FIRST PRINCIPLES OF 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 BY 
 
 EMMET S. GOFF 
 
 Late Professor of Horticulture, University of Wisconsin 
 
 AND 
 
 D. D. MAYNE 
 
 Principal of School of Agriculture and Professor of 
 Agricultural Pedagogics, University of Minnesota 
 
 AMERICAN BOOK COMPA^JY 
 
 NEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO
 
 COPYRIGHT, 11504, 1018, BV 
 
 D. D. MAYNE 
 Entered at Stationers' Hall, London 
 
 .O. AND M. AGRICULTURE 
 E. P. 3
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 CT) 
 
 oa PREFACE. 
 
 LU 
 U. 
 
 THE importance of the vocational element in education 
 "^has come to be generally recognized. In response to popular 
 o2 demand guided by professional advice, state and national 
 2 governments are back of this new educational development. 
 -j Educators are urging its wider adoption and its more inti- 
 mate application to the environment of the child. If voca- 
 tional courses are properly adapted to community needs, 
 u, their educative value is not only highly utilitarian but is 
 
 2 also mentally disciplinary in the best sense of that phrase, 
 o The most wide-spread and most pronounced demand for 
 
 ~* vocational education is in our rural schools. Here the call 
 
 e_ 
 
 ^ is for the teaching of the principles of agriculture. Farming 
 
 as a vocation is subject to the same high requirements of 
 
 present-day efficiency as are other vocations. This is 
 
 >-. necessary economically so that we may be able to meet 
 
 ^ world competition. It is necessary socially so that each 
 
 *may produce the materials of food and clothing to the 
 
 greatest capacity of his farm. Agriculture is not hap- 
 
 hazard farming. It is a science whose principles must be 
 
 3 mastered before they can be intelligently applied. The 
 place to begin that mastery is in our rural schools. 
 
 Even the teacher with little technical knowledge of the 
 subject and with limited experience can direct her pupils 
 into the ways of understanding if she is provided with a 
 proper textbook. This book should deal with fundamental 
 principles in a simple and an interesting way. Thus it 
 
 3 
 
 234612
 
 4 PREFACE 
 
 serves as a safe guide to the teacher; and to the pupils it is 
 an inspiration to experiment, to inquire of practical farmers, 
 and to read and study further. Fortunately an abundance 
 of supplemental reading matter is readily obtainable from 
 the Department of Agriculture, at Washington, D. C., and 
 State Experiment Stations. 
 
 A notable demonstration of the value of the study of 
 agriculture in the rural school course may be cited from the 
 experience of one of the northwestern states. This state 
 passed a law requiring that elementary agriculture be 
 taught in the rural schools. The law had been in force for a 
 period of ten years, so that the boys and girls who had had 
 this instruction were then the men and women managing or 
 working on the farms of the state. The results of this 
 instruction are reflected by the statistics furnished by the 
 United States Government. 
 
 During this decade the state raised more flax to the acre 
 than any other state. It stood first in the yield to the acre 
 of oats, barley, spring wheat, and sugar beets. It stood 
 second in acre yield in potatoes, exceeded only by a state 
 using many tons of commercial fertilizer. It stood fifth 
 in acre yield of corn, being exceeded only by the highest 
 yielding state by 2.5 bushels. Such a record over a ten-year 
 period can be explained in no other way than through the 
 influence of the instruction given in agriculture in the rural 
 schools of the state. 
 
 Other states have adopted similar laws, and through the 
 influence of the Federal Government and the demand for 
 greater efficiency in agriculture, the teaching of the subject 
 in the rural schools will become universal. Acres of Amer- 
 ican farms will soon produce much more than ever before;
 
 PREFACE 5 
 
 but the greatest value to farming will come through building 
 up a permanent system of agriculture, based upon sound 
 principles. Such a system will mean for coming generations 
 bread for the eater and a life of contentment and joy for the 
 producer. 
 
 To meet the demand set forth above, First Principles of 
 Agriculture has been especially written. As its name in- 
 dicates, it stresses the fundamentals of the science. The 
 lessons are concrete, calling for the study of actual illustra- 
 tive material which is readily available. Above all, the 
 authors have constantly kept in mind the fact that boys and 
 girls are to be its readers. Accordingly the book is written 
 simply and interestingly. 
 
 D. D. M.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 1. DEAD AND LIVING MATTER 9 
 
 2. THE SOIL AND SOIL WATER 13 
 
 3. PLANTS AND WATER 17 
 
 4. How PLANTS FEED 20 
 
 5. How PLANTS GROW ......... 25 
 
 6. THE IDEAL SOIL 29 
 
 7. How TO KEEP THE SOIL FERTILE 33 
 
 8. HUMUS IN THE SOIL 38 
 
 9. How LEGUMES HELP THE FARMER . . . .41 
 
 10. THE ROTATION OF CROPS 47 
 
 n. SAVING SOIL MOISTURE . . 52 
 
 12. THE PARASITES OF PLANTS 55 
 
 13. SEEDS CAN NOT GERMINATE WITHOUT AIR . . 60 
 
 14. PACKING THE SOIL ABOUT PLANTED SEEDS . . 63 
 
 15. SEED TESTING 67 
 
 16. How SEEDS "COME UP" 71 
 
 17. IT is WISE TO PLANT THE LARGEST SEEDS . . 75 
 
 18. REARING PLANTS FROM BUDS 78 
 
 19. TRANSPLANTING 84 
 
 20. How TO IMPROVE PLANTS . 88 
 
 21. THE FLOWER AND ITS PARTS 92 
 
 22. IMPERFECT AND PERFECT FLOWERS .... 97 
 
 23. CORN ioi 
 
 24. WHEAT 116 
 
 25. CROPS AND WEEDS 125 
 
 26. MORE ABOUT WEEDS 129 
 
 6
 
 CONTENTS 7 
 
 PAGE 
 
 27. THE GARDEN 150 
 
 28. THE ORCHARD 157 
 
 29. SEMITROPICAL FRUITS 163 
 
 30. IRRIGATION AND DRY FARMING 170 
 
 31. ANIMALS THAT DESTROY INSECTS 175 
 
 32. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY . 184 
 
 33. PRINCIPAL DAIRY BREEDS 186 
 
 34. BEEF BREEDS 189 
 
 35. DAIRYING 191 
 
 36. DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING THE BABCOCK TEST . 201 
 
 37. PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING 205 
 
 38. HORSES 213 
 
 39. SHEEP 219 
 
 40. SWINE 225 
 
 41. POULTRY 229 
 
 42. DUCKS AND TURKEYS 234 
 
 43. BEE-KEEPING 237 
 
 44. IMPROVEMENT OF HOME AND SCHOOL YARDS . 245 
 
 APPENDIX 253 
 
 INDEX 267
 
 PLATE I. 
 
 MAXIMUS 
 
 CHERRY 
 
 WHITE GRAPE 
 
 MORGAN S FAVORITE 
 
 COLUMBUS 
 
 SMITH'S IMPROVED 
 
 HOUGHTON 
 
 CHAUTAUQUA 
 
 DOWNING 
 
 STRAWBERRIES 
 
 GOOSEBERRIES 
 
 CURRANTS
 
 PLATE II. 
 
 SINGLE COMB BROWN LEGHORN (above) HOUDANS (center) 
 
 LIGHT BRAHMAS (below)
 
 PARTRIDGE COCHINS (above) BARRED PLYMOUTH ROCKS (center) 
 SILVER LACED WYANDOTTES (below)
 
 PLATE IV. 
 
 BRONZE TURKEYS (below)
 
 PLATE V. 
 
 GUERNSEY cow (above) 
 
 JERSEY cow (below)
 
 AYRSHIRE COW (above) HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN COW (below)
 
 PLATE VII. 
 
 SHORTHORN COW (above) 
 
 RED POLLED COW (below)
 
 PLATE VIII. 
 
 HKREFORD COW (above) GALLOWAY COW (below)
 
 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 1. DEAD AND LIVING MATTER. 
 
 Illustrative material: A few grains of sand on a piece of 
 paper. Examine the grains carefully. 
 
 Dead Matter. Figure i shows a grain of sand as it 
 appears under the microscope. Its corners have been 
 rounded by rubbing against other 
 grains of sand. It can not move; 
 it can not change its form. We 
 might leave it under the microscope 
 and look at it daily for a year, and it 
 would look just the same every time. 
 
 FIG. i. Grain of sand, * * 
 
 magnified ]_ never grows larger and never di- 
 
 vides into other grains of sand unless it is broken by 
 some outside force. It has no life; it is dead. 
 
 Living Matter. Figure 2 
 shows some yeast plants as 
 they appear under the micro- 
 scope. The yeast plant is so 
 small that it can be seen only 
 with a microscope. Each yeast 
 plant consists of a closed sack 
 or cell, containing a jellylike FlG- 2- _ Yeast plants> magnified 
 liquid called protoplasm, which 
 
 is the living substance of the cell. Within the protoplasm 
 is a central body called the nucleus. If we watch the yeast 
 
 9
 
 10 DEAD AND LIVING MATTER 
 
 plant under the microscope, we find that it changes in form. 
 Sometimes little swellings grow out, like knobs on a potato, 
 and these will by and by separate themselves from the 
 parent and become other yeast plants. The yeast plant is 
 alive; so is every growing plant. 
 
 The Ameba. Figure 3 shows several specimens of 
 the ameba, an animal found in stagnant water. It is so 
 
 small that it can be seen only 
 with a microscope. The ameba 
 consists of a single cell. It can 
 move itself about; it can change 
 
 FIG. 3.-Amebas, magnified. ^ form; ifc ^ ^^ ^ &Q 
 
 make other amebas. The ameba, like the yeast plant, is 
 alive. Plants and animals have life. Sand and all other 
 minerals are dead. 
 
 Plants and Animals Grow. If we put a drop of fresh 
 yeast into a bottle containing well water with some sugar 
 and a little white of egg stirred into it, and set the bottle 
 in a warm place, in a few hours the liquid will become 
 whitish in color. This is because millions of new yeast 
 plants have formed from the few we put in. The young 
 yeast plants and amebas are at first small, but they 
 grow until they are as large as their parents. Plants and 
 animals increase in number, and grow in size. Dead 
 things can not, of themselves, grow or increase in 
 number. 
 
 Cells. Figure 4 shows a small part of an apple leaf, 
 as it appears under the microscope. Notice that it is 
 made up of many small sacks grown together. Each of 
 these little sacks is a cell. Cells are the smallest units of 
 the building materials that make up a plant or an animal.
 
 DEAD AND LIVING MATTER 
 
 II 
 
 A plant large enough to be handled is made up of a mul- 
 titude of cells grown together, each of which is, or has 
 been, alive. An animal large 
 enough to be seen without a 
 microscope is also made up 
 of many living cells, each of 
 which is like the ameba in 
 many respects. 
 
 Needs of Plants and Ani- 
 mals Plants and animals 
 need certain things to keep 
 them in health. Without food 
 and water, they can not live 
 long. They must receive a 
 certain amount of warmth, or 
 they will either freeze to death 
 or cease to grow. Animals 
 and the higher forms of plant life must have air. The 
 protoplasm in certain cells of the higher plants must have 
 light, or the plants will soon die. To keep plants and 
 animals healthy, we must provide them with the things 
 that they need. 
 
 Produce. The farmer rears plants and animals. He 
 rears plants on his land, and his animals feed on the 
 plants. Plants and animals reared on the farm are 
 called produce. The farmer sells a part of his produce 
 to those that need it, and thus secures the means to buy 
 clothing and tools, to erect his buildings, to improve 
 his home, and to educate his children. His soil is formed 
 of mineral matters and the dead remains of plants and 
 animals. The farmer needs to learn all he can about 
 
 FIG. 4 Showing cells for the apple leaf 
 in a section from its upper to its 
 lower surface. Highly magnified. The 
 spaces marked I are cavities between 
 the cells.
 
 12 DEAD AND LIVING MATTER 
 
 the soil, and how plants and animals grow. He should 
 also strive to learn what crops are likely to repay his 
 labor best, and how to dispose of these to the best ad- 
 vantage of himself and his farm. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 
 
 1. What is protoplasm? What is a nucleus? 
 
 2. What three things can the ameba do that a grain of 
 sand can not do? 
 
 3. How do yeast plants increase in number? 
 
 4. What do plants and animals need in order to live? 
 
 5. What are yeast plants used for in your home? 
 
 6. What things are necessary that animals may live? 
 What things do most plants require in order to live? Do 
 yeast plants need light? 
 
 7. In your notebook write five important facts you have 
 learned in this lesson.
 
 2. THE SOIL AND SOIL WATER. 
 
 Illustrative material: An oil lamp, a narrow-neck bottle, two 
 other bottles, and some candle wicking. 
 
 Prepare the soil lamp, Figure 5, by filling a small, narrow- 
 neck bottle about one-third full of kerosene oil, and then filling 
 the bottle to the top with small fragments of dry earth. If the 
 oil does not saturate the earth to the top, add a little more oil. 
 
 Prepare the experiment shown in Figure 6, using a small lamp 
 wick or candle wicking. Add water to the left hand bottle, and 
 wet the wick before putting it in place. 
 
 Oil and the Lamp Wick. In a lighted oil lamp, the 
 oil passes upward through the wick as fast as it burns. 
 The oil passes through the wick because the wick contains 
 a number of small spaces or pores 
 that connect with one another. It 
 would rise through almost any very porous 
 substance as a sponge, a piece of blotting 
 paper, a piece of brick, or of porous 
 earth. 
 
 Dry Earth as a Wick. Figure 5 shows 
 a lamp made of a bottle filled with dry 
 earth, which answers for the wick. The 
 oil rises through the earth because 
 the earth is porous. It creeps from 
 one particle of the earth to another at the 
 FIG. 5. Earth points where the particles touch one an- 
 other. The larger the particles are, after 
 they pass a certain size, the slower will the oil rise, because 
 the points where the particles touch are fewer. 
 
 13
 
 THE SOIL AND SOIL WATER 
 
 Capillary Attraction. Water also will rise through a 
 lamp wick or other porous substance. In the experi- 
 ment shown in Fig- 
 ure 6, the water 
 passes through the 
 wick from the left 
 bottle into the right 
 one. If the bottle 
 contained porous 
 soil, as in Figure 5, 
 the water would rise 
 through the soil to 
 the top of the bottle, 
 where it would slow- 
 
 FIG. 6. Illustrating capillarity. ly pass off into the 
 
 air. The force which causes oil, water or any other 
 liquid to rise through a porous substance, is called 
 capillary attraction or capillarity. 
 
 When soil is saturated, the water fills all the spaces 
 between the soil particles. In time much of this drains 
 away. The water that drains away is called free, or gravi- 
 tational, water. That which remains after the free water 
 has passed off is called capillary water. It exists as thin 
 layers around the particles of soil, and is held to the par- 
 ticles by capillary attraction. 
 
 Evaporation. If we rub the blackboard with a damp 
 cloth, the board does not remain wet long, because the 
 water passes off into the air. We hang wet clothes upon 
 a line so the water in them will pass off into the air and 
 they will become dry. The passing off of water from a 
 wet surface into the air, we call evaporation.
 
 THE SOIL AND SOIL WATER 15 
 
 Evaporation Rapid. Water is evaporating from the 
 soil out of doors nearly all the time when it is not raining; 
 and, as in the lamp wick the oil rises from the font as it 
 burns at the top of the wick, so the water rises from the 
 deeper soil as it evaporates at the surface. In countries 
 
 FIG. 7. Showing the circulation of water. 
 
 that, have frequent rains, the water rises from below 
 in dry weather nearly or quite as fast as it evapo- 
 rates, hence the soil is kept moist except at the very 
 surface.
 
 1 6 THE SOIL AND SOIL WATER 
 
 Water not at Rest. During rain, or whenever the 
 surface soil is wetter than the soil below, the water passes 
 down into the soil until it reaches a layer that it can not 
 pass, or until the upward current again begins; the water 
 in the soil is seldom at rest. In many places, there is a 
 surplus of water deep d<5wn in the soil, which flows into 
 wells or flows out in certain places as springs. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 
 
 1. What force causes a liquid to rise through a porous 
 substance? 
 
 2. What is the free, or gravitational, water of the soil? 
 What is the capillary water? 
 
 3. Under what conditions will soil water evaporate most 
 rapidly? 
 
 4. Write in your notebook five important facts learned 
 in this lesson.
 
 3. PLANTS AND WATER. 
 
 Illustrative material: A dried leafy shoot from some growing 
 plant and three bean seedlings that have attained their rough 
 leaves; two small bottles, one filled with water; a fruit jar. 
 
 Evaporation from Plants. If we cut off a leafy branch 
 from a growing plant and put it in a warm oven, the 
 leaves and stem will soon become much smaller and 
 lighter and more brittle. This is because the water which 
 the branch contained has been evaporated by the heat. 
 Often more than four fifths of the weight of a growing 
 plant is water. Hay is dried grass. The farmer cuts 
 his grass and lets it He 
 exposed to the heat of 
 the sun until most of 
 the water it contained 
 has evaporated. 
 
 Water Necessary. 
 If we cut off two bean 
 seedlings at the surface 
 of the ground and put 
 the stem of one into 
 a bottle of water and 
 that of the other into an 
 
 empty bottle, We Shall FlG - Plants need water. 
 
 find that the leaves of the seedling that we put in the 
 empty bottle will soon droop, while those of the other 
 will remain fresh. (Figure 8.) This experiment 
 teaches some important things about plants. First, it 
 
 G. &M. Ag. 2. I
 
 i8 
 
 PLANTS AND WATER 
 
 shows that the leaves of plants growing in a rather dry 
 atmosphere must have a constant supply of water, or they 
 can not remain fresh. Second, it shows that the water is 
 taken in through the stem. Third, it shows that, in uncut 
 plants, the water must come into the stem from the root, 
 because our stems were cut at the surface of the ground. 
 
 Evaporation through Leaves If we fill two bottles 
 of the same size with water, and insert in the neck of one 
 of them several small twigs from a growing plant, we 
 shall find that the surface of the water will lower much 
 faster in the bottle containing the twigs, than in the other 
 bottle. Where has this water gone? If now we. place 
 a cool fruit jar over the twigs and hold it there a short 
 time, we shall be able to answer this question. Water 
 from the leaves will gather on the inside of the glass, so 
 that we can easily see it. If we leave the jar over the 
 twigs for half an hour, drops of water will flow down its 
 inside surface. This shows that 
 some of the water taken up by the 
 roots or plants passes off, or trans- 
 pires, through the leaves. The pass- 
 ing off of moisture from the leaves of 
 plants is called transpiration. 
 
 Leaves do not Take in Water. 
 If we take the fresh bean plant out 
 of the water and put one of its 
 leaves instead of the stem into the 
 water, we shall find that the other 
 
 F.c.9.- Leaves do leaV6S SOOn dr P' ( Fi g UFe 9-) 
 
 not absorb water. This shows that the leaves of 
 the bean plant can not take in much water, even
 
 PLANTS AND WATER IQ 
 
 when they are surrounded by it. The leaves of plants 
 can not take in much water, either from water or from moist 
 air. 
 
 Plants Dry the Soil. The total area of the leaf surface 
 of a growing crop is much larger than that of the ground on 
 which the crop grows; and therefore soil on which plants 
 are growing dries much faster than the same kind of soil 
 with no plants growing on it. The soil seldom contains 
 water enough in dry weather to supply crops with all they 
 need. Weeds waste valuable water in dry weather; so do 
 the hedges of underbrush sometimes allowed to grow along 
 fences. The farmer and the gardener should constantly 
 study how to prevent the waste of soil water in dry weather. 
 We shall learn how to do this in a later lesson. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 
 
 1. From what source does a plant get its water? 
 
 2. What is transpiration? 
 
 3. Why does a soil that has plants growing on it dry out 
 faster than the same kind of soil without plants? 
 
 4. Why should weeds not be allowed to grow? 
 
 5. Perform an experiment to show transpiration. (See 
 page 18.)
 
 4. HOW PLANTS FEED. 
 
 Illustrative material : Dissolve a bit of camphor gum in a small bottle 
 of alcohol; then pour a part of the solution into a glass sauce dish, and, 
 when the alcohol has evaporated, show the recovered camphor. (If con- 
 veniences for boiling water are at hand, a solution of sugar in water may 
 be used.) 
 
 Burn a little dry hay or straw on a plate, in the presence of the class, 
 and show the ashes. Show also a bit of starch, and a piece of charcoal to 
 illustrate carbon. ^ 
 
 Solutions If we 
 put a teaspoonful of 
 sugar into a glass 
 of water and then 
 stir the water with 
 the spoon, the sugar 
 will soon pass out of 
 sight. We say it has 
 dissolved in the wa- 
 ter. We explain its 
 disappearance by 
 supposing that i t 
 has separated into 
 particles that are too 
 small to be seen, and 
 that these particles 
 
 haVC etltered am n S 
 p art icleS of the 
 
 F.O. ,0.- Diagram showing spaces be- 
 tween particles. 
 
 water, something as a quart of peas might be poured 
 into the spaces between apples in a peck measure. (Fig-
 
 HOW PLANTS FEED 21 
 
 ure 10.) If now we evaporate the water from the glass, 
 the sugar will again appear in the bottom. 
 
 Mineral Matter in Plants. A tea-kettle in which well 
 water is often boiled usually becomes coated inside with 
 a whitish deposit. Well water contains small quantities 
 of certain mineral substances dissolved in it. When the 
 water evaporates from the tea-kettle by boiling, these 
 minerals remain in the bottom, just as in our experiment 
 the sugar remained in the basin after the water evaporated. 
 We learned in Lesson 3 that plants take up water, and 
 that this water passes off as vapor from the leaves. The 
 water thus taken up by plants comes out of the soil and 
 so has certain mineral substances dissolved in it. When 
 this water is transpired from the leaves, the minerals 
 remain, just as they remain in the tea-kettle when the 
 water evaporates from it. Some of these mineral sub- 
 stances are required by the plant for food. Aside from 
 water, the roots can take only dissolved substances. 
 
 Other Matter in Plants. We have now learned how 
 plants secure the mineral part of their food. But are 
 plants formed entirely of mineral matter? We can 
 answer this question by a simple experiment. Mineral 
 matter will not burn. If we burn a little bunch of hay or 
 straw, the part that will not burn, the ashes, is mineral 
 matter. The ashes of the hay were brought up from the 
 soil in the water that was taken up by the grass roots. 
 When we burn a substance, we separate it to some extent 
 into the parts that once came together to make the sub- 
 stance. Nearly all of the part of the hay that passes 
 off into the air in burning came out of the air while 
 the grass was growing.
 
 22 HOW PLANTS FEED 
 
 Carbon from the Air. It seems strange that a part 
 of the grass could come out of the air. We can see the 
 mineral matter left in the bottom of the tea-kettle, and 
 so can easily believe that the soil water contains mineral 
 matter. But we can not see the air, and it is hard to 
 understand how matter can come out of the air to make 
 a plant that we can see, handle and weigh. But, just 
 as the soil water has solid mineral matter dissolved in it, 
 so the air has a gas called carbon dioxide mixed with it. 
 This gas is formed of two substances: carbon, which is a 
 solid that we can see and handle; and oxygen, a gas that 
 we can not see. When the oxygen is taken out of the 
 carbon dioxide, the solid carbon is left, just as when the 
 water is taken out of the sugar solution the solid sugar 
 is left. 
 
 Chlorophyll with the Sun making Starch. The car- 
 bon dioxide enters the leaves of plants through very small 
 openings. It then enters the cells and comes in contact 
 with a substance called chlorophyll, which is the green 
 coloring matter of the leaves. Here a wonderful change 
 takes place. When the sun is shining, the carbon dioxide 
 and a part of the water that the cells contain are decom- 
 posed, that is, they are separated into the parts that form 
 them. Some of these parts, including the carbon, then 
 unite again and form a new substance that is very different 
 from either the carbon dioxide or the water. This new 
 substance is starch, or something of very similar compo- 
 sition. (Figure n.) It may be formed in any part of 
 the plant that is green, that is, in any part which has 
 cells that contain chlorophyll. But it is formed chiefly 
 in the leaves.
 
 HOW PLANTS FEED 
 
 2 3 
 
 Food of Plant Made in Leaves This starch or like 
 substance formed in the leaves, together with some of the 
 mineral matters brought up in the soil water, serves as 
 food for the protoplasm of the cells, so that the cells 
 
 FIG. ii. Illustrating the formation of starch. 
 
 increase in number rapidly and thus cause the plant to 
 grow. The cells in all parts of the plant, including the 
 farthest root tips, are fed by this leaf-formed food. It
 
 24 HOW PLANTS FEED 
 
 follows that the health of the plant depends upon the 
 health of its leaves. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 
 
 1. How do plants take in the mineral part of their food? 
 
 2. What food materials do plants obtain from the air? 
 
 3. Tell how a plant makes starch. 
 
 4. Why will a plant die if its leaves are removed during 
 the growing season? 
 
 5. Explain why the grass underneath a board or flat 
 stone turns white in a few days. 
 
 6. Name several plants that suffer because their leaves 
 are destroyed by insects.
 
 5. HOW PLANTS GROW. 
 
 Illustrative material: Specimens from parts of living plants 
 illustrating the root, stem, buds, leaves, flowers, and fruit or 
 seed. 
 
 Root Downward, Stem Upward. Figure 1 2 shows 
 a young plant of Indian corn. It grew from the kernel 
 to which it is attached. Two tiny shoots 
 grew from the kernel. One of these grew 
 down into the dark, damp soil to become the 
 root; the other grew up into the light to be- 
 come the stem. Every seed when it ger- 
 minates, that is, when it begins to grow, 
 sends out two shoots, one of which tends down- 
 ward, and the other, upward. During the life 
 of the plant, the stem and root that start in 
 the seed normally continue to grow by the di- 
 vision and growth of certain groups of cells 
 near their tips. 
 
 Root Hairs Figure 13 shows some very pilmiet'^f 
 
 , . . . . . , Indian corn. 
 
 young radish plants that were grown in a seed 
 tester. Notice that each tiny white root that grew from 
 the seed is clothed with a downy fringe that looks like 
 the finest silk. These delicate fibers are called root 
 hairs, and they take up water for the plant. The young 
 roots of most plants are clothed with root hairs. These 
 draw in water from the soil with a certain amount of 
 force. This force, aided by some other forces, causes the 
 
 25
 
 26 
 
 HOW PLANTS GROW 
 
 FIG. 13. Young radish 
 plants. 
 
 water to rise through the stem and to supply all the cells 
 with water and with food. 
 
 The Stem. The stem bears the 
 leaves, buds, flowers, and fruit or 
 seeds. In upright-growing plants, 
 the stem supports these parts at 
 some distance above the earth; 
 sometimes, as in the grape-vine, the 
 stem climbs upon other objects for 
 support; sometimes, as in the mel- 
 on, it creeps on the ground; in 
 other plants, as the potato and quack 
 grass, it may even grow in part un- 
 derground. (Figure 14.) As we 
 have learned in Lesson 3, the stem 
 is the channel through which the 
 food prepared in the leaves passes to the roots. 
 
 The Leaves. The leaves grow out from the stem at 
 regular places. If we hold a leaf toward the light, and 
 place a finger behind it, we find that the light can pass 
 through the leaf. As we learned in Lesson 4, the sun- 
 light shining through the leaf cells prepares the food 
 for the cells of the whole plant. The cells of the leaf 
 are arranged in thin plates to expose a very large number 
 of them to the action of the sunlight. (See Figure n.) 
 The cell walls are transparent as glass. The leaves look 
 green because their cells contain green chlorophyll. 
 
 Leaves Necessary. We learned in Lesson 4 that the 
 health of the plant depends much upon the health of its 
 leaves. If the leaves are eaten by insects, or if they are 
 picked off or broken, they can not prepare food, and
 
 HOW PLANTS GROW 
 
 the cells of the root will not be so well fed; then the root 
 
 can not grow so fast, and so can not absorb so much 
 
 water for the leaves, 
 
 so the whole plant 
 
 must grow more slow- 
 
 ly. If, from any 
 
 cause, the leaves do 
 
 not receive their full 
 
 share of sunlight, they 
 
 can not prepare their 
 
 amount of food, and 
 
 the plant will 
 
 suffer. The 
 
 leaves of our 
 
 plants should 
 
 be protected 
 
 from harm. 
 Buds. Ev- 
 
 ery live part of 
 
 a stem termin- 
 
 FIG. 14. Potato plant. U. St., under- 
 ground stems. R, roots. The tubers 
 are the thickened ends of the under- 
 ground stems. Much reduced. 
 
 ates in a bud. (Figure 15.) If a part of the 
 stem is growing, the bud at its tip is not well de- 
 fined. But on stems that live through winter, 
 when growth ceases, the buds are covered with 
 scales, which usually render them easily seen. 
 Buds inclosed in scales are called dormant buds. 
 In woody stems, a dormant bud commonly forms 
 in summer just above the base of each leaf. 
 Fl Budt"~When the leaves drop in autumn, the buds re- 
 main. On the return of spring, they expand into new 
 leaves or sometimes into flowers. The bud at the end
 
 28 HOW PLANTS GROW 
 
 of the branch is called the terminal bud. This usually 
 expands first. It either forms a flower, and dies, or it 
 continues the growth of the stem. The lateral (side) 
 buds, if they expand, either open into flowers, and die, or 
 they develop into branches. 
 
 Seeds. In plants that live through winter, the flowers 
 are commonly formed in the buds the season before they 
 expand. Many flowers are among the most beautiful and 
 fragrant of natural objects. They delight us with their 
 colors, their perfume, their freshness, their delicacy, and 
 their graceful forms. But the flowers have other uses 
 than to please the senses. By means of their flowers, 
 plants are able to form the fruits and seeds we prize so 
 much for food. Without seeds, many kinds of plants 
 would soon pass away, for there would be no more little 
 plants to take the places of those that die. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Where is the growing portion of a root? Of a stem? 
 
 2. How do root hairs help the plant to grow? Where are 
 they found? 
 
 3. Name some stems that grow partly underground. 
 
 4. Why are the cells of a leaf arranged in thin plates? 
 Why are the cell walls transparent? 
 
 5. What gives the green color to leaves? 
 
 6. When and where are dormant buds formed in woody 
 stems? When do they open? 
 
 7. Split lengthwise a large terminal bud of the lilac or 
 of some other plant and see what you can find inside.
 
 6. THE IDEAL SOIL. 
 
 Illustrative material: Jars or boxes containing black garden 
 loam, clay, and sand. Mix a small proportion of sand with the 
 clay to make a clay loam. Mix a large proportion of sand with 
 the clay to make a sandy loam. Pour water on each kind of 
 soil, and have the pupils note how rapidly it soaks through in 
 each case and also the effect after it has dried. 
 
 Soil a Reservoir for Water. We learned from Lesson 
 3 that plants transpire much water from their leaves, 
 water that has been taken up by their roots. The roots 
 must get from the soil as much water as they need or 
 the plants can not thrive. The soil receives its water 
 from rains and snows, and these fall at irregular intervals. 
 The ideal soil, therefore, must serve as a reservoir to 
 receive and hold enough of the rain and the snow water 
 to supply the needs of crops. 
 
 Soil Must Be Porous We learned in Lesson 4 that 
 living cells require air as well as food. The live roots 
 of plants consist of living cells, not one of which can live 
 long without air. The ideal soil must, therefore, be 
 porous enough to admit all the air the roots require. 
 Rootlets will not grow in clumps or clods that are so 
 compact that air can not enter them. It seems strange 
 that the soil can supply the roots of plants with both water 
 and air at the same time. A soil in proper condition for 
 the rapid growth of roots may be compared to a wet 
 sponge with air circulating through its pores, while the 
 substance of the sponge contains much water. 
 
 29
 
 3 
 
 THE IDEAL SOIL 
 
 Air and Water in Soil. Figure 16 will help us to 
 understand how the roots of plants are supplied with both 
 water and air. The roots of most farm and garden 
 crops grow fastest just at the bottom of the layer of soil 
 that is turned by the plow. The soil above this point 
 is better supplied with air than that below, while the 
 subsoil, which is the part below this point, is better sup- 
 plied with water than that above. The place where the 
 plowed soil rests on the subsoil is, therefore, best supplied 
 with both air and water. 
 
 Tiledicun 
 FIG. 1 6. Water in the soil. 
 
 Kinds of Soil. A soil made up of particles so fine that 
 they can be seen only with a microscope is called a clay 
 soil. It is sticky when wet and is apt to "bake," or harden, 
 on drying. A clay soil can be improved by manuring, by 
 the addition of sand or ashes, and sometimes by the use 
 of lime. A soil made up largely of particles of sand is 
 called a sandy soil. It dries out rapidly and is not sticky. 
 A silt soil is made up of particles halfway between clay and 
 sand in fineness. Most farm and garden soils consist 
 mainly of a mixture of clay, silt, and sand. Such a soil 
 is called a loam. The best soil for growing crops contains 
 sand enough to let surplus water move downward, and 
 clay enough to hold sufficient water for the use of crops. 
 
 Drainage Necessary. If the pores of a soil remained
 
 THE IDEAL SOIL 31 
 
 filled with water a long time after rain, the air would 
 be forced out and the roots of the crop growing on the 
 land might be smothered. The ideal soil must, therefore, 
 be well drained, so that its pores will not long remain 
 filled with water even in wet weather. This means that 
 the subsoil must permit the surplus water to pass through 
 it rather easily. 
 
 Tiling. Soils over a subsoil containing too much clay 
 dry out slowly in spring, and after heavy rains. Such 
 soils may often be improved by draining, that is, by 
 providing ways for the surplus water to flow off. Ditches, 
 connecting with an outlet on lower ground, may be dug 
 through the land. Brick tubes called tiles are often 
 buried in such ditches, and the surplus water flows out 
 through these. (See Figure 16.) There are spaces between 
 the ends of the tiles, through which the water enters. 
 Sometimes brush or stones are used in place of tiles. Lands 
 thus drained are often among the best for farming. 
 
 Plant Food in Soil. We learned from Lesson 4 that, 
 with the exception of carbon, the food of plants comes from 
 the soil, and that it is dissolved in the soil water. If the 
 soil does not contain food enough, the plants can not 
 grow well, even though they have everything else that 
 they need. The ideal soil must have sufficient plant food 
 in a form that can dissolve in water to supply the needs of 
 crops grown upon it. In the next three lessons, we shall 
 learn about supplying the soil with plant food. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 
 
 i. Why must the soil be porous in order to make plants 
 grow?
 
 32 THE IDEAL SOIL 
 
 2. Why do the roots of most farm and garden crops 
 grow most rapidly just at the bottom of the layer of soil 
 that is turned over by the plow? 
 
 3. Name the most important kinds of soil. Collect 
 samples of each in your home locality. 
 
 4. Why do some soils need draining? How are soils 
 drained? 
 
 5. How does water enter drain tiles? 
 
 6. What kind of soil is most affected by a drought? 
 
 7. Tile drains near willow trees are often clogged by the 
 many roots that enter them. What do the roots seek? 
 
 8. What conditions make an ideal soil?
 
 7. HOW TO KEEP THE SOIL FERTILE. 
 
 Illustrative material: Two jars or dishes, rain water, well water, 
 two small pieces of gauze, and a few kernels of wheat. A small 
 sample each of nitrate of soda (Chile saltpeter), phosphoric acid, 
 and caustic potash, illustrating common forms in which these sub- 
 stances are used by plants. These substances may be purchased at 
 a drug store. 
 
 How to Make the Land Poor. If we dissolve an ounce 
 of sugar in a glass of water, and then dip out a teaspoon- 
 ful of the solution, of course we take out a part of the 
 sugar. We learned in Lesson 4 that plants take up soil 
 water containing dissolved mineral matters. Now, if 
 these plants are taken off the land on which they are 
 growing, the soil can not contain so much soluble mineral 
 matter as it contained before. If we continue to raise 
 crops on the land, and to take them off and sell them 
 without returning any soluble mineral matter to the soil, 
 the soil will soon become " poor," that is, there will 
 not remain enough of some mineral matters to feed plants 
 well. 
 
 Certain Food Required by Plants. When a painter 
 wishes to prepare some paint to match a particular shade 
 of color, he mixes a certain amount of paint of two or 
 more colors; if he uses a larger or a smaller quantity 
 of one of these colors, or if he adds another color he does 
 not get the tint he desires. It is just so when Mother 
 Nature builds up a wheat plant ; she uses certain amounts 
 of a definite number of materials from the soil, and can 
 
 G. & M. Ag. 3. ^
 
 34 
 
 HOW TO KEEP SOIL FERTILE 
 
 not vary these amounts much, nor can she use one ma- 
 terial instead of another. When the carpenters that are 
 building a house run out of nails, their work must stop 
 until more nails are provided; or, if they try to make 
 
 their nails hold out by 
 using less than the 
 usual number, the 
 house will not be strong 
 and may be blown 
 down by the first hard 
 wind. Just so, if one 
 of the soil materials 
 that go to make up a 
 plant runs short, the 
 plant must stop grow- 
 ing, or the growth 
 made will be unhealthy, 
 and the plant will fail 
 from disease. 
 
 Soil Water Holds 
 Plant Food Figure 
 17 shows some wheat 
 plants growing in wa- 
 ter in two jars. The 
 right-hand jar contains 
 rain water, and the left- 
 hand jar contains well 
 water, that is, water that has come out of the soil. 
 Rain water has almost nothing dissolved in it, because, 
 when water evaporates into the air, the dissolved ma- 
 terials it contained are left behind. In this experiment, 
 
 FIG. 17. Plants growing in water.
 
 HOW TO KEEP SOIL FERTILE 35 
 
 the water in both jars was boiled before being 1 put in. 
 The rain water was boiled to drive off the gases it had 
 taken from the air, and the well water was boiled to evap- 
 orate a part of the water and thus to make stronger the 
 solution of mineral matters it contained. From the 
 picture, we see that the plants in the jar containing 
 the well water are growing faster than those in the 
 other jar. This is because the well water contains 
 in solution the materials that the wheat plant needs for 
 food. The rain water, on the other hand, contains al- 
 most no food material. The only reason the plants can 
 grow in the rain water at all is that the seed contains a 
 small amount of food. When this food is used up, the 
 plants will soon starve. 
 
 Make-up of Rich Soil. Chemists have found that 
 certain quantities of about a dozen different materials 
 are used by plants for food. The one that is used in 
 largest proportion is carbon, and, as we learned in Lesson 
 4, this comes from the air. All the others come from the 
 soil. But of all the substances that come from the soil, 
 only three often run short; most soils contain a large 
 surplus of all the others. The three that often fail are 
 called nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. These are 
 the only substances, then, that the farmer or gardener 
 needs to put on his land often to keep it " rich," that 
 is, to give it all it needs to produce good crops ; and, since 
 of these nitrogen is most often lacking, it must be sup- 
 plied most generously to the soil. 
 
 Manure When plants of any kind grow on the land, 
 they take out of the soil what they need for food. If we 
 put these plants back on the land and let them decay,
 
 36 HOW TO KEEP SOIL FERTILE 
 
 they return to the soil the plant food they took from it in 
 growing. Almost all plant material, therefore, is good 
 to put on the ground to make it rich or fertile. Since 
 animals grow by eating plants, or by eating other animals 
 that grew by eating plants, most animal matter is also 
 good to fertilize the land. Manure, which is decaying 
 plant or animal matter from barnyards, stables, slaughter 
 houses, etc., is the most common material used to fertilize 
 the soil. 
 
 Wood Ashes. Wood ashes contain the mineral mat- 
 ters that the trees from which the wood was obtained 
 took from the soil when they grew. Wood ashes, there- 
 fore, are valuable for making the soil fertile. If they 
 have not been leached, that is, if they have not been 
 exposed to water, they contain much potash and some 
 phosphoric acid, but no nitrogen. If they have been 
 leached, the potash has been mostly washed out. 
 
 Commercial Fertilizers. In some parts of the world, 
 deposits are found that are rich in nitrogen, in phosphoric 
 acid, or in potash, and those materials are mined for fer- 
 tilizers of the soil. Some manufacturing establishments 
 have waste products that are useful as fertilizers. We 
 can, therefore, buy fertilizers in the market as we can buy 
 coal' or lime. But commercial fertilisers, as such fertiliz- 
 ers are called, are rarely so cheap or so good for the soil as 
 manure is, hence it is best for the farmer and gardener 
 to depend, as far as possible, on manure to enrich their 
 soil. 
 
 Applying Fertilizers. Farm manures give best results 
 when applied frequently in small amounts, not over eight 
 tons to the acre. Heavy applications of manure on soils
 
 HOW TO KEEP SOIL FERTILE 37 
 
 rich in organic matter often cause grains to lodge, or "go 
 down," badly. This is due to too much ready nitrogen, 
 which causes a rank growth. Manure never injures corn 
 by causing too rank a growth; and grains, such as wheat or 
 oats, may follow the corn the next year with little danger 
 of lodging. Most soils contain so great a supply of potash 
 that it can hardly be exhausted. Nitrogen can be replaced 
 by growing legumes. (See Chapter 9.) The phosphorus 
 supply, which is most apt to give out in average soils, can 
 be added most economically by using raw rock phosphate. 
 One ton of the rock phosphate to an acre will supply all 
 the phosphorus that the crops will need for more than ten 
 years. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 
 
 1. What do we mean when we say that a soil is "poor"? 
 
 2. What three substances are often lacking in soils? 
 
 3. What substances are supplied to the soil by adding 
 wood ashes? Which one is easily removed from wood ashes 
 by leaching? 
 
 4. Why do grain crops lodge on "rich" soils? 
 
 5. Which farmer will have the "richer" soil, the one 
 who grows grain and hay and sells them off the farm, or 
 the one who feeds these crops to cattle and places all the 
 manure upon the soil? 
 
 6. When manure is left exposed to rains, it loses about 
 one-half of its value in six months. On a farm in which 
 100 tons of manure is produced, what would be the conse- 
 quent loss, if the manure is worth $2.30 a ton? 
 
 234612
 
 8. HUMUS IN THE SOIL. 
 
 Illustrative material: A small quantity each of clay, sand, 
 and leaf mold. Swamp muck or dark-colored garden soil may 
 be substituted for the leaf mold, if the latter can not con- 
 veniently be obtained. 
 
 Humus Defined If we dig up the ground at the bot- 
 tom of a hollow in the woods where the leaves have gath- 
 ered and decayed for centuries, we find the soil there very 
 dark-colored and very porous. It is dark-colored be- 
 cause it consists almost entirely of humus, a substance 
 that is always formed where vegetable matter decays in 
 the soil. Humus is the vegetable or animal matter in 
 which the process of decay is well advanced, but not com- 
 plete. 
 
 Black Soil. The prairie lands of the United States are 
 very rich in humus, because the prairie grasses grew and 
 decayed on them for centuries before they were used for 
 farming. The soil of marshes is usually very dark-col- 
 ored, because, like the leaf mold of the woods, it consists 
 largely of humus. Whenever a farmer or gardener adds 
 vegetable or animal matter to his soil, and permits it to 
 decay there, he makes his soil richer in humus. The 
 more often a soil is manured with such matter, the darker 
 colored it is as a rule. 
 
 Humus Helps Growth of Plants Humus in the soil 
 helps the growth of plants in several ways : it enables the 
 soil to hold more water than it otherwise would ; it tends 
 
 38
 
 HUMUS IN THE SOIL 39 
 
 to prevent the surface of the soil from baking; it absorbs 
 ammonia (which contains nitrogen) from the air, and 
 thus aids in fertilizing the soil; it also serves to some 
 extent as plant food. 
 
 Cropping Land. When land is cropped year after year 
 without being manured, it loses much of its humus, as 
 well as much of its mineral plant food. Such a soil is 
 said to be " run down " and it rarely produces good crops. 
 It can be restored to a fertile condition only by the appli- 
 cation of the humus and the plant food that it lacks. 
 This may cost for a time as much as the crops from the 
 land are worth. It is, therefore, very unwise to crop 
 land long without restoring the humus and the plant food 
 that are removed in the crops. 
 
