UC-NRLF NORTH CAROLINA GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY JOSEPH HYDE PRATT, State Geologist BULLETIN No. 24 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE W, W, ASHE Forest Inspector, U. 5. Forest Service (and former Forester of the North Carolina Geololo. Prepared in Co-operation with the Forest Service, United States Department of Agriculture HENRY 5. GRAVES, Forester RALEIGH EDWABDS & BBOWJHTON FEINTING COMPANY STATE PBINTBRS AJTO BINDSES 1915 UNIVERSITY FARM SD397 TB8 N. C. GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY. PLATE I. FRONTISPIECE. Group of loblolly pines two hundred years old growing with hardwoods on Quality I. Such trees yield 55 per cent of No. 1 and No. 2 grades of lumber. The hardwoods have been cut out. NORTH CAROLINA GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY JOSEPH HYDE PRATT, State Geologist BULLETIN No. 24 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE W. W. ASHE Forest Inspector, U. 5. Forest Service (and former Forester of the North Carolina Geological and Economic Survey) Prepared In Co-operation with the Forest Service, United States Department of Agriculture HENRY 5. GRAVES, Forester RALEIGH EDWARDS & BROCGHTON PRINTING COMPANY STATE PRINTERS AND BINDERS 1915 GEOLOGICAL BOARD Governor Locke Craig, ex officio chairman Raleigh. Frank R. Hewitt Asheville. Hugh MacRae Wilmington. Kenry E. Fries Winston-Salem. W. H. Williamson. . Raleigh. Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist Chapel Hill. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL CHAPEL HILL, N. C., October 1, 1914. To His Excellency, HON. LOCKE CRAIG, Governor of North Carolina. SIK: There has recently been prepared for the Worth Carolina Geological and Economic Survey a report on the Loblolly or North Carolina Pine by Mr. ~W. W. Ashe. It is for the use of landowners and lumbermen alike and is designed to meet the needs of all our peo- ple who are in any way interested in timber. I submit this report for publication as Bulletin 24 of the bulletin series of the Survey. Yours respectfully, JOSEPH HYDE PEATT, State Geologist. 900 CONTENTS PAGE Preface xv The Tree and how to identify it 1 Common names 1 Distinguishing botanical characteristics 2 Economic status of loblolly pine 4 Physiography of Coastal Plain and Piedmont Plateau regions 8 Coastal Plain region 8 Piedmont Plateau region 9 Commercial distribution 9 Original forest 10 Present forest 12 Associated species 13 Forest types 14 Old field growth on dry sites 17 Loblolly pine in pure stands on porous loams and peaty soils 19 Loblolly pine on longleaf pine flat lands 21 Loblolly pine with hardwoods in swamps chiefly in Coastal Plain. . . 22 Loblolly pine with pocoson pine on savannas 24 Loblolly pine with cypress in deep swamps 25 Loblolly pine in hardwood and shortleaf pine forests on the Pied- mont uplands 26 Forest characteristics 26 Form 26 Stem 26 Crown 38 Root system 38 Bark 40 Longevity and size 41 Silvical requirements 41 Climate 41 Soil and moisture 41 Light 42 Reproduction 44 Seeding 44 Germination and plant establishment 45 Fungus diseases and insects 46 Sensitiveness to fire 47 Cattle and hogs 48 Sleet and snow 49 Wind-firmness 49 Wood and its uses 49 Qualities 49 Defects 50 Uses . 52 VI CONTENTS. PAGE Commercial use for turpentine 53 Growth 54 Quality, class 1 54 Quality, class II 56 Quality, class III 56 Old field stands 57 Determination of Quality Sites 57 Growth in height 58 Growth in diameter 63 Growth in volume 66 Cubic feet 66 Board feet v 66 Volume tables 72 Yield of pure even-aged stands 87 In cubic feet and cords 88 In board feet 90 Graded volume tables 98 Grading of logs 98 Grade 1 98 Grade 2 98 Grade 3 99 Grade 4 99 Grade 5 . 99 Red heart logs 99 Grading of lumber 100 No. 1 grade 100 No. 2 grade 100 No. 3 grade 100 No. 4 grade 100 No. 5 grade 100 Firm redheart 101 Bark strips 101 Increase in value of trees 119 Density of stand 128 Quality site 128 Rate of growth and age of stand 128 Management 134 Most profitable age and size at which to cut 135 Mixed stands 135 Pure even-aged stands for saw timber 136 Pure even-aged stands for cordwood 140 Open pure uneven-aged stands 142 Increasing the revenue from timber land 143 Reducing waste in logging 143 Rules to govern logging 146 Increase in cost of handling small timber 146 Relative value of trees for different uses 147 Silvicultural systems of cutting in different types 148 (1) Upland old field 149 (2) Permanent of "natural" loblolly pine type 151 CONTENTS. VU Silvicultural systems of cutting Continued: PAGE (3) Longleaf pine flat lands 154 (4) Mixed with hardwoods in flat swamps 154 (5) Loblolly pine with cypress in deep swamps 155 (6) Loblolly pine with pocoson pine on savannas 156 (7) Loblolly pine with shortleaf pine and hardwoods on uplands 156 Protection from fires 157 Brush lopping 158 Thinnings 159 Artificial restocking 166 Gathering of seed ... 166 Seedbeds 166 Planting 167 Direct seeding : 167 Broadcast sowing 168 Seed spot sowing 168 Advisability of loblolly pine planting 168 LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE 1. Forest types of Eastern North Carolina 14 2. Composition of loblolly pine stands on upland old fields 18 3. Composition of loblolly pine stands on peaty soil 20 4. Composition of loblolly pine stands on longleaf pine flat land 21 5. Composition of loblolly pine with hardwoods 23 6. Composition of loblolly pine with pocoson pine 25 7. Yield of different ages in board feet per linear foot of stem 27 8. Butt taper measurements 28 9. Taper measurements of stems age less than 75 years 29 9a. Taper measurements of stems age more than 75 years 34 10. Thickness of bark at breast high for trees of different diameters and heights 40 11. Thickness of bark on stump 41 12. Effect of fire on diameter growth 48 13. Growth in height of trees in crown classes on quality sites 59 14. Growth in height on different sites 61 15. Relation between total height and diameter on quality sites 62 16. Growth in diameter on quality sites 64 17. Relation between breast high diameter and stump diameter 65 18. Growth in diameter of trees on different sites 66 19. Growth of average tree in height, diameter, and volume 67 20. Growth in cubic volume on different sites 68 21. Growth in volume, board feet on quality sites 69 22. Growth in volume, board feet on different sites 71 23. Volume of logs in board feet and cubic feet and mill factor 74 23a. Log rule for loblolly pine 76 24. Volume of trees, band sawed, under 75 years 77 25. Volume of trees, band sawed, over 75 years 78 26. Volume of trees, circular sawed, under 75 years 79 27. Volume of trees, circular sawed, over 75 years 80 28. Volume of trees scaled by Doyle-Scribner rule, under 75 years 81 29. Volume of trees scaled by Doyle-Scribner rule, over 75 years 81 30. Volume of trees scaled by Scribner Decimal C rule, under 75 years. . 82 30a. Volume of trees scaled by Scribner Decimal C rule, over 75 years. . . 82 31. Volume of trees scaled by Tiemann rule, under 75 years 83 31a. Volume of trees scaled by Tiemann rule, over 75 years 83 32. Number of logs in trees of different diameters and heights 84 33. Volume in cubic feet of merchantable stem wood, less than 75 years . 86 34. Volume of trees in cubic feet and cords, per cent of bark and number of trees to a cord 87 35. Yield per acre in cubic feet to 3 inches, including tops and stumps. . . 89 36. Yield per acre in cubic feet to 6 inches, including tops and stumps. . . 90 37. Yield per acre cubic feet and cords without stumps and tops 91 38. Yield per acre to 6 inches, band sawed 92 39. Yield per acre to 6 inches, circular sawed 93 40. Yield per acre, Doyle-Scribner rule 93 LIST OF TABLES. IX TABLE PAGE 41. Yield per acre to 9 inches, band sawed 94 41a. Yield per acre to 11 inches, band sawed 94 42. Number of trees per acre, 6 inches and over 95 43. Number of trees per acre, 9 inches and over 96 44. Number of trees per acre, 11 inches and over 97 45. Per cent of different grades of lumber sawed from grade 1 logs 101 46. Per cent of different grades of lumber sawed from grade 2 logs 102 47. Per cent of different grades of lumber sawed from grade 3 logs 103 48. Per cent of different grades of lumber sawed from grade 4 logs 104 49. Per cent of different grades lumber sawed from red heart logs 105 50. Amounts and values of lumber sawed from grade 1 logs 106 51. Amounts and values of lumber sawed from grade 2 logs 107 52. Amounts and values of lumber sawed from grade 3 logs 108 53. Amounts and values of lumber sawed from grade 4 logs 109 54. Amounts and values of lumber sawed from red heart logs 110 55. Amounts and per cents of grades cut from butt, second and top logs, 45 year old stand 113 55a. Amounts and per cents of grades cut from butt, second and top logs, 65 year old stand 115 56. Per cent of grades of lumber in trees of different diameters age class 40 to 50 117 57. Per cent of grades of lumber in trees of different diameters age class 60 to 70 118 58. Value of lumber sawed from logs of different diameters 121 59. Stumpage value of trees, 45 year old stand, quality 1 122 60. Stumpage value of trees, 45 year old stand, quality II 123 61. Stumpage value of trees, 45 year old stand, quality III 124 62. Stumpage value of trees, 65 year old stand, quality 1 125 63. Stumpage value of trees, 65 year old stand, quality II 126 64. Stumpage value of trees, 65 year old stand, quality III 127 65. Value per 1,000 board feet of lumber from stands at different ages. . . 129 66. Value per 1,000 board feet of Stumpage in stands of different ages. . . 130 67. Stumpage value per cubic foot of wood in trees 131 68. Increase in stumpage prices and in utilization since 1891 133 69. Per cent of increase in value of dominant and intermediate trees. . . . 136 70. Value of fully stocked stands, scaled by Doyle-Scribner rule 138 71. Value of fully stock stands, basis of mill cut 139 72. Cost of growing cordwood 140 73. Time required for trees to grow one inch in diameter 141 74. Crown space in per cent of acre required for growth of trees of different sizes 143 75. Value of lumber in stumps 144 76. Increase in cost of manufacturing lumber with decrease in size of log 147 77. Comparative value of trees of different sizes 148 78. Area of crown space and index of tolerance 162 79. Yield of thinned stands and yield of thinnings 164 80. Cost per 1,000 board feet of growing loblolly pine 169 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FACING PLATE PAGE I. Group of loblolly pines 200 years old growing with hardwoods . on Quality I. Such trees yield 55 per cent of No. 1 and No. 2 grades of lumber. The hardwoods have been cut out. Frontispiece II. Branchlet of loblolly or North Carolina pine with old cones open after the dispersal of seed in early winter, and small cones which will develop next season just below the termi- nal bud. Two-fifths natural size. (Author's illustration.) 2 III. Stand of loblolly pine about 12 years old on dry sandy soil in old field. Stand is too open. The stems consequently are short and crooked, set with many branches, and the wood is knotty. An undesirable condition due to open stocking on dry soil. (Photo. U. S. Forest Service.) .............. 18 IV. Dense stand of pure loblolly pine, 5 to 8 years old. Desirable . ' condition insuring long straight stems which are well cleaned of branches. (Author's illustration.) ............ 20 V. A. Characteristic stand of loblolly and pocoson pine on sa- vanna. The scattered short-bodied trees are typical. Such a stand yields about 15 per cent of No. 1 and No. 2 grades of lumber. (Photo. U. S. Forest Service.) ....... 22 B. Margin of pine, cypress and gum swamp. Old cypress in center; old pine on left. (Photo. U. S. Forest Service.) VI. A. Groups of loblolly pine poles with old longleaf pine which it is replacing on grassy flat lands. (Photo. U. S. Forest Service.) ............................................ 24 B. Cut-over loblolly pine land showing the undesirable char- acter of the seed trees which are left by the present method of cutting. (Photo, by J. S. Holmes.) VII. Loblolly pine with mixed oaks and shortleaf pine. Three log tree 80 years old cutting 20 per cent of No. 1 and No. 2 grades of lumber. (Photo. N. C. Geological Survey.) ..... 26 VIII. A. Good example of heavy culling as practiced 15 to 20 years ago. The large number of intermediate and suppressed trees which were left have now formed a basis for a re- munerative second cutting. Pine reestablishment fair but intermixed with oaks. (Author's illustration.) ..... 44 B. and C. Types of recently cut loblolly pine forest, 5 or 6 years after cutting; quality II, age about 70 years. Dense pine restocking, young stand being from 6 to 10 feet high. Undesirable class of seed trees and no possibility of a remunerative second cutting. (Author's illustra- tions.) ............ 44 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XI FACING PLATE PAGE IX. Types of Loblolly Pine Wood 50 A. Type of wood from lower part of stem in old-field stand. The coarse grained center indicates large knots. This tree became codominant or intermediate when about 3 inches on the radius. The diameter growth was slow on account of the crowding and the stem cleaned of branches. It was isolated by thinning when 3% inches on the radius. The stem at that time resembled that of one of the isolated trees shown on Plate XVI. As a result of this thinning the growth during the past ten years has been at the rate of one inch in diameter every three years. While the wood formed since thinning is coarse grained, it is clear and free from knots. The large amount of hard summerwood is characteristic for flat- woods soils. (Author's illustration.) B. Characteristic wood from lower logs of trees in mixed stands, medium fine and even grained. The crown of this tree overtopped the hardwoods when it was about 60 years old (at 3.3 inches on the radius). Since this period the diameter growth has been at the rate of one inch every four years (7% rings to the inch of radius). This stem is practically free of knots for 60 feet and the wood is of high quality. Nearly the same result can be obtained by the method of cutting which is recommended for the best sites which seeks to develop the codominant and intermediate trees to form the mature stand, and by gradual cutting eventually to develop the best of the sup- pressed trees. (Author's illustration.) X. Types of Loblolly Pine Wood 50 A. Characteristic wood from middle and upper section of rapidly growing tree. The relatively small amount of hard summerwood in this portion of the stem is typical. (Author's illustration.) B. Wood from tree growing on very wet soil showing charac- teristic irregularity of grain. (Author's illustration.) XI. Fully stocked stand 35 years old, Quality II, in old field on upland of good quality following oak, hickory and short- leaf pine. The density is good; the growth, however, is beginning to decline and the stand would be much bene- fited by a thinning. (Author's illustration.) 56 XII. Logs of Different Grades 98 A. Logs chiefly of Grades 3 and 4, diameters 5 to 16 inches. These are the prevailing grades and sizes now coming to the mills. Average log about 38 feet, D.-S. (Author's illustration.) B. Logs chiefly of Grades 2 and 3, diameters 10 to 24 inches. These are the prevailing grades and sizes which were cut by the mills between 1895 and 1910. Average log xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FACING PLATE PAGE about 90 feet, D.-S. The small size of the heartwood is noteworthy. (Author's illustration.) C. Logs chiefly of Grades 1 and 2, diameters 12 to 36 inches. These were the prevailing grades and sizes which were sawed until 1895. Average log about 200 feet, D.-S. XIII. Typical boards of important grades of North Carolina pine lumber 12 feet long. A to D, inclusive, are dressed boards; E and F are rough. (Photographs made under direction of author.) 100 A. No. 1 grade board, 16 inches wide, from a large, old, fine- grained heart tree of the quality known as "slash pine." A narrow margin of sapwood is shown on either edge of the board. B. No. 2 grade board, 12 inches wide. The defects are a small pin knot and a narrow pitch streak in the upper one-half of the board. Board from an old growth, fine grained tree, very largely heartwood. C. No. 3 grade board, 12 inches wide. The defects are a pitch pocket in the lower one-fourth, two pin knots near the middle of the board, a pitch streak at the upper end of the board, and a sliver in the coarse, flat grain of its center. Board is from a second growth forest tree, coarse grained in the center and medium grained on the edges. Two-thirds of surface sapwood. D. Box or No. 4 grade board, 12 inches wide. Very knotty and coarse grained. This board is from a rapid growth tree of the old-field type and is all sapwood except a narrow ribbon of heart down the center. E. Merchantable red heart grade board, 10 inches wide. This board would have graded as a No. 3 but for the red heart which shows as the dark streaks in the heartwood. F. Box bark strip. The bark edge show's along the upper right-hand edge of the strip; the bark has been trimmed from the lower portion of the piece. XIV. Stand fifty to sixty years old, Quality II, on permanent loblolly pine site, which was culled of the dominant trees fifteen years ago. This stand, consequently, is formed of the intermediate and suppressed trees of the original stand which accounts for the very clean and slender stems. Under a better method of cutting, this stand would have produced at this time 35,000 board feet to the acre, the average log being 45 feet D.-S., and yielding more than 60 per cent No. 3 grade lumber and better. Desirable type of seed trees marked "S." (Au- thor's illustration. ) 136 XV. Unthinned stand 80 years old, Quality II, on permanent loblolly pine site, in process of lumbering. Although of good size, the upper logs are prevailingly knotty. This stand would have been benefited by the removal of the dominant trees 25 to 30 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Xlll FACING PLATE PAGE years ago. Scale of average log about 50 feet D.-S. Such a stand will yield 30 per cent of lumber of Grades No. 1 and No. 2. Desirable type of seed trees marked "S." (Author's illustration. ) 136 XVI. Stand 25 to 30 years old, Quality II, before being thinned. The large knots on the dominant trees are noteworthy. Trees to be removed in first improvement thinning marked "X." (Au- thor's illustration.) 148 XVII. Stand shown in Plate XVI after a combined first cutting and improvement thinning. Most of the knotty dominant trees have been cut, leaving the stand formed entirely of slender, clean-stemmed codominant and intermediate trees. These, with increased diameters, will yield from 3 to 3 3 / nearly clear logs, which will saw out approximately the same type of wood as that shown in Plate IX-B. More than 3,000 feet D.-S. per acre were removed from the stand in this cutting. The average log, however, scaled less than 12 feet. (Au- thor's illustration.) 148 XVIII. Fire Protection. Surface fire in pine forest stopped by plowing two double furrows 156 XIX. Unused top containing a sound 16-foot log, 10 inches in diame- ter at large and 5 inches at small end, but yielding only cull lumber on account of large knots. Such a top is forming a serious fire menace. (Author's illustration.) 156 XX. A loblolly pine stand, Quality II, cut to a 12-inch diameter, a large number of slender, clean-stemmed, intermediate trees being uncut. Characteristic condition in which such a stand was left after it was logged by means of wheels in the decade preceding 1905. Compare Plates VI-B and VIII. The lum- ber from these small trees at the date of the cutting would have had a Norfolk value of $13.60 per M, with a high cost of operation on account of the small size of the logs, less than 15 feet b. m. Doyle-Scribner, and a stumpage value of only a few cents per M. After holding 15 years these trees have a stumpage value of about $2.40 per M, while the aver- age log scales between 40 and 50 board feet. This is an increase in value of practically 1,000 per cent. (Photo. U. S. Forest Service.) 156 XXI. Condition in which loblolly pine and hardwood swamp forest was left after being logged by steam skidder in the manner of cutting which prevailed to 1905. In the present opera- tions cutting is closer and less small timber is left. Note the large amount of inflammable slash. (Photo. U. S. Forest Service. ) 156 XXII. Open mature stand of loblolly pine, Quality II. Establishment of pine seedlings prevented by fires. Heavy underwood of oak and other broadleaf trees growing beneath the pine, but periodically top killed by fire. (Photo. U. S. Forest Service.) 156 XIV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PACING PLATE PAGE XXIII. Stand similar to that in Plate XXII but unburned for 15 years. Tendency of scrubby hardwoods to replace pine. Note un- necessarily high stumps; and old fire scar on butt of log on right. (Photo. U. S. Forest Service.) 156 XXIV. Crown cover of Loblolly Pine. Quality I stand, 70 years old. Its density is noteworthy. (Author's illustration.) 158 XXV. Crown cover of Loblolly Pine. Quality III stand in old field, age 50 years. The complete isolation of the crowns is char- acteristic. Groups of seedlings are beginning to establish themselves under such a canopy. (Author's illustration.) . . . 158 XXVI. Crown cover of Loblolly Pine, Quality II, age 35 years. Crowns well developed and symmetrical. Excellent condition for rapid individual growth. (Author's illustration.) 160 XXVII. Crown cover of Loblolly Pine, Quality II, age 35 years. Crowns small but stems clean. Stand crowded, in urgent need of thinning to develop large crowns. (Author's illustration.) . . 160 TEXT FIGURES FIG. PAGE 1. Distribution of loblolly pine and shortleaf pine in the Southern States. (Compiled by author.) 2. Distribution of loblolly pine in North Carolina. (Prepared by author. ) 11 a. and b. Roots of mature loblolly pines on upland clays. (From Photo, by author.) 39 c. Two-year old loblolly pine seedling. (From Photo, by author.) ... 39 4a. Roots of loblolly pine saplings on dry sandy upland soils. (Adapted from Photo, by J. S. Holmes. ) 39 b. Roots of loblolly pine on moist but well drained sandy loam soils. Small deep seated roots extending to water table. (Adapted by author from Photo by Von Schrenk.) 39 c. Roots of loblolly pine on wet soils. No deep seated roots, but a great mass of shallow roots. (From sketch made from nature.) 39 5. Relation between loblolly pine quality sites and depth of water table in soils of different texture. (Author's illustration.) 56 PREFACE The loblolly or Xorth Carolina pine is by far the most important tree now being cut for lumber in Xortli Carolina. While distributed over only the eastern half of the state, yet this tree furnishes more than half of the annual lumber cut of the whole state. Most of the lands which many years ago were denuded of longleaf pine by the turpentine opera- tors and the lumbermen and then devastated by fires and hogs, later came up to loblolly pine and now 50 to 100 years later are furnishing another and a more remunerative crop of timber. Loblolly combines all the essentials for an ideal forest management tree. It seeds profusely and regenerates readily, is adapted to nearly all types of soil, grows rapidly, becomes marketable at an early age, grows densely, making large yields per acre, and produces material for which there is a general demand at a fair and increasing price. The study of the loblolly or Xorth Carolina pine in eastern Xorth Carolina, which formed the basis of this report, was made jointly by the Forest Service of the United States Department of Agriculture and the Xorth Carolina Geological and Economic Survey. The first field work was begun in 1898 and the entire study completed in 1913. The growth and volume figures apply only to eastern Xorth Carolina. The mill studies were made in Gates, Wayne, Beaufort, and Pitt counties; and the sample plots and stem analyses were made in twelve additional counties: Chatham, Nash, Northampton, Washington, Bertie, Craven, Hyde, Harriett, Johnston, Wake, Fender, Lenoir, and Onslow. A considerable part of the original field data was collected under the immediate direction of the author by H. S. Curran and E. A. Cahoon of the Xortli Carolina Geological Survey, and A. K. Mlodziansky, of the United States Forest Service. Some of the mill cut data were collected by Messrs. J. S. Holmes, Forester of the Xorth Carolina Geological and Economic Survey, and'W. D. Sterrett, of the Forest Sendee. In the process of the study many courtesies were extended by the Hines Bros. Lumber Company of Kinston, X. C., Short Lumber Company of Wash- ington, D. C., and Lyon & Dennis of Suffolk, Ya., while information in regard to prices of certain grades at different periods was furnished by ^1 r. W. B. Roper, Secretary of the Xorth Carolina Fine Association. This bulletin takes up the growth and proper forest management of loblolly pine in Xorth Carolina. It deals with the occurrence and silvical requirements of the tree, its growth in height, diameter and volume on different soils and situations, and the yields which can be obtained under varying conditions. The amount of lumber of different grades which can be cut from timber of different ages and qualities is also shown in tabular form. XVI PREFACE. Under forest management is taken up the determination of the best age at which to cut for saw timber or cordwood, in order to utilize most profitably the forest crop. The best methods of cutting in order that the forests may be perpetuated is discussed for the different types. Pro- tection from fire, especially for the young growth, is advocated and the advisability of artificial restocking by seeding or planting is considered. This report has been prepared for the use of landowners and lumber- men alike, and is designated to meet the needs of all of our people who are in any way interested in timber, but especially those in the eastern half of Xorth Carolina. Two bulletins previously issued by the United States Department of Agriculture treat of this tree along somewhat different lines and will be found helpful to read in connection with this report. "The Loblolly Pine in Eastern Texas, With Special Reference to the Production of Cross-ties," by Raphael Zon, Forest Service Bulletin 6-1, was published in 1905; while "Forest Management of Loblolly Pine in Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia," by W. D. Sterrett, Bulletin of the United States Department of Agriculture, No. 11 (new series), has only recently been published. The present report should have been issued at the same time, but the delay in publishing this has been much greater than was anticipated. JOSEPH HYDE PRATT, State Geologist. LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE (Pinus taeda, Linna-us) ITS GROWTH AND MANAGEMENT BY W. W. ASHE THE TREE AND ITS IDENTIFICATION. The loblolly or North Carolina pine grows under many diverse con- ditions which affect its form, size, and the character of its wood, and in -consequence it is known by many names. The general use of the name "North Carolina pine" for the lumber cut from the tree commonly known as "shortleaf pine" through the Coastal Plain region of North Carolina would seem sufficient excuse for adopting the use of one or both these names in this report. The former name is used on the title page in order to clearly identify the tree, but its general acceptance is not recommended. This name is applied only to a very limited extent to the tree itself, while the name "loblolly pine," though not often used locally in the Carolinas or Vir- ginia, either for the tree or its lumber, has a wide and ever-extending use, not only by foresters but by readers of the lumber journals and the public generally. For this reason and because it is the only name which is applied exclusively to this tree, the name loblolly is used throughout the body of this report, notwithstanding the strong arguments for continuing the local name of "shortleaf pine of the coast," or adopting the lumber trade name of "North Carolina pine." OTHER COMMON NAMES. Shortleaf pine and Short straw pine, names usually applied to the growing tree in eastern North Carolina and farther south, are used to distinguish loblolly from longleaf pine. In the middle portion of North Carolina and in the hill section of the states farther south, the name shortleaf pine is applied to a different tree (P. echinata}. This tree, however, occurs sparingly in the Coastal Plain, where it is known either as spruce pine or rosemary pine. In the former region where the loblolly pine occurs it is sometimes called "longleaf" pine. Old-field pine, a name applied to young growth of loblolly pine on land once under cultivation in eastern North Carolina and southward. Slash pine, a name common in Virginia, the Carolinas, and farther south, refers to large trees with thick heartwood which occur in swamps in mixture with hardwoods. Rosemary pine, a name infrequently applied to large trees growing with hardwoods in swamps; more generally used in the Coastal Plain 1 2 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PISTE. to designate large trees of Pinus ecJiinata, the common shortleaf pine of the Piedmont Region. Swamp pine, a very common name for loblolly pine growing in swamps. Sap pine and black-bark pine are names applied by lumbermen to young growth possessing these characteristics. The latter name is ap- plied more frequently to pocosoii pine. On the eastern shores of Maryland, in southeastern Virginia, and in Piedmont North Carolina, where associated w r ith shortleaf, scrub and other pines having much shorter leaves, loblolly pine in some places is known as longhaf or foxtail pine. Botanically the tree is known as Pinus taeda, L., an inappropriate term so far as the specific designation is concerned, as taeda means torch. The torch or lightwood pine is the longleaf pine. The latter furnishes the wood for light, its brands until recently being the chief source of light at night in thousands of homes in the Coastal Plain of the southern states. DISTINGUISHING BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS. There are three pines which are intimately associated with the loblolly pine in different portions of the Coastal Plain region, and as two of them are apt to be confused with it, the following characteristics will be found of assistance in separating them : N. C. GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY. PLATE II. 2.3 .7 in A e s Branchlet of loblolly or North Carolina pine with old cones open after the dispersal of seed in early winter, and small cones which will develop next season, just below the terminal bud. Two-fifths natural size. (Author's illustration.) LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS OF LOBLOLLY AND ASSOCIATED PINES OF EASTERN NORTH CAROLINA. Bark and Branches of Ma- Leaves Cones Soil Preference ture Trees Loblolly Pine Bark on large trees Leaves in 3s, Cones oblong. Grows nearly ev- Shortleaf Pine (of the generally more 3 to 7 inches 3 to 6 inches long, erywhere, except Coa- than one inch long. opening soon on the wettest North Carolina Pine thick at stump; after maturing sandy and peaty (Pinus tceda). bright red brown, and falling from soils and on sand broken into large the tree. hills. oblong plates; branches ascend- ing except on large trees. Pocoson Pine Bark on large Leaves in 3s, Cones oval, Wet, sandy soils, Pond pine trees seldom one 3 to 5 inches pointed, 2 to 4 black peaty or Black bark pine inch thick at long. inches long; sel- muck lands. (Pinus serotina). stump; dark dom opening, brown, broken persistent on the into square or tree. roundish plates; branches nearly horizontal. Longleaf pine Bark thin and Leaves in 3s, Cones 5 to 7 inches Sandhills and Pitch pine scaly, not ar- 5 to 9 inches long, opening at sandy or clayey (Pinus palustris.) ranged in plates. long. maturity and at soils that are bright, red-brown once falling from not too wet. the tree. Shortleaf pine Bark broken into Leaves usually Cones about 2 Well drained, Spruce pine oblong plates; in 2s, 2 to 4 inches long, loamy, clayey or Rosemary pine light red-brown, inches long. opening at ma- gravelly uplands. (Pinus echinata). somewhat scaly; turity, persistent branches ascend- on the tree. ing except in old trees. Very young trees and seedlings of the pocoson pine when growing in dense stands in mixture with loblolly pine are not easily distinguished from the latter, as the crowding tends to cause the branches of both species to ascend and the bark of the young pines is dark and furrowed. The two pines, however, are very distinct; the pocoson pine is inferior in every respect to the loblolly pine. This is generally recognized by the lumbermen who know that the pocoson or black-bark pine, especially in large stocks, is apt to be defective; either very knotty, rotten or with redheart. The pocoson pine is found associated with the loblolly pine 4 LOBLOLLY OK NORTH CAROLINA PINE. on savannas and on all wet, sandy, coarse-grained soils, particularly below an elevation of 100 feet above sea level. The shortleaf pine occurs with the loblolly pine, chiefly on well- drained, loamy, gravelly or clayey uplands. In the coastal plain they are most frequently associated north of the Neuse River, but are seldom found together to the southward, except on hills along streams. They are found together on the oak uplands of the eastern portion of the Piedmont plateau region on well-drained, loamy or gravelly knolls and hills, where the shortleaf pine is the remnant of the old forest and the loblolly pine forms a portion of the second growth. Only in a few local- ities are all four pines found growing together. Near the coast the loblolly, pocoson, and longleaf pines are sometimes associated on sandy hummocks; the wettest places, however, are as a rule occupied by the pocoson pine; the pocoson and the loblolly pines are associated on savannas and slightly drier knolls; on better drained soils the long- leaf replaces the pocoson pine in the mixture and on thoroughly drained soils only the longleaf pine is found. ECONOMIC STATUS OF LOBLOLLY PISE. Loblolly pine is the most important timber tree in southeastern Vir- ginia, in eastern North Carolina, and in northeastern South Carolina north of Georgetown; while to the south of Georgetown not only in South Carolina but in Georgia and westward in the Gulf States its im- portance is yearly increasing with the decrease in the supply of longleaf pine. (See Map, Fig. 1.) Its value and its importance as a commercial tree are best indicated by the extent of the lumber industry which is dependent upon it and by the annual output of North Carolina pine lumber in southeastern Virginia, in North Carolina and in the adjacent portion of South Carolina. While no attempt is made in the census figures to separate the cuts of the various pines which are sawed in this region, all of them being grouped under the head of yellow pine, it is possible to approximate closely the cut of loblolly pine. The lumber cut of certain counties is entirely from loblolly pine (the shortleaf pine of the coast) and that of other counties is very largely from this species. In southeastern Virginia the cut of pine in 1912 in nine counties which are within the loblolly pine belt was 397,344,000 bd. ft. In North Caro- lina the cut of pine in 40 coastal plain pine counties was 1,079,061,000 bd. ft. In South Carolina in 15 counties the cut north of Georgetown was 548,138,000 bd. ft. A small amount of the pine cut in these nine counties in southeastern Virginia is from the shortleaf pine (of the Piedmont) ; in North Carolina small amounts of the pine cut in the coastal plain are from the shortleaf pine and from the longleaf or pitch pine; in South Carolina probably less than 10 per cent of the pine cut of the counties north of Georgetown is at present from long- LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 6 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. leaf pine. The cut by counties for nine counties* in Virginia south of the James River is as follows : Board F t Isle of Wight 12,500,000 Norfolk 100,683,000 62,726,000 5,600,000 5,500,000 98,425,000 58,385,000 13,525,000 40,000,000 Total * 397,344,000 The cut by counties for 40 counties in eastern North Carolina is as f ollows : Nansemond . . , Prince George . Princess Anne Southampton . Surry Sussex Greenesville . Board Feet. Beaufort 44,428,000 Bertie 34,137,000 Bladen 29,125,000 Brunswick 16,877,000 Camden 1,170,000 Carteret 5,240,000 Chowan 25,824,000 Columbus 67,970,000 Craven 107,209,000 Cumberland 16,700,000 Duplin 60,841,000 Dare 4,000,000 Edgecombe 7,112,000 Gates 14,695,000 Greene 2,600,000 Halifax 41,290,000 Harnett 32,360,000 Hertford 17,980,000 Hoke 1,700,000 Hyde 1,881,000 Johnston 45,460,000 Board Feet. Jones 20,790,000 Lenoir 20,136,000 Martin 9,795,000 Nash 31,778,000 New Hanover 43,432,000 Northampton 7,318,000 