must be properly lighted and ventilated. Between May 1st and November 1st the windows must be fitted with fly screens and the doors with self-closing door screens. Rule 31. Appliances. — Vats shall be the same as those required for milk depots. See Rule 10. The cover of the vat shall be so constructed that the dust does not fall into the box when the lid is raised. Ice Boxes and Refrigerators. — The compartment where milk and cream is kept shall be separated by an impervious water and odour proof partition from all other compartments and by a non-leaking partition from the ice chamber. The inner surface of this compartment where milk and cream is kept shall be smooth and preferably metal or porcelain lined. The floor shall be similarly constructed. Free and adequate drainage shall be provided ; the drain connecting indirectly with the sewer shall be trapped and ventilated. The ice box shall be kept scrupulously clean at all times and entirely free from any odour. Milk and cream shall not be kept in ice boxes with any other foodstuffs except butter. Milk shall not be kept in the ice box for the purpose of souring or making cheese. All milk and cream kept in such ice boxes shall be considered as milk and cream for sale and hence must be up to the standard required by the City Ordinance. Unclean utensils, cans and bottles shall not be kept in the ice box. The doors and covers of such ice boxes shall be dust proof and so constructed that upon opening the dust on the outer surface does not fall into the milk compartment. Rule 10. Appliances. — As above (1st clause). Rule 32. Utensils. — Utensils shall be kept in the manner as required for milk depots. See Rule 10. Rule 11. Utensils. — As above. Rule 33. Maintenance and Care. — The entire place shall be kept in a good sanitary condition and free from unnecessary articles, garbage and rubbish. The air shall be kept pure and free from deleterious odour. In the immediate vicinity of the vat and ice box, to a distance of at least five feet, no fermenting or putrefying substances or things with deleterious odours shall be kept, such as cheese, pickles, sauer kraut, fresh, salted and smoked fish, soap, aromatic oils. Kerosene and kerosene cans shall be kept fifteen feet distance from the milk boxes. Rule 34. Communicable Diseases. — Same rules as for milk depots. See Rule 14. Rule 14. Communicable Diseases. — As above. Rule 35. Operation. — All milk shall be stored at a temperature not above fifty degrees F. No can or bottle of milk shall be completely submerged in impure water or water from impure or insanitary ice. Sour milk must not be permitted to stand in the farmers' cans. Empty cans and bottles must be cleaned and washed with hot water before returning to the wholesale dealer or farmer. In selling bulk milk stir up the contents of the can thoroughly and thus prevent unintentional skimming. Rule 57. Sanitary Standard for Milk. — As above. An Ordinance Prohibiting the Sale of Bulk Milk in Stores — Passed by the City Council June 22, 1908. Sec. 1. No person, firm or corporation shall sell, offer for sale, expose for sale or keep with the intention of selling any milk or cream in stores or in other places where other merchandise than milk or cream is sold unless the milk or cream is kept, offered for sale, exposed for sale, or sold in tightly closed and capped bottles or receptacles of a similar character, such as shall be approved by the Commissioner of Health of the City of Chicago. Sec. 2. Any person, firm or corporation who shall violate any of the provisions of Section 1 shall be fined not less than five nor more than one hundred dollars for each offence. Sec. 3. This ordinance shall be in full force and effect from and after its passage and due publication. (iii.) Ordina?ice requiring Tuberculin Test of Cows. Be it ordained by the City Council of the City of Chicago : Milk. Sec. 1. No milk, cream, buttermilk or ice cream shall be sold, offered for sale, exposed for sale or kept with the intention of selling within the City of Chicago after January 1st, A.D. 1909, unless such milk or cream or the milk or cream contained in buttermilk and ice cream, be obtained from cows that have given a_ satisfactory negative tuberculin test within one year ; the cows having been satisfactorily tested shall be marked " tuberculin tested " and shall be numbered and a certificate shall be filed with the division of milk inspection of the Department of Health of the City of Chicago upon forms furnished by the Commissioner of Health, giving the number, a brief description of the animal, the date of the taking of said test and the name of the owner. Said certificate shall be signed by the person making such test ; provided, however, that from January 1st, 1909, for a period of five years, to wit, until January 1st, 191i, milk or cream or buttermilk and ice cream made from milk or cream, obtained from cows not tuberculin tested or not free from tuberculosis, may be sold within the City of Chicago if the milk or cream from said cows is pasteurized according to the rules and regulations of the Department of Health of the City of Chicago. 482 APPENDIX I. Sec. 2. Any milk, cream, buttermilk or ice cream offered for sale, exposed for sale or kept with the intention of selling witliin the City of Chicago which shall bo found within the City in violation of Section 1, shall be forthwith seized, condemned and destroyed by the milk and food inspectors or other duly authorized agens or employees of the Department of Health of the City of Chicago. Sec. 3. This ordinance shall be in full force and effect from and after January 1st, 1909. Butte7\ Be it ordained by tfie City Council of the Gity of Chicago : Sec. 1. No butter shall be sold or offered for sale or kept with the intention of selling in the City of Chicago after January 1st, 1909, unless such butter be made from milk or cream obtained from cows that have given a satisfactory negative tuberculin test within one year ; provided, however, that from January 1st, 1909, for a period of five years, to wit, until January 1st, 1914, butter made of milk obtained from cows not tuberculin tested or not free from tuberculosis may be sold in the City of Chicago if the milk or cream from which such butter was made was pasteurized according to the rules and regulations of the Department of Health of the City of Chicago. Sec. 2. It shall be unlawful to sell any butter in the City of Chicago, unless there be stamped on the package in plainly legible letters of not less than one-eighth inch type : " Made of milk (or cream) from cows free from tuberculosis as shown by tuberculin test," or, " Made from milk (or cream) pasteurized according to the rules and regulations of the Department of Health of the City of Chicago." Sec. 3. Any butter offered for sale, exposed for sale or kepi with the intention of selling in the City of Chicago, which shall be found within the city in violation of this ordinance, shall be forthwith seized, condemned and destroyed by the milk and food inspectors or other duly authorized agents or employees of the Department of Health of the City of Chicago. Sec. 4. This ordinance shall be in full force and effect from and after January Ist, 1909. Cheese. Be it ordained by the City Council of the City of Chicago : Sec. 1. No domestic cheese shall be sold or offered for sale or kept with the intention of selling in the City of Chicago after January 1st, 1909, unless such cheese be made from milk or cream obtained from cows that have given a satisfactory negative tuberculin test within one year ; provided, however, that from .January 1st, 1909, for a period of five years, to wit, until January 1st, 1914, domestic cheese made of milk obtained from cows not tuberculin tested or not free from tuberculosis, may be sold in the City of Chicago if the milk or cream from which such cheese was made was pasteurized according to the rules and regulations of the Department of Health of the City of Chicago. Sec. 2. It shall be unlawful to sell any such cheese in the City of Chicago unless there be stamped on the package in plainly legible letters of not less than one-eighth inch type : " Made of milk (or cream) from cows free from tuberculosis as shown by tuberculin test," or '' Made from milk (or cream) pasteurized according to the rules and regulations of the Department of Health of the City of Chicago." Sec. 3. Any cheese offered for sale, exposed for sale, or kept with the intention of selling in the City of ('hicago, which shall be found within the city in violation of this ordinance, shall be forthwith seized, condemned and destroyed by the milk and food inspectors or other dulj' authorized agents or employees of the Department of Health of the City of Chicago. Sec. 4. This ordinance shall be in full force and effect from and after January ist, 1909. (4) BAKERY ORDINANCE OF CHICAGO. Sec. 1. Any place used for any process of mixing, compounding or baking, for sale or for purposes of a restaurant, bakery or hotel, any bread, biscuits, pretzels, crackers, buns, rolls, macaroni, cake, pies, &c., or any food product of which flour or meal is a principal ingredient, shall be deemed a bakery for the purposes of this ordinance. Sec. 2. No person, firm or corporation shall establish, maintain or operate any such bakery without having first been licensed so to do by the city, except that no licence shall be required for the purpose of conducting a private bakery in the kitchen of a dwelling, where the baking is done in an ordinary kitchen range. Every person or corporation establishing, maintaining or operating any such bakery shall annually, on the first day of May of each year, pay a licence fee of $5 per year for a licence for each bakery so maintained, which licence shall be issued for a period ending with the first day of May following ; provided, however, that upon furnishing proof satisfactory to the Commissioner of Health and to the City Collector that the applicant was not theretofore liable for the licence fee and maintained no bakery without a licence prior to the date fixed in the application, a licence may be issued for the unexpired half of a municipal year upon payment in advance at the rate of Five Dollars per year, as hereinbefore specified. Sec. 3. Any person or corporation desiring to establish, maintain or operate a bakery, as defined in this ordinance shall make application in writing to the Commissioner of Health for a licence. Such application shall set forth the name and residence of the applicant if an individual, or the names and residences of the principal officers of the applicant if a corporation, together with the location of the place for'which such licence is desired. Such application shall also state the maximum number of persons to be employed in such bakery, the number of rooms or apartments therein, and any other facts concerning the proposed bakery which the Commissioner of Health may desire to have stated in such application. Sec. 4. Within five days after the receipt of such application it shall be the duty of the Commissioner of Health to make, or cause to be made, an examination of the place described in such FOOD REGULATIONS. 483 application, for the purpose of ascertaining wliether tlie location of such proposed bakery, the construction and lighting thereof, the amount of space therein and the sanitary arrangements are sufficient so that the public health or the health of the persons to be employed in such proposed bakery will not be endangered. If the said Commissioner shall be satisfied that the proposed bakery will be kept and maintained in accordance with the provisions of this ordinance, he shall transmit such application to the Mayor, with his approval endorsed thereon ; whereupon the Mayor shall issue, or cause to be issued, to such applicant upon payment to the City Collector of the licence fee herein required, a licence authorizing such applicant to keep, conduct or maintain a bakery at the place described in such application, for and during the period of such licence. No licence for the keeping of a bakery shall be issued unless the application for such licence shall be approved by the Commissioner of Health. Sec. 5. If at any time after the granting of such licence the Commissioner of Health shall certify to the Mayor that the public health or the health of the persons employed in any such bakery is endangered by the maintenance of such bakery, it shall be the duty of the Mayor to revoke the licence therefor. Sec. 6. Every such licence granted under the provisions of this ordinance shall be posted in a conspicuous place in the bakery for which such licence is issued. Sec. 7. Every place used as a bakery shall be kept in a thoroughly clean and sanitary condition as to its floors, sidewalls, ceilings, woodwork, fixtures, furniture, tools, machinery, and utensils. All rooms used for that purpose shall be provided with adequate ventilation by means of windows, air shafts or air ducts and other mechanical apparatus, if required, so as to insure a free circulation of fresh air at all times. The doors and window openings of every such bakery shall, during the summer season, be fitted with self-closing wire screen doors and wire window screens. The sidewalls and ceilings shall be well plastered or sheathed with metal or wood sheathing or tiled. All plastered walls and ceilings shall be kept well lime-washed or calcimined, or shall be coated with oil paint, and all interior wood- work in every such room shall be kept well oiled or painted with oil paint and washed clean. Every sach bakery shall be provided with adequate plumbing and drainage facilities, including suitable wash sinks and water closets. No water closet shall be entered from or shall be in direct communication with a bakery. Sec. 8. No person shall sleep in a bakery, and sleeping places of the persons employed in a bakery shall be separate from the rooms where flour or meal or food products are liandled or stored. If the sleeping places are on the same floor as the bakerj^ the Commissioner of Health shall require them to be maintained in a dry and sanitary condition. No domestic animals, except cats, shall be permitted in a bakery or place where flour or meal is stored in connection with a bakery, and suitable provisions shall be made to prevent nuisance from the presence of cats. Every owner or person in charge of such bakery shall be required to maintain himself and his employees in a clean condition and suitably clothed while engaged in any process of manufacturing, handling or selling of bakery products. Cuspidors of impervious material and kept in clean condition shall be provided and maintained by the person in charge of every bakery, and no employee or other person shall spit on the floor or sidewalls of the bakery or place where the food products of such bakery are stored. The smoking, snuffing or chewing of tobacco is forbidden in a bakery. Plain notices shall be posted in every such place forbidding all persons from using tobacco or spitting on the floor. No person who has consumption, scrofula, or venereal disease, or any communicable skin disease, shall work in any bakery, and no owner or person in charge of such bakery shall require, permit or suffer such person to be employed in any bakery. Sec. 9. No person, firm or corporation shall store flour or meal for the use of such establishment or for the manufacture of food products except in dry and well ventilated rooms. Every bakery and room used for the storage of materials and food products shall be so arranged that the shelves, cupboards, trays, troughs, bins, cases and all other appliances for handling and storing the same can be easily removed, perfectly cleaned, and no such materials or products shall be stored in rooms having floors below the street level at a distance less than one foot above the floor of the room. Sec. 10. Every bakery which shall not be kept in a cleanly condition and free from rats, mice and vermin and from matter of an infectious or contagious nature is hereby declared to be a public nuisance, and it shall be the duty of the Commissioner of Health to cause the same to be abated. Sec. 11. No bakery shall be established after the passage of this ordinance in any room, basement or cellar in which the clear height between the finished floor and the finished ceiling is less than eight feet and six inches, or in any basement or cellar which is not well drained and thoroughly dry, or in, any such location which is not in such communication with the outer air as to allow of adequate lighting and ventilation without the use of windows opening directly upon the street, sidewalk or alley, and no such bakery shall hereafter be established in any room or place, the floor of which is at a depth greater than five feet below the street, sidewalk or alley level adjacent to the building. The floor below the street level in all bakeries shall be constructed of impervious material, cement or asphalt, or of tiles laid in cement, and may, if desired, be covered with a hardwood floor having tight joints. (Sec. 12 is cancelled by an amendment of June 22nd, 1908.) Sec. 13. The Commissioner of Health and the inspectors and employees of the Department of Health, shall have the right at all times to enter and inspect and make such record of the condition of any bakery as they may deem necessarj', and if such inspection shall disclose a lack of conformity with this ordinance the Commissioner of Health shall require such changes, alterations and renovations as he may deem necessary to restore compliance with this ordinance. Sec. 14. Any person or corporation violating any of the provisions of this ordinance shall be fined not less than ten dollars nor more than one hundred dollars for each offence. Every day on which any such bakery shall be maintained, kept, carried on, or operated in violation of the terms of this ordinance shall be construed as a separate and distinct offence. Sec. 15. Sections 187 and 188 of Chapter 18 of the Revised Municipal Code of Chicago of 190.5 are hereby repealed. Sec. 16. This ordinance, excepting as hereinbefore provided, shall take effect from and after its passage, approval and due publication. 16576 2 I 484 APPENDIX I. (5.) MILK "SCORE CARDS" ADOPTED BY THE INSPECTORS OF THE NEW YORK DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH. (The Annual Report of the Department of Health for the administrative year ending December 31st, 1907, states (p. 140) : — " The success of the Score Card system in its practice has been best shown, perhaps, by the action of a number of the larger milk companies in giving notice to their patrons that in the future the full contract price will apply only to those dairies scoring GO per cent, or over ; a somewhat lower price being given for milk from dairies scoring under 60 per cent, and the milk from dairies scoring under 50 per cent, not being accepted at all. In certain instances a premium is paid for the milk from dairies scoring 70 per cent, and over.") 184 F— 1908. File No (i.) Dairy Inspection Score Card. Department op Health. City of New York. Perfect Score 100 per cent. Score Allowed per cent. Division of Inspections. 190 .State Dairy Inspection. 1. Inspection No Time A.P.M. Date. 2. Dairyman P.O. Address 3. Township ; County 4. Owner Party Interviewed 5. Milk delivered at Formerly at 6. Creamery on R.R Branch Miles to N.Y 7. Creamery operated by Address 8. Distance of farm from creamery Occupied farm since 9. No. of Cows No. Milking No. Quarts produced 10. All persons in the households of those engaged in producing or handling milk are free from all infectious disease 11. Date and nature of last case on farm 12. A sample of the water supply on this farm taken for analysis 190 and found to be 13. Size of cow barn, length feet. Width feet. Height of ceiling 14. Dairy Rules of the Department of Health are posted Perfect. Allow. Stable. 15. Cow stable is located on elevated ground with no stagnant water, hog- pen, or privy within 100 feet 16. Floors are constructed of concrete or some non -absorbent material 17. Floors are properly graded and water-tight 18. Drops are constructed of concrete, stone or some non-absorbent material 19. Drops are water-tight 20. Feeding troughs, platforms or cribs are well lighted and clean 21. Ceiling is constructed of and is tight and dust proof 22. Ceiling is free from hanging straw, dirt or cobwebs 23. Windows No total square feet There is 2 square feet of window light for each 600 cu. ft. air space 24. Window panes are washed and kept clean ... 25. Ventilation consists of which is sufficients, fair 1, insufficient ... 26. Air space is .'...cubic feet per cow. (600 and over-3) (500 to 600-2) (400 to 500-1) (under 400-0) 27. Interior of stable painted or whitewashed on which is satisfactory 2, fair 1, never 28. Walls and ledges are free from dirt, dust, manure or cobwebs 29. Floors and premises are free from dirt, rubbish or decayed animal or vegetable matter 30. Cow beds are clean 31. Live stock, other than cows, are ..excluded from rooms in which milch cows are kept 32. There is direct opening from barn into silo or grain pit 33. Bedding used is clean, dry and absorbent 34. Separate building is provided for cows when sick 35. Separate quarters are provided for cows when calving 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 FOOD REGULATIONS. 485 Perfect. Allow. 36. Manure is removed daily to at least 200 feet from the barn ( ft.) 37. Manure pile is so located that the cows cannot get at it 38. Liquid matter is absorbed and removed daily and allowed to overflow and saturate ground under or around cow barn Gotv Yard. 39. Cow yard is properly graded and drained .. 40. Cow yard is clean, and free from manure ... Cows. 41. Date. .190... Cows have been examined by Veterinarian. Report was Cows have been tested by tuberculin, and all tuberculous cows removed Cows are all in good flesh and condition at time of inspection ... Cows are all free from clinging manure and dirt. (No. dirty ) 45. Long hairs are kept short on belly, flanks, udder and tail 46. Udder and teats of cows are thoroughly cleaned before milking All feed is of good quality and all grain and coarse fodders are free from dirt and mould ... Distillerj waste or any substance in a state of fermentation or putrefaction is fed Water supply for cows is unpolluted and plentiful 42. 43. 44. 47 48, 49 Milkers and Milking. 50. Attendants are in good physical condition ... 51. Clothing of milkers is clean ... 52. Hands of milkers are washed clean before milking 53. Milking is done with dry hands 54. Fore milk or first few streams from each teat is discarded 55. Milk is strained at and in clean atmosphere 56. Milk is cooled to below 50° F. within two hours after milking and kept below 50° F. until delivered to the creamery ° 57. Milk from cows within 15 days before or 5 days after parturition is discarded Utensils. 58. Milk pails have all seams soldered flush ... 59. Milk pails are of the small mouthed design, top opening not exceeding 8 inches in diameter. Diameter 60. Milk utensils are rinsed with cold water immediately after using and washed clean with hot water and washing solution 61. Racks are provided to expose milk pails to live steam or to the sun 62. Milking stools are clean Milk House. 63. Milk house has hog-pen, manure pile or privy within 100 feet 64. Milk house has direct communication with building 65. Milk house has sufficient light and ventilation 66. Floor is properly graded and water-tight 67. Milk house is free from dirt, rubbish and all material not used in the handling and storage of milk 68. Milk house has running or still supply of pure clean water 69. Ice is used for cooling milk and is cut from Water. 70. Water supply for utensils is from a located feet deep and apparently is pure, wholesome and uncontaminated ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 71. Is protected against flood or surface drainage 72. Privy or cesspool is located within 100 feet ( feet) of source of water supply ... 73. Stable, barn-yard, pile of manure or other source of contamination is located within 200 feet ( feet) of source of water supply 100 1«576 Inspector of Foods. 212 486 APPENDIX I. 175 F— 1908 (ii.) Creamery Score Card. Department of Health. City of New York. Perfect Score 100. Score allowed per cent. Creamery Report. Date 190. .Miles to N.Y. Division of Inspections. File Inspection No Time A. P. M. Location P.O. Address Countv State On....." R. R Branch Owner Address Operator Address Manager is licensed. Number of help All persons engaged in handling milk are free from any infectious disease. Number of patrons Average Butter Fat test for dairies at present Milk received daily Lbs., Qts., Cana Milk train leaves daily at A.P.M. Arrives at N.Y. Milk Platform. Method of Pasteurizing Machine used Cream is made by hand-skimming, separating Living quarters are located in Creamery. Butter, Cheese, Condensed Milk, Casein or Milk Sugar are made on the premises. Department of Health Rules are posted. Shipments to Customers. Name "1 Cans Milk 1 Address . Name . . . . Address . .Cases Cream .Cans Milk .Cases Cream Marks. Marks. Perfect Score. Allowed. 1. Premises surrounding creamery are clean ... 2. Receiving room is partitioned off from main milk room 3. Weigh vats and storage tanks are covered when in use ... 