 The Best Fertilizer The best way for the farmer or 
 gardener to supply his land with humus is to use plenty 
 of stable or barnyard manure. Not only does this ma- 
 terial produce humus, but, in its early stages of decay, 
 it absorbs some water from the air, and, as this water 
 contains ammonia, it adds some nitrogen to the soil from 
 the air. It also tends to warm the soil, for it gives out 
 heat in decaying and also absorbs some heat from the air. 
 
 Plowing Crops Under. Another way of adding humus 
 to the soil is by plowing under unharvested crops, such 
 as clover, rye, turnips, or buckwheat. This is often a 
 cheaper way of supplying the soil with humus than put- 
 ting on stable manure, but, except in the case of clover 
 (Lesson 9), these crops do not add fertility to the soil, 
 because they take as much plant food out of the soil as 
 they return to it. They are, therefore, less valuable than 
 stable manure.
 
 40 HUMUS IN THE SOIL 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 
 
 1. What is humus? In what ways does humus improve 
 the soil? 
 
 2. What is the color of a soil that is rich in humus? 
 
 3. How can humus be added to the soil? What is the 
 best source of humus? 
 
 4. Why does a soil that has an abundance of humus 
 absorb more heat from the sun than a soil low in humus? 
 
 5. Under what conditions might it be profitable to plow 
 under a crop of rye as a green manure?
 
 9. HOW LEGUMES HELP THE FARMER. 
 
 Illustrative material: Plant not over one fourth of an inch 
 deep in moist garden soil in a fruit jar, two or three hundred 
 seeds of common red clover. Screw on the cap loosely, and 
 place the jar in a warm place.. When the plants are well grown, 
 fill the jar with water and let it stand until the soil is thoroughly 
 soaked; then gently draw the plants out so as to injure the roots 
 as little as possible. Pass the plants about the class, and let the 
 pupils find the swellings on the roots. 
 
 Clover a Fertilizer. Nearly every boy and girl knows 
 the clover plant, with its three (rarely four) oval leaflets 
 and its pretty red or white blossoms. They know, too, 
 that all farm animals are fond of clover, both fresh and 
 made into hay. The intelligent farmer knows that the 
 clover plant is valuable not only for pasture and hay, but 
 also as a fertilizer of the soil. 
 
 Clover Takes Nitrogen from the Air. Figure 18 
 shows a young clover plant. By looking closely at the 
 picture, we may see little swellings or knobs on the 
 larger roots. While these knobs, or tubercles, as they 
 are called, are not so pretty as the leaf or the flower, they 
 are full of interest to the educated farmer, for they serve 
 as minute laboratories for the manufacture of nitric acid 
 in the soil, and thus they supply the plant with nitrogen, 
 the most important kind of plant food. 
 
 Nitrates. The housekeeper can not make bread out of 
 unground wheat, however much she may have of it. The 
 grain must first be ground and sifted, arid then the fine 
 
 41
 
 HOW LEGUMES HELP THE FARMER 
 
 flour, when combined with yeast, will make good bread. 
 About four fifths of the air consists of nitrogen, but, just 
 as the unground wheat cannot be used for bread, so this 
 nitrogen can not be used directly by plants as food because 
 it is not in the right form. The nitrogen must first unite 
 
 with certain substances 
 in the soil and form what 
 are called nitrates before 
 the plant can use it for 
 food. 
 
 Surplus of Nitrates. 
 The little swellings on 
 the clover root serve as 
 houses in which live 
 swarms of minute beings 
 called bacteria that 
 change the nitrogen of 
 the air into nitrates. 
 These not only supply 
 the clover plant on which 
 they live with the ni- 
 trates it needs for food, 
 but they furnish more 
 than the plant needs, and 
 so make the soil more 
 Even if the 
 
 FIG. ,8.-Tubercles on clover roots. 
 
 farmer mows down the clover and uses it for hay, or if 
 his cattle eat it off, the soil will be richer in nitrates than 
 it was before the clover was planted. 
 
 Potash Needed The young clover plants begin to 
 supply nitrates to the soil when they have been growing
 
 HOW LEGUMES HELP THE FARMER 43 
 
 for a few days, and continue to do so as long as they 
 continue to grow. Clover does not, however, enrich the 
 soil with any kind of plant food except nitrates. If we 
 continue to grow clover on the land and to remove the 
 crop every year, the land is likely to become poor in pot- 
 ash and phosphoric acid, unless we add these to the soil. 
 Unleached wood ashes used on clover land would supply 
 all the food materials needed by the common farm crops. 
 
 Other Plants Similar to Clover Clover is not the 
 only plant that yields nitrates from the swellings on its 
 roots. A class of plants called legumes, such as peas, 
 beans, vetches, lentils, and alfalfa, do the same. Crops 
 that add nitrogen to the soil are often called nitrogen 
 gatherers. These crops are very useful to the farmer, be- 
 cause they supply the soil with the most important kind 
 of plant food, and thus, to some extent, they take the 
 place of manure, of which farmers are almost always 
 in need. 
 
 Alfalfa. Alfalfa can be grown in nearly all parts of 
 the country. It is particularly valuable in regions not well 
 supplied with water. The plant lives on from year to year 
 and makes bountiful crops of hay as well as permanent 
 pastures. Swellings or tubercles are found on the roots 
 of this plant as well as on the clover plant, and it enriches 
 the soil in the same way. 
 
 Cowpea. The cowpea is neither a pea nor a bean, 
 but resembles both plants in some ways. This plant is 
 sometimes called the great restorer because it restores the 
 fertility of the soil to a greater extent than any other 
 plant. It is a legume and is especially valuable in the 
 South, where it takes the place of clover.
 
 44 HOW LEGUMES HELP THE FARMER 
 
 Nitrogen Gatherers Make Rich Land. The farmer 
 should frequently grow clover, or some other nitrogen- 
 gathering crop, on his land. Land from which a crop is 
 harvested at midsummer, and which will not be needed 
 until the following spring, may often better be sown to 
 clover than left idle. As a rule, the farmers that grow 
 and feed the most clover have the most fertile farms. The 
 clover plant should be regarded as a symbol of good luck 
 to the farmer, whether it has three leaves or four. 
 
 Inoculating Soil for Legumes. When introducing some 
 of the legumes into a new field, it is often necessary to 
 inoculate the soil with the proper nitrogen-gathering bac- 
 teria. Soil for alfalfa may be inoculated by taking soil 
 from a successful alfalfa field and scattering it over the 
 new field. Each acre of the field to be inoculated should 
 receive 200 to 300 pounds of soil from the old alfalfa field. 
 After scattering the soil it should be harrowed into the 
 ground immediately to protect the bacteria from injury 
 by exposure to sunlight. The bacteria that form tubercles, 
 or nodules, on sweet clover will also form nodules on alfalfa. 
 Therefore, a field may be inoculated for alfalfa with soil 
 taken from around the roots of sweet clover. 
 
 Another method of inoculation is to spread dampened 
 alfalfa seed upon cloth, paper, or a cement floor and then 
 sift over the seed a small quantity of soil from a thriving 
 alfalfa field. The moistened seeds collect some of the soil 
 containing the proper bacteria. As soon as the seed becomes 
 dry, it should be sown. Inoculation of soil for alfalfa may 
 also be done by using pure cultures of the nitrogen-form- 
 ing bacteria. The alfalfa seed is moistened with the pure 
 culture and then sown. Bottles of pure cultures may be
 
 HOW LEGUMES HELP THE FARMER 
 
 45 
 
 obtained from the Department of Agriculture, Washington, 
 D. C. The directions for using accompany each bottle. 
 
 Acid Soils. Nitrogen-gathering bacteria do not grow 
 well in acid, or "sour," soils. Soil acidity, when very 
 marked, may be determined by means of blue litmus paper. 
 
 FIG. 19. Roots of soy bean, showing nodules. (From Farmers' Bulletin No. 214.) 
 
 This can be bought at a drug store. The soil is tested by 
 moistening a sample of it with water and placing a piece of 
 blue litmus paper in it for a few minutes. If the soil is 
 strongly acid, it will turn the litmus paper from blue to 
 red. To correct acidity in soil, ground limestone should be 
 applied at the rate of one to two tons to the acre. Some
 
 46 HOW LEGUMES HELP THE FARMER 
 
 soils may be slightly acid and not change blue litmus paper 
 red. Yet lime may be necessary for such soils. To 'find 
 this out, lime should be spread over a small area of the 
 field. If the legumes grow better on the limed piece, lime- 
 stone should be added to the whole field. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 
 
 1. What plants bear on their roots little tubercles or 
 nodules which serve as laboratories for the production of 
 nitrates in the soil? What name is given to this group of 
 plants? 
 
 2. Although legumes enrich the soil with nitrogen, they 
 remove what two important plant foods? 
 
 3. What plant foods are contained in wood ashes? 
 
 4. Corn grown on soil that grew clover the preceding 
 year is darker green and more vigorous than corn grown 
 on the same kind of soil that grew timothy the year before. 
 Account for this. 
 
 5. Examine the roots of red clover, sweet clover, alfalfa, 
 peas, beans, and other legumes. Do you find nodules on 
 each? Examine the roots of timothy and other grasses. 
 Do these roots have nodules? 
 
 6. In what ways can we inoculate a soil with the proper 
 bacteria for alfalfa? 
 
 7. Why should the transferred soil or the treated seed be 
 covered in the ground as soon as possible? 
 
 8. How can you tell when a soil is acid? 
 
 9. How can soil acidity be corrected?
 
 10. THE ROTATION OF CROPS. 
 
 Illustrative material: Reproduce Figures 20, 21, and 22 on the 
 blackboard, using different colored crayons to represent the 
 nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash. 
 
 Plant Foods Prepared Slowly. We learned in Lesson 
 8 that cropping the farm tends to make the soil " poor." 
 Another process, however, tends to keep the soil fertile 
 in spite of the cropping. We learned in Lesson 4 that 
 roots can take in plant food only as it is dissolved in 
 water. Most soils contain phosphoric acid and potash 
 that are not yet dissolved in water, and so are not in 
 condition to be used by plants. These undissolved food 
 materials are slowly dissolved by the action of carbon 
 dioxide in the soil; hence the soluble phosphoric acid and 
 potash tend to increase slowly in uncropped soils. Some 
 ammonia also is washed down from the atmosphere by 
 rains and snows, and this tends to increase the nitrogen 
 in the soil. But these influences do not, in themselves, 
 furnish enough plant food to produce a good crop every 
 year. 
 
 Rotation of Crops. Some products, as wheat and to- 
 bacco, remove much fertility from the soil; others, as 
 butter, remove very little. If we raise only those prod- 
 ucts that remove much fertility, our soil will, of course, 
 grow " poor " faster than if we grew a part of the time 
 those that remove only a little. In the latter case, the 
 fertility furnished by the soil and atmosphere may be 
 
 47
 
 4 8 
 
 THE ROTATION OF CROPS 
 
 more than the amount removed, even if no manure be 
 applied. Farmers have found it wise to make what is 
 called a " rotation of crops,"- that is, to change the crop 
 raised on a given field from year to year, rather than to 
 raise the same crop year after year. Without rotation, 
 certain fields on the farm would soon become too " poor " 
 to produce good crops, while others would have more 
 plant food than the crop needs. 
 
 Tobacco Raising Makes Land Poor In the pictures 
 shown in this lesson, the amounts of nitrogen, phosphoric 
 acid and potash removed from the soil by 1,000 pounds 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 ;pp 
 
 X"- 
 
 J< 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 * 
 
 in 
 
 J..W 
 
 1 
 
 wl 
 
 I 
 
 FIG. 2O. Showing the pounds of plant food removed by 1,000 pounds of Vir- 
 ginia leaf tobacco, and by 1,000 pounds of clover. 
 
 each of several different crops, are shown in pounds. 
 Each small square indicates one pound. From Figure 
 20 we learn that tobacco removes large amounts of nitro- 
 gen and potash. More than 8,000 pounds of average 
 barnyard manure would be required to furnish the nitro- 
 gen removed by 1,000 pounds of Virginia leaf tobacco. 
 Tobacco is, therefore, not a profitable crop to raise unless 
 it can be sold for a very high price. 
 
 Corn, Wheat, and Oats Require Nitrogen. From Fig- 
 ure 21 we learn that Indian corn, wheat, and oats remove
 
 THE ROTATION OF CROPS 
 
 49 
 
 nitrogen chiefly, but that they require far less of this 
 than does an equal weight of tobacco. We observe also 
 that Indian corn reduces the soil fertility less rapidly than 
 oats or wheat. One thousand pounds of average barn- 
 
 Indian Corn 
 
 W^eal 
 
 Oats 
 
 
 FIG. 21. Showing the amounts of the three important plant foods removed from 
 the soil by 1,000 pounds each of the grain of Indian corn, wheat, and oats. 
 
 yard manure contain about five pounds of nitrogen. 
 This enables us to compute the number of tons of barn- 
 yard manure required to furnish the nitrogen for 1,000 
 pounds of each of the grains named. 
 
 M;lk 
 
 Otrawberries 
 
 R 2 
 
 FIG. 22. Showing the amounts of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash removed 
 from the soil when 1,000 pounds each of beef, milk, butter, and strawberries 
 are sold. 
 
 Dairying Removes Little Fertility From Figure 22 
 
 we learn that beef removes about as much nitrogen, pound 
 for pound, as wheat, and more phosphoric acid. But 
 beef is worth two or three times as much per pound as 
 
 G. & M. Ag. 4.
 
 50 THE ROTATION OF CROPS 
 
 wheat, while the amount of beef sold from the land is 
 less than that of wheat. It is, therefore, usually more 
 profitable for the farmer to produce beef than wheat. 
 The plant food removed, the price in the market, and 
 the labor required to produce a crop, must all be consid- 
 ered in estimating the profits in raising it. It appears 
 from the picture that butter removes very little plant food 
 of any kind from the soil, while it is worth from ten to 
 twenty times as much per pound as wheat. The labor 
 required to produce butter is, however, much greater 
 than that required to produce wheat. 
 
 Cotton The cotton plant removes a large quantity 
 of fertilizing matter from the soil, but if the lint alone 
 were removed it would take but little from the soil. The 
 cotton seed is very rich in nitrogen and phosphoric acid 
 and if this is not returned to the soil the land soon be- 
 comes poor. 
 
 If the cotton seed is sold the land should be restored by 
 growing a crop of cowpeas, alfalfa, or crimson clover. 
 
 Rotation Suggested. The diagrams on pages 48 and 49 
 and Figure 18, suggest a rotation of crops for the farmer. 
 After raising for a time crops that remove much nitrogen, 
 as wheat, oats, Indian corn, or tobacco, it would be wise 
 to sow the land to clover or some other nitrogen-gathering 
 plant, and some kind of grass, and to feed the product to 
 cattle for two or more years. The legumes will enrich the 
 soil with nitrogen, while the small amounts of phosphoric 
 acid and potash removed by the milk, butter, or beef, will 
 enable the soil to become stocked with these plant foods 
 by the natural method described in the first paragraph of 
 this lesson.
 
 THE ROTATION OF CROPS 51 
 
 Practical Rotations. A good rotation alternates crops 
 from three classes. These classes are: (i) cultivated crops, 
 as corn and potatoes; (2) grain crops, such as wheat, oats, 
 and barley; (3) grass crops, including legumes. A three- 
 year rotation may be (i) corn, (2) oats, (3) clover. Where 
 corn is not grown a three-year rotation may be (i) potatoes, 
 (2) oats, (3) clover. A four-year rotation with corn may 
 be (i) corn, (2) grain, (3) hay, (4) pasture. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 
 
 1. What is the action of carbon dioxide in the soil upon 
 phosphoric acid and potash? 
 
 2. Name some farm products that remove but little 
 plant food from the soil. 
 
 3. Which plant food is removed most extensively from 
 the soil by grain crops? 
 
 4. How much phosphoric acid would be removed from 
 the soil of an acre in three years if the rotation is clover, 
 corn, and oats, and if 3,000 pounds of clover, 2,000 pounds 
 of corn, and 1,000 pounds of oats are removed? 
 
 5. How many tons of manure will it take to furnish this 
 phosphoric acid if one ton contains 5 pounds of this plant 
 food? If the crops are fed on the farm and the manure is 
 returned to the fields about one-half of the phosphoric acid 
 is returned. How may the rest be supplied? (See p. 37.) 
 
 6. From what three classes of crops are rotations made? 
 
 7. Make out a four-year rotation for a farm in your neigh- 
 borhood. 
 
 8. One farmer sells grain and hay from his farm every 
 year. Compare the fertility of this farm with that of one 
 from which live stock and dairy products are sold.
 
 11. SAVING SOIL MOISTURE. 
 
 Illustrative material: Two lamp chimneys, a pan, fine soil 
 and coarse soil. 
 
 Save Moisture in Soil. We learned in Lesson 2 that 
 water passes off the surface of the soil by evaporation, 
 and that other water comes from below to take its place. 
 We also learned in Lesson 3 that plants take large 
 amounts of water from the soil, and that few field crops 
 receive as much water as they need in summer. With 
 the proper knowledge, the farmer and the gardener may 
 do much to prevent the useless loss of moisture from the 
 soil in dry weather. 
 
 Manure to Make Humus We learned in Lesson 8 
 that the presence of humus enables the soil to hold more 
 water. A soil that contains plenty of humus catches 
 more water when it rains than one that contains little 
 humus. It holds the water longer in dry weather. One 
 of the best ways to retain moisture in the soil is to use 
 plenty of barnyard and stable manure, and thus keep the 
 soil full of humus. Commercial fertilizers do not, to 
 any great extent, help the soil to retain water. 
 
 Coarse and Fine Soil Compared. In the experiment 
 shown in Figure 23, the two lamp chimneys were filled 
 to the dotted line with dry soil that had been sifted 
 through a flour sieve. Enough of the soil that would 
 not pass through the sieve was then added to the left 
 chimney to raise the soil to the same height as that in 
 
 52
 
 SAVING SOIL MOISTURE 
 
 53 
 
 the other. A little water was then added to the pan. 
 The water rose through the soil by capillary attraction at 
 about the same rate in both chimneys until it reached the 
 coarse soil in the left one. It continued to rise to the top 
 of the soil in the right-hand chimney, but was "held back 
 several hours by the coarse soil at the top of the left one. 
 Soil Mulch. This experiment shows that, if the surface 
 of the land is covered with an inch or two in depth of dry, 
 
 Fig. 23. Effect of pulverizing soil. 
 
 crumbled soil, the water will rise through this layer much 
 more slowly than through the soil below. Since evapora- 
 tion occurs almost entirely at the surface of the soil, 
 this crumbled layer greatly hinders evaporation, the water 
 thus being saved for growth. This crumbled layer, which 
 is called a soil mulch, is formed by passing over the ground
 
 54 SAVING SOIL MOISTURE 
 
 with a cultivator. In the garden, it may be formed with 
 the hoe or rake. A hard rain storm compacts the soil more 
 or less, hence the crumbling should be repeated after every 
 such storm. 
 
 Other Mulches. When the surface of the soil can not 
 be easily cultivated, as in closely-planted orchards, evapor- 
 ation may be reduced by covering with a layer of straw, 
 leaves, shavings, tan bark or manure. These materials 
 act like crumbled soil to hinder the passage of soil water to 
 the surface. Trees usually grow much faster on land that 
 is cultivated or mulched than on that covered with a 
 growing crop, because their roots are better supplied with 
 water. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 
 
 1. What effect does manure have upon the amount of 
 soil moisture? 
 
 2. What is a soil mulch? 
 
 3. Explain how a soil mulch saves moisture for the crops. 
 
 4. How is a soil mulch formed? When is it necessary 
 to renew a soil mulch? 
 
 5. For what crops in your home locality do the farmers 
 make a soil mulch? 
 
 6. Add equal weights of the same kind of soil to two tin 
 pails. Moisten the soil of each by adding equal volumes 
 of water. Do not make the soil too wet. Leave untouched 
 the soil in one pail. With a table fork pulverize the soil 
 in the other pail until a mulch of loose, dry soil is formed. 
 Keep both pails in a dry place for five or six days. At the 
 end of that time examine the moisture in each. Which has 
 the more soil moisture?
 
 12. THE PARASITES OF PLANTS. 
 
 Illustrative material: Portions of a plant that are being in- 
 jured by an insect or a fungous disease. A blighted twig from 
 an apple or pear tree, a scabby apple or potato, or a smutted 
 head of grain will illustrate the latter. 
 
 The Potato Beetle. Nearly every American boy and 
 girl has seen the potato beetle. (Figure 24.) This is 
 an insect that feeds on 
 the leaves of the potato 
 plant. The potato 
 beetle is a parasite of 
 the potato plant. There 
 are also very small 
 plants that sometimes 
 grow within and be- 
 tween the cells of the 
 potato plant, causing 
 the leaves to die, and 
 the tubers to rot. Any 
 
 animal Or plant that Fi* 24-- Potato beeUes. larva, and eggs. 
 
 lives in or within a larger animal or plant, feeding 
 upon its substance, is called a parasite. The plants 
 that live upon or within animals or other plants mostly 
 belong to the class known as fungi. A single plant of 
 this, class is called a fungus, and parasites of this class 
 are called fungous parasites. Parasites are generally 
 harmful to the plants or animals on which they live. 
 Poison for the Potato Beetle. We learned in Lesson 
 
 55
 
 56 THE PARASITES OF PLANTS 
 
 4 that the food for the living cells of plants is mostly 
 formed in the leaves, and that whatever destroys the 
 leaves cuts off a part of the food supply of the plant. 
 Every American farmer knows that he must destroy the 
 potato beetle or it will nearly destroy his potato crop. 
 Since the potato beetle eats the leaves, by putting poison 
 on the leaves we can poison the beetle. For this purpose, 
 a deadly poison called Paris green is much used. One 
 ounce of Paris green may be stirred into twelve gallons 
 of water, and the mixture sprinkled on the plants. Or 
 an ounce of Paris green may be well mixed with nine 
 pounds of land plaster and the mixture dusted on the 
 plants. Most other insects that eat the leaves of plants 
 may be destroyed in the same way as the potato beetle. 
 Plant Lice. Those who have the care of house plants 
 have seen a small green insect on the under side of the 
 leaves. This insect, commonly called 
 the green fly or the plant louse ( Figure 
 25), does not eat the leaves as the po- 
 tato beetle does. And yet it injures 
 the plants on which it lives. It does 
 this by sucking out the sap, thus rob- 
 bing the cells of water and food. Since 
 it does not eat the leaves, we can not 
 
 FIG. 25. Plant louse. . 
 
 poison it by poisoning the leaves, as in 
 the case of the potato beetle. To destroy the green fly 
 and other sucking insects, use some substance that pre- 
 vents their breathing. Strong soap suds, tobacco water, 
 or kerosene emulsion, sprayed on this class of insects, 
 usually destroys them. (See page 254.) In greenhouses, 
 tobacco smoke is much used for the green fly.
 
 THE PARASITES OF PLANTS 
 
 57 
 
 Fungous Parasites. The fungous parasites are often 
 quite as harmful as injurious insects. The blight of the 
 pear tree, the smutted heads of 
 grain (Figure 26), the rotting 
 plums and cherries on the 
 trees and grapes on the vines, 
 are examples of plant diseases 
 due to injurious fungi. We 
 have learned to prevent some 
 of the injuries caused by 
 fungi. It is usually important 
 to apply our preventive before 
 the disease appears, otherwise 
 it may come too late to be 
 helpful. An ounce of preven- 
 tion is worth a pound of cure. 
 
 Bordeaux Mixture. To pre- 
 vent harmful fungi, the so- 
 called "Bordeaux mixture" 
 is most used. To make this, 
 put five gallons of water into a 
 
 wooden vessel holding at least twelve gallons, and in 
 this water hang a cloth sack containing one pound of 
 copper sulfate (also called bluestone and blue vitriol). 
 (Figure 27.) In another wooden vessel, slack one pound 
 of fresh quicklime in five gallons of water. When the 
 copper sulfate has all dissolved, and the lime has all 
 slacked, stir up the lime and water and strain the mixture 
 slowly through a coarse cloth into the copper sulfate solu- 
 tion. The coarse part that will not go through the cloth 
 may be thrown away. The mixture is best put on the 
 
 FIG. 26. Heads of oats affected 
 with smut. Reduced one-half.
 
 THE PARASITES OF PLANTS 
 
 plants with a spraying pump. (See page 253.) (Copper 
 sulfate is poisonous, although less so than Paris green.) 
 
 Oat Smut and Wheat Smut The oat smut or wheat 
 smut attacks the plant if the seed that is planted is 
 smutty. To prevent this, it is necessary to destroy the 
 smut fungi on the seed before planting. The best rem- 
 edy for this disease is formaldehyde. This is a chemical 
 that may be purchased at the drug store. One pound 
 of formaldehyde to fifty gallons of water will give the 
 proper strength. Soak the grain in this chemical for 
 
 about twenty minutes, 
 and then spread it out 
 so that it may dry with- 
 out heating. 
 
 It is probable that 
 farmers suffer a loss of 
 fully one-fifth of their 
 pats and wheat through 
 the growth of smut on 
 the grain. This loss 
 
 FIG. 27- Making Bordeaux mixture. may be entirely pre _ 
 
 vented by the use of formaldehyde as directed. The 
 same treatment will prevent potato scab. (See page 255.) 
 
 Parasites are Numerous. The harmful parasites of 
 plants are so numerous that we can not name them all 
 here. The methods used for destroying or preventing 
 insects and fungi are also numerous. The farmer and 
 the gardener may obtain books that name the leading 
 parasites that injure each crop, and that give the best 
 known methods of avoiding damage from them. It is 
 necessary to keep careful watch for harmful parasites,
 
 THE PARASITES OF PLANTS 59 
 
 otherwise they may do much harm before their presence 
 is discovered. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 
 
 1. What is a parasite? 
 
 2. How does the potato beetle injure the potato plant? 
 
 3. How may insects that eat leaves be destroyed? 
 
 4. In what way are sucking insects killed? 
 
 5. Tell how to make Bordeaux mixture. 
 
 6. How may oat smut be prevented? Potato scab? 
 
 7. Describe some spraying operation that you have 
 seen. Tell what was the spraying liquid, the method of 
 spraying, and the purpose.
 
 13. SEEDS CAN NOT GERMINATE WITHOUT 
 
 AIR. 
 
 Illustrative material: Two shallow dishes or saucers, two 
 tumblers, and a few grains of wheat. 
 
 Half fill two wide-mouthed bottles or two jelly cups with soil 
 that is wet enough to be easily worked up in the hands like soft 
 putty. Pack the soil in one of the dishes until the air is well 
 pressed out of it, adding enough soil to make the dish half full 
 when packed. Leave the soil loose in the other dish. Put a 
 few wheat grains on the surface of the soil in each dish and 
 cover these to the depth of about a quarter of an inch in the 
 dish with the soil unpacked and with packed soil in the other 
 dish. Close both dishes and put them in a warm place. 
 
 Air Necessary for Germination Figure 28 shows 
 two shallow dishes, in each of which kernels of wheat 
 
 were placed. Enough 
 water was then added 
 to the right-hand dish 
 to cover the kernels to 
 about half their depth, 
 and to the. left-hand 
 dish to cover them to 
 twice their depth. The 
 Vtf . pa . c dishes were then set in 
 
 riG. 28. Effect of air on seeds. 
 
 a warm room and cov- 
 ered with tumblers to prevent evaporation of the water. 
 After two days, the kernels in the right-hand dish had 
 germinated, while none of those in the left-hand dish 
 had done so. Why did not the kernels in the left-hand 
 
 60
 
 SEEDS CAN NOT GERMINATE WITHOUT AIR 6l 
 
 dish germinate? They were in contact with water in 
 both dishes, and both dishes were kept in a warm 
 room. In the right-hand dish, however, the kernels 
 were in contact with plenty of air, while in the other 
 dish most of the air was shut out. We all know that 
 seeds will not germinate so long as they are dry, and that, 
 even though they have plenty of water, they will not ger- 
 minate in a very cold place. But this experiment shows 
 that, although wheat seeds may have plenty of -water and 
 warmth, they will not germinate unless they also have 
 plenty of air. The same is true of most of the seeds com- 
 monly planted on the farm or in the garden. 
 
 Some Seeds Contain Air. The seeds of some plants 
 that grow in water, as the water lily and rice, and of a few 
 land plants, as Indian corn, may germinate under water. 
 Dry seeds usually contain pores that are filled with air, 
 and water also usually contains some air. These seeds 
 are able to get enough air from their pores and from the 
 water, to enable them to germinate. If they are soaked 
 for a time in cold water to expel the air within them, 
 and are then sealed up in a fruit jar of water from which 
 the air has been expelled by long boiling, they can not 
 germinate. No seeds can germinate without access to air. 
 
 Packed Soil Does Not Admit Air. In the experiment 
 shown in Figure 29, a few radish seeds were planted in 
 soil that was wet enough to be easily worked up in the 
 hands, like soft putty. The soil was then packed down 
 closely around the seeds in one of the dishes, and left 
 loose in the other. We now see that the radish seeds have 
 germinated in the loose soil, while they have germinated 
 very poorly, if at all, in the packed soil. They failed to
 
 62 
 
 SEEDS CAN NOT GERMINATE WITHOUT AIR 
 
 germinate in the packed soil because the air was largely 
 shut out by the too wet and too closely packed soil. 
 
 Wet Clayey Soil 
 Excludes Air. 
 Clayey soil so wet 
 that, with slight pres- 
 sure, it becomes like 
 soft putty, is too wet 
 to plant seeds in. Al- 
 though the seeds can 
 absorb water rapidly 
 from such a soil, they 
 rarely germinate well 
 in it, for, if it is left 
 loose over the seeds, it 
 dries out quickly, and, 
 
 if it is packed around 
 
 FIG. 29. Roots need air. them, it shuts OUt tOO 
 
 much air. Planted seeds should not be watered so often 
 as to keep the spaces in the soil filled with water. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Why did not the grains of wheat germinate under 
 water? 
 
 2. Name some kinds of seeds that germinate under water. 
 From where do they get the air? 
 
 3. Name three things necessary for germination. 
 
 4. Seeds germinate most quickly in a moist, warm, sandy 
 soil. Why will they not germinate so quickly in a moist, 
 warm, clay soil?
 
 14. PACKING THE SOIL ABOUT PLANTED 
 SEEDS. 
 
 Illustrative material: Place an inch or more of damp garden 
 soil in each of two pint fruit jars, and put twenty navy beans on 
 the soil in each jar. Cover them to the depth of about two 
 inches with the soil, packing it down firmly in one jar, and 
 leaving it as loose as possible in the other. Screw the caps on 
 loosely on both jars, and place them in a warm place. 
 
 Packing Loam About Seeds. If we plant a few live 
 navy beans in damp (not wet) garden soil in each of two 
 jars, and then pack the soil down closely around the beans 
 in one of the jars, leaving it as loose as possible in the 
 other, and set both jars in a warm room for two days, we 
 shall generally find that a larger number of the beans have 
 germinated in the jar in which the soil was packed than 
 in the other jar. 
 
 Absorb Water Faster. When we press the soil closely 
 about seeds, the seeds absorb water and swell faster than 
 if we leave them loose. The seeds can not germinate until 
 they have taken up all the water they can hold. Since 
 packing the soil about them enables them to absorb water 
 faster, it also enables them to germinate sooner, if the soil 
 is not too wet. 
 
 Field Illustration.. Figure 30 shows a picture of a 
 part of a recently planted grain field. This field was 
 sown by hand, and then harrowed to cover the seed. 
 Wherever the man that drove the team stepped, the grain 
 
 63
 
 64 PACKING THE SOIL ABOUT PLANTED SEEDS 
 
 has come up better than elsewhere, because the man's 
 weight pressed the soil closely about the seed. Farmers 
 and gardeners have often noticed this fact, and so they 
 have devised various means for packing the soil over 
 planted seeds. 
 
 Testimony of a Gardener. Gardeners often walk with 
 very short steps over a row of planted seeds, placing the 
 heel of one foot against the toe of the other, so as to step 
 on every part of the row. A very successful gardener 
 once wrote, "As an experiment, I sowed twelve rows of 
 ..... ...-.-> . . sweet corn and 
 
 twelve rows of 
 beets, treading in, 
 after sowing, every 
 alternate row of 
 each. In both cases, 
 those trodden in 
 
 ~ + '..'* " 
 
 FIG. 30. Effect of pressing the earth closely Came Up Ul four 
 
 days, while those 
 
 unfirmed remained twelve days before starting, and 
 would not then have germinated had not rain fallen." 
 
 Rollers. When farmers plant corn with the hand hoe, 
 they commonly strike the soil with the flat side of the hoe, 
 or often they step on each "hill" after covering it, to 
 press the soil about the seed. When grain is sown in dry 
 weather, a heavy roller is commonly driven over the land 
 to pack the soil about the seed. The heavy split wheels of 
 the ordinary cornplanter serve as rollers. Grain sowing 
 machines, and cornplanters, often have little iron rollers 
 attached to them to press the soil over the seed. Gardeners 
 often use hand rollers for this purpose.
 
 PACKING THE SOIL ABOUT PLANTED SEEDS 65 
 
 Pressing with a Board. Very small seeds, as those 
 of tobacco and petunia plants, are often sown on the sur- 
 face of the ground without being afterward covered with 
 soil. In such cases, the sower commonly lays over them 
 a board on which he walks, to press the soil, and to bring 
 the seed into very close contact with it. 
 
 Evaporation Makes Packing Necessary If the soil 
 were always damp on the surface, it would not be neces- 
 sary to pack it over the seed. But, since the surface tends 
 to dry out by evaporation to the depth of an inch or two, 
 planted seeds need to absorb their water quickly in dry 
 weather, or the soil may become so dry about them that 
 they can not secure enough water for germination. In 
 this case, the seeds must wait until rain comes, or until 
 watered, and thus the crop will be delayed or it may be 
 entirely cut off. Thus, the simple act of pressing the 
 soil about the planted seeds will sometimes save a valu- 
 able crop that would otherwise be lost. 
 
 Plant Soon after Plowing When ground is plowed 
 in dry weather, the dry surface soil is turned under, and 
 the more moist soil from below is brought to the top. If 
 seeds are planted at once in this moist top soil, and the 
 soil is well pressed about them, they wilt almost always 
 germinate before the surface becomes too dry, even in 
 time of rather severe drought. It is important in dry 
 weather, therefore, to plant seeds as soon as possible 
 after the ground is plowed and prepared. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 
 
 i. Why do seeds germinate sooner in a soil that is slightly 
 
 moist when it is packed closely about them? 
 G. & M. A g . s.
 
 66 PACKING THE SOIL ABOUT PLANTED SEEDS 
 
 2. Under what conditions should a roller be used after 
 planting seed? 
 
 3. When a lawn is started, the seeds are scattered on the 
 surface of the ground and the soil is rolled several times. 
 How does rolling help the germination of grass seed? 
 
 4. If a board is left lying flat on a new-seeded lawn, the 
 seeds in dry weather will germinate faster under it than in 
 other places. Why?
 
 15. SEED TESTING. 
 
 Illustrative material: Procure an ounce of clover seed and as 
 many small patty pans as there are pupils. Put 100 seeds of 
 red or white clover in the seed tester. Put in enough seeds of 
 oats, barley, Indian corn, peas, beans, and cucumber or melon 
 to supply each pupil with at least four of each kind. 
 
 Before taking up the lesson, remove the cover of the seed 
 tester, and the upper cloth, and pass the open tester about the 
 class, after which remove, with a forceps, the clover seeds that 
 have failed to germinate, leaving all the other seeds. Count the 
 ungerminated clover seeds, and let the pupils subtract the num- 
 ber from 100. Explain what is meant by the per cent of 
 germination; i. e., the number of seeds per hundred that will 
 germinate. 
 
 At the close of the lesson, give each pupil a thimbleful of commercial 
 clover seed in a patty pan. Require each pupil to separate the seed from 
 the impurities. Estimate the relative amounts of each. Of what do the 
 impurities consist? 
 
 Use of Seed Tester. We learned in Lessons 13 and 14 
 the soil conditions that are necessary for the germination 
 of seeds. We now learn that seeds of various kinds ger- 
 minate as freely in the seed tester as when planted in moist 
 soil. By means of the seed tester, we can easily find out, 
 before we plant them,- whether or not a sample of seeds can 
 germinate. 
 
 Age Affects Germination Not all seeds can ger- 
 minate, even though they appear all right outside. Seeds 
 germinate less freely as they become old, and after a 
 certain age they lose their power to germinate. Some 
 kinds of seeds retain their power to germinate much 
 
 longer than others. 
 
 67
 
 68 
 
 SEED TESTING 
 
 Other Causes Affecting Germination Seeds may fail 
 to germinate from other causes than old age. Some- 
 times they are sorted when too damp, and so become 
 musty ; such seeds often fail to germinate. In the pump- 
 kin, cucumber, and certain other plants, the seed shells 
 are sometimes empty. Seeds of Indian corn sometimes 
 freeze before they become dry, and so lose their vitality. 
 
 1yr. 
 
 SOY BEAN 
 
 HOP 
 
 INDIAN CORN 
 ONION 
 PARSNIP 
 
 2 yrs. 
 
 LEEK 
 
 PARSLEY 
 
 PEA 
 
 RHUBARB 
 STRAWBERRY 
 
 3 yrs. 
 
 CARROT 
 
 LENTILS 
 
 MUSTARD 
 TOMATO 
 
 yrs. 
 
 ASPARAGUS GARDEN AND MUSKMELON 
 
 GUMBO 
 LETTUCE 
 
 5 yrs. 
 
 BEAN 
 
 EGG PLANT 
 WATERMELON 
 
 PUMPKIN 
 SQUASH 
 
 o yrs. 
 
 10 yrs. 
 
 ENDIVE 
 CUCUMBER 
 
 OATS 
 BARLEY 
 WHEAT 
 
 FLAX 
 BUCKWHEAT 
 
 FIG. 31. Showing the average number of years that the seeds named retain 
 their power to germinate, under ordinary conditions. 
 
 For these reasons, it is best to test seeds before planting 
 them, unless we know that they will germinate. 
 
 How to Make and Use a Seed Tester A seed tester 
 for use at home may be made of two table plates, and 
 two circular pieces of thick cloth large enough to cover 
 the bottom of the plates. Put the cloths in boiling water 
 for a few minutes before using them, to kill the spores
 
 SEED TESTING 69 
 
 of fungi they may contain. Wring them out until 
 only moderately wet, spread one over the bottom of one 
 of the plates, and put 100 of the seeds to be tested upon 
 it. Cover these with the other cloth, and place the second 
 plate on the one containing the seeds, taking care that the 
 rims are together. Set the tester in a warm room. Look 
 at the seeds from time to time and remove all that have 
 germinated. When all seem to have germinated that 
 will, subtract the number that failed to germinate from 
 100. The remainder will show the per cent of live seeds 
 the sample contains. Boil the cloths again before using 
 them for a second test. 
 
 Importance of Testing Clover Seed Before Purchasing. 
 As we have learned, the clover crop is a very impor- 
 tant one to the farmer in many countries. Most farmers 
 need to buy their clover seed, and it is generally pretty 
 high in price. It is important, therefore, to test clover 
 seed before buying it. It is well to procure several dif- 
 ferent samples from the seed store, noting the price at 
 which each can be purchased. Some of these samples 
 will probably contain more dirt, sticks and weed seeds 
 than others, and in some the clover seeds will germinate 
 better than others. The best sample to buy will be the 
 one that gives the largest quantity of live clover seeds for 
 the lowest price. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Why should seeds be tested before planting? 
 
 2. Tell how to make and use a seed tester. 
 
 3. What kinds of seeds should be tested before they are 
 bought?
 
 7<D SEED TESTING 
 
 4. Name some seeds that are too old to germinate well 
 after two years. Name some that are good after six years. 
 
 5. One sample of clover seed costs 14 cents a pound, and 
 another costs 16 cents a pound. A farmer tests both for 
 germination and finds that the cheaper seed tests 75 per 
 cent, and the higher priced seed tests 95 per cent germina- 
 tion. Which sample would he buy in order to get the most 
 live clover seeds for a given sum of money?
 
 16. HOW SEEDS " COME UP." 
 
 Illustrative material: Four glass jars, garden soil, and seeds 
 of wheat, radish, pea and bean. 
 
 Planting the Seeds. Figure 32 shows four fruit jars, 
 each of which contains a different kind of plant. About 
 two inches in depth of moist garden soil was put into each 
 jar. Ten kernels of wheat were then placed on the soil 
 in jar No. i, ten seeds of radish in jar No. 2, ten seeds 
 of pea in jar No. 3, and ten seeds of navy bean in jar 
 No. 4. The seeds in all the jars were then covered about 
 
 FIG. 32. Experiment with seeds. 
 
 an inch deep with moist soil, after which the jars were 
 closed and set in a warm room. 
 
 Wheat and Radish Plantlets The seeds have now 
 germinated, and the plantlets have just come up, that 
 is, they have just appeared above the surface of the soil. 
 We may see that the plantlets are acting quite differently 
 in the different jars. In jar No. I, the blades of wheat 
 
 71
 
 72 HOW SEEDS COME UP 
 
 have reached the surface with very little disturbance of 
 the soil. In jar No. 2, the radish plantlets seem to have 
 had a harder time in coming up. Their clumsy seed 
 leaves have lifted and moved the soil in places, and left it 
 in slight ridges. 
 
 The Pea Plantlets. The pea plantlets, in jar No. 3, 
 seem to have behaved more like those of the wheat. 
 Each appears first as a slender stem to which tiny leaves 
 are attached, and this stem seems to have found its way 
 among the soil psjticles without moving them much. 
 There are no thick, clumsy seed leaves, as in the radish, 
 although its stem is much thicker than that of the wheat 
 and quite different from it in appearance. 
 
 The Bean Plantlets The plantlets of the bean seem 
 to have had the hardest time of all in reaching the sur- 
 face. Instead of sending up slender steins, like the peas, 
 or thin blades, like the wheat, the now greatly swollen 
 beans seem to have been lifted bodily out of the soil, while 
 the earth was lifted to make way for them. The plant- 
 'lets seem to have come up back foremost, with the tops 
 pointing downward and the beans seem to have divided 
 into halves. A little later the stems straighten up and 
 the halves spread apart, each half becoming a very clumsy 
 seed leaf, a little like that of the radish, but much larger. 
 
 Two Types. The different ways in which these plant- 
 lets reached the surface illustrate two types. The wheat 
 and pea belong to one type, in which the plantlet grows 
 directly upward, without being hindered by clumsy seed 
 leaves. The seeds of such plants may be rather deeply 
 planted, and still their stems will be able to reach the 
 surface. The radish and bean belong to the other type,
 
 HOW SEEDS " COME UP " 73 
 
 in which the greater part of what was once the seed is 
 forced up through the soil, and appears above the surface. 
 If the seeds of such plants are planted deeper than four 
 or five times their thickness, the plantlets will be unable to 
 lift the soil above them, and so can not come up at all. 
 To this class of plants belong, besides the bean and radish, 
 the beet, parsnip, carrot, squash, cucumber, melon, clover, 
 buckwheat, and, in fact, almost all the common farm and 
 garden crops, except plants of the pea family and of the 
 grass family. 
 
 Rule for Depth of Planting. The following rule may 
 be safely followed for the seeds commonly planted on the 
 farm and in the garden: Seeds of plants that come up 
 without thick seed leaves, as Indian corn, wheat, rye, 
 oats, barley, millet and other grasses, peas, lentils,' and 
 vetches, may be safely covered to ten times their thickness. 
 Other seeds should not be covered more than five times 
 their thickness. As a rule, no seeds should be covered 
 deeper than is needful to insure a supply of soil moisture. 
 It is often desirable to sow a crop in the orchard in sum- 
 mer, when the soil is rather dry; for this purpose, it is 
 important to choose one the seed of which may be deeply 
 planted. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Name several plants that, in germinating, carry the 
 seed -leaves above the ground. Name several plants that, 
 in germinating, send up slender stems. 
 
 2. Give the rule for depth of planting for these two types 
 of plants.
 
 74 HOW SEEDS "COME UP" 
 
 3. How do onions come up through the soil? To which 
 type of plants does the onion belong? 
 
 4. What is the chief condition of the soil that guides us 
 in depth of planting? 
 
 5. Quack grass has so strong a growing point in the soil 
 that it has been found to pierce a potato in the ground. 
 Why does this make it a particularly harmful weed?
 