Onslow 23,563,000 Pamlico 22,109,000 Pasquotank 49,950,000 Fender 58,700,000 Perquimans 23,627,000 Pitt 8,510,000 Robeson 43,761,000 Sampson 66,917,000 Scotland 2,960,000 Tyrrell 1,390,000 Washington 23,046,000 Wayne 20,810,000 Wilson 21,870,000 Total 1,079,061,000 The cut by counties for 15 counties in South Carolina north of George- town is as follows: Board Feet. Beaufort 8,527,000 Berkeley 13,265,000 Charleston 48,343,000 Colleton 64,384,000 Darlington 82,373,000 Dillon 6,075,000 Dorchester 31,761,000 Florence 21,310,000 Georgetown 129,948,000 Hampton 21,700,000 Horry 28,472,000 Lee 1,000,000 Marion 54,235,000 Marlboro 21,035,000 Williamsburg 15,710,000 Total 548,138,000 *The total cut of yellow pine in the 36 counties of eastern Virginia in which loblolly pine is the prevailing tree is about 1,200,000,000 board feet. It is probable that three-fourths of this cut is from loblolly pine. LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 7 The pine industries of southeastern Virginia and northeastern North Carolina are so closely associated that it is impossible to separate them. A large portion of the logs cut in northeastern North Carolina is manu- factured in Virginia chiefly at or in the vicinity of Norfolk, Suffolk, Franklin, Emporia, and Whaleyville. It is estimated that 175,000,000 feet, or nearly half of the output of the mills in this section of Virginia, are from logs brought from North Carolina, the importations being dis- tributed approximately as follows : 50 per cent of the output of Nanse- inond County ; 90 per cent of the output of Norfolk County and 60 per cent of the output of Southampton County. Some of the other counties which lie on or near the state line, such as Greenesville, also obtain small amounts of their timber from North Carolina. It is conservative there- fore to say that the cut of loblolly pine timber in North Carolina in 1912 exceeded 1,250,000,000 board feet. The timber from which this was cut had a stumpage value of not less than $4,000,000, while the value of the entire output of loblolly pine in North Carolina embracing both the lumber delivered on the cars and the round timber which was cut in the State, but manufactured outside, amounted to more than $16,000,000. The cut of North Carolina pine lumber in North Carolina has probably attained its maximum. Small operators still cut a large amount of North Carolina pine lumber. Of the total number of operations there were in 1912 only 22 in North Carolina that had an annual cut in excess of 10,000,000 board feet. These 22 had a combined cut of 384,000,000 board feet, compared with a cut of 695,061,000 board feet for the remaining 600 operations. At the same time in the counties north of Georgetown in South Caro- lina there were only six operations that had an output in excess of 10,- 000,000 board feet, and in the nine southeastern counties of Virginia only 12 operations had outputs of this volume. The largest single operation in the North Carolina pine field is at Georgetown, S. C., with an estimated output of about 100,000,000 board feet a year. A wood alcohol plant is operated in connection with this sawmill to utilize the waste. The Norfolk District embracing the five counties of Norfolk, Nansemond, Princess Anne, Isle of Wight, and Southampton, with an output of more than 180,000,000 board feet a year, still maintains its supremacy not only as a distributing center but also as a producing center. The amount of mature loblolly pine timber in North Carolina is about 15,000,000,000 board feet. This pine occupies in pure growth or asso- ciated with other species more than 8,000 square miles in North Caro- lina. Since the rate of growth of this species even under present un- favorable conditions is not less than 150 board feet per acre of commer- cial saw-timber a year replacement is at the rate of about 800,000,000 board feet a year and consequently is taking place at more than half of the rate of utilization for lumber. It is believed that if the forest lands of eastern North Carolina were being well managed the present cut could be maintained permanently. LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. PHYSIOGRAPHY OF COASTAL PLAIN AND PIEDMONT PLATEAU REGIONS. In order to understand the distribution of the loblolly pine in North Carolina, its growth under various conditions and the systems of man- agement best adapted to them, it is necessary to have a clear idea of the topography and other general physical characteristics of the Coastal Plain and of the eastern portions of the Piedmont Plateau regions. THE COASTAL PLAIN REGION. The coastal plain region of North Carolina extends inland from the coast for a distance of one hundred to one hundred and fifty miles, and has an aggregate area approximating 24,000 square miles. Its sur- face is that of a gently undulating plain of slight elevation (10 to 50 feet above sea level) and nearly level eastward, becoming more elevated (300 to 500 feet) and rolling along its western border. In the neighbor- hood of the coast, where the drainage is insufficient to remove the rain- fall rapidly, there are extensive areas of lowland or swamp, with clear, slowly flowing, or stagnant water. These are mostly forest covered. Westward the fall permits a more thorough drainage and the swamps are largely restricted to narrow strips of alluvial land contiguous to the streams which have muddy, rapidly flowing water when the streams head beyond the costal plain, and. clear, slow-flowing water when the streams head within the coastal plain. These swamps of the muddy streams extend in a northwesterly and southeasterly direction through the entire coastal plain. The total swamp area of the coastal plain region in North Carolina aggregates nearly 4,600 square miles. The upland soils of the coastal plain are unconsolidated sands, sandy loams, silts and loams, and over limited areas stiff clays. To the north of the Neuse River loams and heavier soils are the more widely distrib- uted upland soils; to the south of this river the soils are generally of a sandy type. The water table during the growing season is seldom as much as 20 feet below the surface, except in the tier of counties which lies just east of the Piedmont and in the sandy and hilly region of Moore, Cumberland, Richmond, and the adjoining counties. The soils in the swamps, except those of alluvial origin, are prevailingly of the same general textures as those of the uplands, but with a mucky or peaty top soil, or peaty throughout. The soils of the alluvial swamps border- ing the large streams, which have their headwaters beyond the coastal plain region, are silty with a varying admixture of vegetable matter. The soils of the coastal plain which are occupied by loblolly pine are practically all available for farming with the exception of the sand dunes on the banks and some of the river swamps which are subject to periodic and deep flooding. Many of the best loblolly pine soils require artificial drainage before they can be profitably farmed. There is little LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 9 doubt, however, that eventually the larger portion of all of the land now in loblolly pine will be cleared and placed in cultivation. In the Coastal Plain Eegion the average annual temperature is about 61 F., with a normal range of 36 F. The winters are com- paratively mild, the temperature seldom falling below 15 F. The average temperature during the five growing months is 74 F. The average annual rainfall is about fifty-five inches, the seasonal distribu- tion being heavier in the spring and summer than in the autumn and winter. The region of heaviest precipitation and greatest humidity lies eastward of a north and south line through New Bern and Wilmington. The rainfall, while heavy, is irregular and concentrated, and the snow- fall scant, although sleet is frequent. The atmospheric humidity is high, especially during the summer. PIEDMONT PLATEAU REGION. The eastern portion of the Piedmont plateau region, which is the portion in which loblolly pine occurs most frequently, is more rugged and its topography rougher than that of the coastal plain. Its eleva- tion varies from 350 to 600 feet above sea level. In general its surface is rolling though along the streams and in some other places there are bold hills. On the uplands the predominating soils may be described as loams and clays, sandy and gravelly in some places, but generally with much stiffer red or yellow subsoil, formed by the decay in situ of slates, gneisses, (hornblende-bearing) schists, pegmatites, and other crystalline rocks; while over some limited areas sandy soils occur derived from sandstone and granite. Along the numerous small streams are narrow, alluvial deposits, moist, dark-colored loams, containing a variable proportion of organic matter. Along the larger streams these fluvial deposits are often clayey or silty. All soils occupied by the loblolly pine in the Piedmont plateau region, except where too rough or steep are suitable for farming. The average annual temperature for the region is somewhat less than that of the coastal plain, being about 59 F.; the annual rainfall is only about fifty inches, and the humidity is lower. The water table is from 30 to 50 feet below the surface of the hill summits, while the surface drainage is far superior to that of the coastal plain, swamps being limited to the borders of the streams. The average temperature during the five growing months is 73 F. COMMERCIAL DISTRIBUTION. The commercial distribution of the loblolly pine in North Carolina is from Granville, Person, Orange, Chatham, and Union counties, some- what east of the center of the State, eastward and southeastward to the coast, where it occurs over a total area of not less than 30,000 square miles. As a commercial tree it is largely absent, however, from Cum- berland, Moore, Richmond, and Hoke counties in eastern North Caro- 10 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. lina, which have prevailing dry sandy soils. There are also less ex- tensive areas of swamp in which it does not occur. But it is capable of growing as a commercial tree on 22,000 square miles of this area (See map, Fig. 2.) In Virginia it is the prevailing species south and east of Petersburg and Lunenburg, covering the southeastern portion of the state, while to the north of Petersburg it is common along and near Chesapeake Bay, on both the eastern and western shores. In South Carolina it is common south and east of Chester wherever the soil and moisture conditions are suitable for its growth. ORIGINAL FOREST. In the coastal plain the loblolly pine was originally largely confined to the following situations: (1) River swamps, where it occurred on the best drained portions, as single trees in mixture with hackberry, sweet gum, red maple, white and red oaks, deep swamp ash, and water gum; (2) shallow interior swamps with loamy soils where it grew in groups of a few trees, or more generally single trees, among maple, water oaks, and gums; (3) shallow swamps with stiff soils, where single trees occurred irregularly distributed among white oaks and red oaks, ash, elm, holly, white bay, beech, and gums; (4) deep swamps, in which it was not com- mon and where it occurred with cypress, water gum, and water ash; (5) hummocks and the edges of swamps, savannas, and pocosons, where on'a wide range of moist soils of sand, silt, clay or peat, it grew sparingly with longleaf and pocoson pines; (6) best grade of loams, silts, clays (Portsmouth soil series) and peaty soils seldom subject to flooding, with the water table usually from five to eight feet below the surface where it formed compact groups or stands covering many acres; (7) on peaty soils where it occurred with yellow poplar, white cedar (juniper), white bay, sweet bay, and sweet gum. Specimens of best development (Plate I, Frontispiece) are met with in shallow swamps on clayey or loamy soil growing with mixed hard- woods. The pure groves on well-drained peaty soil are mostly formed of comparatively young and small trees from 100 to 150 years old and in even-aged stands. There are traditions supported by other evidence, that these pure groves on the peaty lands have followed old fires. Under natural conditions it is probable that this species did not form extensive pure forests in ISTorth Carolina except in the extreme northeastern sec- tion. Loblolly pine was absent from the best drained soils which were occupied by the longleaf pine in the coastal plain and by mixed hard- woods and shortleaf pine in the Piedmont plateau region. In the Piedmont plateau the original growth of loblolly pine was chiefly confined to the forests of the narrow stream swamps of the east- ern portion of the plateau. It formed only a very small proportion of the timber in these forests which are distinctively of hardwoods. While most abundant in the Piedmont along its eastern edge, isolated trees LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 11 12 LOBLOLLY OK NORTH CAROLINA PINE. have been found on alluvial lands as far west as the eastern end of Surry County and at an altitude of about 700 feet, although 500 feet is the prevailing altitudinal limit in oSTorth Carolina. PRESENT FOREST. Accidental influences, largely circumstances incidental to the settling and development of the country, and other influences which have fol- lowed these, have enabled the tree, by means of its prolific and early seed- ing and rapid growth, to become locally far more widely distributed and much more abundant than in. the original forest. The most important of these influences which have facilitated the reproduction and distribu- tion of this species have been the abandonment of farming lands, fires, lumbering, and live stock, especially hogs. On account of its adaptabil- ity, loblolly pine has increased in abundance in wet situations as well as on dry sites. In swamps it has often followed cypress, when cypress was cut, wherever standing water during the growing season did not prevent the pine from establishing itself. When hardwoods on the coastal plain were culled, or severely burned, loblolly pine became more abun- dant in the hardwood forests, until its young growth is now common, both on the uplands and in the swamps. It has extensively replaced the long- leaf pine, except on the dryest or sandiest soils. "When the longleaf pine died after being exhausted by turpentine or was broken down by the wind, or where it was burned or thinned by lumbering, the loblolly pine succeeded it on all moist, loamy, or clay soils. At the same time hogs destroyed the seeds and seedlings of the longleaf pine, while both seed and seedlings of loblolly were largely neglected, the former because of their small size and the latter because the roots are tough and fibrous. The loblolly pine now occupies in nearly pure forests, much of it more than 100 years old, practically all of the cutover longleaf pine lands north of the Neuse River, and a great proportion of the longleaf pine lands south of the Neuse River and east of Fayetteville and Laurinburg, and i? gradually invading the sandhills of Moore, Cumberland, and Richmond counties. Worn-out farming lands exhausted of humus, which have been turned to fallow, and lands which have been found too poor or often too wet to cultivate, or which were abandoned on account of scarcity of labor, have been stocked with loblolly pine by means of self-sown seed whenever seed-bearing trees were near by. Thus this pine has become extensively distributed, and while 100 years ago the longleaf pine was the characteristic forest tree in the Coastal Plain Region of !N"orth Caro- lina, at present the loblolly pine is the prevailing tree; and its relative abundance and importance are steadily increasing. The distribution of the loblolly pine has also been extended in the Piedmont plateau, though not to the same extent as in the coastal plain. In the eastern part of the Piedmont plateau it has established itself in old fields, often in association with shortleaf pine, and in stands of hard- woods which have been culled. It is now abundant in the second growth LOBLOLLY OB NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 13 stands on the hills near the rivers and is gradually extending away from the streams, in spite of the increasing dryness of the soil. The growth in the old fields along the eastern edge of the Piedmont plateau in many places is nearly pure loblolly pine. Where young trees of the shortleaf pine appear they are often overtopped and suppressed, being outnumbered and overgrown by the loblolly pine. To the west- ward, however, there are fewer seed trees, and where there is competition between the two species, the shortleaf pine has the advantage, except on moist or sandy soils. ASSOCIATED SPECIES. With such a wide range of soil adaptability loblolly pine is associated with many species and is a component of many forest types. In" the mixed stands in the swamps and on poorly drained sites some of the associated species are fully as valuable as the pine and are well adapted to silvicultural purposes. Other species are less valuable than the lob- lolly. The following list gives the most important associated species. LIST or THE MOST IMPORTANT SPECIES ASSOCIATED WITH LOBLOLLY PIXE IN ORDER OF THEIR RELATIVE IMPORTANCE. TREES. Longleaf pine Pinus palustris. Shortleaf, spruce or rosemary pine Pinus echinata. Sweet or red gum Liquidambar styraciflua. Water gum At/ssa aquatica. Southern red oak Quercus digitata. Swamp red oak Quercus pagodcefolia. Pocoson, black bark or pond pine Pinus serotina. Red maple Acer rubrum tridens. Yellow poplar Liriodendron tulipifera. Water oak Quercus nigra. Green ash Fraxinus lanceolata. Deep swamp ash Fraxinus profunda. Water ash Fraxinus caroliniana. White elm Ulmus americana. White hickory Hicoria alba. Sand hickory Hicora pallida. White oak Quercus alba. Swamp white or swamp chestnut oak Quercus Michauxii. Post oak Quercus minor. Round leaf blackjack oak Quercus marylandica. Forked leaf or sand blackjack oak Quercus Catesbcei. Runner oak Quercus Margaretta. Black gum Nyssa sylvatica. Tupelo gum Nyssa uniflora. Cottonwood Populus deltoides. SHRUBS. Gallberry Hex glabra. Tall gallberry Ilex luci'in. Fetterbush . Andromeda, several species. 14 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. FOREST TYPES. Wherever similar soil and moisture conditions prevail there is a definite association of species. This association which is called a forest type remains practically constant until the natural conditions are disturbed by fire, cattle, lumbering, or other causes. The type is formed of those species which are best suited to soil and moisture conditions, but this does not necessarily mean that the natural mixture of species would be the most profitable one or the most desirable one economically for that site. The rate of growth of the different species which form a type is practically always the same in that type, and the yield of the type at a given age is constant. Table 1 shows the composition of the important commercial forest types of the coastal plain of North Carolina and their relation to soil and drainage. The great number of forest types in which loblolly pine occurs is noteworthy as showing the virility and aggressiveness of this species. TABLE I CHARACTERISTIC FOREST TYPES OP EASTERN NORTH CAROLINA ACCORDING TO SOIL AND DRAINAGE. When drained Drainage Best Clay Soils, Fine-grained Stiff Loams or Marls Good Agricultural Soils, Loams, Sandy Loams, Sands, Coarse or Medium-grained Peaty Soils, Mucks Medium to Fine- G rained (1) (2) (3) Very dry and well Hardwoods, small Shortleaf pine with Sand hills with drained; rolling or red, post and small oaks, espe- longleaf pine and hilly, (as stream roundleaf black cially Q. margar- sand blackjack bluffs); water- jack oaks, hickories etta and hickories. oak. Loblolly table below 20 ft. with some short- Occasionally long- pine is infrequent Both surface and leaf pine. (Young leaf pine inter- even in old fields. subsoil drainage loblolly pine ap- mixed. (Young Longleaf pine good. pearing in open- loblolly pine in sand hills. ings.) Oak and openings.) pine uplands. (4) (5) (6) Longleaf piney Longleaf pine of Longleaf pine of Longleaf pine, woods and flat- fine quality pass- best quality, with pure. Pine bar- woods; moist sub- ing with poorer dogwood and post rens. soils; water-table drainage into hard- oak. The longleaf seldom below 20 ft. woods; pine and largely replaced Surface drainage post oak flatwoods. by loblolly pine, good. Subsoil drain- which now forms age slow. extensive forests; or when water table is stable near surface, pure lob- lolly pine. Flat- woods. LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. TABLE I ('l 03 >, dot? c3 O L O "" " e t. CO (M CC M t- t^ US .d g'-a c?J1 C D " |- - 2 p. j. ;, ,^ CO O O . a.M a CO OJ m . & "2 . 02 ||1 a a S "o-S-S ? o.5 CO to t- CO CO us us o |o d o C3 C c M E g=l d *rt <** c3 d e S * O --r CO O5 00 O OD o Q ;_S 1- M >> . - ' 00 CO CO CO CO CS . * ||| 1 rt Tt 00 1C i-l ft Q vT a ^'"S 3 G rj rn O (D C! -30. s 'a a> ro g ex >j O.2 p. c- CO (N M os r to gjl 2 HI CO C<1 ^1 j~ 'o la" "d 5 d ^. ^ ^ CO oc CO to O CO 's (M " * CO ^J OO P . 3.1 3 o ^ u- ^_ _ oo as &fl 5| c8 03 CD g 1 b-_2 1 f tf OC O 05 t~ *S * o. ^ ^ ^, & 'M 3 "rt G "^ SO p-H O *J 1 tn be ' n 0^1 us o >? "o i .3 i r o.S 5*3 C .0 M - e to oo oo 1 *~ 11 "~ *~ to "* P 1 I bo ss s 1 c ~ C 00 o- e - C-l i-H M S 13 2 J3 2 a O S ?3 ?] 1} jj J O j C ^2 C d **" 4 O 5 C 5 a v Zj > - M itf a n^ -u C _ - - J V ^ ID ... o cfl ~ a a LOBLOLLY OK NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 19 Loblolly pine attains on the upland old field sites a height of from 60 to 80 feet, a range of diameters of from 12 to 22 inches, and an age of 75 years. The rate of growth is extremely rapid for several decades, far more rapid than on similar uncultivated soils, after which there is an abrupt decline in the rate of height as well as diameter growth. (Table 14, Column 4, and Table 18, Column 4.) The total volume of the stand culminates between the fortieth and sixtieth years, according to the site. At the time of culmination not only has the growth in height practically ceased and the rate of diameter growth declined to about an inch a decade, but the stand has begun to disintegrate by the lying of the dominant trees. The growth of such a stand may be Quality I for the first two decades; Quality II for the third decade; jifter which it may decline to Quality III. (See p. 57.) On account of the open crown cover, oaks and other upland hard- woods gradually enter the stand. In stands more than 40 years old these species often form a moderately dense lower story beneath the pines. When the loblolly pine is cut, they partly replace the loblolly pine, being supplemented either by longleaf or shortleaf pine. These species largely form the succeeding stands unless special means are taken to secure loblolly pine. The forest thus tends to revert to the original or permanent types. On account of the rapid thinning out of the stand, the trees are short bodied and scrubby. (Plate III, A.) The trees yield two or three logs mostly of third and fourth grades. The wood is coarse grained and knotty, making largely box lumber. (Plate XII.) Unthinned stands will seldom yield more than 20 per cent lumber of No. 3 grade and better. (For description of log grades, see page 98; of lumber grades, page 100.) LOBLOLLY PINE IN PURE STANDS ON POROUS LOAMS AND PEATY SOILS. This type comprises a very large portion of the productive loblolly pine forests of North Carolina. It occurs on small flats or basins which are comparatively well-drained and seldom flooded for a long period or for more than a few inches, or it occupies extensive areas of upland which are mostly near the coast. The soils are largely sandy loams, clayey, or silty (Portsmouth soil series), or they are peaty, humified, with some silt or clay intermixed, or with marl subsoil. The water table seldom sinks below twelve feet. These are the so-called "permanent, natural or reproducing" pine lands. These sites furnish the optimum conditions for the development of pure stands. There is situated within this type a large area of poorly drained old fields on which loblolly pine has the same rate of growth as on forest soils of the same class. A great portion of the soil occupied by this type of forest has been placed under cultivation, and such areas as are suitable for tillage are still being drained and cleared as rapidly as they are logged. It is best suited to the growing of corn. 20 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. In their typical condition the forests on these lands are in pure even- aged stands or groups, or the pine is associated with occasional gums, water oaks, and yellow poplars, but it is always the predominating spe- cies in the stand. Although the hurnus is deep the soil is sufficiently moist for young groAvth to come up freely and young trees appear in large even-aged groups where old trees have died or have heen cut. Beneath the pine there is generally a dense undergrowth of gall berries and ericaceous -shrubs. The age of the pine seldom exceeds 200 years and individual trees are not so large as in the hardwood swamps. The height of mature trees ranges from 115 to 130 feet and the diameter from 24 to 36 inches. The wood is moderately fine and even-grained. The logs largely grade I and II. The best yield is obtained in this type. It is believed that by thinning stands an increment of from 900 to 1,000 board feet a year can be obtained, including thinnings. Even in old groups the crown cover maintains a complete canopy. The rate of growth is excellent and stands can generally be classed in Quality I. Table 3 shows the composition of this type on peaty soil, measured in a stand two miles northeast of Leechville', !N~. C. The average age of the trees is about 100 years, the height of the dominant trees is from 110 to 120 feet. The stand consists of about 120 merchantable trees per acre and will yield about 30,000 feet, B. M. of pine. TABLE 3. COMPOSITION OF A PURE LOBLOLLY PINE STAND ON PEATY SOIL, HUMIFIED, NEAR LEECHVILLE, NORTH CAROLINA. Diameter breast- high Inches AVERAGE NUMBER OF TREES PER ACRE. Loblolly Pine Sweet Gum Black Gum Other Species Under 9 2 13 9 11 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Total above 8 4 4 4 6 4 20 10 20 20 12 10 10 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 I 126 2 4 1 After lumbering the land normally comes up to heavy young growth of pine seedlings. Areas cut over ten or twenty years ago are now covered with a dense stand of young pines. Interspersed among the young trees are the old suppressed trees which were left when the mature stand was cut and which have now recuperated, and many small hardwoods which have been overtopped. N. C. GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY. PLATE IV. . a a 8-" > LOBLOLLY OE NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 21 LOBLOLLY PINE ON LONGLEAF PINE FLAT LANDS. This type forms the great body of productive loblolly pine lands, occupying possibly one-half of the total loblolly pine area. Its yield, however, is not commensurate with the area it occupies on account of understocking. The soils are clayey, loamy, or sandy. The surface of the flat lands is nearly level or slightly rolling and well drained; these areas when stocked in longleaf pine were known as the flatwoods or piney woods. As the moisture in the soil becomes less subject to fluctuations they pass into hardwood flats and flat swamps. As they become more level and less thoroughly drained, they grade into savannas, pocosons, and bog swamps. As they become sandier and more thor- oughly drained and drier they approach in their forest characters the longleaf pine sand hills. TABLE 4. COMPOSITION OF LOBLOLLY PINE STAND ON LONGLEAF PINE FLAT LANDS. Diameter breasthigh Inches AVERAGE NUMBER OP TREES PER ACRE. Loblolly Pine Longleaf Pine Black Gum Sweet Gum Oak Hickory Maple Dogwood Between 3-6 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 Total 15.42 5.77 4.89 4.27 4.03 3.33 2.67 2.41 2.18 1.84 1.45 1.29 1.18 .94 .83 .53 .52 .44 .43 .31 .21 .21 .19 .13 .06 .07 .04 .05 .04 .01 .05 .63 .22 .13 1.01 .76 .98 1.21 .38 1.45 1.03 .64 .32 .43 .17 .18 .04 .11 .07 .05 .06 .02 4.13 1.03 2.13 1.17 .63 .58 .54 .31 .12 .07 .05 .07 .02 .01 .01 .005 .01 .01 .01 3.01 .96 .47 .32 .40 .16 ' .38 .22 .20 .12 .03 .08 .01 .02 .01 .01 .01 6.01 3.13 3.01 2.11 2.36 1.27 .09 .12 .03 .02 .02 .01 .01 .01 1.50 .58 .41 .17 .22 .15 .08 .11 .09 .02 .01 2.40 .32 .06 .01 .42 .07 .02 .005 1 .... 54.75 9.94 10.905 6.41 18.20 3.34 2.79 .515 22 LOBLOLLY OB NORTH CAROLINA PINE. The original forest was formed of longieaf pine which, after lumber- ing, turpentining, and repeated fires has now nearly or entirely disap- peared. The loblolly pine is not uniformly distributed; it occurs as scattered dense groups varying from a few trees to several or many acres in extent. (Plate VI, A.) In the open spaces the ground is cov- ered with thick grass (chiefly wire grass) 1 to 2 feet high. The irreg- ularity of the stand and its open condition is due to periodic fires, which are particularly damaging where the growth of grass is heavy. Small trees of various kinds of hardwoods, especially black gum, roundleaf blackjack oak, southern red oak, and white and sand hickories occur with the pine in greater or less abundance. A few longieaf pines occur in places, especially south of the ]STeuse Kiver. Table 4 shows the composition of this type based on measurements of nearly 700 acres, of both logged and unlogged forest. After logging loblolly pine, usually the same species restocks the ground and generally overtops the hardwoods. In many places, how- ever, the hardwoods by their dense cover tend to prevent the reproduc- tion of the pine after lumbering. (Plate VIII, A.) Under the best conditions the trees attain a height of from 120 to 125 feet and a diameter of 25 to 30 inches when 150 to 200 years old. Usu- ally, however, the height ranges from 95 to 110 feet, and the diameter from 18 to 25 inches. The rate of growth is that of Quality II (Tables 14 and 18, column 3.) The trees are generally sound, but the upper logs in those more than 150 years old are likely to be affected by red- heart. Groups of trees are found 200 years old, which possibly origi- nated in the first extensive breaks in the longieaf pine forests made by the early settlers, such as around old turpentine-distillery sites and upon tar-kiln mounds. When the trees are solitary they are short bodied and yield only coarse lumber; in groups the stems are longer and clear. Logs are largely of Grades II and III. Under management these stands will produce about 600 board feet per acre a year. The lumber sawed from a 60-year old stand will grade 35 per cent No. 1 and No. 2. LOBLOLLY PINE WITH HARDWOODS IN SWAMPS CHIEFLY IN THE COASTAL PLAIN. This type is largely confined to the coastal plain and occurs in clear water swamps which are seldom flooded deeply or for a long period. The soils are silt clays, marls, or fine-grained, stiff loams or fine sands of the best quality, particularly of the Portsmouth series. These swamps are one of the most common habitats of the loblolly pine, affording the optimum conditions for the development of the individual tree. The pine is associated with water oak, swamp chestnut oak, deep swamp ash, yellow poplar, sweet gum, beech, red maple, holly, cypress, water gum and other less abundant species. The pine occurs either in groups of a few trees which are usually even-aged, or more generally as single trees N. C. GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SUUYKY. PLATE V. A. Characteristic stand of lob'olly and pocoson pine on savanna. The scattered short-bodied trees are typical. Such a stand yields about 15 per cent of No. 1 and No. 2 grades of lumber. (Photo. U. S. Forest Service.) Margin of pine, cypress and gum swamp. Old cypre (Photo. U. S. Forest Service.) ss in center; o'.d pine on left. LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 23 scattered among the hardwoods. While it constitutes less than five per rent of the number of trees in the virgin stand it may form 25 per cent of the merchantable saw timber. The old pine trees grow on low mounds or hummocks, 5 to 10 feet wide and two or three feet high, which are largely formed by the trees themselves, by the gradual accu- mulation of bark, cones and leaves, which are yearly deposited about their bases. (Plate I.) Since the pine is very intolerant of shade it comes up only in open- ings. Consequently, young pines as a rule are infrequent except in windfalls or where the oaks were cut for staves. Such cuttings made often as long as 100 years ago, were favorable for the increase of the pine. TABLE 5. COMPOSITION OF LOBLOLLY PINE WITH HARDWOODS IN SWAMP, BEECHGROVE, BEAUFORT COUNTY, NORTH CAROLINA. Diameter breasthigh Inches AVERAGE NUMBER OF TREES ON ONE ACRE. Loblolly Pine Water Gum Water Oak Deep swamp Ash Swamp Chestnut Oak Yellow Poplar Sweet Gum Red Maple Under 10 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 Total 1 18 4 2 2 6 4 2 3 1 3 2 2 2 3 14 2 1 51 4 7 1 57 3 2 1 13 5 1 1 2 1 6 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 - 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 61 23 69 2 3 67 21 The first general logging of the pine began about 1880 ; for a period of 15 or 20 years, up to 1900, the pine was cut but the hardwoods were generally left. This has resulted in reducing the proportion of pine in many of the stands. In later cuttings when it has become the prac- 24 LOBLOLLY OB NORTH CAROLINA PINE. tice to cut some of the best hardwoods, the proportion of pine in the restocking has again increased. Table 5 shows the composition of a loblolly pine stand in a virgin hardwood swamp. This area shows a larger proportion of pine by volume in board feet than occurs in most such swamps, but the distri- bution of the diameter classes is typical. Young pine is not abundant. Loblolly pine in these swamps attains a height of from 135 to 165 feet, a maximum stump diameter inside bark of 54 inches, and an age of over 240 years. The height of the associated broadleaf trees is from 100 to 130 feet, pines overtopping most of them, except possibly yellow poplar and sweet gum. (Plate V, B.) The rate of growth of the pine is rapid. For several years the rate of height growth of dominant trees exceeds four feet a year, and even in old trees an excellent rate of height growth is well maintained. The rate of diameter growth of young trees is not rapid since the crowns of young trees are for many years crowded by the surrounding hardwoods, and receive light only from above. The rate of diameter growth, however, is sustained and a large annual volume increment is produced by many of the oldest trees. (Tables 14 and 18, column 1.) On account of the rapid height growth and the small crowns, the stems are slender with clear boles from 80 to 110 feet in length. The wood is of the best quality, soft and even-grained. Even in the center of the butt logs, the summer bands are comparatively narrow. (Plate IX, B.) It consequently resembles in quality that of the short- leaf pine of the Piedmont, the so-called rosemary or forest pine. It is rich orange in color and rather more pitchy than that growing in other situations. The sap wood is comparatively thin for the species though it forms in trees even two hundred years old one-half of the total volume of the stem. Large trees often yield several logs of Grade 1, and cut 60 to 65 per cent of No. 1 and No. 2 lumber. (Plate XII, C.) LOBLOLLY PINE WITH POCOSON PINE ON SAVANNAS. This type occurs on poorly drained sites saturated with water during most of the year. The stand for the most part is open. It consists of loblolly pines mixed with pocoson pines, occasional stunted longleaf pines, black gums, and white bays. Formerly there was a larger pro- portion of longleaf pine. There is usually a scant undergrowth of fet- terbush and other ericaceous shrubs, and a dense mat of grass, which withers in the autumn and consequently burns with a hot fire during Avinter and spring. (Plate V, A.) Probably one-thirtieth of the lob- lolly forest land of North Carolina belongs to this type. Its producing capacity, however, is low and it yields a relatively small amount of timber. The loblolly pine occurs in even-aged groups of a few trees, or singly, all ages being represented on a small area. Trees 150 years old are between 75 and 105 feet in height, 20 to 25 inches in diameter, and N. C. GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY. PLATE VI. Groups of loblolly pine poles with old longleaf pine which it is replacing on grassy flat lands. (Photo. U. S. Forest Service.) B. Cut-over loblolly pine land, showing the undesirable character of the seed trees which are left by the present method of cutting. (Photo, by J. S. Holmes.) LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 25 the largest scale by Doyle-Scribner rule not more than 700 feet. The trees are short bodied and frequently crooked and yield logs largely of Grades III and IV. The rate of growth is slow and irregular, yet the wood is tough and hard and the sapwood generally thick. (Plate X, B.) The wood is fine grained but except in the butt log the quality is not high. Table 6 shows the average condition of more than four hundred acres of savanna land measured by the chain method. TABLE 6. COMPOSITION OF LOBLOLLY PINE WITH POCOSON PINE ON SAVANNAS. BASED ON 422 ACRES. Diameter breasthigh Inches AVERAGE NUMBER OP TREES PER ACHE. Loblolly Pine Pocoson Pine Longleaf Pine Black Gum White Bay Maple Between 3-6 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Total 10.81 5.67 3.01 2.07 1.53 1.21 1.22 .84 .31 .27 .26 .18 .17 .16 .11 .14 .09 .02 .01 .01 .005 16.15 8.23 3.12 3.24 2.61 2.13 2.33 1.07 .41 .13 .06 14.33 2.17 1.07 .31 .01 7.21 3.23 2.10 .95 .02 .41 .21 .37 .29 1.03 .62 .57 .28 .21 .23 .11 .14 .08 .07 .02 .03 .01 .01 .31 .43 .26 .46 .13 .31 .12 .11 .10 .80 .80 .10 .06 .09 .08 .04 .03 .02 .01 28.095 4.26 4.69 39.48 17.89 13.51 LOBLOLLY PINE WITH CYPRESS IN DEEP SWAMPS. This type occurs in non-alluvial as well as in alluvial swamps. These alluvial swamps border clear water streams within the Coastal Plain, and the lower reaches of the muddy streams which head beyond the Coastal Plain, where flooding is always shallow but may last for several weeks. Around the Dismal Swamp in the Albemarle Sound section and elsewhere there are large areas of non-alluvial swamp, in which a considerable portion of the forest growth is cypress and lob- lolly pine with water gum. The proportion of pine decreases as the flooding becomes deeper. Its growth also becomes slower. The pine and cypress have nearly the same rate of growth. (Tables 14 and 18, column 6.) 