4. Milk handling room is used exclusively for handling milk 5. Is separate from where cans are washed 6. Is separate from where engine or boiler is located 7. Is well lighted by windows b. All odours and steam are carried to the outside air 9. Walls and ceiling are sheathed and dust-tight 10. Are painted with some light coloured paint 11. All ledges are clean and free from dust and dirt 12. Floors are free from dirt, rubbish or pools of drainage ... 13. Are made of concrete, stone or some non-absorbent material ... 14. Are water-tight 15. Are so graded that all drainage is discharged at one or more points ... 16. Strainers in floor are at least 6 inches in diameter 17. Space beneath creamery is dry 18. Is free from waste or rubbish 19. Drains are of earthenware or iron ... 20. Are water-tight 21. Are continuous from the floor level to point of disposal 22. Are protected against freezing 23. Drainage is satisfactorily disposed of 24. Milk pumps and pipes for milk, can be readily taken apart 25. Are thoroughly cleaned daily 26. All steam and water pipes are painted and clean 27. Milk vats are in good repair 28. All tin joints are soldered flush 29. Are thoroughly cleaned daily 30. Milk cans are washed with hot water and washing solution 31. Ai-e rinsed out with clean water 32. Are exposed to live steam for at least two minutes 33. All milk is.-. protected from dust and dirt while in pools 34. Is protected while in mixing vats or over aerators 35.18 received at a temperature not above 60° F 36.1b kept below 50° while held or handled on premises 37. Cooling tanks are water-tight 38. Are made of some non-absorbent material 39. Are supplied daily with clean water or filled with clean ice 40. Water supply is ample for all the needs of the creamery 41. Water supply is apparently free from all contamination and Ib from 42. Storage tank for water is cleaned regularly 43.1s covered or protected against dirt 44. Attendants are cleanly in their habits 45. Garments worn by such employees are clean 46. Privy, water closet, earth closet, tight vault is satisfactorily located ... 47. Is in a cleanly condition 48. Spitting or smoking in any part of the building is allowed Remarks 2 2 4 1 1 1 2 3 2 1 2 2 5 2 2 1 3 1 2 2 2 1 5 1 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 o 2 3 2 1 1 1 5 10 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 100 .Inspector of Foods. FOOD REGULATIONS. 487 Address. Name.... (iii.) Milk Store Score Card. Department op Health : City op New York. Borough of Permit No Granted Business Date of Inspections. .190. Perfect Score. 1. General surroundings are clean, 10. Fairly clean, 5. Dirty, 10 1 1 1 i 2. Ventilation is good, 2. Fair, 1. Bad, 2 — — 1 1 1 I 1 3. Lighting is good, 2. Fair, 1. Bad, 2 — i 1 1 4. Walls and ceiling are clean, 2. Dirty, 2 5. Floors are clean, 2. Fairly clean, 1. Dirty, 2 1 — — — 6. Attendants are apparently free from contagious disease ... 8 7. Are cleanly in their habits 4 8. Wear clean clothing 3 — - ! 9. Wear clean, white suits 2 10. Store is selling milk exclusively, 15. Is selling milk, dairy products, and goods in sealed packages, 10. Is selling milk and bakery products, 8. Is selling milk and cooked foods, or general groceries, G 15 1 — — — 11. Milk after its receipt and before sale is kept in a cleanly manner 4 12. At a temperature not above 50^ F., 5. Otherwise, 5 — — — — — — 13. Milk during sale is kept in a clean, properly drained ice box, used only for milk, 15 15 Other foods kept in ice box, 8. Milk kept in a clean, well covered ice tub, 10 14. Utensils are clean, 5. Dirty, 5 15. Are sterilized before use 2 16. Seams are soldered flush 1 17. Milk kept at a temperature of 45° F. or below, 15. 45^^ to 50^ 10. 50° to 55°, 3. 55° or above, 15 — 18. A lactometer is used in testing the milk 1 19. A thermometer is used in testing the milk 2 — — — - — — I — Total score 100 Remarks : Dealers Supplying Milk. 1 on a 1 16576 2 13 488 . APPENDIX I. K.— THE CRUSADE AGAINST TUBERCULOSIS IN NEW YORK. The following measures operative in New York are enumerated in ' The Campaign against Tuberculosis in tlie United States," compiled under the direction of the National Association for the Study and Prevention of Tuberculosis, by Philip P. Jacobs (New York, 1908), pp. 388, 38!* : — "The revised Sanitary Code of 18?8 contains complete prohibition of promiscuous spitting in public. The law, however, is very poorly enforced, as a general rule. " After a period of preliminary study and observation lasting seven years, the Board of Health passed a series of resolutions on February ]3th, 1894, designed to assist in the accomplishment of its aims for the suppression of this disease. One of these resolutions involved the reporting of certain classes of tuberculosis. In compliance with it, 4,166 cases were reported in 1894 : 5,818 in 1895, and 8,344 in 1896, and the Department was enabled without opposition, or the imposition of undue hardship upon individuals, to extend its educational work and protect a large number of persons from exposure to infection. By the year 1907 the Department was receiving annually reports of over 22,000 cases. " In order to establish more firmly, and to extend the work carried on under the resolutions above mentioned on January 19th, 1897, the following amendment to the Sanitary Code was adopted by the Board of Health. "Section 153. — That pulmonary tuberculosis is heieby declared to be an infectious and communicable disease, dangerous to the public health. It shall be the duty of every physician in this citj- to report to the Sanitarj' Bureau in writing, the name, age, sex, occupation, and address of every person having such disease who has been attended by, or who has come under the observation of, such physician for the first time, within one week of such time. It shall also be the duty oiE the commissioners or managers, or the principal, superintendent, or physician of each and every public or private institution or dispensary in this city, to report to the Sanitary Bureau in writing, or to cause such report to be made by some proper and competent person, the name, age, sex, occupation, and last address of every person afflicted with this disease, who is in their care, or who has come under their observation within one week of such time. It shall be the duty of everj- person sick with this disease, and of the authorities of public and private institutions or dispensaries, to observe and enforce all the sanitary rules and regulations of the Board of Health for preventing the spread of pulmonary tuberculosis." (In the present Sanitary Code, Sections 133 and 138, all forms of tuberculosis are considered to be infectious and communicable.) "The objects in view were both to prevent the extension of pulmonary tuberculosis, and also to promote the recovery of those already suffering with the disease. The Health Department estimates that 85 per cent, of all living cases are reported. This system of registration has resulted in a steady reduction of the death-rate from tuberculosis, in spite of the large increase in population. "The activities of the Health Department of Greater New York may be summarised along the five following lines : — " 1. All cases of pulmonary tuberculosis occurring in the city of New York are registered at the Department of Health. " 2. Every person suffering from pulmonary tuberculosis is furnished with instructions as to the measures to be taken to prevent its extension. " 3. All premises which have been occupied by persons suffering from pulmonary tuberculosis are, on death or removal, disinfected with formaldehyde, or renovation is ordered. "4. Charitable assistance or hospital care is provided so far as is possible for all cases wishing or requiring such assistance or care. "5. The general public is educated as to the nature of the disease, the precautions to be taken against its spread, the advisability of institution and sanatorium treatment, &c. " The Health Department conducts three special tuberculosis clinics, a hospital for advanced cases, and a sanatorium for incipient cases. The Department of Charities conducts a large hospital on Blackwell's Island, and is building a hospital of eight hundred beds on Staten Island. "The educational work of the Health Department includes the distribution of literature in large quantities, holding of exhibitions, and the giving of free public lectures." The New York Department of Health has published a " Handbook of Help for persons suffering from pulmonary tuberculosis (consumption)," in which the following occurs : — What to do for Persons Suffering from Pulmonary Tuberculosis. 1. Diagnosis. The first step to be taken in a suspected case of pulmonary tuberculosis is to make sure that the patient is suffering from the disease. Any person, child or adult, suffering from persistent cough, loss of weight, &c. (sec Section II), should be referred to their own physician for examination. If unable to pay a private physician they should be referred to one of the special tuberculosis dispensaries. (See Directory of Dispensaries and Clinics, Section VI.) In the Borough of Manhattan ample and excellent provision is made for the diagnosis and treatment of cases of pulmonary tuberculosis by the Association of Tuberculosis Clinics. This consists of seventeen special dispensaries, each caring for all patients coming from a certain section of the city and each having a capable staff of attending physicians, and also a staff of nurses who visit the patients at their lionies in order to see that the necessary jjrecautions are observed, that the advice given is followed out, and that any untoward circumstances be abolished as far as possible. All applicants living outside of the dispensary district wherein they seek dispensary care are refused treatment at the said dispensary of original application, and are referred by card to the dispensary caring for the district of their residence. So that before referring the patient to one of TUBERCULOSIS. 489 these dispensaries care should be taken that the patient goes to the proper dispensary. Patients who can only attend at night are given treatment at the Manhattan and Brooklyn Clinics of the Department of Health. An early physical examination by a competent phj-sician, or at a special tuberculosis dispensary, often discloses the unsuspected presence of tuberculosis, which, if treated in time, may be arrested. Neglect and carelessness have much to do with the high death rate from tuberculosis. Last year 10,147 persons died in New York City from this largely preventable and often curable disease. 2. ExaminaLion of Sputum. Send a specimen of sputum to the Department of Health, 55th street and Sixth avenue. New York City, or to one of the drug stores throughout the city acting as a supply station of the Depart- ment. (A directory of these drug stores will be sent on request.) The examination of the expectoration or sputum from suspected cases of tuberculosis is essential for diagnosis. Many heretofore unsuspected cases are recognized in this way. The Department of Health examines such specimens free of charge, sending the report to the attending physician, the organization, institution or layman forwarding the specimen, or to the patients themselves if there is no physician in attendance. No charge is made for ihe exaniina,tion. Well-corked sputum jars and blank slips for information can be obtained free at any of the numerous drug stores throughout the city which are depots for the diagnostic outfits, antitoxin and vaccine issued by the Department of Health. After obtaining the specimen in accordance with the instructions given on the sputum slip, the specimen and slip are to be left at the same drug store, whence they will be taken to the Diagnosis Laboratory of ihe Department of Health, examined and the report sent as stated above. In connection with the examination of sputum two things must be borne in mind : 1. The failure to find tubercle bacilli in the sputum does not mean that the person has not tuberculosis. Bacilli do not usually appear until the disease is moderately well advanced, and are usuallj' absent in early or incipient cases. The bacilli may not be found on the first one or two examinations, and be present later. So several specimens should be sent in doubtful cases. 2. The number of bacilli found has little or no relation to the extent of the disease. Sputum from very early cases may show innumerable bacilli, while that from old chronic cases may fail to contain them at all. But the more numerous the bacilli and the more profuse the expectoration, the more dangerous the patient is to others. 3. The Treatment of Tuberculosis at Home. Refer capes to one of the special tuberculosis clinics. (See Section III, 1 and Section VI.) As a rule, sufferers from pulmonary tuberculosis are better off in sanatoria or in hospitals than at their homes. In some cases, however, the patient will not or cannot leave the city, being forced to continue at work, &c. Such patients, if unable to pay a private physician, will receive free treatment and advice at one of the special tuberculosis dispensaries. Nurses visit them at their homes and give full oral and written instructions as to how they should live and what precautions they should take in order to avoid transmitting the disease to others. Medicines are furnished free, also paper spit cups, &c. Arrangements are also made for daily outings on ferry boats (" day camps ") by the Health Department, Vanderbilt, and Bellevue tuberculosis clinics. 4. Charitable Assistance. Refer cases to one of the various charitable organizations. In cases where it seems advisable to give charitable aid to the patients or their families in the form of money, groceries, coal, ice, &c., the various large charitable organizations should be notified by letter or telephone ; for non-Jewish cases either the Association for the Improvement of the Condition of the Poor, 105 East 22d street ; or the Charity Organization Society, 10.") East 22d street ; for Jewish cases, the United Hebrew Charities of the City of New York, 35G Second avenue ; for Brooklyn cases, the Brooklyn Bureau of Charities, 69 Schermerhorn street, Brooklyn, &c. Visitors are sent to investigate the case and proper steps are taken to give relief. 5. The Removal of Early Favourable Cases to Sanatoria. Refer cases to the Department of Health, or to one of its borough offices. The best results in the treatment of tuberculosis are obtained by the provision of plenty of fresh air, rest and suitable food, together with such meilicines as may be required. All these requirements are best met by treatment in a country sanatorium, such as the N. Y. State Hospital for Incipient Tuberculosis at Ray Brook in the Adirondacks, the Otisville Sanatorium of the Department of Health, &c. Almost all the country sanatoria receiving cases from New York set a limit on the class of cases received, only incipient or early favourable cases being taken. By incipient tuberculosis is meant the very early stage of the disease, where the amount of lung involved is very small (usually the extreme upper portion of one lung), where there is no fever or other constitutional disturbance, and in which the sputum does not contain any tubercle bacilli. The presence of tubercle bacilli in the sputum usually means the softening and breaking down of the lung and that the disease has progressed beyond the incipient stage. " Early favourable " cases may show a larger amount of involvement of the lung and bacilli in the sputum, but should have no fever, and should be in fair physical health and able to do light work if required. As it is of the greatest importance that treatment should be Iwgun early, application for admission to a sanatorium should be made immediately upon the diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis being confirmed. As these patients often feel so well it is often ditticult to convince them of the gravity of the disease and of the great importance of the earliest possible treatment. This must be insisted on. Delay usually means death. All suitable patients should be referred to the Bureau of Dependent Adults of the Department of Charities, foot of East 26th street, Borough of Manhattan. There the patients are examined as to their financial resources, and eligibility as regards citizenship, &c. If suitable, they are then referred 16576 2 14 490 APPENDIX I. to one of the official State examines for examination. Only the earliest and most favourable cases are admitted to the New York State Hospital for Incipient Tuberculosis at Ray Brook in the Adirondacks. It is useless to try to obtain admission for advanced cases to any of the free sanatoria. Early favourable cases (where the patients are able to do light work) are sent to the Sanatorium . of the Department of Health at Otisville, N. Y. More advanced cases with tubercle bacilli in the sputum are sent to Rivereide Sanatorium of the Department of Health on North Brother Island. Treatment in all of these institutions is free. Where it is desired that the patient be admitted to one of the semi-private sanatoria (Adirondack, Loomis, &c.) communication should be held directly with the institution. {See Section VII.) A word of warning must be sjjoken here against the practice of sending patients with tuberculosis to the South or South-west or to the " country " without having made definite plans for their future, or arrangements for their medical care. It is far better for an advanced case to remain in one of the city hospitals until the end than to put him to the expense and exhaustion of a long trip taken for no purpose. Further, such patients, ignorant and untaught as to the necessary precautions to be taken constitute active sources of danger to those about them, and a number of communities in the West and South-west have protested vigorouslj', and with right on their side, against the promiscuous unloading upon them of cases of tuberculosis from the East. With no money, and no opportunity to make money, they are worse off by far than at their homes. 6. Hospital Care for Advanced Cases. Application for the admission of cases of tuberculosis to the large tuberculosis hospitals in New .York City (Metropolitan, St. Joseph's, Seton and St. Vincent's, Staten Island) should be made to the Department of Charities (telephone 3H50 Madison). The Department of Health will also arrange for the admission of patients to such hospitals, but time is lost thereby. In Manhattan, in case of emergency, such as destitution, &c., where an ambulance is required, patients can be sent directly to Bellevue Hospital, 26th street and East River, by telephoning the hospital in whose ambulance district the patient lives. These hospitals furnishing ambulance service and their districts are as follows (list). 7. Forcible Removal of Dangerous Cases. Notify the Department of Health, 55th street and Sixth avenue, New York City. Telephone 4900 Columbus. When the health of children or others is menaced by the presence of a person with pulmonary tuberculosis who cannot or will not take the necessary precautions regai'ding the destruction of sputum, &c., or is careless about expectoration, the Department of Health has the power to remove such person, by force if necessary, to Riverside Sanatorium, on North Brother Island, and to detain the patient there as long as may be necessary. Simple destitution is not sufficient ground for such removal, however, and such action is only taken in extreme cases. On receipt of the telephone message an inspector visits the case at once and recommends suitable action. 8. Disinfection of Premises, Bedding, &c. Notify the Department of Health. The Department of Health disinfects premises vacated by persons suffering from pulmonary tuberculosis. Such disinfection consists of formaldehyde fumigation of the rooms and the removal of the bedding and clothing used by the patient. Formaldehyde does not injure clothing, pictures, and other property. The bedding and clothing are disinfected by heat and are returned or destroyed, as may be desired. There is no charge for this service. When premises are in very bad condition, and the medical inspector of the Department reports to that effect, an order is issued by the Department against the landlord or agent, requiring the necessary painting, papering, whitewashing, &c., to be done before the premises are re-occupied by new tenants. Cardinal Maxims for the Tuberculous. The tuberculous patient under treatment at home by a private physician or by one of the special tuberculosis clinics is, of course, given full directions as to his mode of life, precautions to be observed, &c. But certain of the instructions are of prime importance and will bear almost indefinite repetition. Everyone coming in contact with persons suffering with tuberculosis should, therefore, lay stress on the following points to the family as well as to the patient. 1. Pulmonary tuberculosis is not an incurable disease. If treatment is begun early most cases can be cured by good food, fresh air and rest, and such medicines as the doctor prescribes. These conditions are best obtained in the country sanatoria Time or money should not be wasted on advertised cures or advertising doctora — they are worthless. 2. The instructions given the jKitient and his family by the doctor and the nurse should be followed out in every particular. 3. It ts not dangerous to live with a jjei'non suffering from tuberculosis if the matter couched up by him be promptly destroyed, and he. covers his mouth while coughing. If the sputum coughed up be rendered harmless he may frequently not only do his usual work ■without giving the disease to othei-s, but may also thus improve his own condition and increase his chances of recovery. The sputum should not be expectorated upon the floor, carpet, stove, wall or sidewalk, but always, if possible, in a cup for that purpose. The cup should contain water, so that the matter will not dry, or better, carbolic acid in a five per cent, watery solution (six teaspoonfuls in a pint of water). This solution kills the germs. The cup should be emptied into the water closet at least twice a day and carefully washed with boiling water. When the patient is away from home the matter coughed up should be received in a pocket flask made for this purpose. If cloths must be TUBERCULOSIS. AStl used they should be immediately burned on returning home. If handkerchiefs be used (worthless cloths, which can be at once burned, are far better) they should be boiled at least half an hour in water by themselves before being washed. When possible, the matter should be received into cups or flasks. Paper cups are better than ordinary cups, as the former, with their contents, may be burned after being used. A pocket flask of glass, metal or pasteboard is also a most convenient receptacle to spit in when away from home. Cheap and convenient forms of flasks and cups may be purchased at many drug stores. Patients too weak to use a cup should use moist rags, which should at once be burned. If cloths are used they should not be carried loose in the pocket, but in a waterproof receptacle (tobacco i)Ouch), which should be frequently boiled. The patient's soiled wash-clothes and bed linen should be handled as little as possible when dry, but should be placed in water until ready for washing. 4. Great care should be taken by the tuberculous to prevent their hands, face and clothing from becoming soiled with sputum. If they do become thus soiled they should be at once washed with soap and hot water. 5. A tuberculous patient should never swallow his expectoration. 6. He should have his own bed, and, if jiossible, his own room. He should not kiss other members of the family, and as far as possible his personal belongings (towels, pipes, &c.) should be used by him alone. 7. He should always have an abundance of fresh air — the ivindows should be open day and night 8. No dry dusting or cleaning should be allowed. Rooms should be cleaned daily, but in order to prevent the raising of dust all floors should be well sprinkled before sweeping, and all dusting, &c., done with damp cloths. 9. No children should play on the floor of a room used by tuberculous patients. Such children are prone to develop tuberculous meningitis, enteritis, &c. Since the Department of Health began its campaign against spitting, and has removed advanced cases to hospital, furnished sputum cups, and enforced disinfection of rooms vacated by pei-sons with tuberculosis the death rate from tuberculosis in children under fifteen years has fallen from 7"10 per 10,000 to 2-6. 10. Excessive use of alcoholic drinks is harmful in tuberculosis. Even beer and malt liquors should be taken only on the advice of the doctor. 11. Unnecessary exertion should be avoided. The more rest the better. 