 17. IT IS WISE TO PLANT THE LARGEST SEEDS. 
 
 Illustrative material: Three jars, soil, a few beans and clover 
 seeds. 
 
 Small Seeds Not Strong A few navy beans were 
 planted an inch deep in jar No. i ; a few clover seeds were 
 planted the same depth in jar No. 2; and a few clover 
 seeds were planted a quarter of an inch deep in jar No. 3. 
 
 123 
 
 FIG. 33. Experiment with beans and clover seed. 
 
 As appears in Figure 33 the plantlets from the clover 
 planted a quarter of an inch deep and from the beans 
 have come up well, while those from the clover planted 
 an inch deep have not. 
 
 Large Seeds are Strong Every perfect seed contains 
 a plantlet, and some food to nourish the plantlet during 
 germination. (See Figure 34.) The larger the seed is, 
 
 75
 
 IT IS WISE TO PLANT THE LARGEST SEEDS 
 
 FIG. 34. Diagram of a seed. 
 
 as. a rule, the stronger is the plantlet, and the more plenti- 
 ful is its food supply. This is true of different seeds of 
 
 the same kind as of different kinds 
 of seed. The bean plantlets 
 in Figure 33 were able to come 
 up through an inch of soil be- 
 cause they were well supplied with 
 food and were strong. The 
 clover seeds, as compared with the 
 beans, are very small, and the 
 clover plantlets, as compared with 
 the bean plantlets, are very weak. 
 The clover plantlets were unable 
 to force their way through an 
 inch of soil, but, as we see by look- 
 ing at jar No. 3, they can grow through a quarter inch 
 of soil. As a rule, the larger a seed is. the deeper it may 
 be covered in planting. Like all rules, however, this is 
 subject to exceptions. 
 
 Planting Very Small Seeds. As we learned from the 
 last lesson, plantlets that bring up thick seed leaves to the 
 surface can not grow through so much soil as those that 
 do not. It follows that the small-seeded plants whose 
 plantlets bring up their seed leaves must have their seeds 
 planted in the least depth of soil of all. The clover plant 
 belongs to this class, hence clover seed must be planted 
 very shallow, or the plants will not come up well. The 
 seeds of tobacco and petunia are much smaller than clover 
 seed, and they lift their seed leaves in coming up. It is 
 unwise to cover the seeds of these plants at all. As we 
 learned in Lesson 14, they are commonly sown on the
 
 IT IS WISE TO PLANT THE LARGEST SEEDS 77 
 
 surface and pressed into the soil, the surface being kept 
 moist by frequent watering. 
 
 Profit in Planting the Largest Seeds. Gardeners who 
 grow radishes and lettuce under glass for the winter mar- 
 ket find that, when they sift their seed and plant only the 
 largest, their crops mature so much more evenly than 
 when they sow the seeds without sifting, that the plants 
 become fit to sell several days earlier. It is sometimes 
 possible to grow one extra crop in the winter in this way. 
 
 Reject Poorly-formed Seeds. Farmers pass their seed 
 grain through a fanning mill, to take out the smallest and 
 most shrunken kernels. Many reject the smaller kernels 
 from the tip ends of their ears of seed corn. By growing 
 their crops from the largest seeds, they secure a larger 
 yield of grain than they would if they planted the seeds 
 without sifting. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Every perfect seed is made up of what two things? 
 
 2. Why should clover seed be planted very shallow? 
 
 3. Why do farmers pass their seed grain through a 
 fanning mill? 
 
 4. What is the advantage to the gardener of planting 
 only the largest seeds? 
 
 5. Pick out all the largest seeds in a sample of radish 
 seeds and plant them in one row. Plant the small radish 
 seeds in another row. Which row first produced radishes 
 large enough to eat?
 
 18. REARING PLANTS FROM BUDS. 
 
 Illustrative material: A potato tuber, cuttings of the currant 
 or grape vine, a cion and a small branch of the apple tree, and 
 a bit of grafting cloth. 
 
 Roots Come from Buds. We have now learned how 
 to rear young plants by planting their seeds. Many kinds 
 of plants may also be reared from buds. Some kinds are 
 reared from buds more often than from seeds. We 
 
 FIG. 35. A layer. 
 
 learned in Lesson 5 that every live part of a stem ter- 
 minates in a bud. In many plants, a bud, with a certain 
 part of the stem beneath it, if kept for a time in a favor- 
 able place, will form roots of its own, and thus will be- 
 come a new plant. Pieces of the roots of some plants, 
 as the plum and cherry, if given a good chance, may also 
 form buds on each piece, which will develop in due time 
 into leafy stems. 
 
 Layering. One of the simplest ways of rearing plants 
 is by layering. Without being cut off, one or more 
 branches of a plant are covered with soil. Sometimes the 
 
 78
 
 REARING PLANTS FROM BUDS 
 
 79 
 
 branches are bent down and covered; sometimes the soil is 
 piled up around them. (Figure 35.) Branches thus 
 treated are called layers. It is better not to cover 
 the tips of the branches. In a few 
 weeks, roots will grow from near the buds 
 in the covered parts of the stems. The 
 stems can then be cut off below the roots 
 and be planted in a new place. The cur- 
 rant, gooseberry, grape, quince, and many 
 other plants, may be propagated, that is, 
 increased in number, in this way. 
 
 Propagation by Cuttings. A second 
 way of rearing plants from buds is by cut- 
 tings. A cutting, which is a portion of a 
 stem having at least one healthy bud, is 
 planted in the soil. Roots may then grow 
 from the stem, or from the base of the bud, 
 while the bud expands into a leafy stem. 
 Cuttings made during fall, winter, or early 
 spring, are called dormant cuttings. (Fig- 
 ure 36.) The grape, currant, orange, 
 and many other shrubs, are propagated from 
 dormant cuttings. The potato is reared 
 from cuttings -of the tuber, which is a mod- 
 ified stem. Cuttings of woody plants may 
 
 be made in the fall or spring, from wood 
 
 FIG. 36. Cut- 
 that grew the summer before. They are tin s s - 
 
 commonly planted in spring in mellow soil, up to their 
 top bud. (Figure 37.) Cuttings of some plants, es- 
 pecially in cold climates, are better made in the fall, then 
 stored in moist sand or soil, and planted in the spring.
 
 8o 
 
 REARING PLANTS FROM BUDS 
 
 Green Cuttings. Most plants can be reared from so- 
 called green cuttings. (Figure 38.) These are made 
 from a tender part of the stem, and each one has a leaf or 
 a part of a leaf attached. The leaf is left on to prepare 
 food for the growth of roots. The cuttings are com- 
 monly planted in a greenhouse bed formed of clean, rather 
 coarse sand that is kept wet. The sand is usually kept a 
 
 FIG. 37.- Rooted 
 cutting. 
 
 FIG. 38. a. Cutting of chrysanthemum, 
 b. Rooted cutting of coleus. (Both after Bailey.) 
 
 little warmer than the air above it by heating pipes below 
 the. bed. The cuttings are shaded when the sun shines. 
 After roots form, the little plants are potted in small flower 
 pots. Green cuttings of many plants will form roots in 
 a saucer of coarse sand, in a sunny window, if the pores 
 in the sand are kept filled with clean water. 
 
 Propagation by Grafting. A third way of rearing 
 plants from buds is by grafting. This is chiefly used to 
 cause fruit trees to bear a better variety of fruit. If a
 
 REARING PLANTS FROM BUDS 
 
 8l 
 
 farmer has a tree that bears poor apples, and he wishes 
 it to bear good apples, he can graft the tree over. To do 
 this, he cuts a few young twigs from some tree that bears 
 choice apples, and grafts them into his tree, and, if his 
 work succeeds, his tree will bear the choice apples in about 
 three years. The tree to be grafted over is called the 
 stock and the twigs to be grafted into the stock are called 
 dons. 
 
 Cutting Cions. The cions are best cut late in fall or 
 early in spring from firm wood that grew the summer be- 
 fore. Sometimes they are not cut 
 until they are needed for grafting. 
 If cut early, they should be kept, 
 until warm spring weather, packed 
 in a box with plenty of rather dry 
 leaves, in a cool, somewhat damp, 
 cellar. The leaves should be 
 weighted down, to keep them close 
 to the cions. If the main limbs of 
 the tree to be grafted over are half an 
 inch or more thick, it is better to 
 use the cleft graft,- other- 
 wise, the whip graft is 
 better. 
 
 Cleft Grafting. - To 
 make the cleft graft, saw 
 
 FIG. 39. ~ , 
 
 - c i o n oft about five of the mam 
 
 ready for 
 
 fng l graft " limbs tnat reach in dif- 
 ferent directions, at a 
 place, if possible, where they are from one to two inches 
 in diameter. Then place a sharp hatchet or wide chisel 
 G. & M. Ag. 6. 
 
 FIG. 40. 
 Cions iu cleft. 
 
 FIG. 41. Position of cions.
 
 82 
 
 REARING PLANTS FROM BUDS 
 
 flatwise across the center of the end of one of the stubs 
 
 and drive it in until the stub splits open wide enough to 
 admit a lead pencil. Next, with a sharp knife, 
 cut two pieces shaped like Figure 39 from one 
 of the cions, each piece having two perfect buds, 
 pointing as shown. Insert these into the split 
 in the stock as shown in Figure 40. Be careful 
 to place the cions in the cleft so that the line be- 
 tween the bark and wood on the stock touches 
 the like or corresponding line on the outside of 
 the cion, as shown in Figure 41. Then cover 
 the whole 
 cut end of 
 the stock, 
 the cleft at 
 the sides, 
 and. also, 
 the top end 
 of the 
 
 cions, with grafting wax. 
 
 (Figure 42.) If the stub 
 
 to be grafted is less than 
 
 an inch in thickness, use a 
 
 single cion instead of two. 
 Whip Grafting. - In 
 
 whip grafting, the splice is 
 
 made where the stock and 
 
 the cion are of about the 
 
 same thickness. The cuts FlG - 43--Whi P grafting. 
 
 should be made with a sharp knife, as shown in Figure 
 
 43, a. They should then be slipped together, as shown 
 
 FIG. 42. 
 Cleft graft 
 complete.
 
 REARING PLANTS FROM BUDS 83 
 
 in Fig. 43, b, after which the splice should be tightly 
 wrapped with a narrow strip of grafting cloth, as shown 
 in Figure 43, c. 
 
 Grafting wax is made by melting together one ounce 
 of beef tallow, two ounces of beeswax, and four ounces 
 of rosin. Pour the melted mass into water, grease the 
 hands, and work it, when it is cool enough, like molasses 
 candy, until it is the color of manila paper. Grafting 
 cloth is made by painting melted grafting wax on thin 
 muslin. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 
 
 1. How are plants propagated by layering? 
 
 2. What is a cutting? What two kinds are there? 
 
 3. Describe the method of propagating some plant by 
 cuttings. 
 
 4. How may fruit trees be made to bear a better variety 
 of fruit? 
 
 5. Tell how to make a cleft graft. 
 
 6. How is grafting wax made? How is it used?
 
 19. TRANSPLANTING. 
 
 Illustrative material: A tree that has been recently dug for 
 transplanting. Wash the roots clean and let the pupils see how 
 many places they can find where rootlets have been broken off. 
 If possible, give the pupils a practical demonstration lesson in 
 tree planting out of doors. 
 
 Method of Transplanting. It is sometimes desirable to 
 remove a living plant, the roots of which are growing in 
 the natural soil, to another place. This process is called 
 transplanting. The more common method of transplant- 
 ing is to take the roots or a part of them out of the soil, 
 and to replant them in a new place. Sometimes a quan- 
 tity of the soil that contains the roots is removed to the 
 new place. 
 
 Rough Handling Destroys Fine Roots. Figure 44 
 shows a young oat plant, the roots of which were washed 
 out of the soil by a gentle stream of water. Most of the 
 roots were saved. Figure 45 shows another oat plant, 
 with which an attempt was made to draw the roots from 
 the wet soil. Most of the roots were torn off. The 
 latter picture shows about what happens when trees or 
 other plants are taken up by the common methods. Only 
 a few of the oldest and largest roots came up with the 
 plant. 
 
 Rules for Transplanting We learned from Lesson 5 
 that the water of plants is absorbed by root hairs which 
 grow on the youngest roots only. When a plant is taken 
 up for transplanting, as shown in Figure 45, its power 
 
 8 4
 
 TRANSPLANTING 
 
 for taking up water is mostly destroyed until some new 
 roots are formed. Transplanting, as commonly per- 
 formed, is therefore a dangerous operation for the plant. 
 If the following rules are observed, however, the plant 
 seldom fails to grow. 
 
 FIG. 44. Roots of oat 
 plant. 
 
 FIG. 45. Oat plant with 
 fine roots broken off. 
 
 ( i ) Trees and shrubs that drop their leaves in autumn 
 should be transplanted only while their leaves are off . 
 We learned in Lesson 3 that the water taken up by the 
 roots is mostly transpired through the leaves. A tree or 
 shrub without leaves needs very little water, because it 
 transpires very little. Damage to the roots when the 
 leaves are off is far less serious than when the plant is in 
 full leaf. In climates having wet falls and mild winters, 
 trees and shrubs are better transplanted in the fall; in 
 other climates, spring is the better time.
 
 86 
 
 TRANSPLANTING 
 
 (2) Take up the plant with the least possible harm to 
 the roots. With trees and shrubs, enough earth should 
 be removed to uncover some of the roots to their ends if 
 possible. The younger the roots are, the more readily do 
 they send out new roots, hence as many of the younger 
 
 FIG. 46. Bruised root. 
 
 FIG. 47. Cleanly cut root. 
 
 roots should be retained as possible. The roots should 
 be kept moist while they are out of the soil. 
 
 (3) Trim of broken and mangled roots with a sharp 
 knife before replanting. New roots start more freely 
 from a smoothly cut end than from a rough and bruised 
 one. (Figures 46 and 47.) 
 
 (4) Cut of some of the branches before replanting. 
 Since some of the roots have been lost in taking the plant
 
 TRANSPLANTING 87 
 
 up, the remaining roots will not often be able to supply 
 so much water as is needed unless some of the branches 
 are also removed. There is more danger of leaving on 
 too many branches than of cutting off too many. 
 
 (5) Make the hole large enough to receive the roots 
 easily. Bending the roots to make them enter the hole 
 may cause disease. Loosen the soil in the bottom of the 
 hole, and put in some surface soil. Replant the tree or 
 shrub at least as deep as it grew before it was taken up. 
 
 (6) Dip the roots in ivater before replanting. This 
 will permit the moist soil to come in the closest contact 
 with the roots. 
 
 (7) Pack the moist soil closely about the roots. We 
 learned in Lesson 14 that packing the soil about planted 
 seeds promotes germination. For the same reason, pack- 
 ing the soil about the roots promotes growth. 
 
 (8) If the soil is rather dry, add a pailful or two of 
 water after packing the soil about the roots and before 
 putting in all the dirt. The amount of water will depend 
 upon the size of the tree or shrub and the dryness of the 
 soil. Put in the rest of the soil without treading it down. 
 If there are sods, put them on grass side down. 
 
 (9) Some plants, as cabbage and tomato, and the 
 evergreen tree, must be transplanted in leaf. Such plants 
 should generally be shaded for a time. 
 
 (10) Mulch the soil about the tree or shrub if the 
 climate is subject to drought in spring.
 
 20. HOW TO IMPROVE PLANTS. 
 
 Illustrative material: Show a number of individual plants of 
 the same kind, or of branches from as many plants, and require 
 the pupils to search out the differences shown by the same part 
 in different specimens. Show also a number of ears of Indian 
 corn of different forms and let each pupil pick out the best ear 
 according to his own ideal. Always require the reasons for 
 the choice. 
 
 Plants Not Alike. If we go out into a field of ripe 
 Indian corn and try to find two corn plants that are alike 
 in all respects, we shall fail. One will be a little taller 
 than the other; one will have a thicker stalk than the 
 other ; or one will have a longer ear than the other. If we 
 try to pick out from a pile of husked corn two ears that 
 are just alike, we shall fail'again. One ear will be thicker, 
 or longer, or will have smaller kernels, than the other. 
 We shall even find it hard to select two kernels from the 
 same ear that are just alike. Two plants rarely, if ever, 
 groin just alike. 
 
 Select Seeds with a Purpose. Although two plants 
 rarely grow alike, the plants that grow from the seed of 
 a parent plant are usually more nearly like the parent than 
 they are like any other plant. For example, if one pea 
 plant in a row bears longer and more slender pods than 
 any other, the plants grown from the seeds in these long 
 and slender pods are likely to produce long and slender 
 pods also. Some of them will probably be a little longer 
 and more slender than any of the parent pods. If we 
 
 88
 
 HOW TO IMPROVE PLANTS 
 
 8 9 
 
 keep on planting the peas from the longest and most 
 slender pods, we shall by and by have a variety of which 
 the pods will be much longer and more slender than those 
 of common peas. Thus we can change a variety of plant 
 by planting year after year the seeds from only those 
 plants that shozv sonic definite variation in a marked 
 degree. 
 
 Improvement by Selection. Figure 48 shows the re- 
 sult that has come from saving seeds of the sugar beet 
 
 FIG. 48. Per cent of sugar in beets. 
 
 from only those plants that had the most sugar in the 
 juice. When the beet was first used for making sugar, 
 the juice from the sweetest beets had only about eight 
 per cent of sugar in it (Figure 48, a) ; but, by testing 
 the juice of every root, and saving for seed only those 
 of which the juice contained the most sugar, the amount 
 of sugar has slowly been increased until now the sweetest
 
 90 HOW TO IMPROVE PLANTS 
 
 roots contain about eighteen per cent of sugar in their 
 juice (Figure 48, b). 
 
 Consider the Plant in Selection. We learned from 
 Lesson 17 that it is wise to plant the largest seeds. It is 
 also wise to select our seeds, as far as possible, from the 
 plants that suit us best. The farmer should select his 
 Indian corn for seed from only those plants that have the 
 kind of ear and stalk that he would like to have in his 
 whole field the next year. The gardener should save 
 his tomato seeds, if at all, from only the fruits that suit 
 him best, that grow on the plants that suit him best. The 
 plant should be considered, as well as the fruit. 
 
 Hill Selection of Seed Potatoes. The value of consid- 
 ering the parent plant as well as the seed is shown in the 
 hill selection of seed potatoes. A large potato may come 
 from a poor hill, in which it was the only good one out of 
 many potatoes. If planted, this large tuber is apt to 
 reproduce not its own qualities but those of the poor hill 
 from which it came. For this reason many successful 
 potato growers do not select their seed potatoes from the 
 bin, but take them, at digging time, from good hills. Thrifty- 
 appearing hills, each of which was grown from a single 
 seed piece, are dug by hand, and the potatoes of each hill are 
 placed in a separate pile. The desirable hills are those that 
 produced a large number of medium-sized potatoes. From 
 these standard hills the seed potatoes are selected. After 
 this method of selection has been carried on for a few years 
 nearly all of the hills will be up to the standard of the few 
 best hills at the beginning. 
 
 To Raise the Best Crops. If the farmer is careful to 
 select his seeds from the best plants only, his crops will
 
 HOW TO IMPROVE PLANTS 91 
 
 tend to improve; otherwise, they will tend to become 
 poorer. His land not only should be well fertilized and 
 cultivated, but should be planted to only the choicest 
 seeds, if he would raise the finest crops. The best farmer 
 or gardener is not satisfied with common crops. He 
 aims to raise the best of everything, and to raise it by 
 the best methods. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 
 
 1. How can we obtain a new variety of a plant? 
 
 2. How has the large increase in the amount of sugar 
 in sugar beets come about? 
 
 3. Give the reason why the farmer should select his seed 
 corn from the standing corn. 
 
 4. Explain the hill selection of seed potatoes.
 
 21. THE FLOWER AND ITS PARTS. 
 
 Illustrative material: As many flowers, of some kind that 
 show well the calyx, corolla, stamens and pistils, as there are 
 pupils in the class; a good pocket lens. The larger the flowers 
 are that show these parts the better. 
 
 Necessity of Flowers. Many flowers are among the 
 most beautiful and delicate of natural objects. While 
 flowers delight us by their beauty and fragrance, they 
 serve a very important use both to man and to the plant 
 that bears them. Without flowers, plants could not bear 
 the fruits we prize so much for food, and the seeds. 
 Without seeds, most kinds of plants would soon disap- 
 pear, for they could form no more little plants to take 
 the place of those that die. 
 
 Parts of the Flower Flowers are prettiest when left 
 whole, but in this lesson we are to learn the names and 
 uses of the different parts of the flower, so we shall need 
 to pull the flowers to pieces somewhat. A flower, when 
 complete, has four principal parts, each of which has 
 a name and use. These principal parts are composed of 
 smaller parts, each of which also has its name. 
 
 The Calyx and the Sepal. Figure 49 shows a cherry 
 blossom, cut through lengthwise. At the base, we find 
 a green part, marked C in the figure, called the calyx. In 
 some flowers, as those of the flax, the calyx is composed 
 of several more or less leaflike parts, each of which is 
 called a sepal. In the cherry flower, the sepals are 
 
 92
 
 THE FLOWER AND ITS PARTS 
 
 93 
 
 united nearly to the top. The calyx is green in most 
 flowers, but, in the tulip and some other plants, it is of 
 another color. The 
 calyx forms a sort of 
 cup that supports the 
 rest of the flower. 
 
 The Corolla and the 
 Petals The more 
 spreading part of the 
 cherry blossom, marked 
 
 COr. in Fi"Ure 49, is the FlG- 49- Section of cherry blossom. 
 
 corolla. In the cherry flower, the corolla consists of five 
 distinct parts called petals. In many plants, as the pump- 
 kin and the morning glory, the petals are united. ( Fig- 
 ure 50.) The corolla is usually of some 
 other color than green. This helps to 
 make the flower more easily seen, so 
 that insects can find it. 
 
 The Stamens and their Parts. In- 
 side the corolla is a group of slender 
 organs, s. s. (Figure 49), called sta- 
 mens. Each stamen consists of three 
 parts : the long and slender portion at- 
 tached to the calyx below, called the 
 filament; the swollen portion at the top, 
 called the anther; and a dustlike substance found on or 
 within the anther, called the pollen. The office of the 
 stamen is to produce the pollen, without which vital seeds 
 can not be formed. Some flowers have more stamens 
 than the cherry blossom, while others do not have so 
 many. 
 
 FIG. 50. Calyx and 
 corolla of Morning 
 Glory.
 
 94 THE FLOWER AND ITS PARTS 
 
 The Pistil and Its Parts The columnlike part in the 
 center of the flower is called the pistil. This, also, con- 
 g sists of three principal parts. (Figure 51.) 
 The enlarged top is called the stigma; the 
 i egg-shaped base is called the ovary; and the 
 slender part connecting the stigma and the 
 ovary is called the style. The ovary con- 
 tains a smaller egg-shaped part, called the 
 ovule, which may later become the seed. 
 Many flowers have more than one pistil, and 
 F t?i |f'~wnd man y ovaries contain more than one ovule. 
 (S* 1 "***??; The pistil forms and protects the ovules 
 tig. stUma? 5 until they become seeds. 
 Pollination. When the pistil is mature, a drop of a 
 sticky liquid forms on the stigma, so that a grain of pollen 
 that happens to touch it sticks fast. If the pollen grain 
 is from the same flower as the pistil, or from another 
 flower of the same kind, it puts out a long tube that 
 grows through the style into the ovary, where it comes in 
 contact with the ovule, after which the ovule grows into 
 a seed. (Figure 52.) The alighting of the pollen on 
 the stigma is called pollination. If no pollen grain of 
 the same kind alights on the stigma, the ovule does not 
 become a seed, but, after a time, it perishes. 
 
 Bees and Insects Aid in Pollination Bees and some 
 other insects visit flowers to get honey or pollen from 
 them which they use as food. In entering the flowers, 
 they become more or less dusted with the pollen, and, 
 as they rub against the stigma, they aid much in pollina- 
 tion. These insects help flowers to form fruit or seeds, 
 and so their visits to the flowers are very useful.
 
 THE FLOWER AND ITS PARTS 
 
 95 
 
 Pollen of Another Variety of Plant Sometimes Re- 
 quired for Fertilization of the Ovule. In some of our 
 fruits, the pollen 
 from one flower 
 will not form fruit 
 or seed in the pis- 
 til of the same 
 flower, or of an- 
 other flower of the 
 same variety. The 
 pistil of the Bart- 
 lett pear will not 
 often form a fruit, 
 if it receives pollen 
 only from Bartlett 
 pear flowers. It 
 must receive pol- 
 len from some 
 other kind of 
 pear flower than 
 the Bartlett. So 
 an orchard plant- 
 e d entirely t o 
 Bartlett trees sel- 
 dom bears much 
 fruit. In planting 
 an orchard, it is 
 wise, as a rule, to 
 plant trees of sev- 
 eral Varieties tO- FIG. 52. Fertilization of the ovule. The pol- 
 len tubes pass through the stigma and style, 
 f- finally entering the cavity of the ovary.
 
 g6 THE FLOWER AND ITS PARTS 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 
 
 1. What is the object of the flowers of plants? 
 
 2. What are the most important parts of a flower? 
 
 3. What part of a flower becomes the seed? 
 
 4. What is pollination? 
 
 5. How do bees and some other insects aid pollination? 
 
 6. Of what service to clover is the nectar in its flowers? 
 
 7. Examine a complete flower. Find the calyx, corolla, 
 stamens, and pistil.
 
 22. IMPERFECT AND PERFECT FLOWERS. 
 
 Illustrative material: Some perfect and some imperfect flowers of 
 the strawberry, squash, cucumber, melon, or pumpkin; an ear of 
 Indian corn. 
 
 Imperfect Flowers. In Lesson 21, we learned that 
 pollen from the anthers of a flower must find its way to 
 the stigma before seeds can be produced. The pollen 
 need not come from the same flower that contains the 
 stigma. If it comes from any flower of the same kind, 
 it will answer. The flowers of some plants do not con- 
 tain both stamens and pistils, but some of the flowers 
 contain stamens only, and are called staminate; others 
 contain pistils only, and are called pistillate. Staminate 
 and pistillate flowers are called imperfect. In imperfect 
 flowers, the pollen that reaches the stigma always comes 
 from some other flower. 
 
 Examples of Perfect and Imperfect Varieties Fig- 
 ure 53 shows two strawberry blossoms. Notice that 
 
 flower A contains sta- 
 mens (S) and pistils 
 (P). This is a perfect 
 flower. Flower B, how- 
 ever, is imperfect 
 having pistils only. 
 Strawberry flowers like 
 
 FIG. 53-" Strawberry blossoms; A, perfect; B wil1 not often ptt> 
 
 duce fruit unless they 
 
 B, imperfect (pistillate). 
 
 receive pollen from some perfect flower like A. 
 
 G. & M. Ag. 7. 97 
 
 Some
 
 9 8 
 
 IMPERFECT AND PERFECT FLOWERS 
 
 FIG. 54. Indian corn. 
 
 varieties of strawberry have perfect flowers; 
 others have pistillate flowers. A variety that 
 has pistillate flowers will not bear fruit un- 
 less plants of a variety that has perfect flowers 
 grow close by to furnish the pollen. 
 
 Determine before Planting the Variety of 
 Flowers of a Plant. By looking at the flow- 
 ers of a variety of strawberry, we can tell 
 whether it will fruit well if planted alone. 
 If it has perfect flowers, it will; if it 
 has imperfect flowers, it will not. 
 Before planting a bed of strawberry 
 plants we should find out whether the 
 variety we desire to plant has perfect 
 or imperfect flowers. If the plants 
 are not in bloom, the person of 
 whom we procure them will gen- 
 erally be able to tell us. 
 
 Flowers of Indian Corn are 
 Imperfect. The Indian corn plant 
 has imperfect flowers. The plume- 
 like "tassel" that grows at the top 
 of the stalk contains many flowers, 
 but these flowers usually contain 
 only stamens. They yield pollen in 
 abundance. Most country boys and 
 girls have seen the yellow pollen 
 dust on the leaves of Indian corn 
 soon after the tassels form. The 
 young ear bears the pistils, which 
 are the so-called "silk." Each
 
 IMPERFECT AND PERFECT FLOWERS 
 
 99 
 
 thread of the " silk," when it receives its grain of pollen, 
 produces a kernel on the ear. If one of the threads 
 fails to receive its grain of pollen, a kernel on the ear 
 will be missing. By looking closely at an ear of Indian 
 corn, we can tell where the silk was attached to each 
 kernel. (Fig. 54.) 
 
 Other Examples of Imperfect Flowers The flowers 
 of the melon, cucumber, squash, and pumpkin are imper- 
 
 FIG. 55. Cucumber blossoms; A, pistillate; B, staminate. 
 
 feet. By looking closely, we can easily see the two kinds 
 of flowers. Those that bear the pollen are like B, Figure 
 55 ; while those that have the pistil are like A, Figure 55. 
 Notice how many points of difference you can see in 
 these two flowers. In some plants, like the maple tree 
 and the hop plant, all the flowers on one plant bear sta- 
 mens only, and all the flowers on other plants bear pistils 
 only. The plants that bear the staminate flowers of 
 course never produce any seed.
 
 IOO IMPERFECT AND PERFECT FLOWERS 
 
 Cross Fertilization. When the pollen of one flower 
 fertilizes the ovules of another flower, the action is called 
 cross fertilization. This is one of the ways of producing 
 many varieties of plants. Cross fertilization is often 
 brought about by the wind or by insects, and sometimes 
 by intention of the gardener. 
 
 Plant Breeding By crossing certain plants with 
 others of a similar kind, and carefully collecting the seeds 
 that result, new and improved varieties are obtained. 
 When an improved variety of any plant is obtained, the 
 seeds from the plant are planted and selected so as to 
 make a distinct breed. 
 
 Great progress has been made at the Experiment Sta- 
 tions in making valuable breeds of wheat, oats, and corn. 
 The yield in each' case has been increased from three to 
 ten bushels per acre. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 
 
 1. What are imperfect flowers? 
 
 2. Name some kinds of plants that have imperfect 
 flowers. 
 
 3. What is the difference between pistillate and staminate 
 flowers? 
 
 4. How are imperfect flowers fertilized? 
 
 5. How may flowers be cross fertilized? 
 
 6. When the maples are in bloom look for some trees 
 that bear only pistillate flowers and others that bear only 
 staminate flowers. Make the same observations for the 
 cottonwood trees.
 
 23. CORN. 
 
 Illustrative Material: Mature corn plant with ear, showing 
 brace roots, tassel, and leaves. Sample ears of varieties grown in 
 the locality. Seed corn testers. 
 
 Importance of Corn. About four billion bushels of corn 
 were produced in the world during 1915. The United States 
 produced about three-fourths or very nearly three billion 
 bushels. Seven states, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, 
 Nebraska, Kansas, and Missouri produce over one-half of 
 the total corn crop of the United States. They make up 
 what is called the corn belt. (Figure 56.) In this region 
 corn is the most profitable crop, for it gives the largest 
 yield of the best food for all classes of animals. 
 
 Kinds of Corn. Through careful selection and breeding, 
 corn has been greatly improved. We now have varieties 
 of corn that mature in 90 days; others require 150 days. 
 The color of the kernels may be red, white, yellow, blue, 
 black, or any mixture of these. Some corn grows only two 
 feet high; while in the South there is some grown that 
 reaches a height of 30 feet. 
 
 There are four important classes, or types, of corn. 
 These are the dent, flint, sweet, and pop corn. 
 
 Dent corn is the most important type. About nine- 
 tenths of all corn grown is of this class. It gets its name 
 from the hollow, or dent, which forms in the end of the 
 kernel when it ripens. Dent corn has a large ear and gives 
 the largest yield. The kernels are long, and the cob is
 
 e 
 
 1 
 
 * 'i-'&s 
 
 ..--;.> ::
 
 CORN 103 
 
 small. The ear has many rows, usually about sixteen. It 
 is easily husked, because the shank of the ear is small. 
 
 Flint corn has a long, slender ear with only about ten 
 rows of kernels. The kernels are hard and flinty, due to 
 the large proportion of horny starch in them. Flint corn 
 matures earlier than the dent type, and therefore can be 
 grown farther north. The stalks produce many extra 
 stalks, or "suckers." This makes it valuable for fodder, but 
 it does not yield so much grain as the dent type. 
 
 Sweet corn is grown for human food. Large amounts 
 of it are grown by truck gardeners, who market it as a table 
 vegetable when it is green, or can it for winter use. It is 
 very rich in sugar. The kernels shrink when mature and 
 appear shriveled. Sweet corn is not profitable to grow as 
 feed for animals. 
 
 Pop corn has small ears, and very hard small kernels. 
 It is grown only for human food. The popping of the ker- 
 nels is caused by expansion of the moisture by heating 
 until the hard flinty covering of the kernels breaks, and 
 they suddenly turn inside out. 
 
 Primitive Com. There is a type of corn known as the 
 primitive corn, because it is thought to be the oldest type, 
 from which the other types have been developed. It is 
 sometimes grown as a curiosity. Each kernel is inclosed 
 in a pod, or husk, and the ear thus formed is also inclosed 
 in husks. Its common name is pod corn, but it is sometimes 
 called squaw corn. 
 
 Soil for Corn. Corn needs a soil rich in nitrogen and 
 vegetable matter. It usually does well on land on which 
 clover and grasses grew the year before. Because sandy 
 loam soils are warmer and more easily cultivated than
 
 104 CORN 
 
 heavy clay soils they make good corn land. The soil 
 should be compact enough, however, and should contain 
 enough vegetable matter to hold a good supply of moisture; 
 for, on account of its rapid growth, corn needs much 
 moisture during its growing period. On account of its 
 many and strong roots, corn can make good use of coarse 
 foods. It is, therefore, known as a ''coarse feeder." 
 
 FIG. 57. Good com land. The soil pulverizes readily under the harrow. 
 
 Fall plowing is usually best for corn. The soil should be 
 well worked in the spring and made free from weeds. 
 Harrowing and disking at this time tend to warm the soil, 
 prevent evaporation, and destroy many weeds. Manure 
 can profitably be spread on the plowed land at this time, 
 and disked into the soil. 
 
 Good Seed Corn. In order to grow a large crop of corn, 
 the farmer must have good seed with a high yielding record. 
 Good seed must have strong vitality. This means that it 
 will not only grow, but will produce healthy and vigorous 
 plants. It must be picked early in the fall. Every good
 
 CORN 105 
 
 kernel of seed corn has in it a live, though very small corn 
 plant. This plant is tender and easily injured unless it is 
 kept under favorable conditions. Seed corn that is not 
 thoroughly dry before cold weather comes on will freeze 
 and thus injure the little plant so that it will not germinate. 
 By picking the ears for seed in the field, the early maturing 
 kind can be selected. Seed can thus be selected from 
 perfect plants only. Since good seed means a good crop 
 of corn, the time spent in selecting the seed corn in the 
 field is profitably employed. 
 
 FIG. 58. Disking for corn. The disk harrow is here used to pulverize the soil immediately 
 
 after plowing. 
 
 Testing Seed Corn. We have learned in Chapter 15 how 
 to test seeds for germination. It takes about fifteen ears 
 of seed corn to plant an acre, and with a yield of sixty 
 bushels to the acre, each ear of seed corn represents about 
 four bushels of crop. Each ear should therefore be tested. 
 A germination box for testing 100 ears can be made from 
 inch boards, the box being two feet square and five inches 
 deep, inside measurements. About three inches of saw- 
 dust, that has first been soaked in scalding water to kill
 
 io6 
 
 CORN 
 
 molds, is covered with a white cloth marked off into two- 
 inch squares. The squares are numbered to correspond 
 with the hundred ears to be tested. About six kernels, 
 taken from different places on each ear to be tested, are 
 placed in a square. A cloth is placed over the kernels to 
 keep in the moisture. After these have been kept moist 
 in a warm place for about five days, they should be exam- 
 ined, and the ears from which all kernels did not sprout 
 well should be rejected. The testing should be done 
 early in the spring before time for planting. 
 
 The "rag-doll" tester consists of a piece of cloth about 
 nine inches wide and five feet long. Twenty squares are 
 marked and numbered near the center of the strip. After 
 the six kernels are placed on each square it is rolled up from 
 both ends and kept moist and warm. When several of 
 these testers are kept together, they do not dry out so 
 fast as one alone. 
 
 FIG. 59. Rag-doll seed-corn tester. Observe the "corn-tree" at the right.
 
 CORN 107 
 
 Planting. When the soil is getting warm, and danger 
 of frost is past, it is time to plant corn. This is from the 
 first to the middle of May in the corn belt. Corn should 
 be run through a grader before planting in order to remove 
 the very small and extra large kernels. This will give more 
 uniform planting. The two-row planter is used almost 
 entirely. It can be used to drill the corn, that is, planting 
 one kernel in a place 8 to 18 inches apart in the row, or it 
 can be used as a checkrower, planting about three kernels 
 3 feet 6 inches to 3 feet 8 inches apart each way. With 
 rows both ways there is a better chance for cultivation, 
 but where the land is free from weeds, larger yields are 
 secured by drilling it. Where the soil is moist, corn should 
 not be planted over two inches deep. In very dry soils in 
 the Southwest corn is listed. Listing is planting corn in 
 the bottoms of furrows, so as to get the kernels where the 
 soil is moist. 
 
 Frequent Cultivation. The field should be dragged 
 before the corn comes up. This will kill many small weeds 
 and keep the top soil loose. As soon as the corn is up so 
 that the rows can be seen, the corn cultivator should be 
 used. At first, while the roots have not spread out much, 
 corn can be cultivated deep; but later, when roots fill the 
 soil between the rows, cultivation should be shallow. 
 The ground should be stirred often in order to keep moisture 
 from evaporating, and to destroy weeds. Cultivation also 
 liberates plant food by warming the soil and letting the 
 air get into it. 
 
 How Corn Is Harvested. Where corn is grown for the 
 grain, the ears are husked from the standing stalks in the 
 field. This is done either by hand or by machine. Where
 
 io8 
 
 CORN 
 
 large areas are grown, and corn stands up well, the machine 
 is a saving. With hand picking a better job can be done. 
 The ears are stored in well ventilated cribs to dry. 
 
 The cheapest way to harvest corn is "hogging it off." 
 This is done by turning the hogs into a field when the corn 
 is ripe, and letting them gather the crop. Where corn is 
 to be hogged off, rape, clover, or some other succulent crop 
 is planted between the rows at the last cultivation. This 
 adds variety and gives more feed to the acre. Hogging off 
 corn is becoming more common every year. 
 
 FIG. 60. Cutting corn with a harvester. This machine cuts the stalks and binds them into 
 bundles. It does not husk the corn. 
 
 If the fodder, as well as the grain, is to be used for feed- 
 ing, corn is cut when it begins to ripen. It is either stored 
 in shocks in the field until cured, or cut up fine, when still 
 green, and put in a silo. Cured corn stalks with the ears
 
 CORN 
 
 109 
 
 are known as fodder corn. The stalks without the ears 
 are called corn stover. 
 
 The Silo and Silage. An air-tight receptacle or building, 
 for the preservation of succulent fodder is called a silo. 
 The fodder preserved in a silo is known as silage. Other 
 plants, like clover, alfalfa, oats, peas, or almost any other 
 green plant, can be used, 
 but corn is the most com- 
 mon plant used for silage. 
 When the ears commence 
 to harden the whole plant DECAYED 
 
 SILAGE ~ 
 
 is cut up very fine, and 
 packed thoroughly. It is 
 important to pack the si- 
 lage well to keep out the air. 
 If air is admitted, the si- 
 lage decays and thus be- 
 comes unfit for food. The 
 silage at the top of a silo 
 decays and forms a pasty 
 mass, which prevents the 
 air from passing through 
 
 ,i | i | FIG. 61. Section of a silo. Feeding is done from 
 
 to the material below. the top. 
 
 This thin layer of decayed silage serves as an air-tight 
 
 cover for the silo. 
 
 Fodder corn loses nearly one-fourth in digestible matter 
 when cured in the field. In a deep, well-built silo, the loss 
 is less than one-tenth. Silage is more palatable than dry 
 fodder, and animals will eat more. Even the harder and 
 coarser parts of the stalk, because cut when green, are 
 eaten. The feeding value of an acre of corn when fed in
 
 no 
 
 CORN 
 
 the form of silage is double that when cut and cured in 
 the field. In this way fewer acres are necessary to produce 
 fodder for the same amount of stock. It takes less room 
 to store silage than hay or dry fodder, because it is well 
 packed. Silage weighs about forty pounds a cubic foot 
 in the silo. 
 
 Round silos, with a smooth wall on the inside, allow the 
 best packing, and are stronger than square silos. A silo 
 should be deep in order to be well packed, for the greater 
 pressure will force out the air better. Silos are built either 
 of brick, cement, or wood. They may be built above the 
 ground or partly in the ground. They are usually placed 
 close to the barn so that feeding may be made convenient. 
 
 NUMBER OF TONS OF CORN SILAGE IN ROUND SILOS 
 
 DEPTH IN 
 FEET 
 
 INSIDE DIAMETER IN FEET 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 25 
 26 
 27 
 28 
 29 
 30 
 31 
 32 
 33 
 
 39 
 40 
 42 
 43 
 45 
 47 
 48 
 50 
 52 
 
 56 
 58 
 60 
 63 
 65 
 67 
 70 
 72 
 74 
 
 77 
 80 
 83 
 86 
 89 
 92 
 95 
 98 
 101 
 
 90 
 97 
 103 
 108 
 114 
 119 
 125 
 130 
 136 
 
 116 
 123 
 130 
 137 
 144 
 151 
 158 
 166 
 173 
 
 143 
 152 
 160 
 170 
 178 
 187 
 195 
 205 
 216 
 
 173 
 184 
 194 
 204 
 215 
 226 
 236 
 247 
 257 
 
 Corn Products. As food for all animals on the farm, 
 corn is the most nutritious crop. A pound of corn meal is 
 worth more as feed than a pound of bran, oats, or barley. 
 Corn silage is becoming more important as a feed for all 
 animals on the farm. Corn has other uses besides its use 
 as food for farm animals. Corn meal, corn starch, corn 
 sirup, hominy, and breakfast foods made from corn are
 
 CORN 1 1 1 
 
 all important foods for man. The oil pressed out of the 
 grain when refined, may also be used as a food. It is used 
 in paint, for lubricating, and even for making rubber. 
 Alcohol and starch for clothes are other products of the 
 grain. Corn cobs are made into pipes. Husks are used 
 for packing and in mattresses. Paper is made from corn 
 stalks. The pith of the stalk is used as packing in the 
 walls of battleships. 
 
 Corn Enemies. Gophers, crows, and blackbirds like 
 corn, and will sometimes dig out and eat the seed from 
 large patches just after the planting. Cutworms cut the 
 young corn plants off just at the surface of the ground. 
 They are grayish brown in color, and about an inch long. 
 Where they are numerous, they sometimes destroy the 
 whole crop of young corn plants in a field. Fall plowing 
 will destroy many cutworms. Wireworms and white grubs 
 destroy the roots of corn planted in sod land. Fall plowing 
 prevents them from increasing in number, and is the only 
 practical remedy. 
 
 The root louse on corn becomes a great pest if corn is 
 grown year after year on the same land. Rotation of crops 
 and thorough cultivation so as to destroy all weeds that 
 may harbor them will effectively destroy the root louse. 
 Chinch bugs, which suck the juice from the corn plant 
 above the ground, can also be prevented by rotation of 
 crops and weed destruction. Army worms and grasshoppers 
 eat corn, as well as any other green plants. Fall plowing 
 will destroy these and many other insects that may injure 
 corn. 
 