26 LOBLOLLY OB NORTH CAROLINA PINE. The pine reaches a height of from 80 to 100 feet and a diameter of from 20 inches to 3 feet. The trees yield 3 and 4 logs. The wood is fine grained and the quality of the butt and second logs excellent. Big Bay in Brunswick County and the Lumber River Swamp yielded some excellent pine timber from this type. Plate XII, C shows a pile of No. 1 and No. 2 logs which were cut in Big Bay. The pine tends to reseed and maintain its position and proportion in the forest after lum- bering if it is not cut at too small a diameter. There is no danger of fires on this type. LOBLOLLY PINE IN HARDWOOD AND SHORTLEAF PINE FORESTS CHIEFLY ON THE PIEDMONT UPLANDS. Loblolly pine has appeared in these forests (particularly on the Dur- ham soil series, in Person, Wake and Durham counties and in the sandier phases of the Cecil soils in the eastern Piedmont counties and in Halifax, Northampton, and Nash counties) where the oaks and short- leaf pine have been cut, especially on slopes near streams. The trees of loblolly pine are generally young, varying in age from the smallest seedling to 40 or 60 years old. They seldom form more than five per cent of the entire stand. The number of loblolly pines is increasing, however, as the breaks in the forest cover become larger, and as the number of seed-bearing pines of this species increases. The associated trees are white oak, southern red oak (Quercus digitata), black oak, scarlet or Spanish oak {Quercus coccinea], white hickory, red hickory, sand hickory, yellow poplar, and shortleaf pine. These species are more tolerant of shade than the loblolly pine which, however, makes rapid growth for the first two or three decades, though the rate usually de- creases rapidly after the thirtieth year. "When the stand of hardwoods is open, the pines have large crowns, short stems, and knotty and coarse- grained wood. (Plate VII.) "When 60 to 70 years old, which is about the age limit, the trees are 70 to 75 feet high and 14 to 18 inches in diameter, and the scale of the average log is about 55 feet. The logs grade as Nos. 3, 4, and 5. FOREST CHARACTERISTICS. FORM. Stem. In young trees the stem continues through the crown without divid- ing. In old forest trees the trunk, as a rule, divides into massive spread- ing branches. The division of the main stem into a number of branches usually takes place soon after the period of rapid height growth is well passed. In trees growing in open stands the division of the trunk into branches takes place earlier and lower on the stem than in crowded stands. As a rule the stems of young trees are nearly straight. Those of old trees, especially when grown in open stands or on poor soil, are N. C. GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVKY. PLATE VII. Loblolly pine with mixed oaks and shortleaf pine. Three-log tree, eighty years old, cutting 20 per cent of No. 1 and No. 2 grades of lumber. (Photo. N. C. Geological Survey.) LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 27 often slightly curved or crooked, though never to the same extent as those of the pocoson pine. The stems are rarely forked except when the leading shoot is injured by a weevil or by sleet breaking it. The great- est amount of taper in the stem is in the top, consequently the mill cut of top logs of a given diameter inside the bark at the small end is greater than that of logs of the same diameter from the lower part of the stem measured in the same manner. (Table 23.) As the. trees in the stand become older they are less tapering. Old trees of the same diameter breasthigh and of the same height as young trees have, therefore, a larger volume in cubic feet and produce more lumber. This is shown in Table 7. TABLE 7. YIELD IN BOARD FEET PER LINEAR FOOT OP MERCHANTABLE LENGTH OF BOLE FROM TREES OF THE SAME DIAMETER AND HEIGHT AT DIFFERENT AGES. 1-7" SAW KERF. Yield in Board Feet Per Linear Foot of Used Length Diameter breasthigh Stand Inches ii 45 years old 65 years old 8 .8 .85 9 .9 .95 10 1.1 1.2 11 1.3 '1.5 12 1.7 1.9 13 2.1 2.3 14 2.4 2.6 15 2.9 3.1 16 3.5 3.7 17 4.1 4.3 18 4.7 4.9 19 5.3 5.6 20 6.2 6.5 The larger trees in the 45 year stand are dominant and intermediate. Those of the same diameters in the 65 year old stand, which is on a somewhat poorer quality site, are largely intermediate and suppressed. The difference thus amounts to from 5 to 10 per cent of the contents in board feet. Taper measurements of butts at intervals of 1 foot are given in Table 8. They are useful in converting stump measurements on cut-over land into breasthigh diameter measurements. This table is based on age class over 75 years, Quality II. The taper would be slightly more for younger trees of the same quality, and for Quality III of the same age class ; but somewhat less for old trees of Quality I. On account of natu- ral individual variation such a table should only be used in considering a number of specimens. 28 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. TABLE 8. TAPER or BUTTS OF LOBLOLLY PINE FOR USE IN CONVERTING STUMP INTO BREASTHIQH DIAMETERS. Diameter breasthigh Height above ground Feet 1 2 3 4 5 Diameter outside bark Inches 9 11.3 10.0 9.4 9.2 8.8 10 12.5 11.3 10.5 10.2 9.8 11 13.8 12.5 11.7 11.2 10.8 12 14.8 13.6 12.7 12.1 11.8 13 16. 1 14.7 13.7 13.3 12.8 14 17.2 15.8 14.8 14.3 13.8 15 18.5 16.8 15.7 15.3 14.8 16 19.7 17.9 16.9 16.3 15.8 17 20.8 18.9 17.0 17.3 16.7 18 22.0 20.0 19.1 18.3 17.7 19 23.2 21.2 20.1 19.4 18.7 20 24.4 22.5 21.2 20.4 19.7 21 25.5 23.7 22.4 21.4 20.7 22 26. 7 24. 8 23.4 22.4 21.7 23 28. 25. 9 24.5 23.4 22.7 24 29.0 26.9 25.5 24.3 23.7 25 30.0 28.0 26.5 25.3 24.7 26 31.0 28.9 27.3 26.3 25.7 27 32.0 30.0 28.2 27.2 26.7 28 33.0 31.0 29.1 28.2 27.8 29 34.0 32.0 30.1 29.1 28.8 30 35.0 33.0 31.0 30.1 29.7 Taper measurements inside of bark of stems of different diameters and heights for middle-aged and old trees are given in Tables 9 and 9a. The measurements can be used directly in scaling logs of any length which is a multiple of 8.15 feet or for ascertaining the number of ties or poles of a given size which can be obtained from trees of dif- ferent diameters. The height above the stump of any desired diameter can be fixed by interpolation. Tables 9 and 9a should be employed only in considering a number of specimens on account of individual varia- tion. Age classes less than 50 years have considerably more taper than the table shows for trees under 75 years old; while trees more than 150 years old have less taper than shown for trees over 75 years old. LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 29 TABLE 9. TAPER MEASUREMENTS OF LOBLOLLY PINE OF DIFFERENT DIAMETERS AND HEIGHTS. TREES UNDER 75 YEARS OLD. 40-foot trees Diameter breasthigh Inches At breast- height Height above stump Feet 8.15 16.30 24.45 32.60 40.75 Diamster inside bark Inches 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 7. 8. 9 8 7 5 3 2 8 6 5 2.5 3.3 4.1 4.8 5.6 6.3 7.1 7.8 8.6 2.0 2.7 3.4 4.0 4.7 5.3 6.0 6.6 7.2 1.5 1.9 2.5 3.0 3.5 3.9 4.4 4.9 5.4 .7 .9 1.2 1.4 1.5 1.9 2.2 2.4 2.7 50-foot trees 4 2 9 2.6 2.3 2.0 1.5 .8 5 3 8 3.5 3.1 2.7 2.0 1.1 6 4 7 4.3 3.8 3.3 2.5 1.4 7 5 5 5.1 4.6 3.9 3.0 1.6 8 6 4 5.9 5.3 4.6 3.5 1.9 9 7 3 6.7 6.0 5.2 3.9 2.1 10 8 2 7.5 6.9 o.O 4.4 2.4 11 9 8.4 7.6 6.5 4.9 2.6 12 9.8 9.1 8.2 7.1 5.4 2.9 13 10 8 9.9 9.0 7.8 5.9 3.2 14 11 6 10.8 9.7 8.4 6.3 3.4 60-foot trees 4 5 1 2.9 2.6 2.4 2.1 1.6 5 3 9 3. 7 3. 4 3.1 2.7 2.1 6 4 8 4.5 4.2 3.8 3.3 2.6 7 5 7 5.3 4.9 4.5 3.9 3.1 8 6 5 6.1 5.6 5.1 4.5 3.6 9 7 4 7. 6. 4 5.8 5.1 4.1 10 8 3 7. 8 7. 1 6.5 5.7 4.5 11 9 1 8. 6 7. 9 7.2 6.2 5.0 12 10 1 9.4 8.6 7.8 6.7 5.3 13 10 9 10.3 9.3 8.4 7.3 5.9 14 11 8 11.1 10.1 9.1 7.9 6.3 15 12 7 11.9 10.7 9.7 8.4 6.8 16 13 5 12.7 11.4 . 10.3 9.1 7.2 Stump height 1 foot for trees 4 to 16 inches in diameter breasthigh, 1.5 feet for trees 17 to 22 inches. 30 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. (M CC CC CO Diam breast LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 31 ........^^. 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OOOOOSO1-HtNCO-^^tlo 5 CO OS t- * < m =o CXJOSO rtffqcOTf"5>OtO I M 5 o * -* J IO O t^ OSOO (MCO^fT}.tOt- 5 a (MOO ^^ooot-co-o 9 -3 co r t^ oso eNcoco^usot-oo = *J 00 O OS t- NOOOt-K3Tf.cO~OOS t^ r- oo O-HtMCMCO'fl'IOOt-OOOO t- o m W>-*-OCO^H-HOOSCSt-t- r^ oo o> 0-H.-:-^!t0^.t-00000:C00 t^t^OOOOOiOO c-H.,,;> ,oc,.^, w ss . o iNNco-^^insa 050 NM^.iOO 9 1 V o o g s OCCW-0-. OM<0 = ^ OOOM.O^OMO o ^ ! r- oo oo oo os os o OCOCOt^t^OOOOOOOOOO-H-H-ilMOJCOOTTI.-* c 1 . ^ co . ^ . OC . r* CO CM O i < i 0>00 iICNCOC<5CO-U5COt^t^OOO>00-H CNCO i ^ oo wo M 22SSS2S2S2S?3eNc5SicNc5 XI 5 o - 0> CO ^ CO 0, ^ . . ^ =0 ^ 1 00 OS O O i ' f 2. O ^^ d C) CO ^ }* Mocor~oooio 2 - ....-. M.M.... The stu 36 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. i o -2 o " *" s 1 ^^^^^^^oo^^t-oooo'cjooioo----.!:^ s s OCOOOCOO>-*0>0>-*t^00OlO 00 o IO jj^r^ooc
>-*^l s 1 e^o>0(MOto-HOOr-oooco,oOira a o O 000>Ort'HIMCO)-4'1050=Ot^t^oO0>0-<-H(M(MCO 4* J2 1 ft B I t dd^-.'^M^^iotocor-ooooooo-NiMco^.^. I* .5 !2 ^ a, r- -* o o. . * ai t, w o t- -s e* e. us ei aj 00 l(MCOM-*>ntOOt^OOOCOrt-HIMCOCO-*iO'ra ?? smasssss^^ssssssssssssg ^ 3 S2S22S2-S22SSSS3?5SSSSS s CC1000tO-*(MOOOtOTjlr-.0>tOIOC05t-t-tO=0-J<^. < Itf tfl S'S 42J3 S*3Sj!HsSS*88S3*S&$38:3a i- 1 s c _"M ^oS.Soo-.^^.g^oogo-.co.joo LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 37 cou5ooo*ocot oc^ooooeoeooo-^ coiooooc-l*-t > -t--OOOO OOOOOOOOOOOSOOOOi-H t~O5CqoO>OC5OOM i cocor-.t^.i^aoooooostROOo^H'H^cj OOO-Hr-l-H(MC^COCO'* 6 1 -OCOOC<3O> lOO^OONt-i OOTl<00(Nt 1 cnoO'- 03co>racor-t~- cc^f^^wsiocc^or^h-i^-oooo t- to-isoo5O>ao-i'<-COasOSOO~H 3coeor^h-oooooiOsoo^H^ ^ COO5^*OW5Ot^(?lOOCOOMo i ^(*iacot~t^ooo>O'-iT-!(>>cocO'*'9< M.-li-li-l^Hi-l'-lT-lT-lcNcHCNCNCNCMeicN * t^-OOOOOsOO--C^CC M S MM M ei M M M el M M M J2 1 r t^5cNO5<5-'*'j'>)moa osciOO^^e^coco^w^ws^o'^ SMMefMMeiNvlSlvfatM i' 1 OSt^COlCCO*-'OOlCOO < ^ ) ^f*'- ( I^W^Hb- toe^ot-^^oow'c^os^c" 5 CO io-ioo i-lO'^<^O>>'^ l <'0^' H \t l>-OOO3aJO-*!Mb-><5eowoo5tD^< ooeoi-iOoot-^Oa5t^OOQOCnO ^rH^i-IC^IMO)-'en3t^OOOlO'HOJOO'*lOCO C^Cq PH s t. c C C (JJ-Sl-2 3 1 ffi i i Merchant- able length Feet OtCOCO^HCOt gSg 1 S B 1 a m HH ^ E O o m o 1 a us ".."...- REASTH ~Q.^f -*3 QJ tO^NOt-^-^ M ^M5tf,OOQCqT(.t- CC:0- M Merchant- able length Feet ..*...;..........-.. o H H H 1 Jill -:sssssssssgKs5ssssgs H tf|S- BETWE 111 1 -SSSSSSKgSSSfeSSSSSS^SSSSSSg o H.S-S J H J s M H Diameter breasthigh Inches * - LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 63 GROWTH IN DIAMETER. Table 16 shows the average growth in diameter at breast height of all trees (0 inches and over), the diameter growth of dominant trees in fully stocked unthinned stands, the diameter growth of dominant trees in open .-lands, and the number of years required to grow one inch in diameter. All the diameter measurements of standing trees, unless otherwise stated, were taken at a uniform height of 4 feet 6 inches from the ground called "breastheight." Breasthigh measurements made outside cf the bark are a better guide for determining the growth in diameter than stump measurements, as in this way the variations due to the height of the stump and butt swellings are eliminated. It is often desirable to convert diameter at stump height inside of bark to diameter at breastheight outside of bark. This relation is shown in Table 17. It can be used in obtaining the breasthigh diameter from stumps on cut-over land. (Also, see Table 8.) The culmination of the diameter growth often takes place as early as during the first decade and seldom later than in the fourth decade. Table 18 shows the diameter growth on stumps by decades for typical groups on different sites. Column 1 shows the diameter growth of a crowded group of loblolly pines mixed with hardwoods on moist stiff clay soil. The growth in diameter does not culminate until between the thirtieth and fortieth years; the growth is so persistent that at the age of 130 years it amounts to nearly 1.5 inches for the decade. The rate of diameter growth, however, is much less than that -of the open stand given in column 2, which shows a group of trees on loose loamy soil on the edge of a pond, near Howard, Bertie County. It is an excellent example of persistent and rapid diameter growth, the increase between the eightieth and ninetieth years amounting to nearly 1.8 inches on the stump. Similar, if not better, results can probably be obtained from all stands of Quality I, provided they are properly thinned. (Plate IX, B.) 64 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. TABLE 16 GROWTH IN DIAMETER, ON DIFFERENT QUALITY SITES, OF ALL TREES Six INCHES AND OVER, AND OF DOMINANT TREES Six IN:HES AND OVER IN DIAMETER IN FULLY STOCKED STANDS ; OF DOMINANT TREES IN OPEN STANDS; AND THE NUMBER OF YEARS REQUIRED TO GROW AN INCH. Age of stand Years Fully stocked stands Open stands Dominant trees All trees Dominant trees Diameter Inches No. of years to grow an inch Diameter Inches No. of years to grow an inch Diameter Inches No. of years to grow an inch Quality I 20 7.1 7.6 10.8 25 8.2 4 9.1 3 12.7 3 30 9.3 5 10.4 4 14.2 3 40 11.4 5 13.2 4 16.9 4 50. 13.2 6 15.7 5 19.2 4 60 14.8 6 17.4 6 21.0 5 70 16.1 7 18.8 6 22.6 6 80 17.3 8 20.0 7 24.0 6 90 18.3 10 21.2 8 25.3 7 100 19.1 11 22.3 9 Quality II 20 6.4 6.5 Q rt 25 7.5 5 7.8 4 9.4 3 30 , 8.5 o 8.8 4 10.6 3 40 10.3 6 10.8 5 13.0 4 50 11.9 6 12.8 5 15.2 5 60 13.2 7 14.5 7 16.9 6 70 14.3 9 15.9 8 18.4 7 80 15.3 10 17.0 9 19.7 8 90 16.2 11 18.1 9 20.8 9 100 17.0 12 19.1 10 Quality III 20 6.1 6.2 6.9 25 6.8 6 7.2 5 8.0 4 30 7.6 6 8.2 5 9.1 5 40 9.1 7 10.0 6 11.1 5 50 10.5 8 11.7 6 12.8 5 60 11.7 9 13.1 7 14.3 7 70 12.7 10 14.3 8 15.7 7 80 13.6 11 15.4 9 17.0 8 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 65 TABLE 17. DIAMETER BREASTHIQH OUTSIDE THE BARK OF LOBLOLLY PINE AND THE CORRESPOND- ING STUMP DIAMETER INSIDE THE BARK. Diameter breasthigh outside bark Inches Average height of stump Feet Inches Stump diameter inside of bark Inches Difference between the stump and breasthigh diameter Inches 8 1 1 8.2 .2 9 1 1 9.0 .0 10 1 2 9.9 .1 11 1 3 10.0 .1 12 1 4 11.8 .2 13 1 5 12.7 .3 14 1 6 13.6 .4 15 1 7 14.4 .6 16 1 8 15.3 .7 17 1 9 16.2 .8. 18 1 10 17.1 .9 19 1 11 18.0 1.0 20 2 18.9 1.1 21 2 1 19.8 1.2 22 2 2 20.7 1.3 23 2 3 21.6 1.4 24 2 4 22.4 1.6 25 2 5 23.3 1.7 26 2 6 24.2 1.8 27 2 7 25.1 1.9 28 2 8 26.0 2.0 29 2 9 26.9 2.1 30 2 10 27.9 2.1 Column 4, Table 18, shows the diameter growth of a pure stand in an old field on soil quite similar to that on which the group 'in column 3 was growing, except that the soil was previously cultivated. The culmi- nation in diameter took place at the end of the first decade, with a growth for the decade of nearly 8 inches; but the subsequent decrease in growth is so rapid, that between the fifth and sixth decades it is only A of an inch. This manner of growth is characteristic of the dry old fields. The rate. of diameter growth of trees on longleaf and pocoson pine flat lands (column 3), like the height growth of these species on the same site, is slow but persistent. As the trees stand well apart, the crowns are well developed and the diameter growth is at a maximum for this condition. 66 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. TABLE 18. DIAMETER GROWTH OF LO.BLOLLY PINE ON DIFFERENT SITES INSIDE THE BARK ON STUMPS ABOUT Two FEET HIGH. Age of stand on the stump Years Quality I I III II III II (1) In hard- woo Is on moist, stiff clay soils. Stand crowded (2) On loose moist, loamy soil on edge of pond. Stand fairly open (3) On long- leaf and pocoson pine flat land. Stand fairly open (4) (5) Old field On dry silt on a long- sand flats leaf pine following sand hill. longleaf Stand pine. Stand crowded open (6) Mixed with cypress in deep swamps. Stand crowded Inches 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 120 140 160 180 200 240 1.8 4.3 8.0 11.4 14.3 16.8 19.3 21.5 23.7 25.7 28.9 31.5 33.7 35.0 36.1 37.0 5.2 10.7 15.2 19.1 22.0 24.4 26.5 28.3 30.0 2.8 4.9 6.6 8.6 10.2 11.0 13.2 14.6 16.0 17.2 7.8 10.9 12.6 13.6 14.2 14.6 1.4 3.0 4.5 5.9 7.2 8.2 9.0 10.0 11.3 13.0 14.4 16.2 17.5 19.2 20.7 22.0 23.3 24.0 . GROWTH IN VOLUME. Cubic Feet. As both height and diameter growth of loblolly pine are most rapid in early youth, the greatest per cent of volume increment is made during this period. The contents in cubic feet of the stem of a tree without bark or branches, at different ages, is the best index of the rate of growth in total volume. The growth of the stem of the trees of loblolly pine in cubic feet in different quality classes is given in Table 19. The growth in cubic feet of trees in stands on different sites is given in Table 20. Board Feet. The volume in board feet increases at a more rapid rate than the volume in cubic feet on account of the greater proportion of convertible material in timber of large diameter than in small. The volume in board feet of the dominant trees in stands at different ages is given in Table 21 by Doyle-Scribner rule, and on the basis of actual mill cut 1-7 inch saw kerf band-sawed. The volume of trees on different sites at given ages is given in Table 22. It is probable that the rapid increase LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 67 in merchantable volume shown by the fairly open stand on the best, moist, alluvial soil can be secured from a large portion of stands of Quality I by proper thinning. TABLE 19. GROWTH OF LOBLOLLT PINE IN CUBIC FEET (MERCHANTABLE STEMWOOD PEELED) AND IN COJIDS (STEMWOOD PEELED AND SPLIT) AVERAGE OF ALL TREES Six INCHES AND OVER IN DIAMETER IN FULLY STOCKED STANDS ON DIFFERENT QUALITY SITES. Age of stand Height Diameter breast- high Volume Volume Years Feet Inches Cubic feet Long cords Quality I 20 56 7.1 5.0 .05 25 66 8.2 8.8 .08 30 75 9.3 13.2 .12 40 90 11.4 23.7 .21 50 99 13.2 34.8 .31 60 106 14.8 46.7 .41 70 110 16.1 57.8 .51 80 112 17.3 68.2 .60 90 114 18.3 77.4 .69 100 115 19.1 85.0 .75 Quality II 20 44 6.4 3.1 .03 25 53 7.5 5.3 .05 30 61 8.5 8.3 .075 40 74 10.3 16.1 .14 50 84 11.9 24.2 .21 60 90 13.2 32.0 .29 70 95 14.3 39.6 .35 80 98 15.3 47.2 .42 90 100 16.2 54.4 .48 100 101 17.0 60.5 .54 Quality III 20 32 6.1 2.0 .02 25 39 6.8 3.0 .03 30 46 7.6 4.5 .04 40 59 9.1 9.1 .083 50 69 10.5 15.5 .14 60 76 11.7 21.9 .19 70 82 12.7 27.3 .24 80 85 13.6 32.2 .29 68 LOBLOLLY OK NORTH CAROLINA PINE. TABLE 20. GROWTH OF LOBLOLLY PINE ON DIFFERENT SITES IN VOLUME (CUBIC FEET) EXCLUSIVE OF STUMP, TOP, AND BARK. Age of stand Years Quality I I III II III III (1) Groups of trees in hardwoods on moist stiff clay soil. Stand crowded (2) On loose moist, loamy soil on edge of pond. Stand open (3) On long- leaf and pocoson pine flat lands. Stand fairly open (4) Old field on long leaf pine sand hill. Stand crowded (5) On dry sandy flats following longleaf pine. Stand fairly open (6) Mixed with cypress in deep swamps, always wet. Stand fairly open Cubic feet 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 120 140 160 180 200 2.0 2.8 5.2 11.5 23.0 44.0 69.0 97.0 126.0 157.0 218.0 277.0 338.0 383.0 427.0 3.0 16.0 42.0 68.0 96.0 133.0 177.0 217.0 257.0 3.5 6.0 12.0 20.0 29.0 40.0 51.0 62.0 74.0 8.0 > 22.0 33.0 40.0 45.0 1.0 3.0 8.0 16.0 29.0 44.0 59.0 76.0 1.7 2.5 5.3 11.0 17.4 96.0 120.0 145.0 168.0 190.0 LOBLOLLY OB NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 69 H m || 1 i| 5 nS I ir M ^3 H w tc 1 1 3 1 2 w p^ *H 9 M II I Ji PQ 6, M frf S5 * a S pis, =3 -2 S m O s s ^ I -g H H O os a fc 5 E- 1 5 a j ^ P M DOYLE-SC AOE OF AL: IEAKAGE IN 5 a S V Doyle- Scribner 1 g g^g M a S, Q 'o ! s ^ T pq h ^ K n * S Sfe fl !*_ M b t 4 | fj- SM g M fc * a H 1 t-t I pq _ 55 2 5 g i t- 1 VOLUME, BASED IN CROWDED STA 'FERENT QUALITY Dbminant Tr< u o o 1 s - 5 S ^ S ^P fe z 9 Q *f 1 l|i 1 te 2 S p g~ I _^ 3 a s 1 ! 1 o "5 H 3 H ^ H * t- (M IO O IN ~H O t^ r"t-- e-5 << SO tO >O 00 00 to !^ O O ^- -< -H 70 LOBLOLLY OE NORTH CAROLINA PINE. il cq o o r~ o n D 1 r^ -H (N C^ I | 1 > 1 h oS O & -^ QOCOi )Olt TO . I kf^ QO ^11 5. % cvi-^oOC^eOi icoO^J< T 1 ^ Ot5 O CO t~* 1 - =3 1 1 tOt^OOOtMMIiotOt^ O NCO s w i] 1 o-'C -g C^ CD M O O OO S CCOOi-IOO U9COThOOO ~_ ^ (M (M CO < tfi ^ 0) 50 ,- to -< 00 EH rt 1 d 'a S NTl^HIM-*>t51 5 M ^, >, tot^.ooo co^">ra Q S *o o * * s * ttft'd si H ^ "* "^ 13 d I ^ omoooooooo C^C^CO-^iOOt^OOGSO omoooooo LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 71 18 I 1 -: s a H "5 flj O C is M ^ S T3-0 >>* J o-c Qr^ ' - r ^ g-.2.S S.S "^ "3 ^" ^ S3 * o -5 3. o, d^ -o 3 a a g o =S .2 i i- K ~ { ,_- o p . |*S w 2 ^M I i| ^ o-c o " M * * OQ E a 3 a o -d O" 3- a C M cS t. e c * O .a 02 I A 2 ^ i't "s is "C s !t- C HH *- ' ^ O o >> ^"ojs o oo -S a 02 CB I 1 ts 5 CC 1 u; CC r- a e-a >. ^-, ^ -r Doyle- Scribner g o m oc f- h 7 ? g i = c M a a T i 1 ^l" ^ i & T3 J9 T c- ^ s s OC ~ (- 02 cS CC T I e5 M Tt J* 3 J| W r- ir If i fC -^* - ,~*^ ^^- O o'l >r c CJ 1 I "||| | c 1 o- i s c- t> Sa t- / | E ^ f T- ^ a. 2 iS V r^ f N r~ e f e c c c 1-1 o *d >>J2 s : ,- - M K 8 "i 'C oj 1 - c. 1 p-J ^. Q 1C rt O 3 o "O & '^ -2 41 El 1 E *i jj >r 5 i i / - c ^ ~ r ol 2 f- 1 11 I 5 55 3S ts ;g J IS :s - ? 1- > c i - - ^ 1 72 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. VOLUME TABLES. Table 23 gives the volumes of both upper and lower logs of different diameters, measured inside the bark at the small end of the log, in (1) cubic feet; (2) by Doyle-Scribner rule; (3) band-sawed 1-7 inch kerf; (4) circular-sawed 1-4 inch kerf; and (5) the number of board feet ob- tainable per cubic foot of solid wood, mill factor. The saw gain of logs from the upper part of the tree over logs from the lower part of the tree is noteworthy. This is due to the greater actual volume in cubic feet of the top logs on account of their taper, the volume being calculated on the basis of the average diameter at the small end. The number of board feet per cubic foot shows that even in converting a tree 14 inches in diameter breasthigh with a band saw 1-7 inch kerf, more than one-half of the volume of wood in the logs is lost in kerf, shrinkage, and slabs. Even in a tree with a diameter of 30 inches, the average diameter of logs being 18 inches, this loss exceeds one-third of the volume of the cubic contents of the logs. Tables 24 to 31 give the merchantable volumes in board feet of trees of different diameters and heights in actual mill tallies and in Scribner Decimal C, Doyle-Scribner, and Tiemann log rules. The volume tables based on the actual mill cut are both for logs band-sawed with seven cuts to the inch and for logs sawed with a circular saw with four cuts to the inch. Trees less than 50 years old will yield less than the volumes given in Tables 24, 26, 28 and 30; in stands 40 to 45 years old about 10 per cent less; in stands 30 to 40 years old about 15 per cent less. The actual volume of trees in a 45 year old stand is shown in a footnote to Table 26. This is the actual cut at the mill. The volume as given in Tables 24 to 31, inclusive of Table 30a, is based on straight logs or crooked logs in which the crook amounts to less than 2 inches in a 16-foot log. The rule is to scale down into an inch lower diameter class logs which have about this degree of crooked- ness. In about 30 per cent of the logs cut, the crook amounts to more than 2 inches. There is little loss in the cut from crook, however, until the crook amounts to more than one-fourth of the diameter of the log, which will seldom occur in trees more than 12 inches in diameter. No allowance is made in these tables, or in the tables based thereon, for crooks which exceed 2 inches, for waste, which is often 5 per cent (see footnote to Table 26), or for breakage. In ordinary calculation of volume, estimating, or of yield a deduction, which will vary with the class of timber and the locality, should be made for losses from these sources. On poor sites the deduction for crook may amount to 6 per cent (Plate XII) ; on good sites it may not exceed 2 per cent. With careful felling and cutting the loss from breakage should be less than one-half of one per cent. A comparison of Table 26 with the table in the footnote shows that in an average operation a deduction of 25 per cent should be allowed from the mill cut volumes given for 6, 7, and 8- LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 73 inch trees, 15 per cent for 9, 10 and 11-inch trees, and 5 per cent for 12- inch trees to cover excessive crook, waste and breakage. No allowance is required for trees of larger diameters. An average deduction of 10 per cent consequently is sufficient for all except very young stands. In practice this loss is covered hy the deductions made in the woods' scale for crook and breakage. It should be allowed however in estimating and volume appraisal. Table 32 gives the number of logs 16 feet long, and the diameter at the small end of the top log for trees of different diameters and heights on which the volume tables of the trees are based. Table 33 gives the volume in cubic feet of merchantable stemwood (without bark) in trees of different diameters and heights, less than 75 years old. Table 34 gives the comparative volumes with and without bark, in cubic feet and cords, number of trees to a cord and per cent of bark, in trees of different diameters and heights in stands 35 to 45 years old, Quality II, which may be assumed to be an average site and average age for cordwood stock. The volumes would be less for younger stands in which the trees have the same diameters and heights. 74 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. SS ' t o c H i- |in??|?|?^ a - "TT1 T1 .2; N s| 8 -C++ - O c o c . _ (J)H JH ~ s: S" 1 " i S 1 -<-*|Oi-*-IOOtOT.CO-HOOCT>CT.QOOO t^ to c fl fl^ ,- 0,^^^^*^^COCOCOCOC. 5 CO CO p. "3 at B c "" c ^^ I C |s 3^- 2 S t; S S ^ ^ " " * N N N ' * 1 3 || OtOCOQO(M5000C^CO-*-a<-.oiO>n 3 O tD *& i 85 ^^^ U c - ^ |1 o II a-c lO-Ht~ _ s SSg2SSg^g :2! gSg SS c o ^- s^ d M * . oo o 3 j3 2 g a a oo j, .g g co 5S S t) C^ '"q'O 3 - ^ .^- 3 S j 1 | 4 ^ rtrt ^, rtrtMrtrtrH ^ M(M a as as "' a LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 75 A ja 3 S fi 1 si 2 |j . o " a -0 M "C g ;? r- - S "E II! 0) J O 111 a "x * If 8.1 i C ti 03 03 w o <*-. "S d K, SI * -, ** fc' a | hft !5 -*^ tr^ _e 3 S H .2 ^ -S "^ ^ LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. TABLE 23o Loo RULE FOB LOBLOLLY PINE. ACTUAL MILL CUT, CIRCULAR SAW, ?4-I*CH KERF, LOGS WITH LESS THAN Two INCHES CROOK. Average diameter inside bark at small end Inches Length of log Feet 8 10 12 14 16 Volume in board feet 5 5 6 7 8 10 6 8 10 12 14 16 7 12 15 18 21 25 8 18 22 26 30 35 9 22 27 32 38 44 10 28 35 42 49 56 11 34 42 51 59 68 12 40 50 61 71 82 13 48 60 72 85 98 U 58 72 86 101 116 15 68 85 102 119 136 10 78 98 118 138 158 17 90 112 134 157 180 18 100 125 151 176 202 19 114 142 171 199 228 20 128 160 192 224 256 21 142 178 214 250 286 22 158 197 236 274 316 23 174 217 261 304 348 24 190 237 285 332 380 25 206 257 309 360 412 26 222 277 333 389 445 27 240 300 361 421 482 28 258 322 387 451 516 29 274 342 411 480 549 30 292 365 439 511 585 Table 23a gives a proposed log rule for loblolly pine. It is based on actual mill cut, circular saw, ^4 inch saw kerf. This may be used for calculating the amount of lumber which may be cut from logs of differ- ent diameters and lengths. Tables 24 to 31, inclusive, were made from taper curves by scaling the merchantable length in log lengths to the top diameters shown. Logs were 16.3 feet long whenever possible, with some 14.3 feet, 12.3 feet, and 10.3 feet long to avoid waste. The assumed stump height was 1 foot for trees 6 to 16 inches in diameter breasthigh, and 1.5 feet for trees 17 to 25 inches. LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 77 TABLE 24. VOLUME IN BOARD FEET, BAND-SAWED 1-7 INCH KERF, OF TREES OF LOBLOLLY PINE OF DIFFERENT DIAMETERS AND HEIGHTS. No ALLOWANCE FOR BREAKAGE, EXCESSIVE CROOK OH WASTE, WHICH AMOUNT TO 25 PER CENT FOR 7 AND 8 INCH TREES; 15 PER CENT FOR 9 AND 10 INCH TREES; AND 5 PER CENT FOR 12 INCH TREES. TREES LESS THAN 75 YEARS OLD. Diameter breast- high Inches Height of tree Feet Diameter inside bark of top Inches 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 Volume Board feet 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 8 13 19 25 30 38 16 23 33 41 50 58 67 78 25 35 42 58 70 80 93 120 130 140 34 48 61 74 89 100 120 140 160 180 210 240 5 5 6 6 6 7 7 7 8 8 9 9 9 10 10 11 60 75 90 110 120 140 170 190 220 260 290 330 380 83 100 120 140 160 190 220 260 300 340 390 440 490 550 110 130 150 180 210 250 290 330 380 430 480 540 600 130 160 190 230 270 310 360 410 460 520 580 640 170 200 240 280 330 380 440 500 560 620 680 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. TABLE 25. VOLUME IN BOARD FEET, BAND-SAWED 1-7 INCH KERF, OF TREES OF LOBLOLLY PINE OF DIFFERENT DIAMETERS AND HEIGHTS. No ALLOWANCE FOR BREAKAGE, EXCESSIVE CROOK OR WASTE. TREES OVER 75 YEARS OLD. Diameter breast- high Inches Height of tree Feet Diameter inside bark of top Inches 90 100 110 120 130 140 Volume Board feet in tens 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 20 23 26 30 35 39 44 51 56 63 69 22 26 30 34 39 44 50 56 62 69 76 84 91 99 106 114 122 24 29 33 38 43 49 55 60 68 75 83 92 100 108 117 126 136 146 157 169 181 27 32 37 43 49 55 61 66 74 82 91 100 109 118 128 138 150 161 172 183 195 207 218 7 8 8 9 9 9 10 10 10 11 11 11 12 12 13 13 13 14 14 15 15 15 72 81 90 102 110 120 130 140 151 162 173 185 196 208 221 235 114 123 131 142 152 163 174 185 195 208 221 235 250 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 79 TABLE 26. 'VOLUME IN BOARD FEET (CIRCULAR-SAWED 1-4 INCH KERF) OF TREES OF LOBLOLLY PINE OF DIFFERENT DIAMETERS AND HEIGHTS. No ALLOWANCE FOR BREAKAGE, EXCESSIVE CROOK OR WASTE WHICH AMOUNT TO 25 PER CENT FOR 7 AND 8 INCH TREES; 15 PER CENT FOR 9 AND 10 INCH; AND 5 PER CENT FOR 12 INCH. TREES UNDER 75 YEARS OLD. Diameter breast- high Inches Height of tree Feet Diameter inside bark of top Inches 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 Volume Board feet 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 7 11 17 22 26 33 14 20 29 36 44 51 59 69 22 31 37 51 62 70 82 106 114 123 30 42 54 65 79 88 106 123 139 157 185 210 5 5 6 6 6 7 7 7 8 8 9 9 9 10 10 11 53 66 79 97 106 121 148 167 194 229 255 290 334 71 88 106 123 141 167 194 220 264 299 343 387 431 484 97 114 132 158 185 220 255 290 334 378 422 493 528 114 141 167 202 238 273 317 361 405 458 510 563 150 176 211 264 290 334 387 440 493 548 598 *An operation in Gates County, North Carolina, yielded at the mill from two stands, one aver- aging 45 years old (Quality site I), and one averaging 60 years old (Quality site II to III), the following volumes in board feet (circular saw 1-4 inch kerf). As was to be expected, the younger trees, although taller, gave the lower yield. Age 45 years Age 60 years Diameter breast- high Inches Top dia- meter Inches Height of tree Feet Used length Feet Actual mill cut Board feet Basis Height of tree Feet Used length Feet Actual mill cut Board feet Basis g 4 9 77 40 27 1 Q 5 5 79 43 43 7 10 5.9 81 46 49 23 77 57 54 15 11 6.3 82 48 64 39 78 60 71 27 12 6.7 83 50 83 27 79 62 92 27 13 7.1 84 53 112 38 80 64 116 29 14 7.5 85 55 145 20 82 66 155 25 15 7.9 86 57 180 7 84 68 188 21 16 8.2 86 59 216 7 86 70 224 22 17 8.5 88 60 256 2 88 71 247 8 18 8.8 89 61 290 3 90 72 330 3 The mill loss in this case could have been considerably lessened by a better disposition of log lengths. Logs were chiefly cut in 16 foot lengths. By cutting more shorter logs fewer crooks would have been left in the middle of the logs and the loss in slabbing reduced. In this operation there was an average of 11 linear feet of sound stem, 5 inches and over in diameter at the small end left in the tops. This additional volume, entirely box and cull, amounted to about 7 board feet (circular- sawed) per tree. so LOBLOLLY OK NORTH CAROLINA PINE. TABLE 27. VOLUME IN BOARD FEET (CIRCULAR-SAWED 1-4 INCH KERF) or TREES OF LOBLOLLY PINE OF DIFFERENT DIAMETERS AND HEIGHTS. No ALLOWANCE FOR EXCESSIVE CROOK, WASTE OR BREAKAGE. TREES OVER 75 YEARS OLD. Diameter breast- high Inches Height of tree Feet Diameter inside bark of top Inches 90 100 110 120 130 140 Volume Board feet 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 ' 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 .35 36 176 202 229 264 308 343 387 449 493 554 607 194 229 264 299 343 387 440 493 548 607 669 739 801 870 933 1,003 1,074 211 255 290 334 378 431 484 528 598 660 730 820 880 950 1.030 1,109 1,197 1,285 1,382 1,482 1,583 238 282 326 373 431 484 537 581 651 722 810 880 959 1,038 1,126 1,214 1,320 1,417 1,514 1,610 1,716 1,822 1,918 7 8 8 8 9 9 10 10 10 11 11 11 12 12 13 13 13 14 14 15 15 15 634 713 792 898 968 1,056 1,144 1,232 1,329 1,426 1,522 1,628 1,725 1,830 1,944 2,068 1,003 1,082 1,153 1,250 1,338 1,434 1,531 1,628 1,716 1,830 1,944 2,068 2,200 LOBLOLLY OK NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 81 TABLE 28. VOLUME SCALED BY DOYLE-SCRIBNER RULE OF TREES or LOBLOLLY PINE OF DIFFER- ENT DIAMETERS AND HEIGHTS. No ALLOWANCE FOR EXCESSIVE CROOK. TREES LESS THAN 75 YEARS OLD. Diameter breast- high Inches Height of tree Feet Diameter inside i bark of top Inches 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 Volume Board feet 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 2 3 5 8 12 3 7 9 15 23 30 40 4 9 15 23 34 45 59 69 83 6 13 21 32 45 60 77 98 120 150 170 8 16 27 39 55 73 94 120 150 180 220 260 300 5 6 6 6 7 7 7 8 8 9 9 9 10 10 11 32 45 63 84 110 140 170 210 250 300 350 410 470 35 51 71 95 120 150 190 240 280 330 390 450 520 79 110 130 170 210 260 310 360 420 490 560 88 120 150 180 220 270 330 390 450 520 600 TABLE 29. VOLUME SCALED BY DOYLE-SCRIBNER RULE OF TREES OF LOBLOLLY PINE OF DIFFERENT DIAMETERS AND HEIGHTS. No ALLOWANCE FOR EXCESSIVE CROOK. TREES OVER 75 YEARS OLD. Diameter breast- high Inches Height of tree Feet Approximate diameter inside bark of top Inches 90 100 110 120 130 140 Volume Board feet in tens 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 11 14 18 22 26 31 36 42 47 53 58 13 17 21 25 30 35 41 47 54 60 67 75 83 91 99 108 116 15 20 24 29 34 39 46 52 60 67 75 83 92 101 111 121 131 141 153 164 175 17 22 26 32 37 43 49 57 64 73 81 91 101 111 121 132 143 155 167 179 191 204 216 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 10 10 10 11 11 11 12 12 13 13 13 14 14 15 15 15 52 61 69 77 87 98 108 119 131 143 155 167 179 192 204 217 229 93 104 115 127 141 154 166 173 190 203 215 228 241 LOBLOLLY OB NORTH CAROLINA PINE. TABLE 30. VOLUME SCALED BY SCBIBNER DECIMAL C RULE OP TREES OP LOBLOLLY PINE OF DIF- FERENT DIAMETERS AND HEIGHTS. No ALLOWANCE FOR EXCESSIVE CROOK. TREES LESS THAN 75 YEARS OLD. Diameter breast- high Inches Height of tree Feet Diameter inside bark of top Inches 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 Volume Board feet 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 5 12 18 25 32 40 13 22 30 40 50 60 70 21 32 42 54 66 81 97 110 120 27 42 55 68 83 100 120 140 160 190 220 5 6 6 6 7 7 7 8 8 9 9 9 10 10 11 52 65 81 99 120 150 170 200 230 270 300 330 93 110 140 170 200 230 270 310 350 400 460 520 130 160 190 220 260 300 350 400 460 510 570 140 170 200 240 280 330 380 430 490 550 620 150 180 220 260 300 350 410 460 520 590 660 TABLE 30a. VOLUME SCALED BY SCRIBNER DECIMAL C RULE OF TREES or LOBLOLLY PINE OF DIF- FERENT DIAMETERS AND HEIGHTS. No ALLOWANCE FOR EXCESSIVE CROOK. TREES OVER 75 YEARS OLD. Diameter breast- high Inches Height of tree Feet Diameter inside bark of top Inches 90 100 110 120 130 140 Volume Board feet in tens 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 18 21 24 27 31 36 41 46 51 57 62 20 23 27 31 36 41 47 53 60 66 73 81 89 97 106 115 124 22 26 30 35 40 46 52 59 66 74 82 91 99 109 118 128 138 . 