12. A hopeful, cJieerful dispiosition is (me of the best remedies for pulmonary tuberculosis. How TO Avoid Contracting Pulmonary Tuberculosis. The first and most important rule to be observed in order to avoid contracting tuberculosis is to keep as strong and healthy as possible. When the tubercle bacilli get into the body or lungs of a weak or sickly person they often grow and produce tuberculosis. Of the greatest importance for the maintenance of good health are fresh, pure air in the home, school room and work room, proper food, cleanliness, temperance in all things, leading a regular life, and living out of doors as much as possible. Fresh, pure air can be obtained by (a) keeping out of doors and avoiding dust ; (&) by admitting plenty of fresh air several times a day to the room in which one lives or works or studies ; (c) by keeping at least one window of the bedroom open all night ; and {d) by cleaning with damp cloths or brooms (never use a dry broom or duster) lo prevent the dust from arising in the room. Whenever a cough, no matter how slight, lasts more than two weeks, one should go to a doctor or dispensary and have his lungs examined. Putting the fingers, coins or pencils into the mouth are practices which should be strictly avoided. Everyone should take a warm bath with soap at least twice a week and those who can should have a cold bath every morning. The excessive use of alcoholic drinks is most injurious, as it weakens the body so that it cannot resist disease germs. Catching of colds can be avoided by (a) always having plenty of fresh air night and day and taking a cold bath every morning ; (b) keeping away from and complaining of persons who have a cough and who spit on the floor or sidewalk ; {c) avoiding exposure to cold or damp after such diseases as measles and whooping cough ; {d) keeping the feet dry and avoiding exposure to colds or winds when very warm or very tired ; and (e) avoiding close, overheated rooms crowded with people. 492 APPENDIX I. L— RACIAL CLASSIFICATION OF IMMIGRANTS. In its official documents tlie United States Immigration Commission publishes the following list of " the principal countries of birth of the residents of the United States and the races within each country " : — i Russia : Armenian. Finnish. i German. ] Hebrew. \ Lithuanian. Polish. I Russian. 1 1 Scotland : Scotch. ' Servia : ( Servian. i Spain : j Spanish. ; Sweden : ' Swedish. Switzerland : ? French. i German. | Italian (North). i Turkey in Asia : Armenian. Greek. 1 Hebrew. | Syrian. Turkish. j Turkey in p]urope : ; Bulgarian. Greek. j Hebrew. j Macedonian. Montenegrin. Servian. Svrian. \ Turkish. j Wales : Welsh. . : West Indies (Cuba, Porto Rico,. ) Hayti, Bahamas) : | Cuban. English. Negro. I Spanish. | United States : Finland : American White. Finnish American Negro. ■A. A XA XX. X kJXX * American Indian. France : French. Austria-Hungary : Hebrew. Bohemian (Czech). Bosnian. Germany : Bulgarian. Croatian. German. Hebrew. Dalmatian. Polish. German. Greece : Hebrew. Greek. Hervat. Macedonian. Herzegovinian. Italian (North). India : Magyar (Hungarian). East Indian or Hindu, Montenegrin. Moravian (Czech). Ireland : Polish. Irish. Roumanian. Scotch Irish. Ruthenian (Russniak). Servian. Italy : Slovak. Italian (North). Slovenian. Italian (South). Belgium : Japan : Dutch. Japanese. Flemish. Korea : French. Koreans. Bulgaria : Mexico : Bulgarian. Mexicans. Macedonian. Montenegro : Canada : Montenegrin. Canadian, English. Servian. Canadian, French. China : Netherlands (Holland) : Dutch. Chinese. Flemish. Denmark : Norway : Danish. Norwegian. England : Portugal (Azores, Cape Ve: English. Portuguese. Hebrew. Irish. Roumania : Scotch. Hebrew. Welsh. Roumanian. M.— THE EMPLOYMENT OF NEGROES IN SKILLED TRADES. The following are extracts from an article on " The Negro Skilled Mechanic in the North," by Mr. R. R. Wright, junior, in " The Southern Workman " for March, 1909 :— "According to the Census of 190(), there were then 275,116 Negroes in manufacturing pursuits on the mainland of the United States. Of these, 51,144 were in Northern States and 223,972 in Southern States. In other words, there were IMl Negroes in this class of occupation to everj' 10,000 Negroes in the country : there were 562 Negroes following mechanical pursuits in the North to every 10,000 Negroes in the North, and 283 Negroes following such pursuits in the South to every 10,000 Negroes NEGROES. 493 in the South. The following table, taken from the United States Census of 1900, gives the principal occupations pursued by Negroes of this class in the North and South : — Principal Skilled Occupations op Negroes, North and South. Census of 1900. OCCOPATIONS. Continental United States. North. South. Per cent, in the North. Males. Total in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits Blacksmiths Boot and shoemakers and repairers Brick and tile makers Carpenters and joiuers Charcoal, coke, and lime burners Coopers Engineers and firemen (not locomotive) Iron and steel workers (not otherwise specified) Machinists Marble and stone cutters Masons (brick and stone) Miners and quarrymeu Painters, glaziers, and varnishers Plasterers Plumbers, gas and steam fitters Printers, lithographers and pressmen, &c. Saw and planing-mill emploj'ees Tailors Tobacco and cigar factory operatives Turpentine distillers Whitewashers Woodworkers (not specified) Women. Dressmakers Seamstresses Tobacco and cigar factory operatives 241,934 43,991 10,083 4.506 9,931 21,067 3,8fil 2,933 10,215 12,642 1,258 1.252 14,370 36,439 .5,749 3,748 1,192 1,119 33,156 1,531 10,232 5,688 2,355 1,518 12,514 11,451 5,117 1,140 707 3,489 1,664 598 185 2,531 3,788 427 295 4,452 8,851 1,261 1,209 317 471 558 413 839 2 934 221 4,235 1.724 167 197,943 18-2 8,943 3,799 6,442 19,403 3,263 2,768 7,684 8,854 831 957 9,918 27,588 4,488 2,543 875 648 32.598 1,118 9,393 5,686 1,421 1,297 8,279 9,727 4,950 11-2 15-7 34-1 7-9 15'5 6-3 24-8 29-9 39-9 23-6 20-9 24a 21-9 32-3 26-6 42-1 1-7 26-9 8-1 39-6 14-6 33-8 15-1 3-3 * Less than one-tenth per cent. " This table shows that in nearly every one of the more important mechanical trades in which Negroes are engaged, there is, in proportion to the Negro population in each section, a larger number of Negro mechanics in the North than in the South. The Negroes of the North form a little more than ten per cent, of the total Negro population, but in some trade.s they form more than four times as large a proportion of the Negro workers in these trades. More than two-fifths of the entire number of Negro printers and pressmen, and almost as large a proportion of Negro iron and steel workers, and of Negro whitewashers, live in the North ; more than a third of the dressmakers, and of brick and tile makers, and more than one-fourth of the stationary engineers and firemen, plumbers, gasfltters, and tailors are in the same section. " In the principal occupations the Negroes form a smaller percentage of the total number of Negroes in the trades, in the following occupations only : carpenters and joiners, in which they form 7*9 per cent. ; coopers, GIJ per cent. ; tobacco and cigar factory operatives, in Avhich they are 8*1 per cent. ; saw and planing mill emiJloyees, of whom there were 1'7 per cent, ; and turpentine distillers, in which only two Negroes were returned in the North. Tlie results of this table are probably directly opposed to the observations of many people. But this is so because the observations have been largely in the cities. The large proportion of Northern Negroes is in the cities and the manufacturing and mechanical pursuits are largely city pursuits. A more accurate comparison between the North and the South would therefore consist of a presentation of conditions among Negroes in the cities of each section. " Confining the comparison to the cities,* there is not tlie large preponderance in favour of the North as shown in the former table. Indeed, in most of the trades, the Southern cities still have a larger number of workmen than the cities of the North and also a larger proportion. But the increase in the number of mechanics in the Northern cities is more uniform than in the Southern cities. There has been a gradual increase of Negro mechanics in the Northern cities, while on the other hand the increase in the Southern cities is considerably slower, and in many cases there is actual decrease. In Boston, in only four of the trades mentioned was there a decrease : namely, .among the blacksmiths and wheelwrights, boot and shoemakers, machinists, and tailors. In Philadelphia and Indianapolis, there was a decrease in two trades ; nainely, among boot and shoe- makers, brickmakers, and potters in Philadelphia, and cabinetmakers, upholsterers, and marble and stone-cutters in Indianapolis. In Cincinnati, there was a decrease in only one trade, tha; of carpenters and joiners, while in Pittsburg and Chicago, there was a decrease of Negro workmen in none of the trades. The total decrease in the Northern cities was 279 as against a total increase of 2,366, being a net increase of 2,087 Negro mechanics during the decade from 1890 to 1900. On the other hand, of the Southern cities, Atlanta, Geoi-gia, decreased in blacksmiths and wheelwrights, cabinetmakers, and upholsterers, carpenters and joiners, plasterers and printers, engravers, &c. Baltimore decreased in blacksmiths and wheelwrights, boot and shoemakers, brickmakers and potters, butchers, carpenters and joiners, plumbers, gastitters, and tailors ; Nashville, Tenn., decrease in blacksmiths and wheel- wrights, boot and shoemakers, brickmakers and potters, butchers, carpenters and joiners, machinists, * Boston, Chicago, Cincinnati, Philadelphia, Pittsburg, and Indianapolis in the North, and Atlanta (Georgia). Baltimore, New Orleans, Memphis, and Richmond (Virginia) in the South. 494 APPENDIX I. marble and stone cutters, brick and stone masons, painters, glaziers, and plasterers ; New Orleans decreased in boot and shoemakers, carpenters and joiners, iron and steel workers, machinists, tailors, and dressmakers ; Memphis, Tennessee, decreased in plasterers and printers. Richmond, Virginia, decreased in blacksmiths and wheelwrights, boot and shoemakers, cabinetmakers and upholsterers, carpenters and joiners, iron and steel workers, machinists, marble and stone cutters, painters, glaziers, etc., plasterers, plumbers, gasfitters, and tailors. The total decrease in the six Southern cities was 1,887, while the total increase was 1,7.54, a net decrease of 133 Negro mechanics in Southern cities. This comparison shows important tendencies ; the North slowly but surely increasing, the South Struggling to hold its own. " Although there has been a general increase of Negroes in skilled mechanical trades in the North during the past two decades, yet, as compared with the white population, the Negroes of the North fall far short of having their proper proportion of mechanics. The Negroes are 4'8 per cent, of the total population of Philadelphia, but they form only 1"2 per cent.of those in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits ; 3*5 per cent, of the Negroes of Pittsburg are engaged in this class of occupations, while the Negroes are 5-3 per cent, of the population. In Boston the proportion of Negro population is 2'1 per cent, of the whole population, while employees in manufacturing and mechanical trades are only 0-7 per cent. ; in Chicago the Negroes are 1\S per cent, of the total population, and 0'6 per cent, of the total workers are in mechanical trades ; in Indianapolis l)-4 and 3-2 per cent, are the respective percentages of the Negroes in the total population and in mechanical pursuits ; and in Cincinnati the percentages are respectively 4'4 and 1-5. Of these cities Philadelphia has the smallest proportion and Pittsburg the largest, other cities having about one-third their proper proportion of Negroes in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits. " The cause of the scarcity of Negroes in the trades is often said to be chiefly race prejudice ; but there are other causes which are much more easily described. In the first place, there are the very meagre opportunities for Negroes to learn trades. In the North there are but few schools where the Negro boy or girl can learn a mechanical trade. It follows that it is practically impossible for the large proportion of Negro children born in the North to learn trades. The North therefore has to depend most largely for its Negro mechanics upon Southern sources ; and it remains a fact that the large proportion of Negro mechanics in the North are of Southern birth and training. Another reason why there are few Negroes in the North in mechanical trades is the competition that exists in the North. Negro workmen are not infrequently deficient in one or both of the things most necessary in competition — speed and accuracy. As a rule, the Negro who has learned his trade in slavery, and his son who learned under him in the South, cannot do work with the same accuracj^ and finish as the white workman in the North ; or if they can do the work with the same degree of accuracy, they generally take a much longer time to do it. Still another reason is that in the North conditions of work contain less of the pei'sonal element, and every man is expected to work regularly, to report promptly, and to let nothing interfere with his work. Many Negroes who have had opportunities in the North have lost them because they have not learned the lessons of regularity and punctuality. A fourth very important reason has to do with labour organizations. As a rule Negroes are ignorant of the value of labour organizations, or, if they know their value, they are quite unable to organize themselves. They complain fienerally because they are excluded from, or rather not heartily invited into, labour unions ; and their efforts have generally ended with their complaints. Yet they have not usually proved that they are desirable union members, either by organizing themselves or by any active, intelligent interest in labour union affairs in cases where they are admitted to white unions. They have not (largely because of lack of numbers but also because of former training and lack of industrial intelligence) made themselves a desirable quantitj- for the labour unions, 'except in some rare and notable cases ; and the unions do not yet see that they should hand over to them the privileges and advantages which it has taken them years of struggle and agitation and organization to gain. " Notwithstanding the ditficulties, there is a steady increase in Negro mechanics and they are gradually learning, in the school of hard experience, how to overcome many of the obstacles which now hinder them. The extent of the progress among Negro mechanics is not known to the public. For, in a city like New York, or Chicago, or Philadelphia, where tens of thousands of mechanics are employed, a hundred Negroes would hardly be noticed ; and if they increased to a hundred and fifty the increase, though fifty per cent., would create no stir. If they were transferred, however, to a small Southern town they would be very conspicuous ; but as it is now, a million or more people in the large city are absolutely ignorant of them, and one finds out about them only through special investigation. Furthermore, if some of these Negro mechanics in large Northern cities should do the same amount of business in the Southern towns that they now do in New York, or Chicago, or Indianapolis, or Phila- delphia, they would be rated as most successful contractors. But in the environment in which they are placed, where the building business often averages over a million dollars per week, they are practically lost, and it is difficult for the casual observer to measure their progress. " Yet, in a few trades in some cities of the North, Negroes form a larger proportion of the work- men than they do of the population. For example, in Pittsburg, where the Negroes are 5'3 per cent. of the population, they formed at the Census of I'.'OO more than 20 per cent, of the brick and tile makers, about r* per cent, of the stationary engineers and firemen, 14 per cent, of the brick and stone masons, 8 per cent, of the plasterers, over 10 per cent, of the paper hangers ; and of the iron and steel workers, who constitute Pittsburg's chief skilled mechanical workers, the Negroes comprise 3-9 per cent. In Chicago 1"8 per cent, of the population are Negroes, but 3*1 per cent, of the plasterers, 5"5 per cent, of the papei- hangers, and 17-4 per cent, of the whitewashers are Negroes. In New York the Negroes are I'S per cent, of the population but comprise 5*7 per cent, of the stove, furnace, and grate makers. " The gaining of a foothold in the North has been no easy task for the Negro mechanic. Every large Northern city has scores of men who were rated as mechanics in their Southern homes but who are now engaged in domestic and personal service. In Philadelphia, for example, there are fully twice as many Negroes, who claim to be mechanics, working in other lines of endeavour, as are following their trades. The fierceness of competition, and the ' struggle for existence ' can be well illustrated by recounting the experiences of the Negro mechanic in the North. His chief problem is to get work. Often he has come from a section where there was plenty of work, and where he had but little NEGROES. 495 difficulty in securing it, where every contractor knew him and he knew every contractor ; or he may have been a contractor himself. But in the large city it happens often that there are two or more men who want every job. If he is not a first-class mechanic he generally gives up and enters one of the numerous avenues of domestic and personal service, where competition is not so great. Necessity drives him to this. If he has more than the average pluck and the average skill, he still continues to hunt work. Occasionally he succeeds as a journeyman. But in the majority of cases, if he is a carpenter, bricklayer, painter, plasterer, or connected with some other branch of the building trades, he becomes a " contractor " in that branch, and takes small jobs of repairing and altering. In the large cities there are scores of these jobbers who seldom hire anyone, and who rarely have any one job of as much as a thousand dollars. Yet they make a living." N.— NATIONAL NEGRO BUSINESS LEAGUE. The following draft constitution for local branches is published by the National Negro Business League (president, Mr. Booker T. Washington) : — " We, the coloured citizens of desiring to stimulate greater activity and growth in business enterprises among our people in the city of and vicinity, and feeling the need of constant co-operation and conference for mutual advice among the members of the race already engaged in business, and to encourage others of the race to go into business and to promote an interest on the part of the race to give support to business enterprises conducted by its members, and also desiring to co-operate with The National Negro Business League, have formed this organisation and framed the following Constitution." [Here follow clauses dealing with Title, Officers, Duties of Officers and Committees.] Membership. " All persons of good character over sixteen years of age, who are engaged in some kind of legitimate business, or other honourable calling or who believe in stimulating and giving support to enterprises shall be eligible to membership by a majority vote of the members present at the meeting at which said name or names are proposed. The membership beginning only after the joining fee, cents or dollars has been paid." [Other clauses follow dealing with Time of Meeting, Order of Business, Expulsion of Members, and Quorum.] The National Negro Business League also publishes the fallowing : " Suggestions for organising and maintaining Local Business Leagues " : — Organisation. In organising Local Leagues, great care should be taken to select the most responsible as well as reliable business men and women in the community. They should be duly impressed that a Business League must not go down for want of interest. Meetings. There should be held under the auspices of each Local League, at least one public meeting during the year, in which something informing and encouraging should be said concerning the business uprising among negroes of the community. Business men and women should be invited. Tu interest White People. Successful and well disposed white business men should be invited from time to time to talk to the League on business matters, and in this way, have the new things, and progressive things in business matters explained. Business Direction. Each Local League should aim to know everything that is proper for it to know concerning the various kinds of business carried on in its community, and if possible, know the financial standing of the business men and women, such as the amount of business done, methods, number of people who get employment, salaries, or wages paid, &c. ; if this is done, it will be possible to get such reports at the National Conventions as will be of great value as evidence to the negro's progress. Membership, A.ny person engaged in business or having retired fi-om business, or desiring to promote business enterprises, is eligible to membership in the National Negro Business League, upon the payment of an annual fee of $2.00, or a life membership fee of $25.00, or by holding credentials as a representative from a regularly oi-ganised and chartei-ed Local League, under the auspices of The National Negro Business League. Serving the Community. A well organised and wide awake Local League can be of great service to the town or city in which it is organised. Some of the things that are possible for it to do are as follows : — (1.) To keep a list of the young men and women who are intelligent, trained, and qualified to fill responsible places as clerks, accountants, salesmen, janitors, porters, &c. ; in this way a League can do much in getting suitable occupations for as many as are competent, especially so in Northern States. 496 APPENDIX I. \ 1 (2.) In protecting the community against fraudulent schemes, as false Stock Companies, that are I gotten up solely for the purpose of defrauding coloured people. ] (3.) In fostering an interest in civic affairs, such as sanitation, clean yards, cultivating pride in { making attractive in appearance the home districts of our people, and in other ways, showing an | interest in everything that may make up a better community life. ] Hoiv to organize a Local Business League. 1. Consult with a half dozen of the business people of your community. Do not wait for another to do this, make it your business. I 2. Show them the advantages to be derived from an interchange of ideas and the wisdom of ^ holding such meetings. i 3. Call a public meeting through personal invitations and notices through the churches. I 4. Get the ministers and professional men interested. \ 5. Hold the meeting and proceed with the business, even if only a few are present. 6. Let the person who took the lead in having the meeting called state its object and tell of the ' value of a Local Negro Business League. ' 7. Choose some person to preside for the time being and another to keep the minutes. ] 8. A committee of five should be appointed on constitution and while this committee is looking \ over the constitution already prepared by the National Organiser to see if changes are necessary and what these should be, the meeting can spend its time in listening to short addresses on business and I the importance of working together. 9. The committee on constitution should report as soon as possible. 10. If the committee reports favourably on the constitution submitted, let it be adopted. When j the vote is finally taken on the constitution, it should be done by a rising vote. 11. Immediately after the adoption of the constitution the election of oflBoers should be proceeded with, and the following should be the initial corps of officers : — President, vice-president, secretary, j and treasurer. \ These officers shall be elected for one year, or until their successors are elected and qualify. A I separate vote should be taken on each officer. 1 12. The time and place of regular meetings should be determined at this meeting. The meetings should begin at 8 o'clock and adjourn not later than 10 o'clock. Promptness and punctuality should , \ be the rule of the League. 1 13. The secretary of the League, immediately after its organisation should write promptly to the j National Organiser, sending him detailed information as to the business status of negro business ( persons and the list of officers and members, with their addresses. i 14. A half hour should be devoted to the discussion of one of the following subjects : — \ Suggested Subjects for Discussion. \ 1. How to unify the Coloured people in the business interests of the community. j 2. What the professional men, ministers, teachers, doctors, lawyers, &c., can do to assist the ] business men and women. j 3. What the business men can do to assist the professional men. j 4. Patronising negro business enterprises. j 5. What new business can be established in the community. ! 6. How can the business enterprises already established be improved. \ 7. How to secure additional country trade. i 8. If a bank does not exist, can one be established and supported ? i 9. If a millinery establishment does not exist, can one be established and supported, &c., &c. ? 10. If a shoe store or gent's furnishing store does not exist can one be established and supported ? 11. If a drug store does not exist, can one be established and supported ? UNEMPLOYMENT. 