 Corn smut is a fungous parasite that lives in the growing 
 plant, and weakens it by absorbing the juices that should
 
 112 CORN 
 
 nourish the corn plant. It forms large, black masses of 
 spores that can be seen on the stalk, leaves, or ear. Some- 
 times the whole ear is a black mass of spores. The spores 
 live over winter in the soil or in manure. Corn smut can 
 not be cured. It can be prevented by picking the smut 
 masses and burning them. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 
 
 1. What states constitute the corn belt of the United 
 States? 
 
 2. What are the four important types of corn? 
 
 3. Which type of corn can best be grown in a northern 
 region? Why? 
 
 4. How does freezing injure seed corn before it is dry? 
 
 5. Tell how to test 100 ears of seed corn for germination. 
 
 6. When should corn be planted? 
 
 7. What advantage is there in planting torn irf rows both 
 ways? 
 
 8. Why should corn be cultivated? 
 
 9. What is the difference between fodder corn and corn 
 stover? 
 
 10. Give some reasons why a farmer should have a silo, 
 n. Name five manufactured products from corn. 
 
 12. What is corn smut and how can it be prevented? 
 
 13. Study the map on page 102. Account for the low 
 yield of corn in the western part of the United States. 
 
 14. Study the table on the following page and show the 
 yield of corn by states by placing on an outline map of the 
 United States a heavy black dot for each 10,000,000 bushels. 
 
 For example, the yield of Illinois will be represented by 
 37 dots, that of Iowa by 30 dots.
 
 CORN 
 
 (From Yearbook of Agriculture) 
 
 Maine 656 
 
 New Hampshire . . . 990 
 
 Vermont 2,256 
 
 Massachusetts 2,304 
 
 Rhode Island 516 
 
 Connecticut. ...... 3,250 
 
 New York 24,200 
 
 New Jersey 10,830 
 
 Pennsylvania 58,520 
 
 Delaware 6,615 
 
 Maryland 24,850 
 
 Virginia 60,562 
 
 West Virginia 25,200 
 
 North Carolina. . . . 60,900 
 
 South Carolina .... 35,145 
 
 Georgia 64,950 
 
 Florida 12,000 
 
 Ohio i53>55 
 
 Indiana . 190,950 
 
 Illinois 374,400 
 
 Michigan 56,000 
 
 Wisconsin 40,825 
 
 Minnesota 64,400 
 
 Iowa 298,500 
 
 Missouri 191,750 
 
 G. &M.Ag. 8. 
 
 North Dakota 9,800 
 
 South Dakota 94,250 
 
 Nebraska 213,000 
 
 Kansas 172,050 
 
 Kentucky 105,000 
 
 Tennessee 93> J 5o 
 
 Alabama 66,300 
 
 Mississippi 67,450 
 
 Louisiana 45,ioo 
 
 Texas 166,850 
 
 Oklahoma 112,100 
 
 Arkansas 62,100 
 
 Montana 1,960 
 
 Wyoming 875 
 
 Colorado 11,280 
 
 New Mexico 2,730 
 
 Arizona 600 
 
 Utah 442 
 
 Nevada 35 
 
 Idaho 770 
 
 Washington ^053 
 
 Oregon 1,155 
 
 California 2,624 
 
 Total . .2,994,793
 
 114 CORN 
 
 HOME PROJECTS. 
 
 1. Ear-to-Row Method of Improving Corn. First Year. 
 
 Select 25 of the best seed ears that have been found to 
 germinate well. Number each ear. Shell one-half the 
 kernels from each ear and place them in envelopes that 
 are numbered the same as the ears. Keep the unshelled 
 halves where they are safe from mice. Mark off 50 rows 
 about 8 rods long and number them from i to 50. This 
 seed plot should have rich and uniform soil. Plant kernels 
 from ear No. i in row No. i and row No. 26; plant corn 
 from ear No. 2 in row No. 2 and row No. 27; plant corn 
 from ear No. 3 in row No. 3 and No. 28. Proceed in this 
 way until the 50 rows are planted. Give the corn good 
 care during the summer. When the corn is ripe, husk and 
 weigh the crop of corn from each row separately. Seed 
 corn for planting in the field should be selected from the 
 high yielding rows. The unshelled halves of the highest 
 yielding ears should be saved for the second year. 
 
 Second Year. Select a seed plot away from other corn 
 far enough so pollen can not be blown across. This dis- 
 tance should be about 40 rods. Supposing that the two 
 highest yielding ears were No. 12 and No. 18; these should 
 be used for the second year's planting. Make the rows 
 4 rods long; then 4 rows can be planted from each unshelled 
 half. Plant kernels from ear No. 12 in rows i, 3, 5, and 7, 
 and from ear No. 18 in rows 2, 4, 6, and 8. The tassels 
 from rows i, 3, 5, and 7 should be removed as quickly as 
 they appear. The pollen from the tassels in rows 2, 4, 6, 
 and 8 will therefore fertilize the kernels on the ears borne 
 by the plants in the detasseled rows. Seed should be se-
 
 CORN 115 
 
 lected from the detasseled rows. This gives pedigreed corn, 
 because the parentage is known on both sides. The yield 
 of corn may be increased several bushels to the acre by 
 using seed selected and bred by this method. 
 
 2. Acre Yield. Select an acre of good corn land. 
 Fertilize it and prepare it well. Pick out the best seed 
 corn, about 15 ears, and test them for germination, so that 
 the seed selected is sure to grow well. Plant 4 kernels in a 
 hill and thin to three plants when well up. Give it the 
 best care during the summer. In the fall, husk the corn 
 and weigh it, allowing 70 pounds of ears to a bushel. 
 Compare this yield with the average yield of the rest of the 
 field. 
 
 3. Determining Stand of Corn in a Field. Select 10 
 rows in different places across the field. Count the number 
 of hills in each row if all had been planted. Next count 
 the number of hills with number of stalks, the number of 
 hills with i stalk, the hills with 2 stalks, and the hills with 
 3 stalks. Count those with more than 3 stalks with those 
 with 3 stalks. Estimate how many stalks all the 10 rows 
 would have if every hill had 3 stalks. Find how many 
 stalks were lacking, that is, how many stalks there are on 
 the basis above given. If the 10 rows had a total of 3,600 
 hills, in a perfect stand, or 100 per cent, there would be 
 10,800 stalks in them.
 
 24. WHEAT. 
 
 Illustrative Material: Sample of heads and grain of varieties of 
 wheat grown in the locality. Wheat straw affected with black rust, 
 if possible; and bunt, or smut balls. 
 
 Wheat Types. There are four important types, or 
 classes, of wheat in the United States. The most important 
 of these is the bread wheat type. This includes the Fife, 
 Bluestem, and hard and soft winter wheats. The Durum 
 
 ili 
 
 
 FiG.62. Bread wheat types. From left to right the kinds are Turkey Red, Fife, Velvet Chaff, 
 
 and Bluestem. 
 
 116
 
 WHEAT 117 
 
 wheats, another class, have very hard grains and are 
 adapted to dry climates. This type, also known as Maca- 
 roni wheat, is becoming more and more important in the 
 West and in Canada. Another type, known as the Club 
 wheat type, has short, stiff straw, short, compact head, and 
 soft grain. It is grown on the Pacific slope, west of the 
 Rocky Mountains, where it may be left standing several 
 weeks after it is ripe. In the Emmer type, the grain does 
 not shell out easily from the hull and the' stems are pithy 
 instead of hollow as they are in ihe other three types. 
 This wheat is grown largely in Russia. In this country 
 farmers use it mostly for cattle. It does well on dry 
 land. 
 
 Other types of little importance in this country are 
 Eincorn, Spell, Polish wheat, and Poulard wheat. 
 
 The Soil. Wheat is a delicate feeder. It has finer and 
 shorter roots than corn, therefore it is important to have 
 the soil well pulverized on top and rich in available plant 
 foods. The seed bed should be loose on top and firm be- 
 neath, so that moisture may rise to the roots by capillarity. 
 It should have a good supply of organic matter and plenty 
 of moisture available at the time of rapid growth. Clay 
 loams seem to be better than very sandy soils, because 
 they do not dry out so fast. Disked corn land makes a 
 good wheat field when well pulverized. In Minnesota and 
 neighboring states wheat is sown in the spring, not in the 
 fall as in other parts of the United States. For spring 
 wheat, fall plowing allows early spring planting, which is 
 important in order that wheat may develop a good root 
 system in cool weather. Early planting tends to prevent 
 summer rusts; it also lessens the probability of having hot,
 
 WHEAT 
 
 dry weather during the ripening season, a condition harm- 
 ful to wheat. 
 
 
 Fic.64. Fall plowing for wheat. Observe the evenness with which the soil is being turned. 
 
 The Seed and Planting. It pays well to select the seed 
 wheat carefully. It should be run through a fanning mill 
 that selects the largest and heaviest kernels. This will also 
 remove the weed seeds. Rust-resistant varieties should be 
 selected. Before planting the seed should be treated for 
 smut. 
 
 Wheat may be sown broadcast, or drilled in rows about 
 six inches apart. When the seed is drilled it can all be 
 planted at a more uniform depth, and covered better. It 
 should not be planted over two inches deep where there is 
 plenty of moisture in the soil. About 6 to 8 pecks of seed 
 is a good quantity to plant to the acre. Early planting of 
 spring wheat gives a longer season of growth and keeps
 
 120 
 
 WHEAT 
 
 the wheat from suffering so much from rusts and hot 
 weather. Wheat, after corn, in a rotation gives good 
 results. Grass seeds planted with wheat do better than 
 with oats, because they get more light and moisture. The 
 oats, having more leaves, give more shade and transpire 
 more than wheat. 
 
 FIG. 65. Cutting wheat with a binder. The crop is heavy as is shown by the numerous 
 
 bundles. 
 
 Harvesting. Wheat is cut and tied into bundles with 
 a binder. If left too long before cutting, it will shatter, 
 thus losing much of the grain. The milling value is also 
 better when the wheat is cut before it becomes too ripe. 
 The cut grain is shocked, with one or two bundles placed 
 on top as "caps," for protection from rains. It may be 
 threshed out of shocks if the weather is good; otherwise it is
 
 WHEAT 121 
 
 stacked to keep it secure from the weather until threshing 
 time. It should be left stacked at least three weeks before 
 threshing to give it time to go through the sweating process. 
 After about three weeks, the moisture has evaporated and 
 the grain has then a bright color. When threshed, it is 
 stored in bins, either on the farm or in elevators, from 
 whence it is marketed. 
 
 Uses. The chief use of wheat flour is for bread making. 
 The white flour most commonly used is made by grinding 
 the wheat between steel rollers until very fine. It is next 
 bolted, that is, it is passed through very fine sieves, the 
 bran and coarse parts being thus removed. Graham flour 
 has the bran in it, that is, it is unbolted. Flour from hard 
 wheat makes the lightest bread. Soft wheat flour is used 
 for crackers, cake, and pastry. 
 
 Macaroni and some breakfast foods are also made from 
 wheat. The manufacture of these, especially of macaroni, 
 is increasing in this country because of the increase in 
 Durum wheat production. 
 
 Shorts and bran and wheat screenings are milling by- 
 products used for stock feeding. Red dog, a very low grade 
 of flour, is also used for this purpose. 
 
 The straw is used largely for bedding and as a fertilizer 
 on the farm. It is also used in making straw hats, mat- 
 tresses, door mats, and paper. 
 
 Enemies of Wheat. Where wheat has been grown for 
 many years, it becomes subject to insect enemies and 
 diseases. The Hessian fly, a small, two-winged insect, often 
 does a great deal of damage to winter wheat. This fly lays 
 its first brood of eggs about September first. These hatch 
 into larvae in about a week. The larvae live over the
 
 122 WHEAT 
 
 winter in a dormant, or quiet state, known as the "flaxseed 
 stage," because they look like the seeds of flax. In May, 
 these hatch out into flies. These flies lay the second brood 
 of eggs which, in turn, produce the larvae that injure the 
 wheat crop. They attack the young wheat plant just 
 below the ground, three or four being sufficient to kill the 
 plant. They do this by sucking the juice from the plant. 
 Fall plowing, burning the stubble, and rotation of crops 
 are helpful in controlling this pest. 
 
 Chinch bugs, when present in great numbers, do much 
 damage to the wheat crop in dry seasons. They, like the 
 Hessian fly, suck the juice from the plant. They can be 
 controlled by keeping rubbish and weeds along fences 
 cleaned out. 
 
 The wheat midge is a small fly whose larva sucks the 
 juice from the young . wheat grains, thus causing them to 
 shrivel. Deep plowing in the fall will prevent them from 
 living over winter. 
 
 During hot and damp seasons rusts sometimes cause 
 great loss. These are fungous diseases that grow from 
 spores. They can be seen on the stem as little black spots, 
 or on the leaves as red spots. They like a wet, warm 
 summer. No remedy for this disease has been discovered, 
 therefore the best preventive is to select varieties of wheat 
 that will withstand it. 
 
 Smut, another fungous disease, may do a great deal of 
 damage to the wheat crop. But since it can be controlled 
 by seed treatment it is not so much to be dreaded. There 
 are two kinds of smut. The stinking smut, or bunt, of 
 wheat, can be prevented by moistening the seed with a so- 
 lution containing one pint of formaldehyde (40% pure) and
 
 WHEAT 123 
 
 about 50 gallons of water. The loose smut, however, can 
 not be prevented by the use of this solution. It is there- 
 fore best to get seed that is known to be free from the loose 
 smut. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Where are the Durum wheats mostly grown? 
 
 2. For what is Emmer mostly grown in this country? 
 
 3. What are the leading wheat producing states? (See 
 page 124.) 
 
 4. Why is it necessary to have the seed bed well pul- 
 verized on top for wheat? 
 
 5. What advantage is it to spring wheat to have it planted 
 early? 
 
 6. How should seed wheat be selected? 
 
 7. Why do grass seeds planted with wheat do better 
 than with oats? 
 
 8. What advantages are there in stacking wheat over 
 threshing out of shocks? 
 
 9. How is white flour made? 
 
 10. What kind of flour makes the lightest bread? 
 n. For what is wheat straw used? 
 
 12. How does the Hessian fly damage the wheat crop? 
 
 13. How may wheat smuts be prevented? 
 
 14. Chew some wheat kernels for a long while. The 
 sticky gum that you get is the part that makes wheat flour 
 good for bread making. It is called gluten. 
 
 15. Study the table on the next page and show the yield 
 of wheat by states by placing on an outline map of the 
 United States a heavy black dot for each 5,000,000 bushels. 
 In this table a few states are not listed because of the small- 
 ness of their yield of wheat.
 
 124 
 
 WHEAT 
 
 PRODUCTION OF WHEAT IN UNITED STATES IN 1915 
 IN THOUSANDS OF BUSHELS 
 
 (From Yearbook of Agriculture) 
 
 Maine 112 
 
 Vermont 30 
 
 New York JI 875 
 
 New Jersey 1,560 
 
 Pennsylvania 24,605 
 
 Delaware 1,875 
 
 Maryland 10,272 
 
 Virginia 16,974 
 
 West Virginia 4,500 
 
 North Carolina. . . . 9,810 
 
 South Carolina .... 2,430 
 
 Georgia 3,575 
 
 Ohio 40,194 
 
 Indiana 45,580 
 
 Illinois 53>2oo 
 
 Michigan 20,448 
 
 Wisconsin 4,662 
 
 Minnesota 70,870 
 
 Iowa 18,985 
 
 Missouri 34,io8 
 
 North Dakota . 
 South Dakota . 
 
 15^970 
 63,762 
 
 Nebraska 71,018 
 
 Kansas 106,538 
 
 Kentucky 9,900 
 
 Tennessee 9,030 
 
 Alabama 1,200 
 
 Mississippi 100 
 
 Texas 25,575 
 
 Oklahoma 38,860 
 
 Arkansas 2,750 
 
 Montana 42,180 
 
 Wyoming 3,315 
 
 Colorado I 3>77 
 
 New Mexico 1,976 
 
 Arizona 1,092 
 
 Utah 8,225 
 
 Nevada 1,660 
 
 Idaho 18,730 
 
 Washington 5M20 
 
 Oregon 20,025 . 
 
 California 7,040 
 
 Total 1,025,801
 
 25. CROPS AND WEEDS. 
 
 Illustrative material: Samples of several of the most trouble- 
 some weeds of the vicinity. Drill the pupils until they can name 
 them at a glance. 
 
 Weeds Not a Curse Weeds are plants that persist in 
 attempting to grow where they arc not wanted. It is 
 Nature's plan to have the earth thickly covered with 
 plants. When men began to cultivate the soil, and to 
 decide just what kinds of plants should grow in some 
 chosen place, they discovered weeds. Weeds should cer- 
 tainly, however, be kept out of our crops as far as possible. 
 But we must not think that they were sent as a curse to 
 man, for it is better to have the ground covered with 
 plants, though they be weeds, than to have it bare. 
 
 Not Room for Both Figure 66 shows a plant of In- 
 dian corn surrounded by weeds. The roots of the corn 
 and of the weeds are feeding from the same soil, and 
 their stems are reaching up for the same sunlight. Surely 
 there will not be enough water, food and sunlight for all, 
 and so all will suffer unless some are taken out. If we 
 hope to raise good corn, we must destroy the weeds. 
 We learned in Lesson 1 1 that keeping the surface of the 
 land covered with a layer of crumbled soil tends to pre- 
 vent evaporation. Fortunately, the same treatment tends 
 to prevent weeds from growing. The surface soil should, 
 for this twofold reason, be kept well cultivated, especially 
 in warm weather. 
 
 125
 
 126 
 
 CROPS AND WEEDS 
 
 Annuals. Some weeds grow up, blossom, ripen their 
 seeds, and perish, all in one season. These are called 
 annual weeds. Weeds of this class are usually easy to 
 destroy, for, if we pull them up or cut them off at the 
 surface or a little below it, they do not often grow again. 
 Many of the most common garden weeds belong to this 
 
 FIG. 66. Corn choked by weeds. 
 
 class. Annual weeds usually seed more freely than other 
 kinds. 
 
 Biennials. Weeds of another class grow in part one 
 season and live through winter, to blossom, ripen their 
 seed, and die, the next season. These are called biennial 
 weeds. The well-known "bull thistle," so common in
 
 CROPS AND WEEDS 127 
 
 old pastures, is of this class. These weeds are sometimes 
 rather difficult to destroy the first season of their growth, 
 for they are apt to grow up again after being cut off. 
 If cut the second season, just before bloom, they soon die 
 without yielding seed. 
 
 Perennials. Weeds of a third class continue to live 
 and bear seed from year to year, unless they are destroyed. 
 These are called perennial weeds. Some weeds of this 
 class, as the quack grass, sow thistle, and the wild morn- 
 ing glory, multiply from buds on underground parts as 
 well as by seeds. Perennial weeds are the hardest of all 
 to destroy. We learned in Lesson 4 that the food that 
 nourishes the roots of plants is formed in the leaves. If, 
 therefore, we prevent the leaves from growing, the roots 
 will soon starve. This is the surest way to kill perennial 
 weeds, although it is often hard to carry out. 
 
 Constant Warfare. Most weeds spread chiefly from 
 their seeds, hence care should be taken to prevent the 
 formation of weed seeds. The more thorough we are in 
 keeping the weeds out of our land, the easier the work 
 becomes. While we may not hope to get rid of all weeds, 
 we may greatly lessen their numbers by keeping up con- 
 stant warfare against them. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 
 
 1. What are weeds? 
 
 2. How do weeds injure a crop? 
 
 3. Define annuals, biennials, perennials. 
 
 4. How do each of these three groups of weeds spread? 
 
 5. How can most weeds be kept from spreading?
 
 128 CROPS AND WEEDS 
 
 6. What kind of weeds is hardest to destroy? Why? 
 
 7. Make a list of the most injurious weeds in your 
 neighborhood. 
 
 8. In what different ways are weed seeds carried from 
 place to place?
 
 26. MORE ABOUT WEEDS. 
 
 The upper part of a plant of the Canada thistle is shown 
 in Figure 67, i, also a portion of the underground stem 
 with its rootlets (2). 
 At 3, is shown a 
 single flower, with its 
 seed and downy 
 hairs. The seed, also, 
 is shown, in 4, nat- 
 ural size, and, in 5, 
 as it appears under 
 a microscope. 
 
 The root of the 
 Canada thistle is per- 
 ennial. It sends out 
 underground stems 
 o r rootstocks i n 
 every direction. It 
 is because of this fact 
 that it spreads so 
 rapidly and is so dif- 
 ficult to get rid of. 
 These underground FlG - 6 ?- Canada thistle - 
 
 stems develop buds at their joints, which grow upward, 
 forming new plants. Thus a single plant, if left alone 
 for two or three years, may, by means of its rootstocks 
 
 G. & M. Ag. o 129
 
 130 MORE ABOUT WEEDS 
 
 alone, spread over a square rod or more of ground. It 
 may spread, also, by its seeds, but this is not so likely, as 
 most of the seeds will not germinate. 
 
 The following are the best methods for the destruction 
 of the Canada thistle : 
 
 (1) After manuring the soil, plant it thickly with 
 clover. When the thistles are in bloom, mow the clover, 
 cutting down every thistle. When the clover is again 
 up high enough to cut, plow it under carefully, harrow 
 and roll. Keep the field well cultivated till late in the 
 fall. Plant grain or grass the next spring. 
 
 (2) Pour oil of vitriol on the stump left in the 
 ground after cutting off the thistle as close as possible. 
 
 (3) Apply salt liberally to each stump. Turn in 
 sheep or goats. - They will usually eat the thistles close 
 to the ground, and prevent their growth. 
 
 (4) Seed liberally with any grass that will grow well 
 on the ground. The thistles may be choked out by this 
 method. 
 
 The Burdock (called, also: Great lappa, Gobo, Lappa 
 officinalis, L. major, L. edulis, etc.), Arctium Lappa. 
 This coarse, mammoth, offensive weed, with its large 
 brown burs that stick to the clothing and to the coats of 
 animals, is familiar to all. 
 
 In Figure 68 is shown an illustration of a portion of 
 the stems of two varieties of this plant in flower. At i, 
 is a branch of the small variety (Minor), and, at 3, one 
 of the more common varieties (Major). At 2, a single 
 flower is shown magnified. A shows magnified views of 
 the seed, and B shows the seed natural size. 
 
 Though not very troublesome in cultivated ground,
 
 MORE ABOUT WEEDS 
 
 the burdock pushes itself into almost every waste 
 place where the ground is rich and where the neg- 
 lect of the owner per- 
 mits it to exist. Its 
 injury to crops is far 
 less than that of the 
 Canada thistle, but it 
 should not be allowed 
 to grow, as it is most 
 unsightly and offensive, 
 and its clinging burs, 
 besides being a source 
 of annoyance to man, 
 are' often a damage to 
 domestic animals. 
 
 Being a biennial 
 plant, the burdock is 
 not difficult to destroy. 
 It dies, if left to itself, 
 at the end of the second FlG - 68 - Burdock, 
 
 season. The important thing is to prevent its seeding, 
 and thus keep it from spreading. During the first year 
 of growth, the plant is easily destroyed by being pulled 
 up by the roots when the ground is very wet. Repeated 
 cutting a short distance below the surface of the ground 
 may be required the second season. But, whatever 
 method be adopted, the plant should never be permitted 
 to bloom. 
 
 The White or Ox-Eye Daisy (called, also: Daisy, 
 White weed, Leucanthemum vulgare), Chrysanthemum 
 Leucanthemum. It seems a pity that we are compelled
 
 132 
 
 MORE ABOUT WEEDS 
 
 to condemn this beautiful plant as a harmful weed, but 
 such is the case. Where it is allowed to grow, it often 
 fills pastures and meadow lands to so great an extent as 
 to crowd out more useful plants, and thus becomes a 
 source of damage. 
 
 The ox-eye daisy has sometimes been cultivated in the 
 flower garden. It is a near relative to the garden chrys- 
 anthemum. It is sel- 
 dom troublesome, ex- 
 cept in meadows or 
 pasture lands, and 
 grows best in rather 
 poor soils. It is a 
 perennial plant, and 
 grows from an un- 
 derground stem, as 
 well as from the 
 seed. 
 
 It is hardly possi- 
 ble to destroy the 
 ox-eye daisy from 
 grass land in which 
 it has secured a hold, 
 without breaking up 
 the sod and summer- 
 fallowing the ground 
 or devoting it for a time to some hoed crop. Cutting 
 the stems before the flowers open will prevent the seed- 
 . ing, but does not destroy the plant nor stop the spreading 
 of its rootstocks. 
 
 Snap Dragon or Toadflax (called, also: Butter and 
 
 FIG. 69. Ox-eye daisy; i stamen, magn 
 2, pistil, magnified; 3, seeds; 4, seed, 
 nified. 
 
 ified:
 
 MORE ABOUT WEEDS 
 
 133 
 
 eggs, Ramsted), Linaria mdgaris.Tbe snap dragon or 
 toadflax was brought to this country as a garden flower, 
 but it is becoming quite dangerous. It is perennial, and 
 is spread both by its seeds and its creeping rootstocks. 
 It tends to form a large patch, and, so far as it extends, 
 forces out all other plants. 
 
 A plant with its head of flowers is shown in Figure 70. 
 I shows a single flow- 
 er; 2 shows an enlarged 
 vertical section of the 
 same; and 3, a ma- 
 tured seed pod. 
 
 For small areas, it is 
 possible to destroy the 
 snap dragon by grub- 
 bing out the roots, but, 
 where the patches are 
 numerous and large, 
 the summer fallow is 
 the only treatment that 
 is likely to be success- 
 ful. Young plants may 
 be rooted out by hand 
 at a time when the 
 ground is very wet. 
 
 Cocklebur or Clotbur, Xanthium strumarium. The 
 cocklebur is a rapidly growing, coarse weed, with an ir- 
 regularly branching stem, that grows to the height of from 
 one to two feet. There are two kinds of flowers grown 
 in separate heads or clusters on the same plant. The 
 staminate flowers are produced in roundish heads at the 
 
 FIG. 70. Snap dragon.
 
 134 
 
 MORE ABOUT WEEDS 
 
 FIG. 71. Cocklebur. 
 
 top of the stem. The pistillate flowers are in clus- 
 ters of two or three at the base of the male stalk. 
 
 These enlarge and 
 form thick, hard, ob- 
 long burs, beset with 
 stiff hooked prickles, 
 and bearing two strong 
 beaks at the upper end. 
 These burs, like those 
 of the burdock, stick to 
 clothing and to the 
 coats of animals. The 
 upper portion of a plant 
 of cocklebur is shown 
 B in Figure 71. At the 
 top of the stem, the heads of staminate flowers are seen, 
 and, at the base of the leaves, heads of the pistillate flow- 
 ers. At the right, near the top of the figure, is a staminate 
 flower enlarged. A* shows a bur, and B, a section of the 
 same, showing the two embryos. Both A and B are 
 about natural size. Each bur, when ripe, incloses two 
 seeds, one of which may germinate the first year, and the 
 other lie dormant until a later time. 
 
 It has been said that the plant is poisonous to cattle, 
 but this is probably a mistake. 
 
 The cocklebur is common in barnyards, along roadsides, 
 in waste places, and cultivated grounds. 
 
 As the root of the cocklebur is not creeping, and does 
 not live in the ground through winter, clean culture with 
 some hoed crop, or seeding to clover or meadow grass, 
 with frequent mowing, will keep it under control. It
 
 MORE ABOUT WEEDS 
 
 135 
 
 should be carefully prevented from seeding, not only in 
 cultivated grounds, but in waste places as well, and this 
 is the only means by which it may be prevented from 
 becoming troublesome. It is often necessary to go 
 through corn and stubble fields in August or September 
 for this purpose. 
 
 The Sow Thistle ( called, also : Field sow thistle, Per- 
 ennial sow thistle), Sonchus aruensis. This plant is al- 
 most as bad as the 
 Canada thistle. 
 Indeed, some 
 farmers who have 
 contended with 
 both of these ene- 
 mies have pro- 
 nounced the sow 
 thistle the more 
 unmanageable of 
 the two. 
 
 The plant of the 
 sow thistle is soft- 
 er and less rigid 
 than that of either 
 the Canada thistle 
 or the bull thistle. 
 The leaves are 
 thinner and 
 smoother, and, 
 while having FlG> "- Sow thistle in blootn ' 
 
 prickles on their borders, are so soft and flabby that they 
 may be easily handled. The stem, which is free from
 
 136 MORE ABOUT WEEDS 
 
 prickles, grows from one foot to two feet in height, is 
 hollow, and gives out a milky juice when cut. The flow- 
 ers, which are produced in large heads at the top of the 
 stem, are bright yellow. The plant is perennial, and, like 
 the Canada thistle, grows from underground buds, as 
 well as by seed. In Figure 72, is shown a specimen of 
 the perennial sow thistle. Young plants of the sow 
 thistle, as they appear on the surface of the ground in 
 spring or autumn, are illustrated in Figure 73. 
 
 FIG. 73. Young sow thistles. 
 
 Sour Dock (called, also: Yellow dock, Curled dock, 
 Narrow dock, Curled rumex), Rumcx crispus. Like 
 the burdock, this plant is a coarse and homely intruder 
 into waste lands. Its roots are believed by some to be 
 valuable for use in medicine and its young leaves make 
 excellent greens ; but the ground it occupies is far prefer- 
 able to its company, and it should be persistently hunted 
 out and destroyed. 
 
 The sour dock is a rank, coarse, deep-rooting perennial 
 weed. The rather slender branching stem grows to three
 
 MORE ABOUT WEEDS 
 
 137 
 
 or four feet in height, and ends in a long, somewhat 
 plumelike, compound flower stalk of greenish leaves. 
 These are followed by numerous angular brown 
 seeds, shaped some- 
 what like kernels of 
 buckwheat. The 
 rather long and nar- 
 row, sharp-pointed 
 leaves have distinct 
 vein markings, and 
 are strongly wavy- 
 curled on the bor- 
 ders. They are borne 
 on rather long leaf 
 stalks, and, where 
 each one of these 
 clasps the stem, a 
 branch starts out. 
 The plant has a long, 
 spindle-shaped, yel- 
 low taproot. A spec- 
 imen is shown in 
 Figure 74. 
 
 Perhaps the best 
 method of destroy- 
 ing the yellow dock 
 is to root it out by hand at times when the soil is very 
 wet. By clasping the stem just at the surface of the 
 ground and giving it a slight twist and a strong quick 
 pull at the same time, the root will usually come out. al- 
 most entire. The more common method of cutting off 
 
 FIG. 74. Yellow dock; a, seed, magnified.
 
 MORE ABOUT WEEDS 
 
 the stem with the scythe or hoe does not destroy the root. 
 Wild Mustard (called, also: Charlock, English char- 
 lock, Kerlock, Kellock. Sinapis arvensis), Brassica Sin- 
 
 apistrmn. The wild 
 mustard is a coarse, 
 rough, annual plant, 
 much like the garden 
 radish, except that it 
 has a more irregular 
 and branching root. 
 The stem and branches 
 end in clusters of yel- 
 low flowers, of which 
 the lower ones are first 
 to open. The stem con- 
 t i n u e s to lengthen, 
 forming a long, leafless 
 
 flower 
 knotted 
 
 stalk, 
 buds 
 
 with 
 toward 
 
 FIG. 75. The wild mustard. An individ- the base, Open flowers 
 ual flower and a seed-pod appear at the 
 
 ]eft, and at the lower left-hand corner toward the Summit, and 
 is shown a flower. 
 
 a cluster of unopened 
 
 flowers at the top. The seeds resemble those of the cab- 
 bage, and have a harsh, biting taste. A portion of a 
 plant of the wild mustard is shown in Figure 75. 
 
 The best way to get rid of the wild mustard is to go 
 through grain fields and other places where it grows, and 
 pull out the plants while they are in bloom, and hence 
 easily seen. Not one should be permitted to remain. 
 The labor this makes necessary is not so great as one who 
 has not tried it might think. No grain should be sown
 
 MORE ABOUT WEEDS 
 
 139 
 
 which contains the seeds of wild mustard, when this can 
 be helped. 
 
 The Wild Parsnip, Pastinaca saliva. The wild pars- 
 nip is the wild form of the common garden parsnip, and is 
 hence readily known. The illustra- 
 tion, Figure 76, is from a plant taken 
 from a meadow, and of which the 
 root leaves had perished. 
 
 The plant is biennial, forming its 
 root leaves the first season and its 
 flower stalk the second. Perhaps the 
 best method of destroying the young 
 plants is by pulling them out at a time 
 when the soil is filled with water and 
 the roots may be drawn out nearly 
 entire. Cutting off the young plants 
 with the hoe tends rather to increase 
 than to kill them. Cutting the flower 
 stalks of the second year plants be- 
 fore the seeds are old enough to 
 become ripe will prevent spreading 
 by the seeds, and, as the parent plant 
 has run its course, it will soon perish. 
 
 The Russian Thistle (called, also: 
 Russian cactus, Saltwort, Tartar 
 weed, Hector weed), Salsola kali, 
 variety Iragus. The Russian thistle 
 is an annual plant, coming each 
 year from the seed. It grows from a single, small, 
 light-colored root less than half an inch through and 
 from six to twelve inches in length, to the height of 
 
 FIG. 76. Wild parsnip.
 
 140 
 
 MORE ABOUT WEEDS 
 
 from six inches to three feet, branching profusely, and, 
 when not crowded, often forms a dense, brushlike plant 
 from two to six feet in width, and from one half to two 
 thirds as high. When young, it is a very harmless look- 
 ing plant, tender and juicy throughout, with small, nar- 
 row, downy, green leaves. When the dry weather comes 
 in August, the tender, downy leaves wither and fall, 
 and the plant increases rapidly in size, sending out hard, 
 
 FIG. 77. Russian thistle. The above plant was fully three feet in diameter. 
 
 stiff branches. Instead of leaves, these branches bear 
 at intervals of half an inch or less, three sharp spines, 
 which harden, but do not grow dull, as the plant increases 
 in size and ugliness. The spines are from a quarter to 
 a half inch in length. At the base of each cluster of 
 spines, is a papery flower about one eighth of an inch in 
 width. If this be taken out and carefully pulled to pieces, 
 a small, pulpy, green body, coiled up and appearing like a 
 tiny green snail shell, will be found. This is the seed. 
 As the seed ripens, it becomes hard and of a rather dull- 
 gray color. At the earliest frost, the plants change in
 
 MORE ABOUT WEEDS 
 
 141 
 
 color from dark green to crimson, especially on the most 
 exposed parts. When the ground becomes frozen and the 
 November winds blow across the prairie, the small root is 
 broken or loosened and pulled out. The dense, yet light, 
 growth, and the circu- 
 lar or hemispherical 
 form of the plant, fit it 
 most perfectly to be 
 carried by the wind. It 
 goes rolling across the 
 country at racing speed, 
 scattering seeds at ev- 
 ery bound. 
 
 The best method of 
 destroying Russian 
 thistles is by plowing in 
 August or September, 
 before they have grown 
 large and stiff, and be- 
 fore they have gone to 
 seed, using care that all 
 seeds are well turned 
 under. If the season 
 be long and weeds come 
 through the furrow, it 
 may be necessary to 
 harrow the land before 
 winter. Burn over the 
 stubble fields as soon as possible after harvest. Cut the 
 stubble with the mowing machine if the fire does not 
 burn everything clean. Cutting the stubble and thistles 
 
 FIG. 78. Branch from Russian thistle, 
 showing appearance of plant when seeds 
 are mature; a, from a young plant, show- 
 ing the appearance before the dry season; 
 b, mature seed.
 
 142 
 
 MORE ABOUT WEEDS 
 
 before the latter have gone to seed will help, but burning 
 is essential to complete success, as, otherwise, the thistles 
 will send out seed-bearing branches below the places 
 where the mowing machine cuts them. 
 
 Corn, potatoes, 
 beets, or any other cul- 
 
 ken care of, will, in 
 two years, rid the land, 
 not only of Russian 
 thistles, but, also, of 
 nearly all other weeds. 
 Sheep are very fond 
 of the Russian thistle 
 until it becomes too 
 coarse and woody. 
 The young plants 
 may, therefore, be 
 kept down by pastur- 
 ing sheep on them, 
 and the only valuable 
 quality these trouble- 
 
 FIG. 79. Branch of Russian thistle, showing SOlTie plants have may 
 
 appearance before flowering and before the ... , ., 
 
 spiny, branchlets have elongated; a, spines; in thlS maiUlCr DC Utll- 
 
 b, young grain with the covering removed; . 
 
 c, blossom removed from the axil and ized. 
 viewed from below; d. section of fruiting 
 
 calyx, side view; c, same, seen from above. Jf tllC Russian 
 
 thistle is to be kept out of the cultivated fields, it 
 must be got rid of along roadsides, railroad grades, 
 waste land where the sod has been broken, and, in fact, 
 in all places where it may, by chance, have obtained a 
 foothold.
 
 MORE ABOUT WEEDS 
 
 143 
 
 Quack Grass (called, also: Couch grass, Quitch grass, 
 Quick grass, Wheat grass, Dog grass, Tommy grass, 
 Triticum r e p e n s), 
 Agropyrum repens. 
 Quack grass has 
 some excellent quali- 
 ties as a fodder plant. 
 It is said to surpass 
 timothy in nutritive 
 value, but, when it 
 takes possession of 
 the soil, nothing else 
 can be grown. It 
 puts out strong un- 
 derground stems, 
 which root and send 
 up new stems at their 
 joints. These under- 
 ground stems often 
 show their power by 
 growing through po- 
 tatoes or bits of 
 wood that chance to 
 lie in their path. 
 They form a stiff sod 
 that often severely 
 tries the muscles of 
 the plowman's team. Branches do not usually come from 
 every joint, but if the stems are broken or cut in pieces, 
 as with a plow, hoe or harrow, each piece sends up a stem 
 and leaves from any joint it may have, and becomes a 
 
 FIG. 80. Quack grass.
 
 144 MORE ABOUT WEEDS 
 
 distinct plant. A large amount of nourishment is stored 
 up in the underground stems, which makes them very 
 nutritive and furnishes food for growth. The new plants 
 formed by cutting up the old ones grow with great vigor, 
 and so form many weeds in the place of one. The under- 
 ground portions are eaten by stock when they can get at 
 them. Horses and cows are fond of them; hogs root 
 industriously for them and help to destroy them. 
 
 The illustration of quack grass shown in Figure 80 
 makes further description unnecessary. 
 
 The summer fallow is probably the most satisfactory 
 method of destroying quack grass on any large scale. 
 Turn the sod under in spring and plow again as often as 
 any amount of grass appears above ground, until Septem- 
 ber, when rye or wheat may be sown if desired. It is 
 best to remove fences or other obstructions to the plow, 
 that make a harboring place for the underground 
 stems. 
 
 Small patches may be destroyed by covering the ground 
 deeply with straw or other litter, or by devoting the 
 ground to some crop that requires clean culture, as cab- 
 bage, cauliflower or celery, provided the required clean 
 culture be faithfully given. Patches of quack grass 
 should never be cross plowed or cross cultivated in tilling 
 the field that contains them, as this is one of the surest 
 means of spreading the underground stems to new loca- 
 tions. 
 
 The Wild Carrot, Daucus carota. The wild carrot is 
 one of the most troublesome weeds in the eastern states, 
 and is rapidly spreading westward. It thrives in nearly 
 all soils and is spread rapidly by its many seeds. It re-
 
 MORE ABOUT WEEDS 
 
 145 
 
 sembles the garden carrot so closely that it is easily 
 known. 
 
 Figure 81 shows the wild carrot plant with the seed 
 magnified at c, and 
 natural size at d. 
 
 Mowing the plants 
 as often as the flower- 
 stalks appear will de- 
 stroy them, and will 
 also prevent their seed- 
 ing. The first mow- 
 ing often seems to in- 
 crease the number of 
 plants, but, as the root 
 is biennial, it can not 
 live long. Pulling the 
 plants by hand, while 
 the ground is wet, is 
 one of the surest 
 methods of destruc- 
 tion. Sheep aid in 
 keeping them in sub- 
 jection. The plant 
 can not endure 
 thorough cultivation 
 and hence is rarely very troublesome in well tilled land. 
 
 Bindweed (called also: Morning glory (incorrectly), 
 Field bindweed,) Convolvulus arvensis. This is a twin- 
 ing or creeping plant with a perennial root and an annual 
 stem. 
 
 The white, or reddish-tinted funnel-shaped flowers 
 
 G & M. Ag. 10. 
 
 FIG. 8 1. Wild carrot; a, plant in bloom; 
 b, leaf; c, seed, magnified; d, seed nat- 
 ural size.
 
 146 
 
 MORE ABOUT WEEDS 
 
 are about an inch long and open mostly in the morning, 
 like those of the morning glory, with which this plant 
 
 is often confused. The 
 plant is a rapid grower 
 and spreads chiefly by 
 means of its fleshy un- 
 derground stems like 
 the quack grass. The 
 wonderful power of 
 the plant to increase is 
 shown by Figure 82. 
 This illustration clear- 
 ly shows that the un- 
 derground stems put 
 forth strong buds 
 from which shoots 
 grow upward to the 
 surface, and that some 
 of the main under- 
 
 FIG. 82. Bindweed, showing underground ground Stems extend 
 stems at A. A. (Reduced.) 
 
 horizontally several 
 
 inches below the plow line, which fact easily explains the 
 failure of the plow to destroy this plant. 
 
 The bindweed is a most troublesome weed where it once 
 gets a start. It does not spread rapidly when left to 
 itself, but it is extremely difficult to destroy, and small 
 patches of it in cultivated ground are liable to be widely 
 scattered by the cultivating tools. Perhaps the best treat- 
 ment for small patches is to cover the ground a foot or 
 more deep with straw, marsh hay or other litter, leaving 
 it on until it decays.
 
 MORE ABOUT WEEDS 
 
 147 
 
 Prickly Lettuce (called, also: Wild lettuce, Milk this- 
 tle, English thistle, Compass plant), Lactuca Scariola. 
 This plant is occupying 
 waste grounds in many 
 parts of the country. It 
 is an annual, and in- 
 creases only by seed, but 
 it seeds very freely and 
 the young plants are 
 so strong that it spreads 
 very rapidly where per- 
 mitted to do so. It has 
 often been mistaken for 
 the sow thistle and some- 
 times for the Russian 
 thistle. 
 
 The prickly lettuce is 
 closely related to the 
 common garden lettuce, 
 which it resembles in the 
 seed-bearing stage. The 
 stem is smooth, with the 
 exception of a few scat- 
 tered prickles. The 
 plant begins to bloom in July, and produces a few blos- 
 soms each morning after that time until killed by frost. 
 An average plant has been estimated to bear more than 
 8,000 seeds. 
 
 Repeatedly mowing the plants as they come into bloom, 
 or earlier, will subdue them. Thorough cultivation with 
 a hoed crop, by means of which the seed in the soil may 
 
 FIG. 83. Prickly lettuce; a, plant 
 bloom; b, leaf; c, seed, magnified.
 
 148 
 
 MORE ABOUT WEEDS 
 
 be made to germinate, will be found very successful. The 
 first plowing should be shallow, so as not to bury the seeds 
 too deep. The mature seed-bearing plants should never 
 be plowed under, as that would plant the seeds at differ- 
 ent depths. Mature plants should be mowed and burned 
 before plowing. The seed appears in clover, millet, and 
 the heavier grass seeds, and the plant is very often started 
 by this means. As the seed may be carried a long dis- 
 tance by the wind, the plants must be cleared out of fence- 
 rows, waste land, and roadsides. 
 
 Long Leaved Plantain (called, also: Rib grass, Ripple 
 grass, English plantain, Buckhorn plantain), Plantago 
 
 lanceolata. This plant 
 is much like the com- 
 mon plantain, from 
 which it differs in its 
 much longer and nar- 
 rower slightly hairy 
 leaves, and its shorter 
 and thicker seed spikes. 
 It is perennial, and is 
 apt to be very abundant 
 in upland meadows, 
 clover fields, and poor- 
 ly kept lawns. It is 
 
 especially to be dreaded in red-clover fields, intended to be 
 cut for seed, since the seeds mature with those of the 
 clover and are of so nearly the same size and weight with 
 them that the two can not be easily separated. 
 
 The plants can be destroyed by cutting their roots off 
 several inches below the surface of the ground and pulling 
 
 'FlG. 84. Long leaved plantain.
 
 MORE ABOUT WEEDS 149 
 
 out the parts cut off. They can not bear good cultivation 
 and on rich soils they can probably be smothered out by 
 a close June sod. 
 