150 161 172 184 24 29 33 38 44 50 57 64 72 81 90 99 109 119 129 140 151 163 175 187 200 213 227 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 10 10 10 11 11 11 12 12 13 13 13 14 14 15 15 15 53 61 69 78 87 96 106 117 128 139 150 162 175 1S8 201 214 227 240 102 113 124 135 147 159 171 186 198 213 225 238 251 LOBLOLLY OK NORTH CAROLINA PINE. TABLE 31. VOLUME SCALED BY TIEMANN Loo RULE (1-8 INCH SAW KERF) OF TREES OF LOBLOLLY PINE OF DIFFERENT DIAMETERS AND HEIGHTS. 'No ALLOWANCE FOR EXCESSIVE CROOK. TREES LESS THAN 75 YEARS OLD. Diameter breast- high Inches Height of tree Feet Approximate diameter inside bark of top Inches 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 Volume Board feet in tens 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 ' 20 21 22 .5 1 2 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 1 2 4 5 7 8 10 12 14 2 3 5 6 8 10 13 15 18 21 24 28 5 5 6 6 6 7 7 7 8 8 9 9 9 10 10 11 4 6 8 10 12 15 18 21 25 29 33 37 42 9 11 13 17 20 24 28 32 37 42 48 14 18 22 26 31 35 40 46 53 60 67 15 19 23 28 33 38 44 50 57 64 72 20 25 30 35 40 46 53 60 67 76 TABLE 31a. VOLUME SCALED BY TIEMANN Loo RULE (1-8 INCH SAW KERF) or TREES OF LOBLOLLY PINE OF DIFFERENT DIAMETERS AND HEIGHTS. No ALLOWANCE FOR EXCESSIVE CROOK. TREES OVER 75 YEARS OLD. Diameter breast- high Inches Height of tree Feet Approximate diameter inside bark of top Inches 90 . 100 110 120 130 140 Volume Board feet in tens 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 18 23 27 32 37 43 48 54 59 66 72 23 27 32 37 43 49 54 61 68 75 83 91 99 108 117 125 134 26 31 35 41 47 53 60 68 76 83 92 101 109 118 129 138 147 157 168 179 190 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 10 10 10 11 11 11 12 12 13 13 13 14 14 15 15 15 50 57 65 73 82 91 100 109 119 129 140 150 161 171 183 195 208 221 233 69 79 88 98 107 118 128 139 150 161 173 185 197 210 222 235 249 115 126 137 148 159 171 185 198 210 222 235 248 261 84 LOBLOLLY OK NORTH CAROLINA PINE. ?B 5jjBq apis a 0. g 3UOt ^88J g "91 63OJ JO 'Oj^ g s doi ^B NiBq apis -ut ja^amBirr a | 3uoi ^aaj g -91 S30J JO 'Oft Q uO9 ^B NjBq apis t- e' eocllcl? ' _ ) Cf e* ^ c<- : g 8 ? a s W uO) f ) C 3 C' o. ra o. -x o ) * C ^ e c c " IT > f s > C o ^ t- oo 5 C a c- c c T- c T- s o )3 3UO| 199J g*9l S2OT IO "Of^ C< ?i e ? 1 C* 5 f ,. 5 f S p ^ f IS p 1 :s ^ f \ o do'j. W 3(jBq apis t> c* 1 U 5 C s e> , 00 - t- 0. ^ K 0< p > o -HI J9^9un?I(T < u 1 5 >-' ) u 5 a 5 O t^ t^ t~ 01 } at > o > H 3lIOT ^991 "91 5 B3O| JO 'O^ c- 1 ? < _ ? c \ * i e> ^-- S cc i e> S \ 1 a ^B ^JBCJ 9pIS r* i a a 5 C- , t-coo *- 4 1 -ui aa^auiBta X If u 9 u 5 J <0 t- 00 00 C a CO to 3uo] ^aaj g - gi S3O| JO 'O^J ^ !i! N i- 1 V ? H f > e> , MMMM . I g ^B 3jJBq apis < 1 t- - e a u lt.^.^1 >3 fa -ui aa^auiBiQ ' ^ \f 5 a 9 U : t: S t- t- H H Suoi 'jaaj g -91 S3O^ JO 'OiJ a 9 \ \ ^ N ^ ;x 1 do^ at ) ^ 4 a 3 C > J t~ eo i s 830J JO '0^ > 1 S ?i 4 ^ H saqouj t^ a ) > e > ^ ,N CO^. > r- c/ a ? es q3iqif Bajq ja^auiBiQ LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 85 do) c, * ,. 0= H r- - - .0 s m aa)aunna s8o] jo 'Oft 1 a _: -r -- S S S s s do) )B >(jBq apis 00 ._ Oi 05 ij 01 ~l CO CO -f - !0 .0 .0 2 8uoi )aaj -91 S8OJ JO 'Oft -' II - . . - - doj ,. "1 f. DC 00 CO oo ^> C) M -1 CO -^ -^ .0 .0 o *"* 8uoj )aaj -91 S3OJ JO 'O^ X- - H -) M re g _- _t _^ 2 - - - s g - _ r - )B 5fjBq apis e> o eo 05 CO ^ ^ o * o -ui jawuitnrr t- J-. 00 oo C1 c-. o c-. o o M -M r^ TO -r r 10 -f o 1H 3uof )aaj *9j 88O| JO 'Oft l- ^ M! J ^' ^ M -- f )B jjjBq apis ! * ^ QC CO X c- c- 05 C5 c n 1 8uoj )aaj -91 a * ^5 * \ ei 4 1 J UJ ."I do) ffi 8u 01 )aaj-9t )B J]JBq apis -ui ja)araB;a )B sjjBq apis 8uoi)aaj'9i s8oj jo 'Oft )B JfJBq apis o auoj )aaj -91 s3oj jo 'Oft do) )B jjjBq apis 8uoi )aaj -91 s8o| jo 'Oft -q8iq) saqauj iB3jq J8)3UIBIQ -t IT ^ 1 ^ oe i ^~ a s c- S3 X s s s a c CO M R a s t P r 1 LOBLOLLY OK NORTH CAROLINA PINE. TABLE 33. VOLUME IN CUBIC FEET OF MERCHANTABLE STEM WOOD* WITHOUT STUMP OR BARK OF TREES OF LOBLOLLY PINE OF DIFFERENT DIAMETERS AND HEIGHTS. AGE LESS THAN 75 YEARS. Diameter breast- high Inches Height Feet 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 Merchantable cubic feet 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 : 22 ' 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 1.3 1.7 2.0 1.8 2.4 3.0 2.4 3.3 4.2 5.3 6.9 8.2 9.5 3.2 4.2 5.6 7.0 94 11.2 13.5 16.0 18.0 4.2 5.2 7.1 9.0 11.9 14.2 17.0 20.0 23.0 26.0 29.0 5.3 7.2 9.1 11.5 14.4 17.2 20.5 24.0 27.5 31.5 36.5 41.0 45.5 50.5 55.5 60.5 66.0 6.3 8.7 11.1 13.0 16.4 20.2 23.5 28.0 32.0 36.5 42.5 48.0 54.0 59.5 66.5 72.5 79.0 85.5 91.5 98.0 9.7 12.1 15.0 18.4 22.2 26.0 31.0 36.0 41.5 48.0 54.5 61.0 68.5 76.0 83.5 91.0 100.0 109.0 118.5 127.5 10.7 13.6 16.5 19.9 23.7 28.5 34.0 39.5 46.0 53.0 60.0 68.0 75.5 83.5 92.5 101.5 113.5 123.0 134.0 145.0 156.0 167.5 179.5 193.0 20.9 25.2 31.0 36.5 42.5 49.5 57.0 65.0 73.0 81.5 90.5 100.0 110.5 125.0 137.0 148.5 160.5 172.0 184.5 197.5 211.0 33.0 39.0 45.5 53.0 61.0 69.0 77.5 86.5 96.5 106.5 117.5 135.5 150.0 162.0 175.0 188.0 201.0 214.5 229.0 * Tops included to a, diameter of 3 inches in small trees, and about 5 inches in trees 14 inches and over. If no knotty top-wood is to be included, a deduction, increasing with the diameter, of from 5 to 10 per cent should be made. LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 87 TABLE 34. VOLUME or TREES OF LOBLOLLY PINE OF DIFFERENT DIAMETERS AND HEIGHTS, QUAL- ITY II, AGE 35 TO 45, IN CUBIC FEET, AND IN CORDS, WITH AND WITHOUT BARK; NUMBER OF TREES TO A CORD, AND PROPORTION OF BARK, WITHOUT STUMP OR TOP BBLOW 3 INCHES. (FOR RANGE OF HEIGHTS SEE TABLE 13.) Without bark With bark Diameter breast- high Volume per tree Numb'er nf trooQ PP- Volume per tree Number Tr 1 Number Inches Cu. ft. Cords of 160 ft. \Jl vLCVa to a cord of 160ft. Jcr cent of bark Cu. ft. Cords of 128 ft. of trees to a cord of 128 ft. Volume Cords of 160 ft. of trees to a cord of 160ft. 6 3.6 .031 33 31 5.2 .064 15.5 .051 19.5 7 5.1 .048 21 30 7.0 .086 11.6 .069 14.5 8 7.9 .08 12 29 11.1 .133 7.5 .100 9.4 9 11.0 .11 9 28 15.3 .172 5.8 .138 7.4 10 14.8 .14 7 27 20.3 .227 4.4 .182 5.5 11 19.0 .18 5.3 26 25.7 .281 3.6 .225 4.5 12 23.2 .21 5 25 30.9 .336 3. .269 3.8 13 28.3 .26 4 24 37.2 .406 2.5 .325 3.1 14 33.2 .3 3.3 23 43.1 .469 2.1 .375 2.6 15 38.5 .35 2.9 22 49.3 .531 1.9 .425 2.4 16 45.3 .41 2.5 21 57.3 .625 1 .6 .50 2 17 51.3 .46 2.1 20 64.1 .695 1 .4 .556 1.8 18 57.5 .52 1.9 19 71.0 .773 1 .3 .618 1.6 The per cent of solid wood to a cubic foot of piled cordwood varies with the diameter of the tree when the wood is cut in 4 or 5 foot lengths. With trees below 7 inches in diameter it is 63 per cent; trees 7 to 9 inches, it is 69 per cent ; trees 10 inches and over, if the larger pieces are split, is is 72 per cent. By combining this with columns 8 and 9, Table 23, a factor is obtained showing the number of board feet per long cord of bolts. This gives a yield of 616 board feet from a cord of peeled wood from 7-inch trees cut in 4-foot bolts ; and about 750 board feet per cord of wood from trees 10 inches in diameter. When wood is in pieces longer than 5 feet the per cent of solid wood is somewhat less than is given and the number of board feet per cord somewhat smaller. YIELD OF PURE EVEN-AGED STANDS. Loblolly pine characteristically forms over large areas pure stands which are to a great extent even-aged. While it also grows in mixed stands and pure uneven-aged stands, its occurrence in pure even-aged stands is of chief importance on account of their large yield, the ease with which they are logged, and the simplicity of their management. On the basis of 90 plots laid off in stands of different ages and under different conditions of growth yield tables were constructed for even-aged stands of loblolly pine. The plots were fully stocked with normally de- veloped crowns and stems. Yield tables have a two-fold value. They show the approximate yield per acre which can be expected at any given age when the quality site is known or can be determined. They also show the time at which a stand produces the largest amount of wood, and by determining its quality or grade yield, the time when it has the greatest value. 88 LOBLOLLY OE NORTH CAROLINA PINE. In Cubic Feet and Cords. Table 35 gives the yield in cubic feet of all trees 3 inches and over in diameter in fully stocked unthinned stands of loblolly pine on different quality sites at different ages. This embraces only the volume of stem wood without bark to a diameter of 3 inches (see foot note to Table 33). The average annual increment for the entire period and for five year periods is given. The basal area, showing in square feet the sum of the cross sections of all trees inside the bark at breast height, is also given. The basal area of stands on very dry soils often declines after 30 years ; and if the basal area is measured outside the bark it declines in all stands after they are 40 or 50 years old except those on the best sites.* Table 36 gives the yield of stem wood of trees 6 inches and over without bark. Table 37 gives the yield in cubic feet and cords of all merchantable trees 6 inches and over in diameter without stump, bark and top. *While the basal area af the wood only inside of bark increases in stands up to 100 years of age and more, the basal area measured outside of the bark soon begins to decline. This is due to the propor- tional greater thickness of the bark in small trees than in large ones. LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 89 1 & 1 11 OW5OOOOC^ICC^ M HH Average annual increment -i Cubic feet per acre "" 1 1 1 1 "a o 1 I m 11 a S W n "M -< CO 2 00 M (N S5S 3S 11 oooooooo ^ W > o ^< M< oo oo to O CT) CO O OO tO i! ssasss 00 O 00 * CS *-< -* CJ > S oooooooo """ u 5 * 8)5 >S ^ CO ^ , 8assssss8 gsssssss8 90 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. TABLE 36. YIELD PER ACHE IN CUBIC FEET OF STEM WOOD, WITHOUT BARK, BUT INCLUDING STUMPS AND TOPS OF ALL TREES Six INCHES AND OVER BREASTHIGH IN FULLY STOCKED UNTHINNED STANDS OF LOBLOLLY PINE AT DIFFERENT AGES ON DIFFERENT QUALITY SITES. Age Years Maximum Cu. ft. per acre Quality Minimum Cu. ft. per acre I II III Cu. ft. per acre Annual Per cent of t increase in volume preceding 5 years Cu. ft. per acre Annual Per cent of _ increase in volume preceding 5 years Cu. ft. per acre Annual Per cent of increase in volume preceding 5 years 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 1,400 2,560 4,350 5,790 6,650 7,300 7,750 8,150 8,470 8,730 8,940 9,110 9,250 9,380 9,480 9,570 9,660 9,730 1,050 2,200 3,600 4,900 5,790 6,430 6,940 7,300 7,600 7,850 8,040 8,240 8,400 8,520 8,600 8,650 8,700 8,730 600 1,430 2,400 3,360 4,160 4,830 5,330 5,700 600 1,270 1,980 2,700 3,260 3,700 4,070 4,350 4,550 8.3 2.8 1.3 .7 .5 8.9 3.7 1.7 .9 .55 12.7 5.1 2.2 1.1 .6 650 1,100 1,700 2,260 2,750 3,100 2,360 3,560 3,730 3,850 3,950 4,000 4,050 4,100 4,860 4,910 6,000 6,230 6,410 4,720 6,540 4,850 6,650 6,740 4,940 4,990 6,810 5,050 5,070 6,870 6,920 5,100 6,950 5,120 Table 37 gives practically the material which would be available for conversion into bolts, heading, staves, box boards, or for paper pulp stock. The yield is given both in long cords of 160 cubic feet without bark and in standard cords of 128 cubic feet with bark. The greatest average annual yield in standard cords on Quality I is obtained by cutting the stand at about the age of 30 years ; or Quality II at about 40 years ; or Quality III at about 50 years. In old field stands on dry sites there is an actual decline in the volume of the stand between 40 and 60 years of age, according to site. This is due to the rapid natural thinning as the trees become intolerant of shade or when the demands on soil mois- ture increase above the available supply. Plate XVI shows Quality II stand at the age of greatest average annual yield. In Board Feet. Table 38 gives the yield in board feet, 1-7 inch saw kerf, of all trees 6 inches and over in diameter breasthigh in fully stocked unthinned stands of loblolly pine on different quality sites at different ages, on the basis of three to four logs to the large trees and of top diameters given in Table 32. No allowance is made in this and following tables for crooked logs in which the crookedness exceeds 2 inches for waste or LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 91 TABLE 37. YIELD PER ACRE IN CUBIC FEET, AND IN CORDS WITH AND WITHOUT BARK OF STEM WOOD WITHOUT STUMP AND WITHOUT TOP BELOW THREE INCHES OF ALL TREES Six INCHES AND OVER IN DIAMETER IN FULLY STOCKED, UNTHINNED STANDS OF LOBLOLLY PINE AT DIFFERENT AGES ON DIFFERENT QUALITY SITES. Age of stand Years Quality I II III Cubic feet merchantable wood without stump, or bark, and top to 3 inches 20 25 30 40 50 60 2,100 3,500 4,775 6,385 7,125 1,330 2,300 2,260 4,700 5,550 1,200 1,900 3,160 3,950 4,410 Total yield Average annual yield Total yield Average annual yield Total yield Average annual yield Entire period Past 10 years Entire period Past 10 years Entire period Past 10 years Standard cords, 128 cubic feet, with bark 20 37 1.8 24 1.2 25 58 2.3 .. 40 1.6 .. 22 .9 .. 30 75 2.5 3.8 53 1.8 2.9 33 1.1 2.2 40 96 2.4 1.9 72 1.8 1.9 50 1.3 1.7 50 105 2.1 .8 83 1.7 1.1 60 1.2 1. 60 -- - - -- -- -- 66 1.1 .6 Long cords, 160 cubic feet, without bark 20 21 I. 13 .7 25 33 1.5 22 .9 . 1.2 .5 ' .. 30 43 1.45 2.3 30 1. 1.7 18 .6 1.2 40 57 1.4 1.4 42 1.1 1.2 28 .7 .1 50 64 1.3 .7 49 1. .8 35 .7 .6 60 -- -- -- -- -- -- 39 .65 .5 for breakage. Table 39 is the same as Table 38 except that the yield is given circular sawed, *4 inch kerf. Table 40 gives the yield of all trees 6 inches and over in diameter scaled by Doyle-Scribner rule and also the average annual increment. The largest average annual increment in board feet is obtained on Quality I by cutting the stand when 50 years old ; on Quality II when between 50 and 60 years old ; on Quality III when between 60 and 70 years old. Tables 41 and 41a give the yield in board feet band-sawed with 1-7 inch kerf by cutting to 9 and 11 inches in diameter, respectively. Cut- ting to 9 inches in diameter gives the yield of all trees which make 92 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. standard 7x7 inch ties. The greatest average annual yield of tie tim- ber is obtained on Quality I when the stand is about 40 years old; on Quality II when about 50 years old ; and on Quality III when about 55 years old. Cutting to 11 inches in diameter gives the yield of all trees large enough for crate veneer stock. (Plate XIV shows a Quality II stand, culled, 60 years old, yielding about 30,000 feet per acre ; Plate XY an urithinned stand about 80 years old, yielding about 40,000 feet per acre.) Table 42 gives the total number of trees 6 inches and over, the average diameter of all trees and the annual rate of decrease in the number of trees with the increase in the age of the stand. This table is of value in showing which portion of the yield is contributed by the trees in the dominant crown class. It shows the approximate number of trees which would be removed in thinning unthinned stands by deducting the num- ber of dominant trees from the total number of trees. (See page 159.) Tables 43 and 44 show the number of trees 9 inches and over and 11 inches and over per acre respectively and their average diameters at different ages in fully stocked stands. By combining Table 42 with Tables 43 and 44 the number of trees over 6 inches in diameter left per acre after cutting to 9 and 11 inches in diameter breasthigh can be obtained. TABLE 38. YIELD PER ACRE IN BOARD FEET OF ALL TREES Six INCHES AND OVER IN DIAMETER BREASTHIGH TO TOP DIAMETER GIVEN IN TABLE 32, IN FULLY STOCKED UNTHINNED STANDS OF LOBLOLLY PINE AT DIFFERENT AGES ON DIFFERENT QUALITY SITES. No ALLOWANCE FOR EXCES- SIVE CROOK, WASTE OR BREAKAGE. BOARDS 1 1-16 INCH THICK, BAND-SAWED, KERF 1-7 INCH. Age Years Maximum Bd. ft. per acre Quality Minimum Bd. ft. per acre I II III Bd. ft. per acre Annual Per cent of increase in volume preceding decade Bd. ft. per acre Annual Per cent of increase in volume preceding decade Bd. ft. per acre Annual Per cent of increase in volume preceding decade 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 19,700 28,600 35,100 40,100 44,200 47,500 50,300 52,650 54,600 56,250 57,650 58,900 60,000 61,000 62,000 62,900 63,750 14,500 22,300 28,850 34,000 38,150 41,600 44,500 46,850 48,750 50,300 51,550 52,650 53,600 54,400 55,200 56,000 56,700 8,800 7.1 16,000 21,850 7,170 12,700 2,600 12,050 15,400 18,050 20,150 21,900 23,200 24,250 25,000 25,650 26,100 26,500 2.8 26,850 30,850 5.3 17,000 20,400 23,000 25,200 9.0 1.6 33,900 36,300 2.4 3.1 .9 38,200 39,700 1.2 26,850 28,200 1.6 .6 40,900 41,850 .7 29,250 30,150 .9 .4 42,650 43,200 .4 30,750 31,000 .5 .3 43,700 44 100 .2 31,650 .3 .3 44,500 .2 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 93 TABLE 39. YIELD PER ACRE IN BOARD FEET OF ALL TREES OF LOBLOLLY PINE, Six INCHES AND OVER IN DIAMETER BREASTHIGH TO Top DIAMETER GIVEN IN TABLE 32 IN FULLY STOCKED UNTHINNED STANDS AT DIFFERENT AGES ON DIFFERENT QUALITY SITES. No ALLOWANCE FOR EXCESSIVE CROOK, WASTE OR BREAKAGE. BOARDS 1 1-8 INCHES THICK, CIRCULAR SAWED, KERF \i INCH. Quality A?e of stand I II III Board feet per acre 20 12,700 30 25,200 14,000 6,300 40 33,300 23,500 14,900 50 38,900 30,000 20,100 60 42,600 33.400 23,500 70 45,100 35,800 25,600 80 46,900 37,300 26,900 TABLE 40. YIELD PER ACRE IN BOARD FEET (DOYLE-SCRIBNER) OF ALL TREES Six INCHES AND OVER IN DIAMETER IN FULLY STOCKED STANDS OF LOBLOLLY PINE AT DIFFERENT AGES ON DIFFERENT QUALITY SITES. TOP DIAMETERS AS IN TABLE 32. No ALLOWANCE FOR EXCESSIVE CROOK, WASTE OR BREAKAGE. Quality I II III Age Years Volume Average annual Volume Average annual Volume Average annual increment increment increment Board feet per acre 25 7,368 295 1 310 52 30 16,143 535 6,824 227 652 22 40 28,365 709 16,419 410 6,024 150 50 36,689 734 23,716 474 12,391 247 60 41,811 697 28,130 469 16,228 270 70 43,601 30,568 436 18,939 270 80 44,868 32,201 20,149 252 90 45.180 33,205 20,827 94 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. TABLE 41. YIELD PER ACRE IN BOARD FEET OF ALL TREES NINE INCHES AND OVER IN DIAMETER BREASTHIGH IN FULLY STOCKED STANDS OP LOBLOLLY PINE AT DIFFERENT AGES AND ON DIFFERENT QUALITY SITES. No ALLOWANCE FOR EXCESSIVE CROOK, WASTE OR BREAKAGE. BOARDS 1 1-16 INCH THICK, BAND-SAWED, 1-7 INCH KERF. (To reduce to circular-sawed 1-4 inch kerf, divide by 1.144.) Age Years Maximum Quality Minimum I II in Volume Board feet 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 10,500 25,200 34,500 40,000 44,100 47,500 50,300 16,200 26,600 32,200 37,800 41,400 44,500 12,700 20,650 25,900 29,800 32,800 35,200 37,000 38,700 7,700 13,800 18,250 21,350 23,700 25,400 26,850 28,150 29,200 30,100 30,800 1,500 8,000 12,500 15,600 17,750 19,400 20,800 22,000 23,000 23,800 24,650 :::::::;::::: .. TABLE 41o. YIELD PER ACRE IN BOARD FEET OF ALL TREES 11 INCHES AND OVER IN DIAMETER BREASTHIGH IN FULLY STOCKED STANDS OF LOBLOLLY PINE AT DIFFERENT AGES AND ON DIF- FERENT QUALITY SITES. No ALLOWANCE FOR EXCESSIVE CROOK, WASTE OR BREAKAGE. BOARDS 1 1-16 INCHES THICK, BAND-SAWED, 1-7 INCH KERF. (To reduce to circular-sawed, 1-4 inch kerf, divide by 1.144.) Quality Age I II III Years Volume Board feet 25 5,450 30 16,500 2,200 35 25,300 12,250 1,400 40 31,800 19,400 7,750 . 45 36,650 24,400 12,700 50 40,350 28,300 16,650 55 43,500 31,400 19,800 60 46,200 34,150 22,300 65 48,600 36,450 24,650 70 50,500 38,500 26,650 75 52,100 40,200 28,350 80 53,350 41,600 29,800 85 54.350 42,700 30,900 90 55,200 43,500 31,700 95 56,000 44,200 100 56,700 44,700 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 95 TABLE 42. TOTAL NUMBER OF LOBLOLLY PINE TREES or ALL CROWN CLASSES PER ACRE Six INCHES AND OVER IN DIAMETER, THEIR AVERAGE DIAMETER AND PER CENT OF DECREASE IN NUMBER, TOTAL NUMBER OF DOMINANT TREES Six INCHES AND OVER, AND THEIR AVERAGE DIAMETER AT DIFFERENT AGES ON DIFFERENT QUALITY SITES. Age Years Trees of all crown classes 6 inches and over Dominant trees 6 inches and over Number of trees per acre Per cent of decrease in number of trees Average diameter Inches Number of trees per acre Average diameter Inches Quality I 25 486 8.2 230 9.1 30 449 7.6 9.3 248 10.4 40 273 39.2 11.4 179 13.2 50 199 27.1 13.2 125 15.7 60 169 15.1 14.8 100 17.4 70 150 10.6 16.1 89 18.8 80 134 17.3 77 20.0 90 120 18.3 71 21.2 100 108 19.1 64 22.3 Quality II 25 476 7.5 262 7.8 30 469 1.5 8.5 273 8.8 40 342 27.8 10.3 217 10.8 50 244 28.3 11.9 151 12.8 60 187 21.8 13.2 118 14.5 70 160 12.4 14.3 101 15.7 80 142 15.3 86 17.0 90 129 16.2 77 18.1 100 118 17.0 70 19.1 Quality III 30 482 7.6 263 8.2 40 357 17.9 9.1 204 10.0 50 256 28.3 10.5 157 11.7 60 199 17.0 11.7 121 13.1 70 167 12.6 12.7 102 14.3 80 150 13.6 88 15.4 96 LOBLOLLY OK NORTH CAROLINA PINE. TABLE 43. TOTAL NUMBER OF TREES PER ACRE NINE INCHES AND OVER IN DIAMETER BREAST- HIGH AND THEIR AVERAGE DIAMETER IN DENSE, UNTHINNED STANDS OF LOBLOLLY PINE AT DIFFERENT AGES ON DIFFERENT QUALITY SITES. Age of stand Years Number of trees 9 inches in diameter and over Average diameter Quality I 25 234 10.3 30 254 11.4 40 204 13.2 50 173 14.6 60 154 15.6 70 140 16.4 80 130 17.1 90 121 17.6 100 115 18.0 110 109 18.4 120 105 18.6 Quality II 25 68 9.4 30 153 9.9 40 197 11.2 50 179 12.6 60 161 13.9 70 145 14.9 80 135 15.6 90 126 16.2 100 118 16.7 110 112 17.0 120 108 17.4 Quality III 30 46 9.1 40 234 9.7 50 173 11.0 60 146 12.5 70 126 13.6 80 113 14.4 90 102 15.1 100 94 15.6 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 97 TABLE 44. TOTAL NUMBER OF TREES PER ACRE ELEVEN INCHES AND OVER IN DIAMETER BREASTHIGH AND THEIR AVERAGE DIAMETER IN DENSE, UNTHINNED STANDS OF LOBLOLLY PINE AT DIFFER- ENT AGES ON DIFFERENT QUALITY SITES. Age of stand Years Number of trees 11 inches in diameter and over Average diameter Quality I 25 156 11.8 30 173 12.6 40 163 14.2 50 150 15.4 60 135 16.4 70 125 17.2 80 117 17.8 90 109 18.3 100 104 18.7 110 101 18.9 120 98 19.1 Quality II 30 50 11.5 40 120 12.8 50 131 14.1 60 127 15.2 70 120 16.0 80 114 16.7 90 107 17.3 100 102 17.7 110 98 18.0 120 95 18.3 Quality III 40 80 11.7 50 96 13.0 60 94 14.2 70 90 15.1 80 85 15.8 90 81 16.3 100 78 16.7 98 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. GRADED VOLUME TABLES. Tables 45 to 54 give the actual amounts, values, and percentages of the different grades of lumber sawed from logs of different grades and from logs from different parts of the stem. The results were secured by a large number of measurements of the logs in the woods and their cut at the mill. The logs were carefully measured as to diameter and length, and marked, those in each tree being given a specific designation, which showed not only that they were from the same tree, but indicated the relative position of each log in the trunk of the tree, whether butt, second, third, or top. About 1,000 logs were sawed at a mill with a daily cut of 30,000 board feet by a circular saw taking a ^-inch kerf. An exact tally was kept not only of the number of feet but of the grade of each board which was sawed from each log. These logs ranging in diameter at the small end from 5 inches to 20 inches were largely from second-growth stands between 40 and 70 years old. The utilization was close and the amount of mill waste small ; somewhat closer utilization would have been possible in the tops, but at the expense of reducing the grades. About 1,000 other logs ranging in diameter at the small end from 7 to 30 inches were marked and numbered in the woods and were carefully graded. These were sawed at three different mills and, with the exception of a small number, were band-sawed. An exact tally was kept of the number of board feet and the amount of each grade of lumber w r hich was sawed from the logs of different diameters in each grade of logs. These logs were from trees in stands which varied in age between 45 and 250 years. The cut of all logs was brought to a uniform basis as regards saw thick- ness and allowance for shrinkage by the use of converting factors (see note to table 23). GRADING OF LOGS. Six grades of logs were recognized as follows : Grade 1. Logs smooth-barked, the centers not coarse-grained, and entirely free from such surface indications of defects as knot signs or red heart. While they are chiefly butt logs, second and even third logs from large 5 and 6-logged trees, particularly those from intermediate and suppressed trees, were included in this grade. Even butt logs of this grade if less than 10 inches in diameter must as a rule come from intermediate and suppressed trees. They have less taper than any other grade of logs and consequently saw out less lumber above the log scale. The f. o. b. value (first quarter 1913) of the lumber which is sawed from Grade 1 logs at points which have the Norfolk, Virginia, price basis is from $22.46 per 1,000 board feet for lumber from 7-inch logs to $30 per 1,000 board feet for lumber from 30-inch logs. (Plate XII, C.) Grade 2. Logs free from indications of red heart, smooth barked, but showing slight signs of knots on one side or quarter of the log. N. C. GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SUIIVKY PLATE XII. LOGS OF DIFFERENT GRADES. A. Logs chiefly of Grades 3 and 4, diameters 5 to 16 inches. These are the prevailing grades and sizes now coming to the mills. Average log about 38 feet, D.-S. (Author's illustration.) B. Logs chiefly of Grades 2 and 3, diameters 10 to 24 inches. These are the prevailing grades and sizes which were cut by the mills between 1895 and 1910. Average log about 90 feet, D.-S. The small size of the heartwood is noteworthy. (Author's illustration.) C. Logs chiefly of Grades 1 and 2, diameters 12 to 36 inches. These were the prevailing grades and sizes which were sawed until 1895. Average log about 200 feet, D.-S. LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 99 Such logs are largely second logs in Quality III stands ; some third and even fourth logs from large trees in first and second quality stands may, however, be of this grade, or they may be butt logs from trees in young or old field stands which were not sufficiently crowded and have coarse- grained centers. The f. o. b. value at Norfolk of lumber which is sawed from Grade 2 logs is from $21.66 per 1,000 board feet for lumber from 7-inch logs to $28.64 per 1,000 feet for lumber from 27-inch logs. It is evident from a comparison of the value of the lumber cut from this grade and Grade 1 logs that small defects have little influence upon the value of large logs. (Plate XII, B.) Grade 3. Logs surface sound and free from large knots, but having small knots on one side or at one end of the log. In forest-grown timber logs of this grade are chiefly cut from just below the base of the crown, or in open stands they may come from a lower portion of the stem. The f. o. b. value of lumber which is sawed from Grade 3 logs is from $17.50 per 1,000 board feet for lumber from 6-inch logs to $25 for lumber from 30-inch logs. (Plate XII, A and B.) Grade 4- Logs partly from the crown and partly from the stem below it. One end or one side of the log free from very large knots and red heart. The f. o. b. value at Norfolk of lumber from Grade 4 logs is $15 per 1,000 board feet for lumber from 6-inch logs to $19 per 1,000 feet board measure for lumber from 22-inch logs. (Plate XII, A.) Grade 5. Logs sound but having coarse knots (1 to 2 inches in diameter) throughout. They lie entirely within the crown or come from extremely knotty trees which have grown in open stands. The f. o. b. value at Norfolk of lumber from Grade 5 logs is from $14 to $17 per 1,000 board feet, according to the diameter of the log. No. 5 grade logs cut 95 per cent and over No. 4 grade and cull lumber and less than 5 per cent all other grades. Top logs of trees under 25 inches in diameter breasthigh are usually of this grade (see Table 55). Such logs on account of the knots yield no bark strips. Red heart logs. These come chiefly from the middle and upper parts of the stems of trees more than 100 years old, occasionally the lower end of butt logs is affected with red heart. The average f. o. b. value at Norfolk of lumber from red heart logs is about $18 per 1,000 board feet, the value varying but little with the diameter because of the larger proportion of redheart in large logs than in small logs. The average f. o. b. value for logs of all grades is based on the price at Norfolk. Cull logs were not taken. These come chiefly from the tops of trees 25 inches or more in diameter which have very large knots 3 inches and more in diameter, and cut out 50 per cent or more cull lumber. They would add about 5 per cent to the volume of these trees. (The logs in the crown of tree in Plate VII would be cull logs; also, see Plate XIX.) The amount and per cent of grades sawed from butt, second, third and top logs of trees in two different stands are given in Tables 55 and 56. 100 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. GRADING OF LUMBER. All lumber was graded according to the 1911 standard for the inspec- tion of North Carolina pine. The basis of inspection is the best or face side. Stock sizes below 12-inch are 6-inch, 8-inch and 10-inch widths. Other widths are grouped as edge. A pin knot is not over % inch; a standard knot not over 1^ inches; a large knot is over 1% inches. Standard lengths of lumber are 8 to 16 feet, not to exceed 5 per cent 8 feet lengths; widths, other than bark strips 3 inches and over. The following is a brief description of the grades of kiln-dried lumber. Air dried lumber admits more stain than kiln-dried; 25 per cent in No. 2 ; 50 per cent in No. 3 ; 75 per cent in No. 4. By stain is meant blued sap wood. This does not affect the strength of the wood. No. 1 Grade. This grade includes boards 8 inches and under in width having one side clear of all defects, except 2 small defects such as pitch streaks, and the other side grading up to a No. 2 board. Lum- ber over 8 inches wide may have in addition one small pitch pocket, sound pin knot, or other slight defect for each additional 2 inches of width. (Plate XIII, A.) No. 2 Grade. This grade consists of boards with small tight knots on the best side and less than one-sixth of the area of pitch streaks ; the other side grades up to No. 3 or better. Pieces 8 inches in width or under may have 3 pin knots, or 3 small pitch pockets; pieces over 8 inches wide may have for each additional 2 inches of width one stand- ard knot, 3 pin knots or 3 pitch pockets or small pitch streaks. (Plate XIII, B.) No. 3 Grade. This grade consists of tight knotted boards below No. 2, one edge No. 2 or better on the best face, and not to exceed 15 per cent of stain. Pieces 6 inches and over admit sound knots to a diameter of not over y^ of the width of the piece, or other defects such as pin knots, pitch pockets, or pitch streaks ; pitchy boards which would otherwise grade No. 1 or No. 2. No. 1 and No. 2 boards which are pitchy, No. 2, allowing 33 per cent. No. 1, 50 per cent of pitch; No. 1 and No. 2 boards having 50 per cent stained surface or firm redheart not to exceed 20 per cent are admitted to this grade. (Plate XIII, C.) No. 4 Grade (Box). Box consists of sound lumber below the grade of No. 3, containing pin, standard, and large reasonably sound knots, and will admit other knots which do not seriously affect the strength of the pieces; a larger amount of pitchy, stained, or redheart surface than No. 3, or a greater aggregate of knots or pitch pockets than is ad- missible in No. 3 boards. (Plate XIII, D.) No. 5 Grade (Culls). Culls consist of lumber lower than No. 4 (excepting redheart or box strips), either knottier or with more pitch, which can be used without a waste exceeding 25 per cent and may con- tain 50 per cent of firm redheart. N. C. GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY. PLATE XIII. PLATE XIII. Typical boards of important grades of North Carolina pine lumber 12 feet long. A to D, inclusive, are dressed boards; E and F are rough. (Photographs made under direction of author.) A. No. 1 grade board, 16 inches wide, from a large, old, fine-grained heart tree of the qual- ity known as "slash pine." A narrow margin of sapwood is shown on either edge of the board. B. No. 2 grade board, 12 inches wide. The defects are a small pin knot and a narrow pitch streak in the upper one-half of the board. Board from an old growth, fine-grained tree, very largely heartwood. C. No. 3 grade board, 12 inches wide. The defects are a pitch pocket in the lower one- fourth, two pin knots near the middle of the board, a pitch streak at the upper end of the board, and a sliver in the coarse flat grain of its center. Board is from a second-growth forest tree, coarse-grained in the center and medium-grained on the edges. D. Box or No. 4 grade board, 12 inches wide. Very knotty and coarse-grained. This board is from a rapid growth tree of the old-field type and is all sapwood except a narrow ribbon of heart down the center. E. Merchantable red heart grade board, 10 inches wide. This board would have graded as a No. 3 but for the red heart which shows as the dark streaks in the heartwood. F. Box bark strip. The bark edge shows along the upper right-hand edge of the strip; the bark has been trimmed from the lower portion of the piece. LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 101 Firm redheart admits pieces containing any amount of firm redheart which can not be classed as No. 1, 2, 3, or 4. (Plate XIII, E.) Nos. 1 and 2 bark strips consist of edging lumber faced with bark on oije side and shall not show less than V% inch of Avood on both edges from end to end of piece, and shall otherwise equal the grades of Nos. 1 and 2 lumber. Box bark strip. This grade consists of bark strips falling below No. 1 and No. 2 bark strip. (Plate XIII, F.) TABLE 45. PER CENT OF DIFFERENT GRADES OF NORTH CAROLINA PINE LUMBER SAWED FROM GRADE ONE LOGS OF LOBLOLLY PINE OF DIFFERENT DIAMETERS. Logs 16.3 feet long, perfect, sound, usually from the lower part of stem, free from knot signs, with smooth bark and fine-graine'd centers. Boards 1 1-16 inch thick, band-sawed, kerf 1-7 inch. Diameter inside Per cent of each grade bark at small end of log No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 Box Red heart and Bark strips Nos. Total Inches cull 1 and 2 7 25.0 25.0 20.8 16.7 12.5 100 g 23.5 32.4 23.5 11.8 8.8 100 24 .4 37.8 22.2 8.9 6.7 100 10 28.3 38.3 21.7 6.7 5.0 100 H 28.4 40.5 21.6 5.4 4.1 100 12 31 .9 39.6 20.8 4.4 3.3 100 13 33.6 39.1 20.1 3.6 3.6 100 14 35.9 38.2 19.1 3.0 .8 3.0 100 15 37.5 36.8 19.1 2.6 .7 3.3 100 16 40.1 35.6 18.0 '2.3 .6 3.4 100 17 41.6 34.7 17.7 2.0 .5 3.5 100 18 43.0 34.3 17.6 17 i .4 3.0 100 19 43.8 33.8 17.4 1.5 ' .4 3.1 100 20 44.2 33.2 17.5 1.7 .3 3.1 100 21 44.0 33.0 17.8 1.8 .3 3.1 100 22 43.7 32.7 18.1 2.2 .3 3.0 100 23 43.6 32.7 18.6 2.2 .2 2.7 100 24 43.2 32.2 18.9 2.5 .5 2.7 100 25 42.9 32.2 19.5 2.5 .4 2.5 100 26 42.9 32.2 19.7 2.5 .4 2.3 100 27 42.7 32.2 20.1 2.4 .4 2.2 100 28 42.6 32.1 20.6 2.4 .3 2.0 100 29 42.4 32.2 20.8 2.4 .3 1.9 100 30 42.2 32.2 21.0 2.5 ' .3 1.8 100 102 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. TABLE 46. PER CENT OF DIFFERENT GRADES OF NORTH CAROLINA PINE LUMBER SAWED FROM GRADE Two LOGS OF LOBLOLLY PINE OF DIFFERENT DIAMETERS. Logs 16.3 feet long, slightly knotty, sound, usually from the lower part of stem, with smooth bark, and moderately fine-grained centers. Boards 1 1-16 inch thick, band-sawed, kerf 1-7 inch. Diameter inside bark at small end of log Inches Per cent of each grade No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 Box Red heart and cull Bark strips Nos. 1 and 2 Total 7 8 9 10 11 12 16.6 17.6 20.0 21.7 23.0 25.3 25.0 32.4 37.8 39.9 40.5 39.6 29.3 29.4 26.6 26.7 27.0 25.2 16.6 11.8 8.9 6.7 5.4 5.5 12.5 8.8 6.7 5.0 4.1 3.3 100 100 100 100 100 100 1.1 13 27.3 38.2 24.5 5.5 .9 3.6 100 14 29.8 37.4 24.3 4.6 .8 3.1 100 15 32.2 35.5 23.7 4.6 .7 3.3 100 16 34.5 33.9 23.1 4.5 .6 3.4 100 17 36.1 33.2 22.2 4.0 1.0 3.5 100 18 37.4 32.2 22.2 3.9 1.3 3.0 100 19 38.5 31.5 . 