497 APPENDIX II. UNEMPLOYMENT IN THE UNITED STATES. Any attempt to form a numerical estimate of the amount of industrial unemployment existing in the United States at a given date would prove futile, owing to the fact that comprehensive statistics on this subject, or even such partial statistics as would justify general deductions, are not available. This is a branch of labour statistics with which the Federal Department of Labour has not dealt hitherto, while only two State Labour Departments publish periodical returns of trade union unem- ployment in any way analogous to those collected by the British Board of Trade since 1887, and published in the Labour Gazette since 1893. The Bureau of Statistics of Labour of the State of New York has, since June, 1899, published quarterly percentages of unemployment among members of the trade unions of that State and, since June, 1903, similar percentages have been calculated monthly (but published half-yearly) by that Bureau for certain representative unions in the State. The Bureau of Statistics of Labour of Massa- chusetts has, since March, 1908, collected trade union statistics of unemployment at the end of each quarter, and these are published in the State Labour Bulletin. Monthly percentages of unemployed were published regularly by the American Federation of Labour from January, 19(X), until October, 1909. These percentages were based upon returns furnished by certain of the trade unions affiliated to the Federation, but as the aggregate membership of the unions reporting formed less than i per cent, of the total officially known membership of the trade unions of the United States, the results could not be regarded as representative of the American labour market. Such periodical statistical data of an official character as are available are, therefore, limited to the trade union unemployment returns published for the States of New York and Massachusetts. The fact that these States contain less than one-seventh of the total population of the United States would alone make it unsafe to apply the i-esults of the returns to the country generally. But the acceptance o£ the returns as adequately representing the condition of the labour market in the States themselves is also open to serious objections, and these objections apply with additional force to any use of the figures for the purpose of international comparison. The membership of the trade unions reporting their unemployed in the two States forms but a small fraction of the total number of wage- eai-ners in these States. The latest complete official classification of occupied persons in the United States is that based on the Federal Census of 1900, and comparison shows that the membership of the unions in the State of New York reporting in December, 1909, formed only about 5 per cent, of all persons of 16 years and over engaged in trade and transportation, and in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits in 1900, while in the metal trades alone the proportion was 5*6 per cent., and in the textile and clothing trades 4*4 per cent. Similarly, the membership of the Massachusetts unions reporting at the same date formed about 13 per cent, of all persons of 16 years and over engaged in trade and transportation and in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits according to the Census of 1900 ; while the i-atio in the metal and textile trades separately was 9 and 6 per cent, respectively, though in the clothing trades a proportion of 21"9 per cent, was reached. The objections to the use of figures for the purpose of international comparison are still stronger. An indispensable condition for the trustworthiness of statistics of this kind is that the returns should be confined to trade unions paying unemployed benefit ; otherwise the possibility of inaccurate enumeration is considerable. The British, lilie the German, figures relate exclusively to unions of this kind, and those of Denmark almost wholly so ; of the workpeople included in the French returns about 30 per cent, belong to unions paying unemployed benefit ; the proportion in Belgium is about 84 per cent., and in Norway 65 per cent. In the trade unions of the United States, however, this form of benefit is still rare, and it is a reasonable inference that the completeness of the enumeration of their unemployed members would be seriously affected in consequence. A further important consideration that invalidates international comparison is the disproportionate manner in which the various trades are represented in the statistics for tlie different countries. From this standpoint the returns both for New York and Massachusetts might be assumed to have a tendency to make the general percentage of unemployment in these States appear unduly high. This results from the fact that in these returns, as compared with the returns for certain European countries, under-representation is given to certain trades which are not specially liable to great fluctuations in employment, and a decided over-representation to trades in which the contrary tendency prevails. Of industries in which, in the United Kingdom, comparatively little absolute unemployment (as distinguished from partial employment or short time) occurs, the textile industry was represented in the British returns by 17 per cent, of the total membership of unions reporting in December, 1909, and in the Massachusetts returns by only 7 per cent. ; while the coal mining industry was represented in the British returns by 20 per cent, of the total membership, and not at all in the New York and Massachusetts returns. On the other hand, the building and woodwojking trades, which are specially exposed to cyclical and seasonal unemployment, were represented by 34 per cent, of all members reported in New York and 23 per cent, in Massachusetts ; while the proportion was 13 per cent, in the United Kingdom. Again, the transport trades, in which likewise there is much fluctuation, were represented by 16-7 per cent, in New York State and 18 per cent, in Massachusetts, while they had no representation in the British returns. Midway between the trades which normally represent the two extremes of minimum and maxi- mum unemployment may be named the metal trade group ; here the membership of the trade unions reporting at the same date formed 8-1 per cent, of the whole in New York and 6 per cent, in Massachusetts, while the corresponding proportion in the United Kingdom was 38 per cent. 498 APPENDIX H. It is obvious, therefore, that the statistics for New York and Massachusetts give a relatively very large representation to trades which are characterised by violent fluctuations of employment, i.e., the building and woodworking and transport trades. So important, indeed, is this representation in the case of New York that the omission of the figures for these trades from the returns for December, 1909, would reduce the unemployed percentage by nearly two-fifths. While, for the reasons stated, no statistics of unemployment exist which can be accepted as representative of the country as a whole, there is evidence that periods of trade depression produce in the United States a temporary displacement of labour which is at least as serious as any that occurs in European countries. At the same time it is desirable to bear in mind certain aspects of the question of unemployment in the United States which are to some extent peculiar to the country and which have an important bearing upon the difiiculties, social and personal, which a period of industrial depression creates. Thus there is at all times a considerable interchange of labour between different trades. The American workman is very adaptable, and the rapid growth of industry especially when accompanied, as is the case, by an increasing sub-division of labour, enables and at times compels him to change from one occupation to another. In times of industrial depression this movement from one class of employment to another takes, in general, a downward direction ; that is to say, the more skilled workman who, as such, is not needed for the time being, takes the place of the less skilled workman, and the latter in turn displaces the unskilled labourer. Hence there is a tendency for the greatest burden of unemployment to fall upon the lowest stratum, and that is composed in the main of foreigners. For this reason unemployment is far less conspicuous and less vocal than in this country. In some large American towns foreign labour is represented by as many as two or three dozen different nationalities and languages, and this diversity, with the antipathies which often accompany it, leads to disunity and to a certain inarticulateness in a matter of common concern like unemployment. Moreover, there is probably always the consciousness in the mind of the more recent immigrants, and especially of the less established classes among them, that their presence in the country is a matter for which they themselves are responsible, and this takes some force out of their grievance ; if they are not satisfied with the prevailing conditions thej' should return home. Experience shows that in times of severe depression the immigrant aliens do, in fact, return to Europe in large numbers. A large proportion of them are young unmarried men, and during the crisis of 1908 very many of them went home. This was also the case with a considerable proportion of the married men whose families had remained in Europe, and the effect of this return stream of migration was greatly to relieve the pressure of unemployment in certain parts of the States. The returns of the American Immigration Department show that during the year July, 1907, to Jnne,*1908, 395,073 alien emigrants (i.e., departing aliens, whose residence has been in the United States, who intend to reside permanently abroad) left the countrv, while the number of alien immigrants who arrived in that year was 782,870, as compared with 1,285,349 in 1906-7 and 1,100,735 in 1905-6. Further, in periods of trade depression competition in the industrial labour market is sensibly relieved owing to the fact that many opportunities for alternative employment exist in the States, and, in case of need, are freely embraced. The great towns and the important manufacturing industries of America are of more recent growth than those of England, hence a much larger proportion of the native-born urban workers come from the country. Often they have parents or other relatives living on farms, and in times of depression young men go on these farms, where they make themselves use- ful in return for board and lodging. Even if they have no friends in the countrj-, they can often get work there in summer. In the same way the negroes in the iron and steel and coal mining industries of the South who were thrown out of work in 1907 were in request on sugar and cotton plantations. The supreme position of agriculture in the States also tends to give great importance to this outlet for the superfluous labour of the towus. It maj' be noted also that wages in the United States are high relatively to the cost of food, with the result that in a time of depression earnings may suffer a considerable diminution before the level of actual privation is reached. SPECIMEN FORMS. 4»» APPENDIX HI. WAGES AND HOURS FORMS USED IN ENQUIRY,' Confidential. I.— Building Trades. Predominant Rates of Wages and Hours of Labour in 1909 of the ptincipal classes of Adult Able- bodied Wage-earners employed by the undermentioned firm. Note.— Particulars furnished will be regarded as strictly confidential, and will be used only for statistical purposes. No individual return will be published. Pkincipal Classes of Wage- EABNEBB. (The Kates of Wages quoted should be those for able-bodied men between the ages of 21 and 55 years. Approximate Num- ber of Men of each Class to which this Return refers. Foremen Bricklayers Stonemasons Stone Cutters Carpenters ... Plasterers Plumbers Structural Ironworkers ... Painters Labourers — Hod Carriers Bricklayers' Labourers Masons' Labourers ... Plasterers' Labourers Usual Mode of Payment. T— Time. P— Piece. Predominant Rates of Wages per Hour or Week* generally paid in February, 1909. $ cts. Usual Number of Working Hours per Week (mealtimes and overtime excluded) in Snmmer. * In the case of workmen not paid by time please state the amount most frequently earned by them (by piece, task, &c,) during an ordinary week, in summer, without overtime. Remarks. Name of Firm. Address. Date. ., 1909. * On all the forms it was stated that the information asked for was for the use of the British Labour Department, London, England. 1657() 2, K 500 APPENDIX in. WAGES AND HOURS FORMS USED IN ENQUIRY. Confidential. II. — Foundries, Machine Shops, Boiler-Making, Ship-Building, &c. (New Work, Not Repairs.) Predominant Weekly Rates of Wages and recognised Hours of Labour in February, 1909, of certain classes of Adult Able-bodied Wage-earners employed by the undermentioned firm. (Particulars furnished will be regarded as strictly confidential and will only be used for statistical purposes. No individual return will be published.) Predominant Rates of Classes op Wagb-earnbhs. Usual Mode Wages* for a full ordinary Usual Number of (The Rates of Wages quoted should be Approximate Number of Men of each Class to which this Return of Payment. week (without overtime) in February, 1909. Working Hours per Week, meal- those for able-bodied men between the ages of 21 and 5.") years.) times and overtime excluded. relates. T— Time. P— Piece. Time Piece Workers. Workers. Foundries and Machine % cts. $ cts. Shops — Foremen Iron-moulders Fitters Turners (metal) Blacksmiths Pattern-makers Labourers Boiler-making, Ship-building, &c. — (Please strike out the portion of the above head- ing which does not apply). Foremen Angle-Iron Smiths : — Boiler-making Ship-building Platers (Heavy) :— Boiler-making Ship-building Platers (Light) :— Boiler-making Ship-building Rivetters : — Boiler-making Ship-building Calkers Holders-up Platers' Helpers Labourere Remarks. The average weekly amount of any bonus earned under the premium system should be added to the ordinary weekly wages. Kaiae of Firm Address. Date ., 1909. SPECIMEN FORMS. OUl WAGES AND HOURS FORMS USED IN ENQUIRY Ounfidential. III.— Ppblic Utilities. Predominant Weekly Rates o/ Wages and usual Hours of Labour in 1909 of the principal classes of Adult Male Able-bodied Wage earners employed by'* City. * Please state whether Municipality or Company, givinof name. State Principal Classes of Wage-earners (between the of 21 and 55 years). Approximate Number of Men of each Class to which this Betums refers. XTsual Mode of Payment. T-Time. P-Piece. j Predominant Weekly I Rates of Wapjes for ! a full ordinary- Week, I without overtime, in ! February, 1909. Usual Number of Working Hours per Week (mealtimes and overtime excluded) in Summer. Street Construction, Paving and Gleaning. Foremen Pavers Pavers' Helpers Road Menders Scavengers . . . Road Sweepers Drivers, Teamsters Waterworks {distribution^. Gasworks. Foremen Stokers Labourers Electric Light and Potver Works. Electricians ... Fitters Stokers Labourers ... Tramways. (Electric, Steam, Horse — please strike out the words which do not apply). Remarks. Date ie.)7(; .1909. Signed. 2 K 2 502 APPENDIX III. Confidential. WAGES AND HOURS FORMS USED IN ENQUIRY. IV.— Various Trades. Predominant Weekly Rates of Wages and Usual Hours of Labour in February, 1909, of the principal classes of Adtilt Male Able-bodied Wage-earners employed by the Undermentioned Firm. N.B. — As the i-ates of wages may show a wide range, you are asked to state the rates paid to a majority of the wage-earners in each class. Particulars furnished will be regarded as strictly confidential and will be used only for statistical purposes. No individual returns will be published. Pbinoipal Classes of Wage-bahnbes. (The Rates of Wages quoted should Approximate Number of Wage-earners of each Class to which this Return relates. Usual Mode of Payment. T— Time. P— Piece. Predominant Rates of Wages for a full ordinary Week, without overtime, in February, 1909. Usual Number of Working Hours per Week (mealtimes and overtime excluded). be those for able-bodied men between the ages of 21 and 55 years). Time Workers. Piece Workers. Foremen Skilled Workmen — (Specify the Occupations) $ cts. $ cts. Other Workmen — Labourers Teamsters, Drivers — (One horse) (Two horses) ... Remar KS. Name of Firm. Address.... Date. .1909. SPECIMEN FORMS. 503 RENT FORM USED IN ENQUIRY. Confidential. Rent op Dwelltngs in the Occupation op Wagb-Earninq Families in the Month op February, 1909. City. .Ward State. state Type of Number of Habitable Rooms in each Dwell- Rent per What Charges Number of Dwell- Number and Name op Dwelling : sin- gle, two family ing, ilnclude kitchen, garret and basement ; Calendar does the Rent include: Water, ings of the same Rental containing Stbkbt. house, flat, or February, 1909. Heating, Light, the same number tenement; front or rear. bathroom, wash-house, cellar, etc.) &o. (state amounts) ? of Habitable Rooms. Note. — Use separate line $ cts. for dwellings which differ in number of habitable rooms or in rent. 1 'i 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Supplementary particulars. State predominant nationality of occupiers in above neighbourhood : Where possible give rents per calendar month in October, 1905 (indicating by the marginal num- bers as above the dwellings to which these rents refer) : Other remarks : 16576 3 K 3 504 Confidential. APPENDIX 111. PRICES FORMS USED IN ENQUIRY. I.— Meat. Retail Prices of Meat of the Qualities most generally consumed "bj "Wage- earning" Families. City State Source of particulars furnished : for example, Retail Store, Market Name '. Address Date. Note. — Particulars furnished will be regarded as strictly confidential and will be used only for statistical purposes. No individual return will be published. Prices per lb. in February, 1909. Remarks. Please indicate here, in addition to DE8CB1PTI0N. other remarks, any local peculiarities of cut or name that may affect price. Also state whether home-killed, Maximum. Minimum. Most General. chilled or frozen. Beef.— Fresh : Roasts — Round :^er lb. „ Ribs prime.. )) „ Ribs second cut )j „ Chuck or short ribs *) Steaks — Round 91 „ Sirloin „ Shin without bone... ,, „ with bone )j Plate )) Brisket - )) Flank „ Bouillon (for soup)... }f Salt (or corned) : Plate Navel Brisket » Mutton or Lamb : — Leg » Breast Loin y, Chops )» Shoulder „ Neck ») Veal .— Cutlets )) Rib chops )« Loin chops ?1 Breast Neck )» Pork .— Fresh — Loin t9 Spare rib » Shoulder jl Chops If Corned (wet salt or pickled) »» Dry salt »» * Salt— Ham »? ., Shoulder ^1 SPECIMEN FORMS. 505 PKICES FORMS USED IN ENQUIRY. Gonfidential. II.— Groceries, &c. Retail Prices of Commodities of the Qualities most generally consumed by Wage-earning Families. Gity State Source of particulars furnished — {fur example : Retail Store, Market, Etc.) . Name Address . Date. (Note : — Particulars furnished will be regarded as strictly confidential and will only be used for general and statistical purposes. No individual return will be published.) Prices in February, 1909. Unit of weight or measure to which the COMMODITy. Remarks. prices given apply. Maximum Minimum Most general 1 cts. S cts. $ cts. Tea per lb. CoflEee per lb. Sugar — Loaf per lb. White Granulated per lb. Brown per lb. Breakfast Bacon — Rib in per lb. Boneless per lb. Eggs per doz. Cheese (state kind) per lb. Butter — Fresh per lb. Oleomargarine per lb. Potatoes — Irish . . per half peck [7^ lbs.] Sweet per lb. Flour (Wheaten — Household) .. per bag of 24i lbs. Bread (Wheaten) per loaf of lb. Milk (state whether deliver( 3d per quart. (D) or not). Milk — Condensed per can of lb. Coal — (state kind) .. per bushel [80 lbs.] Coke per half bushel [20 lbs.] Kerosene per gallon. Iti576 2 K i 50G APPENDIX 111. Gonfldential. BUDGET FORM USED IN ENQUIRY. Part 1. Income and Expenditure of a Wagre-earning: Family. Statement shoiving Total Weekly Income and Weekly Expe)iditure on Food, Kent, &c. (All particulars furnished will be regarded as strictly confidential and will not be published ; the information they contain is required solely for statistical purposes. Names need not be given.) 1. City State. 2. Occupation of head of family 3. Total number in family living at home Husband ( "Wife Number. Country of birth Ages. Children Male, aged . Female, aged 4. Average Weekly Income : — (a) Earnings of the Husband: From principal occupation From supplementary occupation (&) Earnings of the Wife (c) Earnings of the Children : — Male, number at work Amounts earned by each Female, number at work Amounts eai-ued by each (rf) Other regular income of the family (g/ject/^ nft^Mr^j) Total Income of Family 1 $. 5. House Rent per calendar month. (N.B, — Should the house belong to the family, please state the rent of a similar house in the neighbourhood. $ ) 6. Number of habitable rooms occupied, including the kitchen (N.B. — Vestibules, bath rooms, wash houses, cellars, &c., not to be counted.) SPECIMEN FORMS. 9&J BUDGET FORM USED IN ENQUIRY. Part II. Confidential, Details of Honseliold Expenditure of food &c., for an ordinary week in 1909. (N.B. — You are particularly requested to strike out all articles of food in the following list which are not habitually used in your household.) Weight or Weight or Measure of Cost per Week. Measure of Aeticlbs of Food. Quantity Abticlbs of Food. Quantity Cost per Week. Consumed Consumed per Week. per Week. $ cts. $ Cts. Bread— Of Wheat ... lb. Olive Oil ... pint Of Rye lb. Cheese lb. Other lb. Milk — fresh ... quart Flour— Wheat lb. Milk — condensed ... lb. Rye lb. Eggs number Buckwheat and other lb. Tea lb. Corn and Cornmeal ... lb. CoflEee lb. Cakes, Crackers, Dough- Cocoa and Chocolate ... lb. nuts, etc lb. Sugar , lb. Rolls, Buns, and Biscuits lb. Molasses and Syrup pint Macaroni, Noodles, Spag- Vinegar, Pickles and hetti, etc lb. • Condiments . . pint Rice, Barley, Sago, etc.... lb. Fruits (fresh, dried, and Oatmeal and Breakfast canned) and Jams ... lb. Cereals lb. Other articles of food not Potatoes (Irish, etc.) ... lb. specified above - — Sweet Potatoes, Yams, etc. ... lb. Dried Peas and Beans ... lb. Sweet Corn lb. Green Vegetables — Salad, Tomatoes, etc. Canned Vegetables ... lb. Meat — Beef (fresh and corned) lb. Mutton and Lamb ... lb. Pork (fresh and salt) lb. Bacon, Ham, Head- cheese, etc lb. Veal lb. Sausage lb. Beer and Cider ... pint Poultry lb. Spirits pint Fish of all kinds ... lb. Coal ... bushel [80 lbs. Lard, Suet, Dripping ... lb. Coke half bushel [20 lbs." Butter lb. Wood Oleomargarine lb. Kerosene ... gallon Total $ Average weekly cost of Meals consumed away from home (in Restaurants, Eating-houses, etc.) Average weekly cost of lighting if gas is used 608 INDEX TO GENERAL REPORT. {For Index to Town Reports, see pp. 511-533.) Accommodation, Housing, xx-xxvii, xlix ; lix-lxiil ; Ixxxii, Ixxxiv-xc. „ „ Comparison with England and Wales, lix-lxiii. Agreements, Collective, xv. Agriculture, x, xi ; xvi. Alien Immigration, see " Immigration," " Race Problem," and " Population, Foreign and Jewish." American-British Groups of Budgets, xl-lv ; Ixviii-lxxv ; Ixxxi-lxxxiii. „ „ „ (Northern Group) : Comparison with United Kingdom, Ixviii- [Ixxv Area of Investigation, x. Budgets, xxxviii-Iv ; Ixviii-lxxv ; Ixxxi-xci. „ Analysis of : American- British Groups, xl-lv ; Ixxxi-lxxxviii. European, South, Group, xl-xlii, xliv, xlviii, xlix ; Ixxxvi. German Group, xl-xlii, xliv, xlviii, xlix ; Ixxxiv. Je%vish Group, xl, xli, xliii, xliv, xlviii, xlix ; Ixxxviii. Negro Groups, xl, xli, xliii, xliv, xlviii, xlix ; Ixxxix, xc. Scandinavian Group, xl-xlii, xliv, xlviii, xlix ; Ixxxv. Slavonic, &c.. Group, xl-xliv, xlviii, xlix ; Ixxxvii. „ Classili cation of {see also Analysis of Groups above) : By Geographical Groups of Towns, xl, xli. By Incomes, xliii, xliv. By Nationalities, xl-xliii. By Occupations, xl-xliii. „ Comparison with United Kingdom, Ixviii-lxxv. „ United Kingdom, Ixviii-lxxv ; xci. Building and Loan Associations, xxvii. „ Engineering and Printing Trades : Hours of Labour, xix, xx ; Iviii, lix. „ Index Numbers — Comparison with England and Wales, Iviii, lix. Wages, xv-xix ; Ivi-lix ; Ixxviii-lxxx. „ Index Numbers — American Towns and Groups, xvii-xix, xxivii, xxxviii ; Ixxviii-lxxx. Comparison with England and Wales, Ivi, Ivii, lix. Children, Earnings of, xlv, xlvii, xlviii ; Ixxxi-xc. Cities, see " Towns." Climatic Conditions, x ; xxxix. Clothing, Ixxiv, Ixxv. Coal, Prices of, xxix, xxxii. Collective Agreements, xv. Comparison with British Towns, Iv-lxxvi. Congestion of Population, xxiv-xxvi, Ixii, Ixiii. Co-operation, xxxiii. Credit System, xxxii. Date of Enquiry, ix. Earnings, see " Wages " and " Income of Working-class Families." Engineering Trades, see " Building, Engineering and Printing Trades." England and Wales {see also " United Kingdom ") : Comparison with United States, Iv-lxvii. European, South, Group of Budgets, xl-xlii, xliv, xlviii, xlix ; Ixxxvi. Expenditure of Working-class Families, xlv, xlvi, xlix, li, lii, Iv ; Ixix-lxxvi ; Ixxxi-xci. „ „ „ „ Comparison with United Kingdom, Ixix-lxxvi. Food, Consumption of and Expenditure on, xxix-xxxiv, xlv, xlvi, xlix-lv ; Ixvi, Ixvii ; Ixix-lxxv ; [Ixxxi-xci. „ „ „ „ Comparison with United Kingdom, Ixvi, Ixvii ; Ixix- [Ixxv. Food Prices, see " Prices (Retail)." Foreign and Jewish Population, xi-xvii, xxi, xxvii, xxxix, xl. German Group of Budgets, xl-xlii, xliv, xlviii, xlix ; Ixxxiv. Heating of Dwellings, xxiv, xxxii, Ixxiv. Hours of Labour, xix, xx ; Iviii, lix. „ Comparison with England and Wales, Iviii, lix. „ Index Numbers — Comparison with England and Wales, Iviii, lix. INDEX TO GENERAL REPORT. 