 NOTE. 
 
 A large number of very common weeds have been omitted. 
 Only those giving special difficulty to the farmer have been 
 described. Pupils should make a study of all the weeds to be 
 found in the neighborhood. Send to the Experiment Station in 
 your state for a bulletin on the subject of weeds and how to 
 destroy them, or send to Department of Agriculture, Washing- 
 ton, D. C, for Farmers' Bulletin No. 28. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Why is it so hard to get rid of Canada thistles? 
 
 2. How do burdocks spread? 
 
 3. What weeds named in this chapter have underground 
 stems, or rootstocks? 
 
 4. Why is the long-leaved plantain so objectionable in a 
 red-clover field that is to be cut for seed? 
 
 5. Dig up and examine the roots of several common 
 weeds in your home locality.
 
 27. THE GARDEN. 
 
 Suggestions for Work Every boy and girl living on 
 a farm should have a garden. A great deal of pleasure, 
 as well as some profit, may be obtained from planning 
 and caring for a garden. 
 
 In the early spring, have a small plat of land set aside 
 as your garden, to do with as you please. Send for 
 
 FIG. 85. " See that the weeds are kept out." 
 
 seed catalogues, and study out just what will be best 
 to plant in the garden. When you have done this, pre- 
 pare the ground well for the seed, and, after the plants 
 
 150
 
 THE GARDEN 151 
 
 have come up, watch their growth from day to day. 
 See that the weeds are kept out and that the plants are 
 cultivated as they need it. Make a success of your small 
 farm by attention to it. It may be that you can sell 
 something from your garden, and thus make some money 
 for yourself. In any event, you will have the pleasure 
 of doing something useful. . 
 
 THE STRAWBERRY (PI. I.). 
 
 The Strawberry is a good fruit for boys and girls to 
 cultivate. The plants are easily taken care of, and may 
 bear a full crop of fruit the next season after planting. 
 
 FIG. 86. Strawberry blossoms. 
 
 The plants multiply during summer from trailing run- 
 ners. One plant set out in spring will often form thirty 
 or forty young plants by autumn. These will nearly all 
 bear fruit the following summer. 
 
 There are many varieties of strawberries, and not all 
 succeed equally well in every garden. Before deciding 
 what variety to plant, inquiry should be made of neigh- 
 bors to find what variety succeeds best in the vicinity. 
 
 Perfect and Imperfect Flowers. There is a lesson to 
 be learned about the flowers of the strawberry. The
 
 JCJ2 THE GARDEN 
 
 flowers of some varieties are not perfect, and will not bear 
 fruit unless a variety having perfect flowers is planted 
 in the same plat with them. Figure 86, b, shows an 
 imperfect strawberry flower, and Figure 86, a, a perfect 
 one. Figure 86, c, has a few stamens, but is not well 
 supplied. The little organs marked S (Fig. 53, A) are 
 the stamens, which give out the pollen. Some of this 
 pollen must come upon the pistils, P, or a fruit will not 
 be produced. (Lessons 21 -and 22.) If plants of a per- 
 fect-flowered variety are growing within five or six feet of 
 those of an imperfect-flowered sort, the bees will carry 
 the pollen to the latter plants, and they will bear fruit as 
 well as if they had pollen of their own. Some of the 
 most beautiful varieties of strawberries have imperfect 
 flowers. 
 
 Care and Planting The best strawberries commonly 
 grow on plants that were formed the season before, hence 
 only these should be set. The plants are generally set 
 out in the spring, about two feet apart, in rows three 
 and one-half or four feet apart. A plat of plants cov- 
 ering five or six square rods should furnish strawberries 
 enough for an average family. The soil should be fer- 
 tile and free from perennial weeds. By autumn, the 
 plants should have multiplied to such an extent that each 
 row forms a bed of plants about two feet wide. Of 
 course, all weeds should be kept out of this bed. The 
 cultivator should be freely used between the rows to 
 keep the soil well crumbled and to keep the plants in the 
 different rows apart. In climates where the ground 
 freezes much in winter, it is best to cover the strawberry 
 bed an inch deep with clean straw or leaves just before
 
 THE GARDEN 153 
 
 freezing weather. This keeps the ground from freezing 
 and thawing often during the winter, and so tends to 
 protect the roots from damage. In spring, the covering 
 should be raked off and the ground between the rows 
 well cultivated. Just before the fruit ripens, the ground 
 between the rows should be mulched with straw or grass, 
 to keep the fruit from being spattered with dirt by the 
 rain. 
 
 After the strawberry harvest is past, if the bed is to 
 be kept for another crop, it is well to mow off the plants 
 close to the ground with a scythe or mowing machine. 
 The cut-off material may then be dried in the sun, and, 
 with the mulching that remains between the rows, raked 
 from the bed and burned. This will destroy some harm- 
 ful insects and diseases. The wide rows may then be 
 narrowed down to about six inches in width. This may 
 be done by cutting all the plants off just beneath the sur- 
 face of the ground with a sharp spade, except in a strip 
 six inches wide through the center of the row. The 
 ground between the rows should then be enriched by 
 spreading decayed manure over it, and should be well 
 cultivated. If the weather be dry, the plat should, if 
 possible, be well watered. New plants will then be 
 formed on both sides of this narrow row, and, by fall, 
 the rows will be as wide as they were in the spring, and 
 most of the plants will be young. 
 
 Some gardeners plow up the strawberry bed after the 
 first crop of berries has been picked. Others treat it as 
 above directed, and pick a second crop the following year. 
 Still others keep the bed until the third crop has been 
 picked. If the bed is kept free from weeds, and is well
 
 154 
 
 THE GARDEN 
 
 manured each year, the third crop may be as large as the 
 first. 
 
 THE RASPBERRY AND BLACKBERRY. 
 
 Planting and Care. The raspberry and blackberry 
 are delicious fruits. The bushes generally bear prickles, 
 
 and the stems die down to the 
 base each year after fruiting. 
 They are hardy except where 
 winters are very cold. They 
 multiply by suckers that grow 
 from the roots, or by the ends 
 of the branches taking root in 
 the ground. The young plants 
 are usually set about four feet 
 apart in rows seven or eight 
 
 FIG. 87 Eldorado blackberry. f ee ^ apart. They begin tO 
 
 bear fruit the second year after planting. The ground 
 between the plants should be cultivated or mulched. The 
 dead stems that have borne fruit should be cut off and 
 taken out in the fall or early spring, and the young 
 shoots that grow from the base in spring will need thin- 
 ning out after the second year. Only four or five for 
 each plant should be allowed to grow. Where winters 
 are very cold, the stems should be bent down and cov- 
 ered with earth late in autumn. To avoid breaking the 
 stems, a little earth is removed from near their base, so 
 that the strain of bending comes mostly on the roots. 
 
 The raspberry and blackberry are not much troubled 
 by insects.
 
 THE GARDEN 155 
 
 Marketing. The strawberry, raspberry and black- 
 berry are largely grown for market in some localities. 
 They generally prove profitable where the business is well 
 managed. To be most successful, they should be .grown 
 in 'a location where labor and manure may be had cheap, 
 and where these fruits may be sent to market without 
 having to be carried far by wagon. They are commonly 
 sold in quart or pint boxes, which are packed in cases or 
 crates. The picked berries should be removed promptly 
 to a cool, shady place, and should always be handled with 
 care to avoid bruising them. The yield of berries per 
 acre is usually larger than that of grain. 
 
 The raspberry, in some places, is dried in large quan- 
 tities, and the dried fruit brings a good market price. 
 
 THE CURRANT AND GOOSEBERRY (PI. I.). 
 
 Planting and Care. The currant and gooseberry are 
 less popular fruits than the strawberry, but they are 
 easily grown, and at least a few bushes should be found 
 in every garden. The bushes may be planted from four 
 to six feet apart each way. They are very hardy and 
 fruitful. They are multiplied by planting cuttings of the 
 stem in moist soil, or by covering the stems with earth. 
 As the bushes become old, the oldest stems may be cut 
 off. 
 
 A troublesome insect, called the currant worm, gener- 
 ally appears on the leaves rather early in spring. If this 
 is not destroyed, it will consume most of the leaves and 
 the fruit will not grow well. It appears first on the lower 
 and more central leaves of the bushes. To destroy the 
 currant worm, sprinkle the leaves with water that has
 
 156 THE GARDEN 
 
 powder of white hellebore stirred in it. This powder 
 may be bought at drug stores. A tablespoonful should 
 be well stirred into about three gallons of water. The 
 mixture may be put on the bushes with a sprinkling pot. 
 Currants are mostly used for making jelly, for which 
 they are much prized. There are red, white and black 
 varieties. Gooseberries are used when green for sauce 
 and for canning. Only the native American varieties 
 are satisfactory in the United States. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Ask your father to give you a small plot of ground 
 for a garden. In it, grow several kinds of vegetables and 
 at least one kind of fruit. Keep a record of all work done 
 in your garden and of the crops you produce. 
 
 2. What kind of soil should be selected for a garden? 
 
 3. Why should strawberry plants be covered with straw 
 or leaves in the winter? 
 
 4. How do raspberry and blackberry plants multiply?
 
 28. THE ORCHARD. 
 
 Every farmer should have an orchard. Fruit trees of 
 some kinds will grow wherever farm crops will grow. 
 Good fruit not only is pleasing to the taste, but is very 
 healthful as food. 
 
 Orchard trees are grown by planting the seeds or the 
 pits of fruit. They need to be grafted or budded to 
 make them bear fruit of a particular variety. 
 
 Planting. Fruit trees rarely grow and bear fruit well 
 unless they receive good care. They should be planted 
 far enough apart so that the tops will not shade each 
 other, and so that the roots will have sufficient room to 
 procure the water they need. They should be pruned 
 sufficiently so that the branches will not rub against each 
 other much, and so that the sun can shine in upon the 
 growing fruit. The ground should be manured to such an 
 extent that the trees may have all the fertility they need for 
 continuous fruit bearing. The soil should be cultivated 
 during the first half of the season while the trees are 
 growing. About midsummer, it is well to sow some 
 quick-growing crop, as oats, peas, clover, or vetches, to 
 furnish a cover for the ground during winter. This 
 tends to prevent washing, deep freezing and thawing of 
 the ground, and to save fertility. 
 
 Insect Pests Orchard trees need more or less pro- 
 tection against harmful insects and fungi. There are 
 
 157
 
 158 
 
 THE ORCHARD 
 
 various ways of giving this protection, and some special 
 knowledge is needed for each kind of fruit. Much of 
 this protection is given by spray- 
 ing the trees. This means spraying 
 them with water containing some 
 substance that destroys the harmful 
 insects or fungi without injuring 
 the fruit. This is done with a force 
 pump and hose. The hose is fitted 
 with a nozzle that divides the stream 
 into very fine spray. 
 
 Other means of protection are 
 necessary in some cases. Borers 
 often injure the trunks of trees. 
 These must be destroyed or kept 
 out by special treatments. Insects are sometimes en- 
 trapped by placing bands about the trunks of the trees. 
 Fruits containing insects 
 are often destroyed or 
 are fed to stock, to keep 
 the insects from multi- 
 plying. 
 
 The successful fruit 
 grower will need to 
 study much, and to 
 watch carefully to guard 
 against insects and dis- 
 ease. 
 
 THE APPLE. 
 
 FIG. 88. The Flat- 
 headed borer; a, the 
 larva; b. the pupa; d, 
 the perfect beetle. 
 
 FIG. 89. A wormy apple, showing the fa- 
 miliar mass oi brown particles thrown out 
 at the blossom-end by the young worm. 
 
 The Apple is the most important American fruit. It 
 may be had in its fresh state the whole year through.
 
 THE ORCHARD 
 
 159 
 
 w 
 
 FIG. go. Section of wormy apple; a, codling moth; b, cocoon. 
 
 The tree is one of the largest and longest-lived of fruit 
 trees. It begins bearing when from three to eight years 
 of age, and sometimes lives nearly or 
 quite a century. It is grown with 
 more or less success throughout the 
 United States and Southern Canada. 
 The trees are commonly planted 
 when about three years old, and 
 should not be set less than twenty- 
 five feet apart both ways. They 
 should be pruned somewhat each 
 year to prevent the branches from 
 growing too thickly. 
 
 The Codling Moth The apple 
 is much injured by an insect called 
 the " codling moth," of which the 
 
 1 J 
 
 maggot form lives in the fruit, caus- FlG - p*- Hairy wood- 
 
 ofc> pecker.
 
 i6o 
 
 THE ORCHARD 
 
 ing " wormy apples." It is estimated that this worm has 
 caused over $7,000,000 damage each year in the states of 
 Nebraska, Illinois and New York alone. The codling 
 moth can be controlled pretty well by spraying the trees 
 soon after the flowering period with water containing 
 Paris green stirred in it, at the rate of one pound to two 
 hundred gallons. 
 
 The woodpecker finds the worm hidden in his silken 
 cocoon under the scales of the bark of the apple tree. 
 This bird should not be killed. He is doing a good work 
 in destroying the worms that would otherwise spoil many 
 apples. 
 
 THE PLUM AND CHERRY. 
 
 The Plum and Cherry are favorite fruits which can be 
 grown over much of the United States and parts of 
 Canada. They grow on small trees that begin to bear 
 when they are three or four years old. The trees 
 
 are planted in the orchard 
 when they are about two 
 years old, and are set about 
 sixteen feet apart each 
 way. 
 
 The Curculio An insect 
 called the curculio troubles 
 the fruit by laying an egg in 
 it. The egg hatches into a 
 maggot that lives on the 
 fruit until full grown. It is 
 usually this maggot that causes plums to drop before 
 they are ripe, and that causes " wormy " cherries. The 
 
 FIG. 92. The plum tree curculio; 
 a, the larva; b. the pupa; c, the 
 beetle; d, curculio, on young 
 plum. The straight lines indicate 
 the average natural length.
 
 THE ORCHARD j6i 
 
 curculio may be caught by jarring it off the trees early 
 in the morning on a sheet spread on the ground. The 
 insect is then stiff from the cold and so does not fly. 
 
 THE PEACH. 
 
 The Peach is one of the most delicious of all fruits. 
 It grows on a tree about as large as a plum tree. The 
 peach tree begins to bear fruit when three or four years 
 of age. The peach is not so hardy as the plum or cherry, 
 and it succeeds well only in certain parts of the country; 
 but a few trees may be planted in the orchard wherever 
 the winter is not too cold for it, and they will often bear 
 fruit enough for the family. The fruit of the peach is 
 mostly borne on the shoots that grew the season before, 
 hence it should be pruned to make plenty of young wood. 
 
 Yellows. The peach is subject to a disease called 
 " yellows," that has entirely destroyed many whole or- 
 chards of this tree. No remedy is known for it but to 
 dig out and burn the affected trees. 
 
 THE GRAPE. 
 
 The Grape is a fine fruit, that is successfully grown 
 over nearly all of the United States. Every home should 
 have at least a few grape vines. They require little 
 room, as they can be trained upon a fence or the wall of 
 a building, if need be. Their fruit, which ripens in au- 
 tumn, is wholesome and delicious. A plat of ground 
 planted with grapes is called a vineyard. Vines in the 
 vineyard are planted from seven to ten feet apart both 
 ways. Grape vines bear fruit when three or four years 
 
 G. & M. Ag. 11.
 
 l62 THE ORCHARD 
 
 old. The grape is commonly multiplied from cuttings of 
 the stem. 
 
 Pruning and Cultivating The grape vine is a rapid 
 grower, and therefore needs to be severely pruned to 
 keep it within bounds. The best fruit is borne on the 
 shoots that grow from the part of the vine that grew 
 the year before. In pruning the vine, we should leave 
 on some of the wood that grew the last season, but should 
 cut off most of the older wood. The grape vine is com- 
 monly tied to a trellis made of wire or slats. Some- 
 times it is permitted to climb over an arbor or summer 
 house without much pruning, but it is only with careful 
 pruning that me best grapes can be grown. 
 
 The ground between the rows of grapes should be 
 well cultivated during the summer to keep down weeds. 
 
 In countries having cold winters, grape vines should 
 be protected in winter as described in the section on the 
 raspberry and blackberry in Lesson 27. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND. EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Make a list of the insects that attack orchard trees. 
 Make a list of diseases that affect orchard trees. 
 
 2. What is the codling moth? How can it be controlled? 
 
 3. How may orchard trees be made to bear fruit of a 
 desired variety? 
 
 4. Why should fruit trees be pruned?
 
 29. SEMITROPICAL FRUITS. 
 
 (Chapters 29 and 30 were prepared by Professor Riley O. Johnson, 
 State Normal School. Chico, California. He gratefully acknowledges 
 the aid of Professors E. J. Wickson, E. W. Hilgard, and C. W. Woods- 
 worth, all of the University of California.) 
 
 No family orchard in California is thought complete with- 
 out at least one or two of the citrus fruits, such as oranges 
 and lemons, and a few olive and fig trees. These are known 
 as semitropical fruits because they grow in warm, yet not 
 tropical, climates. -In the United States, they can be grown 
 with profit only in California, Florida, and the delta region 
 of the Mississippi River, therefore there is always a good 
 market for the product. Besides the fruit they produce, 
 the trees themselves are quite ornamental, and they also give 
 abundant shade. They are often grown for these purposes 
 alone. 
 
 The citrus fruits cultivated in California include the orange, 
 lemon, lime, grape fruit, and citron. 
 
 The Orange. The orange is the most profitable of the 
 citrus fruits that can be raised in California. Though it is 
 now grown chiefly in the southern part of the state and in 
 the Sacramento Valley, yet there are doubtless small regions 
 in other parts of the state well suited to its growth, even in 
 large enough quantities for the market. 
 
 What the Orange Tree Needs. The orange prefers a deep, 
 rich, mellow soil, although it will grow well in nearly every 
 kind of fertile soil. 
 
 The spot chosen for experimenting must be warm enough 
 
 163
 
 164 SEMITROPICAL FRUITS 
 
 so that there arc no severe frosts to be feared, at least no hard 
 freezing. 
 
 The orange orchard must be protected from winds either 
 by hills or a grove of other trees. 
 
 There must be plenty of water. If nature does not supply 
 enough, the soil must be irrigated. (See Lesson 30.) 
 
 Orange trees must be carefully pruned (cut back) during 
 the season when the tree is not bearing fruit. Only the dead 
 branches and those no longer useful should be cut off. There 
 is great danger of cutting away too much. The natural 
 shape of the crown of the tree must be kept, as the fruit and 
 the leaves grow on the ends of the branches. 
 
 The Lemon. The lemon likes best a sandy loam, though 
 it will grow well in other soils also. While the lemon does 
 not require the heat necessary to produce the best oranges, 
 it will not, at the same time, stand so much cold as the latter. 
 The root of the orange tree will thrive in a greater variety 
 of soils than will the root of the lemon tree, therefore it is 
 quite common to graft the lemon (page 80) on an orange 
 seedling stock. 
 
 Owing to its spreading habit, the tree must be carefully 
 pruned. If this is not done, the fruit will be borne at the 
 end of the long, willowy branches, and it will then be im- 
 possible to cultivate the ground as it should be. 
 
 Enemies of the Orange and the Lemon 
 
 Scale Insects. Chief among the insect enemies of these 
 fruits are the soft scale, the red scale, and a variety of the 
 latter, called the yellow scale. 
 
 If you look on the under side of the leaves, you may find
 
 SEM1TROPICAL FRUITS 165 
 
 these insects along the large veins. Here they insert their 
 beaks and suck the sap which is being carried upward to 
 the leaves and the prepared food which the leaves send 
 downward to the other portions of the plant. Scale insects 
 are also sometimes found on the fruit itself. 
 
 If the tree is sprayed with an emulsion of kerosene or 
 is fumigated with 
 hydrocyanic acid 
 gas, these insects 
 will disappear. 
 
 Red Spider. In 
 some places where 
 these fruits are 
 raised the red 
 
 FIG. 93 Red Spider. (From Station Bulletin, Berkeley, Cal.) 
 
 spider has become 
 
 a serious pest. The male spider is much smaller than the 
 female. The female lays from twelve to eighteen bright 
 red eggs, which are fastened to the under side of the leaf 
 with threads of fine silk. These eggs hatch out in about 
 two weeks, and the young spiders begin at once to suck 
 the juice from the leaf. When grown, their bodies are 
 
 covered with spines, which 
 protect them from their ene- 
 mies, the ladybird beetles 
 and the lace-wing flies. 
 
 White Fly. This pest of 
 FIG. 94. white Fly with wings Extended, citrus trees was unknown in 
 California until a short time ago. As yet it has appeared in 
 but a few places. Although called a fly, it is not one, since 
 it has four wings, and the fly has only two. It is a near 
 relative of the scale insects, but it does more damage because
 
 1 66 SEMITROPICAL FRUITS 
 
 it has wings. It can easily be told from the other pests found 
 on citrus trees, because it is snow-white when full grown. 
 
 When the wings are at rest, the insect is 
 
 about the size of the letter o used in this 
 
 paragraph. 
 The remedy is a severe one, for the pest is 
 
 hard to get rid of. The tree must be stripped 
 FIG 95. white Fly f ^s leaves and thoroughly fumigated before 
 with wings closed. the insect is growDj or no thing can be done to 
 
 save the tree. 
 
 Diseases of Citrus Trees 
 
 Gum Disease. This disease, which usually affects the 
 trunk of the tree near the ground, sometimes comes as a 
 result of letting irrigation water come in contact with the 
 stem of the tree. By keeping this water from touching the 
 tree, one cause of the disease will be removed. 
 
 Other causes, still unknown, however, are likely to produce 
 the disease. From whatever source the trouble comes, the 
 portion of the bark which is diseased must be cut away, also 
 the diseased wood beneath, and the wound covered with 
 something, such as rubber paint, which will keep the sap 
 from running out. Removing the soil from the lower part 
 of the trunk is also helpful. 
 
 Chlorosis. This disease causes the leaves of the tree to 
 turn yellow. In the case of the orange and lemon it is com- 
 monly brought about by the lack in the subsoil (page 30) of 
 some food element that the tree needs, or else by there being 
 too much of some one element. Orange and lemon trees re- 
 quire lime, but many California soils have in them more lime
 
 SEMITROPICAL FRUITS 167 
 
 than is needed. Since it cannot be taken out, the only remedy 
 is to plant the orchard in a soil that has less. Limy soils are 
 generally of a whitish color, but the way -to be certain is to 
 take a little of the subsoil and pour on it a few drops of nitric 
 acid. If many bubbles arc given off, lime is probably pres- 
 ent in large quantities, and oranges and lemons will not 
 thrive well in this ground. 
 
 The Olive 
 
 The olive does best in a well-drained soil, though, like 
 the orange and the lemon, it will yield good crops in a variety 
 of soils. It prefers warm, dry climates, but will withstand 
 some frost. It can be grown from buds, seeds, grafts, tips 
 of twigs, cuttings, sprouts, suckers, and layers, but because 
 it is a slow grower, the first three methods are not often used. 
 
 Olive trees do not begin bearing until about eight years of 
 age. They have been known to live to be a thousand years 
 old and to attain a height of forty feet. 
 
 The fruit is sometimes pickled in brine and sometimes 
 dried. Great quantities are also grown for the oil which is 
 very abundant in the fruit. The tree is very free from insect 
 enemies and is useful as an ornamental as well as a shade 
 tree. 
 
 The Fig 
 
 No fruit can be grown more generally over the state of 
 California than the fig, and no other with so little care and 
 risk. This tree will thrive well on any soil one would think 
 of selecting for any of the common orchard trees, though 
 it will succeed on a wider range of soils than will any of the 
 others. It will bear well in any climate warm enough to
 
 i68 
 
 SEMITROPICAL FRUITS 
 
 ripen the fruit and not cold enough to kill the tree. The 
 fig should have plenty of moisture, but not too much. 
 
 In the orchard, the trees should be set forty or more feet 
 apart, unless they are to be thinned later, as the tree is a 
 
 wonderful spreader. If 
 planted this far apart, 
 smaller fruit trees may be 
 planted between the rows 
 and removed after several 
 years, when the fig trees 
 are in need of the room. 
 In pruning, little except 
 the cross branches need 
 be cut off after the shape 
 has become outlined. Not 
 more than three limbs 
 should be allowed to grow 
 out from the trunk, and 
 these should be well 
 placed around it. 
 
 Fig trees begin bearing 
 at from two to three years 
 
 FIG. 96. San Jos6 scale insect; m, male scale;/, 
 
 female scale; y, young scale, a, young insect. Q age, and SCVCral CrODS 
 Enlarged. 
 
 a year are produced, 
 the olive, the fig has few insect pests. 
 
 Like 
 
 San Jose Scale 
 
 One of the most troublesome pests of citrus and many 
 other fruit trees is the San Jose scale. It does not 
 look like an insect at all. Little gray or black specks in 
 patches on the limbs or on the trunks of fruit trees are
 
 SEMITROPICAL FRUITS 169 
 
 all that may be seen. Under these scales are the little 
 animals that are doing the damage by sucking the juices 
 of the plant. Most of the states of the Union have laws 
 forbidding the shipping into the state of nursery stock that 
 is infected with this pest. It spreads very rapidly through 
 an orchard when it is once introduced. The surest way 
 to prevent its spreading is to burn the affected trees. 
 There are other methods of destroying the scale which, if 
 carried out with great care and thoroughness, may kill the 
 scale and prevent its spreading. One of the most success- 
 ful methods is by spraying with the lime and sulphur 
 mixture. 
 Lime and Sulphur Mixture. 
 
 20 pounds lime 
 
 14 pounds sulphur 
 
 40 gallons water 
 
 Boil one hour and apply while still warm. This must 
 be applied before the buds come out in the spring, for it 
 will destroy opened buds and foliage. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 
 
 1. What are citrus fruits? Where are they grown? 
 
 2. Why is the lemon grafted on an orange seedling stock? 
 
 3. In selecting a soil for oranges and lemons, what kind 
 must be avoided? 
 
 4. What are the chief insect enemies of citrus trees? 
 How is each controlled? 
 
 5. Tell what you know about the olive tree.
 
 30. IRRIGATION AND DRY FARMING. 
 
 Irrigation. In the West, there are vast tracts of land 
 where but little rain falls. These are commonly known as 
 arid regions. There are other great areas where rain falls 
 only during the winter season. In order that crops may 
 be grown in these regions, it is absolutely necessary that 
 water be supplied by irrigation. 
 
 FIG. 97. Dam of an irrigation reservoir. 
 
 Methods of Irrigating. Water for this purpose is often 
 obtained from wells, and sewage from cities is sometimes 
 used on farms lying near, but most of the water used comes 
 
 from streams. When there is any likelihood that the stream 
 
 170
 
 IRRIGATION AND DRY FARMING 17 1 
 
 from which the water is taken will dry up during the season 
 when water is needed, reservoirs are built so that a greater 
 part of the winter rainfall may be used. Quite a number of 
 methods of applying water by irrigation are in use, but 
 those most common are sprinkling, flooding, and by 
 furrows. 
 
 Sprinkling. Of the three methods named, this one most 
 nearly resembles the method by which nature furnishes 
 water to growing plants. But in spite of this fact, sprinkling 
 is no doubt the poorest of the three methods. To apply a 
 sufficient amount of water at one time by this method re- 
 quires a very slow application for a long time, for if applied 
 too rapidly, the ground, if it is not sandy, becomes packed 
 and hardened. In this condition air, which the plant needs, 
 cannot get through the soil, and the roots also find it difficult 
 to push through it. There is also very rapid evaporation 
 from the surface unless the soil is stirred soon after the 
 sprinkling. This results in great waste of moisture, and a 
 second sprinkling is necessary in a short time. If practiced 
 in regions where there is no rainfall in summer, it must be 
 repeated often and a sufficient amount put on to wet the soil 
 to a considerable depth. Otherwise the plant will develop 
 a shallow root system and will be completely dependent upon 
 water thus applied all through the growing season. On the 
 other hand, plants which have a deep-rooting system are often 
 able, after a while, to draw their needed supply of moisture 
 from the water in the subsoil. 
 
 Flooding. This method is used only where an abundance 
 of water can be had and where the land to be irrigated is 
 quite level or can be made so. As in the case of sprinkling, 
 there will be rapid evaporation unless the surface of the
 
 172 
 
 IRRIGATION AND DRY FARMING 
 
 ground is stirred soon after the water is put on. A great 
 disadvantage in this method is the long time necessary in 
 order to put on enough water to do any good. This is neces- 
 sarily so because of the fact that the air in the soil prevents, 
 after a little, the rapid soaking up of the water, as the in- 
 creasing weight of the water prevents the escape of the air 
 in that direction. This method might be used to advan- 
 tage in connection with the system of dry farming described 
 later in this chapter. 
 
 FIG 98. Furrow System of Irrigation. 
 
 The Furrow Method. Of all the methods of irrigation, 
 the furrow method is most commonly used. One of its 
 chief advantages lies in the fact that by it the subsoil be- 
 comes so soaked that a deep-rooting system is developed. 
 By this method, water reaches the surface of the ground 
 only by capillary attraction (page 14), hence the soil does 
 not become so packed as to shut out the air and hinder the 
 roots from growing downward.
 
 IRRIGATION AND DRY FARMING 173 
 
 The furrows should usually be run off from three to eight 
 feet apart, depending, of course, on the nature of the soil, 
 that is, as to its readiness to soak up water. This may easily 
 be determined by experiment before the furrows are laid 
 out. After the water has been shut off from the furrow and 
 the surface has become dry enough, the furrow should be 
 filled again to prevent too rapid evaporation. Losses due 
 to this cause often amount to as much as 50 per cent of the 
 water applied. Experience has proved that wide and deep 
 furrows are much better than narrow and shallow ones. 
 Where the former are used, it is possible to fill the furrows 
 much sooner after irrigation, thus preventing great loss by 
 evaporation, and the water also sinks to a greater depth in 
 the soil, thus rendering it unnecessary to apply the water 
 so often. 
 
 Dry Farming. In the semiarid regions of the western 
 part of the United States, where the rainfall for the entire 
 year is not enough to mature a crop, a system of cultivation 
 known as " dry farming " is coming to be practiced more 
 and more. It should not be inferred from the name that 
 by the practice of this system plants are able to thrive on 
 smaller quantities of water than in other cases. The system 
 consists in carefully preserving the moisture which falls dur- 
 ing an entire year. During this year the land is riot sowed to 
 crops, but is so treated as to permit of a very small amount 
 of evaporation. The surface is constantly kept loose, being 
 stirred after each rain of any considerable amount. Before 
 planting, a machine called a subsurface packer is run over 
 the ground. This machine consists of a number of wheels 
 placed five inches apart on a shaft, each wheel being eighteen 
 inches in diameter. The rim of each wheel is one inch thick
 
 174 IRRIGATION AND DRY FARMING 
 
 at the inner part, and is slanted two and a half inches to a 
 sharp outer edge. A weight of about five hundred pounds 
 is so placed as to make these wheels sink well into the ground, 
 packing the soil quite firmly beneath the surface and leaving 
 the surface itself loose and mellow. A mulch (page 53) is 
 thus formed which reduces evaporation to the least possible 
 amount. After the crop is planted, the soil is kept loose at 
 the surface until the crop is matured. The moisture pre- 
 served through one year by this system is often sufficient 
 for the maturing of crops through three or four following 
 years. If practiced in moist regions during dry years, this 
 system would add greatly to the yield. 
 
 The principles of dry farming might be put to good use 
 in both the arid regions of the West and those regions where 
 there is a good winter rainfall. In the former areas, where 
 land can be flooded, one application of water would be 
 enough for an entire season. In ( regions having a winter 
 rainfall, the moisture could be so preserved that irrigation 
 would be wholly unnecessary, and heavy yields would 
 result each year. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 
 
 1. What are arid regions? 
 
 2. What are the chief methods of applying water in 
 irrigation? 
 
 3. Describe the furrow method of irrigation. 
 
 4. What is dry farming? By what methods is it carried 
 on? 
 
 5. Describe a subsurface packer.
 
 31. ANIMALS THAT DESTROY INSECTS. 
 
 Natural Destroyers. We might greatly reduce the 
 number of insects and worms that destroy our crops, by 
 taking care not to destroy the animals that feed upon 
 them. We have been so 
 careless in destroying in- 
 sects, toads, and birds that 
 live upon the insects 
 which do us harm, that 
 these insects have greatly 
 increased in number and 
 have become pests. If all 
 would study to preserve 
 the friends and to destroy 
 the enemies of our crops, 
 we should be rid of the de- 
 structive insects in a short 
 
 FIG. 99. Ichneumon fly. 
 
 time. 
 
 Insects. 1 The Ichneu- 
 mon Fly is one of the most beautiful, as well as val- 
 uable, of insects. As will be noticed from the picture, 
 it is boring into the trunk of a tree. It is doing no 
 
 1 There is a popular notion that all small animals, such as flies, spiders, and 
 the cpral animals in the sea, are insects. This is a mistake, as neither the 
 spiders "nor the coral polyps belong to the insect class. The word insect is 
 applied properly to those animals which have bodies divided into three distinct 
 sections: the head, the thorax, and the abdomen. From the head there springs 
 a pair of feelers called antennx, and from the thorax six legs grow. The 
 wasp is a good illustration of an insect. The spider has but two distinct parts, 
 and comes under another class. 
 
 175
 
 ANIMALS THAT DESTROY INSECTS 
 
 harm, however. It is seeking to deposit its eggs in the 
 larvae of an insect that has bored deeply into the trunk of 
 the tree. The eggs of the ichneumon fly hatch out and 
 live on these larvae, causing the death of the borer. Ich- 
 
 FIG. too. Garden spider. 
 
 neumon flies are in search of the larvae of moths, butter- 
 flies, etc., in which to deposit their eggs. As the ichneu- 
 
 FIG. 101. Lady-bird beetles, or "lady bugs." The straight lines represent the average 
 natural length. These beetles are very destructive to plant lice. 
 
 mon fly hatches and becomes a fly in about fifteen days, 
 it will destroy any larvse in which it is deposited. 1 
 
 1 All insects begin life as a tiny egg. This may be laid under the bark of a 
 tree, in the fruit, on the water, or in the dirt. After a time the egg begins to 
 hatch. It usually produces a little worm-like creature, called a larva. This is 
 sometimes called the grub or the caterpillar stage. The larva may have 
 numerous feet and two strong jaws. It is very hungry, eats a great deal and 
 grows rapidly. After a few days, it is fully grown, and may change into the
 
 ANIMALS THAT DESTROY INSECTS 
 
 177 
 
 FIG. 102. Dragon fly. 
 
 Lady Bugs are small beetles, with bright-colored, scaly 
 wings. They feed on plant lice scales and the eggs and 
 larvae of other insects. They 
 are among the most valuable 
 of insect destroyers, and 
 should be welcomed in the 
 house and in the garden. 
 
 Dragon flies are beautiful 
 insects with gauzy wings. 
 They may be seen about 
 ponds and streams in the 
 summer time. They are the 
 great enemies of the mos- 
 quitoes, the gnats, and the flies. They dart through the 
 
 pupa. In . this state, it eats nothing. If it is a butterfly or moth, it wraps 
 itself in a silken covering or wraps a leaf about itself, and may stay in this 
 condition for some months. At last, however, it breaks through its cover- 
 ing and becomes a fully developed insect. This, its last state before death, is 
 called the imago state. The life history of each kind of insect varies some- 
 what, but almost all insects pass through the forms egg, larva, pupa, and imago. 
 G. & M. Ag. 12. 
 
 FfG. 103. Larva and eggs of 
 dragon fly. 
 
 the
 
 i 7 8 
 
 ANIMALS THAT DESTROY INSECTS 
 
 air, and catch many small insects on the wing. When 
 they alight, they still keep their wings outspread. They 
 lay their eggs on the stems of water 
 plants or on the water. 
 
 Damsel Flies are much like the 
 dragon flies, but are smaller and fold 
 their wings over the back when they 
 are at rest. 
 
 Toads These homely looking an- 
 imals are very useful in ridding us 
 of harmful insects. If we knew all 
 the good that they do by feeding on 
 insects, we should not think them so 
 ugly, and we certainly should never 
 stone them or kill them. Insects de- 
 stroy every year over $300,000,000 
 worth of our crops. A large part of 
 this might be saved if we should pro- 
 tect the toads and increase their num- 
 ber. There is a popular idea that 
 toads will make warts if they are handled. This is an 
 error. The toad is perfectly harmless. 
 
 Bring a pair of toads into the house, and watch the 
 good work that they do. A room may be cleared of 
 cockroaches by leaving a toad in it over night. 
 
 Get acquainted with the habits of the toads. You will 
 find their study very interesting. Have you seen the large 
 masses of bead-like eggs that the female toad lays ? 
 Have you seen the tadpoles that have been hatched from 
 the eggs? Have you watched their growth from tad- 
 poles to toads ? 
 
 FIG. 104. A damsel fly.
 
 ANIMALS THAT DESTROY INSECTS 
 
 179 
 
 FIG. 105. Toad. 
 
 If you wish to raise a colony of toads, place a pair on 
 a stone partly out of the water in a partly filled pail or 
 jar. After the eggs are 
 laid, watch them as 
 they hatch into tad- 
 poles. The tadpoles 
 should be fed with bits 
 of meat or bread, until 
 they change into toads. 
 
 Keep the garden well 
 stocked with toads, and 
 very little damage from 
 insects need be feared. 
 
 Birds. The largest number of the birds that fly about 
 our homes are insect destroyers. Besides delighting the 
 eye with their beauty and filling the world full of song, 
 they are saving the farmers millions of dollars each year. 
 How foolish it is to shoot these valuable birds or to rob 
 their nests ! 
 
 The birds living on insects have greatly decreased in 
 number in the past few years, and the insects have in- 
 creased so greatly that the farmer and the gardener have 
 been put to extra labor to preserve their crops. 
 
 The birds living largely on insects, worms, etc., are 
 swallows, martins, vireos, woodpeckers, chickadees, wrens, 
 cuckoos, swifts, and fly-catchers. 
 
 The robin and the blue bird live on about equal quan- 
 tities of insects and fruit. Because they come so early 
 in the spring and destroy so many of the insects before 
 they have laid their eggs for the season, these birds are 
 of great value.
 
 i8o 
 
 ANIMALS THAT DESTROY INSECTS 
 
 Every means should be taken to attract the above men- 
 tioned birds to our homes. They should be encouraged 
 to nest in our trees and in our barns. We should plant 
 trees that bear berries in the fall, so that the birds may 
 have food for the winter months, when they can find no 
 insects. Bird houses should be built, and, when the sea- 
 son is dry, gourds or small pails containing water should 
 be hung near their nesting places, and food furnished if 
 
 FIG. 106. Simple bird houses. 
 
 necessary. Very comfortable nesting places may be made 
 out of old tin cans that are thrown away. The top of the 
 can may be bent back and nailed to a board or any flat 
 surface (Figure 106, a). Then cut a small hole in the 
 bottom of the can, allowing the tin partly cut out to pro- 
 ject for a resting place. The cans may be grouped, as 
 suggested in Figure 106, b, and held together with a hoop. 
 Two boards may be nailed together for a roof.
 
 Cut worms 
 
 Spielers 
 
 Stink Bugs 
 
 May Flies 
 
 Weevils 
 
 Etc. 
 
 Stink Bugs 
 
 Flies 
 
 Weevils 
 
 Etc. 
 
 CUCKOO 
 
 HOUSE WREN 
 
 BANK SWALLOW 
 
 BARN SWALLOW 
 
 BLUEBIRD 
 
 KING-BIRD 
 
 Beetles 
 
 Weevils 
 
 Grasshoppers 
 
 Etc. 
 
 Beetles 
 
 Grasshoppers 
 
 Spiders 
 
 Etc. 
 
 RED WINGED 
 BLACKBIRD 
 
 BROWN THRUSH 
 
 CROW BLACKBIRD 
 
 Beetles 
 Grasshoppers 
 Miscellaneous 
 Etc. 
 
 AMERICAN CROW 
 
 CAT BIRD 
 
 ENGLISH SPARROW 
 
 FIG. 107. Food of some common birds.
 
 182 ANIMALS THAT DESTROY INSECTS 
 
 The English sparrow is not a desirable bird for the 
 United States. It not only eats much grain and vegetable 
 matter, but has driven out a number of birds that are 
 valuable as insect destroyers. We should take means to 
 rid ourselves of this troublesome little fellow. 1 
 
 Just after a bird has hatched, its stomach is very deli- 
 cate, and it can digest animal food only. For that rea- 
 son, all nestlings are fed on worms and insects. Even 
 the birds that live mostly on grain and fruit when they 
 
 1 The English sparrow is doing more damage to property than all the other 
 birds in our latitude put together, and, as an agent of destruction to our native 
 birds, the sparrow is unexcelled. No other bird will stay long where sparrows 
 are once located. It means persecution in detail by individual sparrows and 
 by mobs of them till all self-respecting birds are compelled to leave the locality. 
 The English sparrow is the only bird that carries on a systematic attack upon 
 the homes of its neighbors. It has been seen by many observers in different 
 localities to visit the nests of its neighbors in the absence of the parent birds 
 and to throw the young nestlings out upon the ground, in some cases dropping 
 them ten to fifteen feet to the foot of the tree. The sparrows are with us 
 all the year round, and, unlike most of our native birds, their food is almost 
 entirely grain. They are, then, no substitute for the insectivorous birds that 
 they expel, and they are a filthy nuisance about the barns and granaries as 
 well as the dwellings where they congregate. They are a greater pest than 
 rats and mice, and they are more difficult to combat. The most effective 
 method of dealing with the sparrow is by poison. During the winter months, 
 if a platform be built above the reach of the poultry, and the sparrows be fed 
 there regularly in order to accustom them to the place, they may be easily 
 poisoned. The recipe I quote from an article by E. B. Clark, in The Outing 
 of January, 1901: "Mix a drachm of strychnine with three quarts of boiling 
 water. . Let the mixture boil until the poison is entirely dissolved. Into the 
 poisoned water pour a sufficient quantity of wheat to absorb the liquid. Put 
 the mixture aside for forty-eight hours. The wheat will be found to have 
 swollen greatly. Spread it over the bottom of a large pan and place it in an 
 oven until thoroughly dry. It must not, however, be allowed to scorch in 
 the least. English sparrows consider wheat prepared in this way as a great 
 tidbit. It gives to them a swift and painless death." This method reaches 
 a hundred of the sparrows to ten that can be reached during any other part 
 of the year, and farmers ought to bestir themselves, or the useful native birds 
 will be exterminated or driven away by these sparrow pests. We must deal 
 with the sparrows as we deal with rats and mice, and no false sentiment ought 
 to be allowed to enter into the matter. PROF. O. G. LIBBY.
 
 ANIMALS THAT DESTROY INSECTS 183 
 
 are full grown, are very valuable in destroying insects, 
 grubs, etc., when they are feeding their young. 1 
 
 Examination of the stomachs of different birds (see 
 Figure 107) shows what birds are of the greatest value to 
 the farmer. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 
 
 1. How does the ichneumon fly help the farmer? 
 
 2. What is the food of lady bugs? 
 
 3. Tell how the dragon fly lives, and what food it eats. 
 
 4. Of what value are toads? 
 
 5. What do house wrens eat? 
 
 6. W T hy should most birds be encouraged to make their 
 homes near us? 
 
 'During the outbreak of Rocky Mountain locusts in Nebraska in 1874-1877, 
 Prof. Samuel Aughey saw a long-billed marsh wren carry thirty locusts to her 
 young in an hour. At this rate, for seven hours a day, a brood would consume 
 210 locusts per day, and the passerine birds of the eastern half of Nebraska, al- 
 lowing only twenty broods to the square mile, would destroy daily 162,771,000 
 of the pests. The average locust weighs about fifteen grains, and is capable each 
 day of consuming its own weight of standing forage crops, which at $10.00 per 
 ton would be worth $1,743.97. This case may serve as an illustration of the vast 
 good that is done every year by the destruction of insect pests fed to nestling birds. 
 And it should be remembered that the nesting season is also that time when the 
 destruction of injurious insects is most needed, that is, at the period of greatest 
 agricultural activity and before the parasitic insects can be depended on to reduce 
 the pests. The encouragement of birds to nest on the farm and the discouragement 
 of nest robbing are therefore more than mere matters of sentiment; they return 
 in actual cash equivalent, and have a definite bearing on the success or failure of 
 the crops. Year Book of the Department oj Agriculture.
 