21.5 4.2 1.2 3.1 100 20 39.7 30.8 21.3 4.1 1.0 3.1 100 21 40.4 30.6 20.7 4.3 .9 3.1 100 22 40.9 30.2 20.7 4.4 .8 3.0 100 23 41.4 30.4 20.3 4.5 .7 2.7 100 24 42.0 30.1 20.2 4.3 .7 2.7 100 25 42.5 30.1 19.9 4.4 .6 2.5 100 26 42.9 30.0 19.7 4.5 .6 2.3 100 27 43.3 30.0 19.6 4.4 .5 2.2 100 28 43.3 30.1 19.5 4.4 .7 2.0 100 29 43.7 30.0 19.5 4.3 .6 1.9 100 30 43.7 29.9 19.6 4.3 .7 1.8 100 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 103 TABLE 47. PER CENT OF DIFFERENT GRADES op NORTH CAROLINA PINE LUMBER SAWED FROM GRADE THREE Loos OF LOBLOLLY PINE OF DIFFERENT DIAMETERS. Logs 16.3 feet long, slightly knotty, chiefly from the middle part of the stem. Boards 1 1-16 inch thick, band-sawed, kerf 1-7 inch. Diameter inside bark at small end of log Inches Per cent of each grade No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 Box Red heart and cull Bark strips Nos. 1 and 2 Total 5 6 7 8 9 77.0 23.0 14.3 9.4 7.3 5.8 100 100 100 100 100 33.3 31.2 31.7 30.8 52.4 50.0 48.8 46.2 6.3 9.8 11.5 3.1 2.4 1.9 3.8 10 4.7 12.5 29.7 45.3 3.1 4.7 100 11 7.6 12 J 27.8 44.3 3.8 3.8 100 12 9.4 13.5 27.1 42.7 4.2 3.1 100 13 11.4 14.0 25.4 40.4 5.3 3.5 100 14 12.6 14.1 25.2 39.2 5.9 3.0 100 15 13.9 14.6 24.0 37.3 7.0 3.2 100 16 15.5 14.9 23.8 35.4 7.7 2.7 100 17 16.9 15.5 23.2 33.8 8.2 2.4 100 18 18.0 15.8 23.1 32.0 9.0 2.1 100 19 19.5 16.0 22.9 30.2 9.5 1.9 100 20 20.5 16.4 22.6 28.5 10.3 1.7 100 21 21.9 16.7 22.2 26.5 11.1 1.6 100 22 23.2 16.5 22 .4 25.0 11.5 1.4 100 23 24.8 16.4 22.2 23.3 12.0 1.3 100 24 25.9 16.3 22.0 22.0 12.6 1.2 100 25 27.6 16.1 21.7 20.6 12.9 1.1 100 26 29.0 15.9 21.5 19.3 13.3 1.0 100 27 30.5 15.4 21.4 18.0 13.8 .9 100 28 31.9 15.2 21.2 16.9 13.9 .9 100 29 33.1 14.9 21.0 16.0 14.2 .8 100 30 34.3 14.4 20.9 15.2 14.4 .8 100 104 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. TABLE 48. PER CENT OF DIFFERENT GRADES OF NORTH CAROLINA PINE LUMBER SAWED FROM GRADE 4 LOGS OF LOBLOLLY PINE OF DIFFERENT DIAMETERS. THESE ARE LOGS FROM BELOW THE TOP Loo. Diameter inside bark at small end of Log No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 Box or No. 4 Cull Box bark strip Total Inches 4 74 26 100 5 2 82 16 100 6 5 85 10 100 7 5 88 7 100 8 2 5 88 5 100 9 2 5 89 4 100 10 2 5 88 2 3 100 11 2 5 88 2 3 100 12 1 2 5 87 2 3 100 13 2 2 6 86 2 2 100 14 2 2 6 86 2 2 100 15 2 3 6 85 2 2 100 16 2 3 6 85 2 2 100 17 3 3 6 84 3 1 100 18 3 4 6 82 4 1 100 19 3 4 7 81 4 1 100 20 4 4 7 80 4 1 100 21 5 5 7 77 5 1 .100 22 5 5 7 77 5 1 100 Grade 5 logs, which are knotty top logs, yield at least 95 per cent of No. 4 lumber and cull. Cull logs, which are very knotty top logs from large trees and have coarse knots, yield at least 50 per cent cull lumber. (ISTote the log within the crown of tree in Plate VII.) LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 105 TABLE 49. PER CENT OF DIFFERENT GRADES OF NORTH CAROLINA PINE LUMBER SAWED FROM RED HEART LOGS OF LOBLOLLY PINE OF DIFFERENT DIAMETERS. Diameter inside bark at small end of log Inches No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 Box Red heart and cull Box bark strip Total Per cent of each grade 7 6.2 9.4 31.3 37.5 6.2 9.4 100 8 4.9 7.3 24.4 41.5 14.6 7.3 100 9 3.8 7.7 19.2 46.2 17.3 5.8 100 10 3.1 6.3 17.2 4S.4 18.7 6.3 100 11 3.8 6.3 13.9 48.1 22.8 5.1 100 12 4.2 5.2 12.5 48.9 24.0 ' 5.2 100 13 5.3 5.3 11.4 48.2 25.4 4.4 100 14 5.2 5.2 10.4 47.4 28.1 3.7 100 15 5.7 5.1 9.5 46.2 30.3 3.2 100 16 6.0 5.0 9.4 44.8 32.0 2.8 100 17 6.3 4.8 9.2 43.5 33.8 2.4 100 18 6.9 4.7 9.4 41.9 35.0 2.1 100 19 6.9 4.6 9.5 40.5 36.6 1.9 100 20 7.2 4.5 9.6 39.0 38.0 1.7 100 21 7.1 4.3 9.9 38.0 39.2 1.5 100 22 7.0 4.2 10.4 37.2 39.8 1.4 100 23 6.6 4.1 10.5 36.8 40.7 1.3 100 24 6.5 3.7 10.8 36.7 41.1 1.2 100 25 6.2 3.7 10.7 36.6 41.7 1.1 100 26 6.0 3.4 10.5 36.7 42.4 1.0 100 27 5.9 3.1 10.3 37.2 42.6 .9 100 28 5.5 2.9 10.0 37.8 42.9 .9 100 29 5.2 2.7 9.5 38.5 43.3 .8 100 30 5.0 2.6 9.3 39.1 43.2 .8 100 .106 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 1- Oit^-^OOt^OOr-OO^-HOt^OiCOCOC^IOOCOC^T-ifMCaos^cO^O 'CCIOt^-O^J*OOCOO5lCT r^-OOOSO-H H o. ^-*'-t-ie^c^ro'^^w5cDt^ooCT>o^c^co-^ccooocs w Q 11 h O ^HO5Tf*-^j4ioo-^-HO< fC^r^c3ooMr^TtH^Hooioccooii^oo i^*-Hi (^HC^C^C^tMCOCC^-^T^iOiOiOSO^D m I ^>oocotoooocococoO'Heceoict^O5^H- g lJ3 3 11 .o6a>oo>M.or-:o;,-.>raK O -H^Hrtrtrt-HOlOJOlOJOl w fe d CO-^COOOCOOO5OOOO5OieOO>O^-u3Ot^aOsO^H-ooo5*H*-*e*2ot^csoaio ^^i-icoooitOrtoqt O'-'OlCCW35DOi-OOOCCOOPOOO-^Oi'^O5 < ^OOOCO-HO - > 1 d IOOOOfXMBt>(trH40jTtHiOt^OOO(MCOO^>OO PQ 1 Diameter inside bark at small end of log J3 O B M O5Ot^.ooo5O'-ioji'^'U5to^ooa>O'-coqcO'jcO)oaoio}OJOic<3 a * a -J 33 n fe o |5 2 a 3 ^ K o f LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 107 E M |j S g S 5 S S S 9 S S S S S S S is S IS S O H* --" jRADES OF o "o c PQ ,, S8 , SS5SESIIISiSIS3g I i a f~ > o M OF THE Dl DIAMETE H- a ^^^^oo^aoc.o.-^^c' 90 2 i gggggggggggggggg 03 a g 1 *" I ~ K, VA., PR REE8 OF I 11 3 S . 3 ggggggsssssss'saaaaassg I* H J X "3 HAVE TH F LOBLOL . T3 a o M 30 w o 2 2 S S S 5 5 S S S S 1= 8 S 5 S S S g ^ j M 3) AT POI! IOM GRADJ o s .-;!,. ; a se**SS 2 E SSS38S28S8SS88SSSKSS8S 1 e. 93 O rH ^* ^^ ^H ^H CS C>< CN t>i c*J fc'rf E" y qCO-*^tO)l>-OOC10 IMCO-*tO Total volume 73 M = S3 , SSSS5S , g g, g8igg , iiiSSS 0000000000000000' A. ST3 10 3 1 M *S CS"" 1 pq T3 MC , COMMC , COMM M m H 0-00^0 5U ,-0>^0C 3 CO^ t O t ,0 OC CT a pq rH 0} coo^^ococ.o-.ooo^ooco^^co-oo.^c.oo CO ? z t-oco^oc.oa.^oocooo^oo^o^^-o.^coooo T3 22?3g5?3S2^SS2SSSSSSS^S5 r > rt-H^-irtrtrt) z d pq Diameter inside bark at small end of log J3 a ....*c rsajssasfcaS! g a| , a3(88ftS8l g IB - 5 - U! a Hi ^ PS ta 2 Z z g s i> B . o PS - LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 109 e OS o 1 I f 2 2 S 9 8 3 8 8 S 8 g S? X 5 5 2 h o EH * c >.. GRADES 3 I 0^ H > T3 t -*.,.,, tt m a V ! ?8^3Sa.S8888888S888S a ti 1? > c 5 1 U u. 1 2* G -i T3 IT < PQ B a 1 ssssssssss^ss S| > ft ILK, VA., "'REES OF J ^ fl d PQ - coco. oo- S2 ^ S - o S 1 a c iS&SSRSSSSSSSSSSSSSR a 5 x 3 M O > c w > H a - > s PQ If 22SS;gfeSSS2S?StS2S?SK *: K O a a a o ^ o 3 S S 2 2 & 2 S3 8 8 5 9 9 5 X ^, ? a " O J a * I'g 6! B S z 5fi O 2 *t c 1 J S^'SSSSSSSSJSSSSSSSSSSSSS _-c o ^ ll TS PQ = -;22gSSSSc?SSSSSS5S to J oooooooocoocccoooooooooo |* "" 3 ^^^i^-...^^-.^-,*^^^ **,, 3 S22SS;^SSg2f;S2?;gggg2g 11 N d Mt oo>c 22g , g ^. S o S g ; -^g S g^ 2 . : . ;5s , PQ 1 2SfSSgSSS3SSS5S2SSggfeg2S H o C, N C, N C, Mf ,C,^^ a ^^S^S^SSKSgggSS^^SggSS^g PQ J 2 oo sg . &ss ooo SS5E ,o g = .- ? , s CO 2 2 o PQ 222=S222SS2SSg33SgSSSSS 8 oo^oo^^^oo-^o.c.^ooooococoooo (M 3 o I ^i a PQ J 8S8S8SSa-SS82SKS8S588888S - o PQ .--..,...,,,,, li-5 J 3^ a M LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. Ill Tables 55 and 55a give the per ceiit and amounts of the different grades of lumber sawed with a circular saw with ^-iuch kerf in logs from different parts of the trunk of trees in fully stocked stands of lob- lolly pine 45 years old, Quality I, and 65 years old between Qualities II and III, respectively. These measurements were made at a mill in Gates County, X. C. They show the small per cent of upper grades in top logs and indicate the necessity of forcing the length of clear stem of trees in young stands since, at a given age, with equal diameters, the longer the stem the greater is the proportion of upper grades. (Plates III, XIY and XVII, also I and VII.) The larger proportion of upper grades of lumber in the logs of the older stand is noteworthy as well as the rapid increase in the amounts of these grades with diameter. This also applies to Tables 56 and 57. Table 56 gives the per cent of different grades of lumber in trees of different diameters in fully stocked stands 40 to 50 years old on dif- ferent quality sites, and Table 57, the same for stands 60 to 70 years old. These tables show the per cent of grades which trees in stands on dif- ferent quality sites can be expected to yield at 45 and 65 years.* By interpolation the proportion can be ascertained for trees in stands of intermediate ages, and the proportion can be approximated for trees in younger and older stands. Few commercial stands will be produced, however, beyond the age of 60 years. This table used in connection with value table (Table 58) enables the probable future value of a stand The average tree which was being cut in the 60-70 years old stand in Gates County had a mill volume of 142 board feet, and a corresponding breast-high diameter of 13.6 inches. The grade yield of such a tree (between quality classes II and III) is obtained from Table 57 as consisting of: Grade Per cent of grade Price per 1000 ft. of grade 1912-13 Value No. 1 13 $ 29.80 $ 3.87 No. 2 10 25.50 2.55 No. 3 20 19.20 3.84 No. 4 50 15.00 7.50 1 and 2 Bark Strip 4 19.00 .76 Box Bark Strip 2 11.00 .22 Cull.. 1 13.00 .13 Value per 1,000 feet of lumber in average tree $ 18.87 This gives an f. o. b. Norfolk value of $18.87 per 1,000 bd. ft., which is within a few cents of the figure obtainable from Tables 63 and 64. Since cutting in this stand was only to 8 inches in diameter breasthigh, the average diameter is .6 inch larger than that obtained from Table 16. The 45 year old stand, Quality I, also in Gates County, has an average diameter of 12.8 inches, a volume of 106 board feet, and an average value per 1,000 board feet of its lumber of $16.72. The average of these figures, $17.80, corresponds very closely to the Norfolk price that the output of this operation brought when cut in the winter of 1912. The average tree cut in this operation was 13.7 inches in diameter breasthigh. 112 LOBLOLLY OK NORTH CAROLINA PINE. to be determined and the financial results of thinnings to be forecast. The values of trees in these stands are given in Tables 59 to 64. For a discussion of the factors influencing grades see pages 119 and follow- ing- Tables 55, 56, and 57 apply only to fully stocked stands on forest soils. They will not apply to younger or open stands, formed of short- bodied trees or to stands on dry upland old fields, in which the wood is coarse grained and knotty and which will largely yield ~No. 4 lumber. LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 113 IF Ho-3 TJ PQ , s , SSK8iSS -oot>.rQoose>r-co ^^*^wco^ot>.ooo 11 "8 S "5-T3 OS no CQ - l Per cent W OS CO -} e* I-H "1 d to o s -| "a 2 o oo ^ co c, c, e. .C,^,, N .. Ex 1 1 w -j d CO CO C, CO CO CO CO ^ CO' to 10 iq OOO-H-H c^-. 00 Oi O 1-1 (M CO LOBLOLLY OE NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 115 I 3 l^f d ^HC^eo^*ot-ooo^^coft ^^oot*r>ooosc > J M o D. 'S Per cent / 11< CO P IN H O pq^ i T3 5 Sri M "* O Q -| si Per cent eccOW55I^^ pq 2 s^ CO * PH K t ~ fc H ^ p u K T3 rtrt-Hc5O CMIM^lOt^O10J11 * 8 K J H a "* , s ? HH cot^ooo5O^cvieo^ioo ^-afljlla 116 LOBLOLLY OE NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 1JJ? ^-ZI S" > a 1 ~a & 8 C3 PH - ol> m i .& PQfM A * T3 PQ a .| S si PH 3* - s * 73 pq | 9 6 8 XCD PH O I"M a PQ a CO 1 o a PQ 1 PH o fc ^ T3 1 & *"* PH 2 a pq If C 3 I 1 - 1 - >- 3 -1 9 V 00 M -- f C ir 1 - ? "" ir C* 3 C" 1 - ir ; >r ! a ex ex 5 o: o o e^ C 1 oc c^ cc c-5 5 So S Cs C- CO .. c C <=. 10 C4 CO H - - - >o >0 o - - - 1C ~- "5 - - 00 o O i O m CO .9 .5 ta" II &3~ pH O T3 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 117 TABLE 56. PER CENT OF GRADES OP LUMBER IN TREES OP DIFFERENT DIAMETERS GROWING IN FULLY STOCKED STANDS OP DIFFERENT AGES AND ON DIFFERENT QUALITY SITES. STANDS 40 TO 50 YEARS OLD. Quality I Diameter breast- high Height of tree No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 or box Bark strips Cull and red heart Total land 2 Box Inches Per cent 7 70 5 76 11 g 100 g 75 g 75 10 7 100 g 80 1 1 9 74 9 6 100 10 84 2 3 8 73 7 6 1 100 11 88 3 4 9 73 5 5 1 100 12 91 3 5 10 74 4 3 1 100 13 93 4 6 11 73 3 2 1 100 14 94 5 7 11 72 2 2 1 100 15 95 6 7 12 71 2 1 1 100 16 96 7 8 12 69 2 1 1 100 17 97 g 9 12 68 2 1 100 18 98 g 9 12 67 2 1 100 19 99 10 10 12 65 2 1 100 20 99 11 11 12 63 2 1 100 Quality II 7 59 2 79 10 9 100 g 64 6 78 9 7 100 9 68 7 78 8 6 1 100 10 72 1 8 78 6 6 1 100 11 76 2 8 79 5 5 1 100 12 79 1 3 8 79 4 4 1 100 13 81 2 4 9 79 3 2 1 100 14 83 3 5 9 78 2 2 1 100 15 84 4 6 10 76 2 1 1 100 16 85 5 7 10 74 2 1 1 100 17 85 6 8 10 72 2 1 1 100 R\ 7 g 10 72 2 1 100 StA 8' 9 10 70 2 1 100 Quality III 7 52 82 9 9 100 g 57 3 81 8 8 100 9 61 6 80 7 7 100 10 64 8 80 5 6 1 100 11 67 2 8 80 4 5 1 100 12 69 1 2 8 81 3 4 1 100 13 70 1 3 8 82 2 3 1 100 14 71 2 5 8 79 2 3 1 100 15 71 3 5 9 78 2 2 1 100 16 71 4 5 9 78 2 1 1 100 17 71 4 6 9 77 2 1 1 100 18 70 5 6 9 76 2 1 1 100 118 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. TABLE 57. PER CENT OF GRADES OF LUMBER IN TREES OF DIFFERENT DIAMETERS, IN FULLY STOCKED STANDS OF DIFFERENT AGES AND ON DIFFERENT QUALITY SITES. STANDS 60 TO 70 YEARS OLD. Quality I Diameter breast- high Inches Height of tree Feet No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 or box Bark strips Cull and red heart Total 1 and 2 Box Per cent 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 87 92 96 100 103 105 106 107 108 109 110 110 110 111 111 11 15 18 20 21 22 23 23 24 24 25 25 26 26 26 9 12 13 13 14 14 15 16 16 17 17 19 20 21 21 25 26 26 27 28 28 28 28 29 29 29 29 30 30 30 45 38 36 34 31 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 22 21 21 7 6 5 4 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 3 2 1 1 1 1 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Quality II 9 1 6 22 56 8 7 100 10 74 5 6 21 54 7 6 1 100 11 78 9 8 21 51 6 4 1 100 12 82 12 9 21 49 5 3 1 100 13 85 14 . 10 21 48 4 2 1 100 14 86 15 11 21 47 4 1 1 100 15 90 16 13 21 44 4 1 1 100 16 92 18 13 21 43 3 1 1 100 17 93 19 14 21 41 3 1 1 100 18 94 20 14 21 41 3 1 100 19 95 21 14 21 40 3 1 100 20 95 21 15 21 39 3 1 100 21 95 22 15 21 38 3 1 100 22 95 22 15 22 38 2 1 100 Quality III 9 63 5 20 58 7 9 1 100 10 67 3 4 20 58 6 8 1 100 11 71 6 5 19 59 5 5 1 100 12 74 9 7 18 57 4 4 1 100 13 76 11 8 18 55 4 3 1 100 14 78 12 9 18 55 3 2 1 100 15 80 13 10 18 53 3 2 1 100 16 81 14 11 18 51 3 2 1 100 17 81 16 12 18 49 3 1 1 100 18 81 17 12 18 48 3 1 1 100 19 82 18 12 18 48 2 1 1 100 20 82 18 13 17 48 2 1 1 100 21 82 19 13 17 47 2 1 1 100 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 119 INCREASE IN VALUE OF TREES. A tree increases in value by : (1) Increase in volume; (2) increase in the width of the boards which are cut from the tree, since the wider the board the greater its price even in the same grade; (3) increase in the proportion of the higher priced grades, which are free from knots and other defects; (4) increase in the price of stumpage; and (5) closer utilization or lowering the specifications of grades of lumber. In a fully stocked stand the effects of these factors progressively increase with the age of the stand and the size of the trees except in the case of price change in specifications and utilization, which increase irregularly. Increase in volume (page 66) and increase in the proportion of the higher priced grades (page 101) have already been discussed. The other factors which influence value will be considered below. INCREASE IN QUALITY OF SAW TIMBER. The prices which have been used for the different grades and widths of lumber are figures based on actual sales ("Weekly Sales Keports, 1ST. C. Pine Association), f. o. b. Norfolk, Virginia, during the first quarter of 1913. They are shown in the following table: Width of Grades of rough, kiln-dried lumber and price per 1,000 board feet, 4-4 stock boards Inches No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 or Box Red heart and mill cull Edge* * 29 .00 $ 25 .00 $ 19.00 S 15 .00 $ 13.25 6 29.50 25.50 20.00 16.00 14.25 8 31.00 26.00 20.25 16.50 15.75 10 32.00 27.00 21.00 ' 17 .50 16.75 12 36.00 29.00 ?"; nn 21.00 18.00 17.25 Bark strips Nos. 1 and 2. Box bark strips .$19.00 per 1,000 board feet. . 11 .00 per 1,000 board feet. See page 100. 120 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. The average price of North Carolina pine lumber f. o. b. Norfolk, Va., for first quarter 1913 was about $18 per 1,000 board feet. In June, 1914, this average price had declined to about $16.50 per 1,000 board feet as shown by the following record of weekly sales, issued June 19, 1914: Width of boards Inches Grades of rough lumber and price per 1,000 board feet, kiln dried, 4-1 stock, f. o. b. Norfolk, Va. No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 or box Red heart and mill cull Edge* 6 8 10 12 $ 25.81 $ 23.23 $ 16.06 $ 13.30 14.10 14.99 16.31 16.99 S 11.55 31.00 18.13 13.47 14.13 14.00 34.00 20.93 Bark strips Nos. 1 and 2 $18.07 Box bark strips - 10.10 This decline, which is probably only temporary, should be considered in connection with all tables of average lumber prices or stumpage values based thereon. Table 58 shows the increase in value of boards of the same grade with the increase in the diameter of the log from which they were cut. This is due to a wide board having a higher price than a narrow board of the same grade. These data were computed for upper as well as for lower logs, and as the greatest difference in the value of any one grade was found to be less than two per cent, the two sets of figures were combined. By multiplying the amounts of different grades obtained from logs and trees of different diameters (Tables 55, 56 and 57) by the respective values of these grades (Table 58) the values of trees of different diameters were obtained (Tables 59 to 64). It is possible to obtain from this the value per 1,000 board feet of logs of different diameters of each grade. Table 56 was obtained from data in Table 55, which is derived from the mill cut. The stands of the future, which will be managed for the production of sawtimber, will as a rule be cut between the ages of 40 and 70 years. On some of the best sites where thinnings are possible cutting may be as early as 25 years. It is consequently necessary to give full informa- tion in regard to composition, volume and value of such stands only. This is contained in Tables 55, 56, 57 which have already been given and in Tables 59 to 64. Tables 59 to 61 give the comparative volumes on different quality sites of trees of different diameters in 40 to 50-year old stands, band- *See page 100. 'LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 121 sawed 1-7-inch kerf, circular sawed i/i-inch kerf and scaled by Doyle- Scribner rule ; the value f . o. b. Norfolk, Virginia, of lumber sawed from trees, and the stumpage value per tree under different costs of operation calculated on the basis of actual contents and Doyle-Scribner rule. Tables 62 to 64 give the same data for trees in stands 60 to 70 years old. The salient feature in these tables is the value per 1,000 board feet of the lumber from different sized trees and the value of their stumpage as derived from the value of the lumber. Under a high cost of opera- tion the stumpage value per 1,000 board feet more than doubles when the diameter doubles. For a discussion of the three costs of operation ($11, $13, and $15), and the import of stumpage value under Doyle- Scribner scale and mill cut see page 137. TABLE 58. THE F. O. B. VALUE (!ST QUARTER, 1913) PER 1,000 BOARD FEET, AT POINTS WHICH HAVE THE NORFOLK PRICE BASIS, OF DIFFERENT GRADES OF LUMBER SAWED FROM Loos OF DIF- FERENT DIAMETERS. Diameter inside of bark at small end of log Inches No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 Box Red heart and cull Value per 1,000 board feet 5 $ 29 .00 $ 25 .00 $ 19.00 $ 15 .00 $ 13.00 6 29.00 25.00 19.00 15.00 13.00 7 29.00 25.00 19.00 15.00 13.00 8 29.10 25.10 19.20 15.20 13.20 9 29.40 25.30 19.50 15.50 13.60 10 29.80 25.50 19.80 15.80 14.20 11 30.50 25.90 20.20 16.30 15.00 12 31.00 26.60 20.50 17.00 16.00 13 31.40 26.60 20.80 17.10 16.20 14 ' 32 .30 27.00 20.80 17.20 16.20 15 32.70 27.20 20.80 17.30 16.40 16 33.50 27.60 20.80 17.40 16.60 17 34.00 27.80 20.80 17.50 16.70 18 34.00 27.90 20.90 17.50 16.70 19 34.00 28.00 20.90 17.50 16.70 20 34.20 28.00 20.90 17.60 16.80 21 34.20 28.10 20.90 17.60 16.80 22 34.20 28.10 20.90 17.60 16.80 23 34.20 28.10 20.90 17.60 16.80 24 34.30 28.10 20.90 17.60 16.80 25 34.30 28.10 20.90 17.60 16.80 26 34.30 28.10 20.90 17.60 16.80 27 34.30 28.10 20.90 17.60 16.80 122 LOBLOLLY OK NORTH CAROLINA PINE. RS Qu , o o o 5. 1^.0005 i3 . 1 ce e, z*st*M 112-Sg-S *a ** r-^-ccocoocce5Oc<5O SS 3 S3 ^eo^us O *- C^l CO W N CS W LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 123 c sil flu ail. a> e . i lh Ililii >js -2g.*8 ' fc ~ ->T3 tual fer all r bre crook A for g M 5 2 5- -*tOOU5C<ooS -< * r- I-H 124 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. P 3 l ill i S|s -B Q 2^ liL d 3 X.DT5 OOOOO OOOO* ' ooooro>oc>) 2g2;5fcJ:;SO - aiotoo e5c^'*'9'>oo^-t^oo - . =5 B2 C - M 126 LOBLOLLY OK NORTH CAROLINA PINE. R I UN lity Q ***" ""* . s Jilh~ ^11-1 1l2-a-8 Actu pe (Full for cro Sg.Sf o! h A ' LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 127 o- JL M e 2 s 2 - 8 S h- CO O '" CO M *> O I v _j Iri^ ^ > PQ OO QO QO 00 OO g oS_M c 'J3 fl V5X1 i-H 128 LOBLOLLY OK NORTH CAROLINA PINE. The increase in the proportion of the higher grades in the tree with increased diameter is influenced by several conditions, the most impor- tant of which are (1) the density of the stand, (2) the quality site, and (3) the rate of growth and the age of stand. Influence of Density of Stand. The proportion of different grades in trees of different diameters as given in Tables 55, 56 and 57 applies only to fully stocked stands on forest soils or at least not to upland old fields. As the stands be- come more open, more limbs and larger knots develop on the trees with consequent increase in the proportion of lower grades in them. (Plates III and IV.) Influence of Quality Site. The wood of trees of loblolly pine grown on poorer quality sites gen- erally is worth more per 1,000 board feet than that from younger domi- nant trees of the same diameter and height on a good quality site. This is due to the more thorough cleaning of the stem, the smaller size of the knots, and less taper; knots, however, are more numerous in the upper logs and there are fewer clear logs in the tree, since the length of mer- chantable stem is shorter. This is shown by Table 65, which gives the value per 1,000 board feet of the stumpage of trees growing on different quality sites at different ages. By referring to Table 16 it is seen that at the age of the same average diameter the stumpage of the stand on the poorer quality site is more valuable. With a marked difference in the heights of the trees of the same diameter, however, the shorter bodied tree will have a larger proportion of crown and consequently a higher proportion of the common grades and a lower average value for the lumber. (Plates X, A and X, B.) The clean bodied and slow growing intermediate and suppressed trees of a given diameter in an old stand yield a larger proportion of the higher grades of lumber than dominant trees of the same diameter and height in younger stands on this same site. (Plates IX, A, and IX, B, also Plates XYI and XVII.) Tables 59 to 64 show the value of lumber sawed from trees of the same diameter and approximately the same height on an average in 45 and 65-year old stands. The trees above 14 inches in diameter in the 45-year old age stand (Quality I) are dominant. Trees from 14 to 18 inches in diameter in the 65-year old age stand (Quality I) are intermediate. There is a difference of about $2 per 1,000 board feet in the value of the lumber at Norfolk. Since the cost of operation is the same for producing lumber from trees of the same size, this difference results in a higher stumpage for the older LOBLOLLY OK NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 129 stand (Tables 62, 63, and 64). These tables also show a greater value of the wood from old trees, the diameters and heights of the trees being the same. In old field stands on dry soils the trees are of very rapid growth, contain coarse knots, and most of them are dominant. (Plate III.) For these reasons the yield of lower grades of lumber is also larger than in the more crowded and usually somewhat slower growing stands on forest soils. Eighty-five per cent of the lumber which is cut from stands 35 to 50 years old growing on the poorer old field sites is of box grade; ten per cent, No. 3 ; and the balance, largely bark strips, cull, and No. 2. This does not apply, however, to dense old field stands on moist sites. TABLE 65. APPROXIMATE VALUE PER 1,000 BOARD FEET F. O. B. NORFOLK, VA., OF KILN-DRIED* LUMBER SAWED FROM WELL STOCKED STANDS OF LOBLOLLY PINE OF DIFFERENT AGES GROWING ON DIFFERENT QUALITY SITES; BAND-SAWED 1-7 INCH KERF; FIRST QUARTER, 1913, PRICES.! Age of stand Years Value per 1,000 board feet, f. o. b., Norfolk, Va., of lumber from quality site I II III 20 30 40 $ 15.50 15.60 16.05 $ $ 15.50 15.85 15.50 50 17.30 16.55 15.90 60 18.80 17.85 17.00 70 20.70 19.75 18.45 80 22.05 21.10 19.80 The average tree being cut in the Norfolk district is about 14 inches in diameter, Quality Site II, cutting to 7-inch breasthigh diameter. Such a tree (in the present open stands) would be about 55 years old and in first quarter 1913 would have had a stumpage value under an operating cost of $14 per 1,000 board feet, of about $3.05 per 1,000 board feet mill cut or allowing for over run of 30 per cent above log scale, a stumpage value of $3.85 based on the Doyle-Scribner scale, which was close to the general price for average stumpage in the Norfolk dis- trict in the latter part of 1912 and first half of 1913. Air dried circular-sawed lumber would be about $1.00 per 1,000 board feet lower, fjuly 1914 prices are about $1.50 per 1,000 board feet lower. 130 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. TABLE 66. APPROXIMATE VALUE PER 1,000 BOARD FEET OF STUMPAGE OF LOBLOLLY PINE IN STANDS OF DIFFERENT AGES AND ON DIFFERENT QUALITY SITES, BASED ON THE F. O. B., NORFOLK, VA., VALUES OF LUMBER GIVEN IN TABLE 65 AND VALUED ON MILL CUT BAND-SAWED 1-7 INCH SAW KERF (FIRST QUARTER, 1913). Quality site I Quality site II Quality site III Age of stand Value of stumpage per 1,000 board feet under operating costs of $11 $13 $15 $11 $13 $15 $11 $13 $15 20 $ 4.50 $ 2.50 $ 0.50 $ $_ $ $ $ J 30 4.60 2.60 .60 4.50 2.50 .50 4.50 2.50 .50 40 5.05 3.05 1.05 4.85 2.85 .85 4.50 2.50 .50 50 6.30 4.30 2.30 5.55 3.55 1.55 4.90 2.90 .90 60 7.80 5.80 3.80 6.85 4.85 2.85 6.00 4.00 2.00 70 9.70 7.70 5.70 8.75 6.75 4.75 7.45 5.45 3.45 80 11.05 9.05 7.05 10.10 8.10 6.10 8.80 6.80 4.80 While the stumpage values given in Table 66 for stands above 60 years old, especially those on Quality Site I seem high, it is to be remem- bered that they are for timber in fully stocked stands which at such ages contain many long-bodied trees more than 25 inches in diameter, and which yield a much larger proportion of upper grades than average stands now being operated. These stumpage values are based on mill-cut, band-sawed 1-7-inch kerf. Stumpage is bought, however, on the basis of Doyle-Scribner log scale. Consequently the value of commercial stumpage for any one age class would be greater than that given by the amount of the mill overrun above the Doyle-Scribner scale for the average tree in this age class. The mill overrun declines from about 40 per cent for stands in which the average tree has a breasthigh diameter of 8 inches to 10 per cent when the average tree becomes 17 inches in diameter breasthigh. Since there has been a decline of more than $1.50 per 1,000 board feet, mill run, in the value of lumber (July 1, 1914) after these computations were made in the first quarter of 1913, their stumpage values must be correspondingly reduced to adapt them to current lumber prices. With the same cost of operation if lumber is cut with a circular saw i/4-inch kerf the value of stumpage would be 15 per cent less than that given in Table 66 if the cost of operation and the selling price of the land were the same. The figures in Table 66 show that at a certain stage in the develop- ment of a stand there is a very rapid increase in the value of its stump- age, preceded by a period of slow increase and followed by a period of slow increase. So long as a number of sound trees in the stand con- tinue to pass from nonmerchantable to merchantable diameters (Table 42) the rate of increase in price of stumpage is retarded. As soon, however, as all the trees have entered merchantable size, rapid increase in average diameter begins to take place through the elimination of the LOBLOLLY OE NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 131 smallest trees by overcrowding, and this is accompanied by a rapid increase in price which continues until all widths of boards and all grades of lumber are represented in the stand, after which the rate of increase in price rapidly declines, although some increase in price con- tinues so long as diameter growth takes place and the trees remain sound. Table 67 gives the value per cubic foot of the wood of trees of loblolly pine of different diameters under different costs of operation in stands 45 to 65 years old. By the time the tree has attained a diameter of 21 inches the period of most rapid increase in value has been passed. TABLE 67. STUMPAGE VALUE PER CUBIC FOOT OP STEMWOOD OP TREES OP LOBLOLLY PINE OF DIP- FERENT DIAMETERS IN STANDS 45 TO 65 YEARS OLD BASED ON VA.LUE FOR SAWTIMBER Diameter Operating expenses per 1,000 board feet Breast- high $11 $13 $15 Inches Quality II* 8 $0.015 $0.01 $0.003 9 .02 .011 .003 10 .021 .012 .004 11 .022 .013 .005 12 .024 .016 .007 13 .026 .017 .008 14 .031 .021 .012 15 .038 .027 .016 18 .056 .045 .031 21 .07 .058 .054 25 .079 .068 .055 *The wood of trees of Quality I except of small diameters has a slightly higher value than that of Quality II, and that of trees of Quality III a slightly lower value. The subsequent rate of increase in value is much slower. Younger stands have less values per cubic foot than those given. In stands 20 years old, an 8-inch tree under a $13 cost of operation, would have a value of about $.002 per cubic foot; in a 30-year old stand a value of about $.005 per cubic foot. Larger trees would increase in value pro- portionately with the value given. INCREASE IN STUMPAGE PRICE. Increase in volume and grade take place in a uniform manner with growth. Increase in utilization is dependent upon trade demand. The lowering of grades likewise meets trade conditions and can not be used as an investment factor. The increase in price of stumpage while fixed by supply and demand and subject to temporary fluctuations, is generally constant although at a progressively declining rate. Table 74 shows the rate of increase in thg value of stumpage as purchased by mills dur- ing the past two decades, and the probable increase in value during the 132 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. next two decades. While the table shows the actual increase in the value of commercial stumpage, it by no means shows the increase in the value of stumpage held as an investment, for the reason that the log- ging standards have decreased. In 1893 lumber from the present commercial tree was worth $11.45 per 1,000 board feet. In 1913, on the basis of the same utilization, it was wtfrth $20.81 per 1,000 board feet. With an operating cost of $11 in 1893, stumpage was worth 45 cents; with an operating cost of $13.75 in 1913, stumpage of the same kind is worth $7.06 per 1,000 board feet. The following list prices of the North Carolina Pine Association for 1899 to 1911 inclusive, and actual reported sales to the Association for April and May, 1912, June, 1913, and June, 1914, of different grades 4/4 edge below 12 inches, f.o.b. Norfolk, Va., show the general tendency towards higher prices of North Carolina Pine lumber during the past 25 years : Year Prices f. o. b., Norfolk, Va., of No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 or box 1889 $ 15.00 $ 13.00 $ 9.50 $ 7.50 1890 15.00 13.00 9.50 7.50 1891 15.25 13.00 9.50 7.75 1892 15.75 13.25 9.50 8.25 1893 15.50 13.50 9.50 8.50 1894 14.50 13.00 9.50 8.50 1895 13.75 12.25 9.25 8.25 1896 13.75 12.00 9.00 7.75 1897 13.65 11.75 9.00 7.75 1898 14.60 13.00 10.00 8.25 1899 18.00 16.25 12.75 11.00 1900 20.00 18.00 14.00 12.00 1901 20.00 18.00 13.25 11.25 1902 20.00 18.00 13.00 11.50 1903 20.00 18.00 13.50 12.25 1904 22.00 18.50 14.50 12.50 1905 27.50 24.00 19.50 14.75 1906 30.00 28.00 21.50 16.50 1907 27.50 25 .50 , 17.50 14.75 1908 27 .00 24.00 17.50 13.50 1909 27.00 24.00 17.50 13.50 1910 27.00 24.00 17.50 13.50 1911 27.00 24.00 17.50 14.00 1912 25.99 23.57 17.67 15.75 1913 28.45 25.60 19.17 15.89 1914 25.81 23.23 16.06 13.30 Price list prices generally were from $0.50 to $1.50 higher than actual sales, consequently the increase has actually been greater than the upward trend of the figures would seem to indicate. LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 133 TABLE 68. PER CENT OF INCREASE IN UTILIZATION AND PER CENT OP INCREASE IN THE VALUE OF STCMPAQE BY DECADES 1893 TO 1903 AND 1913, OF LOBLOLLY PINE TIMBER, NORFOLK DISTRICT.* (South of the Roanoke River the average log and tree are larger but freight rates are higher.) Grades Kiln-dried Norfolk, Va., prices 1891-1893 1901-1903 1911-1913 Price per 1,000 bd. ft. Per cent of grades Price per 1,000 bd. ft. Per cent of grades Price per 1,000 bd. ft. Per cent of grades No. 1 Edge under 12 inches $ 15.25 13.15 9.00 8.00 9.00f 3.00t 6.00 29 26 19 17 2 1 6 $ 20.00 18.00 13.25 11.75 ll.OOf 5.00f 8.50f 18 18 21 33 3 3 4 S 26.00 23.00 17.50 16.50 19.00 11.00 14.50 7.5 7.5 17.0 61.0 3.0 3.0 1.0 No. 2 Edge under 12 inches No. 3 Edge under 12 inches Nos. 1 and 2 bark strips . . Box bark strips^ - - - Cull and red heart (a) Value mill run f. o. b. Norfolk, per 1,000 board feet $ 11.45 $ 14.32 $ 17.77 (b) Diameter of average tree . 20 inches 18 inches 14 inches bd. ft. 250 bd. ft. 100 bd. ft. bd. ft. 230 bd. ft. 100 bd. ft. (c) Volume Doyle-Scribner according to present utilization . . . . 420 (d) Volume as actually utilized (common logs not utilized).... 360 90 .4 per cent 54 per cent 70 bd. ft. $14 .32 10 100 per cent 58 per cent 32 bd. ft. $17.77 25 (j) (k) (D $12.10 2.22 2.03 $13.75 4.02 4.02 (e) Per cent of past utilization on basis of present utilization (d-j-c) 85.7 per cent (f) Per cent of length of tree utilized 50 per cent (g) Volume of average log 110 bd. ft. (a) Value f. o. b., Norfolk, per 1,000 board feet $11.45 (h) Per cent of increase in operating costa over 1892 (i) Operating costs per 1,000 board feet, including profits and freight to establish Norfolk price parity. !.. .$11.00 Stumpage value of utilized timber per 1,000 board feet (a i). 