509 i Housing Accommodation, xx-xxvii, xlix ; lix-lxiii ; Ixxxii, Ixxxiv-xo. * „ and Rents, xx-xxviii, xxxv-xxxviii, xlv, xlviii, xlix ; lix-lxiii ; Ixxvi ; Ixxviii-xc. „ „ Comparison with England and "Wales, lix-lxiii. ' „ Ownership Particulars, xxvii, xlviii ; Ixxxii, Ixxxiv-xc. ; „ Provision, xxvii. Immigration, xi-xv {see also " Foreign and Jewish Population "). ■ ! Income of Working-class Families, xliii-xlviii ; Ixviii, Ixix ; Ixxxi-xci. ] Index Numbers : Hours of Labour — I Comparison with England and "Wales, Iviii, lix. j Prices, Retail — I American Towns and Groups, xxxi-xxxviii ; Ixxviii-lxxx. ' Comparison with England and Wales, Ixiv, Ixvi, Ixvii. | Rents — ..... ^ American Towns and Groups, xxv, xxvi, xxxvi-xxxviii ; Ixxviii-lxxx. , i Comparison with England and Wales, Ixi-lxiii. ' Rents and Retail Food Prices Combined — \ American Towns and Groups, xxxv-xxxviii ; Ixxviii-lxxx. J Comparison with England and "Wales, Ixxvi. j Wages — ! American Towns and Groups, xvii-xix, xxxvii, xxxviii ; Ixxviii-lxxx. ' Comparison with England and Wales, Ivi, Ivii, lix. Jewish Group of Budgets, xl, xli, xliii, xliv, xlviii, xlix ; Ixxxviii. j „ Population, see " Foreign and Jewish Population." \ Kerosene, Prices of, xxix, xxxii. 1 Labour, Hours of, see " Hours of Labour." ! Licences, see " Taxation." \ Loan Associations, Building and, xxvii. < Local Taxation, xxviii ; Ixi. i Municipal Taxation, xxviii ; Ixi. Nationalities included in Budgets, xl-xliii. j Nationality Question, see " Race Problem." Negro Groups of Budgets, xl, xli, xliii, xliv, xlviii, xlix ; Ixxxix, xc. „ Population, xiii-xv, xvii, xxi, xxiii, xxvii, xxxix, xl. Oil (Kerosene), Prices of, xxix, xxxii. Overcrowding, see " Population, Congestion of." Population, Agricultural, xi. „ Coloured, see " Population,*Negro." „ Congestion of, xxiv-xxvi ; Ixii, Ixiii. „ Foreign and Jewish, xi-xvii, xxi, xxvii, xxxix, xl. „ Negro, xiii-xv, xvii, xxi, xxiii, xxvii, xxxix, xl. „ Urban, (Proportion of Total), xi. ,, White, Number of, xii. ,, of Towns Investigated, ix, x. Prices (Retail), xxviii-xxxviii ; Ixiii-lxvii ; Ixxvi ; Ixxviii-lxxx. „ „ Comparison with England and Wales, Ixiii-lxvii. „ „ Index Numbers : American Towns and Groups, xxxi-xxxviii ; Ixxviii-lxxx. Comparison with England and Wales, Ixiv, Ixvi, Ixvii. „ „ Changes in, Ixiii, Ixiv. „ „ Rents and Food, (Combined), xxxv-xxxviii ; Ixxvi ; Ixxviii-lxxx. Printing Trades, see " Building, Engineering and Printing Trades." Prohibition Laws, xxviii. Race Problem, xi-xvii, xxi-xxiii, xxxix, xl. Rates and Taxes, see " Taxation " and " "Water Rates." " Real " Wages, xxxvii, xxxviii. Rents and Housing, xx-xxviii, xxxv-xxxviii, xlv, xlviii, xlix ; lix-lxiii ; Ixxvi-xc. „ „ Comparison with England and Wales, lix-lxiii. „ Index Numbers : American Towns and Groups, xxv, xxvi, xxxvi-xxxviii ; Ixxviii-lxxx. Comparison with England and Wales, Ixi-lxiii. „ and Food Prices Combined, xxxv-xxxviii : Ixxvi-lxxx. Retail Distribution, Machinery of, xxxiii. „ Prices, see " Prices (Retail)." Scandinavian Group of Budgets, xl-xlii, xliv, xlviii, xlix ; Ixxxv. Slavonic, &c., Group of Budgets, xl-xliv, xlviii, xlix ; Ixxxvii. South Euro])Pan Group of Badgets, xl-xlii, xliv. xlviii, xlix ; Ixxxvi. 510 INDEX TO GENERAL REPORT. Taxation, Local, xxviii ; Ixi. Tenements, see " Housing." Towns Investigated, List of, ix. „ „ Population of, ix, x. Trade Agreements, xv. „ Unionism, xv. Travelling- Expenses (Workmen's), Comparison with England and Wales, Ixxv. United Kingdom {see also " England and Wales ") : Comparison of Budgets with United States, Ixviii-lxxv, Condensed Budgets, xci. Wages, xiv-xix ; xxxvii, xxxviii ; Ivi-lviii ; Ixxvi ; Ixxviii-lxxx. „ Comparison with England and Wales, Ivi-lviii ; Ixxvi. „ Index Numbers : American Towns and Groups, xvii-xix, xxxvii, xxxviii ; Ixxviii-lxxx. Comparison with England and Wales, hi, Ivii, lix. „ Relation of, to Rents and Food Prices, xxxvii, xxxviii. „ Agreements, xv. Water Rates, xxiv, xxviii. „ Supply, xxiv. Welfare Work, xv. Women, Earnings of, xlv, xlvii ; Ixxxi-xc. 511 INDEX TO TOWN REPORTS. A. Accidents, Industrial, at — j Birmingham 88, 89 ; Milwaukee 261, 262 ; Pittsburg 343. ; Accident Insurance and Benefit Funds and Employers' Liability at — I Chicago 142, 143 ; Fall River 201 ; Milwaukee 261. \ Amusements at (see also " Libraries ") — i New York 2, 6, JO, 13 ; Atlanta 58 ; Baltimore 74 ; Boston 103 ; Chicago 133 ; Detroit 176, I 177 ; Louisville 222 ; Milwaukee 257, 258 ; Philadelphia 320 ; Pittsburg 339, 341, 354 ; : Providence 362, 365 ; St. Louis 371 ; Savannah 382. ; Ankylostomiasis : i Birmingham 96. j Apprenticeship at — . New York 19 ; Chicago 134, 138, 139 ; Milwaukee 262, j Arbitration (see " Conciliation and Arbitration "). ' Area of — | New York 2 ; Atlanta 48 ; Augusta 61 ; Baltimore 74 ; Birmingham 87, 88 ; Boston 101 ; Brockton 117 ; Chicago 129 ; Cleveland 161 ; Detroit 172 ; Duluth 186 ; Louisville 220 ; Memphis 243 ; Milwaukee 257 ; Minneapolis — St. Paul 271 ; New Orleans 288 ; Newark 299 ; Paterson 309 ; Philadelphia 316 ; Providence 357 ; St. Louis 370. Atlanta 48-60. j Augusta 61-71. B. i Bacon : "^ Consumption of, at — Atlanta 59 ; Augusta 70 ; Chicago 150 ; Detroit 183 ; Memphis 254. ' Prices (Retail) of, at — New York 46; Atlanta 59; Augusta 70; Baltimore 85; Birmingham 97; Boston 115; i Brockton 126 ; Chicago 150 ; Cincinnati 160 ; Cleveland 170 ; Detroit 183 ; Duluth 195 ; Fall River 206 ; Lawrence 217 ; Louisville 229 ; Lowell 241 ; Memphis 255 ; Milwaukee 268 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 281 ; Muncie 287 ; New Orleans 297 ; Newark 306 ; Paterson 314 ; Philadelphia 335 ; Pittsburg 356 ; Providence 368 ; St. Louis 380 ; i Savannah 392. • ! Supply, Sources of, at — j Detroit 183 ; Duluth 194 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 281. j Bakeries : General Notes on, at — -! Baltimore 78 ; Chicago 139. j Hours of Labour in, at — j Atlanta 55 ; Baltimore 79 ; Chicago 139, 141 ; Louisville 223 ; Memphis 250 ; Minneapolis — St. Paul 277 ; Providence 363. ] Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — New York 17. •; "Wages in, at — ' Atlanta 55 ; Baltimore 79 ; Chicago 139, 141 ; Louisville 223 ; Memphis 250 ; Minneapolis — j St. Paul 277 ; Providence 363. , Baltimore 72-86. Beef : • Consumption of, at — Augusta 69, 71 ; Baltimore 86 ; Brockton 126 ; Chicago 150 ; Cleveland 171 ; Detroit 183, 184 ; Daluth 195 ; Fall River 206 ; Louisville 229 ; Memphis 254 ; Milwaukee 269 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 282 ; Muncie 287 ; Newark 307 ; Paterson 314 : Pittsburg 356 ; | Savannah 393. Prices (Retail) of, at — New York 46, 47 ; Atlanta 60 ; Augusta 71 ; Baltimore 86 ; Birmingham 98 ; Boston 116 ; '■ Brockton 126, 127 ; Chicago 151 ; Cincinnati 160 ; Cleveland 171 ; Detroit 184 ; Duluth j 196 ; Fall River 206, 207 : Lawrence 218 ; Louisville 230 ; Lowell 242 : Memphis 256 Milwaukee 269 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 282 : Muncie 287 ; New Orleans 296, 298 Newark 307 ; Paterson 315 ; Philadelphia 336 ; Pittsburg 356 : Providence 369 St. Louis 380 ; Savannah 393. Supply, Sources of, at — New York 46 ; Baltimore 86 ; Boston 116 ; Brockton 126 ; Detroit 184 ; Louisville 229 ; Lowell 242 ; Memphis 255 ; Newark 306 ; Pittsburg 356. Birmingham 87-98. Births at — New York 9 ; Augusta 62 ; Baltimore 73 ; Boston 103 ; Brockton 118 ; Cincinnati 153 Detroit 174 ; Duluth 187 ; Lawrence 209 ; Louisville 220 ; Lowell 231 ; Memphis 244 Milwaukee 258 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 271 ; Muncie 283 : Newark 299 ; Paterson 309 Philadelphia 319 ; Providence 359 ; Savannah 384. 612 INDEX TO TOWN REPORTS. Biscuit Manufacture : Wages, &c., iu, at — Baltimore 78. Blast Furnaces (see " Iron and Steel Industry "). Bleaching Trades (see " Dyeing and Bleaching Trades|"). Board (see '• Housing : Lodgings, Board and "). Boilermaking (see " Engineering and Metal Trades "). Bonus Systems (Wages) at — New York 18 ; Boston 108 ; Cincinnati 155 ; Lowell 236 ; Memphis 247 ; Milwaukee 262 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 275 : Pittsburg 345 ; St. Louis 373. Bookbinding Trade : Genend Note on, at — Minneapolis— St. Paul 273, 274 ; Pittsburg 346. Hours of Labour in, at — New York 22 ; Atlanta 55 : Baltimore 79 ; Boston 107 ; Chicago 141 ; Detroit 179 ; Louis- ville 223 : Memphis 249 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 275, 276 ; Philadelphia 324 ; Pittsburg 347 ; St. Louis .375. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — New York 17, 20 ; Duluth 188 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 273, 274 ; St. Louis 372. Trade Unions in, at — New York 19 ; Cincinnati 156 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 275. Wages in, at — New York 18, 22 : Atlanta 55 ; Baltimore 79 ; Boston 107 ; Chicago 141 ; Cincinnati 154 ; Detroit 179; Louisville 223; Memphis 249; Minneapolis— St. Paul 275,276; Phila- delphia 324 : Pittsburg 346, 347 ; St. Louis 375. Boot and Shoe Industry : General Note on, at — Brockton 117, 119-122 : Cincinnati 156 ; Detroit 177 ; Lowell 236 ; St. Louis 374. Hours of Labour in, at — Brockton 122 ; Chicago 141 ; Cincinnati 156, 157 ; St. Louis 375. Output of, at — Brockton 117 : Lowell 233. Persons Occupied, Number ot, in, at — New York 16, 17 ; Atlanta 52 ; Baltimore 75 ; Birmingham 90 ; Boston 105 ; Brockton 119 ; Chicago 133 ; Cincinnati 155 ; Cleveland 164 : Detroit 176 ; Fall River 200 ; Lawrence 211; Louisville 221 ; Lowell 234; Memphis 246; Milwaukee 260; Minneapolis— St. Paul 274 : New Orleans 291 : Newark 300 ; Paterson 310 ; Philadelphia 321 ; Pittsburg 342 : St. Louis 372 ; Savannah 385. Trade Unions in, at — Brockton 120, 121 ; Cincinnati 156. Wages in, at — Brockton 120, 122, 123 ; Chicago 141 ; Cincinnati 154, 157 ; St. Louis 374, 375. Boston 99-116. Bread, Prices (Retail) of, at — New York 43, 44, 46 ; Atlanta 59 ; Augusta 69, 70 ; Baltimore 85 ; Birmingham 97 ; Boston 115; Brockton 125, 126; Chicago 149, 1.50; Cincinnati 159, 160: Cleveland 170; Detroit 183 ; Duluth 194, 195 ; Fall River 206 ; Lawrence 217 ; Louisville 228, 229 ; Lowell 241 ; Memphis 255 ; Milwaukee 268 ; Minneapolis — St. Paul 280, 281 ; Muncie 286, 287 ; New Orleans 296, 297 ; Newark 306 ; Paterson 314 ; Philadelphia 334, 335 ; Pittsburg 355, 356 ; Providence 367, 368 ; St. Louis 379, 380 ; Savannah 392. Brewing Industry : General Notes on, at — Baltimore 77 ; Chicago 139 ; Milwaukee 260, 263 ; New Orleans 293 ; Pittsburg 346 ; Providence 362. Hours of Labour in, at — New York 22 ; Baltimore 77, 79 ; Chicago 139, 141 : Cincinnati 156, 157 ; Louisville 223 : Milwaukee 262, 264 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 275, 277 ; New Orleans 294 ; Newark 301 303 ; Philadelphia 324 ; Pittsburg 347 ; Providence 363 ; St. Louis 373, 375. Output of, at — Milwaukee 260. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — Chicago 139 ; Milwaukee 260 ; Pittsburg 346 ; St. Louis 372. Trade Unions in, at — Baltimore 75 ; Cincinnati 156 ; Louisville 222 ; Milwaukee 262 ; Newark 301 ; Philadelphia 322 ; Pittsburg 343, 346 ; Providence 362 ; St. Louis 373. Wages in, at — New York 22 ; Baltimore 77, 79 ; Chicago- 139, 141 ; Cincinnati 154, 157 ; Louisville 222, 223 ; Milwaukee 262-264 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 275, 277 ; New Orleans 294 ; Newark 301, 303 ; Philadelphia 322, 324 ; Pittsburg 343, 346, .347 ; Providence 362, 363 ; St. Louis 373, 375. Brick and Tile and Pipe Works : General Notes on, at — Augusta 64-66 ; Baltimore 75, 77 ; Birmingham 87 ; Memphis 248 ; St. Louis 373. Hours of Labour in, at — Augusta 66 ; Baltimore 78 ; Memphis 248, 249 ; St. Louis 375. INDEX TO TOWN REPORTS. 518 Brick and Tile and Pipe Works — cunt. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — Augusta 04 ; Baltimore 75 ; Philadelphia 321 ; Pittsburg 342 ; St. Louis 372. Wages in, at — Augusta 66 ; Baltimore 78 ; Memphis 249 ; St. Louis 373, 375. Brockton 117-127. Building Regulations (see " Housing "). Building Societies {see " Housing "). Building Trades : General Notes on, at — Atlanta 54 ; Augusta 64-66 ; Baltimore 76 ; Birmingham 88, 91, 92 ; Boston 108 ; Chicago 133 ; Detroit 179 ; Duluth 189 ; Lowell 236 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 275 ; Muncie 284 ; New Orleans 292 ; Newark .301 ; Paterson 311 ; Pittsburg 343, 344 ; Providence 362 ; St. Louis 372 ; Savannah .387. Hours of Labour in, at — New York 17, 22 : Atlanta 54 ; Augusta 64, 65 ; Baltimore 75, 76, 78 ; Birmingham '.U-93 ; Boston 105, 107, 108 ; Brockton 121 ; Chicago 134, 140 ; Cincinnati 156 ; Cleveland 166 : Detroit 177, 178 ; Duluth 189, 191 ; Fall River 202 ; Lawrence 212, 213 ; Louisville 221, 222 ; Lowell 237 ; Memphis 247-249 ; Milwaukee 262, 263 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 276 ; Muncie 284, 285 ; New Orleans 293 ; Newark 301, 302 ; Paterson 311 ; Philadelphia 322, 323 ; Pittsburg 344, 347 : Providence 363 ; St. Louis 372, 374, 375 ; Savannah 387. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — New York 16, 17 ; Atlanta 52 ; Baltimore 75 ; Birmingham 90 ; Boston 105 ; Brockton 119 ; Chicago 133 ; Cincinnati 155 ; Cleveland 164 ; Fall River 2C)0 ; Lawrence 211 ; Louisville 221 ; Lowell 2.34 ; Memphis 246 ; Milwaukee 260 ; New Orleans 291 ; Newark 300 ; Paterson 310 ; Philadelphia 321 ; Pittsburg 342 ; Providence 360, 361 ; St. Louis 372 : Savannah 385. Trade Unions in, at — New York 18, 19 ; Atlanta 54 ; Augusta 67 ; Baltimore 75, 76 ; Birmingham 91, 92 ; Brockton 121 ; Chicago 133, 134 ; Cincinnati 156 ; Detroit 177 : Fall River 203 ; Lawrence 212 ; Louisville 222 ; Lowell 236 ; Memphis 247, 248 ; Milwaukee 262 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 275 ; New Orleans 292 ; Newark 301 ; Paterson 311 ; Philadelphia 322, 323 ; Pittsburg 343, 344 ; Providence 362 ; St. Louis 372 ; Savannah 387. Wages in, at — New York 18, 22, 23 ; Atlanta 54 ; Augusta 62, 64, 65 ; Baltimore 75, 76, 78 ; Birmingham 91-93 ; Boston 106, 107 ; Brockton 121 ; Chicago 134, 140 ; Cincinnati 156 ; Cleveland 166 ; Detroit 177-179 ; Duluth 189, 191 ; Fall River 202 ; Lawrence 212, 213 ; Louisville 222 ; Lowell 236, 237 ; Memphis 247-249 ; Milwaukee 262, 263 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 275, 276 ; Muncie 284, 285 ; New Orleans 292, 293 ; Newark 301, 302 ; Paterson 311 ; Philadelphia 322, 323 ; Pittsburg 343, 347, 348 ; Providence 363, 364 ; St. Louis 372, 374, 375 ; Savannah 387. Butter, Prices (Retail) of, at — New York 46 ; Atlanta 59 ; Augusta 70 ; Baltimore 85 ; Birmingham 97 ; Boston 115 ; Brockton 126 ; Chicago 150 ; Cincinnati 160 ; Cleveland 170 ; Detroit 183 ; Duluth 195 ; Fall River 206 ; Lawrence 217 ; Louisville 229 ; Lowell 241 ; Memphis 255 ; Milwaukee 268 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 280, 281 ; Muncie 287 ; New Orleans 297 ; Newark 306 ; Paterson 314 ; Philadelphia 335 ; Pittsburg 356 ; Providence 368 ; St. Louis 380 ; Savannah 392. o. Oabinet Makers (See " Furnishing Trades ".) Canning and Bottling Industry {see also " Meat Packing ") : General Note on, at — Baltimore 77. Hours of Labour in, at — Baltimore 79 ; Pittsburg 347. Output of, at — Baltimore 77. Wages in, at — Baltimore 77, 79 ; Pittsburg 347. Oar, Carriage, Wagon and Automobile Industry : General Notes on, at — Augusta 61 ; Chicago 137 ; Detroit 175, 179 ; Louisville 221 ; Memphis 247 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 274 ; St. Louis 373. Hours of Labour in, at — Augusta 65 ; Chicago 141 ; Cleveland 165 ; Detroit 178 ; Louisville 223 ; Milwaukee 264 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 276 ; St. Louis 373, 375. Output — Detroit 172. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — Augusta 61, 64 ; Chicago 137 ; Detroit 176 ; Memphis 247 ; St. Louis 372, 373. Wages in, at — Augusta 65 ; Chicago 137, 141 ; Cincinnati 154 ; Cleveland 164 ; Detroit 177-179 ; Louisville 223 ; Milwaukee 264 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 276 ; St. Louis 373, 375. 514 INDEX TO TOWN REPORTS. Carpet and Rug Industry : Houi-8 in, at — Philadelphia 324. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at— Lowell 234 ; Philadelphia 321. Trade Unions in, at — Philadelphia 323. Wages in, at — Philadelphia 324. Charcoal, Price (Retail) of, at — Paterson 314. Chai'ities and Social Societies and Settlements at — New York 10, 11, 13 ; Atlanta 51 ; Augusta 63 ; Baltimore 82 ; Boston 103, 109 ; Brockton 118 ; Chicago 131 ; Cleveland 163 ; Lawrence 214 ; Milwaukee 259 ; Philadelphia 320, 325 ; Pittsburg 339, 341 ; Providence 359, 367. Cheese, Prices (Retail) of, at — New York 44, 46 ; Atlanta 59 ; Augusta 70 ; Baltimore 85 ; Birmingham 97 ; Boston 115 ; Brockton 126 ; Chicago 149, 150 ; Cincinnati 160 ; Cleveland 170 ; Detroit 183 ; Duluth 195 ; Fall River 206 ; Lawrence 217 ; Louisville 228, 229 ; Lowell 241 ; Memphis 255 ; Milwaukee 268 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 281 ; Muncie 287 ; New Orleans 297 i Newark 306 ; Paterson 314 ; Philadelphia 335 ; Pittsburg 356 ; Providence 368 ; St. Louis 380 ; Savannah 392. Chemical Trades (see also " Fertiliser Industry," " Cotton-seed Oil Industry " and " Varnish-making Industry ") : General Note on, at — Baltimore 77 ; Detroit 172, 175-177. Hours of Labour in, at — Baltimore 79 ; Detroit 177, 178. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — Detroit 172, 175-177 : Memphis 246. Wages in, at — Baltimore 79 ; Detroit 177, 178. Chicago 128-151. Children and Young Persons, Employment of, at — New York 7, 21 ; Atlanta 53, 56 ; Augusta 64 ; Brockton 122 ; Chicago 133, 143 ; Detroit 176 ; Duluth 187, 188 ; Milwaukee 259, 261, 265, 266 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 274, 275 ; New Orleans 293 ; Paterson 310, 311 ; Pro\idence 362 ; St. Louis 372, 374. Cigar Industry : General Notes on, at — Detroit 176, 177 ; Louisville 221 ; Pittsburg 346. Hours of Labour in, at — New York 22; Louisville 224 ; Philadelphia 324. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — New York 17, 20 ; Detroit 176 ; Louisville 221. Trade Unions in, at — Boston 106. Wages in, at — New York, 18, 22 ; Boston 107 ; Cincinnati 154; Detroit 179; Louisville 224 ; Philadelphia 324. Cincinnati 152-160. Cleveland 161-171. Climate ot — New York 1 ; Augusta 61, 66, 67 ; Birmingham 88 ; Milwaukee 258 ; Minneapolis^— St. Paul 271 ; New Orleans 290 ; Savannah 383. Clothing Trades (see also " Boot and Shoe Industry " and " Hat, Cap and Millinery Trades ") : General Notes on, at — New York 16, 20, 21, 23 ; Baltimore 75, 76 ; Boston 108 ; Chicago 129, 137, 138 ; Cincinnati 155, 156 ; Cleveland 162, 165 ; Detroit 177 ; Louisville 221 ; Minneapolis — St. Paul 273, 274. Hours of Labour in, at — New York 22-24 ; Atlanta 56 ; Baltimore 78 ; Boston 105, 107 ; Chicago 141 ; Cincinnati 156 ; Cleveland 166 ; Detroit 179 ; Louisville 223 ; Philadelphia 322, 324. Output of, at — Chicago 129. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — New York 16, 17, 20, 21 ; Atlanta 52 ; Baltimore 75 ; Birmingham 90 ; Boston 105 ; Brockton 119 ; Chicago 133 ; Cincinnati 155 ; Cleveland 164 ; Detroit 176, 177 ; Duluth 188 Fall River 200 ; Lawrence 211 ; Louisville 221 ; Lowell 234 ; Memphis 246 Milwaukee 260 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 273, 274 ; New Orleans 291 ; Newark 300 Patei-son 310 ; Philadelphia 321 ; Pittsburg 342 ; Providence 360, 361 ; St. Louis 372 Savannah 385. Trade Unions in, at — New York 18, 19, 24 : Atlanta 54 ; Boston 108 ; Chicago 137 ; Detroit 177 ; Philadelphia 323. Wages in, at — New York 18, 22-24 ; Baltimore 77, 78 ; Boston 107, 108 ; Chicago 137, 138, 141 ; Cincinnati 154, 156 ; Cleveland 162, 164-166 ; Detroit 179 ; Louisville 223 ; Philadelphia 324. INDEX TO TOWN REPORTS. 615 Coal Mining Industry : General Notes on, at — Birmingham 87, 88, 90-92, 97 ; Pittsburg S'M, 338, 344. Hours of Labonr in, at — Birmingham 91, 93 ; Pittsburg 344, 347. Output of, at — Birmingham 87 ; Pittsburg 337. Trade Unions in, at — Pittsburg 343-345. Wages in, at — Birmingham 90-93, 97 ; Pittsburg 343, 344, 347. Coal, Prices (Retail) of, at — New York 45, 46 ; Atlanta 59 ; Augusta 70 ; Baltimore 85 ; Birmingham 97 ; Boston 115 ; Brockton 125, 126 ; Chicago 150 ; Cincinnati 159, 160 ; Cleveland 170 ; Detroit 183 ; Duluth 195 ; Fall River 20o ; Lawrence 217 ; Louisville 229 ; Lowell 241 ; Memphis 255 ; Milwaukee 268 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 281 ; Muncie 286, 287 ; New Orleans 297 ; Newark 306 ; Paterson 314 ; Philadelphia 334, 335 ; Pittsburg 355, 356 ; Providence 368 ; St. Louis 379, 380 ; Savannah 392. Coffee, Prices (Retail) of, at — New York 44, 46 ; Atlanta 59 ; Augusta 70 ; Baltimore 85 ; Birmingham 97 ; Boston 115 ; Brockton 126 ; Chicago 150 ; Cincinnati 160 ; Cleveland 170 ; Detroit 183 ; Duluth 195 ; Fall River 206 ; Lawrence 217 : Louisville 229 : Lowell 241 : Memphis 255; Milwaukee 268 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 281 : Muncie 287 ; New Orleans 296, 297 ; Newark 306 ; Paterson 314 ; Philadelphia 335 ; Pittsburg 355, 356 ; Providence 368 ; St. Louis 380 ; Savannah 392. Coke, Prices (Retail) of, at — Atlanta 59 ; Augusta 70 ; Boston 115 : Brockton 126 ; Fall River 206 ; Lawrence 217 ; Lowell 241 ; Providence 368. Coking Industry : Wages, Hours, &c., in, at — Birmingham 87, 91, 93. Collective Agreements (see " Trade Agreements "). Commerce (see also " Trade " and " Transportation ") at — New York 15, 16 : Baltimore 72 ; Boston 99, 103, 104 ; Duluth 185 ; New Orleans 289 ; Philadelphia 317 ; Savannah 382, 383. Conciliation and Arbitration at — New York 19, 20 ; Atlanta 54 ; Brockton 120, 121 ; Chicago 134, 139, 140 ; Detroit 177 ; Milwaukee 263. Co-operation at — Birmingham 96, 97 ; Boston 114 ; Duluth 194 ; Lawrence 216, 217 : Milwaukee 258, 266 ; Philadelphia 325. Cotton Trade : Export of, at — Savannah 382. General Notes on, at — Atlanta 52, 53 ; Augusta 61 ; Baltimore 75 ; Birmingham 87 ; Fall River 199-201 ; Lawrence 208, 209, 211, 212 ; Lowell 233, 235 ; New Orleans 293 ; Providence 358, 364. Hours of Labour in, at — Atlanta 55 ; Augusta 64-66 : Fall River 202 ; Lawrence 213 ; Lowell 237, 238 ; New Orleans 293 ; Providence 363, Output of, at — Fall River 199 ; Lawrence 210 ; Lowell 233. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — Atlanta 52 ; Augusta 61, 63 ; Baltimore 75 ; Fall River 200 ; Lawrence 211 ; Lowell 234,. 235 ; New Orleans 291 ; Newark 300 ; Philadelphia 321 ; Providence 360, 361. Spindles and Looms, Number of. in, at — Fall River 200. Trade Unions in, at — Atlanta 53 : Fall River 201 ; Lowell 235. Wages in, at — Atlanta 53, 55 ; Augusta 64-66 ; Fall River 201-203 ; Lawrence 213, 214 ; Lowell 235-238 ; New Orleans 293 ; Providence 363, 364. Cotton Compressing, &c. : Wages, Hours, &c., in. at — New Orleans 291, 292. Cotton Warehousing : Wages, Houi's, &c., in, at — Memphis 248, 250. Cotton-seed Oil Industry : General Note on, at — Memphis 247 ; Savannah 385. Hours in, at — Memphis 248, 249. 16576 2 h 516 INDEX TO TOWN REPORTS. Cotton-seed Oil Industry — cont. Output of, at — Memphis 247. Persons occupied, Number of — Augusta 63. Wages in, at — Memphis 249. Credit Purchasing at — New York 42 ; Augusta 69 ; Boston 5114 ; Detroit 182 ; Duluth 194 ; Fall River 20.5 : Lawrence 216 ; Milwaukee 267 ; Minneapolis — St. Paul 280 ; Philadelphia 333. D. Death Benefits at — Brockton 121 ; Chicago 143 ; Savannah 387. Deaths at — New York 9 ; Atlanta 50 ; Augusta 62, 63 ; Baltimore 73 ; Birmingham 88, 89 ; Boston 1U3 ; Brockton 118 ; Chicago 132 ; Cincinnati 153 ; Detroit 174 ; Duluth 187 ; Fall River 1 98 ; Lawrence 209 ; Louisville 220 ; Lowell 231 ; Memphis 244 ; Milwaukee 258 Minneapolis— St. Paul 271 ; Muncie 283 ; New Orleans 290 ; Newark 299 Paterson 309 ; Philadelphia 318, 319 ; Pittsburg 340 ; Providence 359 ; St. Louis 371 Savannah 384. Detroit 172-184. Dietary of Foreign and Jewish Nationalities, at — Chicago 149, 150 ; Cleveland 170, 171 ; Detroit 182-184 ; Duluth 194, 195 ; Fall River 206 ; Louisville 228 ; Lowell 241 ; Memphis 255 ; Milwaukee 267, 268 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 277, 280, 282 ; New Orleans 297 ; Newark 306 ; Paterson 314 ; Philadelphia 334 ; Pittsburg 355 ; Providence 367, 368. Dietary of Negroes at — Augusta 69 ; Louisville 228, 229 ; Memphis 254, 255 ; New Orleans 297 ; Savannah 391, 393. Dietary of Working Classes at — ■ Augusta 69 ; Chicago 149, 150 ; Cleveland 170, 171 ; Detroit 182-184 ; Duluth 194, 195 ; Fall River 206 ; Louisville 228, 229 ; Lowell 241 ; Memphis 254, 255 ; Milwaukee 267, 268 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 277, 280-282 ; Muncie 287 ; New Orleans 297 ; Newark 306 ; Paterson 314 ; Philadelphia 334 ; Pittsburg .355, 356 ; Providence 367, 368 ; St. Louis 379 ; Savannah 391-393. Diseases, Industrial, at — Birmingham 96, Diseases, Prevalence of, Preventive Measures and Mortality due to, at — New York 9, 10 ; Atlanta 50 ; Augusta 63 ; Birmingham 88, 96 ; Brockton 118 ; Chicago 132, 147 ; Cincinnati 153 ; Detroit 174, 176 ; Duluth 187 ; Fall River 198, 199 ; Lawrence 209 ; Lowell 220 ; Memphis 243, 244 ; Milwaukee 258 ; Minneapolis — St. Paul 271, 272 ; Muncie 283 ; New Orleans 290 ; Newark 299 ; Philadelphia 318, 319 ; Pittsburg 340 ; Providence 359 ; St. Louis 371 ; Savannah 384. Distilling Industry : General Notes on, at — Baltimore 75, 77 ; Louisville 221. Hours of Labour in, at — Baltimore 79 ; Louisville 224. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — Baltimore 77. Wages in, at — Baltimore 79 ; Louisville 224. Dock Labour : General Note on, at — Baltimore 75, 76, 78 ; Cleveland 165 ; Duluth 188 ; Memphis 248 ; Milwaukee 263 ; New Orleans 291, 292 ; Savannah 386. Hours of Labour in, at — New York 17 ; Boston 107 ; Cleveland 165, 167 ; Duluth 190, 191 ; Milwaukee 263 ; New Orleans 292 ; Savannah 386, 388. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at— Duluth 188. Trade Unions in, at — Boston 106 ; Duluth 191 ; New Orleans 291, 292 ; Savannah 386. Wages in, at — New York 22, 24 ; Baltimore 78, 79 ; Boston 107 ; Cleveland 165, 167 ; Duluth 190, 191 ; Memphis 248 ; Milwaukee 263 ; New Orleans 291, 292 ; Savannah 386, 388. Drink Industry (see also " Brewing Industry," " Distilling " and " Saloons ") : General Note on, at — Baltimore 75, 77 ; Louisville 221 ; Milwaukee 260, 263 ; New Orleans 293 ; Pittsburg 346 ; Providence 362. Houi-s of Labour in, at — New York 22 ; Baltimore 77, 79 ; Cincinnati 156, 157 ; Louisville 223, 224 ; Milwaukee 262 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 275, 277 ; New Orleans 294 ; Newark 301, 303 ; Philadelphia 324 ; Pittsburg 347 ; Providence 363 ; St, Louis 373, 375, INDEX TO TOWN REPORTS. 617 Drink Industry — cont. Output of, at — Milwaukee 260. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — New York 16 ; Atlanta 52 ; Baltimore 75, 77 ; Birmingham 90 ; Boston 105 ; Brockton 119 ; Chicago 133 ; Cincinnati 155 ; Cleveland 164 ; Detroit 176 ; Fall River 200 ; Lawrence 211 ; Louisville 221 ; Lowell 234 ; Memphis 246 ; Milwaukee 260 ; New Orleans 291 ; Newark 300 ; Paterson 310 ; Philadelphia 321 ; Pittsburg 342, 346 ; Providence 360, 361 ; St. Louis 372 ; Savannah 385. Trade Unions in, at — New York 19 ; Baltimore 75 ; Cincinnati 156 ; Louisville 222 ; Milwaukee 262 ; Newark 301 ; Philadelphia 322 ; Pittsburg 343, 346 ; Providence 362 ; St. Louis 373. Wages in, at — New York 22 ; Baltimore 77, 79 ; Cincinnati 154, 157 ; Louisville 222-224 ; Milwaukee 262- 264 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 275, 277 ; New Orleans 294 ; Newark 301, 303 ; Philadelphia 322, 324 ; Pittsburg 343, 346, 347 ; Providence 362, 363 ; St. Louis 373, 375. Duluth 185-196. Dwellings (see " Housing "). Dyeing and Bleaching Trades : General Notes on, at — Lowell 235 : Paterson 310, 311. Hours of Labour in, at — Paterson 311 ; Providence 363. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — Lawrence 211 ; Lowell 234 ; Paterson 310 ; Philadelphia 321 ; Providence 360, 361. Trade Unions in, at — Lowell, 235. Wages in, at — Paterson 311 ; Providence 363. E. Earnings (see " Wages ")• Education at — New York 14 ; Atlanta 51, 56 ; Augusta 62-64 ; Baltimore 72, 74 ; Birmingham 88 ; Boston iOO, 102, 103; Chicago 133, 143; Cincinnati 154; Detroit 173,175,176; Duluth 187 ; Lawrence 208, 210 ; Louisville 219, 220 ; Lowell 234 ; Memphis 244, 247 ; Milwaukee 257-259 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 272, 273, 275 ; Newark 300 ; Philadelphia 319, 320. Education, Technical, at — Atlanta 51 ; Augusta 62 ; Chicago 133, 143 ; Detroit 175 ; Duluth 187 ; Fall River 199 ; Lowell 234 ; Memphis 244, 247 ; Milwaukee 259 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 273 ; Newark 301 ; Pittsburg 338, 339, 341. Eggs, Prices (Retail) of, at — New York 44, 46 ; Atlanta 59 ; Augusta 70 ; Baltimore 85 ; Birmingham 97 ; Boston 115 ; Brockton 126 ; Chicago 150 ; Cincinnati 160 ; Cleveland 170 ; Detroit 183 ; Duluth 195 ; Fall River 206 ; Lawrence 217 ; Louisville 229 ; Lowell 241 ; Memphis 255 ; Milwaukee 268 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 281 ; Muncie 286, 287 ; New Orleans 297 ; Newark 306 ; Paterson 314 ; Philadelphia 335 ; Pittsburg 356 ; Providence 368 ; St. Louis 380 ; Savannah 392. Electric Lighting and Power Supply at — New York 11 : Atlanta 49 ; Augusta 63 ; Baltimore 74 ; Birmingham 90 : Boston 103 ; Brockton 118 ; Chicago 133 ; Cincinnati 154 ; Cleveland 163, 166 ; Detroit 173, 175 ; Duluth 186, 187 ; Fall River 199 ; Lawrence 210 ; Louisville 220 ; Lowell 233 ; Memphis 246 ; Milwaukee 259 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 272 ; Muncie 284 ; New Orleans 290 ; Newark 300 ; Paterson 309 ; Philadelphia 319 ; Pittsburg 340 ; Providence 358 ; St. Louis 371 ; Savannah 384. Electric Lighting Rates at — Brockton 118 ; Lawrence 210 ; Lowell 233 ; Pittsburg 340. Electric Tramways and Railways (see " Tramway and Railway Systems "). Electricity Works : General Notes on, at — Boston, 108 ; Cleveland 166. Hours of Labour in, at — New York 23 ; Atlanta 55 ; Augusta 66 ; Baltimore 80 ; Birmingham 94 ; Boston 107 ; Brockton 122 ; Chicago 142 ; Cincinnati 157 ; Cleveland 166, 167 ; Detroit 179 ; Duluth 190 ; Fall River 202 ; Lawrence 213 ; Louisville 224 ; Lowell 238 ; Memphis 250 ; Milwaukee 264 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 277 ; Muncie 285 ; New Orleans 294 ; Newark 303 : Paterson 312 ; Philadelphia 324 ; Pittsburg 348 ; Providence 364 ; St. Louis 376 ; Savannah 388. 16576 2 L 2 518 INDEX TO TOWN REPORTS. Electricity Works — cont. Wages in, at — New York 23 ; Atlanta 55 ; Augusta 66 ; Baltimore 80 ; Birmingham it-t ; Boston 107 ; Brockton 122 ; Chicago 142 ; Cincinnati 157 ; Cleveland 167 ; Detroit 179 ; Duluth 190 ; Fall River 202 ; Lawrence 213 ; Louisville 224 ; Lowell 238 ; Memphis 250 ; Milwaukee 264 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 277 ; Muncie 285 ; New Orleans 294 ; Newark 303 ; Patersou 312 ; Philadelphia 324 ; Pittsburg 348 ; Providence 364 ; St. Louis 376 ; Savannah 388. Employment Bureaux {see " Labour Bureaux "). Engineering and Metal Trades (see also " Iron and Steel Works ") : General Notes on, at — Baltimore 76 ; Birmingham 87, 91 ; Chicago 128, 129, 136, 137 ; Boston 108 ; Brockton 121 ; Cincinnati 155 : Detroit 172, 175, 179 ; Duluth 189 ; Fall River 200 ; Lawrence 210, 212 ; Louisville 221 ; Lowell 233, 23G ; Memphis 247 ; Milwaukee 259, 262, 263 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 273-275 ; Muncie 284 ; New Orleans 292 ; Newark 301 ; Paterson 308, 311 ; Philadelphia 320 ; Pittsburg 345, 346 ; Providence 362, 364 ; St. Louis 373 ; Savannah 385, 387. Hours of Labour in, at — New York 22, 23 ; Atlanta 54, 55 ; Augusta 64, 65 ; Baltimore 78 ; Birmingham 91, 93 ; Boston 105, 107 ; Brockton 121 ; Chicago 135, 137, 140 ; Cincinnati 156 ; Cleveland 165, 166 ; Detroit 177, 178 ; Duluth 190, 191 ; Fall River 202 ; Lawrence 213 ; Louisville 222 ; Lowell 237, 238 ; Memphis 247, 249 ; Milwaukee 262-264 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 276 ; Muncie 284,285 ; New Orleans 293 ; Newark 301,302 ; Paterson 311 ; Philadelphia 322, 323 ; Pittsburg 347 ; Providence 363 ; St. Louis 373, 375 ; Savannah .387. Ovitput of, at — Chicago 128, 129 ; Lowell 233. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — New York 16, 17, 23 ; Atlanta 52 ; Augusta 61, 64 ; Baltimoi-e 75 ; Birmingham 90 ; Boston 105 ; Brockton 119 ; Chicago 129, 133, 136 ; Cincinnati 155 ; Cleveland 164 ; Detroit 175, 176 ; Duluth 188 ; Fall River 200 ; Lawrence 211 ; Louisville 221 ; Lowell 234, 236 ; Memphis 246 ; Milwaukee 259, 260 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 273, 274 ; New Orleans 291 ; Newark 300, 301 ; Paterson 310, 311 ; Philadelphia 320, 321 ; Pittsburg 342, 345, 346 ; Providence 360-362 ; St. Louis 372, 373 ; Savannah 385. Trade Unions in, at — New York 19 ; Atlanta 54 ; Augusta 67 ; Baltimore 76 ; Birmingham 91 ; Brockton 121 ; Cincinnati 155 ; Detroit 177 ;'Fall River 203 : Lawrence 212 ; Lowell 236 ; Memphis 247 ; Milwaukee 262 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 274, 275 ; New Orleans 292 : Newark 301 ; Philadelphia 323 ; Pittsburg 346 ; Providence 362 ; St. Louis 373 ; Savannah 387. Wages in, at — New York 18, 22, 23 ; Atlanta 54, 55 ; Augusta 65 ; Baltimore 78 ; Birmingham 91, 93 ; Boston 107, 108 ; Brockton 121 ; Chicago 135, 137, 140 ; Cincinnati 154-156 ; Cleveland 164-166 ; Detroit 177-179 ; Duluth 190, 191 ; Fall River 202 ; Lawrence 212, 213 ; Louisville 222 ; Lowell 237 ; Memphis 247-249 ; Milwaukee 262-264 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 274-276 ; Muncie 284, 285 ; New Orleans 292, 293 ; Newark 302 ; Paterson 311 ; Philadelphia 323 ; Pittsburg 343, 347 ; Providence 362-364 ; St. Louis 373, 375 ; Savannah 387. Exports at — New York 16 ; Baltimore 72 ; Boston 99 ; Cleveland 161 ; Dnluth 185 ; New Orleans 289 ; Philadelphia 317 ; Savannah 382, 383. F. Factories, Working Conditions in, and Factory Inspection (see also " Wages," " Hours," (iitd " Welfare Work ") at— Atlanta 56 ; Cincinnati 155, 156 ; Cleveland 16.3, 165 ; Detroit 175-177 ; Fall River 201 ; Milwaukee 261 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 274, 275, 280 ; New Orleans 29.3 ; Pittsburg 343; Providence 362. Fall River 197-207. Female Labour {see •' Women and Girls "). Fertilizer Industry : General Notes on, at — Atlanta 53, 54 ; Augusta 66 ; Baltimore 77 ; Savannah 385. Hours at — Atlanta 54, 55 ; Savannah 388. Wages in, at — Atlanta 54, 55 ; Savannah 388. Finance, Municipal (see " Municipal Undertakings, Properties, and Finance "). Fish: Consumption of, at — Boston 116 ; Detroit 183 ; Duluth 195 ; Memphis 255 ; Milwaukee 267 ; New Orleans 297. Prices (Retail) of, at — New York 47 ; Baltimore 85 ; Boston 116 ; Duluth 195 ; Milwaukee 267 ; Philadelphia 336. Supply, Sources of, at — New York 47 ; Boston 116 ; Memphis 255 ; Philadelphia 336. INDEX TO TOWN REPORTS. 519 Flour Milling Industry : General Note on, at — Minneapolis— St. Paul 270, 273, 275. Hours of Labour in, at — Louisville 223 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 275, 276. Output of, at — Minneapolis— St. Paul 270. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — Minneapolis— St. Paul 273, 274. Trade Unions in, at — Minneapolis— St. Paul 275. Wages in, at — Louisville 223 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 275, 276. Flour, Prices (Retail) of, at — New York 44, 46 ; Atlanta 59 ; Augusta 70 ; Baltimore 85 ; Birmingham 97 ; Boston 115 Brockton 126; Chicago 150; Cincinnati 160 ; Cleveland 170; Detroit 183 ; Duluth 195 Fall River 206 ; Lawrence 217 ; Louisville 228, 229 ; Lowell 241 ; Memphis 255 Milwaukee 268 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 280, 281 ; Muncie 287 ; New Orleans 296, 297 Newark 306 ; Paterson 314 ; Philadelphia 335 ; Pittsburg 356 ; Providence 368 ; St. Louis 380; Savannah 392. Food, Drink, and Tobacco Trades {see also " Meat Packing ") : General Notes on, at — New York 21 ; Baltimore 75-78 ; Chicago 139 ; Detroit 176, 177 ; Louisville 221 ; Milwaukee 260, 263 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 270, 273, 275 ; New Orleans 293 ; Pittsburg 346 ; Providence 362. Hours of Labour in, at — New York 22 ; Atlanta 55, 56 ; Baltimore 77, 79 ; Chicago 139, 141 ; Cincinnati 156, 157 ; Louisville 223, 224; Memphis 250 ; Milwaukee 262, 264 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 27.5-277 ; New Orleans 294 ; Newark 301, 303 ; Philadelphia 324 ; Pittsburg 347 ; Providence 363 ; St. Louis 373, 375. Output of, at — Baltimore 77 ; Milwaukee 260 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 270. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — New York 16, 17, 20 ; Atlanta 52 ; Baltimore 75, 77 ; Birmingham 90 ; Boston 105 ; Brockton 119 ; Chicago 133 ; Cincinnati 155 ; Cleveland 164 ; Detroit 176 ; Duluth 188 ; Fall River 200 ; Lawrence 211 ; Louisville 221 ; Lowell 234 ; Memphis 246 ; Milwaukee 260; Minneapolis— St. Paul 273, 274 ; New Orleans 291 ; Newark 300 ; Paterson 310 ; Philadelphia 321 ; Pittsburg 342, 346 ; Providence 360, 361 ; St. Louis 372 ; Savannah 385. Trade Unions in, at — New York 19 ; Baltimore 75 ; Chicago 135 ; Cincinnati 156 ; Louisville 222 ; Milwaukee 262 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 275 ; Newark 301 ; Philadelphia 322 ; Pittsburg 343, 346 ; Providence 362 ; St. Louis 373. Wages in, at — New York 18, 22 ; Atlanta 55 ; Baltimore 77-79 ; Chicago 139, 141 ; Cincinnati 154, 157 ; Detroit 179 ; Louisville 222-224 ; Memphis 250 ; Milwaukee 262-264 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 275-277 : New Orleans 293, 294 ; Newark 301, 303 ; Philadelphia 322, 324 ; Pittsburg 343, 346, 347 ; Providence 362, 363 ; St. Louis 373, 375. Food Habits (see " Dietary "), Food Inspection, and Regulations as to the Sale of Food, at — New York 42-46 ; Atlanta 59 ; Augusta 69, 71 ; Birmingham 97 ; Boston 116 ; Brockton 118, 125 ; Chicago 132, 135, 149, 150 ; Cincinnati 153, 159 ; Cleveland 170 ; Detroit 183, 184 ; Duluth 194, 195 ; Fall River 199, 206 ; Lawrence 217 ; Louisville 229 ; Lowell 233 ; Memphis 256 ; Milwaukee 268, 269 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 272, 280-282 ; Pittsburg 355 ; St. Louis 379 ; Savannah 383, 392, 393. Food, Prices (Retail) of, at — New York 41-47 ; Atlanta 58-60 ; Augusta 69-71 ; Baltimore 84-86 ; Birmingham 96-98 ; Boston 114-116 ; Brockton 124-127 ; Chicago 148-151 ; Cincinnati 159, 160 ; Cleveland 170, 171 ; Detroit 182-184; Duluth 194-196 ; Fall River 205-207 ; Lawrence 216-218 ; Louisville 228-230 ; Lowell 240-242 ; Memphis 254-256 ; Milwaukee 267-269 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 280-282 ; Muncie 286, 287 ; New Orleans 296-298 ; Newark 306, 307 ; Paterson 313-315 ; Philadelphia 333-336 ; Pittsburg 355, 356 ; Providence 367-369 ; St. Louis 379, 380 ; Savannah 391-393. Food, Regiilations as to the Sale of (see " Food Inspection, &c."). Foreign and Jewish Labour at — • New York 5, 7, 1^, 17, 20, 21 ; Atlanta 48 ; Baltimore 76, 77 ; Birmingham 88, 92 ; Boston 105 ; Chicago 129, 136 ; Cincinnati 155 ; Cleveland 162 ; Detroit 177 ; Fall River 198 ; Lawrence 208, 209 ; Louisville 221 ; Lowell 235, 236 ; Memphis 243, 248 ; Milwaukee 260, 261, 263, 265 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 271, 274 ; New Orleans 290, 292 ; Newark 301; Paterson 309, 311; Philadelphia 321 , 322 ; Pittsburg 344-346, 348 ; Providence 360, 361 ; St. Louis 371, 373 ; Savannah 381. Foreign and Jewish Population (see also " Parent Nativity ") at — New York 5-8 ; Atlanta 48 ; Augusta 62 ; Baltimore 73, 76 ; Birmingham 88 ; Boston 100, 102 ; Brockton 117 ; Chicago 129 ; Cincinnati 153 ; Cleveland 161, 162 ; Detroit 172, 173 ; Duluth 186 ; Fall River 197, 198 ; Lawrence 208, 209 ; Louisville 219 ; Lowell 231, 232 ; Memphis 243 ; Milwaukee 257, 258 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 270, 271 ; Muncie 283 ; New Orleans 289 ; Newark 299 ; Paterson 309 ; Philadelphia 318 ; Pittsburg 338 ; Providence 358, 360 ; St. Louis 370. 16576 2 L 3 520 INDEX TO TOWN REPORTS. Fuel {see " Coal," « Charcoal " and " Wood "). Fur Industry : Persons Occupied, Number of, etc., in, at — Minneapolis— St. Paul 273, 274. Furnishing Trades — Hours of Labour in, at — New York 22 ; Atlanta 55 ; Augusta 66 ; Chicago 141 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 276. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — New York 16, 17 ; Atlanta 52 ; Baltimore 75 ; Birmingham 90 ; Boston 105 ; Brockton 119 ; Chicago 133 ; Cincinnati 155 ; Cleveland 164 ; Detroit 176 ; Fall River 200 ; Lawrence 211 ; Louisville 221 ; Lowell 234 ; Memphis 246 ; Milwaukee 260 ; New Orleans 291 ; Newark 300 ; Paterson 310 ; Philadelphia 321 ; Pittsburg 312 ; Providence 360, 361 ; St. Louis 372 ; Savannah 385. Wages in, at — New York 22 ; Atlanta 55 ; Augusta 66 ; Chicago 141 ; Cincinnati 154 ; Minneapolis — St. Paul 275, 276. G. Gas Rate at — New York 46 ; Augusta 63 ; Birmingham 90 ; Brockton 118 ; Cincinnati 154 ; Cleveland 163, 169 ; Detroit 175, 182 ; Duluth 187 ; Lawrence 210 ; Lowell 233 ; Muncie 284, 286 ; New Orleans 290 ; Pitt8burg;340 ; Providence 358. Gas Supply at — New York 11 ; Atlanta 49 ; Augusta 63 ; Baltimore 74 ; Birmingham 90 ; Boston 103 ; Brockton 118 ; Chicago 133 ; Cincinnati 154 ; Cleveland 163 ; Detroit 175 ; Duluth 187 ; Fall River 199 ; Lawrence 210 ; Louisville 220 ; Lowell 233 ; Memphis 246 ; Milwaukee 259 ; Minneapolis — St. Paul 272 ; Muncie 284 ; New Orleans 290 ; Newark 300 ; Paterson 309 ; Philadelphia 319 ; Pittsburg 340, 346 ; Providence 358 ; St. Louis 371 ; Savannah 384. Gas Works : General Note on, at — New Orleans 293. Hours of Labour in, at — New York 17, 23 ; Atlanta 55 ; Augusta 66 ; Baltimore 80 ; Birmingham 94 ; Boston 107 ; Brockton 122 ; Chicago 142 ; Cincinnati 157 ; Cleveland 167 ; Detroit 179 ; Duluth 190 ; Fall River 202 ; Lawrence 213 ; Louisville 224 ; Lowell 237 ; Memphis 250 ; Milwaukee 264 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 277 ; New Orleans 294 ; Newark 303 ; Paterson 312 ; Philadelphia 324 ; Pittsburg 348 ; Providence 364 ; St. Louis 376 ; Savannah 388. Wages in, at — New York 23 ; Atlanta 55 ; Augusta 66 ; Baltimore 80 ; Birmingham 94 ; Boston 107 ; Brockton 122 ; Chicago 142 ; Cincinnati 157 ; Cleveland 167 ; Detroit 179 ; Duluth 190 ; Fall River 202 ; Lawrence 213 ; Louisville 224 ; Lowell 237 ; Memphis 250; Milwaukee 264 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 277 ; New Orleans 293, 294 ; Newark 303 ; Paterson 312 ; Philadelphia 324 ; Pittsburg 348 ; Providence 364 ; St. Louis 376 ; Savannah 388. Geographical Situation ot — New York 1 ; Atlanta 48, 51 ; Augusta 61 ; Baltimore 72 ; Birmingham 87 ; Boston 99, 100 ; Brockton 117 ; Chicago 128 ; Cincinnati 152 ; Cleveland 161 ; Detroit 172 ; Duluth 185; Fall River 197; Lawrence 208; Louisville 219; Lowell 231 ; Memphis 243 ; Milwaukee 257 ; Minneapolis — St. Paul 270 ; Muncie 283 ; New Orleans 288 ; Newark 299 ; Paterson 308 ; Philadelphia 316 ; Pittsburg 337 ; Providence 357 ; St. Louis 370; Savannah 381. Glass Trades : General Notes on, at — Muncie 283, 284 ; Pittsburg 342. Hours of Labour in, at — Muncie 285. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — New York 16 ; Baltimore 75 ; Philadelphia 321 ; Pittsburg 342 ; St. Louis 372. Wages in, at — Muncie 284, 285. Groceries, Prices (Retail) of, at — New York 43-16 ; Atlanta 58, 59 ; Augusta 69, 70 ; Baltimore 85 ; Birmingham 97 ; Boston , 114, 115 ; Brockton 125, 126 ; Chicago 149, 150 ; Cincinnati 1.59, 160 ; Cleveland 170 Detroit 183 ; Duluth 194, 195 ; Fall River 205, 206; Lawrence ^17 ; Louisville 228, 229 Lowell 241 ; Memphis 255 ; Milwaukee 268 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 280, 281 Muncie 286, 287 ; New Orleans 296, 297 ; Newark 306 ; Paterson 314 ; Philadelphia 334, 335 ; Pittsburg 355, 356 ; Providence 367, 368 ; St. Louis 379, 380 ; Savannah 391, 392. H. Harbour Labourers (see " Dock Labourers ")v Hat, Cap and Millinery Trades : General Note on, at — Baltimore 75, 77. Hours of Labour in, at — Atlanta 56 ; Baltimore 78 ; Philadelphia 322, 324. INDEX TO TOWN REPORTS. 521 Hat, Cap and Milliuary Trades — cont. Output of, at — Baltimore 77. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — New York 16 ; Fall River 200 ; Newark 300. Trade Unions in, at — Philadelphia 323. Wages in, at — Baltimore 77, 78 ; Philadelphia 324. Health, Public (see " Hj-gienic Regulations, A-c"). Historical Retrospect of — New York 1 ; Atlanta 49 ; Augusta 61 ; Baltimore 74 ; Boston 99, 100 ; Brockton 117 ; Detroit 172 ; Duluth 185 ; Louisville 219 ; Lowell 231 ; Memphis 243 ; Milwaukee 257 ; New Orleans 288 ; Newark 299 ; Paterson 308 ; Philadelphia 316, 317 ; Pittsburg 337 ; Providence 357 ; Savannah 381. Holidays at — New York 17 ; Augusta 64, 65 ; Baltimore 76 ; Boston 105, 106, 108 ; Chicago 134, 138. 139 ; Detroit 177 ; Duluth 191 ; Louisville 221, 222 ; Memphis 247 ; Milwaukee 262, 263 ; Newark 301 ; Philadelphia 322 ; Pittsburg 343-345. Home Work at — New York 7, 20, 21 ; Boston 108 ; Chicago 137, 138 ; Cincinnati 155 ; Cleveland 165 ; Detroit 176 ; Milwaukee 261. Hosiery Manufacture : General Notes on, at — • Lowell 233 ; Minneapolis — St. Paul 273. Hours of Labour in, at — Lowell 237 ; Philadelphia 323. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — Lowell 234 ; Milwaukee 260 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 273, 274 ; Philadelphia 321. Wages in, at — Lowell 237 ; Philadelphia 323. Hours of Labour at — New York 17, 22-24 ; Atlanta 54-56 ; Augusta 64-66 ; Baltimore 75, 76, 78-80 ; Birmingham 91-95 ; Boston 105, 107, 108 ; Brockton 121, 122 ; Chicago 134-143 ; Cincinnati 156, 157 ; Cleveland 164-167 ; Detroit 176-179 ; Duluth 189-191 ; Fall River 202 ; Lawrence 212, 213 ; Louisville 221-224 ; Lowell 237, 238 ; Memphis 247-250 ; Mil- waukee 261-264 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 274-277 ; Muncie 284, 285 ; New Orleans 292- 294 ; Newark 301-303 ; Paterson 310-312 ; Philadelphia 322-324 ; Pittsburg 341, 344-348 ; Providence 363, 364 ; St. Louis 372-376 ; Savannah 383, 386-388. Housing and Rents at — New York 7, 24-41 ; Atlanta 49, 50, 52, 53, 56-58 ; Augusta 67-69 ; Baltimore 74, 80-84 ; Birmingham 89, 94-96 ; Boston 102, 108-114 ; Brockton 123, 124 ; Chicago 131, 143-148 ; Cincinnati 152, 157-159 ; Cleveland 162, 163, 167-169 ; Detroit 173, 174, 180-182 ; Duluth 191-194 ; Fall River 198, 203-205 ; Lawrence 208, 212, 214-216 ; Louisville 220, 224-228 ; Lowell 232, 233, 236, 238-240 ; Memphis 244, 250-254 ; Milwaukee 258, 265- 267 : Minneapolis— St. Paul 271-273, 277-280 ; Muncie 283, 285, 286 ; New Orleans 288, 290, 294-296 : Newark, 299, 300, 303-306 ; Paterson 308, 312, 313 ; Philadelphia 317, 318, 320, 325, 333 : Pittsburg 339, 340, 348-354 : Providence 358-360. 364-367 ; St. Louis 371, 376-379 ; Savannah 383, 388-391. Housing : Accommodation at — New York 24-41 ; Atlanta 52, 56-58 ; Augusta 62, 67, 68 ; Baltimore 80-84 ; Birmingham 89, 94-96 ; Boston 108-114 ; Brockton 123, 124 ; Chicago 144-148 ; Cincinnati 157, 158 ; Cleveland 167-169 ; Detroit 180-182 ; Duluth 192-194 ; Fall River 198, 203, 204 ; Lawrence 208, 214-216; Louisville 224-228; Lowell 238-240; Memphis 250-253; Milwaukee 265-267 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 277-279 ; Muncie 285, 286 ; New Orleans 294-296 ; Newark 303-306 ; Paterson 312, 313 ; Philadelphia 318, 325-332 ; Pittsburg 339-341, 348-354 ; Providence 364-367 ; St. Louis 371, 376-379 ; Savannah 388-391. Individual Dwellings visited. Description of, at — New York 33-38 ; Baltimore 83, 84 ; Boston 110-113 ; Cleveland 168, 169 ; Louisville 226, 227 ; Memphis 251-253 ; Paterson 313 ; Philadelphia 330, 331 ; Pittsburg 351-354. Inspection of, at — New York 29, 30 ; Atlanta 49, 50 ; Augusta 69 ; Boston 113 ; Newark 306 ; Paterson 312 ; Philadelphia 328 ; Pittsburg 354 ; St. Louis 377 ; Savannah 383. Lodgings, Board and, at — Baltimore, 81 ; Chicago 147, 148 ; Duluth 191 ; Lawrence 216 ; Lowell 233, 239 ; Milwaukee 265, 267 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 271, 273 : Philadelphia 320 : Pittsburg 341, 348-354. Ownership at — New York 40 ; Atlanta 57 ; Augusta 62, 69 ; Baltimore 80-82 ; Birmingham 96 ; Boston 110, 111 ; Brockton 124 ; Cincinnati 152, 159 ; Cleveland 162, 167, 169 ; Detroit 173, 180, 182 ; Duluth 192 ; Fall River 205 ; Louisvillel 227 ; Lowell 240 ; Memphis 244, 254 ; Milwaukee 258, 265, 266 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 277, 278 ; Muncie 286 ; Paterson 313 ; Philadelphia 317, 332, 333 ; Pittsburg 354 ; Providence 366 ; St. Louis 376, 378. Provision of, by Building and similar Societies and Companies — . New York 40 ; Baltimore 82 ; Boston 112, 114 ; Chicago 144 ; Duluth 192 ; Fall River 205 ; Louisville 227 ; Memphis 254 ; Milwaukee 266 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 278 ; Philadelpia 328. 330, 332, 333 ; Providence 367. 18576 2 L 4 622 ■ INDEX TO TOWN REPORTS. Housing — conL Provision of, by Employers, at — Atlanta 52, 53 ; Augusta 68 ; Birmingham 96, 97 ; Chicago 1:51 ; Lawrence 212. 214. 216 ; Lowell 236, 238, 239 ; Pittsburg 354 ; Providence 360. Purchase Systems (see also " Provision of, by Building and Similar Societies and Companies"), at — New York 40, 41 ; Cleveland 162, 167, 169 ; Detroit 182 ; Duluth V?2 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 278 ; Muncie 286 ; Paterson 313 ; Pittsburg 354 ; Providence 366 ; St. Louis 378. Regulations at — New York 25, 27-30 ; Baltimore 81, 82; Boston 111, 112; Chicago 144-147 ; Cincinnati 158; Fall River 205 ; Louisville 220 ; Memphis 253, 254 ; Milwaukee 267 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 279 ; Newark 304-306 ; Paterson 312 ; Philadelphia 328, 329 ; Pittsburg 350 ; St. Louis 377. Statistics of, at — New York 24, 25, 29, 30 ; Atlanta 58 ; Augusta 69 ; Baltimore 74, SO, 82 : Birmingham 96 ; Boston 110, 114; Brockton 124; Chicago 144, 147; Cincinnati 159: Cleveland 168; Detroit 180 ; Duluth 192 ; Fall River 205 ; Louisville 224, 227, 228 ; Lowell 238, 240 ; Memphis 250, 254 ; Milwaukee 265-267 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 277, 278 ; Muncie 286 ; New Orleans 290, 294 ; Newark 300, 303 ; Paterson 312, 313 ; Philadelphia 325, 326, .328, 332 ; Pittsburg 348, 349, 354 ; Providence 366 ; St. Louis 376. Sub-letting at — Baltimore 81, 83 ; Detroit 180, 181 : Duluth 192 ; Louisville 225 ; Memphis 252 ; Milwaukee 258,266; Paterson 313; Philadelphia 328 ; Pittsburg 350 ; Providence 366 ; St. Louis 377, Hygienic Regulations, Administration and Practices, and Sanitary Conditions (sue nlsu '• Housing"). New York 9-11, 14 ; Atlanta 49, 50 ; Augusta 62, 63, 69 ; Baltimore 73, 74 ; Birmingham 89 ; Boston 101, 103, 110, 112, 113 ; Brockton 118 ; Chicago 131, 132, 137, 1.38, 146, 149 ; Cincinnati 153 ; Cleveland 163, 168 ; Detroit 174, 176, 181 ; Duluth 187, 193, 194 ; Fall River 198, 199 ; Lawrence 210 ; Louisville 225. 