 32. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY. 
 
 Importance of the Subject There is a large market 
 for meats, butter, eggs, lard, etc. The demand for wool, 
 leather, furs, feathers, glue, horns, etc., is also large. 
 Wild animals can not supply these wants entirely. Ani- 
 mals must, therefore, be raised on the farm. The pro- 
 duction of animals and of animal products, such as milk, 
 butter, eggs and wool, is a very important branch of 
 farming. 
 
 What Must be Learned. Animal husbandry requires 
 a different kind of knowledge from that required for 
 grain, fruit or vegetable growing. Animals require more 
 attention than field crops. Their food, drink, light, and 
 the air that they breathe, all need to be looked after. The 
 care of their young demands careful attention. To learn 
 to feed animals in the way that is best for their develop- 
 ment and also least expensive to the farmer, requires 
 constant study. 
 
 Economy in Raising Animals. As we have learned 
 in previous lessons, the selling of crops from the land 
 removes the richest part of the land. Unless this is re- 
 turned to the soil in some form, the soil will become 
 " poor," and it will be impossible to produce gjpod crops. 
 When animals are grown on the farm, however, the farm 
 products grown from the soil are fed to the animals, and 
 are largely returned to the soil in the form of manure. 
 The animal products that are sold, as meat, butter, eggs, 
 
 184
 
 ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 185 
 
 etc., take away little fertility from the farm, and bring 
 to it a comparatively large amount of money. 
 
 Breeds of Live Stock As there are many races of 
 men, each having some peculiarities that distinguish it 
 from the others, so there are great families in the animal 
 world. These large families having distinguishing 
 qualities that are transmitted from parent to offspring, 
 are called breeds. 
 
 The different breeds of farm animals have been pro- 
 duced largely by careful selection and the mating of such 
 animals as have certain traits or peculiarities that man 
 desires to hold. 
 
 The various breeds of cattle are probably descended 
 from the same stock. Although there are about one hun- 
 dred different breeds known in the world, there are but 
 a few that are important for us to know. They may be 
 divided into two great classes, depending on their pur- 
 pose: dairy breeds and beef breeds. The dairy breeds 
 have for their chief purpose the production of milk, butter 
 and cheese. The beef breeds have for their chief pur- 
 pose the production of flesh or beef. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Name the leading animal products that are produced 
 on farms. 
 
 2. How may stock raising enrich the soil? 
 
 3. Name the two great classes of cattle. What is the 
 purpose of each? 
 
 4. Name the leading breeds of cattle, horses, hogs, and 
 sheep raised in your home locality.
 
 33. PRINCIPAL DAIRY BREEDS (PI. V., VI.) . 
 
 The Dairy Type In order that the dairy cow may 
 produce much rich milk, she must have a large stomach. 
 
 Her head is usually 
 small, but her mouth is 
 large. The udder is 
 wide and full, extend- 
 ing well forward and 
 
 FIG ,o8.-Dairy type. (Biggie Book.) h j gh up m the back be _ 
 
 tween the legs. Her milk veins are large and extend 
 well forward with many branches. 
 In general appearance, she is 
 loose and angular, and is not 
 beautiful, unless the motto, 
 "Pretty is as pretty does," be ac- 
 cepted. Her form presents the 
 appearance of a double wedge. 
 
 Jersey Cattle. These cattle 
 originated on the island of Jer- 
 sey in the English Channel. 
 They have been bred there for 
 more than two hundred years, un- 
 mixed with any other breeds. A 
 
 law Was passed in 1779, forbid- Inferior wedge of beef cow. 
 
 ding cattle of any kind to be 
 brought to the island for breed- 
 ing. Its enforcement has kept this breed in its pure state. 
 The cows are quite small, with deerlike heads and neat 
 
 1 86 
 
 Superior wedge of dairy cow. 
 
 Inferior wedge of dairy cow. 
 
 Superior wedge of beef cow. 
 
 FIG. IOQ. Contrasts in 
 " wedges." (Biggie Book.)
 
 PRINCIPAL DAIRY BREEDS 187 
 
 forms. The Jersey cow is a great butter producer. The 
 milk is very rich in butter fat, and the cream rises more 
 rapidly and perfectly than that of most breeds. The 
 average Jersey cows will produce 400 pounds of butter 
 per year, and the best have produced as high as 1,000 
 pounds in that time. 
 
 Guernsey Cattle This breed was produced on the 
 island of Guernsey, not far from the home of the Jerseys. 
 Guernsey cattle are somewhat larger and coarser than the 
 Jerseys, but they resemble them in their ability to produce 
 butter. They give a somewhat larger supply of milk, 
 and it is fully as rich as that of the Jerseys. These are 
 very gentle cattle, and are very popular with dairymen. 
 
 Ayrshire Cattle. These cattle are natives of the county 
 of Ayr in the southwestern part of Scotland. They are 
 good butter producers, but are classed chiefly as cheese 
 cows. The quality of their milk is good and the quan- 
 tity is large. The milk is easily digested even by infants, 
 and is the best for family trade. The Ayrshires are 
 hardy and active. They are able to gather food from 
 scanty pastures better than other breeds. Their short, 
 upward-turned horns, the large patches of red or brown 
 and white, and the fine dairy form, make them a very at- 
 tractive breed. 
 
 Holstein-Friesian Cattle These cattle are sometimes 
 called the Dutch or the Holland cattle. The breed had 
 its origin in Holland, and is the oldest distinct breed in 
 existence. It produces a larger quantity of milk than 
 any other breed. The quality of the milk has not been so 
 good as that of the other dairy breeds, but it has been 
 much improved during the past few years.
 
 l88 PRINCIPAL DAIRY BREEDS 
 
 The breed is of value also for beef. The frame is larg-e 
 
 o ' 
 
 and the color is black and white. 1 
 
 The Brown Swiss Cattle originated in Switzerland. 
 They have short heavy legs, and in size and color resem- 
 ble the Jerseys. They are large milk producers, and fur- 
 nish some good beef. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Compare the shape, as seen from side and rear, of 
 dairy cattle and beef cattle. 
 
 2. Where did the Jersey cattle originate? 
 
 3. How do Guernsey cattle differ from Jersey cattle? 
 
 4. What are some desirable qualities of Ayrshire cattle? 
 
 1 The Dutch Belted Cattle are much like the Holstein-Friesian, from which 
 they are derived. They are colored black and white, the white being in the 
 shape of a blanket or belt around the body.
 
 34. BEEF BREEDS (PI. VII., VIII.) . 
 
 The Beef Type. The body of the beef animal is well- 
 rounded and compact. This arises from its tendency to 
 lay on flesh. In gen- 
 eral, it presents the ap- 
 pearance of a brick set 
 on edge. The back is 
 broad, both in front 
 and behind. The ud- 
 
 der is much smaller 
 than in the dairy breeds. 
 
 FIG. no. Beef type. (Biggie Book.) 
 
 The short stout legs are set 
 squarely at each corner of the body. 
 
 Shorthorn Cattle. This is the most important breed 
 of cattle, and outnumbers any other breed. Its origin is 
 in Durham County, England, and for this reason it was 
 formerly called " Durham." 
 
 Some Shorthorn cows produce a good quantity of rich 
 milk. Some herds are valuable as butter makers, and 
 others for cheese production ; but, as a breed, the Short- 
 horn belongs in the beef class, although some individuals 
 have made great dairy records. 
 
 The Shorthorn is of a quiet disposition and is easily 
 kept, eating coarse fodders, as well as softer foods. 
 
 The Polled Durham breed originated in America. It 
 is very much like the Shorthorn, from which it was de- 
 rived, except that it is hornless. 
 
 The Hereford Cattle The Herefords originated in 
 Hereford County, in England. They are distinctly a 
 
 189
 
 190 BEEF BREEDS 
 
 beef breed, the milk being of little account. The beef is 
 good and is somewhat mixed with fat. These animals are 
 hardy and adapted to cold climates. The face, breast, 
 belly, and the lower part of the legs, are white. 
 
 The Aberdeen Angus Cattle. These are sometimes 
 called the Polled Angus. They are black like the Gallo- 
 way breed, but differ from it chiefly in being somewhat 
 larger and finer in bone, head and hair. The hair is 
 smooth. They are better adapted for indoor feeding. 
 
 The Galloway Cattle. The Galloway cattle originated 
 in Scotland. They are a polled, or hornless, breed. They 
 have thick coats of black hair, and are especially adapted 
 to exposure and extremes of heat and cold. They are 
 very valuable for the western part of the United States,, 
 where they seek their own food on the plains. Their 
 coats, when tanned, make good robes. 
 
 Devon Cattle. Devon cattle take their name from the 
 county of Devon, England. They are a very old breed, and 
 were noted at first for their fine dairy qualities, but of late 
 have been valued chiefly for their fine quality of beef. 
 
 Red Polled Cattle are very much like the Devon. They 
 are becoming popular in this country. 
 
 The Simmenthal Cattle are of Swiss origin, and are 
 valuable for dairy, purposes, for beef, and for work. 
 
 The Native (Scrub) Cattle These are not a pure 
 breed, but a mixture of breeds. There are a large num- 
 ber of these cattle in the United States. Although many 
 Natives are valuable for one purpose or another, the re- 
 sults are very uncertain. A herd of Native cattle may be 
 greatly improved by placing at its head a bull of the type 
 toward which it is desired to breed.
 
 36. DAIRYING. 
 
 Creameries and Cheese Factories Butter and cheese 
 were formerly made entirely on the farm. They are now 
 made chiefly in fac- 
 tories, where the 
 milk may be had in 
 large quantities. In 
 this manner, the ex- 
 pense of manufac- 
 ture is greatly re- 
 duced. A more uni- 
 form quality can 
 also be secured, and 
 better opportunities 
 for selling the prod- 
 ucts are found. Some 
 dairymen prefer to 
 make their butter at 
 home. With proper 
 skill and care, excel- 
 lent results are se- 
 cured. The highest 
 prices are generally 
 received by dairy- 
 men who make their 
 own butter, provided they use special care and skill in 
 making it. 
 
 191 
 
 Fie. in. Old fashioned chum.
 
 IQ2 
 
 DAIRYING 
 
 Butter factories are called " creameries." Butter made 
 at a creamery is known in the market as " creamery but- 
 ter." That made on the farm is known as " dairy 
 butter." 
 
 The successful manufacturer of butter and cheese must 
 have more or less special education and training. These 
 can best be acquired in a dairy school. 
 
 MILK. 
 
 The Composition of Milk Milk is the most important 
 
 product of the cow on the dairy farm. It is produced in 
 
 the glands of the cow's 
 udder. Milk is com- 
 posed largely of water, 
 in which fat globules 
 are floating, and in 
 which casein, albumen, 
 sugar, and mineral 
 matter or ash are dis- 
 solved. Although the 
 amounts of these sub- 
 stances vary greatly, 
 the average propor- 
 tions are indicated in 
 the diagram. given 
 (Figure 112). 
 
 Milk is heavier than water. Although the fat in milk 
 is lighter than water and for that reason has a tendency 
 to rise, the other substances in it make the milk heavier. 
 
 The Fat. The fat in the milk is the most important 
 element in the production of butter. It is floating in the 
 
 fe - = - - -- ==j 
 
 ^A/ATER 
 
 87.Z%_ 1 H| 
 
 1 r 
 
 FAT 3.75'/o iCASEINa.53 
 
 SUGAR5IS% . IASHMM 
 
 J.7%,7% 
 ..,.-.'; 4 : ' 
 
 FIG. ii2. Diagram showing composition of milk. 
 (S. M. Babcock. Wis. Bui. No. 61)
 
 DAIRYING 
 
 193 
 
 milk and a part of it rises to the top to form cream. Some 
 of the fat globules do not rise to the top. They are held 
 down by the albumen and sugar in the milk. 
 
 The fat globules vary in size. Milk from the Jerseys 
 and Guernseys has larger globules than that from the 
 Ayrshires and the Holsteins. Large globules are an advan- 
 tage in butter making, as they rise more easily than the 
 small ones. Small globules are an advantage in cheese 
 
 o^ 
 
 FIG. 113. Appearance of milk under the microscope, showing the natural grouping of the 
 fat globules. In the circle a single group is highly magnified. (S. M. Babcock, Wis. Bui. 
 No. 61.) 
 
 making, as they do not rise so quickly, and are held in the 
 milk when it curdles. 
 
 The fat globules are collected in irregular groups in 
 milk. Under the microscope, these groups or families 
 may be readily seen. 
 
 The Sugar The sugar in milk is not so sweet as or- 
 dinary sugar. It is called lactose or " sugar of milk." 
 It is prepared for the market in some factories. It is used 
 to make pills and powders for holding medicines. 
 
 G. & M. Ag. 13.
 
 IQ4 DAIRYING 
 
 When milk sours, the sugar is changed into lactic acid, 
 which gives to milk its sour taste. 
 
 Other Substances in Milk. Casein is the chief protein 
 in milk. It is of value in cheese making. If rennet or 
 a weak acid be added to milk, the casein is changed into a 
 curd, from which the cheese is made. 
 
 Albumen, another protein in milk, is much like albumin 
 in the blood. It differs from casein in that it coagulates, or 
 thickens, when heated. It is the skinlike or paperlike sub- 
 stance that appears on the surface of skim milk when it is 
 boiled. 
 
 The ash in milk is composed mostly of phosphate of 
 lime, but there are many other minerals found in small 
 quantities. 
 
 Colostrum The first milk that the cow gives after 
 the birth of a calf is called colostrum. It contains from 
 ten to fifteen times as much albumen as the milk does later, 
 and contains less fat and sugar. Colostrum is sometimes 
 called " calves' milk." It should not be used for at least 
 three days after the birth of the calf. It is safer to wait 
 one week before using the milk. 
 
 Yield : Quantity and Quality. The average cow pro- 
 duces about 4,000 pounds of milk per year. Some herds 
 will yield an average of 6,000 pounds for each cow. In 
 one exceptional case, the yield for a single cow reached 
 30,000 pounds. In general, the cow should yield at least 
 six times her live weight to be a profitable member of a 
 dairy herd. 
 
 The profitableness of a dairy cow depends as much on 
 the quality of the milk as it does on the quantity. Milk 
 rich in fat and of large quantity should be the aim of all
 
 DAIRYING 
 
 195 
 
 dairymen. It costs no more to raise a cow that yields 
 fat sufficient to make 300 pounds of butter than it does to 
 raise one producing but 200 pounds. Cows that are not 
 profitable are called " boarders." The worst of it is that 
 they never pay for their board. 
 
 It is well to choose a breed that will produce the desired 
 quantity and quality of milk, but that will not be enough. 
 Even in the best dairy breeds, there are some boarders eat- 
 ing up the farmer's profits. These should be got rid of 
 as soon as discovered. 
 
 The Babcock Test The only certain way to find out 
 which cows in a herd are profitable and which are not, is 
 to make frequent tests. 
 The milk should be 
 weighed, and the amount 
 of butter fat determined 
 by the use of the " Bab- 
 cock Test." This test 
 was discovered, and the 
 machine for making the 
 test invented, by Dr. 
 S. M. Babcock, of Mad- 
 ison, Wisconsin. The 
 use of this simple test 
 has been the means of FlG " +-- Babcock milk tester 
 improving dairymen's herds and methods everywhere. 
 Till this discovery was made, it was difficult to tell where 
 profits or losses were made. Now we have a sure and 
 simple test that every farmer may use. 
 
 Full directions for operating the Babcock Test are given 
 in the next chapter.
 
 196 
 
 DAIRYING 
 
 The Importance of Rich Milk in Cheese Making. 
 Even in cheese making, the richness of milk is important. 
 The amount of casein in milk increases with the amount of 
 fat. Besides this, the fat in the milk makes the cheese 
 much richer and better than it would be without it. ' 
 
 FIG. 115. Each cheese was made from 200 pounds of milk. 
 
 A test made in the Dairy School of the University of 
 Wisconsin shows that milk rich in fat makes the largest 
 and .best cheese. Figure 115 shows the result of the test 
 plainly. 
 
 HOW TO GET GOOD MILK. 
 
 Health of the Cow Good milk can be obtained only 
 from healthy cows. If cows have disease of any kind, 
 it is liable to affect the milk. 
 
 The most common of the diseases that affect cows is 
 tuberculosis or consumption. It has been found that the
 
 DAIRYING IQ7 
 
 tuberculin test will show what cows have the disease. 
 Such cows should be disposed of. Although cows may 
 be afflicted with tuberculosis without spreading the disease 
 among those who use the milk, it is not safe to use it. 
 
 To keep cows in a healthy condition, they should have 
 plenty of pure air, good light, and clean stables. The 
 stables should be ventilated, and should not be over- 
 crowded. Not less than one thousand cubic feet of space 
 should be allowed for each cow. 
 
 The stable should be kept just as clean as possible. All 
 dirt, dust, and manure should be cleaned out regularly. 
 
 Condition of the Cow. The cow is a sensitive and af- 
 fectionate animal. The yield and quality of the milk she 
 gives depend much upon her mental condition. She be- 
 comes acquainted with her milker. If he treats her kindly 
 she enjoys being milked, and yields her largest amount of 
 milk of the highest quality; but if she is afraid of her 
 milker, and if she is scolded and abused, both the quantity 
 and the quality of her milk are reduced. These facts have 
 been proved by the most careful experiments. The wise 
 dairyman will make his cows comfortable by giving them 
 food and drink that they enjoy. He will give them light 
 and clean quarters. He will protect them from cold in 
 winter, and from insects in summer. He will also treat 
 them tenderly, so as to win their affection. 
 
 Condition of Surroundings If the cow produces good 
 milk, the milk may still be spoiled unless all impurities are 
 kept out of it. The milker should have clean clothes and 
 clean hands, and should milk into pails that have been 
 thoroughly washed. The cow should be curried and 
 brushed, so that dirt may not fall into the pail while milk-
 
 DAIRYING 
 
 ing is in progress. The udder should be thoroughly 
 clean, and the milking should be done with dry hands. 
 The milk coming from a healthy. cow is pure, but, if it is 
 kept in a dirty stable or in a milk room where the air is 
 not pure, it soon absorbs the foul odors and becomes 
 tainted. 
 
 Bacteria. There are many bacteria that get into the 
 warm milk, and multiply so rapidly that the milk sours. 
 To avoid the bacteria, the utmost cleanliness must be ob- 
 
 FIG. 116. Microscopic appearance of ordinary milk showing fat globules and bacteria in 
 the milk serum. The cluster of bacteria on left side are lactic-acid-forming germs. (H. L. 
 Russell, Wis. Bui. No. 62.) 
 
 served in the stables, in milking and in the milk room. 
 It will be impossible even then to avoid them altogether, 
 but their number will be greatly reduced. Cooling the 
 milk as soon as possible after it is drawn prevents the 
 bacteria from multiplying, and makes it possible to keep 
 the milk sweet.
 
 DAIRYING 
 
 I 99 
 
 Kinds of Bacteria. There are many bacteria found 
 in milk. Some work on the milk sugar, and turn it to 
 lactic acid and thus sour the milk. Others attack 
 the fat in milk and make butter rancid or strong. Still 
 others give to butter its flavor. These are called friendly 
 bacteria, and are often put into cream to give the butter 
 just the flavor desired. By cleanliness and care in cooling 
 the milk, the harmful bacteria may be held in check, so 
 that the friendly bacteria may have a chance to grow. 
 
 Progeny of 
 a Single Germ 
 in twelve hours. 
 
 FIG. 117. Cooling hinders growth of bacteria. (H. L. Russell, VVis. Bui. No. 62.) 
 
 Pasteurization It has been found possible to destroy 
 all disease germs and the bacteria that are unfriendly in 
 milk by pasteurising it. In this process, the milk is 
 heated to a temperature of about 160 F., and held at that 
 point for about fifteen minutes ; then it is cooled as rapidly 
 as possible to a temperature of 50 F. This destroys the 
 germs but does not otherwise affect the milk. Many 
 machines have been invented for doing this work, but it 
 may be done in the home without the use of machinery.
 
 2OO 
 
 DAIRYING 
 
 The Cream Separator. The cream separator is a ma- 
 chine for separating the cream from the milk. It does 
 
 the work much better 
 and much more quickly 
 than it can be done by 
 allowing the cream to 
 rise in pans or in cans. 
 
 The milk is turned 
 into a bowl which is ro- 
 tated rapidly. The milk 
 being heavier than the 
 cream, is thrown by the 
 revolving bowl to the 
 outside, and passes out 
 through a spout, while 
 the cream seeks the 
 center and passes out 
 through another spout. 
 The separator collects 
 many impurities from 
 the milk that even the 
 best strainers fail to catch. Separator cream is therefore 
 much purer than other cream. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Name the four most important substances in milk. 
 Give the percentage of each. 
 
 2. How much milk does a good cow give in a year? 
 
 3. How should milk be handled to keep it sweet? 
 
 FIG. x*. -Cream separator.
 
 36. DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING THE BABCOCK 
 
 TEST. 
 
 Illustrative Material: Sample of milk, pipette, test bottles, acid 
 measure, acid, and the Babcock tester; sulphuric acid with a specific 
 gravity of about 1.82. 
 
 Sampling the Milk Great care should be taken to 
 have the sample of milk represent as nearly as possible 
 the whole lot from which it was taken. Milk fresh from 
 the cow, while it is still warm and before the cream has 
 separated in a layer, may be thoroughly mixed by pouring 
 it three or four times from one vessel to another. Sam- 
 ples taken at once from milk mixed in this way give the 
 best results. Milk that has stood until a layer of cream 
 has formed should be poured a greater number of times 
 so that the cream shall be thoroughly broken up and the 
 whole appear like milk. No clots of cream should appear 
 on the surface when the milk is left quiet for a minute. 
 
 Measuring the Milk. When the milk has been well 
 mixed, the milk pipette is filled by placing its lower end 
 in the milk and sucking at the upper end until the milk 
 rises above the mark on the stem; then remove the pipette 
 from the mouth and quickly close the tube at the upper 
 end by firmly pressing the tip of the index finger upon 
 it so the milk cannot flow from the pipette. Holding the 
 pipette up straight, with the mark on a level with the 
 eye, carefully admit air slowly to the space above 
 the milk, till the upper surface of the milk falls to 
 the mark upon the stem. Always have the upper
 
 202 DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING THE BABCOCK TEST 
 
 \ 
 
 C.C. 
 
 end of the pipette and the finger dry when measuring 
 milk, as it is almost impossible gradually to lower the 
 milk if the finger is wet. Next, 
 place the point of the pipette in 
 the mouth of one of the test bot- 
 tles, held in a slightly slanting 
 position so that the milk can flow 
 down the side of the tube, and re- 
 move the finger, allowing the 
 milk to flow into the bottle. After 
 waiting a short time for the 
 pipette to drain, blow into the 
 upper end to expel all the milk. 
 
 Adding the Acid When the 
 milk has been measured into the 
 test bottles, the necessary amount 
 of acid may be added immedi- 
 ately or the bottles may be left 
 for a day or two without mate- 
 rially changing the results. 
 
 The amount of acid required 
 for a test is about the same as that 
 of the milk, 17.5 c. c. for the 
 ordinary test. If too little acid is 
 added, the casein is not all held in 
 solution throughout the test, and 
 an imperfect separation of the fat 
 results. If too much acid is used, 
 the fat itself is attacked. Great 
 care must be taken in handling the 
 acid to avoid getting any of it on the skin or clothing. 
 
 \
 
 DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING THE BABCOCK TEST 
 
 203 
 
 The acid measure is filled to the 17.5 c. c. mark with 
 acid, which is then carefully poured into a test bottle 
 containing milk. The bottle should be held in a slightly 
 slanting position so that the acid may flow down its 
 side and not come in contact with the milk too suddenly 
 and thus act upon it unevenly. The acid being heavier 
 than the milk, sinks directly to the bottom of the test bot- 
 tle without mixing with the milk, which floats upon it. 
 The acid and milk should now be thoroughly mixed by 
 being gently shaken with a rotary motion. The mixture 
 becomes quite hot and soon changes to a dark brown color. 
 
 Whirling the Bottles. The test bottles containing the 
 mixture of milk and acid may be placed in the machine 
 directly after the acid is added, or they may be allowed 
 to stand several hours without harm. An even number 
 of bottles should be whirled at the same time, and they 
 should be placed in the wheel in pairs opposite each other. 
 When all the test bottles have been placed in the appara- 
 tus, the cover should be placed upon the jacket and the 
 machine turned at such a rate that the wheel carrying 
 the bottles shall make from 700 to 1,200 revolutions per 
 minute. This motion must be kept up for six or seven 
 minutes. 
 
 Adding Hot Water. As soon as the bottles have been 
 sufficiently whirled, pour in enough hot water to bring 
 the mixture up to the bottom of the neck. Put the bottles 
 into the machine and whirl them again for about three 
 minutes. Pour in enough hot water to bring all the fat 
 up into the neck of the bottle, where it may be measured. 
 
 Measuring the Fat. To measure the fat, take a bottle 
 from its socket, and, holding it in an upright position
 
 204 DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING THE BABCOCK TEST 
 
 with the scale on a level with the eye, observe the divi- 
 sions which mark the highest and lowest limits of the fat. 
 The fat should be read from the extreme top of the curved 
 upper surface, and not from the bottom or middle of 
 the same. The difference between these divisions gives 
 the per cent of fat directly. The reading can easily be 
 taken to half divisions or to one tenth of one per cent. 
 
 Example If the figures on the necks of the bottles 
 gave the per cent of butter fat, for example, as from o 
 to 3, there would be three per cent. The spaces between 
 the figures represent one per cent, and each space between 
 the lines represents two tenths of one per cent. Thus, if 
 the bottom of the oil in the neck of the bottle stood at 
 the figure 2. and the top of the third fine line above the 
 figure 6, there would be four and six tenths per cent 
 (4.6 per cent). Each per cent represents one pound of 
 butter fat in one hundred pounds of milk. 
 
 Amount of Butter. Butter itself contains several sub- 
 stances besides butter fat, so that the amount of butter 
 shows an increase of from ten per cent to eighteen per 
 cent. Hence, in figuring the amount of butter made, this 
 increase should be added to the amount of butter fat which 
 is shown by the Babcock test. 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 1. If the test reads 4.5, how many pounds of butter fat 
 are there in 100 pounds of that kind of milk? 
 
 2. One cow gives 50 pounds of milk a day, which tests 
 3.6 per cent of butter fat. Another gives 35 pounds of 
 milk a day, which tests 5.8 per cent. Which cow is the 
 more profitable if butter fat is sold?
 
 37. PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING. 
 
 Substances in Bodies of Animals. The bodies of ani- 
 mals contain flesh, fat, bones, teeth, hair, etc. ; or, we may 
 say that their bodies are composed of water, ash (mineral 
 matter), protein, and fat. These are the substances that 
 must be supplied in the food that the animals eat. The 
 body is more than half water, and it is fortunate that ani- 
 mals have but little difficulty in getting it. Besides the 
 water that they drink, a large part of their food is com- 
 posed of water. The ash, or mineral matter, is found in 
 all of the foods that animals eat. The largest part of it is 
 phosphate of lime. Protein is the name given to the most 
 important group of substances to be supplied by the food. 
 It forms the principal part of the flesh, skin, brain, and 
 nerves. It contains nitrogen as its most important ele- 
 ment. Fat is found in nearly all parts of the body, and is 
 very important in the composition of milk. 
 
 Substances to be Studied. Little attention need be 
 given to supplying water or ash to animals. These may 
 be obtained ordinarily in large quantities without cost. 
 The protein and the fat-forming foods, however, require 
 considerable attention. They are the expensive part of 
 the food of an animal, and should be fed with care so that 
 there may be no loss. 
 
 Protein and Carbohydrates. These are two words 
 that may seem difficult to understand at first, but they are 
 really very simple. Use the words whenever possible, 
 
 205
 
 206 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING 
 
 and they will not seem so difficult. Have you ever made 
 chewing gum by chewing the grains of wheat? This 
 gum was made almost entirely of protein. It is called 
 gluten in the wheat. In cheese, it is called casein. In 
 the white of an egg, it is called albumen. Protein is found 
 in all the field grains, in hay, .in clover, in peas, and in 
 beans. It goes to form the flesh, the cartilage, the hair, 
 the wool, and the casein and albumen of milk. It forms 
 the material in the body that is used up when work is 
 performed. Carbohydrates are principally the sugars and 
 the starches. Granulated sugar is a pure crystallized car- 
 bohydrate. Potato is composed almost entirely of starch 
 and sugar. The potato is a carbohydrate. Nearly all 
 fruits and vegetables are carbohydrates. The grains have 
 some starch in them, and that part of them is carbohydrate. 
 The same may be said of hay, grass, and fodder. The 
 carbohydrates are chiefly valuable in keeping up the heat 
 of the body and in forming fat. 
 
 Office of Protein and Carbohydrates. Protein and 
 carbohydrates may be likened to the coal that is put into 
 the steam engine to give it power to do work. When the 
 work is done, the substances are consumed or burned up. 
 It is an interesting fact that the carbohydrates are much 
 more easily consumed in the body than the proteins. 
 When the body has work to do, or uses up fuel in keeping 
 warm, it first calls on the carbohydrates for service. The 
 proteins are not used until the carbohydrates are largely 
 consumed; then the proteins are called on. If more car- 
 bohydrates be furnished than is necessary to keep the body 
 warm and to furnish the energy for work, the body stores 
 it up in the shape of fat. The dairy cow secretes it in the
 
 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING 207 
 
 udder ; the beef cow and the hog lay the fat on over the 
 muscles. 
 
 Fat. Some foods, such as cotton-seed meal, linseed 
 meal, nuts, etc., contain a considerable quantity of oil or 
 fat. This is used by the animals for food in the same way 
 and for the same purpose as the carbohydrates. It is, 
 however, about two and one-fourth times as valuable in 
 producing heat as the same quantity of carbohydrates. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Make a list of ten animal foods valuable chiefly for 
 protein. 
 
 2. Make a list of ten foods valuable chiefly as carbo- 
 hydrates. 
 
 3. Consult the Table on pages 257, 258 and arrange the 
 foods in each list according to the relative amounts of 
 protein, carbohydrate, and fat in each. 
 
 Feeding Standards. It is evident from the lists that 
 you have made that the most expensive foods are those 
 valuable chiefly for the protein which they contain. The 
 economical farmer will feed these foods as sparingly as 
 possible and still produce the results he desires. It has 
 been found by careful testing just what proportion of 
 protein and carbohydrates it is best to feed an animal. 
 For instance, it has been found that, for an average dairy 
 cow, about six times as much carbohydrates as protein 
 should be fed for the best results. This relation is usu- 
 ally expressed as a ratio, as i to 6 or 1 : 6, and is called the 
 nutritive ratio. This means that, for every pound of 
 protein, six pounds of carbohydrates should be given.
 
 208 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING 
 
 Chemists have determined the amounts of protein and 
 carbohydrates in all of the common feeding stuffs. From 
 tables prepared by them, we may "figure out" a ration 
 with such foods as may be raised on the farm or pur- 
 chased. It is sometimes more economical to sell certain 
 feed, and to buy other feed that contains the elements 
 needed to make a proper ration. 
 
 Balanced Ration. A balanced ration is one that con- 
 tains protein, carbohydrates, and fat in the proportions 
 that will secure the best results. Suppose we wished to 
 make a balanced ration for an average dairy cow. We find 
 from the Table, Amount of Nutrients, pp. 259, 260, that 
 such a cow needs daily about twenty-seven pounds of dry 
 matter. She needs two pounds of digestible protein, eleven 
 pounds of carbohydrates, and four-tenths of a pound of fat. 
 If we multiply the fat required by two and one-fourth, it 
 will be equivalent to about one pound of carbohydrates. 
 The nutritive ratio, given in the Table, Amount of Nu- 
 trients, is i : 6. Suppose we have clover hay, corn stover, 
 bran, corn meal, and cotton-seed meal, to feed. 
 
 Clover hay, 15 Ibs 
 
 Dry 
 
 matter. 
 
 12.7 
 
 Digestible 
 protein. 
 
 1 02 
 
 Digestible 
 carbohydrates. 
 
 5.9 
 
 Corn stover, 7.5 Ibs 
 
 4.5 
 
 13 
 
 2.5 
 
 Bran, 2.5 Ibs 
 
 2 2 
 
 .30 
 
 1 2 
 
 Corn meal, 3 Ibs . 
 
 2 7 
 
 23 
 
 2 3 
 
 Cotton-seed meal, 1 Ib 
 
 .9 
 
 .38 
 
 .4 
 
 
 
 
 
 Result 
 
 23.0 
 
 2.06 
 
 12.3 
 
 Standard. . 
 
 27.0 
 
 2.00 
 
 12.0 
 
 Nutritive ratio, 1 : 6. 
 
 It must not be expected that a ration will figure out 
 exactly according to the needs. The above ration is close
 
 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING 2OO, 
 
 enough for all practical purposes. The "dry matter" 
 is about four pounds short of the requirement, but that 
 is not important. The figuring out of a ration for any 
 animal is somewhat a matter of guessing. 
 
 Suppose we wish to figure out a ration for a horse 
 at light work and weighing one thousand pounds. We 
 have on hand mixed hay, oats, and bran. How much of 
 each may we feed, and make a balanced ration? Let us 
 look first on page 259 of the Appendix, and we see that a 
 horse weighing about 1,000 pounds, at light work, re- 
 quires daily 20 pounds of digestible dry matter, 1.5 
 pounds of protein, and 10.4 pounds of carbohydrates (.4 
 Ibs. X 2^ + 9-5 Ibs.), making a ratio of 1:7. That is, 
 seven times as many pounds of carbohydrates and fats as 
 protein should be fed. This we might call a medium 
 ratio. 1 
 
 Now let us make a guess of a ration for our work horse. 
 Let us take fifteen pounds of mixed hay (equal parts of 
 timothy and red clover) and five pounds of oats, and see 
 how close our result comes to the standard. From the 
 Table on pages 257, 258, we find our ration figures out as 
 follows: 
 
 Digestible Digestible Digestible 
 dry matter. protein, carbohydrates. 
 
 15 Ibs. Mixed hay 12.9 .72 6.5 
 
 5 Ibs. Oats.. 4.5 .44 2.9 
 
 Result 17.4 1.16 9.4 
 
 Standard 20.0 1.50 10.4 
 
 Lacks 2.6 Lacks .34 Lacks 1.0 
 
 1 The terms "medium" ratio, "wide" ratio and "narrow" ratio are used to 
 indicate the relative amount of carbohydrates compared with the protein elements. 
 A "wide" ratio means more of the carbohydrates as compared with the proteins, 
 G. & M. Ag. 14.
 
 210 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING 
 
 The ration so far is lacking in food at every point. We 
 must select foods for the remainder of the ration that 
 have a narrow ratio. Let us add three pounds of bran. 
 This will produce the following result: 
 
 Previously obtained. . 
 
 Dry matter. 
 17.4 
 
 Protein. ( 
 1.16 
 
 Carbohydrates. 
 9.4 
 
 3 Ibs. Bran 
 
 2.6 
 
 .36 
 
 1.4 
 
 
 
 
 
 Result . . 
 
 20.0 
 
 1.52 
 
 10.8 
 
 Standard 
 
 20.0 
 
 1.50 
 
 10.4 
 
 
 
 
 
 Excess .02 Excess .4 
 
 Comparing our result with the standard, we find that 
 the weight of dry matter is equal to the requirement. It 
 has an excess of .02 Ib. of the amount required for protein. 
 The amount of carbohydrates is close enough to the stand- 
 ard for all practical purposes. It is not necessary that the 
 ration be brought exactly to the standard; but, in the 
 amounts of protein and carbohydrates, it should not 
 vary much from it. If the amount of dry matter vary 
 two or three pounds either way, it will make but little 
 difference. 
 
 Cost and Feeding. The wise farmer will figure the 
 cost of the different food stuffs very carefully to find out 
 what is the most profitable to feed. It is often best to 
 sell some of the foods having a wide ratio, such as hay 
 and potatoes, and to purchase foods having a narrow ra- 
 tio, such as cotton-seed or linseed meal. 
 
 than the "medium" ratio; a "narrow" ratio means less of the carbohydrates. 
 For a dairy cow, the ratio of i : 6 might be considered a medium ratio; i : 4, a 
 narrow ratio; and i : 12, a wide ratio.
 
 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING 211 
 
 Manurial Value of Feeding Stuffs. On account of 
 the value of certain foods as manure, it is also necessary 
 to figure on the manurial value of a food as well as on its 
 feeding value. From the Table on page 261, it may be 
 seen that some substances are of far greater value as 
 manure than others, and this fact should be considered 
 in making a profitable ration, and in determining what 
 foods to sell and what to purchase. 
 
 PROBLEMS AND EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Make a ration for a milch cow of about 1,000 pounds 
 weight, using silage, alfalfa, and wheat bran. 
 
 2. Suppose a farmer has ground oats, corn meal, red 
 clover hay, and stover (cornstalks) on his farm. Could 
 a balanced ration for a dairy cow be made from these 
 alone? Select additional foods from the table to make 
 a balanced ration for a dairy cow (1,000 Ibs.). 
 
 3. Make a ration for a dairy cow (1,000 Ibs.), having 
 the usual ratio of i : 6, of red clover hay, mangels, corn 
 meal, oats, wheat bran, and gluten meal. 
 
 4. A farmer fed his cows, averaging about 1,000 
 pounds each, 10 pounds timothy hay, 13 pounds stover, 
 and 6 pounds straw. His cows averaged but 156 pounds 
 of butter each year. Why does he get such poor results? 
 Suggest changes in the feed that would be likely to in- 
 crease the amount of butter produced. 
 
 5. A fanner feeds a i,ooo-pound steer in the second 
 period of fattening the following ration: 40 pounds of corn 
 silage, 10 pounds of red clover hay, 4 pounds of corn and 
 cob meal, 3 pounds of oats and 6 pounds of gluten meal.
 
 212 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING 
 
 Calculate the nutritive ratio. How does it compare with 
 the standard ration? (See page 259.) 
 
 6. A herd of Shorthorns, weighing an average of 1,300 
 pounds, was fed daily as follows: 
 
 Mixed hay 10 Ibs. 
 
 Stover 5 Ibs. 
 
 Straw 5 Ibs. 
 
 Mangels 15 Ibs. 
 
 Corn meal 2 Ibs. 
 
 Wheat bran 2 Ibs. 
 
 What is the nutritive ratio of this ration? Suggest 
 changes that would produce better results.
 
 38. HORSES. 
 
 Breeds. The different breeds of horses may be classed 
 as follows : 
 
 1. Those valuable for speed. 
 
 2. Those valuable for drawing loads. 
 
 3. Those valuable as coach horses. 
 
 4. Ponies. 
 
 FIG. 122. One of General Grant's Arabians. 
 
 Horses Valuable for Speed The Arabian horse was 
 probably the origin of horses noted for speed. At pres- 
 ent, it is not so speedy as many of the breeds which 
 
 213
 
 2I 4 
 
 HORSES 
 
 have sprung from it. After General Grant made his trip 
 around the world, he was presented with a fine team of 
 Arabians. A picture of one of them is given ( Figure 122). 
 The Thoroughbred horse is an animal of great endur- 
 ance and great speed. The Thoroughbreds are running 
 horses and are bred chiefly for racing. The breed was 
 
 FIG. 123. Dan Patch, 1:5654. 
 
 established in England by a mixture of native stock with 
 Arabian. 
 
 The American trotting horses do not yet make a dis- 
 tinct breed, but they are better known than many of the 
 distinct breeds. The most important families of this class
 
 HORSES 
 
 215 
 
 are Hambletonians, Mambrinos, and Clays. The Mor- 
 gans, also, belong to this class, and are probably the most 
 popular for general purposes. 
 
 Horses Valuable for Drawing Loads (Draft). The 
 draft horses differ chiefly from the horses valued for speed 
 
 FIG. 124. Percheron stallion. 
 
 in being much heavier and larger. The back is broader 
 and the legs are shorter. The chief breeds are here illus- 
 trated. 
 
 The Percheron was developed in France. When the
 
 2l6 
 
 HORSES 
 
 breed was first established most of the horses were dap- 
 pled gray, but the largest number are now black or dark 
 brown. The Percherons are good farm horses. They 
 are gentle, active, and strong. The French Draft horse 
 is similar to the Percheron. 
 
 FIG. 125. Clydesdale stallion. 
 
 The English Shire horse is low, broad, and stout. It 
 is not a very active breed and is adapted to drawing heavy 
 loads with slow motion. 
 
 The Clydesdale, a native of Scotland, is a well muscled, 
 well proportioned horse. Fine Iqng hair grows from the 
 edge of the lower legs. The Clydesdale has a rapid walk 
 and is a very useful and popular farm horse.
 
 HORSES 
 
 217 
 
 Coach Horses. These horses are in size and form be- 
 tween the speed horses and the draft horses, having some 
 of the qualities of each. The chief breeds are the French 
 Coach, the Cleveland Bay, the German Coach and the 
 Hackney horse. 
 
 Ponies These horses are much smaller than other 
 breeds. 
 
 FIG. 126. Coach horses. 
 
 The Shetland ponies, originating in the Shetland 
 Islands, near the west coast of Scotland, are bred for 
 their small size. They are especially adapted for chil- 
 dren's use. 
 
 The Indian ponies, in the northern part of the United 
 States, and the Mustangs, in the southern part, originated 
 from the horses brought to this country by the early ex- 
 plorers from Spain and France. Both the Indian Pony 
 and the Mustang are valuable as saddle animals.
 
 2l8 
 
 HORSES 
 
 Care of Horses. The horse is a noble animal, of fine 
 spirit and sensibilities, and requires careful treatment. 
 
 Kind treatment and gen- 
 tle handling will give 
 the horse a good dispo- 
 sition, and will save 
 money in feed besides. 
 It will pay to figure out 
 a good ration for the 
 horse from the tables 
 given in the Appendix. 
 A well-balanced ration 
 will keep a horse in good 
 
 ^--^ condition without over- 
 
 feeding. Young people 
 FIG. 127. Shetland pony. w h o have read "Black 
 
 Beauty " will sympathize with the horse, and will give 
 him the best of treatment. 
 
 SOME HORSE SENSE. 
 
 (From Biggie Book.) 
 
 Be gentle, be kind, be patient. 
 
 The brush will save oats. 
 
 If you must put frosty bits in .some mouth, let it be 
 your own. Suffering begets sympathy. 
 
 Many a horse stands up all night because his stall is 
 not made so that he can lie down in comfort. 
 
 You can not whip terror out of a horse, or pound cour- 
 age into one. If he shies or becomes frightened, soothe 
 and encourage him rather than beat and abuse him. 
 
 A horse can travel safer and better if he is not checked 
 too high. Let your working horse have his head.
 
 39. SHEEP. 
 
 Breeds of Sheep. Sheep are raised for their mutton 
 and for their wool. The breeds are often classified ac- 
 cording to the fineness of their wool. The fine-wooled 
 sheep are the Merino, the Delaine, and the Rambouillet. 
 The medium-wooled breeds are the Southdown, the 
 
 FIG. 128. American Merino ram, four years old. 
 
 Shropshire, the Dorset, the Hampshire, the Oxford, and 
 the Cheviot. The long-wooled sheep are the Leicester, 
 the Cotswold, and the Lincoln. 
 
 Fine-wooled Sheep. The Merino is a native of Spain, 
 and is distinguished by the large wrinkles on its neck and 
 body, and its fine, oily wool. The wool of this sheep is
 
 22O 
 
 SHEEP 
 
 FIG izg. Cheviot ram. 
 
 finer than that of any other breed. The Merino is raised 
 chiefly for its wool, though some families produce very 
 
 FIG. 130. Southdown ram.
 
 SHEEP 
 
 221 
 
 good mutton. Large numbers of Merinos are raised in 
 the southwestern states of our country. They are par- 
 ticularly adapted to warm climates. 
 