45 Stumpage value based on total content of tree GXe) 39 Annual rate increase in stumpage value based on used portion of tree (j) 1892 to 1902 17 percent; 1902 to 1912 6.3 per cent (m) Annual rate of increase in stumpage value based on total content of tree (k) 1892 to 1902 18.4 per cent; 1902 to 1912 7 per cent (n) Decline in rate of increase between 1902 and 1912 (total content) 260 per cent (o) Probable rate of increase in stumpage value for the next 20 years 2.7 per cent a year. (p) Stumpage value 14-inch trees in 1923 based on this rate of increase 15 .19 per 1,000 board feet (q) Stumpage value 14-inch trees in 1933 based on this rate of increase $6-78 per 1,000 board feet However, if the current rate of increase during the past decade (7 per cent) shall continue for the next 10 years, the price of stumpage in 1923 will be $7.65 per 1,000 board feet. Groups of three years taken to avoid abnormal fluctuations in prices. tApproximate prices furnished by Mr. W. B. Roper, Secretary North Carolina Pine Association. JBark strips were rarely saved prior to 1900. IThere was a large proportion of red heart and cull in the early period on account of many of the very large trees being very defective. Small trees now being cut are seldom old enough to have a large proportion of red heart, and have few large knots. A large proportion of the red heart output of some mills comes from the pocoson pine. 134 LOBLOLLY OK NORTH CAROLINA PINE. INCREASE IN UTILIZATION. Table 68 shows (e) the per cent of increase in the utilization of the tree during the past twenty years. There is still some additional utiliza- tion possible, but largely at the expense of further reduction in grade. Small trees are used very closely in the tops. The heavy limbed top log of large trees is seldom used, however, on account of the numerous and very large knots more than 2 inches in diameter and the high cost of cutting off the large limbs. The use of clear slabs at the mills for laths is general. There is the possibility of using knotty slabs by resaw- ing on a horizontal band saw and cutting out between the knots for heading or crate stock and such uses. There is also the possibility of using very knotty tops and limbs for chemical wood pulp, but this can be effected only at large, expensive and centrally located plants. Since 1906, when Mr. George W. Eoper called the attention of the North Carolina Pine Association to the waste in cutting all lumber in even lengths 12 feet or over, there has been a beneficial change in this respect, even lengths of 8 feet or more now being cut. It will be necessary, how- ever, both to take odd lengths and to use pieces shorter than 8 feet in order to secure complete woods' utilization of the stem and to further reduce the mill waste. MANAGEMENT. So long as there was an unlimited supply of virgin forests, the pro- tection of young or old timber and close utilization of forest were not essential. At present, when approximately three-fourths of the annual cut of loblolly pine is obtained from cut-over land and is either the product of young growth or of small trees which were left at the pre- vious cutting, there is need for a change in the methods of handling the forest. In its present condition a great portion of the timberland is producing less than one-half of the amount of timber that it should, and much less than one-half of the net income of which it is capable. The stands are not fully stocked. Much of the timber, moreover, is short-bodied and knotty, and yields inferior grades of logs. With a lower yield per acre, the cost of logging is increased. If railroad construction amounts to 50 cents per thousand board feet with a stand of 3,000 feet per acre, its cost will be only 25 cents per thousand by doubling the cut per acre, while the costs of milling, felling, and loading decrease progres- sively as the contents of the logs increase. Well stocked loblolly pine stands are capable of producing annually more than 300 board feet per acre. On the best soils the production on large tracts should be 500 board feet per acre a year, and on the poorest soils, not less than 150 feet. The maintenance costs, taxes, and interest are practically as high on half-stocked woodland as on fully stocked, while the net earning capacity is more than twice as great in the LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 135 case of the fully stocked land. Moreover, the earning capacity of the soil can be largely increased, though not to the full possibilities, with slight additional cost. It is largely a question of (1) regulating cutting, (2) adequate protection for young growth from fires for fifteen years after lumbering, and (3) closer utilization. Few eastern American trees offer better and quicker returns under management and protection than the loblolly pine. It has the following advantages : (a) It is a tree of rapid growth, especially in its youth. (b) It attains merchantable dimensions at an early age, making pos- sible the realization of early financial returns. (c) It seeds abundantly and at an early age; with proper protection there is no difficulty in securing on most soils thorough regeneration after logging. (d) On account of the large use of small timber for fuel and for cross ties, when logging with steam railroads, there is an excellent opportunity on large tracts for occasional improvement cutting at no cost, for better- ing the condition of the forest and placing it on a higher earning basis. It is also possible in many places and in many types of forest to make thinnings economically, since logs even of the smallest sizes, from 5 to 6 inches in diameter at the small end, can be profitably used when the cost of operation is not too high. (e) This pine forms in many places pure even-aged forests, which make logging and administration inexpensive. Under this caption the management of loblolly will be discussed as to the most profitable age and size at which to cut, the reduction of waste in logging, the methods of cutting to secure natural restocking and thin- ning. MOST PROFITABLE AGE AND SIZE AT WHICH TO CUT. Mixed Stands. In mixed stands of loblolly pine and hardwoods, in which culling or cutting to a diameter limit can be practiced, the most profitable trees to cut can be determined by the rate with which they increase in value. When the rate of increase in value declines to six per cent, the tree can be considered financially mature. This is not, however, a six per cent investment as the rate is not reckoned on the investment value of the property as a whole but merely on the current value of the tree. Since the rate of increase in value during the earlier part of its life is much higher than six per cent, and since in addition there is a constant appreciation in the value of stumpage through the increase in the price of lumber, the average rate of increase in value during the two decades preceding cutting is higher than six per cent. From this rate, however, are to be deducted taxes, the cost of protection and admin- istration charges. Table 69 gives the rate per cent of increase in value of trees of loblolly pine on Quality I sites in culled hardwood swamps. 136 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. TABLE 69. RATE PER CENT OP INCREASE IN VALUE OF DOMINANT AND INTERMEDIATE TREES OF LOBLOLLY PINE IN MIXED CULLED STANDS ON GOOD SITES. (VALUE BASED ON LUMBER BAND- SAWED.) Diameter breast- high Inches Approximate time required to grow an inch in diameter, breasthigh Years Approximate stumpage value per tree under a cost of operation of $13 per 1,000 board feet Rate of increase in value in growing to next inch diameter class Per cent 10 4 $ 0.22 11.5 11 4 .34 11.2 12 5 .52 7.9 13 5 .76 7.1 14 5 1.09 6.9 15 6 1.49 4.8 16 6 1.92 4.5 17 8 2.57 3.2 18 10 3.30 2.4 19 4.37 Trees should be cut, therefore, when they are between 14 and 15 inches in diameter breasthigh, at which size thein rate of increase in value (neglecting increase in price) becomes equal to the current inter- est rate. If held to a large diameter, the rate of increase declines below the current rate at which the money invested in the tree could be loaned. If the value is based on the contents by the Doyle-Scribner rule, the rate of increase in value declines to six per cent at the same size. By cut- ting at this diameter there will be about 14 logs to 1,000 board feet by Doyle-Scribner rule and the average f. o. b. Norfolk value of the log run output will be about $20.50 per 1,000 board feet. Pure Even-aged Stands for Saw Timber. From the standpoint of the landowner the age at which loblolly pine stands yield annually the highest net profits, or the largest average per cent of profit on the investment is the most important consideration. The determination of the net profits must take into consideration the value of the soil, the interest on it for the period of the investment, and the annual expenditures for taxes, supervision and protection of the property, and the yearly compounded interest on these various items. The sum of these expenses determines the cost of production. In determining the value of standing timber at a given age it is assumed that the present grades of lumber will remain the same and the prices will not decline. However, since stumpage values are not abso- lute, but vary with the cost of logging and the freight rates to the near- est general market, it is necessary to base calculations on a reasonable range of stumpage values. In applying the figures it is necessary, there- fore, to select the table in which the elements of cost are nearest to the actual conditions. Since Norfolk, Virginia, is the chief distributing market for North Carolina pine lumber, all costs of operation are figured in relation to the Norfolk prices, with a sufficient allowance to N. 0. GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY. PLATE XIV. Stand 50 to 60 years old, Quality II, on permanent loblolly pine site, which was culled of the dominant trees fifteen years ago. This stand, consequently, is formed of the intermediate and suppressed trees of the original stand, which accounts for the very clean and slender stems. Under a better method of cutting, this stand would have produced at this time 35,000 board feet to the acre, the average log being 45 feet D.-S. and yielding more than 60 per cent No. 3 grade lumber and better. Desirable type of seed trees marked "S." (Author's illustration.) X. C. GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY. PLATE XV. Unthinned stand 80 years old, Quality II, on permanent loblolly pine site, in process of lumbering. Although of good size, the upper logs are prevailingly knotty. This stand would have been benefited by the removal of the dominant trees 25 to 30 years ago. Scale of average log about 50 feet, D.-S. Such a stand will yield 30 per cent of lumber of Grades No. 1 and No. 2. Desirable type of seed trees marked "S." (Author's illustration.) LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 137 cover the freight differential to establish Norfolk parity in price. The elements of costs per 1,000 board feet in an actual operation are as follows : Logging, felling, bucking and swamping $3.55 Railroad construction 40 Hauling to mill on railroad or towage 60 Milling, drying, stacking, and grading 1.95 Selling and discount 35 Overhead charges (interest, insurance, salaries, taxes, sink- ing fund, and profits) 3.60 Freight differential to establish Norfolk price parity 2.40 Total cost of operation per 1,000 feet $12.85 Some of these items are paid for on the basis of the wood's scale and . this must be converted to the mill cut; while there is a credit in the excess of the mill cut above the Doyle-Scribner wood's scale which in the case of very small timber may materially affect the apparent cost of the operations. When all woods' work is paid for by the day the stumpage and other costs are based on the direct output of the mill using the band saw or circular saw table as the case may require. The cost of operation in this case would be regarded, in round figures, as $13 and stumpage values figured accordingly. To provide for a wide range of conditions three costs of operation have been used: a low cost at $11 per 1,000 feet; a medium cost at $13; and a high cost at $15. The one must be selected which most nearly suits the conditions of each individual case. Since some of the important factors of expense which enter into the cost of growing timber are variable, it is impossible to make any one set of calculations which will accurately determine the cost and profit in producing loblolly pine timber on cut-over lands, at all places within North Carolina where there is no cost of stocking. Consequently the cal- culations are made on the basis of what are assumed to be average con- ditions. A soil value of $5 an acre is used, and a rate of interest of six per cent compounded is allowed on the soil value. The increase in the soil value and the increase in stumpage price will in part cover the cost of protection and taxes. A deduction of one per cent from the rate of profit added to the increase in stumpage and soil values will undoubtedly more than cover taxes, protection, and administration charges within a growing period of fifty years. Since there is no cost of stocking other than protection and leaving seed trees, the initial investment is practi- cally limited to the soil value. The growth of the seed trees, if they are carefully selected, should approximately cover the interest on their initial value. Table 70 shows on the basis of Doyle-Scribner rule the rate of interest yielded by fully stocked unthinned stands of loblolly pine with a soil value of $5 an acre, at different ages on different quality sites, and 138 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. TABLE 70. VALUE OF FULLY STOCKED STANDS OF LOBLOLLY PINE, AS SCALED BY DOYLE-SCBIBNEB RULE, AT DIFFERENT AGES ON DIFFERENT QUALITY SITES AND UNDER DIFFERENT COSTS OF OPERATION; AND THE PER CENT OF INTEREST ON AN INITIAL INVESTMENT OF $5 AN ACRE REPRESENTED BY THIS VALUE. Quality I Rate of Rate of Rate of compound compound compound Age of stand Operating expenses interest on an investment Operating expenses interest on an investment Operating expenses interest on an investment Years $11 of $5 an $13 of $5 an $15 of $5 an acre acre acre Per cent Per cent Per cent 25 $ 33 8 $ 18 6.1 $ 4 30 74 9 42 7.0 10 4.0 40 143 8 87 8.0 30 5.0 50 231 7 158 7.0 84 6.0 60 326 7 243 6.5 159 6.0 70 423 336 6.1 249 4.5 80 496 406 316 Quality II 25 $ 6 0.8 $ 3 $ 1 30 31 6.0 17 5 3 40 50 60 70 80 132 193 267 7.0 6.5 6.3 47 84 136 206 6.0 6.0 5.5 14 37 80 145 3.0 4.5 5.0 5.0 80 325 261 196 4.5 Quality III 25 30 40 $ 27 4.0 $ 15 $ 3 50 61 5 36 4 11 60 70 97 141 4.5 65 103 4.5 4.5 32 65 3.5 4.0 80 177 137 4.0 97 4.0 with different costs of operation. The less favorable the quality site, the later is the age at which the maximum interest rate is attained. Like- wise, as the cost of operating increases and stumpage value decreases, the period at which the stand attains its maximum interest rate is post- poned and the rate of interest yielded is lower. On Quality I site with operating costs of $11 per 1,000 feet, the maxi- mum rate, 9 per cent, is obtained on the soil value of $5 an acre when the stand is 30 years old ; with costs of $13 per 1,000 feet, a maximum rate of 8 per cent is obtained when the stand is 40 years old ; with costs of $15 per 1,000 feet, the maximum rate is 6 per cent and is attained when the stand is 50 years old. On Quality II site the maximum interest rate on the soil value of $5 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 139 TABLE 71. STDMPAGE VALUE PER ACRE OF FULLY STOCKED STANDS OF LOBLOLLY PINE AT DIF- FERENT AGES ON DIFFERENT QUALITY SITES AND UNDER VARIOUS COSTS OF OPERATION; AND THE RATES OF COMPOUND INTEREST YIELDED ON AN INITIAL SOIL VALUE OF $5 AN ACRE. BASED ON MILL CUT 1-7 INCH SAW KERF. Quality I Age Years Operating expenses per 1,000 board feet at $11 $13 $15 Gross rate of compound V n e d f " on $5 Value of stand Gross rate of compound interest yielded on $5 Value of stand Gross rate of compound interest yielded on $5 Per cent Per cent Per cent 20 $ 65 14 $36 11 $ 7 4.5 30 133 11 75 9 17 4.0 40 193 8 116 8 40 4.0 50 280 7 191 7 102 4.0 60 380 6 283 6 185 4.0 70 500 5 397 5 294 4.0 80 592 5 485 4 378 5.0 Quality II 30 72 9 40 8 8 3 40 130 8 77 7 23 3 50 188 7 120 6 53 3 60 262 6 185 5 109 3 70 358 6 276 5 194 3 80 431 5 345 5 260 4 Quality III 30 32 7 18 5 4 2 40 76 7 42 6 8 2 50 113 5 67 5 21 2 60 161 4 107 4 54 2 70 218 4 159 4 101 3 80 271 4 209 4 148 3 an acre is 7 per cent obtained from a stand 40 years old with operating expenses of $11 per 1,000 feet; 6 per cent from a stand 50 years old with operating expenses of $13 per 1,000 feet; and 5 per cent from a stand 60 years old when the operating expenses are $15 per 1,000 feet. On Quality III site the maximum interest rate on the soil value of $5 an acre is 5 per cent obtained from a stand 50 years old when the operating expenses are $11 per 1,000 feet; 4.5 per cent from a stand 60 years old when the operating expenses are $13 per 1,000 feet; and 4 per cent from a stand 70 years old when the operating expenses are $15 per 1,000 feet. Table 71 is similar to Table 70, but is on the basis of actual mill cut (1-7-kich saw kerf). 140 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. Pure Even-aged Stands for Cordwood. Cordwood either with or without bark is chiefly used for fuel, pulp- wood, crate, stave and heading stock. There is little, if any, increase in price with increase in size, if small trees less than 6 inches in diam- eter breasthigh are excluded. In fixing, therefore, the most profitable age for cutting cordwood only the volume of the stands and the cost of producing it need be considered. Table 72 gives the age at which cord- wood is most cheaply produced, assuming the value of the land at $5 an acre and an interest rate of six per cent with no expense for re- stocking or protection. The cheapest cost of production on all quality sites is when the stand is between 25 and 30 years old. The yields at this age are given in Table 37. If cutting is done to a larger diameter in the top or if knotty tops are excluded, as shown in discussing this table, a deduction must be made from the volume given in Table 37 and a corresponding increase made in the cost of growing. TABLE 72. COST OF GROWING CORDWOOD IN FULLY STOCKED STANDS OF LOBLOLLY PINE AT DIF- FERENT AGES ON DIFFERENT QUALITY SITES ON LAND VALUED AT $5 AN ACRE AND INTEREST AT Six PER CENT. STEM WOOD ONLY FROM TREES Six INCHES AND OVER IN DIAMETER. Age of stand Value of $5 compounded at 6% for the period, less Cost of growing a cord of 160 cubic feet, peeled Cost of growing a standard cord of 128 cubic feet, bark included Quality Quality Years investment I II III I II III 25 $ 16.45 $ 0.50 $ 0.74 $ 1.37 $ 0.26 $ 0.41 S .75 30 23.65 .55 .79 1.31 .31 .44 .71 40 56.40 .97 1.34 2.02 .59 .78 1.13 50 '87.10 2.49 .83 1.05 1.45 If reasonably clear wood only is used the yields of the stands would be reduced about 15 per cent and there would be an increase of about 15 per cent in the cost of growing the wood. LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 141 ft. O - o> oo t^ 10 * CU 3 ** I.. ** *-*^ futlfilf a-5^ Sg oxi 1^1 Hi a .S.S * fc, ' oI2?5c51OOOTl<^1 8 '-" *i- Srt b Jf gXl CO CO 1< * 142 LOBLOLLY OK KOKTH CAKOLINA PINE. Open Pure Uneven-aged Stands. The per cent of increase in the value of the individual tree can also be applied in fixing a diameter limit for cutting in open pure or slightly mixed uneven-aged stands or groups in which the openness is caused by fires and unregulated cutting. Table 73 gives the rate per cent of increase in value for one inch increase in diameter of the dominant trees in irregular open stands on different quality sites. The diameters which correspond to a six per cent rate of increase are 18 inches on Quality I, 17 inches on Quality I.I, and 16 inches on Quality III. DETERMINATION OF YIELD. One of the most important problems in connection with the proper management of loblolly pine lands is the determination of the yield which could be secured from a tract within a definite period; or in the case of larger tracts, it might be desirable to know the amount of timber which could be felled yearly to supply a mill without lessening the producing capacity of the forest during a subsequent period. In the case of small tracts which are fully stocked, the quality site can be ascertained and the yield determined from the yield tables for the class of timber desired, and the age at which it would be necessary to fell. In the case of large tracts, not only will it be necessary to map and determine the areas of the different forest types and quality sites, but to indicate the age and condition of each stand. Waste and unproductive land and young stands from which no yield can be expected within the period to be considered should be eliminated. The productive lands should be grouped according to their growing capacity, and the quantity of the material into : 1. Very open, pure, even-aged stands in which the trees are somewhat short-bodied. The yield of these stands can be obtained by means of Table 73. 2. Pure, even-aged sapling and pole stands of good density. The yields of these can be secured direct from the yield tables. (Tables 35 to 41.) 3. Pure and mixed old stands. Growth is practically stationary in such stands, such increment as takes place in young trees being bal- anced by the death or decay of old ones. 4. Mixed young and middle-aged stands; and pure, uneven-aged stands, which usually have been culled, but the trees in which have stems of nearly normal length. By means of Table 73 it is possible to determine approximately the smallest sized dominant trees of loblolly pine which will attain merchantable diameter by a designated year. Trees of this diameter and larger can be tallied on a known percentage LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 143 of the area by means of strips. After obtaining the average number of trees of each diameter per acre the proportion of the total area which is occupied by these trees can be ascertained by means of Table 74, which which gives the crown space in per cent of an area required for the growth of trees of different diameters. If these trees are separated into diameter groups and the diameter of the average tree in each group determined, the average age of the trees in each diameter group can be calculated by means of Tables 42, 43, and 44. Knowing the quality site, and the approximate age of the groups, and the proportion each group contributes to the stocking, it is possible, by means of the yield tables to obtain the approximate yield from the subordinate as well as the domi- nant crown classes at the period desired. TABLE 74. CROWN f PACE IN PER CENT or ACRE REQUIRED BY DOMINANT TREES OP LOBLOLLY PINE OF DIFFERENT DIAMETERS ON DIFFERENT QUALITY SITES. Diameter Breasthigh Quality I Quality II Quality III Inches 8 .0019 .0027 .0026 9 .0024 .0037 .0035 .10 .0031 .0048 .0045 11 .0038 .0058 .0055 12 .0046 .0070 .0065 13 .0054 .0083 .0080 14 .0064 .0096 .0096 15 .0073 .0109 .0109 16 .0084 .0122 .0122 17 .0094 .0135 .0135 18 .0104 .0149 .0149 19 '.0115 .0163 .0163 20 21 .0127 .0139 .0179 .0195 .0179 22 .0151 .0212 23 .0168 24 .0211 INCREASING THE REVENUE FROM TIMBERLAND. Reducing Waste in Logging. A considerable source of loss of timber is the cutting of extra long logs. The usual length of allowance is four inches above the scale length of the log. Logs are frequently cut, however, with 6 or 8 inches extra length. If cutting is carefully done a 3-inch allowance is suf- ficient for logs less than 14 inches in diameter and 4 inches for logs of larger diameter. Another source of loss is in cutting extra high stumps. This is sel- dom done now, however, except by contractors, small mill men, or unskilled farm laborers, hired during the winter months. As a rule, stumps are cut as low in loblolly pine logging as is possible. One rea- 144 LOBLOLLY OK NOETH CAROLINA PINE. son for this is that the trees often grow on small hillocks or mounds, which enables the sawyer to cut low without too much discomfort in stooping. Some loggers require stumps of all trees less than 16 inches in diameter to be less than a foot high. A reasonable height for stumps is one equal to the diameter of the tree up to 18 inches. There is no necessity, however, for increasing the height of the stump above 18 inches; even large trees can be sawn as low as that without making the sawyer stoop. (Plate XXIII.) TABLE 75. VALUE OP LUMBER, F. O. B., NORFOLK, VA., CONTAINED IN ONE FOOT OP SOUND STUMP. Diameter breast- high of tree Inches Value of lumber f. o. b. Norfolk Diameter breasthigh of tree Inches Value of lumber f. o. b. Norfolk 8 $ 0.05 15 $ 0.27 9 .06 16 .31 10 .08 17 .36 11 .11 18 .41 12 .15 19 .46 13 .18 20 .53 14 .22 21 .59 The loss from high stumps, as from long logs, although trifling for each tree, in the aggregate amounts to a great deal at the end of a year in large cuttings. The stump contains the very best quality of timber in the tree, and every inch of it should be taken when possible. Table 75 shows the loss in lumber in every linear foot of sound stump which is left unused. These values are based on the No. 1 grade butt logs. If an additional linear foot could be utilized from only one-fourth of the trees cut in a year's operation, it would add to the Norfolk value of the output $360 for every million feet sawed. This is on the basis of a 13-inch tree, scaling 77 lS board feet Doyle-Scribner. By lowering the height of the stumps and cutting the logs as short as possible, not only an additional 2 feet of height may be obtained but the scale yield from the tree may often be increased by throwing the logs in a larger diameter class. By shortening the upper logs large knots will often be thrown into the log above, which is usually of lower grade, and in this way raise the grades of several boards sawed from the log below. (Page 106.) Another source of loss in cutting is the injury done to small trees by breaking them down. This loss is not reflected in immediate operations but it lessens the future yield, since it destroys trees which would prob- ably have yielded several saw logs by the time of the second cut. (Plate XXL) One of the greatest wastes in logging and one which can be greatly reduced, is using vigorous young trees of pine and other valuable spe- LOBLOLLY OB NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 145 cies for cross-ties in trams and logging roads. A tree large enough to make such a cross-tie is from 8 to 12 inches in diameter on the stump, and there are about 500 such trees used in laying one mile of tramway. If the increment on these trees amounts to 2,850 feet, board measure, a year until the time of the second cutting in ten years, there has been a loss of 28,000 feet of timber from the 320 acres which was logged by means of this spur road. This loss amounts to 85 board feet per acre. Some loggers, especially where the mill men own the timber, take up the cross-ties and relay them several times. Others, however, never use a tie the second time, after the spikes are drawn. The loss of this young timber is an immense drain on the future yield of the forest and goes far toward keeping it in its depleted condition, as it destroys so many trees which would be the largest trees at the time of the next cutting. Over the greater portion of the pine land there is sufficient scrubby hardwood to be used for ties. Where the track is temporary and there is an abundant supply of small hardwood, owners of tim- berland should specify in their sale contracts, or in logging contracts, that all cross-ties and bridge timbers are to be cut from the cheaper class of hardwoods; black gum, oaks, and maples. Where there is an insufficient supply of hardwood timber, the best portion of the tops of medium grade pines w r hich are cut for saw logs should be used, or short bodied or defective pines which will not make good milling trees by the next cutting, or trees thinned from dense groups of pine. There is also some waste of timber in skidding, a_ considerable portion of which should be avoided, by using for skidways and loading tables, logs of a poor class of hardwoods, defective pines or trees from thick groups of pines which need thinning. The same applies to the use of timber for the construction of corduroy roads, small bridges, cribbing, and trusses. Another item in which there is great waste of young timber is fuel for logging locomotives. The contractors or cutters, who supply fuel, generally take out the clearest and straightest young trees on account of the ease with which they can be split. Defective trees, whenever pos- sible, should be used for such fuel, and where the locomotive boiler furnace is large enough to take round wood, the knotty part of the tops which can not be split, should be utilized in that way, together with, the limbs. Where all the fuel for the logging locomotives can not be supplied in this way, the rest of it should be cut from groups of young trees which require thinning. In fact this offers, together with the use of young trees for cross-ties, the best means of making, at no expense, thinnings which Avill be of great benefit to the forest and largely improve its condition, and increase, instead of decreasing, the yield at the time of the next cutting. In logging over a large tract 20,000 to 50,000 acres, nearly one cord of fuel is required for moving 10,000 feet of logs from the forest to the sawmill. If even one-half of this is young timber, it means the removal of four 8-inch trees, or their equivalent, per acre for 10 146 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA FIXE. locomotive fuel. If these trees are 8 inches in diameter, there is a loss at the next cutting in ten years of 160 feet, board measure, per acre. Large numbers of small trees are also needlessly broken down by saw- yers; by careless felling, or are cut for bed trees. Rules to Govern Logging. Owners of timberland who wish to (1) prevent waste of their timber and (2) cut to the most advantageous size for securing the greatest present yields from the forest and maintain it on a producing basis should require of loggers the observance of the following regulations : (1) Rigid protection from fires must be afforded all cut-over lands during re-stocking, since probably one-fifth of all the young timber, except on wet soil, is destroyed or injured by fires. (2) Sound young pines unless suppressed, must not be used for tram- road cross-ties, for fuel for locomotives, corduroy roads, skidways, etc., unless it is impossible to obtain other timber. (3) When no other timber is available for the above uses young pines in dense groups and crooked, limby, short-bodied, or oppressed trees which will not make clear merchantable logs of good size by the next cutting must be used in preference to other trees. (4) Large trees must not be thrown in clumps of young trees. (5) No dominant or codominant trees less than 16 inches in diameter breasthigh must be cut unless taken from a do:ise group. (6) In case of clean cutting seed trees must be left. (7) Stumps must not be higher than the diameter in the case of trees under 18 inches in diameter on the stump, and not more than 18 inches in larger trees. (8) Sound merchantable logs 6 inches or more in diameter used for skidways and loading platforms must not be left in the woods. Increase in Cost of Handling Small Timber. The increase in the cost of handling and converting was found to be about 3.3 per cent for each decrease of 10 board feet in the Doyle-Scrib- ner scale of the log in the smaller diameters. The size of the mill-run log between the years 1895 and 1900 was more than 80 feet. It is now between 30 and 40 feet, Doyle-Scribner, in many of the larger mills operating in the Norfolk district. If the cost of logging and milling a 13-inch log, scaling 81 feet by the Doyle-Scribner rule, is regarded as 100 per cent, then the increase in the cost of logging and milling smaller logs can be shown by the per cent of increase over the cost for this size log. Table 76 shows the cost of logging and manufacture of logs of different sizes allowing a 3.3 per cent increase in cost for every decrease of 10 feet in the scale of the log. LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 147 TABLE 76. INCREASE IN THE COST OF MANUFACTURING LUMBER WITH DECREASE IN THE SIZE OF THE Loa. Diameter of log Scale of log Cost of logging and milling Inches Feet b. m. Per cent 13 81 100 12 64 *> 11 49 110 10 36 115 9 25 120 It would cost 15 per cent more to manufacture lumber from 10-inch logs than from 13-inch logs, consequently, disregarding the overrun, the larger logs might be regarded as 15 per cent more valuable than the small ones even if the value of the lumber per 1,000 feet were the same from logs of both sizes. RELATIVE VALUE OF TREES FOR DIFFERENT USES. The wood of loblolly pine is commonly measured either as logs, scaled by Doyle-Scribner rule, or as cords of 128 cubic feet with the bark on, or as cords of 160 cubic feet with the bark peeled. Piling is now usually purchased on the same basis as logs for lumber the diam- eter of the log being taken in the middle (the average of the two ends) and the volume of the log scaled by a log rule. Since only the straightest and longest bodied trees are used for piling, the stumpage value of tim- ber selected for this use should be higher than that of the same size sold for milling purposes. Veneer is generally cut from logs 16 inches and over in diameter. In smaller logs there is too large a proportion of \v;iste in the wood which is left in the core. Small coarse grained and somewhat knotty stock can be used for crate veneers, but for panel veneer fine grained timber, either free from knots or with only a few knots, is desired. Pine veneer stock is purchased entirely by log scale, and its value, consequently, is that of the appropriate grades and sizes of logs which are purchased. (Tables 50 to 54.) (Plate XII, C shows excel- lent veneer logs.) Only small timber is purchased by the cord. Bolts for boxes and crates, staves and headings are purchased by the cord with the bark on. Pulpwood stock is purchased by the cord generally with the bark re- moved or rossed. (For proportion of bark see Table 34.) The relative value of small trees of different sizes for cordwood, both rossed and with the bark on and for sawtimber is shown in Table 77. Stumpage values in the table are placed at $1.00 per thousand feet for lumber ; at $1.00 a long cord for wood measured after it is rossed, dried and racked; and at $1.00 a cord for wood measured with the bark on. To use this table it is necessary to multiply the volumes which are given in the table for trees of each diameter by the relation of the stumpage at $1.00 to the 148 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. actual stumpage price which is offered, using as a basal diameter the diameter breasthigh of the average sized tree on the tract. For ex- ample : If board measure stumpage were worth $1.50 per thousand feet, the volume which is given for the average tree in the board measure column should be multiplied by 1.50. If the cordwood stumpage meas- ured after peeling were worth 50 cents a cord, the value given of the average sized tree which is under this head should be multiplied by .50. A comparison of the two resultant figures will show in which form the timber could be marketed most profitably. Cords of 128 cubic feet with bark on can be converted to cords of 160 cubic feet with bark on by deducting one-fifth from the value per cord of 128. feet. The table is based on all trees in stands 6 inches and over in diameter breasthigh. Cordwood is cut to 3 inches inside the bark at the top for small trees and 6 inches for large trees. If knotty tops are not used the values of the trees must be reduced about one-tenth. TABLE 77. COMPARATIVE VALUE OF TBEES OP DIFFERENT SIZES FOR CORDWOOD \YITH THE BARK ON, CORDWOOD PEELED, AND FOB LUMBER (SCALED BY DOYLE-SCRIBNER RULE). (Based on the average tree, Quality II) Diameter Breasthigh Inches Cordwood, 128 cubic feet, with the bark on at $1 a cord Cordwood, 160 cubic feet, measured after peeling, at $1 a cord Saw logs scaled by Doyle- Scribuer rule, at $1 a 1,000 board feet 6 $ .065 $ .036 S .01 7 .08 .045 .013 8 .126 .07 .023 9 .174 .95 .04 10 .225 .12 .056 11 .28 .17 .076 12 .325 .205 .10 13 .40 .25 .122 14 .475 .29 .156 15 .54 .34 .18 16 .625 .40 .22 17 .71 .46 .25 18 .79 .51 .29 SILVICULTURAL SYSTEMS OF CUTTING IN DIFFERENT TYPES. The widely different conditions under which loblolly pine grows re- quire different methods of cutting in order to obtain the most thorough restocking. At times, however, it is not possible to adopt what is re- garded as the most suitable system of restocking on account of the method of logging which is employed, and there must be a compromise in order to meet the logging requirements. There are in common use three different methods of logging loblolly pine. On wet land logging railroads are used with cable skidding, gen- erally with overhead cable; or sometimes skidding is done by cable direct from the streams or canals dug for the purpose. On uplands log- ging railroads are used, particularly on large tracts in extensive opera- tions with slack cable skidding or drag skidding. This i< frequently N. C. GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY. PLATE XVI. Stand 25 to 30 years old, Quality II, before being thinned. The large knots on the dominant trees are noteworthy. Trees to be removed in first improvement thinning marked "X." (Author's illustration.) N. 0. GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY. PLATE XVII. Stand shown in Plate XVI after a combined first cutting and improvement thinning. Most of the knotty dominant trees have been cut, leaving the stand formed entirely of slender, clean-stemmed codomi- nant and intermediate trees. These, with increased diameters, will yield from 3 to 3% nearly clear logs, which will saw out approximately the same type of wood as that shown in Plate IX-B. More than 3,000 feet D.