227 ; Lowell 233, 239 ; Memphis 243, 254 ; Milwaukee 258, 259, 267 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 271, 272, 278, 279, 281 ; Muncie 283, 284 ; New Orleans 290, 295 ; Philadelphia 318 ; Pittsburg 340, 349, 350 ; Providence 359, 367 ; St. Louis 371, 376, 377 ; Savannah 383, 384, 389, 391, I. Immigration into — New York 5 ; Augusta 62 ; Baltimore 73, 76, 77 ; Brockton 117 ; Chicago 129 ; Cincinnati 1.5.3, 158 ; Cleveland 162 ; Detroit 173 ; Duluth 191 ; E'all River 197, 198 ; Lawrence 208, 209 ; Lowell 231, 232 ; Milwaukee 258 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 271 ; New Orleans 289 ; Newark 299 ; Paterson 308, 309 ; Philadelphia 318 ; Pittsburg 338, 348 ; St. Louis 370, 371. Imports at — New York 16 ; Baltimore 72 ; Boston 99 ; Cleveland 161 ; Duluth 185 ; Milwaukee 257 ; New Orleans 289 ; Philadelphia 317 ; Savannah 382. Industrial Diseases at — Birmingham 96. Infant Mortality at — New York 9 ; Atlanta 50 ; Augiista 62 ; Boston 103 ; Brockton 118 ; Chicago 132 ; Detroit 174 ; Duluth 187 ; Fall River 198 ; Lawrence 209 ; Lowell 231 ; Memphis 244 ; Mil- waukee 258, 266 ; Minneapolis — St Paul 272 ; Muncie 283 ; Philadelphia 319 : Providence 359 ; Savannah 384. Insurance, Workmen's, and Benefits {see " Accident Insurance," " Old Age Pensions," " Sick Funds," and " Unemployment Funds "). Iron and Steel Industry (see also " Engineering and Metal Trades ") : General Notes on, at — Baltimore 76 ; Birmingham 87, 88, 91 ; Chicago 128, 136 ; Cleveland, 161, 164 ; Muncie 283 ; Pittsburg 337, 342, 343, 345. Hours of Labour in, at — Birmingham 91, 93 ; Chicago 140 ; Cleveland 164, 166 ; Pittsburg ,345, 347. Output of, at — Birmingham 87 ; Chicago 128 ; Pittsburg 337. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — Baltimore 76 ; Chicago 136 ; Milwaukee 259 ; Pittsburg 337, 345. Trade Unions in, at — Cleveland 164 ; Pittsburg 343. Wages in, at — Birmingham 91, 93 ; Chicago 136, 140 ; Cleveland 164, 166 ; Pittsburg 343, .345, 347, 348. Jewellery and Gold and Silver Trades : General Notes on, at — Newark 301 ; Providence 358, 361, 362, 364, Hours of Labour in, at — Newark 301, 302 ; Providence 363, INDEX TO TOWN REPORTS. 523 Jewellery and Gold and Silver Trades— cont. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — Providence ;560, 361. Wages in, at — Newark 302 ; Providence 363, 3G4. Jewish Dietary (see " Dietary of Foreign and Jewish Nationalities "). Jewish Labour (see " Foreign and Jewish Labour "). Jewish Population (see " Foreign and Jewish Population "). K. Kerosene, Prices (Retail) of, at — New York 46 ; Atlanta 59 ; Augusta 70 ; Baltimore cS5 ; Birmingham 97 ; Boston 115 ; Brockton 126 ; Chicago 150 ; Cincinnati 160 ; Cleveland 170 ; Detroit 183 ; Duluth 195 ; Fall River 206 ; Lawrence 217 ; Louisville 229 ; Lowell 241 ; Memphis 255 ; Milwaukee 268 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 281 ; Muncie 287 ; New Orleans 297 ; Newark 306 ; Paterson 314 ; Philadelphia 335 ; Pittsburg 356 ; Providence 368 ; St Louis 380 ; Savannah 392. " Kosher " Meat (see " Dietary of Foreign and .Jewish Nationalities ")• L. Labour and Employment Bureaux at — Baltimore 76 ; Boston 106 ; Detroit 180 ; Fall River 203 ; Milwaukee 262 ; Pittsburg 342. Labour, Foreign and Jewish (see " Foreign and Jewish Labour "). Labour Legislation — Atlanta 56 ; Augusta 64 ; Boston 108 ; tJhicago 143 ; Detroit 176 ; Milwaukee 259, 261 : Minneapolis — St. Paul 274 ; New Orleans 293 -, Paterson 310, 311 ; Providence 362. Labourers and Unskilled Workpeople (see also " Dock Labourers ") : General Notes on, at — Atlanta 48, 50, 54 ; Augusta 64, 65 ; Baltimore 75-78 ; Birmingham 88, 90, 91 ; Boston 108 ; Chicago 129, 136, 137, 146 ; Cleveland 162, 165 ; Detroit 173, 175, 177 ; Duluth 188 ; Memphis 247, 248 ; Milwaukee 260, 263 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 271, 274 : New Orleans 290, 292, 295 ; Newark 301 ; Paterson 309, 311 ; Pittsburg 342, 345 ; Savannah ;!81,386. Hours of Labour of, at — New York 22, 23 ; Atlanta 54, 55 : Baltimore 78-80 ; Birmingham 91-94 ; Boston 107 ; Brockton 121 ; Chicago 134,. 136, 139-142 ; Cincinnati 156 ; Cleveland 165-167 ; Detroit 177-179 ; Duluth 189-191 ; Fall River 202 ; Lawrence 212, 213 ; Louisville 222, 223 ; Lowell 237 ; Memphis 249, 250 ; Milwaukee 263, 264 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 276, 277 ; Muncie 285 ; New Orleans 293, 294 ; Newark .302, 303 ; Paterson 311, 312 ; Philadelphia 322-324 ; Pittsburg 345, 347, 348 ; Providence 363, 364 ; St. Louis 372, 373, 375, 376 ; Savannah 386-388. Persons Occupied, Number of, at — New York 16, 17 ; Atlanta 52 ; Baltimore 75 ; Birmingham 90 ; Boston 105 ; Brockton 119 ; Chicago 133, 136, ; Cincinnati 155 ; Cleveland 164 ; Detroit 175 ; Fall River 200 ; Lawrence 211 ; Louisville 221 ; Lowell 234 ; Memphis 246 : Milwaukee 260 ; New Orleans 291 ; Newark 300 ; Paterson 310 ; Philadelphia 321 ; Pittsburg 342 ; Providence 360, 361 ; St. Louis 372 ; Savannah 385. Ti*ade Unions of, at — Brockton 121 ; New Orleans 292 : Newark 301 ; Pittsburg 344 ; St. Louis 372. Wages of, at — New York 22, 23 ; Atlanta 54, 55 ; Baltimore 78-80 ; Birmingham 88, 90-94 ; Boston 107, 108 ; Brockton 121 ; Chicago 136, 140-142 ; Cincinnati 156 ; Cleveland 165-167 Detroit 178, 179 ; Duluth 189-191 ; Fall River 202 ; Lawrence 213 ; Louisville 222, 223 Lowell 237 ; Memphis 249, 2.50 ; Milwaukee 263, 264 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 276, 277 Muncie 284, 285 ; New Orleans 292-294 ; Newark 301-.303 ; Paterson 311, 312 Philadelphia 323-325 ; Pittsburg 345, 347, 348 ; Providence 363, .364 ; St. Louis •',72, 373, 375, 37(; ; Savannah 386-388. Lamb (see " Mutton and Lamb "). Laundries : Hours of Labour in, at — Atlanta 56. Persons Occupied in, at — Duluth 188. Lawrence 208-218. Leather Trades (see also " Boot and Shoe Trades " and " Tanning ") : General Notes on, at — Louisville 221 ; Milwaukee 259, 260 ; Newark 302 ; Pittsburg 342. Hours of Labour in, at — Louisville 223 ; Milwaukee 264 ; Newark 301, 303 ; Philadelphia 324, Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — New Yoi-k 16 ; Baltimore 75 ; Boston 105 ; Chicago 133 ; Cincinnati 155 ; Duluth 188 Louisville 221 ; Lowell 234 ; Milwaukee 259, 260 ; Newark 300 ; Philadelphia 321 St. Louis 372 ; Savannah 372. 524 INDEX TO TOWN REPORTS. Leather Trades — cont. Trade Unions in, at — Milwaukee 262 ; Newark 301. Wages in, at — Louisville 223 ; Milwaukee 264, 265 ; Newark 301, 303 ; Philadelphia 324. Legislation, Labour (see " Labour Legislation "). Libraries and Reading Rooms, at — New York 10, 13; Baltimore, 74; Boston 103; Chicago 133 ; Detroit 175 ; Lawrence 210 ; Louisville 220, 222, 224 ; Lowell 233 ; Memphis 246 ; Newark 300 ; Philadelphia 319 ; Pittsburg 341 ; Providence 362 ; Savannah 384. Licensed Premises (see " Saloons "). Lighting (see " Electric Lighting and Power Supply " and " Gas Supply "). Lithography : Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — New York 17. Live Stock Markets (see " Meat Packing "). Local Taxation (see " Taxation "). Lodgings (see " Housing "). Longshoremen (see " Dock Labourers "). Louisville, 219-230. Lowell, 231-242. Lumber and Timber Trades : General Note on, at — Augusta 64 ; Duluth 188, 189 : Memphis 248 ; Savannah 383. Hours of Labour in, at — Duluth 190, 191 ; Louisville 223. Persons Occupied, Number of, in., at — Augusta 64 ; Duluth 188. Wages in, at — Augusta 6.') ; Duluth 190 ; Louisville 223. M. Machine Construction (see " Engineering Trades "). Markets at — New York 42 ; Baltimore 74, 84, 85 ; Birmingliam 96, 98 ; Boston 103, 114 ; Brockton 124 Cincinnati 159 ; Cleveland 170 ; Fall River 205 ; Lawrence 216 ; Louisville 228-; Memphis 254 ; New Orleans 291, 296 ; Newark 306 ; Philadelphia 334 ; Pittsburg 355'; ! St. Louis 379 ; Savannah 384, 392. ' j Meat : ^ Consumption of, at — Atlanta 59 ; Augusta 69, 71 ; Baltimore 86 ; Boston 116 ; Brockton 126 ; Chicago 150 ; j Cleveland 170, 171; Detroit 183, 184; Duluth 195; Fall River 206; Lawrence 218; \ Louisville 229 ; Lowell 242 ; Memphis 254, 255 ; Milwaukee 269 ; Minneapolis — St. i Paul 281, 282 ; Muncie 287 ; New Orleans 297 ; Newark 307 ; Paterson 314 ; Pittsbui^ j 356 ; Providence 368 ; Savannah 393. j Inspection of, and Regulations as to Sale of, at — New York 46 ; Augusta 71 ; Brockton 118 ; Chicago 135, 150 ; Cincinnati 153 ; Detroit 184 ; , Duluth 195 ; Fall River 206 ; Louisville 229 ; Lowell 233 ; Memphis 256 : Milwaukee 269 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 282 ; Pittsburg 355 ; Savannah 392, 393. ! Prices (Retail) of, at — ■ New York 46, 47 ; Atlanta 59, 60 ; Augusta 71 ; Baltimore 85, 86 ; Birmingham 98 ; Boston I 110 ; Brockton 126, 127 ; Chicago 151 ; Cincinnati 160 ; Cleveland 171 ; Detroit 184 ; ] Duluth 195, 196 ; Fall River 206, 207 ; Lawrence 218 ; Louisville 230 ; Lowell 242 ; j Memphis 256 ; Milwaukee 269 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 282 ; Munice 287 ; New Orleans 1 296, 298 ; Newark 307 ; Patei-son 315 ; Philadelphia 335, 336 : Pittsburg 356 ; Provi- j deuce 368, 369 ; St. Louis 380 ; Savannah 393. i Regulations as to Sale of (see " Inspection, &c." ahoi'e). J Supply, Sources of, at — ; New York 46 ; Atlanta 59 ; Augusta 71 ; Baltimore 84, 86 ; Birmingham 96, 97 ; Boston 116 ; Brockton 126 ; Chicago 150 ; Cincinnati 160 ; Cleveland 171 ; Detroit 184 ; Duluth ' 195 ; Fall River 206 : Lawrence 218 ; Louisville 229 ; Lowell 242 ; Memphis 255 : j Milwaukee 269 ; Minneapolis — St. Paul 281 ; Muncie 287 ; New Orleans 297 ; Newark t 306 ; Patei-son 314 : Philadelphia 335 ; Pittsburg 356 ; Providence 368 ; St. Louis 380;; j Savannah 393. ' Meat Packing and Slaughtering : j General Note on, at — ^ Chicago 128, 131, 134-136 : Cincinnati 160 ; Cleveland 165. ' Hours of Labour in, at — Chicago 135, 136, 141 ; Cleveland 166 ; Louisville 223. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — ^ Chicago 136 ; Cleveland 165 : Minneapolis — St. Paul 274. ^ Trade Unions in, at — Chicago 135, 136. Wages in, at — Chicago 134-136, 141 ; Cleveland 166 ; Louisville 223. INDEX TO TOWN REPORTS. 525 Medical Inepection of School Children : Detroit 174 ; Milwaukee 259 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 272. Memphis 243-256. Metal and Engineering Trades {see " Engineering and Metal Trades ""). Milk, Prices (Retail) of, at— New York 45, 46 ; Atlanta 59 ; Augusta 70 ; Baltimore 85 ; Birmingham 97 ; Boston llo ; Brockton 125, 126 ; Chicago 150 ; Cincinnati 159, 160 ; Cleveland 170 ; Detroit 183 ; Duluth 194, 195 ; Fall River 206 ; Lawrence 217 ; Louisville 229 ; Lowell 241 ; Memphis 255 ; Milwaukee 268 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 281 ; Muncie 286, 287 ; New Orleans 297 ; Newark 306 ; Paterson 314 ; Philadelphia 334, 335 ; Pittsburg 356 ; Providence 368 ; St. Louis 379, 380 ; Savannah 392. Milling, Corn and Flour {see " Flour Milling "). Milwaukee 257-269. Minimum Wage Conditions {see also " Trade Agreements ") : In Municipal Contracts at Philadelphia 323. Mining Industry : General Notes on, at — Birmingham 87, 88, 90-92, 97 ; Pittsburg 337, 338, :344. Hours of Labour in, at — Birmingham 91, 93 ; Pittsburg 344, 347, Output of, at — Birmingham 87 ; Pittsburg 337. Trade Unions in, at — Pittsburg 343-345. Wages in, at — Birmingham 90-93, 97 ; Pittsburg 343, 344, 347. Minneapolis— St. Paul 270-282. Mortality Rates {see " Deaths " and " Infant Mortality ")• Multiple Stores at — New York 41, 42 ; Atlanta 59 ; Augusta 69, 71 ; Baltimore 85 ; Birmingham 96 ; Boston 114 ; Brockton 124-126 ; Chicago 1.30, 148 ; Cincinnati 159, 160 ; Cleveland 170 ; Detroit 182 ; Duluth 194 ; Fall River 205 ; Louisville 228 ; Memphis 254 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 272, 280, 281 ; Muncie 286 ; Newark 306 ; Paterson 313 ; Philadelphia .333 ; Pittsburg 355 ; Providence 367 ; St. Louis 379. Muncie 283-287. Municipal and Public Employees : General Notes on, at — Birmingham 93 ; Cincinnati 156 ; Milwaukee 263. Hours of Labour of, at — New York 23 ; Atlanta 55 ; Augusta 66 ; Baltimore 78, 79 ; Birmingham 93, 94 ; Boston 105, 107 ; Brockton 122 ; Chicago 141 ; Cincinnati 157 ; Cleveland 165, 167 ; Detroit 179 ; Duluth 190 ; Fall River 202 ; Lawrence 213 ; Louisville 224 ; Lowell 237 ; Memphis 249, 250 ; Milwaukee 264 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 277 ; Muncie 285 ; New Orleans 294; Newark 302, 303 ; Paterson 312; Philadelphia 324 ; Pittsburg 348 ; Provi- dence 364 ; St. Louis 376 ; Savannah 388. Trade Unions, at — New York 19. Wages of, at — New York 23 ; Atlanta 55 ; Augusta 66 ; Baltimore 78, 79 ; Birmingham 93, 94 ; Boston 107 ; Brockton 122 ; Chicago 141 ; Cincinnati 157 ; Cleveland 167 ; Detroit 179 ; Duluth 190 ; Fall River 202 ; Lawrence 213 ; Louisville 224 ; Lowell 237 ; Memphis 248-250 ; Milwaukee 264 ; Minneapolis— St, Paul 277 ; Muncie 285 ; New Orleans 294 ; Newark 302, 303 ; Paterson 312 ; Philadelphia 324 ; Pittsburg 348 ; Providence 364 ; St. Louis 376 ; Savannah ,388. Municipal Taxation {see " Taxation "). Municipal Undertakings, Properties, and Finance at — New York 11-15 ; Atlanta 49-51 ; Augusta 63 ; Baltimore 74 ; Birmingham 90 ; Boston 103, 104 ; Brockton 118 ; Chicago 133 ; Cincinnati 154, 156 ; Cleveland 163, 166 ; Detroit 175, 181 ; Duluth 187 ; Fall River 198, 199 ; Lawrence 210 ; Louisville 220 ; Lowell 233, 234 ; Memphis 245-248 ; Milwaukee 259, 263 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 272, 279 ; New Orleans 290, 291 ; Newark 300, 302 ; Philadelphia 319, 320 ; Pittsburg 339-341. 346 ; Providence 358, 359 ; St. Louis 371 ; Savannah 383, 384. Musical Instrument Trades : Wages, Hours, &c., in, at — New York, 17, 18, 22. Mutton and Lamb : Consumption of, at — Augusta 69, 71 ; Baltimore i?) ; Boston 116 ; Brockton 126 ; Chicago 150 ; Cleveland 171 ; Duluth 195 ; Fall River 206 ; Louisville 229 ; Lowell 241 ; Memphis 255 ; Milwaukee 269 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 282 ; Newark 307 ; Pittsburg 356. Prices (Retail) of, at — New York 47 ; Atlanta 60 ; Augusta 71 ; Baltimore 86 ; Birmingham 98 ; Boston 116 ; Brockton 127 ; Chicago 151 ; Cincinnati 160 ; Cleveland 171 ; Detroit 184 ; Duluth 196 ; Fall River 207 ; Lawrence 218 ; Louisville 230 ; Lowell 242 ; Memphis 256 ; Milwaukee 269 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 282 ; Muncie 287 ; New Orleans 298 ; Newark 307 ; Paterson 315 ; Philadelphia 335, 336 ; Pittsburg 356 ; Providence 369 ; St. Louis 380 ; Savannah 393. Supply, Sources of, at — Baltimore 86 ; Boston 116 ; Brockton 126 ; Detroit 184 ; Lowell 242 ; Memphis 255. 5^6 INDEX TO TOWN REPORTS. N. Negro Labour at — New York 8 ; Atlanta 48, 54 ; Augusta 62-66 ; Baltimore 76-78 ; Birmingham 88, 90-92 ; Boston 105 ; Cleveland 162 ; Louisville 221 ; Memphis 244, 247-249 ; New Orleans 290, 292, 293 ; Philadelphia 321-323 ; Pittsburg 338, 339, 344 ; St. Louis 371 ; Savannah 381, 385-388. Negro Population at — New York 8 ; Atlanta 48 ; Augusta 62 ; Baltimore 73, 80 ; Birmingham 88 ; Boston 100 ; Cincinnati 153 ; Detroit 172 ; Louisville 219 ; Memphis 244 ; New Orleans 289 ; Newark 299 ; Pittsburg 338 ; St. Louis 371 ; Savannah 381. New Orleans 288-298. New York 1-47. Newark 299-307. o. Occupations, Numbers engaged in various, at — New York 16, 17, 20 ; Atlanta 52 ; Augusta 63 ; Baltimore 75 ; Birmingham 90 ; Boston 105 ; Brockton 119 ; Chicago 133 ; Cincinnati 155 ; Cleveland 164, 165 ; Detroit 176 ; Duluth 188 ; Fall River 200 ; LaAvrence 211 ; Louisville 221 ; Lowell 234 ; Memphis 246 ; Milwaukee 259, 260 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 273, 274 ; New Orleans 291 ; Newark 300 ; Paterson 310 ; Philadelphia 320, 321 ; Pittsburg 342 ; Providence 360, 361 ; St. Louis 372 ; Savannah 385. Occu])ations, Wages, and Hours of Labour at — New York 15-24 ; Atlanta 51-56 ; Augusta 63-67 ; Baltimore 74-80 ; Birmingham 90-94 ; Boston 101, 104-108 ; Brockton 119-123 ; Chicago 133-143 ; Cincinnati 154-157 ; Cleveland 164-167 ; Detroit 175-180 ; Duluth 188-191 ; Fall River 199-203 ; Lawrence 210-214 ; Louisville 220-224 ; Lowell 2.34-238 ; Memphis 246-250 ; Milwaukee 259-265 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 27,3-277 ; Muncie 284, 285 ; New Orleans 291-294 ; Newark 300-303 ; Paterson 310-312 ; Philadelphia 320-325 ; Pittsburg 342-348 ; Providence 359-364 ; St. Louis 372-376 ; Savannah 385-.388. Oil, Prices of {see " Kerosene "). Oil and Grease Industry : Wages in, at — Cleveland 164. Old Age Pengions : Boston 103, 108 ; Chicago 142, 143 ; Providence 362. Overcrowding {see " Housing " and " Population Congestion "). P. Paper Trades : General Note on, at — Lawrence 210. Hours of Labour in, at — Atlanta 56. Persons occupied. Number of, in, at — New York, 16, 20 ; Atlanta 52 ; Baltimore 75 ; Birmingham 90 ; Boston 105 ; Brockton 119 ; Chicago 133 ; Cincinnati 155 ; Cleveland 164 ; Detroit 176 ; Fall River 200 ; Lawrence 211 ; Louisville 221 ; Lowell 234 ; Memphis 246 ; Milwaukee 260 ; New Orleans 291 ; Newark 300 ; Paterson 310 ; Philadelphia 321 ; Pittsburg 342 ; Providence 360, 361 ; St. Louis 372 : Savannah 385. Parent Nativity at — New York 5, 17, 20 ; Atlanta 48 ; Augusta 62 ; Baltimore 73 ; Boston 102 ; Chicago 129 ; • Cincinnati 153 ; Detroit 172 ; Duluth 186 ; Louisville 219 ; Lowell 231, 232 ; Milwaukee 257 ; Newark 299 ; Philadelphia 318 ; Pittsburg 338 ; Providence 360, 361. Parks, Playgrounds and Open Spaces at — Now York 13 ; Atlanta 49 ; Baltimore 74 ; Birmingham 89 ; Boston 100-103 ; Chicago 133 ; Cincinnati 154; Cleveland 163; Detroit 174; Duluth 187; Fall River 199 ; Lawrence 208, 210 ; Louisville 220 ; Lowell 2.33 ; Memphis 245 ; Milwaukee 258, 259 ; Minnea- polis—St. Paul 272 ; Newark 300 ; Philadelphia 319, 325 ; Pittsburg 341, 355 ; Providence 357 ; St. Louis 371 ; Savannah 382. Passengers, Number of, arriving at Ports of — New York 16 ; Baltimore 72 ; Boston 99 ; Philadelphia 317. Paterson 308-315. Pensions, Old Age {see " Old Age Pensions "). Philadelphia 316-336. Pittsburg 337-356. Playgrounds {see " Parks, Playgrounds and Open Spaces "). Poor Relief {see also " Charities ") : New York 10-11 ; Atlanta 51 ; Boston 103 ; Brockton 118 ; Lawrence 214 ; Providence 359. Population of — New York 1-3, 5-8 ; Atlanta 48 ; Augusta 62 ; Baltimore 73 ; Birmingham 87, 88 ; Boston 101, 102 ; Brockton 117, 123 ; Chicago 129 ; Cincinnati 1.52, 153 ; Cleveland 161 Detroit 172, 173 ; Duluth 186 ; Fall River 197, 198 ; Lawrence 208, 209 ; Louisville 219 Lowell 231, 232 ; Memphis 243 ; Milwaukee 257, 258 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 270, 271 Muncie 283 ; New Orleans 289, 295 ; Newark 299-301 ; Paterson 309 ; Philadelphia 317, 318 ; Pittsburg 337, 338 ; Providence 357 ; St. Louis 370 ; Savannah 381. INDEX TO TOWN REPORTS. 527 Population, Congestion of, at — New York 6, 29-31 ; Augusta 68 ; Baltimore 82 ; Boston 102 ; Chicago 144, 146-148 ; Cincinnati 158 ; Detroit ISO ; Duluth 193 ; Lawrence 214 ; Louisville 227 ; Lowell 239, 240 ; Memphis 252 ; Milwaukee 258, 265-267 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 278 ; New Orleans 295 ; Paterson 312 ; Philadelphia 318, 328 : Pittsburg 339, 348, 349 : Providence 366, 367 ; St. Louis 376. Population, Foreign and Jewish, of — (see also " Parent Nativity "). New York 5-8 ; Atlanta 48 ; Augusta 62 ; Baltimore 73, 76 ; Birmingham 88 ; Boston 100, 102 ; Brockton 117 ; Chicago 129 ; Cincinnati 153 ; Cleveland 161, 162 ; Detroit 172, 173 Duluth 186 ; Fall River 197, 198 ; Lawrence 208, 209 ; Louisville 219 ; Lowell 231, 232 Memphis 243 ; Milwaukee 257, 258 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 270, 271 ; Muncie 283 ; New Orleans 289 ; Newark 299 ; Paterson 309 ; Philadelphia 318 ; Pittsburg 338 ; Providence 358, 360 ; St. Louis 370. Population, Negro at — New York 8 ; Atlanta 48 ; Augusta 62 ; Baltimore 73, 80 ; Birmingham 88 ; Boston 100 ; Cincinnati 153 ; Detroit 172 ; Louisville 219 ; Memphis 244 ; New Orleans 289 ; Newark 299 ; Pittsburg 338 ; St. Louis 371 ; Savannah 381. Pork: Consumption of, at — Atlanta 59 ; Augusta 69 ; Baltimore 86 ; Brockton 126 ; Cleveland 171 ; Detroit 183, 184 ; Duluth 195 ; Fall River 206 ; Lawrence 218 ; Louisville 229 ; Memphis 254, 255 ; Milwaukee 269 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 282 ; Muncie 287 ; Newark 307 ; Pittsburg 356 ; Savannah 393. Prices (Retail) of, at — New York 47 ; Atlanta 60 ; Augusta 71 ; Baltimore 86 ; Birmingham 98 ; Boston 116 ; Brockton 127 ; Chicago 151 ; Cincinnati 160 ; Cleveland 171 ; Detroit 184 ; Duluth 196 ; Fall River 207 ; Lawrence 218 ; Louisville 230 ; Lowell 242 ; Memphis 256 ; Mil- waukee 269 ; Minneapolis — St. Paul 282 ; Muncie 287 ; New Orleans t^^^ ; Newark 307 ; Paterson 315 ; Philadelphia 336 ; Pittsburg 356 : Providence 369 ; St. Louis 380 ; Savannah 393. Supply, Sources of, at — Baltimore 86 : Boston 116 ; Brockton 126 ; Louisville 229 ; Lowell 242 ; Memphis 2.55 ; Newark 3C6 : Pittsburg 356 ; Savannah 393. Potatoes, Prices (Retail) of, at — New York 45, 46 ; Atlanta 59 ; Augusta 70 ; Baltimore 85 ; Birmingham 97 ; Boston 115 ; Brockton 126 ; Chicago 150 ; Cincinnati 160 ; Cleveland 170 ; Detroit 183 : Duluth 195 ; Fall River 206 ; La'wrence217 ; Louisville 229 ; Lowell 241 ; Memphis 255 ; Milwaukee 268 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 281 ; Muncie 287 ; New Orleans 297 ; Newark 306 ; Paterson 314 ; Philadelphia 334, 3.35 ; Pittsburg 356 ; Providence 368 ; St. Louis 380 ; Savannah 392. Poultry, Prices (Retail) of, at — New York 47 ; Baltimore 85 ; Boston 116 ; New Orleans 297 ; Philadelphia 336. Consumption of, at — Detroit 183 ; Memphis 255 ; New Orleans 297 ; Paterson 314. Power, Electric, Supply {see " Electric Lighting and Power Supply "). " Premium " System {see " Bonus System "). Prices (Retail) at — ]ifew York 41-47; Atlanta 58-60; Augusta 69-71; Baltimore 84-86; Birmingham 96-98 ; Boston 114-116 ; Brockton 124-127 ; Chicago 148-151 ; Cincinnati 159, 160 ; Cleveland 170, 171 ; Detroit 182-184 ; Duluth 194-196 ; Fall River 205-207 ; Lawrence 216-218 ; Louisville 228-230 ; Lowell 240-242 ; Memphis 254-256 ; Milwaukee 267-269 : Minnea- polis—St. Paul 280-282 ; Muncie 286, 287 ; New Orleans 296-298 ; Newark 306, 307 ; Paterson 313-315 ; Philadelphia 333-336 ; Pittsburg 355, 356 ; Providence 367-;569 ; St. Louis 379, 380 ; Savannah 391-393. Printing and Allied Trades : General Notes on, at — Baltimore 77 ; Boston 108 ; Chicago 138 ; Lawrence 212 ; Lowell 236 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 273, 274 ; Muncie 284 ; Pittsburg ;'>46. Hours of Labour in, at — New York 22 ; Atlanta 55 ; Augusta 65, 66 ; Baltimore 79 ; Birmingham 93 ; Boston 105, 107, 108 ; Brockton 121 ; Chicago 138, 141 ; Cincinnati 157 ; Cleve- land 166; Detroit 177, 179; Duluth 190 ; Fall River 202; Lawrence 213; Louisville 221, 223 ; Lowell 237 ; Memphis 247, 249 ; Milwaukee 262, 264 ; Minneapolis-St. Paul 275, 276 ; Muncie 285 ; New Orleans 293, 294 ; Newark 301, 303 ; Paterson 312 ; Philadelphia 322, 324 ; Pittsburg 346, 347 ; Providence 363 ; St. Louis 373, 375 ; Savannah 387. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — New York 16, 17, 20 ; Atlanta 52 ; Baltimore 75 ; Birmingham 90 ; Boston 105 ; Brockton 119 ; Chicago 133, 138 ; Cincinnati 155 ; Cleveland 164 ; Detroit 176 ; Duluth 188 ; Fall River 200 ; Lawrence 211 ; Louisville 221 ; Lowell 234 ; Memphis 246 ; Milwaukee 260 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 273, 274 ; New Orleans 291 ; Newark 30O ; Paterson 310 ; Philadelphia 321 ; Pittsburg 342 ; Providence 360, 361 ; St. Louis 372 ; Savannah 385. Trade Unions in, at — New York 18, 19 ; Atlanta 54 ; Augusta 67 ; Baltimore 75, 77 ; Birmingham 92 ; Brockton 121 ; Chicago 138 ; Cincinnati 156 ; Detroit 177 ; Fall River 203 ; Lawrence 212 ; Louisville 222 ; Memphis 247 ; Milwaukee 262, 263 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 275 ; Muncie 284 ; Newark 301 ; Paterson 311 ; Philadelphia 323 : Pittsburg 343, 346. 528 INDEX TO TOWN REPORTS, Printing and Allied Trades — cont. Wages in, at — New York 18, 22 ; Atlanta 55 ; Augusta 65, 66 ; Baltimore 79 ; Birmingham 92, 93 ; Boston 107, 108 ; Brockton 121 : Chicago 138, 141 ; Cincinnati 154, 157 ; Detroit 177, 179 ; Duluth 190 : Fall River 202 ; Lawrence 212, 213 ; Louisville 222, 223 ; Lowell 237 ; Memphis 247, 249 ; Milwaukee 262-264 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 275, 276 ; Muncie 284, 285 ; New Orleans 293, 294 ; Newark 301, 303 ; Paterson 312 ; Philadelphia 323, 324 ; Pittsburg 343, 346, 347, 348 ; Providence 363 ; St. Louis 373, 375 ; Savannah 387. Professional, Domestic and Personal, and Hotel and Restaurant Service and Agricultural Pursuits : General Notes on, at — Atlanta 52 ; Augusta 64 ; Baltimore 76. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — New York 16, 20 ; Atlanta 52 ; Baltimore 75 ; Birmingham 90 ; Boston 105 ; Brockton 119 Chicago 133 ; Cincinnati 155 ; Cleveland 164 ; Fall River 200 ; Lawrence 211 Louisville 221 ; Lowell 234 ; Memphis 246 ; Milwaukee 260 ; New Orleans 291 Newark 300 ; Paterson 310 ; Philadelphia 321 ; Pittsburg 342 ; St. Louis 372 ; Savannah 385. Profit Sharing and Industrial Co-partnei'ship at {see also " Bonus Svstems ") — Boston 114 : Chicago 142, 143 ; Fall River 203 ; Louisville 222. Pi'ohibition at — Atlanta 51 ; Augusta 63 ; Birmingham 89 ; Brockton 118 ; Fall River 199 ; Memphis 246 ; Milwaukee 260 ; New Orleans 293 ; Savannah 384, 385. Providence 357 36!i. Provident Societies (see also " Accident Insurance," " Old Age Pensions," " Sick Funds," and " Unemployment Funds ") at^ — Providence 362. R. Racial Feeling at — Atlanta 48 ; Augusta 62, Q'o ; Baltimore 80 ; Birmingham 88, 91, 92, 95 ; Chicago 136 ; Louisville 220, 224 ; Memphis 244, 250 ; New Orleans 290 ; Pittsburg 351 ; Savannah 381, 392. Railway Connections of : — New York 1 ; Atlanta 48 ; Augusta 61 ; Baltimore 72 ; Boston 99, 109 ; Chicago 128, 139 ; Cincinnati 152 ; Detroit 172 ; Duluth, 185 ; Fall River 197 ; Lawrence 208 ; Louisville 219 ; Memphis 245 ; Milwaukee 257 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 270 ; Newark 299, 300 ; Philadelphia 316 ; Pittsburg 337, .340 ; Providence 357 ; St. Louis 370 ; Savannah 381. Railway Works : General Notes on, at — Augusta 61 ; Baltimore 76 ; Birmingham 88, 91 ; Chicago 136, 137 ; Memphis 247 ; Mil- waukee 262, 263 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 273, 274, 275 ; St. Louis 373 ; Savannah 385. Hours of Labour in, at — Augusta 64, 65 ; Birmingham 93 ; Chicago 140, 141 ; Louisville 222 ; Memphis 249 ; Milwaukee 262-264 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 276 ; St. Louis 373, 375. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — Augusta 61, 64 ; Chicago 137 ; Louisville 221 ; Memphis 247 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 273, 274 ; St. Louis 373. Trade Unions in, at — Atlanta 54 ; Milwaukee 262. Wages in, at — Augusta 65 ; Birmingham 93 : Chicago 137, 140, 141 ; Louisville 222 ; Memphis 249 ; " Milwaukee 262-264 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 275, 276 ; St. Louis 373, 375. Rates (sec " Taxation," " Gas Rates," and " Water Rates "). Rents at — New York 25, 31-41 ; Atlanta 58 ; Augusta 'o'^, 69 ; Baltimore 81-84 ; Birmingham 95, 96 ; Boston 109-114 ; Brockton 123, 124 ; Chicago 145, 148 ; Cincinnati 158, 159 ; Cleveland 168, 169 ; Detroit 181, 182 ; Duluth 192, 194 ; Fall River 204, 205 ; Lawrence 21.>, 216 ; Louisville 225-228 ; Lowell 239, 240 ; Memphis 251-254 ; Milwaukee 267 ; Min- neapolis—St. Paul 277, 279, 280 ; Muncie 286 ; New Orleans 29.5, 296 ; Newark 304, 305; Paterson 312, 313 ; Philadelphia 326-332 ; Pittsburg 343, 349-355 ; Providence 365, •^^\& ; St. Louis 377-379 ; Savannah 389-391. New York 41-47 ; Atlanta 58-60 ; Augusta 69-71 ; Baltimore 84-86 ; Birmingham 96-98 ; Boston 114-116 ; Brockton 124-127 ; Chicago 148-151 ; Cincinnati 159-160 ; Cleveland 170-171 ; Detroit 182-184 ; Duluth 194-196 ; Fall River 205-207 ; Lawrence 216-218 ; Louisville 228-2.30 ; Lowell 240-242 ; Memphis 254-256 ; Milwaukee 267-269 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 280-282 ; Muncie 286-287 ; New Orleans 296-298 ; Newark 306, .307 ; Pateraon 313-315 : Philadelphia 333-336 ; Pittsburg 355, 356 ; Providence 367, 368 ; St. Louis 379, 380 ; Savannah 391-393. Roads and Streets, Construction, Maintenance and Cleaning of. Men employed in : General Notes on, at — ^ Birmingham 93 : Cincinnati 156 ; Detroit 175 ; Duluth 187 ; Lawrence 210, 212 ; Memphis 248; Milwaukee 2.59; Minneapolis— St. Paul 272 ; Newark 302; Pittsburg 3 16 ; St. Louis 371, 374 ; Savannah 382. INDEX TO TOWN REPORTS. .529 j "i Roads and Streets, Construction, Maintenance and Cleaning of, Men employed in — cont. Hours of Labour at — j New York 2.'5 ; Atlanta 55 ; Augusta 'o^ ; Baltimore 79 ; Birmingham 93 : Boston 107 ; i Brockton 122 ; Chicago 141 ; Cincinnati 157 ; Cleveland 167 ; Detroit 179 ; Duluth 190 ; j Fall River 202 ; Lawrence 213 ; Louisville 224 ; Lowell 237 ; Memphis 249, 250 ; Mil- j waukee 264 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 277 ; Muncie 285 ; New Orleans 293, 294 ; Newark 302, 303 ; Paterson 312 ; Philadelphia 324 ; Pittsburg 348 ; Providence 364 ; St. Louis \ 374, 376 ; Savannah 388. ] Trade Unions — ■ Newark 302 ; St. Louis 374. Wages of, at— ] New York 23, 24 ; Atlanta 55 ; Augusta 66 ; Baltimore 79 ; Birmingham 93 ; Boston 107 ; Brockton 122 ; Chicago 141 ; Cincinnati 156, 157 ; Cleveland 167 ; Detroit 179 ; Duluth ; 190 : Fall River 202 ; Lawrence 213 ; Louisville 224 ; Lowell 237 ; Memphis 248-250 Milwaukee 264 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 277 ; Muncie 285 ; New Orleans 293, 294 Newark 302, 303 ; Paterson 312 ; Philadelphia 324 ; Pittsburg 348 : Providence 364 St. Louis 374, 376 ; Savannah 388. S I Saloons, at — '■ Atlanta 51 ; Augusta 63 ; Chicago 131, 139, 148 ; Duluth 191 ; Fall River 199 ; j Memphis 246 ; Milwaukee 267 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 271-273 ; New Orleans 293 ; \ Philadelphia 320 ; Pittsburg 338, 341, 355 ; Savannah 384, .385. \ Sanitary Conditions {see " Housing " and " Hygienic Measures "). | Sanitary Wares, Manufacture of : • Wages, Hours, &c., in, at — j Louisville 222. ''. St. Louis 370-380. i Savannah 381-393. j Sawmills (see " Woodworking " and " Lumber "), Segregation of Foreign Races : , New York 6-8, 31 ; Atlanta 56, 58 ; Augusta 67 ; Baltimore 80 ; Boston 110, ill ; Brockton 124 ; Chicago 131, 144 ; Detroit 173, 180 ; Duluth 192 ; Fall River 198 ; Lawrence 209, ■ 215, 216 ; Louisville 224 ; Lowell 232, 240 ; Memphis 244 ; Milwaukee 258 ; New ( Orleans 288 ; Philadelphia 318, 321, .326 ; Pittsburg 348, 355 ; Providence 358, 365 ; ' St. Louis 371 ; Savannah 388, 389. 1 Shipbuilding Trades : > General Notes on, at — , Baltimore 76 ; Cleveland 165 ; Detroit 172 ; Philadelphia 320 ; Savannah 385. j Hours of Labour in, at — i Baltimore 78 ; Detroit 178 ; Savannah 387. Organisation in, at — "' New York 19. j Output — I Detroit 172. \ Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — ,( Baltimore 76 ; Cleveland 165 ; Detroit 176. \ Vessels built at — \ Baltimore 76. i Wages in, at — j Baltimore 78 ; Detroit 177, 178 ; Savannah 387. j Shipping at — i New York 16 ; Baltimore 72, 74 ; Boston 99 ; Cleveland 161, 165 ; Duluth 185 ; New \ Orleans 289 ; Philadelphia 317 ; Savannah 381, 382. Shoemaking {see " Boot and Shoe Industry "). ■ Sick Funds and Benefits at — < Brockton 121 ; Chicago 142, 143 ; Fall River 201 ; Milwaukee 258 ; Providence 362 ; ■ Savannah 387. ; Silk Trade : ] General Note on, at — Paterson 308-311. Hom-s of Labour in, at — Paterson 310, 311. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — Paterson 310; Philadelphia 321. Wages in, at — Paterson 310, 311. Slaughterhouses {see also " Meat Packing "). New York 46 ; Augusta 71 ; Baltimore 86 ; Boston 116 ; Cincinnati 160 ; Duluth 195 ; Fall River 206 ; Memphis 256 ; New Orleans 297 ; Philadelphia 335 ; Pittsburg 355. Small Holdings at — Lawrence 215 ; Memphis 243. 530 INDEX TO TOWN REPORTS. Social and Charitable Societies and Settlements {see " Oharities and Social-Societies and Settlements "). Spirit Distilleries {aec " Distilling Industry "). Steel Works (see " Iron and Steel Works "). SteA'edores {see " Dock Labourers "). Streets, Arrangement and Features of, of — New York 12, 13, 30, 31 ; Atlanta 4;i ; Augusta Gl, 07 ; Baltimore 7t ; Birmingham 96 ; Boston 100, 103 ; Brockton 117 ; Chicago 120-131, 133 ; Cleveland 163 ; Detroit 173, 174. 180; Duluth 186; Fall River 199; Lawrence 208; Louisville 220 ; Lowell 231,239; Memphis 245 ; Milwaukee 259 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 272, 278 ; Muncie 283 ; New Orleans 288, 295 ; Newark 299; Paterson308; Philadelphia 316, 318 : Providence 357 ; Savannah 381, 382. Streets and Roads, Construction, Maintenance, Cleaning of and Men Employed {see •' Roads and Streets, Construction, Maintenance and Cleaning of "). Sub-contracting at — New York 23, 24 ; Baltimore 76 ; Boston 108 : Chicago 137. 138 : Cleveland 165 ; Detroit 176 ; Philadelphia 323. Sugar. Prices (Retail) of, at — New York 44, 46 ; Atlanta 58, 59 ; Augusta 70 ; Baltimore 85 ; Birmingham 97 ; Boston 115 Brockton 125, 126 ; Chicago 150 ; Cincinnati 160 : Cleveland 170 ; Detroit 183 Duluth 195 ; Fall River 206 ; Lawi-ence 217 : Louisville 228, 229 ; Lowell 241 Memphis 255 ; Milwaukee 268 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 281 ; Muncie 287 ; New Orleans 296, 297 ,- Newark 306 ; Paterson 314 ; Philadelphia 335 ; Pittsburg .356 ; Providence 368 ; St. Louis 379. 380 ; Savannah 392. Tailoring (see "Clothing Trades "). Tanning Trade : General Notes on, at — Louisville 221 ; Milwaukee 259, 260. Hours of Labour in, at — Louisville 223 ; Milwaukee 264 ; Newark .303. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — Milwaukee 259, 260. 26.). Wages in, at — Louisville 223 ; Milwaukee 264, 265 ; Newark 303. Tapestry and Curtain Industry : Wages and Hours in, ut — Philadelphia .323. Taxation at — New York 14, 15, 39 ; Atlanta 50, 51 ; Augusta 68, 69 ; Baltimore 74, 82 ; Birmingham 90 ; Boston 103, 104, 113 ; Brockton 118 : Chicago 148 ; Cleveland 161 ; Detroit 182 ; Fall River 199 ; Lawrence 210 ; Louisville 220, 226 ; Lowell 234 ; Memphis 246, 254 ; Milwaukee 267; Minneapolis— St. Paul 278-280; New Orleans 291; Newark .300; Paterson 309 ; Philadelphia 320, :532 : Providence 358, 359 : Savannah 384, 385. Tea, Prices (Retail) of, at — New York 44, 46 ; Atlanta 59 : Augusta 70 : Baltimore 85 ; Birmingham 97 ; Boston 115 Brockton 126 ; Chicago L50 ; Cincinnati 160 ; Cleveland 170 ; Detroit 183 ; Duluth 195 Fall River 205, 206 ; Lawrence 217 ; Louisville 229 ; Lowell 241 ; Memphis 255 Milwaukee 268 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 281 ; Muncie 287 ; New Orleans 296, 297 Newark 306 ; Paterson 314 ; Philadelphia 335 ; Pittsburg 356 ; Providence 368 St. Louis 380 ; Savannah 392. Technical Education at — Atlanta 51 ; Augusta 62 ; Chicago 133, 143 ; Detroit 175 ; Duluth 187 ; Fall River 199 ; Lowell 234 ; Memphis 244, 247 ; Milwaukee, 259 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 273 ; Newark 301 ; Pittsburg 338, 339, 341. Tenements (see " Housing"). Textile Trades : General Notes on, at — Atlanta 52, 53 ; Augusta 61, (55 ; Baltimore 75 ; Birmingham 87 ; Fall River 199-201 ; Lawrence 208, 209, 211,212 ; Lowell 233, 235, 236 ; New Orleans 293 ; Paterson .308-311 ; Providence 358, 360, 364. Hours of Labour in, at — Atlanta 55, 56 ; Augusta 64-66 ; Fall River 202 ; Lawrence 213 ; Lowell 237, 238 ; New Orleans 293 ; Paterson 310, 311 ; Philadelphia 322-324 ; Providence 363. Output of, at — Fall River 199 ; Lawrence 210 ; Lowell 233. Pereons Occupied, Number of, in, at — New York 16; Atlanta 52; Augusta 61; Baltimore 75; Birmingham 90; Boston 105; Brockton 119 ; Chicago 133 ; Cincinnati 155 ; Cleveland 164 ; Fall River 200 ; LaM'rence 211 ; Louisville 221 ; Lowell 234, 235 ; Memphis 246 ; Milwaukee 260 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 273,274; New Orleans 291; Newark 300; Paterson 310; Philadelphia 321 ; Pittsburg 342 ; Providence 360, 361 ; St. Louis 372 : Savannah 38.''' Spindles and Looms. Number of, in, at — Fall River 200. ' • INDEX TO TOWN REPORTS. 531 Textile Trades — cont. Trade Unions in, at — New York 19 ; Atlanta 53, 54 ; Fall River 201 ; Lawrence 212 ; Lowell 235 ; Phila- delphia 323 ; Providence 361. Wages in, at — Atlanta 53, 55 ; Augusta 64-66 ; Fall River 201-203 ; Lawrence 213, 214 ; Lowell 235-238 ; New Orleans 293 ; Paterson 310, 311 ; Philadelphia 323, 324 ; Providence 361, 363. 364. Theatre and Music Trades : Organisation in, at — New York 19 ; Philadelphia 322. Timber Trade (see " Lumber and Timber Trades "). Tobacco Trades : General Notes on, at — New York 21 ; Detroit 176, 177 ; Louisville 221 ; New Orleans 293 ; Pittsburg 346. Hours of Labour in, at — New York 22 ; Louisville 224 ; Philadelphia 324 ; St. Louis 375. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — New York 16, 17, 20 ; Atlanta 52 ; Baltimore 75 ; Birmingham 90 ; Boston 105 ; Brockton 119 ; Chicago 133 ; Cincinnati 155 ; Cleveland 164 ; Detroit 176 ; Fall River 200 ; Lawrence 211 ; Louisville 221 ; Lowell 234 ; Memphis 246 ; Milwaukee 260 ; New Orleans 291; Newark 300 ; Paterson 310 ; Philadelphia 321 ; Pittsburg 342 ; Providence 360, 361 ; St. Louis 372 : Savannah 385. Trade Unions in, at — New York 19 ; Boston 106. Wages in, at — New York 18, 22 ; Boston 107 ; Cincinnati 154 ; Detroit 179 ; Louisville 224 ; Nev/ Orleans, 293 ; Philadelphia 324 ; St. Louis 375. Trade Agreements at — New York 19, 20, 23 ; Atlanta 54 ; Augusta, 65, 67 ; Baltimore 75-77 ; Boston 106 Brockton 120 ; Chicago 134, 138-140 ; Cincinnati 156 ; Detroit 177 ; Fall River 201 Louisville 222 ; Memphis 247 ; Milwaukee 262, 263 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 275 Muncie 284 ; Philadelphia 322 ; Pittsburg 343, 344, 346 ; Providence 362 ; St. Louis 373. Trade and Transportation (see also " Commerce ") : General Notes on, at — Augusta 65 ; Baltimore 75, 76, 78 ; Chicago 139, 140 ; Cleveland 165 ; Duluth 188 ; Louis- ville 221 ; Memphis 248 ; Milwaukee 263 ; New Orleans 291, 292 ; Pittsburg 342, 346 ; Savannah 386. Hours of Labour in, at — New York 17, 22 ; Boston 105, 107 ; Chicago 139, 140, 141 ; Cleveland 165, 167 ; Duluth 190, 191 ; Memphis 250 ; Milwaukee 263, 264 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 277 ; New Orleans 292, 294 ; Philadelphia 324 ; Pittsburg 346, 347 ; Providence 364 ; Savannah 386, 388. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — New York 16, 17 ; Atlanta 52 ; Baltimore 75 ; Birmingham 90 ; Boston 105; Brockton 119; Chicago 133, 139 ; Cincinnati 155 ; Cleveland 164 ; Duluth 188 ; Fall River 200 ; Lawrence 211 ; Louisville 221 ; Lowell 234 ; Memphis 246, 247 ; Milwaukee 260 ; New Orleans 291 ; Newark 300 ; Paterson 310 ; Philadelphia 321 ; Pittsburg 342, 346 ; Providence 360, 361 ; St. Louis 372 ; Savannah 385. Trade Unions in, at — New York 19 ; Boston 106, 108 ; Chicago 140 ; Duluth 191 ; New Orleans 291, 292 ; Provi- dence 362 ; Savannah 386. Wages in, at — New York 22; Baltimore 78, 79 ; Boston 107, 108 ; Chicago 139, 140, 141 ; Cleveland 165, 167 : Duluth 190, 191 ; Memphis 248, 250 ; Milwaukee 263, 264 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 277 i New Orleans 291, 292, 294 ; Philadelphia 324 ; Pittsburg 346, 347 ; Savannah 386, 388 Trade Unions at — New York 18-20, 24 ; Atlanta 53, 54 ; Augusta 67 ; Baltimore 75-77 ; Birmingham 91, 92 ; Boston 106 ; Brockton 120, 121 ; Chicago 133-138, 140 ; Cincinnati 155, 156 ; Cleveland 164 ; Detroit 177 ; Duluth 191 ; Fall River 201, 203 ; Lawrence 212 ; Louis- ville 222 ; Lowell 235, 236 ; Memphis 247, 248 ; Milwaukee 262, 263 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 274, 275 ; Muncie 284 ; New Orleans 291, 292 ; Newark 301, 302 ; Paterson 311 ; Philadelphia 322, 323 ; Pittsburg 343-346 ; Providence 361, 362 ; St. Louis 372, 373 ; Savannah 386, 387. Trading Stamps at — New York 42 ; Boston 114. Tramway and Railway Employees : General Notes on, at — Baltimore 78 ; Birmingham 93 ; Boston 108 ; Cleveland 166 ; Detroit 179 ; Memphis 248 ; Milwaukee 263 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 276 ; New Orleans 293 ; Providence 364. Hours of Labour of, at — New York 23 ; Atlanta 55 ; Augusta 66 ; Baltimore 78, 80 ; Birmingham 93 ; Boston 107, 108 ; Brockton 122 ; Chicago 140, 142 ; Cincinnati 156, 157 ; Detroit 179 ; Duluth 190, 191; Fall River 202 ; Lawrence 213 ; Louisville 224 ; Lowell 238 ; Memphis 248 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 277 ; Muncie 284 ; New Orleans 294 ; Newark 302 ; Paterson 311 ; Philadelphia 324 ; Pittsburg 346 ; St. Louis 376 ; Savannah 388. Number of, at — New York 17. Trade Unions of, at — Philadelphia 322. • 16576° 2 M 532 INDEX TO TOWN REPORTS. Tramway and Railway Employees — cunt. Wages of, at — New York 23, 24 ; Atlanta 55 ; Augusta (16 ; Baltimore 78,80; Birmingham 03 ; Boston 107, 108 ; Brockton 122 ; Chicago 140, 142 ;. Cincinnati 156, 157 ; Cleveland 165, 166 ; \ Detroit 179 ; Duluth 190, 191 ; Fall River 202 : Lawrence 213 ; LouisvilUe 224 ; I • Lowell 238 ; Memphis 248 ; Milwaukee 263 ; Minneapolis — St. Paul 276, 277 ; Muncie 284 ; New Orleans 294 ; Newark 302 ; Paterson 311 ; Philadelphia 324 ; Pittsburg 34(5 ; Providence 364 ; St. Louis 374, 376 ; Savannah 388. Tramway and Railway Fares — New York 11, 39 ; Atlanta 49 ; Augusta 63 ; Baltimore 80 ; Birmingham 90, 95 ; Boston 103 ; Chicago 133; Cleveland 163 ; Detroit 175 ; Duluth 187 ; Fall River 203; Lawrence 208 ; Louisville 220 ; Memphis 2.50 ; Milwaukee 259, 266 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 277 ; Philadelphia 322 ; Pittsburg 340 ; St. Louis 370. Tramway. and Railway Systems {see also " Railway Connections") at — New York 11, 12, 39; Atlanta 49; Augusta 61, 63; Baltimore 74; Birmingham 89, 90; I Boston 101-103, 109 ; Brockton 118 ; Chicago 130, 131, 133 ; Cincinnati 154 : Cleveland 163; Detroit 175; Duluth 186, 187; Fall River 197, 199, 203; Lawrence 208, 210; . Louisville 219, 220 ; Lowell 233 ; Memphis 245, 250 ; Milwaukee 259 ; Minneapolis— \ . St. Paul, 276 ; Muncie 284 ; New Orleans 288, 290, 291 ; Newark 300 ; Paterson 309 ; Philadelphia 316, 317, 319, 324 ; Pittsburg 339, 340 ; Providence .358 ; St. Louis 370, ^ 371 ; Savannah 384. Transport {see " Trade and Transportation "). Travel, Cheap, for Workpeople — Detroit 175. Truck System, at — Atlanta 52 ; Birmingham 88, 97 ; Pittsburg 355. Tuberculosis, Preventive Measures against, Treatment of, and Mortality due to, at — New York 9, 10 ; Atlanta 50 ; Augusta 63 ; Birmingham 88 ; Brockton 118 ; Chicago 132, ; 147; Cincinnati 153; Detroit 174; Duluth 187; Fall River 198; Lawrence 209; Louisville 220 ; Memphis 244; Milwaukee 258 ; Minneapolis — St. Paul 271, 272; New Orleans 290 ; Newark 299 ; Philadelphia 318 ; Providence 359 ; Savannah 384. u. Unemployment and Slack Seasons at — New York 24 ; Augusta 67 ; Baltimore 75, 77 ; Birmingham 89, 91 ; Brockton 119 : Chicago 134, 135. 137. 139 ; Cincinnati 156 ; Cleveland 165 • Detroit 179 ; Duluth 188-191 ; Fall River 2iiO ; Lawrence 211. 214 ; Lowell 234, 235 ; Memphis 248 ; Milwaukee 262, 263 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 271; Muncie 284; New Orleans "291; Paterson 310; Phila- delphia 322, 325 ; Providence 361, 362 ; St. Louis 373 ; Savannah 386. V. Varnish Making : Wages, Hours, &c. in, at — Newark 302, 303. Veal : Consumption of, at — Augusta 69, 71 ; Baltimore, 86 ; Brockton 126 ; Chicago 151 ; Cleveland 171 ; Detroit 183, 184 ; Duluth 195 ; Fall River 206 ; Louisville 229 ; Memphis 255 ; Milwaukee 269 ; Minnea- polis—St. Paul 282 ; Muncie 287 ; Pittsburg 356. Prices (Retail) of, at — New York 47 ; Atlanta 60 ; Augusta 71 ; Baltimore 86 ; Birmingham 98 ; Boston 116 ; Brockton 126, 127 : Chicago 151 ; Cincinnati 160 ; Cleveland 171 ; Detroit 184 ; Duluth 196 ; Fall River 206, 207 ; Lawrence 218 ; Louisville 230 ; Lowell 242 ; Memphis 256 ; Milwaukee 269; Minneapolis — St. Paul 282; Muncie 287; New Orleans 298; Newark 307: Paterson 315 ; Philadelphia 336 ; Pittsburg 356 ; Providence 368, 369 ; St. Louis 3S(i ;■ Savannah, 393. Supply, Sources of, at — New York 46 ; Baltimore 86 ; Boston 116 ; Brockton 126 ; Detroit 184 ; Lowell 242 ; Pater- son 314 ; Providence 368. Vegetables and Fruits, Prices (Retail) of, at — New York 45 ; Baltimore 85 ; Boston 115 ; Louisville 228 ; Lowell 241 ; New Orleans 296 ; Philadelphia 334. Vital Statistics of — New York 9 ; Atlanta 50 ; Augusta 62, 63 ; Baltimore 73 ; Birmingham 87-89 ; Boston 101- 103 ; Brockton 118 ; Chicago 132 ; Cincinnati 153 ; Detroit 174 ; Duluth 187 ; Fall River 198 ; Lawrence 209 ; Louisville 220 ; Lowell 231 ; Memphis 244 ; Milwaukee 258 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 271 ; Muncie 283 ; New Orleans 289, 290 ; Newark 299 : Pater- son 309 ; Philadelphia 318, 319 ; Pittsburg 340 ; Providence 359 ; St. Louis 371 ; Savannah 384. w. Wages at — New York 18, 21-24 ; Atlanta 54, 55 ; Augusta 62, 64-66 ; Baltimore 75-80 ; Birmingham 88, 90-94, 97 ; Boston 101, 106-108 ; Brockton 120-123 ; Chicago 134-142 ; Cincinnati 151-157 ; Cleveland 162, 164-167 ; Detroit 176-179 ; Duluth 189-191 ; Fall River 201- 203 ; Lawrence 212-214 ; Louisville 222-224 ; Lowell 235-238 ; Memphis 247-250 : Milwaukee 262-265 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 274-277, 280 ; Muncie 284, 285 ; New Orleans 290-294 ; Newark .301-303 ; Patemon 310-312 ; Philadelphia .322-325, :'.35 ; Pittsburg 343-348 ; Providence 361-364 ; St. Louis 372-376 ; Savannah 386-388. INDEX TO TOWN REPORTS. 533 Wages Agreements (see " Trade Agreements "). "Wagon and Carriage Railway Works (see " Car, Carriage, &c. Works " and " Railway Works ")• New York 39 ; Atlanta 49 ; Augusta 68 ; Baltimore 82 ; Birmingham 89, 90, 95 ; Boston 113 ; Brockton 124 ; Chicago 148 ; Cincinnati 159 ; Detroit 182 ; Duluth 194 ; Fall River 205 ; Lawrence 210, 215 ; Louisville 226 ; Memphis 254 ; Milwaukee 267 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 280 ; Muucie 286 ; Newark 305 ; Paterson 313 ; Philadelphia 332 ; Providence 358 ; St. Louis 379 ; Savannah 383, 391. Water Supply at — New York 11 ; Atlanta 49 ; Augusta 63 ; Baltimore 74, 81 ; Birmingham 89 ; Boston 101, 103 ; Brockton 118 ; Chicago 133 ; Cincinnati 154 ; Cleveland 163 ; Detroit 175 ; Duluth 187, 193 ; Fall River 199, 200 ; Lawrence 210 ; Louisville 220, 225 ; Lowell 231, 233 ; Memphis 243 ; Milwaukee 258, 259, 267 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 270, 272 ; Muncie 283, 284; New Orleans 290, 295; Newark 300; Paterson 308, 309; Philadelphia 319; Pittsburg 340 ; Providence 358 ; St. Louis 371 ; Savannah 383. Waterworks Employees : General Note on, at — Memphis 248. Hours of Labour of, at — New York 23 ; Atlanta 55 ; Augusta 66 ; Baltimore 79 ; Birmingham 94 ; Boston 107 ; Brockton 122 ; Chicago 141 ; Cincinnati 157 ; Cleveland 167 ; Detroit 179 ; Duluth 190 ; Fall River 202 ; Lawrence 213 ; Louisville 224 ; Lowell 237 ; Memphis 250 ; Milwaukee 264 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 277 ; Muncie 285 ; New Orleans 294 ; Newark 303 ; Paterson 312 ; Philadelphia 324 ; Providence 364 ; St. Louis 376 ; Savannah 388. Wages of, at — New York 23 ; Atlanta 55 ; Augusta 66 ; Baltimore 79 ; Birmingham 94 ; Boston 107 ; Brockton 122 ; Chicago 141 ; Cincinnati 157 ; Cleveland 167 ; Detroit 179 ; Duluth 190 ; Fall River 202 ; Lawrence 213 ; Louisville 224 ; Lowell 237 ; Memphis 250 ; Milwaukee 264 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 277 ; Muncie 285 ; New Orleans 294 ; Newark 303 ; Paterson 312 ; Philadelphia 324 ; Providence 364 ; St. Louis 376 ; Savannah 388. Welfare Work, Employers and (see also " Housing, Provision of, by Employers ") at — Atlanta 53, 56, 58 ; Chicago 131, 136, 142, 143 ; Cleveland 163, 165 ; Detroit 175-177 ; Louisville 222 ; Lowell 236 ; Milwaukee 262 ; Pittsburg 354, 355 ; Providence 362. Wharf Labourers (see " Dock Labourers "). Women and Girls, Emplovment of, at — New York 7, 16," 20, 21, 24 ; Atlanta 52, 53, 56 ; Augusta 63-65 ; Baltimore 75-77 ; Birming- ham 90; Boston 105, 106, 108; Brockton 119, 122, 123; Chicago 133, 135-138, 143; Cincinnati 155 ; Cleveland 165 ; Detroit 176, 177, 179 ; Duluth 188 ; Fall River 200, 203 ; Lawrence 21 J, 212, 214; Louisville 221 ; Lowell 234, 238 ; Memphis 246, 247 ; Mil- waukee 260-262, 265, 266 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 273, 274 ; Muncie 284 ; New Orleans 291, 293 ; Newark 300, 301 ; Paterson 309, 310 ; Philadelphia 321, 322 ; Pittsburg 342, 346 ; Providence 360, 362, 364 ; St. Louis 372, 374 ; Savannah 385, 388. Wood (Fuel), Prices (Retail) of, at— Atlanta 59 ; Augusta 70 ; Duluth 195 ; Savannah 392. Woodworking and Furnishing Trades : General Notes on, at — Augusta 64 ; Birmingham 87 ; Chicago 138 ; Duluth 188, 189 ; Louisville 221 ; Memphis 247, 248 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 273-275 ; New Orleans 293. Hours of Labour in, at — New York 22 ; Atlanta 55 ; Augusta 65, 66 ; Chicago 138, 141 ; Duluth 190, 191 ; Louisville 223 ; Memphis 247, 249 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 276 ; New Orleans 293, 294. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at— New York 16, 17 ; Atlanta 52 ; Baltimore 75 ; Birmingham 90 ; Boston 105 ; Brockton 1 19 ; Chicago 133 ; Cincinnati 155 ; Cleveland 164 ; Detroit 176 ; Duluth 188 ; Fall River 200 ; Lawrence 211 ; Louisville 221 ; Lowell 234 ; Memphis 246 ; Milwaukee 260 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 273, 274 ; New Orleans 291 ; Newark 300 ; Paterson 310 ; Phila- delphia 321 ; Pittsburg 342 ; Providence 360, 361 ; St. Louis 372 ; Savannah 385. Trade Unions in, at — New York 19 ; Chicago 138. Wages in, at — New York 18, 22 ; Atlanta 55 ; Augusta 65, 66 ; Chicago 138, 141 ; Cincinnati 154 ; Duluth 190 ; Louisville 223 ; Memphis 249 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 274-276 ; New Orleans 293, 294. Woollen and Worsted Industry : General Notes on, at — Lawrence 208, 209, 211, 212 ; Lowell 233, 236 ; Providence 360. Hours of Labour in, at — Lawrence 213 ; Lowell 237 ; Philadelphia 323 ; Providence 363. Output — Lawrence 210 ; Lowell 233. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — Lawrence 211 ; Louisville 221 ; Lowell 234 ; Philadelphia 321 ; Providence 360, 361. Wages in, at — Lawrence 213, 214 ; Lowell 237, 238 ; Philadelphia 323 ; Providence 363. Workmen's Cheap Tickets (see " Travel, Cheap, for Workpeople "). Worsted Industry (see " WooHru and Worsted Industrv "). ii f ^F CAI'TT" 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED DOCUMENTS DEPT. This book is due on the last date stamped below, or on the date to which renewed. Renewed books ate subject to immediate tecaU. ^1642-256? INTFRLIDRftnY lO^N TTtrt — 6i:^taft- ~:D TO UNlV. OF CALIK. BERK. MAR 2 1971 OCT 2 8 1992 BECCm.Ai'G2 5'33 IKC.CIB. SEP 02*93 MAR 2 i) ^9T1 DEC 1 5 l^Bi RrCD IM DOCS DEPT. SEP 2 2 1983 I-- J^^ '!' MAR (J 8 DCCo DtrT. m r-.CDiN (^^^^f 2 5 1904 rsrty LD 21-20m-8,'61 (C1795sl0)476 ©ef^ General Library Uoivenity of California Berkeley r -=«r m 00978 U,C. BERKELEY UBR^^^^^^^ C03aS57bD3 UNIVERSITY OF CAUFORNIA UBRARY Ito COST OF LIVING IN AMERICAN TOWNS KEPOir'^ OF AN ENQUIRY MY THK BOAKD OF irtAjDE INTO WOEII^'G CLASS llEA'TS, HOUSING Ai\D RETAIL PEICES, TOGETHEK WITH THE RATES OF WAGES IN CERTAIN OCCUPATIONS IN THE PRINCIPAL INDUSTRIAL TOWNS OF TJIE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. WITH AN INTRODUCTORY MEMORANDUM AND A COMPARISON OF CONDITIONS IN THE UNITED STATES AND THE UNITED KINGDOM. ^tcscnlcti to f>a£i::'i;;i*nf ha Comuianti ot ^is IDitjcfity. LOADUN: I rUBLISHET) LY HIS MAJESTY'S STA'lIONERY OFF !(']•; k To l>o imicliased, eillier directly or llirotijfli any ]k)okseller, i'ruiu "\\ VMA* »Mi SONS. Limited, Feixek Laxe, E.G., an! ;!2, AiJiy(;i>Oii Si ik' ULIVEli & liOYlJ, 'I'vvj-.EDU.M.E CotHi, EuiNiiLRcur; "or J.; TND auS, LiMi'iBU, Bacok Stueki, 1- 1911. [Ctl, .JGoSi'.j^riVe .■)6-. hi. S.VV.; or '-.%-