 The Delaine is de- 
 scended from the 
 Merino. It is larger 
 and stronger than 
 the Merino, and is 
 freer from wrink- 
 les. This breed is 
 coming in favor for 
 its mutton. 
 
 The Rambouillet, 
 or French Merinos, 
 are the largest of the 
 Merinos and have a 
 mutton form. The 
 fleece is not so heavy 
 in proportion to the 
 size of the sheep as 
 
 the MerinOS ^ IG> I31- Shropshire yearling. 
 
 The Cheviot is a native of the hills between England 
 ?.nd Scotland. It is a hardy -breed and produces a wool 
 adapted to make the cheviot cloth. The entire head and 
 the legs are pure white. 
 
 The Medium-wooled Breeds The Soiif/idoiim, the 
 smallest of the medium-wooled breeds, is an English 
 sheep. It is hornless, its head and legs being of a gray- 
 brown color. The wool is of medium fineness, but the 
 sheep is valuable chiefly for its production of mutton. 
 
 The Shropshire sheep takes its name from the county of
 
 222 
 
 SHEEP 
 
 FIG. 152. Hampshire-down ram. 
 
 the same name in England, where it was first brought to 
 notice. It resembles the Southdown in appearance. It 
 
 FIG. 133. Oxford-down ram.
 
 SHEEP 
 
 223 
 
 is especially adapted for the lowlands, thus being prob- 
 ably the best all-purpose sheep for the central part of 
 the United States. 
 
 The Dorset is valuable chiefly in producing winter 
 lambs. Both the rams and the ewes have horns. They 
 are considerably larger than the Southdowns. The head 
 and legs are white. 
 
 The Horned Dorset is an English breed. Its nose, 
 
 FIG. 134. Lincoln ram. 
 
 hoofs and legs are white, and it has a tuft of wool on its 
 forehead. The Horned Dorsets are not so important or 
 so widely distributed as the Merinos. 
 
 The Hampshire is similar to the Shropshire, but is 
 larger and coarser. 
 
 The Oxford is the largest of this class of sheep. 
 Neither the Hampshire nor the Oxford sheep are widely 
 distributed in the United States. 
 
 The Long-wooled Breeds The Leicester, Cotswold,
 
 224 SHEEP 
 
 and Lincoln are English sheep bred chiefly for their long 
 wool. They are of large size and require rich pasturage. 
 They are not popular breeds in the United States. 
 
 Advantage of Sheep Production. Rough and scanty 
 pasturage that would be too poor for other farm animals, 
 may often be used to raise sheep. As a result, also, the 
 fertility of the land is greatly increased, and weeds are 
 kept down. The profits from sheep raising under favor- 
 able conditions are greater than those from raising stock 
 of any other kind. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 
 
 1. How are sheep classified? 
 
 2. What breed of sheep has the finest wool? 
 
 3. What are the long-wooled breeds of sheep? 
 
 4. What are some of the advantages of sheep raising? 
 
 5. Make a list of the breeds of sheep raised in your neigh- 
 borhood.
 
 40. SWINE. 
 
 Breeds of Swine The different breeds of swine are 
 divided into classes according to size. The most impor- 
 tant breeds of hogs are the Berkshire, the Poland-China, 
 the Duroc Jersey, the Tamworth, the Large Yorkshire, 
 and the Chester White. 
 
 FIG. 135. Texas razor back hog. 
 
 The Berkshires. The Berkshires are black, with white 
 markings on the head, feet, and sometimes on the front 
 legs. The head is thick and short and the face is dished. 
 
 The Poland-Chinas. This breed is black, with white 
 markings on the head and feet. The head is short and 
 thick, with slightly dished face and small, drooping ears. 
 
 The Duroc Jerseys. These swine are red or light 
 brown. They have short heads, with slightly dished 
 
 G. & M. Ag is. 
 
 225
 
 226 
 
 SWINE 
 
 faces, and drooping ears. The body is compact and 
 plump and resembles that of the Poland-Chinas. 
 
 
 FIG. 136. Berkshire hog. 
 
 The Large Yorkshires. This breed is white. They 
 have long, narrow bodies, medium length heads, erect 
 ears, and much dished faces. 
 
 FIG. 137. Poland-China hog.
 
 SWINE 
 
 227 
 
 The Tamworths. These hogs are red or brown in 
 color, like the Duroc Jerseys, but they have longer legs 
 
 FIG. 138. Duroc Jersey hog.. 
 
 and slimmer bodies than that breed. The nose is long 
 and straight, and the ears are erect. 
 
 FIG. 139. Tamworth hog. 
 
 The Chester Whites. As the name indicates, these 
 hogs are white. The head is short and slightly dished. 
 The ears are drooping and the body is large and compact.
 
 228 SWINE 
 
 The Advantage of Swine Raising A pound of swine 
 flesh can be produced more cheaply than a pound of flesh 
 in any other farm animal. The hog is built so compactly 
 that there is very little waste in slaughtering, and it will 
 eat many kinds of food that could not be disposed of 
 otherwise. If hogs are kept in clean quarters and are fed 
 
 FIG. 140. Chester White hog. 
 
 properly, they are not likely to become diseased. Under 
 such conditions, hog raising is a profitable industry. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Make a ration, consisting of skim milk and corn, for 
 a pig weighing fifty to one hundred pounds. 
 
 2. A hog weighing one hundred and fifty pounds is 
 to be fattened with corn and middlings. Make a ration 
 adapted for this purpose. 
 
 3. Why is hog raising a profitable industry? 
 
 4. What breeds of hogs are black? Red? White?
 
 41. POULTRY (PI. II., III., IV.). 
 
 The Profit of Poultry Raising The importance of the 
 poultry business has not been appreciated by the farmers. 
 The value of the poultry and eggs produced in the United 
 States in one year amounts to about one-half billion 
 dollars. If proper attention were given to this industry 
 on the farm, a much larger profit might be secured. A 
 small flock of not to exceed fifty hens, with careful atten- 
 tion, will add a considerable amount to the farmer's in- 
 come. It often happens that those who are unable to do 
 heavy work on the farm may employ their time with 
 profit in caring for poultry. 
 
 Breeds of Chickens. It pays to keep nothing but pure 
 bred fowls on the farm. The common or mongrel stock 
 will eat just as much and will require just as much care 
 as the pure bred stock, and, as a rule, they do not pro- 
 duce so well. 
 
 Chickens may be raised chiefly for the eggs which they 
 lay. They are then called " egg breeds." They may 
 be raised for their flesh. These are called " meat breeds." 
 Both of these objects may be served, and the fowl belong 
 to the " general purpose " breeds. 
 
 Egg Breeds. The best known egg breeds are the Leg- 
 horn, the Minorca, and the Houdan. 
 
 The Leghorns may be brown, white, black or buff. 
 They are rather small, nervous fowls, with large red 
 combs and wattles. They are great layers, but they do 
 
 229
 
 230 POULTRY 
 
 not sit. The Leghorns should not be kept in close con- 
 finement, but should be allowed a large range. 
 
 The Minorcas are either black or white. They, also, 
 have large combs. Under proper conditions, they are 
 extra good layers. The flesh is not regarded as the best 
 for table use. 
 
 The Houdans are beautiful fowls. They have a top- 
 knot of feathers on the head and V-shaped combs. They 
 have five toes on each foot instead of four, the usual 
 number. They are good layers and non-sitters. Were 
 it not for the fact that they are rather delicate, and that 
 the topknots on the head prevent their seeing danger 
 easily, they would be one of the most popular breeds. 
 
 Meat Breeds. The Brahmas are the most important 
 of the meat breeds. The Light Brahmas are the largest 
 variety of fowl. They lay large brown eggs, and are 
 good sitters. They bear confinement well, and are quiet 
 in disposition. The legs and toes are heavily feathered. 
 The Dark Brahmas are similar to the Light Brahmas, 
 but are about one pound lighter in weight. 
 
 The Cochins, of which there are four breeds, the 
 Partridge, Buff, Black, and White, are the hardiest 
 of all the breeds. . The feathers are heavy and extend 
 down over the toes. The Cochins are good sitters and 
 fair layers. 
 
 The Cornish Indian Games are a distinct meat breed. 
 The meat on the breast is plentiful and delicious. They 
 are poor layers, but good sitters. 
 
 The General Purpose Breeds The Plymouth Rocks 
 are the most popular class of fowls in America. There 
 are three breeds : the Barred, the White, and the Buff.
 
 POULTRY 
 
 231 
 
 They are hardy, beautiful, good layers, and fairly good 
 sitters. The meat is good for table use. 
 
 The Wyandottes are close to the Plymouth Rocks in 
 popularity. Many think them the better fowl for gen- 
 eral purposes. They have compact bodies, are fairly 
 good sitters and are splendid layers. They lay dark 
 eggs and are good table fowls. 
 
 Care of Fowls. Choose a place for the poultry house 
 that shall have good drainage. A southern or south- 
 eastern slope is best, so that the fowls may have plenty 
 of sunshine, and be protected from the northwest wind. 
 
 FIG. 141. A good hen-house with shed. 
 
 Build a snug, comfortable house for the chickens to live 
 in at night. Houses that are comfortable save much 
 grain, and encourage hens to lay in winter. Attached 
 to the hen-house should be a larger, more open scratch- 
 ing shed. Make this large enough to furnish about four 
 square feet of scratching surface for each hen. The 
 scratching shed should open toward the south, so that the 
 fowls may get the full benefit of the sunshine. In a 
 sunny corner of the shed, a box, filled with fine dust 
 scraped from the road in the summer time, should be 
 placed. Chickens delight in the dust bath, and it helps
 
 232 
 
 POULTRY 
 
 FIG. 
 
 142. Homemade drinking 
 fountain. 
 
 to free them from lice. The floor of the shed should be 
 covered with chopped straw or chaff. The grain may 
 be thrown in this to give the poultry proper exercise in 
 scratching and picking it out. 
 
 Feeding As much care should be exercised in feed- 
 ing chickens as in feeding a dairy cow. The balanced 
 
 ration will give the best results. 
 If the chickens are allowed to 
 range over the farm, they will 
 usually supply themselves with 
 food that has the proper pro- 
 portion of egg-forming and of 
 fat-forming material. They 
 will pick up grain, seeds, in- 
 sects, and green blades of grass. When they are kept in 
 a yard, these varieties of food should be supplied in proper 
 proportions. 
 
 Chickens need plenty of pure water. This should be 
 supplied in dishes that are cleaned regularly. A lard 
 pail or other can may be filled with water and turned over 
 suddenly in a shallow pan or in a flower-pot saucer. A 
 little niche or hole near the edge of the pail or can will 
 allow the water to flow into the pan or saucer as it is 
 needed. 
 
 Poultry should have some green food, vegetables or 
 cut grass, grain of. some kind, preferably corn, and meat. 
 It is necessary that meat be fed to the hens in the winter 
 time, if they are expected to lay. The meat furnishes the 
 albumen for the eggs. Beets or cabbage heads may be 
 hung just out of reach of the poultry, so they must jump 
 up to peck at them. This will furnish the green food
 
 POULTRY 
 
 2 33 
 
 necessary in the winter, as well as giving the poultry 
 needed exercise. Cracked oyster shells, crushed glass or 
 other forms of grit, should be placed where the chickens 
 can get all they want. This helps in the digestion of 
 other food, and forms the bones of the poultry and the 
 shells of the eggs. 
 
 Parasites. Poultry are often afflicted with lice and 
 with mites. The lice breed on the chickens, and live 
 upon them. The mites live in the cracks in the roosts, 
 in the nests, and in the walls. They come out in the 
 night time and suck the blood of the fowls. To destroy 
 the lice, sprinkle the chickens with insect powder fre- 
 quently. To destroy the mites, the poultry house should 
 be kept thoroughly clean. The entire inside of the house, 
 including roosts and boxes, should be washed with coal 
 oil every other week. Roosts, boxes, and platforms 
 should be made movable, so that they may be taken out 
 for thorough cleaning. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 
 
 1. How may larger profits from the poultry business on 
 the farm be secured? 
 
 2. Make a list of the various breeds of poultry raised in 
 your neighborhood. 
 
 3. Why do chickens need grit? 
 
 4. What is the value of the dust bath? 
 
 5. Why should all the fixtures in a poultry house be 
 made movable?
 
 42. DUCKS AND TURKEYS (PI. IV.). 
 
 DUCKS. 
 
 Ducks are easily raised on the farm. They eat much 
 fcod that other animals will not touch. They can be 
 
 FIG. 143. Pekin ducks. . . 
 
 raised just as well where there is no swimming pond, 
 though they get much food from the pond if they have 
 the chance. 
 
 Ducks are hatched best under a hen. She is also the 
 best mother for them. Ducklings should not be allowed 
 to go into the water for the first ten days. 
 
 234
 
 DUCKS AND TURKEYS 235 
 
 Breeds of Ducks. The Pekin duck is the best duck 
 for profit. It is easily kept, is a good layer, and brings 
 the highest price in the market. Its white feathers may 
 be sold for a good price. 
 
 The Rouen duck is beautifully colored, and is prob- 
 ably descended directly from the wild duck, the 
 Mallard. 
 
 The Caynga is jet black in plumage, and originated in 
 New York. 
 
 The Aylesbury is the favorite English variety. It is 
 pure dead white. 
 
 TURKEYS. 
 
 Wild turkeys were quite plentiful in America before 
 it was well settled. The turkey on our farms was derived 
 from the wild turkey. 
 
 The meat of the turkey is more desired than that of 
 any other fowl, and it brings the highest price in the 
 market. 
 
 The turkey is of a roving disposition, and does not do 
 well when kept in a small enclosure. It is best not to 
 attempt to keep turkeys in a poultry house. They thrive 
 better when allowed to roost outdoors. 
 
 The turkey hen seeks an out-of-the-way place to lay 
 her eggs. She goes far from the house to make her nest 
 and to rear her young. Sometimes turkeys go a half a 
 mile or more and make their nests in a fence corner or 
 in a brush heap. They may be enticed to nest nearer 
 home by setting a few boards or an old door against a 
 fence corner, and throwing a bunch of hay under it, or 
 by placing barrels and boxes with hay in them on the
 
 236 DUCKS AND TURKEYS 
 
 ground in some secluded spot. The young turkeys, or 
 poults, as they are called, are very delicate, and, until 
 they are ten or twelve weeks old, they should be cared for 
 in coops. They should not be let out of the coop in the 
 morning until the dew is off the grass. 
 
 The Bronze Turkey. This is the largest, the most 
 popular, and the most profitable of all the breeds. The 
 gobblers weigh about thirty-six pounds, and the turkey 
 hens about twenty pounds. This breed furnishes the 
 largest part of the turkey meat for Thanksgiving and 
 Christmas feasts. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 
 
 1. What breeds of ducks are raised in your neighborhood? 
 
 2. Observe ducks when they are foraging for food. 
 What do they eat? 
 
 3. How should young turkeys be cared for? 
 
 4. Observe turkeys when they are catching things to 
 eat. What insects do they eat in large numbers?
 
 43. BEE-KEEPING. 
 
 Bees and Flowers Every country boy or girl knows 
 that nectar is gathered by bees. These little workers fly 
 about from flower to flower, collect the nectar drop by 
 drop, with wonderful industry and patience, and carry it 
 home, where, after freeing it of much of the water which 
 it contains, and adding a preservative acid, they store it 
 away in regular tiers of waxen cells. Then when the 
 weather is so cold that they can not leave the home, they 
 have food on which to live. Bees do not injure the 
 
 Worker. Queen. Drone. 
 
 FIG. 144. Honey bees. 
 
 flowers which they visit. On the contrary, they help 
 them to bear more seed and fruit. Our orchards and 
 berry fields yield more and better fruit because of the bees. 
 Social Life of the Bees. Wild bees live in hollow 
 trees, or sometimes in crevices in rocks; but the honey 
 of the market is gathered by tame bees, that is, by bees 
 that -are kept on the farm. Bees live in large families or 
 colonies, each of which has its queen. Each colony, or, 
 as it is frequently called, " swarm," lives in its own 
 house or " hive," and the bees of one hive are not wel- 
 
 237
 
 238 BEE-KEEPING 
 
 come in another. Each worker bee is armed with a sting, 
 with which to protect its home, but the skilful bee-keeper 
 learns to control his bees so that they do not often use 
 their stings. 
 
 The Workers, the Queen, and the Drone The 
 worker bee is the smallest bee in the hive. It takes the 
 little scales of wax that form between the rings on 
 the abdomen and makes the comb. The oil which is 
 made from the food eaten by the bee finds its way through 
 the bee's body and hardens into waxy scales. The bee 
 plucks a wax scale from its abdomen with its leg-pinchers 
 and passes it forward to its mouth, where it is chewed. 
 The wax is then ready to be made into the six-sided cells 
 which make the comb. The workers also fill the cells 
 with the honey which they make from the nectar of the 
 flowers. The cells are not all of the same size. Some 
 are made for holding honey; others in which the queen 
 lays eggs, are sometimes used also to hold honey or 
 pollen, often called beebread. This beebread is a sticky 
 mass that the bees make by moistening the pollen which 
 they gather from flowers. It is of various colors and 
 somewhat sweetish to the taste. 
 
 The queen bee lays her eggs in three separate sets of 
 cells, placing one egg in each cell. In the small cells, 
 she lays eggs that are to become the workers ; in the cells 
 next larger, she lays the eggs that will become drones 
 when they are hatched. Finally, she lays a few eggs in 
 some large cells built on the edge of the comb. These 
 are called royal cells, and the eggs in them may hatch 
 queens if they are furnished with the proper kind of food 
 by the workers.
 
 BEE-KEEPING 239 
 
 The drones, as you might think from the name, do not 
 gather honey; neither do they have stings. They are 
 the male bees in the hive, and the workers, after the har- 
 vest is ended, drive the drones out of the hive and let 
 them starve, or sting them to death if they attempt to 
 return. 
 
 Life in the Hive. In every hive or colony of bees, 
 there are more worker cells than any other kind, for it is 
 the busy workers that make up the colony. Among 
 these, there are a great many that act as nurses in the 
 hive. These nurse bees take charge of the lame and 
 feed them. As the larvae lie curled up in 
 their cells, they look like little white worms. 
 The nurse bees constantly feed the larvae; 
 first, when young, a sort of "bee-milk" 
 secreted by glands in their own heads, and, 
 later, when the larvae are older, a mixture 
 of this secretion with honey and pollen, or, 
 at last, only honey and pollen. When the 
 larvae have eaten all they need, they FIG. i 4 s. Larva 
 straighten out their small bodies and the 
 workers put a cap on the cell, made up of wax, mixed 
 with gnawings of cocoons, pollen grains, and silk threads. 
 This is porous and permits air to reach the developing 
 insect. Each larva then spins a silken cocoon about 
 itself and goes to sleep in its waxen cradle. 
 
 It takes usually twenty-one days from the time the egg 
 is laid until the perfect worker bee casts aside its silken 
 wrap, gnaws open the cell cover and comes out with four 
 thin wings. The young queens develop in about sixteen 
 days ; but drones require twenty- four days.
 
 240 
 
 BEE-KEEPING 
 
 Many of the honey cells are left open a week or more 
 after they are filled; for the bees will not cap them over 
 with wax until they know that the honey in them is 
 " ripe," or ready to be sealed up. So it is always easy 
 for the young bee to find an open cell where it can eat all 
 it wants. 
 
 When a few days old the workers act as nurse bees, and 
 fly out only for exercise, but, in a couple of weeks they 
 gain full use of their wings and go outside to work with 
 the older bees. It is well that it begins its work at once, 
 for the length of a worker bee's life is but a few months 
 at most, and some of them live only a few weeks. Queen 
 bees, however, have been known to live four or five years. 
 A great many bees in the hive die during the winter; 
 but the queen bee begins to lay her eggs in midwinter or 
 very early in the spring, and those eggs hatch out so fast 
 that the number in the hive is soon as large as ever. A 
 large number of young bees come out of the cells every 
 day during the hatching season, which lasts through the 
 ^ warm summer months, 
 
 and thus the hive is al- 
 ways kept full. 
 
 Swarming. As soon 
 as the oldest queen-cell is 
 
 sealed, a large number of 
 bees, together with the 
 old queen, leave the hive 
 FIG. i 4 6.-Beehive. fa great excitement. This 
 
 is called "swarming." The bees protect the immature 
 queen-cells until the eldest queen emerges, which usually 
 occurs a week after the first swarm issues. Should the
 
 BEE-KEEPING 
 
 241 
 
 colony be sufficiently strong, this young queen will lead 
 out a second swarm, and, in case no further swarming is 
 decided upon, the next queen which emerges will be per- 
 mitted, and even assisted, by the workers in destroying 
 the remaining queen-cells. The bee-keeper often takes 
 advantage of this opportunity to secure from the numer- 
 ous cells formed, surplus queens for colonies that have 
 chanced to lose their own. 
 
 If the new queens are not removed as soon as they 
 come out of their cells, the ruling queen will seek them 
 out, and sting them to death. 
 
 When the bees "swarm," they gather about the queen 
 in a black, buzzing mass, and may alight on the limb of a 
 tree. As soon as possible, spread out a white cloth under 
 the tree. Set upon this a clean, cool hive and shake the 
 bees in front of it, propping up 
 the hive so as to let them enter. 
 The limb may be cut from the 
 tree with the adhering bees, or 
 they may be shaken directly into 
 a large basket and poured out in 
 front of the empty hive. A comb 
 containing unsealed brood, if 
 placed in the hive, will serve as a 
 great attraction to them. Their 
 strong sense of smell will guide 
 them toward it and they will 
 enter their new home joyfully. 
 be given at both the top and bottom of the hive, since 
 the bees are usually much heated by the excitement of 
 swarming. 
 
 G. & M. Ag. 16. 
 
 FIG. 147. Honeycomb. 
 
 Plenty of air should
 
 242 BEE-KEEPING 
 
 Comb Honey and Extracted Honey. In a modern 
 bee-hive, each comb is built by the bees in a movable 
 frame, so that the bee-keeper can remove the combs at 
 will. 
 
 After the hive is well stored with honey, small frames, 
 or sections, are placed over the brood chamber of the 
 hive for the bees to fill with comb and honey. Honey in 
 the cells is called " comb honey." 
 
 Sometimes the combs are removed from the hive as 
 fast as they are filled with honey, and placed in a ma- 
 chine called a " honey extractor." Here they are caused 
 to revolve so rapidly that the honey is thrown out of the 
 cells. It then appears as a thick liquid like syrup, and is 
 called " extracted honey." 
 
 The combs are then replaced in the hive for the bees 
 to fill again with honey. Bees do not like to see empty 
 cells in their hive, and they will work very hard to fill 
 them. The extracting process, therefore, causes bees to 
 make more honey than they would if the honey were 
 left in the cells. 
 
 Sources of Honey Although many kinds of flowers 
 yield some honey, the honey that bees store up in their 
 hives is mostly secured from a few kinds. White and 
 alsike clovers, alfalfa, basswood, raspberry, sourwood, 
 sweet clover, white sage, black mangrove, tulip or " pop- 
 lar " trees, buckwheat, and asters yield the greater part 
 of the honey on the market. Honey bees are able to 
 secure only a small part of the honey from flowers of the 
 red clover. 
 
 Crops are not often grown on purpose for bees, as this 
 would not generally prove profitable.
 
 BEE-KEEPING 343 
 
 Profits in Bee-keeping. In sections where honey- 
 yielding flowers are numerous, and not too many bees 
 are kept, bee-keeping may often be made a profitable 
 addition to the industries of the farm. The bees gather 
 their honey wherever they can find it, and no one disputes 
 their right. 
 
 Bee-keeping by modern methods requires watchful 
 care and skillful management. The work connected with 
 it is, however, very light, and is easily performed by 
 women. 
 
 With good management, bees yield a considerable in- 
 come to the owner. It is necessary, however, to protect 
 them from their enemies, shelter them through the win- 
 ter, and furnish them with sufficient food when the flow- 
 ers are not in blossom. 
 
 Races of Bees There are numerous breeds or races 
 
 of bees : the common brown or black bees, the Italians, 
 the Carniolans, the Cyprians, the Syrians, and the Cau- 
 casians. The first two are most widely spread and much 
 intermixed throughout the country. Any bees possess- 
 ing black blood should be avoided, because of their spite- 
 fulness and inability to defend their hives wholly against 
 the wax moths and other bee enemies.- They are also 
 less industrious than the Italians. The Carniolans are 
 quite prolific, excellent honey gatherers and very gentle; 
 being quite hardy, they winter and breed well in the cold- 
 est of climates, and their comb honey is of snowy white- 
 ness. The Cyprians gather the most honey and are the 
 best defenders of their hives, but require quite skillful 
 handling, as they are very vindictive when aroused. The 
 Syrians are similar, but not superior, to the Cyprians.
 
 244 BEE-KEEPING 
 
 The Caucasians, recently introduced by the United States 
 Department of Agriculture, are the gentlest of all known 
 races, and may be kept on the lawn or in the flower 
 garden and handled at any time without protection and 
 with no fear of stings; they are also diligent workers, 
 and produce honey equal to that of any of the others. 
 
 Among beekeepers who rear queens to sell, the Italian 
 race is the most popular. Many different strains of Italian 
 bees have been developed. Some, having leather-colored 
 bands, or rings, on their abdomens are called leather- 
 colored Italians; others, having abdomens that are all 
 yellow, are called golden Italians. The strain, among bees, 
 is of more importance than the race itself. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 
 
 1. How do bees help the farmer? 
 
 2. Trace the growth of a bee from the egg to maturity. 
 
 3. What flowers are good honey-yielders? 
 
 4. Name some races of bees. Which is the gentlest race? 
 
 5. How may bee-keeping be made a profitable business?
 
 44. IMPROVEMENT OF HOME AND 
 SCHOOL YARDS. 
 
 Home and School Yards. It is not enough that our 
 farms produce large crops to be sold at good prices and 
 the business thus be made profitable. We should also 
 look to our surroundings. We should have good, com- 
 fortable, well-arranged homes, and the grounds about 
 them should be made as attractive as possible. We shall 
 be better men and women if we live in beautiful sur- 
 roundings than if we live in poorly-kept and ugly quar- 
 ters. Schoolhouses and school yards, too, should be 
 made as beautiful as possible. A great many people 
 would be glad to have beautiful homes and schoolhouses 
 and fine yards if they but knew how to obtain them at 
 small cost. School children who are interested can do 
 much toward beautifying the entire neighborhood in 
 which they live. 
 
 A few general directions are given that may help in 
 making our homes and our schools delightful places in 
 which to live. 
 
 Make a Plan. It is well to make a plan before attempt- 
 ing any change of things as they are. This will make it 
 easy to do part of the work this year, to add to it next 
 year, and so on until the plan is carried out. Without 
 a plan, we may make improvements that we shall find do 
 
 245
 
 246 IMPROVING HOME AND SCHOOL YARDS 
 
 not lend beauty to our surroundings, and our work will 
 be entirely lost. Do not make a very complex plan. A 
 simple one, with few details, is much better. 
 
 Natural Features Many places have some natural 
 features that aid in the work of beautifying them. A 
 clump of trees, a small hill, a stream of water, or a pond, 
 found on the place, should be used in the plan you make. 
 Do not try to get rid of such things, but lay out a plan 
 that will use them to the best advantage. 
 
 FIG. 148. A problem in landscape gardening. 
 
 The House the Important Part. The house should 
 usually be the most important part of the plan. It need 
 not be in the middle of the lot, but other things should be 
 so grouped about it as to set it off. So often we see a 
 house rising boldly from the center of a yard, with no 
 adornment whatever. Here we see such a house in all 
 its loneliness. It 'looks cheerless, and no amount of 
 money spent on it will make it look homelike, unless the
 
 IMPROVING HOME AND SCHOOL YARDS 
 
 247 
 
 shrubbery, the trees, and the yard in general are planned 
 to make the house a part of the whole. 
 
 FIG. 149. A solution of the problem in figure 148. 
 
 In Figure 149, the house is made a part of the general 
 out-of-door plan. 
 
 FIG. 150. Evergreen trees should not be trimmed.
 
 248 
 
 IMPROVING HOME AND SCHOOL YARDS 
 
 Open Front Yards Very often we find that the yard 
 in front of a house is filled with shrubbery or with flower 
 beds. It is far better to leave the space in front of the 
 house entirely open. The house is then shown to much 
 better advantage, and the yard is much more easily cared 
 for. There is nothing much more pleasing than a well- 
 kept front lawn. 
 
 
 FIG. 151. Too many straight paths. 
 
 Shrubbery and Flowers. The shrubbery should be 
 arranged in masses, and not with the shrubs placed 
 singly. Let the branches grow thickly, so as to make a 
 mass of green. These masses should be placed on the 
 border of the yard. With the flowers, they make a fine
 
 IMPROVING HOME AND SCHOOL YARDS 
 
 249 
 
 frame for the " picture " we are trying to make. Shrubs 
 may be placed, also, so as to hide outbuildings or to form 
 a screen for the backyard. 
 
 Flowers may be planted close to the house or just in 
 front of the shrubbery. They should not be planted in 
 separate flower beds in the lawn. 
 
 Vines. Vines may be used to cover old fences, or to 
 
 FIG. 152. Suggestion for improving the plan of paths shown in figure 151. 
 
 clamber over old or unpainted buildings, with very good 
 effect. With vines alone, an unpleasing place may be 
 changed to a very beautiful one. Vines are also useful 
 in helping to make the house a part of the " picture." 
 Trees Trees may be planted in groups about the
 
 250 IMPROVING HOME AND SCHOOL YARDS 
 
 yard. They should be placed so as to be of some use, 
 either in giving shade or in forming a wind break. Ever- 
 green trees and hard wood trees should not be planted in 
 the same group. If evergreen trees are planted, they 
 should not be trimmed and the lower branches should not 
 be cut. They look much prettier in their natural con- 
 dition (Figure 150). 
 
 Paths. There should be as few paths as possible, 
 and these should be placed so that they will be the 
 most convenient. Care should be taken to avoid straight 
 lines in laying out the paths. Sometimes a straight path 
 is necessary from the street to the house, but, whenever 
 it is possible, the paths should be made on large easy 
 curves. 
 
 Barns and Other Buildings. It is not easy to tell just 
 where and how the barns, stables, granaries and other 
 farm buildings should be placed. Much depends upon 
 local conditions. 
 
 The barns and stables should not be placed very close 
 to the house, but at such a distance that the barnyard 
 odors and the flies will not be troublesome. The gar- 
 den, however, may be placed quite near the house, so that 
 it may be easily tended and watched. 
 
 If the barns and stables are built in the form of a hol- 
 low square, with one side left open, they will give pro- 
 tection against the winds in winter and will furnish 
 shade in summer. 
 
 School Yards. The school yards should be models for 
 the whole community. Even if the schoolhouse is not 
 a fine building, it may be made very attractive by im- 
 provements. The principles of landscape gardening
 
 IMPROVING HOME AND SCHOOL YARDS 
 
 251 
 
 which have been given for homes apply also to school 
 yards. 
 
 In the country, where land is cheap, there is no reason 
 why the school should not be supplied with a large plot of 
 land. This will furnish room for a lawn and for a good- 
 sized playground. In many places, also, one part of 
 the school ground may be set apart for a school garden, 
 where plants of different kinds may be raised and where 
 the principles of plant growth may be taught. Unless 
 
 FIG. 153. A bare school yard. 
 
 some arrangement is made for the care of the school 
 garden during the summer vacation, however, it is likely 
 to become a garden of weeds. 
 
 The picture shown in Figure 153 is a very common 
 one, much more common than it should be. Notice how 
 bare and cheerless it is. 
 
 In Figure 154, we see what has been done with the
 
 252 
 
 IMPROVING HOME AND SCHOOL YARDS 
 
 school yard to make it attractive and homelike. The 
 teacher and the pupils in the school did all the work, and, 
 with no expense, made this wonderful improvement. The 
 shrubbery and trees were obtained by the boys from the 
 woods. Flower seeds and bulbs were given by the par- 
 ents and were planted by the girls under the direction of 
 the teacher. All worked together to make the school yard 
 beautiful, and were very proud of the result. 
 
 FIG. 154. A suggestion in planting. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1 . Make a general plan for the improvement of your 
 school grounds, observing carefully the suggestions given. 
 
 2. Make a plan for the improvement of the yards 
 about your home, allowing buildings, fences, and trees to 
 remain as they are at-present. 
 
 3. Make a plan of your home yards, with changes in the 
 location of buildings, fences, and trees.
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Quantities of Seed Required to the Acre. 
 
 NAME. 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Barley 
 
 Oats 
 
 Rye 
 
 Buckwheat 
 
 Millet 
 
 Corn 
 
 Beans 
 
 Peas 
 
 Hemp 
 
 Flax 
 
 Rice 
 
 QUANTITY OF SEED. 
 l\i to 2 bushels. 
 1 1 A to 2% bushels. 
 2 to 4 bushels. 
 1 to 2 bushels. 
 % to lj bushels. 
 1 to \]/2 bushels. 
 % to 1 bushel. 
 1 to 2 bushels. 
 2lito3 l A bushels. 
 
 1 to \]/% bushels. 
 l /2 to 2 bushels. 
 
 2 to 2J^ pounds. 
 
 NAME. QUANTITY OF SEED. 
 
 Broom Corn 
 Potatoes 
 Timothy 
 Mustard 
 Herd Grass 
 Flat Turnip 
 Red Clover 
 White Clover 
 Blue Grass 
 Orchard Grass 
 Carrots 
 Parsnips 
 
 1 to 1 V<i bushels. 
 
 5 to 10 bushels. 
 12 to 24 quarts. 
 8 to 20 quarts. 
 12 to 16 quarts. 
 
 2 to 3 pounds. 
 10 to 16 pounds. 
 
 3 to 4 pounds. 
 10 to 15 pounds. 
 20 to 30 pounds. 
 
 4 to 5 pounds. 
 
 6 to 8 pounds. 
 
 Directions for Preparing Insecticides and Fungicides. 
 
 Bordeaux Mixture Directions are given on page 57 
 for the preparation of Bordeaux mixture in small quantities. 
 Below are given directions for larger quantities: 
 
 4 Ib. copper sulfate. 
 4 Ib. fresh lime. 
 50 gal. of water. 
 
 Dissolve the copper sulfate and slake the lime as 
 shown on page 58. Dilute each to 25 gallons, and pour 
 together, making 50 gallons of the mixture. Spray. Use 
 for apple and plum rot; potato, melon, celery, strawberry, 
 and tomato blight; plum pockets, currant and grape 
 
 anthracnose. 
 
 253
 
 254 APPENDIX 
 
 Paris Green or Arsenate of Lead. Directions for 
 preparation and use of Paris green are given on page 56. 
 Arsenate of lead is somewhat safer than Paris green, and 
 is not so liable to burn the foliage. 
 
 Directions: Dissolve n oz. acetate of lead (sugar of 
 lead) in 4 quarts of water in a wooden pail, and 4 oz. arse- 
 nate of soda in a quart of water in another wooden pail. 
 Pour the solutions together and add enough water to make 
 150 gal. (Instead of making the arsenate of lead solu- 
 tion, a market preparation such as disparene may be used 
 in the proportion of 3 or 4 Ib. to 50 gal. of water.) Sprinkle 
 or spray. 
 
 Use for codling moth, tent caterpillar, potato beetle, and 
 all other biting insects. 
 
 Bordeaux Mixture and Paris Green or Arsenate of 
 Lead. It is usually wise to make a combination mixture, 
 so that one operation will get rid of the fungi and the biting 
 insects that may be destroying the leaves or fruit at the same 
 time. 
 
 To each 50 gal. of Bordeaux mixture add 4 oz. of Paris 
 green; or, to each 50 gal. of Bordeaux mixture add i gal. 
 of the arsenate of lead solution before it is diluted with 
 water. Spray. 
 
 Kerosene Emulsion. See page 56. 
 
 2 gal. kerosene. 
 | Ib. common soap, 
 i gal. water. 
 
 Dissolve the soap in hot water, add the kerosene, and 
 churn together until a white creamy mass is formed which 
 thickens on cooling. Dilute with nine times the amount 
 of water before using. If it is more convenient, i gal. of
 
 APPENDIX 255 
 
 sour milk may be used with 2 gal. of kerosene. Dilute as 
 before. Spray. 
 
 Use for plant lice and all other kinds of soft-bodied 
 sucking insects. 
 
 Formalin. See page 58. 
 
 A. One-half pint of formalin (formaldehyde) with 15 gal. 
 of water. B. One pint of formalin with 50 gal. of water. 
 
 Use for: A. Potato scab, Soak the seed potatoes two 
 hours in this solution before planting. B. Smut on grain. 
 Soak the grain used for seed in this solution from one to two 
 hours before planting. 
 
 Hellebore. See page 156. 
 
 This preparation is not poisonous to man, so it may be used 
 in place of Paris green when it is applied to parts of the plant 
 that are to be eaten. It may be dusted on the plant, or i oz. 
 of hellebore may be mixed with 2 gal. of water and sprayed on 
 the plants. 
 
 Use for currant worm, rose slugs, and other sawfly larvae. 
 
 Common Soap. See page 56. 
 
 i Ib. common soap. 
 8 gal. water. 
 
 Spray upon foliage. 
 
 Use for red spider, plant lice, and other sucking insects.' 
 
 Carbon Bisulphide. Gophers may be killed with the 
 fumes of carbon disulphide. Soak cotton with the liquid, 
 put it in the gopher hole, and plug it up tight to keep in 
 the fumes. 
 
 Ant hills may be destroyed by pouring the liquid into 
 holes made by a stick thrust into the hill. The hill should 
 then be covered with a wet blanket to keep in the fumes 
 and allowed to remain for twenty-four hours.
 
 256 APPENDIX 
 
 Insects in closed bins may be killed with the fumes of 
 this liquid. Use i pint for each 100 bu. of grain. 
 
 Caution: Do not use this liquid in the presence of fire. 
 It is very inflammable and its fumes are explosive. 
 
 Lime and Sulphur Mixture. See page 169. 
 
 20 lb. lime. 
 14 lb. sulphur. 
 40 gal. water. 
 
 Boil one hour and apply while still warm. This must be 
 applied before the buds come out in the spring. It will 
 destroy buds and foliage. 
 
 Use for San Jose scale. 
 
 Hydrocyanic Acid Gas. 
 
 1 oz. cyanide of potash. 
 
 2 oz. sulphuric acid. 
 4 oz. water. 
 
 For each 100 cu. ft. of space. 
 
 This gas is used for killing insects in rooms that may be 
 closed tight. Nursery stock is freed of all insect pests by 
 placing it in a room where this gas is generated. A room 
 should be thoroughly ventilated for at least ten minutes 
 before entering after the gas has been used. This is so 
 poisonous a gas that it is safer to have the fumigation done 
 by an expert or one who has had a great deal of experience 
 with it. 
 
 Sticky Fly Paper. If a ring of any sticky substance 
 is placed about the trunk of a tree, it will prevent insects 
 climbing up to eat the foliage or to lay their eggs. Strips 
 of sticky fly paper may be used for this purpose. 
 
 Use for the cankerworm.
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 257 
 
 DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN COMMON FEEDS. 
 
 FEED 
 
 TOTAL DRY 
 MATTER IN 
 1 LB. 
 
 DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN 1 LB. 
 
 Protein 
 
 Carbohy- 
 drates 
 
 Fat (Ether 
 
 Extract) 
 
 Alone 
 
 In Decimal Fractions of One Pound 
 
 NUTRIENT 
 RATIO PRO- 
 TEIN TO 
 
 CARBOHY- 
 DRATES 
 
 AND FATS 
 
 Concentrates: 
 
 Dent Corn .894 
 
 Flint Corn 887 
 
 Corn and Cob Meal .849 
 
 Oats .890 
 
 Barley .892 
 
 Wheat Bran .881 
 
 Kaffir Corn .901 
 
 Cowpeas .854 
 
 Gluten Meal .905 
 
 Linseed Meal, new process. .910 
 
 Cottonseed Meal .930 
 
 Green Fodders: 
 
 Timothy .383 
 
 Kentucky Blue Grass .349 
 
 Hungarian Grass .289 
 
 Redtop .347 
 
 Orchard Grass .270 
 
 Alfalfa .282 
 
 Red Clover .292 
 
 Cowpeas .166 
 
 Soy Beans .249 
 
 Rye Fodder .234 
 
 Barley Fodder .210 
 
 Oat Fodder .378 
 
 Oats and Peas .160 
 
 Barley and Peas .160 
 
 Green Corn Fodder 207 
 
 Green Sorghum Fodder .206 
 
 Rape ..140 
 
 Mangels .091 
 
 Barnyard Millet 269 
 
 Crimson Clover 193 
 
 Corn Silage 209 
 
 Sorghum Silage 239 
 
 Cowpea Silage 207 
 
 Soy Bean Silage 258 
 
 G. & M. Ag. 17 
 
 .078 
 .080 
 .044 
 .088 
 .084 
 .119 
 .052 
 .168 
 .297 
 .315 
 .376 
 
 .012 
 .030 
 .020 
 .021 
 .015 
 .039 
 .029 
 .018 
 .032 
 .021 
 .019 
 .026 
 .018 
 .017 
 .010 
 .006 
 .015 
 .010 
 .014 
 .021 
 .009 
 .006 
 .015 
 .027 
 
 .668 
 
 .662 
 
 .60 
 
 .492 
 
 .653 
 
 .420 
 
 .443 
 
 .549 
 
 .425 
 
 .357 
 
 .214 
 
 .191 
 .198 
 .160 
 .212 
 .113 
 .126 
 .148 
 .087 
 .109 
 .141 
 .102 
 .189 
 .071 
 .072 
 .116 
 .122 
 .081 
 .055 
 .166 
 .093 
 .113 
 .149 
 .085 
 .086 
 
 .006 
 .008 
 .004 
 .006 
 .005 
 .005 
 .007 
 .002 
 .005 
 .004 
 .004 
 .010 
 .002 
 .002 
 .004 
 .004 
 .002 
 .002 
 .005 
 .004 
 .007 
 .002 
 .009 
 .013 
 
 1 to 9.8 
 
 1 to 9.5 
 
 1 to 15.2 
 
 Ito 6.2 
 
 1 to 8.0 
 
 1 to 4.0 
 
 1 to 9.0 
 
 1 to 3.4 
 
 1 to 1.9 
 
 Ito 13 
 
 Ito 1.1 
 
 Ito 17.0 
 1 to 7.2 
 1 to 8.4 
 1 to 10.8 
 1 to 8.3 
 1 to 3.5 
 1 to 5.6 
 1 to 5.1 
 1 to 3.8 
 1 to 7.1 
 1 to 5.8 
 1 to 8.2 
 1 to 4.2 
 1 to 4.5 
 Ito 12. 5 
 1 to 21. 8 
 1 to 5.7 
 1 to 6.0 
 1 to 13.0 
 1 to 4.8 
 1 to 14. 3 
 Ito 25. 6 
 1 to 7.0 
 1 to 4.3
 
 258 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN COMMON FEEDS. 
 
 FEED 
 
 TOTAL DRY 
 MATTER IN 
 1 LB. 
 
 DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN 1 LB. 
 