-S. per acre were removed from the stand in this cutting. The average log, however, scaled less than 12 feet. (Author's illustration.) LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 149 supplemented with wheel logging. Wheels alone are used by farmers in logging woodlots. They are also often used exclusively in logging such tracts as are near floating water, in which case the timber is logged by wheels to the water and then rafted to the mill. Logging with railroad and overhead cable on wet land necessitates either clear cutting or cutting in strips since the breakage of small trees is very large. The cost of construction is comparatively heavy. Man- agement consequently can not be intensive since relatively long intervals must elapse between cutting periods. Logging with railroad on upland with ground cable skidding is not so expensive as swamp logging and the breakage of small timber is not so great; consequently it can be re- peated at more frequent intervals. (Plate XXI.) Logging with wheels permits cutting at short intervals in very intensive operations. (Plates XIV and XX.) In deciding on the method of cutting it is necessary to take into consideration the method of logging. The object is to afford the most frequent cutting periods, which are consistent with high earn- ing power. The following methods of cutting on different types of forests are recommended. (!) Upland Old Fields. On dry soils loblolly pine forms pure stands only on old fields or on longleaf pine or shortleaf pine land, which have been cut clean and burned, and where the naked soil conditions resemble those of old fields. The small intermediate and suppressed trees in such stands recuperate slowly after logging. Since the suppressed trees are invariably short- bodied, a second cutting must be deferred for a long time. This results in the croAvns of these trees becoming large and interfering with the growth of the young stand which appears in the openings after the first cut. For this reason clean cutting is preferable on all such sites. (Plate III.) The mature stand should be removed in one or two cuttings. In case two cuttings are made, the smaller and less promising trees, as well as the knottiest trees, should be removed at the first cutting. The scat- tered seed tree system of reproduction should be used ; from 3 to 6 trees should be left per acre, unless there are near-by dominant trees in mature stands which can be relied upon. The best formed trees should be re- served for seed trees. If the trees are wind-firm, isolated seed trees of the dominant class may be left. If, as is frequently the case, on dry, heavy clays of the Piedmont, or when sand in the Coastal Plain is under- lain by hardpan, the trees are not wind-firm (Fig. 3, a and 6), seed trees should be left only in groups. If these seed trees have slender, clean stems, they can be carried over until the succeeding stand is cut, when their large diameters and clear timber will render them extremely valu- able. 150 LOBLOLLY OK NORTH CAROLINA PINE. On the dry sandhills or Piedmont uplands loblolly pine reproduces thoroughly only when its seed come in direct contact with mineral soil. Stands on very sandy soil are frequently destitute of undergrowth, and the leaf litter is extremely thin. (Plate III.) "When 50 years old the cover in such stands will often be so open that if the mineral soil is exposed, dense mats of seedlings appear during wet periods. In the Piedmont, where the undergrowth is heavy it may be necessary to cut the small broadleaf trees which have appeared. (Plate VIII, A.) In open stands the undergrowth is desirable for lessening the evaporation of soil moisture both by sun and wind. When logging is carried on during wet weather, particularly during the winter, enough mineral soil may be brought to the surface to make a suitable mineral seed- bed. On small tracts, a proper seedbed may be prepared by raking up the leaf litter and using it for farm purposes, such as compost, stable absorbent or mulch. This is frequently done, and while it is not intended for securing restocking, the latter follows as a natural consequence. On such sites, where a suitable mineral seedbed is found, reproduction of loblolly pine begins to take place by the time the stands are forty or fifty years old, although most of the seedlings die after a few years, since the shade of the old trees is still too dense. On the other hand, where the leaf litter is deep and has not been disturbed, young growth comes in slowly. This is well shown by stands at Grimes- land, Pitt County, North Carolina, examined in the spring of 1909. Loblolly pine had partially replaced longleaf pine on sandy-loam upland (Norfolk loam). The tract, which was near a dwelling, had been pro- tected from fire, and hogs had been excluded from it for more than twenty years. The leaf litter had accumulated to a depth of from six to eight inches. Although there were large openings, and the surround- ing loblolly pines bore seed abundantly, the stocking was not complete on account of the dryness of the thick leaf litter. On the other hand near-by open lands, on which the deep humus and litter had been de- stroyed by fire and hogs, were well stocked. It may be desirable in the case of farm forests to cut clean, cultivate the soil a few years until the humus is partially exhausted, and then restock. In such a case if there are no near-by seed trees it will be necessary to plant. While the destruction of litter on this type is desirable for securing restocking, it is not necessary as a protective measure for old timber. The ground cover rarely becomes sufficiently dense for a spring fire to endanger the stand. It is undesirable to destroy the humus on the clay soils of the Piedmont region for the reason that the water table is 30 to 45 feet from the surface during dry periods. During the autumn the amount of available soil moisture in the fine-grained clay soils is small on account of their high hygroscopicity. The humus covering, there- fore, acts as a protection against evaporation of soil moisture and should never be destroyed except when necessary to obtain natural reproduction. LOBLOLLY OB NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 151 (2) Permanent or "Natural" Loblolly Pine Type. Ou the so-called "natural" or permanent loblolly soils which occupy Quality I sites and some of the best Quality II sites, loblolly pine forms pure even-aged groups or stands. On such sites the pine is very tolerant of shade (Plate IV) and has a greater power of recuperation from suppression (Plate VIII, B), and a thrifty young stand is easily obtained in the partial shade resulting from the successive removal of trees in the old stand. The stand, therefore, lends itself to a diameter limit cutting. By such cutting the waste in cutting the slender inter- mediate trees (Plate XVII) is prevented and a greater profit in holding them for additional diameter growth is assured. On "natural" sites the mature stand may be removed by gradual cutting in two or more succes- sive fellings. The first removes the larger trees to a minimum diameter of from 14 to 16 inches, according to the quality site. The second, made from 10 to 20 years later, should remove the remaining timber, unless the small trees will still show sufficient increment to justify holding them for a third cut, which will often be the case. If the stand is more than 45 years old when the first felling is made, the intermediate and suppressed trees, since by that time they have passed the stage of most rapid height growth, can gain very little in height after lumbering. With logging operations costing $13 per 1,000 feet the maximum rate of interest (8 per cent) is obtained on Quality I site by clean cutting when the stand is 40 years old. The number of trees per acre 6 inches and over in diameter breasthigh in a stand at this age is 273, the aver- age diameter 11.4 inches, the average volume 98 board feet, and total yield 26,754 feet per acre by Doyle-Scribner rule; the average stumpage value per tree, 35 cents, or the total stumpage value per acre $94.05. In a normal stand at this age the average number of dominant trees is about 123, having an average diameter breasthigh of 13.2 inches, an average volume of 191 board feet, and an average log scale of 59 feet. If instead of cutting clean only the dominant trees are cut, the yield would be 23,400 board feet, having a Norfolk, Va., value of $17.16 per 1,000 feet, or a stumpage value of $77.49 per acre, under an operating cost of $13 per 1,000 feet. The remaining portion of the stand above six inches in diameter, including the intermediate and suppressed trees, have an approximate stumpage value of $18.06 per acre. This value is made up of 150 trees, with an average volume of 54 board feet, an average diameter breasthigh of 9.1 inches, and a stumpage value of about 12 cents per tree. The examination of old cuttings indicates that in stands of Quality I the intermediate and suppressed trees, because of the improved light conditions and greater amount of soil moisture, made available by the removal of the dominant trees, will make almost as rapid growth in diameter as dominant trees of the same diameters. In 15 years they may, therefore, attain an average diameter breasthigh 152 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. of 12.5 inches, 'an average volume of 128 board feet, or a total yield per acre of 19,200 board feet. Since, however, the value of the timber of the intermediate trees will be greater than that of the dominant trees of the same diameter, they will have an approximate value of $17.50 or $18.00 per 1,000 board feet at Norfolk, and a stumpage value of 55 cents each, under an operating cost of $13, or a total stumpage value of $82.50 per acre. This amount represents the accumulated compound in- terest for 15 years on the trees left for growth, plus the original invest- ment in these trees of $18.06. The original investment has thus yielded 10.7 per cent compound interest as against 8.6 which would have been obtained by cutting clear at 40 years. Moreover, the average size log under gradual felling is much larger. By cutting clean at 40 years the average log is 34 feet. By making two fellings the average log of the first cutting is 89 feet; that of the second felling 40 feet. The average annual yield per acre by clean felling at 40 years is 669 X board feet ; by removing the timber in two cuts it is 775 board feet. In this calculation only the trees which were 6 inches and over in diameter at the time of the first cutting are considered. In addition there are many suppressed trees, which were less than 6 inches in diameter at the time of the first cutting. Many of these will have diameters of from 7 to 9 inches at the time of the second cut and will be merchantable in a third cutting. Since the crown cover of the stand will be only about one-half complete, even up to the time when the second felling is made, a thorough re- stocking will have taken place. Within 15 years after the felling the young stand which will have appeared should be from 30 to 50 feet in height, the two age-classes resembling a two-storied stand. In the sec- ond felling it is often possible to remove some of the largest trees in the young stand those with coarse knots. The second felling in the old stand will have the same effect upon the young growth as that of a heavy irregular thinning and improvement cutting. The successive removal of the larger trees was in vogue in cutting loblolly pine in eastern Virginia and North Carolina until after 1900. It was customary up to that date to cut to a .stump diameter of from 14 to 16 inches, which removed in the first cutting chiefly the dominant trees. After 1900 this method was superseded either by clean cutting, where the conditions justified it, or by reducing the diameter limit to 8 or 10 inch on the stump. Gradual felling under present market con- ditions and methods of logging, seems best suited to pure stands of loblolly pine on good sites. In place, however, of merely cutting to a diameter limit or of removing only the dominant trees as was the custom and as was the method used in the example, only large trees, whose increment has begun to decline, should be removed in the first cutting. The amount of the first cut should be so adjusted as to equalize the two cuts, either in volume or in value, taking interest into consid- eration. It should be possible to obtain at the second cutting a large LOBLOLLY OE NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 153 number of trees of relatively high grade. By uniform spacing to secure the fullest individual growth, trees of large diameters and yielding a valuable product could be obtained. (Table 78.) While not without drawbacks, this method of cutting has many advantages in its favor. The advantages and disadvantages of this method are as follows: 1. The cut per acre which can bo made at one timfe by a logging crew is less with two (-linings than with clean cutting. This, however, is fully compensated for by the larger size of the logs, resulting in cheaper logging and cheaper millwork. 2. Logging the eld trees in young stands is somewhat more costly than clean cutting. This, however, is again compensated for by the cleaning and thinning of the young growth. 3. Some of the young trees are broken down by felling the larger trees. With careful felling the damage is small, since the old sup- pressed and intermediate trees have very long, rather than wide-spread- ing, heavy crowns. 4. The reduction in the volume which is cut per acre also increases the cost of railroad construction per 1,000 feet cut. This, however, is far more than met by the enhanced value of the product. In practice it should be easy to determine whether the increased value per 1,000 feet of the stand will be greater or leas than the increased cost of production per 1,000 feet. Since too many trees in the old stand will retard the height growth of near-by groups of young trees, the first cutting must be moderately heavy. The retarding of the dominant trees in the young stand, how- ever, is desirable since the trunk is freer of knots, the knots are smaller, and the proportion of high grade lumber is greater in dominant trees, particularly in the lower logs, when they are crowded. This system of cutting is one which has been satisfactory to the lumbermen for many years, and which helped to maintain the supply of loblolly pine in the Norfolk (Va.), Albemarle Sound, Plymouth (N~. C.), and Washing- ton (N. C.) sections. It has further the advantage of affording heavy cuttings at intervals of not more than twenty years and, therefore, should be practiced in place of clear cutting, which makes logging pos- sible only at from 40 to 50 year intervals, and yields a lower grade of logs. In following gradual felling, however, the suppressed trees which are left for additional growth should not be relied upon for seed trees, but these should be reserved from the dominant part of the stand. These should be trees with the choicest stems and should be carried to large diameters, if their rate of growth is satisfactory, to furnish high grade veneer stock, or large size piling, or choice sawlogs which will yield 70 per cent of No. 1 and No. 2 lumber. The form of forest sought should be large even-aged blocks. In log- ging with railroad it is possible to thin one block when the adjoining block is being cut for larger timber. This makes thinnings possible and yet maintains the cut. 154 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. (3) Longleaf Pine Flat Lands. The first step in connection with the management of these lands should be to increase the density of the stands by protection against fire. (Plate VI, A.) At present on account of the irregularity of the stands only selection culling or cutting clean in small groups is possible. The diameter for cutting should be controlled as indicated in the discussion of the method of cutting in open gure uneven-aged stands. The method of cutting in large even-aged groups should be governed by the quality site. On best sites cutting to a diameter limit may be followed. On the dry sites the stands should be thinned in the manner described under thinnings, provided thinnings can be conducted without loss, the ob- ject of thinning being to develop the best formed dominant and the codominant trees, and the stands should be cut clean in one cutting or in two cuttings at intervals of 10 to 15 years. Some of the best de- veloped dominant trees should be left for seeding, unless mature and heavy groups are near enough to assure thorough stocking. The ulti- mate form of forest which should be sought should be large even-aged groups or blocks, varying in age by 15 to 20 years, conforming to the interval between cuttings. In many places there is already an excellent basis for this form and the present distribution of age classes enables it to be readily obtained. Seeding would take place from near-by mature groups or seed trees could be left. Under good management these lands are capable of yielding between 450 and 500 board feet a year. At present the yield is much less, probably not over 300 feet a year. On some of the medium dry sites with compact loamy, clayey, or silty soils having a low humifying or oxidizing capacity, the pine straw and leaf litter accumulates under heavy stands of timber to a depth of six to eight inches. This litter dries out so thoroughly during the autumn that seedlings, which were established on it during the dannp spring, die. Consequently, it is necessary when the mineral soil has not been brought to the surface during lumbering or by hogs, to destroy the leaf litter immediately after or during lumbering, in order to expose the mineral soil sufficiently to secure restocking. (4) Mixed With Hardwoods in Flat Swamps. The present manner of cutting this type removes all of the pine and the best trees of the more valuable hardwoods and leaves a large number of old defective and small trees, chiefly water gum, sweet gum, and red maples. Many of these are suppressed trees which fail to recuperate and make additional height growth. They serve, however, largely as seed trees. The resultant forest is a young, even-aged stand formed chiefly of red maple, water gum, and sweet gum, but containing some pine over- topped by the trees which were left at the first cutting. It is an unde- sirable mixture on the whole, but a convenient form which permits con- LOBLOLLY OB NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 155 version either into even-aged mixed stands or into group selection stands. Either of these is desirable. In the event of conversion into even-aged stands, the next cutting would he deferred until the young age class was large enough to be cut, at which time all trees except select seed trees would be cut. These seed trees, three to four to the acre, could remain uncut until the next felling period, when, if well selected, they would have attained large diameters and be extremely valuable. Large areas of even-aged stands, however, do not admit of thinnings, under present conditions, and consequently the best individual development of the tree is not obtained. A group selection form can bo developed by felling the oldest age class before the younger class reaches merchantable size, by the removal of only a portion of the young growth, and cutting clean in groups as much as possible in order to establish even-aged groups. In this manner three or four age classes can be established, each occupying groups which might consist of only a few trees or might be an acre in extent. This is a very desirable form, since at the same time that the oldest age class is felled thinnings and cleanings could be conducted in the younger groups. This would enable the trees in each group to obtain the maxi- mum growth, and at the same time by means of cleanings to eradicate gradually the inferior species. The forest should be managed for the production of large sized oak, poplar, ash, and pine. Since the soil conditions are not perfectly uniform in these swamps, certain areas, often less than one-fourth of an acre in extent, are better adapted to the growth of some species than of others. So far as is economically possible an attempt should be made to localize the species on the sites on which they make the heaviest yield, by leaving near-by seed trees of these species. The present complex mixture should also be converted into a more simple one by eliminating those species which are of least value, such as water gum, red maple, and beech. (Plate I.) The following species are the most valuable both silviculturally and for lumber, and preference should be given them in forming mixed stands on appropriate sites loblolly pine, swamp chestnut oak, yellow poplar, ash, sweet gum, water oak, and elm. Except sweet gum and elm, these species are all rather intolerant of shade and require plenty of light for seedling establishment. t (5) Loblolly Pine With Cypress in Deep Swamps. These stands of mixed cypress, pine, and black gum (Plate V, B) are logged either from canals, from streams, or from logging railroads by means of steam skidders and overhead cable ways. Since there is a large breakage of small timber with this system of logging, it is recom- mended that clear cutting be practiced and that seed trees be left both of cypress and of pine. (Plate XXI.) The establishment of both species, 156 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. however, takes place only during the drier seasons, consequently there is no assurance that they will form a large part of the stand. Their yield and value is so much greater than that of the gum and water ash with which they are associated that management should look to eradi- cating or reducing these species and supplanting them with cypress and pine. (6) Loblolly Pine With Pocoson Pine on Stii-anitas. The open stands of this type, which consists of scattered trees, require that the density be increased in order to utilize fully the soil. (Plate V, A.) Where the stands are open and the age classes are very irregular, selection, cutting (culling) must continue at present. The diameter for cutting should be controlled as indicated in selection cutting in open stands in Qualities II and III. Old even-aged groups should be cut clean, leaving seed trees. There are numerous, though scattered, even- aged groups of young trees, and with these as nuclei a group selection form of forest should be developed. If the cutting interval is 20 years, these can eventually be merged into definite even-aged blocks, the age interval between them being 20 to 30 years. As these even-aged blocks mature they should be cut clean, the immature blocks being thinned during each cutting. It is necessary to destroy moss during dry seasons since its accumula- tion retards aeration and renders the soil more acid, thus rendering it less suitable for loblolly pine which has no visible mycorrhiza on its roots. It 'also prevents the establishment of loblolly pine seedlings on thick carpets of living sphagnum or on its raw humus, although the pocoson pine can establish itself. Likewise the heavy sod of grasses and herbaceous plants materially interferes at times with the establishment of seedlings, although the presence of water on these lands during the spring germinating, period tends to limit their occupancy by loblolly pine. The mixture on these sites should consist of longleaf, pocoson, and loblolly pines. These lands are capable of yielding from 300 to 350 board feet a year in a rotation of 60 to 80 years, with cutting intervals of 20 to 25 years. At present the annual yield is less than 200 feet. (7) Loblolly Pine With Shortleaf Pine and Hardwoods on Uplands. The forests of this type should be managed as selection, preferably as group selection stands. (Plate VII.) The loblolly pine should be cut when it is about 16 inches in diameter breasthigh and when not more than 70 years old. The trees will yield about 3 logs, the average log scaling about 55 feet. Although Icblolly pine makes more rapid growth than shortleaf in this type it is not so desirable a tree as the latter on account of its coarse, knotty wood, except on lower slope?, where the moist soils are suited to its growth. The ideal mixture which should be N. C. GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY. PLATE XVIII. N. C. GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY. PLATE XIX. - = 0) " 1 I! N. C. GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SUKVKV. PLATE XX. a? ea cp o fl ^ > _^ tn r cs ** m **-< l ^ 2 O " -*-> _o ^io'-i-dajoo --S? = S>n'> -2 * 5- c rt t ' ^i s=P3 M *1 c 02 2-^w'2_S>S' 8 -s i c ^* e a IH c ? 5 ? BI s ^ a l c a c O iO oj - rH 0) . T-J O 5: SO J 5 & C C ^ 5 - P S 6 '"'So t. O Jj OJ i ^ " 61) ' < 3 tc *3 J3 "5 B " 'S -S =5 3 S *"" O o Jg O g is tS o c ^ " - "o '- g 0) ,a 'S o 8 ^ S a a s "a 2 1 N. C. GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY. PLATE XXII. ffi 8 P, B a S '5 2 o IH CS >. "T of O *a c 5 S Pi O O u ?:! 2 N. C. GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY. PLATE XXIII. H M 5 a s LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 157 sought should be loblolly pine, shortleaf pine, yellow poplar, and south- ern red oak. In order to obtain restocking, it is necessary to bring the mineral soil to the surface, to cut heavily, and afford plenty of light. PROTECTION FROM FIRES. The greatest destruction of young timber in the loblolly pineries is caused by forest fires. The tendency of the pine is to seek open places where it secures full sunlight; these places are generally grassy, 'and if a ground fire occurs before the pine is large enough to withstand it the young growth is injured or destroyed. The frequent fires on the heavy sod on the longleaf pine flat land and the pocoson pine savannas are responsible to a large extent for the open stands on such lands. (Plates V, A; V, B; VI, A; XX and XXII.) The same is true of the grassy, peaty lands, and the logged-over swamp lands in which grass and short- lived shrubs have secured a foothold and which dry out sufficiently to burn. The difficulties of checking a forest fire in this region during a dry season, when it is under headway before a wind, are evident. The avail- able force for fighting fire is limited; the areas are large and often difficult of access on account of undergrowth in the swamps. The most satisfactory way of reducing loss from forest fire is to prevent the fires from starting or from getting under headway. While some fires undoubtedly originate from lightning, which can not be prevented, the greater number start from one or another of the fol- lowing sources : (1) Locomotives, especially logging locomotives. (2) Logging crews or from logging camps. (3) Farm laborers, especially in the spring when new ground is being cleared, brush burned, or fence lines cleaned. (4) Burning dead grass on grazing land, from which the fire spreads to woodjand, or burning the woodland for pasturage. (5) Hunters and fishermen. (6) Carelessness on the part of other persons. The fires from all these causes can be prevented or reduced in number through using greater care in handling fire in the forest, posting notices, and general education of the people to the losses from fires. The law of North Carolina in regard to setting fire to woodland, brush land or grass land, reads as follows : Section 8 of Chapter 2'j3. Public Laws of 1015. If any person shall inten- tionally set fire to any grass land, brush land, or woodland, except it be his own property, or in that case without first giving notice to all persons own- ing or in charge of lands adjoining the land intended to be fired, and also taking care to watch such fire while burning and taking effectual care to extinguish such fire before it shall reach any lands near to or adjoining the lands so fired, he shall for every such offense be guilty of a misdemeanor and shall be fined not less than ten dollars, nor more than fifty dollars, or imprisoned not exceeding thirty days. This shall not prevent action for damages sustained by the owner of any property from such fires. 158 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. In the portions of the State where this law has been publicly posted and arrests and prosecutions made under its provisions, it has had the effect of greatly lessening the number of fires from carelessness. (7) In addition, owners should require persons wishing to hunt, especially to hunt at night with torch, to obtain a permit, with the understanding that the services of the holder of the permit shall be available for fighting fire without pay. (8) No grazing should be permitted on land which was burned that season. The most satisfactory way to protect forest land from outside fires is to burn in the fall, as soon as the leaves have fallen and are sufficiently dry, a strip 100 feet wide around the area to be protected. Sometimes it is sufficient to plow only several furrows around the area or two furrows 100 feet apart and burn the intervening strip. (Plate XVIII.) It is essential to protect all young pine trees from fire until they are from 20 to 30 feet high and their stems are well cleaned for 10 or 15 feet. (Plate IV.) This means a period of from 10 to 15 years after lumbering and restocking. Areas containing young growth should be surrounded by fire lines, kept clear by annual burning during damp weather. During very dry weather it is advisable to patrol large bodies of well established young growth, if at all exposed to fire. Neighborhood associations should be formed in sections of counties where the damage from fire is great, and these associations assume the responsibility of protection. The members can issue permits for grazing and night hunt- ing on their lands, prohibiting during the year the use of areas which have been burned for these purposes, appoint patrols during dry, windy seasons and organize forces for fighting fires in case one starts. BRUSH LOPPING. Wherever clean cutting is practiced and seed trees left, or where cut- ting is done to a diameter limit and only small trees are left, it is desir- able that the branches be lopped from the tops in order to reduce the danger from fire. The lopped branches lie close to the earth and soon decay. Tops which are unlopped may remain a fire menace for many years. (Plate XIX.) Lopping is not necessary on very wet lands or where pine is mixed with hardwoods, unless cutting is clean and the amount of slash is large. Lopping without burning is generally suf- ficient; only in exceptional cases is it necessary to burn the slash. Whether it should be piled before burning depends upon the conditions, but piling is generally advisable. No slash should be left touching seed trees or groups of young trees. Damp weather without wind should be selected for burning. There should always be an ample force on hand to look after the fire. N. C. GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY. PLATE XXIV. Crown cover of loblolly pine. Quality I stand, 70 years old. (Author's illustration.) Its density is noteworthy. N. 0. GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY. PLATE XXV. Crown cover of loblolly pine. Quality III stand in old field, age 50 years. The complete isolation of the crowns is characteristic. Groups of seedlings are beginning to estab- lish themselves under such a canopy. (Author's illustration.) LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 159 THINNINGS. Thinnings are made in crowded even-aged stands in order to concen- trate the productive power of the soil in a few best trees, accelerate their growth, and in this way shorten the time necessary for them to reach maturity. Since only the smaller or defective large trees are removed, the mature stand eventually consists of large well-developed trees. In the natural process of thinning the elimination of the weaker specimens takes place too slowly for the best development of the stand. (Plates IV; XVII; XXVII.) In the struggle for light and food both the sup- pressed and dominant trees suffer. A certain amount of crowding, how- ever, is necessary, particularly during the period of rapid height growth, to develop long straight stems reasonably free from knots in the lower logs. (Plate XVII.) Thinnings, therefore, should be light during the period of rapid growth in height, and should be largely limited to removing the knottiest trees. After the clear length of stem, however, has been developed (see Table 15) thinnings should be heavy in order to favor the rapid development in diameter of individual stems, the diame- ter of the tree has an important influence; not only on the amount of material in it but also on the high value of the lumber which is ob- tained from it. (See page 120, and Tables 59 to 64, and 71.) It is commonly held that when the larger trees are removed as they come to merchantable size, the smaller trees left will begin to grow fast. Such a thinning may be of benefit to the stand, but not to the same extent as thinnings of the small trees; by thinning the small trees not only a larger amount, but- a higher quality is secured. It has already been noted (page 42) that loblolly pine exhibits with age a progressive increase in its light requirements and a corresponding decline in its capacity to endure crown compression. (Plates IV; XI.) This decline is especially marked on the dryer sites. (Plates III, and XXV.) On good sites one effect of this characteristic is that in middle- aged stands, 50 to 75 years, the suppressed and intermediate trees and even such codominant trees as have endured prolonged crown compres- sion lose their capacity to recover rapidly or even at all after their crowns are freed; on dry sites this inertness of the dominated classes extends to much younger trees. The relative tolerance which the domi- nant trees of different diameters and on different quality sites exhibit as expressed by the demands of the crown for light, is shown numeri- cally by the index of tolerance (Table 78) which is the ratio of the sur- face of the crown space to the area ef the surface of the stem of the tree inside the bark. (Plates XXIV; XXV; XXVI; XXVII.) On account of its comparative intolerance of shade the natural thin- 160 LOBLOLLY OK NORTH CAROLINA PINE. ning which takes place in stands is rapid as is shown by the decrease in the number of trees per acre (Table 42). (Plates IV; XI; XV.) Stands of loblolly pine consequently are less benefited by artificial thiii- nirig than those of such species as endure more crowding and in which the struggle of the individual trees for supremacy is more prolonged. Stands of this species on good sites (moist soil) are most responsive to thinning (Plate IV) ; those on dry sites are less responsive (Plate III). On very wet scils thinnings increase but little the growth of the remain- ing trees and for this reason are hardly justifiable. Since the power of recuperation of the intermediate and suppressed trees decreases with the age of the stands and with the length of the period of overcrowding, thinnings in old .stands which have never been previously thinned, must be entirely limited to the subordinate classes. In young stands which are thinned when not more than 25 or 30 years old, many dominant trees can be removed, since the codoininant and intermediate trees of these ages still retain great recuperative power (Plate 1 IX, A), have approximately the same height as dominant trees, and straighter, clearer, and better formed stems (Plate XVII). Such a thinning constitutes a combined thinning and improvement cutting. A thinning of the dominant trees at this age will remove stems with coarse knots which would saw out a large amount of low grade lumber, even after they attained large diameters. (Plate XVI.) It also has the advantage of yielding some sawlog timber, thus making cutting at an early age remunerative. On the poorer, and particularly, on the drier, sites, subsequent thinnings should be made only with the object of forc- ing the development in diameter of the largest and choicest of the trees in the stand. The smaller trees which are crowding the better trees, which are to form the final stand, should be removed. Thinnings should be repeated, dependent upon their severity, at intervals of from 5 to 15 years. Frequent and light thinnings are preferable to heavy ones made at long intervals. The number of trees per acre on the different quality sites decreases in natural stands at different rates in accordance with the age of the stand (Table 42). This rate may serve as a guide in making thinnings at any age. Thinnings are less effective when the first one is deferred until the stand is 40 or more years old. Artificial thinnings should be heavier than natural thinnings, but never so heavy as to leave large openings on all sides of the best trees selected for the final stand. The trees which are removed in older stands should be in the intermediate and codominant crown classes. The openings which are made by removals should be closed before the time of the next thinning in order to secure some lateral crowding and the clearing of the stems of branches before they become too stout and horizontal. Since the development of knots l^ inches in diameter causes a reduction in grade, N. C. GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY. PLATE XXVI. Crown cover of loblolly pine, Quality II, age 35 years. Crowns small but stems clean. Stand crowded, in urgent need of thinning to develop larger crowns. (Author's illustration.) N. C. GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SUUVKY. PLATE XXVII. - Crown cover of loblolly pine, Quality II, age 35 years. Crowns well developed and sym- metrical. Excellent condition for rapid individual growth. (Author's illustration.) LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 161 sufficient density should be maintained to prevent the development of limbs which would make knots of this size on the lower three logs on Quality I and the lower two logs on Qualities II and III. The sup- pressed trees need not be removed. They make small demand upon soil moisture, yet serve a very useful purpose on account of their low crowns in. shading the soil and lessening drying winds. This is particularly applicable to very dry clay sites; less so to very sandy sites. When the mature stand is fully developed, it can be removed in one cutting or in several cuttings made at short intervals. Notwithstanding that the pure even-aged stands of loblolly pine offer unexcelled inducements for thinnings made for the purpose of acceler- ating the growth of the individual tree, no adequate data are available, either as the result of experience in commercial forests or in experi- mental plots which show the preferable manner in which thinnings should be executed, their cost or their effects upon the yield of the stand. It is believed that by proper thinning the rate of diameter growth of all trees in a stand can be stimulated well beyond that given in Table 71 for dominant trees. There would not be as many trees per acre on such thinned stands as there are in the dominant class of crowded stands (Table 42), but the larger volume per tree and the larger amount of saw timber would more than compensate for the smaller number of trees. A stand containing 6,000 cubic feet per acre in 60 trees, each of which will yield 560 board feet (Tables 19 and 21) or 36,000 feet per acre is far more valuable than one containing 6,000 cubic feet formed of 100 trees, each containing 300 board feet and yielding 31,000 feet per acre. Not only .is the cost of operation less, there being 50 per cent more logs to handle in the stand containing the larger number of trees, but in addition to the larger yield per acre the stumpage of the larger trees is intrinsically more valuable per unit on account of the larger proportion of wide stock and high grades it will yield. (Pages 119 to 127.) It is possible however to determine approximately the results upon yield of very intensive thinnings by means of data obtained from fully stocked unthinned stands. Certain trees in such stands on account of the fact that they are less crowded and have more growing space have outstripped all others both in height and diameter. These are the pre- dominant trees which constitute in the normal unthinned fully stocked stand from one-fifth to one-fourth of the number of dominant trees. Not only have they larger diameters than the other dominant trees but they are also taller. The wide range of diameters of trees in interme- diate and dominant crown classes which enter into the crown cover is shown in Table 1. Had the density of the more crowded portions of the stand been reduced so that the spacing of all the trees equaled that of those of the favored predominant class there would have been fewer 11 162 LOBLOLLY OK NORTH CAROLINA PINE. trees in the stand but their individual growth should have equaled that of the predominant trees. Careful measurements have been made to determine the area of the optimum crown space required for the growth of dominant trees of different diameters (at different ages) on different quality sites. Table 78 gives the crown space of dominant trees and the distance between trees, while in Table 79 is given the number of such trees of different diameters which would occupy an acre without retarding accretion. TABLE 78. CROWN SPACE, DISTANCE BETWEEN TREES AND INDEX OP TOLERANCE OF DOMINANT TREES OF LOBLOLLY PINE OF DIFFERENT DIAMETERS ON DIFFERENT QUALITY SITES. Quality Dia- meter I II III breast- high Inches Crown space Sq. feet Distance between trees Feet Index of toler- ance Crown space Sq. feet Distance between trees Feet Index of toler- ance Crown space Sq. feet Distance between trees Feet Index of toler- ance 8 82 10 7.2 102 11 8.6 115 12 11.1 9 108 12 7.2 137 13 8.7 152 14 11.3 10 137 13 7.3 170 15 8.9 194 16 11.4 11 167 15 7.4 210 16 9.1 242 18 11.7 12 200 16 7.5 240 17 9.3 296 19 11.9 13 235 17 7.6 296 19 9.5 355 21 12.2 14 279 19 7.8 345 21 9.8 415 23 12.6 15 329 20 7.9 396 22 10.2 474 25 13.0 16 366 22 8.1 450 24 10.6 532 26 13.4 17 409 23 8.4 506 25 11.1 590 27 13.9 18 453 24 8.7 563 27 11.6 648 29 14.4 19 501 25 9.0 622 28 12.1 710 30 15.0 20 553 27 9.4 680 29 12.7 780 32 15.6 21 605 28 9.9 742 31 13.3 22 659 29 10.4 802 32 13.9 23 733 31 11.0 24 920 34 11.5 The trees which enter into the crown cover can be so thinned as to give each tree the optimum crown space required for that diameter : if the crown space is less than the optimum (Plate XXVII), although there are more trees per acre, the accretion of the individual tree is retarded; if it exceeds the optimum the stand is understocked. (Plate VI, A.) Table 79, to show yield of thinned stand and yield of thinnings, gives the average diameter of the predominant trees in stands of different ages on different quality sites; the number of such trees which could occupy an acre as determined by the areas of their crown spaces; the total yield of such stands, and the yield of the trees removed in thin- ning ; the full value of the entire stand at different ages, and the value of LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 163 the trees removed in thinnings. In fixing stumpage values for the trees in the younger stands a deduction has been made from the values given in Tables 59 to 64 to allow for the difference in age. It is believed, how- ever, that the stumpage in thinned stands at all ages after the first thin- ning will be more valuable than that in unthinned stands of the same age if, as recommended, the roughest dominant trees are removed in the preliminary thinning and improvement cutting leaving as the basis for the ultimate mature stand the clean stemmed intermediate and codomi- nant trees. (Plates XVI; XVII.) On account of the high cost of making thinnings the stumpage value of the trees removed in making thorn has been placed at $2 per 1,000 board feet less than the stumpage value of the timber in the entire stand. 