 Protein 
 
 Caibohy- 
 d rates 
 
 Fat (Ether 
 
 Extract) 
 
 Alone 
 
 In Decimal Fractions of One Pound 
 
 NUTRIENT 
 
 RATIO PRO- 
 TEIN TO 
 
 CARBOHY- 
 DRATES 
 
 AND FATS 
 
 Clover Silage 280 
 
 Alfalfa Silage 275 
 
 Hay and Straw: 
 
 Timothy Hay .868 
 
 Mixed Grass and Clover 859 
 
 Kentucky Blue Grass Hay . . .788 
 
 Orchard Grass Hay 901 
 
 Hungarian Hay 923 
 
 Barnyard Millet Hay 890 
 
 Mixed Grass Hay 871 
 
 Mixed Rowen 834 
 
 Alfalfa Hay 916 
 
 Red Clover Hay .847 
 
 Alsike Clover Hay 903 
 
 Cowpea Hay 893 
 
 Soy Bean Hay 887 
 
 Vetch Hay 887 
 
 RedtopHay 911 
 
 Oat Hay 911 
 
 Oat and Vetch Hay .869 
 
 Corn Fodder (Field Cured) . .578 
 Corn Stover (Field Cured) . .595 
 
 Peanut Hay 924 
 
 Wheat Straw 904 
 
 Oat Straw 908 
 
 Barley Straw 858 
 
 Rye Straw 929 
 
 Pea Vine Straw 864 
 
 Soy Bean Straw 899 
 
 Kaffir Corn Stover 808 
 
 White Clover... .903 
 
 .020 
 .030 
 
 .028 
 .064 
 .048 
 .049 
 .045 
 .072 
 .059 
 .079 
 .110 
 .068 
 .084 
 .108 
 .108 
 .129 
 .048 
 .043 
 .078 
 .025 
 .017 
 .068 
 .004 
 .012 
 .007 
 .006 
 .043 
 .023 
 .018 
 .115 
 
 .135 
 
 .085 
 
 .434 
 .383 
 .373 
 .423 
 .510 
 .377 
 .409 
 .401 
 .396 
 .357 
 .425 
 .385 
 .388 
 .336 
 .469 
 .464 
 .384 
 .346 
 .324 
 .419 
 .363 
 .386 
 .412 
 .406 
 .323 
 .400 
 .414 
 .418 
 
 .010 
 .019 
 
 .014 
 .015 
 .020 
 .014 
 .013 
 .010 
 .012 
 .015 
 .012 
 .017 
 .015 
 .011 
 .015 
 .031 
 .010 
 .015 
 .004 
 .012 
 .007 
 .030 
 .004 
 .008 
 .006 
 .004 
 .008 
 .010 
 .009 
 .014 
 
 1 to 7.9 
 1 to 4.3 
 
 1 to 16.6 
 1 to 6.5 
 1 to 8.7 
 1 to 9.2 
 1 to 12.0 
 1 to 5.5 
 1 to 7.4 
 1 to 5.5 
 1 to 3.8 
 1 to 5.8 
 1 to 5.4 
 1 to 3.8 
 1 to 3.9 
 1 to 3.1 
 1 to 10. 3 
 1 to 11. 6 
 1 to 50 
 1 to 14. 9 
 1 to 20.0 
 1 to 7.2 
 1 to 93.0 
 1 to 33. 6 
 1 to 60. 8 
 1 to 69.1 
 1 to 7.9 
 1 to 18.4 
 1 to 24.0 
 1 to 3.9
 
 APPENDIX 259 
 
 AMOUNT OF NUTRIENTS FOR A DAY'S FEEDING. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Digestible 
 
 
 
 
 
 b 
 
 V 
 
 nutrients 
 
 *o 
 
 
 
 
 rt 
 
 
 
 
 <d 
 
 
 
 J3 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 Standard 
 
 Animal 
 
 .? 
 
 fr 
 
 
 01 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 c 
 
 u 
 
 
 ,2 
 
 
 
 
 
 'B 
 
 O rt 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 e-s 
 
 44 
 
 E 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 c 
 
 
 cd 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 H 
 
 0, 
 
 UJ? 
 
 fe 
 
 55 
 
 
 Oxen 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 
 Wolff- Leh- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 mann 
 
 At rest in stall 
 
 1000 
 
 18. 
 
 0.7 
 
 8. 
 
 0.1 
 
 1:11.8 
 
 
 Fattening Cattle 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Wolff-Leh- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 inann 
 
 First period 
 
 1000 
 
 30. 
 
 2.5 
 
 15. 
 
 0.5 
 
 1: 6.5 
 
 " 
 
 Second period .... 
 
 1000 
 
 30. 
 
 3.0 
 
 14.5 
 
 0.7 
 
 1: 5.4 
 
 M 
 
 
 1000 
 
 26. 
 
 2.7 
 
 15. 
 
 0.7 
 
 1: 6.2 
 
 
 Dairy Cou-s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Milch cows, pro- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ducing 16 Ibs. of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 milk per day .... 
 
 1000 
 
 27. 
 
 2.0 
 
 11. 
 
 0.4 
 
 1: 6.0 
 
 Wolff-Leh- 
 
 Horses 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 mann 
 
 
 1000 
 1000 
 
 20. 
 24. 
 
 1.5 
 2.0 
 
 9. 
 11.5 
 
 0.4 
 0.6 
 
 1: 7.0 
 1: 6.2 
 
 Medium work 
 
 M 
 
 
 innft 
 
 
 2 1C 
 
 to O 
 
 00 
 
 1 ft ft 
 
 
 Growing Cattle 
 
 1UUV 
 
 26. 
 
 . 9 
 
 lo.O 
 
 .3 
 
 1 U . U 
 
 Wolff-Leh- 
 
 Dairy breeds 
 (Age in months) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 mann 
 
 2-3 
 
 150 
 
 3.5 
 
 0.60 
 
 1.95 
 
 0.300 
 
 1:4.5 
 
 lt 
 
 3-6 
 
 300 
 
 7.2 
 
 0.90 
 
 3.84 
 
 0.300 
 
 1:5.1 
 
 lt 
 
 6-12 
 
 500 
 
 13.5 
 
 1.00 
 
 6.25 
 
 0.250 
 
 1:6.8 
 
 tl 
 
 12-18 
 
 700 
 
 18.2 
 
 1 26 
 
 8.75 
 
 0.280 
 
 1:7.5 
 
 
 18-24 
 
 900 
 
 23.4 
 
 1.35 
 
 10.80 
 
 0.270 
 
 1:8.5 
 
 Wolff-Leh- 
 
 Beef breeds 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 mann 
 
 2-3 
 
 160 
 
 3.7 
 
 0.67 
 
 2.08 
 
 0.320 
 
 1:4.2 
 
 
 3-6 
 
 330 
 
 7.9 
 
 1.16 
 
 4.22 
 
 0.495 
 
 1:4.7 
 
 
 6-12 
 
 550 
 
 13.8 
 
 1.38 
 
 7.26 
 
 0.3S5 
 
 1:6.0 
 
 
 12-18 
 
 750 
 
 18.0 
 
 1.50 
 
 9.38 
 
 0.375 
 
 1:6.7 
 
 
 18-24 
 
 950 
 
 22.8 
 
 1.71 
 
 11.40 
 
 0.380 
 
 1:7.2 
 
 Wolff-Leh- 
 
 Growing Sheep 
 Wool breeds 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 mann 
 
 4-6 
 
 60 
 
 1.5 
 
 0.20 
 
 0.92 
 
 0.042 
 
 1:5.0 
 
 
 6-8 
 
 75 
 
 1.9 
 
 0.21 
 
 1.04 
 
 0.045 
 
 1:5.4 
 
 
 8-11 
 
 80 
 
 1.8 
 
 0.17 
 
 0.92 
 
 0.040 
 
 1:6.0 
 
 
 11-15 
 
 90 
 
 2.0 
 
 0.16 
 
 1.01 
 
 0.036 
 
 1:7.0 
 
 " 
 
 15-20 
 
 100 
 
 2.2 
 
 0.15 
 
 1.08 
 
 0.030 
 
 1:7.7 
 
 Wolff-Leh- 
 
 Mutton breeds 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 mann 
 
 4-6 
 
 60 
 
 1.6 
 
 0.26 
 
 0.93 
 
 0.054 
 
 1:4.0 
 
 " 
 
 6-8 
 
 80 
 
 2.1 
 
 0.28 
 
 1.20 
 
 0.056 
 
 1=4.8 
 
 " 
 
 8-11 
 
 100 
 
 2.4 
 
 0.30 
 
 1.43 
 
 0.050 
 
 1:5.2 
 
 " 
 
 11-15 
 
 120 
 
 2.8 
 
 0.26 
 
 1.51 
 
 0.060 
 
 1:6.3 
 
 
 15-20 
 
 150 
 
 3.3 
 
 0.30 
 
 1.80 
 
 0.060 
 
 1:6.5 
 
 * The nutritive ratio is obtained by multiplying the number of pounds of fat 
 by 254, adding the product to the number of pounds of carbohydrates, and 
 dividing this sum by the number of pounds of protein.
 
 260 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 AMOUNT OF NUTRIENTS FOR A DAY'S FEEDING. 
 
 
 
 
 it 
 
 Digestible 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 t_> 
 
 
 
 nutrients 
 
 
 Standard 
 
 Animal 
 
 'a 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 T3 
 
 B 
 
 2 
 
 
 'S 
 
 
 continued 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 
 O 1 
 
 ">> 
 
 w 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 CJ 
 
 UH 
 
 Z 
 
 
 Growing Swine 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Breeding stock - 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 
 Wolff-Leh- 
 mann 
 
 (Age in months) 
 
 2-3 
 3-5 
 
 50 
 100 
 
 2.2 
 
 0.38 
 0.50 
 
 1.40 
 2.31 
 
 0.050 
 0.080 
 
 1:4.0 
 1:5.0 
 
 ii 
 
 5-6 
 
 120 
 
 3'.8 
 
 0.44 
 
 2.56 
 
 0.048 
 
 1:6.0 
 
 it 
 
 6-8 
 
 200 
 
 5.6 
 
 0.56 
 
 3.74 
 
 0.060 
 
 1:7.0 
 
 " 
 
 8-12 
 
 250 
 
 6.3 
 
 0.53 
 
 3.83 
 
 0.050 
 
 1:7.5 
 
 
 Growing fattening 
 Swine 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Wolff-Leh- 
 mann 
 
 2-3 
 3-5 
 
 50 
 100 
 
 2.2 
 3.5 
 
 0.38 
 0.50 
 
 1.40 
 
 2.31 
 
 0.050 
 0.080 
 
 1:4.0 
 1:5.0 
 
 <( 
 
 5-6 
 
 150 
 
 5.0 
 
 0.65 
 
 3.35 
 
 0.090 
 
 1:5.5 
 
 
 
 6-8 
 
 200 
 
 6.0 
 
 0.72 
 
 4.10 
 
 0.080 
 
 1:6.0 
 
 " 
 
 9-12 
 
 200 
 
 5.2 
 
 0.60 
 
 3.66 
 
 0.060 
 
 1:6.4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Car- 
 
 
 
 
 Human beings 
 
 
 
 Pro- 
 tein 
 
 bohy 
 drates 
 and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fats 
 
 
 
 
 Children, 615 yrs. 
 
 
 
 0.16 
 
 0.93 
 
 
 1:5.2 
 
 
 Students 
 
 
 
 0.20 
 
 l.U 
 
 
 1:5.5 
 
 
 Professional Men 
 
 
 
 0.27 
 
 1.76 
 
 
 1:4.7 
 
 
 Man with moderate 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 work 
 
 
 
 0.28 
 
 1.62 
 
 
 1:5.8 
 
 
 Man with hard work 
 
 
 
 0.39 
 
 2.67 
 
 
 1:6.9
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 26l 
 
 FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS IN AMERICAN 
 FEEDING STUFFS. 
 
 NAME OF FEED 
 
 FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS IN 
 1,000 POUNDS 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Phosphoric 
 Acid 
 
 Concentrates 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Corn, all analyses 18.2 
 
 Corn Cob 5.0 
 
 Corn and Cob Meal 1 4.1 
 
 Corn Bran 16.3 
 
 Gluten Meal 60.3 
 
 Germ Meal 26.5 
 
 Starch Refuse 22.4 
 
 Grano-Gluten 49.8 
 
 Hominy Chops 16.3 
 
 Sugar Meal 36.3 
 
 Starch Feed, wet 9.8 
 
 Wheat 23.6 
 
 High-grade Flour 18.9 
 
 Low-grade Flour 28.9 
 
 Dark Feeding Flour 31.8 
 
 Wheat Bran 26.7 
 
 Wheat Shorts 28.2 
 
 Wheat Middlings 26.3 
 
 Wheat Screenings 24.4 
 
 Rye .. 17.6 
 
 Rye Bran 23.2 
 
 Rye Shorts 18.4 
 
 Barley 15.1 
 
 Malt Sprouts 35.5 
 
 Brewers' Grains, wet 8.9 
 
 Brewers' Grains, dried 36.2 
 
 Oats 20.6 
 
 Oat Feed or Shorts 17.2 
 
 Oat Hulls 5.2 
 
 Rice . 10.8 
 
 Rice Hulls 5.8 
 
 Rice Bran . 7.1 
 
 Rice Polish 19.7 
 
 Buckwheat 14.4 
 
 Buckwheat Hulls 4.9 
 
 Buckwheat Bran 36.4 
 
 Buckwheat Middlings 42.8 
 
 Sorghum Seed 14.8 
 
 Millet 20.4 
 
 Flax Seed 36.1 
 
 Linseed Meal, old process 54.3 
 
 Linseed Meal, new process 67.8 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 7.0 
 .6 
 6.7 
 12.1 
 3.3 
 8.0 
 7.0 
 5.1 
 9.8 
 4.1 
 1.0 
 
 7.9 
 
 2.2 
 
 5.6 
 
 21.4 
 
 28.9 
 
 13.5 
 
 9.5 
 
 11.7 
 
 8.2 
 22.8 
 12.6 
 
 7.9 
 14.3 
 
 3.1 
 10.3 
 
 8.2 
 9.1 
 
 2.4 
 
 1.8 
 
 1.7 
 
 2.9 
 
 26.7 
 
 4.4 
 
 0.7 
 
 17.8 
 
 21.9 
 
 8.1 
 8.5 
 
 13.9 
 16.6 
 18.3
 
 262 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 NAME OF FEED 
 
 FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS IN 
 1,000 POUNDS 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Phosphoric 
 Acid 
 
 Concentrates continued 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Cotton Seed 
 Cotton-seed Meal 
 
 Cotton-seed Hulls 
 
 Cocoanut Meal 
 
 Palm-nut Meal *'| 
 
 Sunflower Seed t, '; 
 
 Sunflower-seed Cakes 
 Peanut Meal 
 Rape-seed Meal 
 
 Peas . 30.8 
 
 Soja (Soy) Bean 53.0 
 
 Horse Bean 40.7 
 
 Roughage 
 Fodder Corn 
 
 Fodder Corn, green 4.1 
 
 Fodder Corn, field-cured 17.6 
 
 Corn Stover, field-cured 10.4 
 
 Fresh Grass 
 
 Pasture Grasses (mixed) 9.1 
 
 Timothy, different stages 4.8 
 
 Orchard Grass, in bloom 4.3 
 
 Oat Fodder 4.9 
 
 Rye Fodder 3.3 
 
 Sorghum 2.3 
 
 Hungarian Grass 3.9 
 
 Hay 
 
 Timothy 12.6 
 
 Orchard Grass 13.1 
 
 Redtop 11.5 
 
 Kentucky Blue Grass 11.9 
 
 Hungarian Grass 12.0 
 
 Mixed Grasses 14.1 
 
 Rowen (mixed) 16.1 
 
 Meadow Fescue 9.9 
 
 Soja-bean Hay 23.2 
 
 Straw 
 
 Wheat 5.9 
 
 Rye 4.6 
 
 Oat 6.2 
 
 Barley 13.1 
 
 Wheat Chaff 7.9 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 12.7 
 28.8 
 2.5 
 16.0 
 11.0 
 12.2 
 21.5 
 13.1 
 20.0 
 
 8.2 
 18.7 
 12.0 
 
 1.5 
 5.4 
 2.9 
 
 2.3 
 2.6 
 1.6 
 1.3 
 1.5 
 0.9 
 1.6 
 
 5.3 
 4.1 
 3.6 
 4.0 
 3.5 
 2.7 
 4.3 
 4.0 
 6.7 
 
 1.2 
 2.8 
 2.0 
 3.0 
 7.0
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 263 
 
 NAME OF FEED 
 
 FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS IN 
 1,000 POUNDS 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Phosphoric 
 Acid 
 
 Roughage continued 
 Fresh Legumes 
 
 Red Clover, different stages 5.3 
 
 Alsike, bloom 4.4 
 
 Crimson Clover 4.3 
 
 Alfalfa 7.2 
 
 Cowpea 2.7 
 
 Soja Bean 2.9 
 
 Legume Hay and Straw 
 
 Red Clover, medium '. . . 20.7 
 
 Red Clover, mammoth 22.3 
 
 Alsike Clover 23.4 
 
 White Clover 27.5 
 
 Crimson Clover 20.5 
 
 Alfalfa 21.9 
 
 Cowpea 19.5 
 
 Soja-bean Straw 17.5 
 
 Pea-vine Straw 14.3 
 
 Silage 
 
 Corn 2.8 
 
 Roots and Tubers 
 
 Potato 3.2 
 
 Beet, common 2.4 
 
 Beet, sugar 2.2 
 
 Beet, mangel 1.9 
 
 Flat Turnip 1.8 
 
 Ruta-baga 1.9 
 
 Carrot 1.5 
 
 Parsnip 1.8 
 
 Artichoke 2.6 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 Cabbage 3.8 
 
 Spurry 3.8 
 
 Sugar-beet Leaves 4.1 
 
 Pumpkin, garden 1.1 
 
 Prickly Comfrey 4.2 
 
 Rape 4.5 
 
 Dried Blood 135.0 
 
 Meat Scrap 113.9 
 
 Dried Fish 77.5 
 
 Beet Pulp 1.4 
 
 Beet Molasses 14.6 
 
 Cows' Milk 5.3 
 
 Cows' Milk, colostrum 28.2 
 
 Skim Milk, gravity 5.6 
 
 Skim Milk, centrifugal 5.6 
 
 Buttermilk 4.8 
 
 Whey 1.5 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 1.3 
 1.1 
 1.3 
 1.3 
 
 1.0 
 1.5 
 
 3.8 
 5.5 
 6.7 
 5.2 
 4.0 
 5.1 
 5.2 
 4.0 
 3.5 
 
 1.2 
 0.9 
 1.0 
 0.9 
 1.0 
 1.2 
 0.9 
 2.0 
 1.4 
 
 1.1 
 2.5 
 1.5 
 1.6 
 1.1 
 1.5 
 13.5 
 7.0 
 120.0 
 0.2 
 0.5 
 
 1.9 
 6.6 
 2.0 
 2.0 
 1.7 
 1.4
 
 264 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 Weights of Grain, Seeds, etc. 
 
 The table given below shows the weight of grain, seeds, 
 etc., per bushel, as established by the Legislatures of the 
 states named: 
 
 ARTICLES 
 
 o 
 
 : 
 
 0) 
 
 2 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 03 
 J3 
 
 'o 
 
 a 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 Wheat 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 on 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 (Ml 
 
 (Ml 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 (M) 
 
 00 
 
 (10 
 
 Rye 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 >o 
 
 Cora 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 5fi 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 "id 
 
 Oats 
 
 3? 
 
 3? 
 
 
 3? 
 
 3? 
 
 
 3? 
 
 3? 
 
 3? 
 
 3? 
 
 3? 
 
 3? 
 
 30 
 
 3? 
 
 
 3? 
 
 Barley 
 
 48 
 
 48 
 
 47 
 
 48 
 
 48 
 
 48 
 
 48 
 
 48 
 
 48 
 
 48 
 
 48 
 
 47 
 
 48 
 
 48 
 
 48 
 
 IS 
 
 Buckwheat 
 Clover Seed 
 
 48 
 00 
 
 50 
 04 
 
 48 
 00 
 
 50 
 00 
 
 48 
 00 
 
 52 
 00 
 
 52 
 
 on 
 
 48 
 00 
 
 48 
 
 48 
 
 48 
 (M) 
 
 56 
 00 
 
 50 
 M 
 
 48 
 00 
 
 52 
 (M) 
 
 40 
 
 no 
 
 Timothy Seed .... 
 Flax Seed . . . 
 
 45 
 
 45 
 40 
 
 
 45 
 50 
 
 45 
 
 45 
 50 
 
 45 
 50 
 
 45 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 45 
 50 
 
 45 
 
 5fi 
 
 55 
 
 45 
 
 45 
 44 
 
 45 
 
 Hemp Seed. . 
 
 11 
 
 44 
 
 
 44 
 
 41 
 
 44 
 
 44 
 
 44 
 
 
 
 4n 
 
 44 
 
 
 
 44 
 
 50 
 
 Blue Grass Seed. . . 
 Apples, Dried 
 Peaches, Dried. . . . 
 Coarse Salt 
 
 14 
 25 
 33 
 
 50 
 
 24 
 33 
 
 50 
 
 85 
 
 14 
 25 
 33 
 
 50 
 
 14 
 
 28 
 28 
 
 14 
 24 
 33 
 
 50 
 
 14 
 24 
 33 
 
 14 
 22 
 28 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 24 
 39 
 50 
 
 25 
 33 
 
 
 14 
 
 24 
 32 
 50 
 
 11 
 28 
 28 
 
 Till 
 
 Fine Salt 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 03 
 
 50 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 5ft 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 50 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 on 
 
 00 
 
 on 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 on 
 
 (M) 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 00 
 
 60 
 
 Peas 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 
 (Ml 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 (Ml 
 
 (M) 
 
 00 
 
 (M) 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 (10 
 
 Beans 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 
 00 
 
 (Ml 
 
 (Ml 
 
 00 
 
 0? 
 
 00 
 
 (10 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 Onions 
 
 57 
 
 55 
 
 50 
 
 48 
 
 57 
 
 ,57 
 
 57 
 
 ,54 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 57 
 
 57 
 
 53 
 
 57 
 
 52 
 
 Corn Meal 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 .50 
 
 
 48 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 Diagrams of Farm Animals. 
 
 1. Comb. 
 
 2. Face. 
 
 3. Wattles. 
 
 4. Ear-lobes. 
 5 Hackle. 
 
 6. Breast. 
 7 Back. 
 
 8. Saddle. 
 
 9. Saddle-feathers. 
 
 10. Sickles. 
 
 11. Tail-coverts. 
 
 12. Main tail feathers. 
 
 13. Wing-bow. 
 
 14. Wing coverts, form- 
 ing wing-bar. 
 
 15. Secondaries, wing- 
 bay. 
 
 16. Primaries or flight 
 feathers; wing-buts. 
 
 17. Point of breast bone. 
 
 18. Thighs. 
 
 19. Hocks. 
 
 20. Shanks or legs. 
 
 21. Spur. 
 
 22. Toes or claws. 
 
 Fic. 155. Diagram of a chicken.
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 265 
 
 FIG. 156. Diagram of a cow. 
 
 1. Head. 
 
 2. Muzzle. 
 
 3. Nostril. 
 
 4. Face. 
 
 5. Eye. 
 
 6. Forehead. 
 
 7. Horn. 
 
 8. Ear. 
 
 9. Cheek. 
 
 10. Throat. 
 
 11. Neck. 
 
 12. Withers. 
 
 13. Back. 
 
 14. Loins. 
 
 15. Hip bone. 
 
 16. Pelvic arch. 
 
 17. Rump. 
 
 18. Tail. 
 
 19. Switch. 
 
 20. Chest. 
 
 21. Brisket. 
 
 22. Dewlap. 
 
 23. Shoulder. 
 
 24. Elbow. 
 
 25. Forearm. 
 
 26. Knee. 
 
 27. Ankle. 
 
 28. Hoof. 
 
 29. Heart girth. 
 
 30. Side or barrel. 
 
 31. Belly. 
 
 32. Flank. 
 
 33. Milk vein. 
 
 34. Fore udder. 
 
 35. Hind udder. 
 
 36. Teats. 
 
 37. Upper thigh. 
 
 38. Stifle. 
 
 39. Twist. 
 
 40. Leg or gaskin. 
 
 41. Hock. 
 
 42. Shank. 
 
 43. Dew claw. 
 
 1. Head. 
 
 2. Face. 
 
 3. Muzzle. 
 
 4. Nostril. 
 
 5. Eye. 
 
 6. Ear. 
 
 7. Cheek. 
 
 8. Neck. 
 
 9. Withers. 
 
 10. Throat. 
 
 11. Back. 
 
 12. Loins. 
 
 16. 
 17. 
 18. 
 19. 
 20. 
 21. 
 22. 
 23. 
 24. 
 25. 
 26. 
 27. 
 
 13. Angle of Ilium.28. 
 
 14. Rump. 29. 
 
 15. Tail or Dock. 
 
 Chest. 
 
 Shoulder. 
 
 Elbow. 
 
 Forearm. 
 
 Knee. 
 
 Ankle. 
 
 Claw. 
 
 Girth Measure. 
 
 Side or Barrel. 
 
 Belly. 
 
 Flank. 
 
 Hip Joint. 
 
 Stifle Joint. 
 
 Hock Joint. 
 
 FIG. 157. Diagram of a sheep. 
 
 3. 158. Diagram ot a horse. 
 
 0. Poll or nape 
 
 of the neck. 
 
 1. Neck. 
 
 1'. Jugular gutter. 
 
 2. Withers. 
 
 3. Back. 
 
 4. Loins. 
 
 5. Croup. 
 
 6. Tail. 
 
 7. Parotid region. 
 
 8. Throat. 
 
 9. Shoulder. 
 
 10. Point of the 
 
 shoulder. 
 
 11. Arm. 
 
 12. Elbow. 
 
 13. Forearm. 
 
 14. Chestnut. 
 
 15. Knee. 
 
 16. Canon. 
 
 17. Fetlock. 
 
 18. Pastern. 
 
 19. Coronet 
 
 20. Foot. 
 
 21. Xiphoid 
 
 region. 
 
 22. Ribs. 
 
 23. Abdomen. 
 
 24. Flank. 
 
 25. Sheath. 
 
 26. Testicles. 
 
 27. Buttock. 
 
 27 bis. Angle 
 
 of buttock. 
 
 28. Thigh. 
 
 28 bis. Haunch. 
 
 29. Stifle. 
 
 30. Leg. 
 
 31. Hock. 
 
 32. Chestnut. 
 
 33. Canon. 
 
 34. Fetlock. 
 
 35. Pastern. 
 
 36. Coronet.
 
 266 APPENDIX 
 
 How to Obtain Agricultural Literature. 
 
 Besides the large number of agricultural papers that 
 are available for the fanner at very small cost, the De- 
 partment of Agriculture issues a large number of inter- 
 esting documents, many of which are sent free to any who 
 apply for them, while some others may be obtained for 
 a small price. 
 
 Write to the Department of Agriculture, Washington, 
 D. C., and request a list of the publications issued by the 
 Department for free distribution. 
 
 " The Farmers' Bulletins " are probably the most 
 helpful publications issued by the Department of Agri- 
 culture. There are over two hundred issued and the 
 number is being increased rapidly. From the list which 
 you receive from the Department you may select such as 
 interest you and request them sent to you. You may 
 write to your Congressman for them or to the Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture. 
 
 Each year the Department of Agriculture issues a fine 
 illustrated " Year Book." This may be obtained free 
 by application to the Congressman of your district or to 
 either of your United States Senators. 
 
 If you have an Experiment Station in your State, find 
 its location and write to the " Director of Experiment 
 Station," requesting that your name be placed on the 
 permanent mailing list to receive all the bulletins issued 
 by the station. 
 
 You may also request such bulletins as you know to 
 have been issued by the Station. They will be sent free 
 of cost.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Aberdeen Angus cattle 190 
 
 Acid soils 45, 46 
 
 Agricultural literature 266 
 
 Air, in seeds 60, 61 
 
 Albumen 194, 206 
 
 Alfalfa 43, 44 
 
 Ameba 10 
 
 Animal husbandry 184, 185 
 
 Annuals 1 26 
 
 Anther 93 
 
 Apple, culture of 158-160 
 
 Arabian horse 213 
 
 Ashes, wood 36 
 
 Aylesbury ducks 235 
 
 Ayrshire cattle 187 
 
 Babcock test 195 
 
 directions for 201-204 
 
 Bacteria, in legume roots. . . 42, 44-46 
 
 of milk 198 
 
 Barns and other buildings 250 
 
 Bartlett pear 95 
 
 Beef 49 
 
 Beef breeds 189-100 
 
 Bees ' 237-244 
 
 Beetles, lady-bird 176 
 
 potato 55 
 
 Berkshire hogs 225 
 
 Biennials 126 
 
 Bindweed 145, 146 
 
 Birds 179-183 
 
 food of 181 
 
 Blackberry, culture of 154, 155 
 
 Blight, of pear tree. 57 
 
 Bluestone 57 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Blue vitriol 57 
 
 Bordeaux mixture '. .57, 58 
 
 Borer, flat-headed 158 
 
 Brahma chickens 230 
 
 Brassica 138 
 
 Breeding, plant 100 
 
 Breeds 185 
 
 of chickens 229 
 
 of ducks 235 
 
 of horses 213 
 
 of swine 225 
 
 Bronze turkeys 236 
 
 Brown Swiss cattle 188 
 
 Buckhorn plantain 148, 149 
 
 Buds 27, 28 
 
 roots from 78 
 
 Burdock 130, 131 
 
 Butter 49 
 
 Butter and eggs 132, 133 
 
 Cactus, Russian 139-142 
 
 Calyx 92 
 
 Canada thistle 1 29, 130 
 
 Capillary attraction 14 
 
 Carbohydrates 205, 206 
 
 in fodder ... 257 
 
 Carbon 22 
 
 Carbon dioxide '. 22, 23 
 
 Care*>f fowls 231 
 
 Carrot, wild 144, 145 
 
 Casein 194, 206 
 
 Caterpillar 176 
 
 Cayuga ducks 235 
 
 Cell 10 
 
 Charlock 138 
 
 267
 
 268 
 
 INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Cheese factories igi 
 
 Cherry, blossom 93 
 
 culture of 160 
 
 Chester white hogs 227, 228 
 
 Cheviot sheep 210, 220, 221 
 
 Chicken, diagram of 264 
 
 Chlorophyll 22, 26 
 
 Chrysanthemum 131, 132 
 
 Cions 81 
 
 Citrus fruits 163-167 
 
 Clays 215 
 
 Cleft graft 81, 82 
 
 Clotbur 133, 134 
 
 Clover 41, 42, 43, 48 
 
 Clover testing 69 
 
 Clydesdale horse 216 
 
 Coach horses 217 
 
 Cochin chickens 230 
 
 Cocklebur 133, 134 
 
 Codling moth 159 
 
 Colostrum 194 
 
 Comb honey 241 
 
 Commercial fertilizers 36, 52 
 
 Compass plant 147, 148 
 
 Consumption 196 
 
 Copper sulfate 57 
 
 Corn 48, 49, 50, 101-115 
 
 corn belt 101, 102 
 
 cultivation 107 
 
 enemies in, 112 
 
 harvesting 107-109 
 
 improving 114, 115 
 
 planting 107 
 
 products 1 10, in 
 
 testing seed 105, 106 
 
 yield 101, 102, 1 13 
 
 Cornish Indian game chickens. . . . 230 
 
 Corolla 93 
 
 Cost and feeding 210 
 
 Cotswold sheep 223, 224 
 
 Couch grass 143, 144 
 
 Cow, care of 197 
 
 diagram of 265 
 
 Cowpea 43 
 
 Creameries 191 
 
 Cropping land 39 
 
 Crops, and weeds 125-127 
 
 rotation of 47, 48 
 
 to raise the best 90 
 
 Cross fertilization. . . 100 
 
 Cucumber blossom 99 
 
 Curculio 160 
 
 Curled dock 136, 137 
 
 Curled rumex 136, 137 
 
 Currant, culture of 155, 156 
 
 propagated by cuttings 79 
 
 Cuttings, dormant 79 
 
 green 80 
 
 propagation by 79 
 
 Dairy breeds 186-188 
 
 Dairying 191-200 
 
 removes little fertility 50 
 
 Daisy 131, 132 
 
 Damsel fly 178 
 
 Dan Patch 214 
 
 Decomposition 22 
 
 Delaine sheep 219, 221 
 
 Destroyers, natural 175 
 
 Devon cattle 190 
 
 Digestible nutrients 257, 258 
 
 Dock 136, 137 
 
 Dog grass 143, 144 
 
 Dormant buds 27 
 
 Dormant cuttings 79 
 
 Dorset sheep 219, 223 
 
 Draft horses 215 
 
 Dragon fly 177 
 
 Drainage 30 
 
 Drone bees 237, 238 
 
 Dry farming 170, 174 
 
 Ducks and Turkeys 234-236 
 
 Duroc-Jersey hogs 225, 227 
 
 Dutch belted cattle 188 
 
 Earth lamp 13 
 
 Egg breeds 229 
 
 Egg of insect 176 
 
 Eldorado blackberry 154 
 
 English Shire horse 216 
 
 Evaporation 14 
 
 from plants 17 
 
 makes packing necessary 65 
 
 through leaves 18 
 
 Evergreen trees 247, 250 
 
 Extracted honey 242 
 
 Fat, in foods 207 
 
 of milk 192 
 
 Feeding chickens 232
 
 INDKX 
 
 269 
 
 Feeding, principles of 205-212 
 
 Feeding standards 207 
 
 Feeding stuffs, manurial value of . . 211 
 
 Fertility 40 
 
 Fertilization, cross 100 
 
 of ovule 95 
 
 Fertilizer 3g 
 
 clover a 41 
 
 commercial 36, 52 
 
 Fertilizing constituents 261 
 
 Fig 167 
 
 Filament 93 
 
 Flat-headed borer 158 
 
 Flowers, parts of 92-95 
 
 imperfect and perfect 
 
 97. 151, 152 
 
 shrubbery and 248 
 
 Fly, green 56 
 
 Food required by plants 33 
 
 Formaldehyde 58 
 
 Fungi 55-50 
 
 Galloway cattle 190 
 
 Garden, the 150 
 
 Germination 25, 60, 6r 
 
 affected by age 67 
 
 causes affecting 68 
 
 Gluten 206 
 
 Gooseberry, culture of 155, 156 
 
 Grafting 80-83 
 
 Grafting wax 83 
 
 Grain, weights of 264 
 
 Grape, culture of 161, 162 
 
 propagated by cuttings 79 
 
 Green cuttings 80 
 
 Green fly 56 
 
 Grub 176 
 
 Guernsey cattle 187 
 
 Hairy woodpecker 159 
 
 Hambletonian horses 215 
 
 Hampshire sheep 219, 222, 223 
 
 Hector weed 139-142 
 
 Hereford cattle 189 
 
 Holstein-Friesian cattle 187 
 
 Home yards 245 
 
 Honey bees 237-244 
 
 Honeycomb 241 
 
 Hop plant, flowers of 99 
 
 Horned Dorset sheep 223 
 
 Horse 213-218 
 
 diagram of 265 
 
 Houdan chickens 229, 230 
 
 Humus 38, 39 
 
 from manure 52 
 
 Husbandry, animal 184-100 
 
 Ichneumon fly 175 
 
 Imago 177 
 
 Imperfect flowers 97, 151, 152 
 
 Indian corn 48, 49, 50, 98 
 
 Indian ponies 217 
 
 Insects, animals that destroy. 175-183 
 
 defined 175 
 
 pollination by 94 
 
 Irrigation 170- 174 
 
 Jersey cattle 186 
 
 KcJlock 138 
 
 Kerlock 138 
 
 Lactic acid 194 
 
 Lactose 193 
 
 Lady-bird beetles 176 
 
 Lady bug 177 
 
 Larva 176 
 
 of bee 239 
 
 Layering 78 
 
 Leaves 26 
 
 do not take in water 18 
 
 Leghorn chickens 229 
 
 Legumes 4 1-46 
 
 Leicester sheep 219, 223, 224 
 
 Lemon 164-167 
 
 Lettuce, prickly 147, 148 
 
 wild 147, 148 
 
 Lice, plant 56 
 
 Lime and sulphur spray 169 
 
 Limestone 45, 46 
 
 Lincoln sheep 224 
 
 Litmus paper 45, 46 
 
 Loam 30 
 
 Louse, plant 56 
 
 Mambrino horses 215 
 
 Manure 35, 36, 48 
 
 best fertilizer 39 
 
 Maple tree, flowers of 99 
 
 Matter 9
 
 270 
 
 INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Meat breeds of chickens 230 
 
 Melon, flower of 99 
 
 Merino sheep 219, 220 
 
 Milk 49 
 
 composition of 192 
 
 how to get good 196 
 
 Milk thistle 14?, 148 
 
 Mineral matter in plants 21 
 
 Minorca chickens 229, 230 
 
 Morgan horses 215 
 
 Morning glory 93 
 
 Moth, codling 159 
 
 Mulches 53, 54 
 
 Mustangs 217 
 
 Mustard, wild 138 
 
 Narrow dock 136, 137 
 
 Native cattle 190 
 
 Nitrates .41, 42, 43 
 
 Nitrogen 35, 36, 37, 39, 41-50 
 
 in feeding stuffs 261-263 
 
 Nutrients, table of 257-260 
 
 Nutritive ratio 207 
 
 Oats 48, 49, 50 
 
 Oat smut 57, 58 
 
 Olive 167 
 
 Orange 163, 164 
 
 diseases 166, 167 
 
 enemies 164, 165 
 
 propagated by cuttings 79 
 
 Orchard, the 157-162 
 
 Ovary 94 
 
 Ovule , . . 94 
 
 fertilization of 95 
 
 Ox-eye daisy 131, 132 
 
 Oxford sheep 219, 222, 223 
 
 Parasites 55-59 
 
 fungous 57 
 
 of poultry 233 
 
 Paris green 56 
 
 Parsnip, wild 139 
 
 Pasteurization 199 
 
 Paths 250 
 
 Peach, culture of 161 
 
 Pekin ducks 234 
 
 Percheron horses 215 
 
 Perennials 127 
 
 Perfect flowers 97, 151, 152 
 
 Pests, insect 157 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Petals t 93 
 
 Phosphate of lime 194 
 
 Phosphoric acid. .35, 43, 47, 48, 49, 50 
 
 in feeding stuffs 261-263 
 
 Pistil, parts of 94 
 
 Pistillate flowers 97 
 
 Plant breeding 100 
 
 Plant food, in soil 31 
 
 in soil water 34 
 
 prepared slowly 47 
 
 Plant lice 56 
 
 Plantago 148, 149 
 
 Plantain, buckhorn 148, 149 
 
 English 148, 149 
 
 long leaved . . 148, 149 
 
 Planting, rule for depth of 73 
 
 Plants, and water 17-19 
 
 dry the soil 19 
 
 evaporation from 17 
 
 growth of 25-28 
 
 how to improve 88-9 1 
 
 in water 34 
 
 mineral matter in 21 
 
 require food 33 
 
 Plowing crops under 39 
 
 Plum, culture of 160 
 
 Plymouth Rock chickens 230 
 
 Poland-China hogs 225, 226 
 
 Polled Durham cattle 189 
 
 Pollen 93 
 
 Pollination 94 
 
 Ponies 217 
 
 Potash 35, 42, 43, 47, 48, 50 
 
 in feeding stuffs 261-263 
 
 Potato beetle 55 
 
 Potato plant 27 
 
 hill selection 90 
 
 reared from cuttings 79 
 
 Poultry 229-233 
 
 Poults 236 
 
 Prickly lettuce 147, 148 
 
 Problem in landscape gardening.. . 245 
 
 Produce 1 1 
 
 Profits in bee-keeping 243 
 
 in poultry 229 
 
 Protein 194, 205, 206 
 
 in fodder 257-260 
 
 Protoplasm 9, n 
 
 Pumpkin, flower of 99 
 
 Pupa 177
 
 INDEX 
 
 271 
 
 Quack grass 143. '44 
 
 Queen bees 237, 238 
 
 Quick grass 143, 144 
 
 Quicklime 57 
 
 Quitch grass 143. 144 
 
 Rambouillet sheep 219, 221 
 
 Ramsted 133 
 
 Raspberry, culture of 154, 155 
 
 Ratio, nutritive 207 
 
 Ration, balanced 208 
 
 Red polled cattle 190 
 
 Rib grass 148, 149 
 
 Ripple grass 148, 149 
 
 Rollers 64 
 
 Root hairs 25 
 
 Roots need air 62 
 
 Rotation of crops 47 51 
 
 plan of 50, 51 
 
 Rouen ducks 235 
 
 Rumex 136, 137 
 
 Russian thistle 139-142 
 
 Saltwort 139-142 
 
 San Jose scale 168, 169 
 
 School yards 245, 251 
 
 Scrub cattle 190 
 
 Seeds 28 
 
 diagram of 76 
 
 effect of water on 60, 61, 63 
 
 need air 60 
 
 table 253 
 
 testing 67 
 
 vitality of 68 
 
 weights of 264 
 
 Selection, improvement by 8y, go 
 
 Semitropical Fruits 163-169 
 
 Sepal 92 
 
 Separator, cream 200 
 
 Sheep 219-224 
 
 diagram of 265 
 
 Shetland ponies 217 
 
 Shorthorn cattle 189 
 
 Shropshire sheep 219, 221 
 
 Shrubbery and flowers 248 
 
 Silage 109, 1 10 
 
 Silk of Indian corn 98 
 
 Silo 109, 1 10 
 
 Simmenthal cattle 190 
 
 Smut, oat 57 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Snap dragon 132, 133 
 
 Soil 13-16 
 
 acidity 45, 46 
 
 air and water in 30 
 
 fertility of 33~37 
 
 humus in 38 
 
 ideal 29-31 
 
 inoculation 44, 45 
 
 make-up of rich 35 
 
 moisture in 52 
 
 nitrogen in 35 
 
 phosphoric acid in 35 
 
 plant food in 31 
 
 plants dry the 19 
 
 potash in 35 
 
 Soil water 13-16 
 
 holds plant food 34 
 
 Solutions 20 
 
 Sour dock 136, 137 
 
 Southdown sheep 219, 220 
 
 Sow thistle 135, 136 
 
 Sparrow, English 182 
 
 Spider 165, 176 
 
 Squash, flower of 99 
 
 Stamens 93 
 
 Staminate flowers 97 
 
 Starch 22, 23 
 
 Stem 26 
 
 Stigma 94 
 
 Stock, grafting 81 
 
 Strawberry, blossoms 97, 151 
 
 culture of 151-153 
 
 effect on soil 49 
 
 Style 94 
 
 Subsurface packer 173, 174 
 
 Sugar of milk 193 
 
 Swarming 240 
 
 Swine 225-228 
 
 Tamworth hogs 227 
 
 Tartar weed 139, 142 
 
 Terminal bud 28 
 
 Test, Babcock 195, 201-204 
 
 tuberculin 197 
 
 Tester, seed 67, 68, 105, 106 
 
 Thistle, Canada 129, 130 
 
 English 147, 148 
 
 milk 147, 148 
 
 Russian 139-142 
 
 sow 135, 136
 
 272 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Thoroughbred horse 214 
 
 Tiling 31 
 
 Toad .' 178, 179 
 
 Toadflax 132, 133 
 
 Tobacco 48, 50 
 
 Tommy grass 143, 144 
 
 Transpiration 18 
 
 Transplanting 84-87 
 
 Trees 249, 250 
 
 Trotting horses 214 
 
 Tubercles 41, 42 
 
 Tuberculin test 197 
 
 Tuberculosis 196 
 
 Turkeys, ducks and 234, 236 
 
 Types of plantlets 72 
 
 Vines 249 
 
 Vineyard 161 
 
 Vitality of seeds 68 
 
 Vitriol, blue 57 
 
 Water, in soil 29, 30 
 
 leaves do not take in 18 
 
 not at rest 16 
 
 plants and 17 
 
 soil 1.5-16 
 
 Wax, grafting 83 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Weeds, annual 126 
 
 biennial 126 
 
 crops and 125-127 
 
 perennial 1 27 
 
 Wheat 48, 4Q, 50, 116-124 
 
 enemies 121, 122 
 
 harvesting 120, 121 
 
 planting ng, 120 
 
 seed 119, 120 
 
 soil for 117 
 
 types 116, 117 
 
 yield 1 18, 124 
 
 Wheat grass 143, 144 
 
 Whip graft 81, 82 
 
 White daisy 131, 132 
 
 White fly 165, 166 
 
 White weed 131, 132 
 
 Wood ashes 36 
 
 Woodpecker, hairy 159 
 
 Worker bees 237, 238 
 
 Wyandotte chickens 231 
 
 Yards 245-252 
 
 Yellow dock 136, 137 
 
 Yellows 161 
 
 Yorkshire hogs 226
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AT LOS ANGELES 
 THE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 
 
 This book is DUE on the last date stamped below 
 
 939 
 
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 UNIVERSITY CF CALIFORNIA 
 
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 LOS ANGELES 
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