164 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. MI 000000 o o o o o o 00000 o o o o o ||i CM rt -*JI * CO CM O CD C t^ O5 O **< *** ^-i CM ^ CO t- O 03 fl> -sssjes CM O CM CM O5 "3^ a 2*5 H>3 r^ o o o o o o o o o o o o o O CO CO TP CM * 00000 o o o o o O OO OO O5 CM 4 s 10 o oo r^ o o __ s o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o "S 8 3 i-l CM CO * T* ^ t>- O O CO >O c3 ^ Q, 03 m o o u3 10 o o r- 10 o t^ CM o >o o o o o m o %1 1 1 >i ^ M CO 1O CO O5 "1 rt 1-4 1 CM CO * t~ 00 *rt,_ m S3 a 000000 o o o o o o ^ O CM CM CO -^ CM s 000000 o o o o o o 3 Sll 3-0 ij CM IO ^H t^ O * CO CM CM CO CO *}< T* M* co" o" co" t~T o ira T-H CM CM CM CO CO o "o W ii o > l O 00 O CM 00 O O OO 1 CO 1-. O * -3 OO CO CM IO CO O CO CM O Ci CM H3 >-l CM CM * CO 111 O t*- CD O O O CO OO CM IO CM CM IO CM -H >-l a"! Is s to o o co oo o co r|4 CO t^ 1O 00 00 " g o o CM m t~ o co 10 O CM -:*< CO OO *- t> hi m *^ fl CU o a g .a M s a a Q. 1:1 1 1 LOBLOLLY OK NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 165 By comparing the values of the thinned stands in Tahle 79 with those given for unthinned stands in Table 71 it is seen that thinnings increase the value of the stands on Qualities I and II. The values of Quality III stands, however, are reduced. This shows as has been pointed out in a previous paper* that "the chief value of the thinnings in the older stands on dry soils is to save the tree which would be lost by dying. There would be comparatively little accelerated growth on this quality for natural thinning takes place so rapidly that there is no prolonged crowding to retard the diameter increment of the dominant trees." Thinnings, however, add greatly to the value of the stands on good sites, and if the value of the material saved in the thinnings is taken into con- sideration they are probably profitable on all sites except the very wet. (Table 79, last column.) It should be understood, however, that the theoretical yields for thinned stands which are given in Table 79 are obtainable only under ideal conditions of equal spacing which could not be realized in practice. The crown space for each tree can not be progressively increased to meet its requirements; some trees or some sides of certain trees will at times invariably be crowded ; while on account of the removal of large interven- ing crowns some other trees will have too much space. In practice it is possible to be guided only in a general way by the distance between adja- cent trees, or by the number of trees per acre. The real guide at all times of what trees to remove and how heavily to thin must be the interference of crowns (Plates XI, XIV, XV, XVI, XXVII) and the less promis- ing trees must be removed here and there where the conditions allow it to be done without making extremely large openings in the crown cover. (Plate XXII.) Mere thinnings can .seldom be made on large tracts which are managed for the production of sawmill timber and require the building of rail- roads for profitable logging. (Page 137.) Loblolly pine occupies, how- ever, in pure, even-aged stands a large area of farm forest in thickly settled communities, either near towns or near factories which assure a continuous market for cordwood. Such conditions not only render thin- nings possible and profitable for their influence upon the development of the mature stand, but in many cases will be financially profitable by themselves. The farmer, however, can profitably apply intensive meth- ods of management, which are impossible on large tracts. Under certain conditions thinnings can undoubtedly also be made in stands managed for the production of timber for pulp, stave, crate, and heading stock; or for the production of timber for these uses in connection with the pro- duction of large sized timber for saw logs. The gradual felling of the larger trees in the even aged loblolly pine stands which has been recommended (pages 151 and following) as a Management of Loblolly and Shortleaf Pines, Proc. Soo. Am. Foresters, 1910, Page 97. 166 LOBLOLLY OK NORTH CAROLINA PINE. tentative method of cutting, that will result in larger yields than clean cutting, is not thinning. It has the effect of freeing the smaller trees which on certain sites are stimulated into accelerated growth, but the ultimate results are very different from those obtained by thinning. Under gradual felling the merchantable trees are removed while yet of medium diameter in order to obtain early cuttings. The object of thin- nings is to obtain timber of large diameters; the removal of the main stand consequently is deferred. ARTIFICIAL RESTOCKING. Gathering of Seed. Seed should be collected in September or early in October before heavy frosts have opened the cones. (Plate II.) The cones are fre- quently still green in September but if the seed are firm they will germi- nate. Cones can be secured from trees which are being cut where lum- bering is in progress, and should be taken from dominant, thrifty, mid- dle-aged, or older trees rather than from young trees or from codominant or suppressed ones, since not only is the percentage of sound seed higher from such trees but it is genetically undesirable that the specimens of poorest growth should be the source of seed. Not less than 50 per cent of fresh seed from such trees should be germinable. The cones after sunning until they begin to open should be placed in sacks or loose barrels in a dry but well ventilated building until they are fully open, when the seed can be flailed out. To prevent the seed from mildewing, the sacks or barrels should be occasionally turned, or the cones can be stored in shallow trays with bottoms of slats or wire net- ting, the trays being on racks in an airy chamber so as to secure ven- tilation. The seed are flattened, about ^ inch long, nearly black, and are attached to a shining brown wing % inch long. There are about 20,000 cleaned seed to a pound. The price per pound usually varies from $1.50 when bought directly from collectors, to $2.50 if bought from dealers. The collection of seed should be profitable. It is estimated that two bushels of unopened cones will yield a pound of seed. Seedbeds. Seedbeds should be prepared in fertile, loamy, or mellow soil, prefer- ably on a rather moist site. The soil is best prepared by cultivating several times during the year preceding planting. The weed seed can be killed by burning the soil as is done in preparing tobacco beds. Beds are usually made 4 or 5 feet wide, the rows being located across the bed. The seed should be planted in February or March, or, near the coast, early in autumn, about 14 inch deep in thin rows about 8 inches LOBLOLLY OK NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 167 apart. A pound of seed is sufficient to plant 300 feet of drill. The seeds sprout in a few weeks and the seedlings, should be from 8 to 12 inches high by the end of the first season, when they should be perma- nently planted. If the bed is located on moist soil or where it receives partial shade, as in a small clearing in the forest, no shading will be required. On very dry soil it will be desirable to shade lightly by a screen made of slats or boughs on a frame 2 or 3 feet above the seedbed. If the bed is located in the forest a deep trench should be dug around it to prevent the roots of nearby trees from draining it of moisture. A liberal application of ashes to the seedbed two or three weeks before planting and well worked in makes the plants more thrifty and stockier and gives a more compact and better developed root system. The soil of the seedbed must not be wet, since this may lead to "damping off" of the plants when very young. This is a disease caused by a fungus which may attack and -destroy the stem if plants are over-crowded in seedbeds although so far it has not been known to attack loblolly pine. Planting. Loblolly pine reproduces only from seed. Plantations can be started either by young plants or by direct seeding. Direct seeding is cheaper and under most conditions is more satisfactory on account of the diffi- culty of transplanting the young pines. It is desirable to use plants only on land which is very foul and on which young seedlings might be smothered. One-year-old wild seedling plants can be used in place of nursery grown stock. Planting should be done during late winter or early in the spring. Fall planting, except on wet soils, is not advisable. Planting is most quickly done by two persons, one. making the holes with a mattock, the other carrying the plants in a box strapped over the left shoulder. The plant is held upright in the hole with one hand; the roots are spread out with the other; the earth is drawn up to the plant with the foot and firmly pressed around it on both sides with the feet. Every precaution must be taken to prevent the roots of the plants in the box from drying out; they should, therefore, be kept all the time covered with a thick wet cloth. It is preferable to puddle the roots on lifting the plants from the seedbed by dipping them in a thick mud, so as to coat them thoroughly. On the better soils planting can well be made 6 by 6 feet; on the poorer, 5 by 5 feet. "When the condition of the surface will permit it, furrows can be laid off with a plow the desired distance apart, and one man can plant in these furrows without assistance. On account of the rapidity of its growth it would seldom be necessary to cultivate a plantation unless on dry and heavy clay soils. Direct Seeding. On account of the large proportion of sound seed, the ease of germina- tion and the hardiness and rapidity of growth of the young plant, direct seeding succeeds remarkably well. This can ba either broadcast sowing or by seed spot planting. 168 LOBLOLLY OK NORTH CAROLINA PINE. Broadcast sowing should be made early in March. If the surface is very foul with weeds or brush, the larger brush should be cut with axes or brush hooks in strips early in winter and piled in windrows against living brush. In early spring, when thoroughly dry, it should be burned clean and the seed sown after the first rain. From three to four pounds of seed per acre are required for direct seeding without covering. If there is a heavy sod, it can be burnt and the ground harrowed with a disk or tooth harrow before seeding and the seed covered with a weeder after seeding two or three pounds of seed per acre. On plowed ground seed should be broadcast at the rate of 1% to 2 pounds to the acre and covered with a weeder. It is desirable to mix the seed with one-half bushel of slacked ashes or earth, as is done with turnip seed, in order to secure a uniform distribution. Seed spot sowing requires less seed than broadcast. Droppings can be done either like corn or peas at places 4 by 4 feet, or furrows can be laid off four feet apart, the seed dropped at distances of 4 feet in the furrows and lightly covered ^ to % inch with earth. The soil can be either plowed or unplowed. Plowing is seldom justified. On smooth, clean, sandy land where there are few bushes, stumps, or little sod, it is possible to plant with a horse corn or pea-planter, such as the Cole com- bination planter. A plate with one small hole can be used which will drop several seed every 4 feet. The seed should be thoroughly mixed with dry ashes. It is necessary to adjust plow point and coverer so that the seed are covered the necessary depth. On rough soil a hand corn- planter can be used, adjusted for the small pine seed. If planting is done by hand the soil should be loosened with a mattock for 6 inches square and to a depth of 3 to 5 inches and from 10 to 15 seed should be dropped in each spot and covered not more than one-half inch. From one to two pounds of seed is ample for seed spot planting. On most portions of the sandy longleaf pine lands the conditions permit the use of a planter. Since from 3 to 6 acres of land can be planted in a day by this means, the planting of these lands in loblolly pine, at a total cost of planting of $2 to $3 an acre, would be, with adequate pro- tection from fire, advisable from an investment standpoint. It is nec- essary in all plantations to furnish absolute protection against fire. Advisability of Loblolly Pine Planting. At the present prices of pine stumpage it is possible to grow loblolly pine in plantations profitably in places where land of good growing capacity can be purchased cheaply. Plantations should never be made on land which naturally stocks in pine, since in such a case the cost of planting adds unnecessary expense. Neither should it be undertaken on land which has a value greater than $10 an acre. If the land has a value of $10 an acre and a producing capacity equal to that of upland old fields of good quality, about Quality Site II, and the cost of seed spot LOBLOLLY OB NOKTH CAROLINA PINE. 169 planting, including seed and labor, does not exceed $3 an acre, the cost of growing 1,000 board feet of timber under an interest rate of 6 per cent a year, in an unthinned stand, is as shown in Table 80. TABLE 80. COST PER 1,000 BOARD FEET OF GROWING LOBLOLLY PINE IN PLANTATIONS. QUALITY II. Age of stand Years _Accumulated costs on an initial investment of $13 an acre, interest at 6 per cent a year, less the value of the land Yield of stand in board feet Cost of growing stumpage per 1,000 board feet Value (Jan. 1913)*per 1,000 feet B. M., of stumpage based on Quality II, operating cost $13 per 1,000 30 $ 64.62 16,000 $ 4.04 $ 2.50 35 89.84 21,850 4.10 2.60 40 123 .77 26,850 4.58 2.85 45 168.88 30,850 5.45 3.20 Plantations can be made consequently with an initial investment of $13 an acre with the expectation of netting at least 5 per cent, com- pounded, provided there is an increase of $1.50 per 1,000 feet in the price of stumpage in a stand at 35 years; an increase of $1.75 in a stand at 40 years old, and an increase of $2.25 in a stand at 45 years. The increase of $1.50 in 35 years is less than % of one per cent a year on the present value of stumpage per 1,000 feet. The cost of growing on other quality sites can be easily calculated by means of Table 38. The present value of stumpage can be approximated from Tables 59 to 64. Tn case stands are thinned the cost of growing is affected as shown in Table 79. PUBLICATIONS OF THE NORTH CAROLINA GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY BULLETINS. 1. Iron Ores of North Carolina, by Henry B. C. Nitze, 1893. 8, 239 pp., 20 pi., and map. Out of print. 2. Building and Ornamental Stones in North Carolina, by T. L. Watson and F. B. Laney in collaboration with George P. Merrill, 1906. 8, 283 pp., 32 pi., 2 figs. Postage 25 cents. Cloth-bound copy 30 cents extra. 3.' Gold Deposits in North Carolina, by Henry B. C. Nitze and George B. Hanna, 1896. 8, 196 pp., 14 pi., and map. Out of print. 4. Road Material and Road Construction in North Carolina, by J. A. Holmes and William Cain, 1893. 8, 88 pp. Out of print. 5. The Forests, Forest Lands and Forest Products of Eastern North Caro- lina, by W. W. Ashe, 1894. 8, 128 pp., 5 pi. Postage 5 cents. 6. The Timber Trees of North Carolina, by Gifford Pinchot and W. W. Ashe, 1897. 8, 227 pp., 22 pi. Out of print. 7. Forest Fires: Their Destructive Work, Causes and Prevention, by W. W. Ashe, 1895. 8, 66 pp., 1 pi. Postage 5 cents. 8. Water-powers in North Carolina, by George F. Swain, Joseph A. Holmes and E. W. Myers, 1899. 8, 362 pp., 16 pi. Postage 16 cents. 9. Monazite and Monazite Deposits in North Carolina, by Henry B. C. Nitze, 1895. 8, 47 pp., 5 pi. Out of print. 10. Gold Mining in North Carolina and other Appalachian States, by Henry B. C. Nitze and A. J. Wilkins, 1897. 8, 164 pp., 10 pi. Out of print. 11. Corundum and the Basic Magnesian Rocks of Western North Carolina, by J. Volney Lewis, 1895. 8, 107 pp., 6 pi. Out of print. 12. History of the Gems Found in North Carolina, by George Frederick Kunz, 1907. 8, 60 pp., 15 pi. Postage 8 cents. Cloth-bound copy SO cents extra. 13. Clay Deposits and Clay Industries in North Carolina, by Heinrich Ries, 1897. 8, 157 pp., 12 pi. Postage 10 cents. 14. The Cultivation of the Diamond-back Terrapin, by R. E. Coker, 1906. 8, 67 pp., 23 pi., 2 figs. Out of print. 15. Experiments in Oyster Culture in Pamlico Sound, North Carolina, by Robert E. Coker, 1907. 8, 74 pp., 17 pi., 11 figs. Postage 6 cents. 16. Shade Trees for North Carolina, by W. W. Ashe, 1908. 8, 74 pp., 10 pi., 16 figs. Postage 6 cents. 17. Terracing of Farm Lands, by W. W. Ashe, 1908. 8, 38 pp., 6 pi., 2 figs. Postage 4 cents. 18. Bibliography of North Carolina Geology, Mineralogy and Geography, with a list of Maps, by Francis Baker Laney and Katherine Hill Wood, 1909. 8, 428 pp. Postage 25 cents. Cloth-bound copy SO cents extra. 19. The Tin Deposits of the Carolinas, by Joseph Hyde Pratt and Douglas B. Sterrett, 1905. 8, 64 pp., 8 figs. Postage 4 cents. 20. Water-powers of North Carolina: An Appendix to Bulletin 8, 1910. 8, 383 pp. Postage 25 cents. 21. The Gold Hill Mining District of North Carolina, by Francis Baker Laney, 1910. 8, 137 pp., 23 pi., 5 figs. Postage 15 cents. 22. A Report on the Cid Mining District, Davidson County, N. C., by J. E. Pogue, Jr., 1911. 8, 144 pp., 22 pi., 5 figs. Postage 15 cents. 23. Forest Conditions in Western North Carolina, by J. S. Holmes 1911. 8, 115 pp., 8 pi. Postage 15 cents. 172 LOBLOLLY OK NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 24. Loblolly or North Carolina Pine, by W. W. Ashe, Forest Inspector, U. S. Forest Service (and former Forester of the North Carolina Geological and Economic Survey). Pepared in Cooperation with the Forest Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1914. 8, 176 pp., 27 plates, 5 figs. Postage 10 cents. ECONOMIC PAPERS. 1. The Maple sugar Industry in Western North Carolina, by W. W. Ashe, 1897. 8, 34 pp. Postage 2 cents. 2. Recent Road Legislation in North Carolina, by J. A. Holmes. Out of print. 3. Talc and Pyrophyllite Deposits in North Carolina, by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1900. 8, 29 pp., 2 maps. Postage 2 cents. 4. The Mining Industry in North Carolina During 1900, by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1901. 8, 36 pp., and map. Postage 2 cents. Takes up in some detail Occurrences of Goll, Silver, Lead and Zinc, Copper, Iron Mangan- ese, Corundum, Granite, Mica, Talc, Pyrophyllite, Graphite, Kaolin, Gem Minerals, Monazite, Tungsten, Building Stones, and Coal in North Carolina. 5. Road Laws of North Carolina, by J. A. Holmes. Out of print. 6. The Mining Industry in North Carolina During 1901, by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1902. 8, 102 pp. Postage 4 cents. Gives a List of Minerals found in North Carolina; describes the Treatment of Sulphuret Gold Ores, giving localities; takes up the Occurrence of Copper in the Virgilina, Gold Hill, and Ore Knob districts; gives Occurrence and Uses of Corundum; a List of Garnets, describ- ing Localities; the Occurrence, Associated Minerals, Uses and Localities of Mica; the Occur- rence of North Carolina Feldspar, with Analyses; an extended description of North Carolina Gems and Gem Minerals; Occurrences of Monazite, Barytes, Ocher ; describes and gives Oc- currences of Graphite and Coal; describes and gives Occurrences of Building Stones, including Limestone ; describes and gives Uses for the various forms of Clay ; and under the head of "Other Economic Minerals," describes and gives Occurrences of Chromite, Asbestos and Zircon. 7. Mining Industry in North Carolina During 1902, by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1903. 8, 27 pp. Out of print. 8. The Mining Industry in North Carolina During 1903, by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1904. 8, 74 pp. Postage 4 cents. Gives descriptions of Mines worked for Gold in 1903; descriptions of Properties worked for Copper during 1903, together with assay of ore from Twin-Edwards Mine; Analyses of Limon- ite ore from Wilson Mine; the Occurrence of Tin; in some detail the Occurrences of Abrasives; Occurrences of Monazite and Zircon; Occurrences and Varieties of Graphite, giving Methods of Cleaning; Occurrences of Marble and other forms of Limestone; Analyses of Kaolin from Barber Creek, Jackson County, North Carolina. 9. The Mining Industry in North Carolina During 1904, by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1905. 8, 95 pp. Postage 4 cents. Gives Mines Producing Gold and Silver during 1903 and 1904 and Sources of the Gold Produced during 1904; describes the mineral Chromite, giving Analyses of Selected Samples of Chromite from Mines in Yancey County ; describes Commercial Varieties of Mica, giving the manner in which it occurs in North Carolina, Percentage of Mica in the Dikes, Methods of Mining, Associated Minerals, Localities, Uses; describes the mineral Barytes, giving Method of Cleaning and Preparing Barytes for Market; describes the use of Monazite as used in connec- tion with the Preparation of the Bunsen Burner, and goes into the use of Zircon in connection with the Nernst Lamp, giving a List of the Principal Yttrium Minerals; describes the minerals containing Corundum Gems, Hiddenite and Other Gem Minerals, and gives New Occurrences of these Gems; describes the mineral Graphite and gives new Uses for same. 10. Oyster Culture in North Carolina, by Robert E. Coker, 1905. 8, 39 pp. Out of print. 11. The Mining Industry in North Carolina During 1905, by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1906. 8, 95 pp. Postage 4 cents. Describes the mineral Cobalt and the principal minerals that contain Cobalt; Corundum Localities; Monazite and Zircon in C9nsiderable detail, giving Analyses of Thorianite; describes Tantalum Minerals and gives description of the Tantalum Lamp; gives brief description of Peat Deposits; the manufacture of Sand-lime Brick; Operations of Concentrating Plant in Black Sand Investigations; gives Laws Relating to Mines, Coal Mines, Mining, Mineral Inter- est in Land, Phosphate Rock, Marl Beds. 12. Investigations Relative to the Shad Fisheries of North Carolina, by John N. Cobb, 1906. 8, 74 pp., 8 maps. Postage 6 cents. 13. Report of Committee on Fisheries in North Carolina. Compiled by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1906. 8, 78 pp. Out of print. 14. The Mining Industry in North Carolina During 1906, by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1907. 8, 144 pp., 20 pi., and 5 figs. Postage 10 cents. Under the head of "Recent Changes in Gold Mining in North Carolina," gives methods of mining, describing Log Washers, Square Sets, Cyanide Plants, etc., and detailed descriptions LOBLOLLY OE NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 173 of Gold Deposits and Mines are given; Copper Deposits of Swain County are described; Mica Deposits of western North Carolina are described, giving distribution and General Character, General Geology, Occurrence, Associated Minerals, Mining and Treatment of Mica, Origin, together with a description of many of the mines; Monazite is taken up in considerable detail as to Location and Occurrence, Geology, including classes of Rocks, Age, Associations, Weath- ering, method of Mining and Cleaning, description of Monazite in Original Matrix. 15. The Mining Industry in North Carolina During 1907, by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1908. 8, 176 pp., 13 pi., and 4 figs. Postage 15 cents. Takes up in detail the Copper of the Gold Hill Copper District; a description of the Uses of Monazite and its Associated Minerals; descriptions of Ruby, Emerald, Beryl, Hiddenite, and Amethyst Localities; a detailed description with Analyses of the Principal Mineral Springs of North Carolina; a description of the Peat Formations in North Carolina, together with a de- tailed account of the Uses of Peat and the Results of an Experiment Conducted by the United States Geological Survey on Peat from Elizabeth City, North Carolina. 16. Report of Convention called by Governor R. B. Glenn to Investigate the Fishing Industries in North Carolina, compiled by Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, 1908. 8, 45 pp. Out of print. 17. Proceedings of Drainage Convention held at New Bern, North Carolina, September 9, 1908. Compiled by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1908. 8, 94 pp. Out of print. 18. Proceedings of Second Annual Drainage Convention held at New Bern, North Carolina, November 11 and 12, 1909, compiled by Joseph Hyde Pratt, and containing North Carolina Drainage Law, 1909. 8, 50 pp. Out of print. 19. Forest Fires in North Carolina During 1909, by J. S. Holmes, Forester, 1910. 8, 52 pp., 9 pi. Out of print. 20. Wood-using Industries of North Carolina, by Roger E. Simmons, under the direction of J. S. Holmes and H. S. Sackett, 1910. 8, 74 pp., 6 pi. Postage 7 cents. 21. Proceedings of the Third Annual Drainage Convention, held under Auspices of the North Carolina Drainage Association; and the North Carolina Drainage Law (codified). Compiled by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1911. 8, 67 pp., 3 pi. Out of print. 22. Forest Fires in North Carolina During 1910, by J. S. Holmes, Forester, 1911. 8, 48 pp. Out of print. 23. Mining Industry in North Carolina During 1908, '09, and '10, by Joseph Hyde Pratt and Miss H. M. Berry, 1911. 8, 134 pp., 1 pi., 27 figs. Postage 10 cents. Gives report on Virgilina Copper District of Nprth Carolina and Virginia, by F. B. Laney; Detailed report on Mica Deposits of North Carolina, by Douglas B. Sterrett; Detailed report on Monazite, by Douglas B. Sterrett; Reports on various Gem Minerals, by Douglas B. Ster- rett; Information and Analyses concerning certain Mineral Springs; Extract from Chance Report of the Dan River and Deep River Coal Fields; Some notes on the Peat Industry, by Professor Charles A. Davis; Extract from report of Arthur Keith on the Nantahala Marble; Description of the manufacture of Sand-lime Brick. 24. Fishing Industry of North Carolina, by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1911. 8, 44 pp. Out of print. 25. Proceedings of Second Annual Convention of the North Carolina For- estry Association, held at Raleigh, North Carolina, February 21, 1912. Forest Fires in North Carolina During 1911. Suggested Forestry Legislation. Com- piled by J. S. Holmes, Forester, 1912. 8, 71 pp. Postage 5 cents. 26. Proceedings of Fourth Annual Drainage Convention, held at Elizabeth City, North Carolina, November 15 and 16, 1911, compiled by Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, 1912. 8, 45 pp. Postage 3 cents. 27. Highway Work in North Carolina, containing a Statistical Report of Road Work during 1911 by Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, and Miss H. M. Berry, Secretary, 1912. 8, 145 pp., 11 figs. Postage 10 cents. 28. Culverts and Small Bridges for Country Roads in North Carolina, by C. R. Thomas and T. F. Hickerson, 1912. 8, 56 pp., 14 figs., 20 pi. Postage 10 cents. 29. Report of the Fisheries Convention held at New Bern, N. C., December 13, 1911, compiled by Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, together with a Compendium of the Stenographic Notes of the Meetings Held on the Two trips taken by the Legislative Fish Committee Appointed by the General As- 174 LOBLOLLY OK NORTH CAROLINA PISTE. sembly of 1909, and the Legislation Recommended by this Committee, 1912. 8, 302 pp. Postage 15 cents. 30. Proceedings of the Annual Convention of the North Carolina Good Roads Association held at Charlotte, N. C., August 1 and 2, 1912, in Coopera- tion with the North Carolina Geological and Economic Survey. Compiled by Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, and Miss H. M. Berry, Secretary, 1912. 8, 109 pp. Postage 10 cents. 31. Proceedings of Fifth Annual Drainage Convention held at Raleigh, N. C., November 26 and 27, 1912. Compiled by Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist. 8, 56 pp., 6 pi. Postage 5 cents. 32. Public Roads are Public Necessities, by Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, 1913. 8, 62 pp. Postage 5 cents. 33. Forest Fires in North Carolina during 1912 and National and Associa- tion Cooperative Fire Control, by J. S. Holmes, Forester, 1913. 8, 63 pp. Postage 5 cents. 34. Mining Industry in North Carolina during 1911-12, by Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, 1914. 8, 314 pp., 23 pi., 12 figs. Postage 30 cents. Gives detailed report on Gold Mining in various counties with special report on Metal- lurgical Processes used at the lola Mine, by Claud Haf er ; description of a Cyanide Mill, by Percy Barbour; The new Milling Process for treating North Carolina Siliceous Gold Ores at the Montgomery Mine, including a description of the Uwarrie Mining Company's Plant; notes on the Carter Mine, Montgomery County, by Claud Hafer; also a description of the Howie Mine and its mill; a detailed report on the Coggins (Appalachian) Gold Mine, by Joseph Hyde Pratt; a list of gems and gem minerals occurring in the United States; special descriptions of Localities where the Amethyst, Beryl, Emerald, and Quartz Gems Occur as taken from United States Geological Survey Report by Douglas B. Sterrett; a report on the Dan River Coal Field, by R. W. Stone, as reprinted from Bulletin 471-B of the United States Geological Survey; a special report on Graphite, by Edson S. Bastin and reprinted from Min- eral Resources of United States for 1912 ; a special report on Asbestos describing both the Amphibole and Chrysotile varieties; a report on the Mount Airy Granite Quarry; special report on Sand and Gravel, giving Uses, Definitions of Various Sands, etc. ; the portion of a Bulletin on Feldspar and Kaolin of the United States Bureau of Mines, which relates to North Carolina, and which takes up in detail Occurrences, Methods of Mining, and Descriptions of Localities of Feldspar and Kaolin mines in North Carolina, prepared by Mr. A. S. Watts. In this Eco- nomic Paper are also given the names and addresses of Producers of the various minerals during the years covered by the report. 35. Good Roads Days, November 5th and 6th, 1913, compiled by Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, and Miss H. M. Berry, Secretary. 8, 102 pp., 11 pi. Postage 10 cents. 36. Proceedings of the North Carolina Good Roads Association, held at Morehead City, N. C., July 31st and August 1st, 1913. In Cooperation with the North Carolina Geological and Economic Survey. Statistical Report of Highway Work in North Carolina during 1912. Compiled by Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, and Miss H. M. Berry, Secretary. 8, 127 pp., 7 figs. Postage 10 cents. 37. Forest Fires in North Carolina During 1913 and a Summary of State Forest Fire Prevention in the United States, by J. S. Holmes, Forester, 1914. 8, 82 pp. Postage 8 cents. 38. Forms covering the Organization of Drainage Districts under the North Carolina Drainage Law, Chapter 442, Public Laws of 1909, and Amendments. And Forms for Minutes of Board of Drainage Commissioners covering the Organization of the Board up to and Including the Issuing of the Drainage Bonds. Compiled by Geo. R. Boyd, Drainage Engineer, 1914. 8, 133 pp.' Postage 10 cents. 39. Proceedings of the Good Roads Institute held at the University of North Carolina, March 17-19, 1914. Held under the auspices of the Departments of Civil and Highway Engineering of the University of North Carolina and The North Carolina Geological and Economic Survey, 1914. 8, 117 pp., 15 figs., 4 pi. Postage 10 cents. VOLUMES. Vol. I. Corundum and the Basic Magnesian Rocks in Western North Caro- lina, by Joseph Hyde Pratt and J. Volney Lewis, 1905. 8, 464 pp., 44 pi., 35 figs. Postage 32 cents. Cloth-bound copy 30 cents extra. Vol. II. Fishes of North Carolina, by H. M. Smith, 1907. 8, 453 pp., 21 pi., 188 figs. Postage 30 cents. LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 175 Vol. III. The Coastal Plain Deposits of North Carolina, by William Bullock Clark, Benjamin L. Miller, L. W. Stephenson, B. L. Johnson and Horatio N. Parker, 1912. 8, 509 pp., 62 pi., 21 figs. Postage 85 cents. Pt. I. The riiy.Mography and Geology of the Coastal Plain of North Carolina, by Wm. Bullock Clark, Benjamin L. Miller, and L. W. Stephenson. Pt. II. The Water Resources of the Coastal Plain of North Carolina, by L. W. Steph- enson and B. L. Johnson. Vol. IV. Birds of North Carolina. In press. BIENNIAL REPORTS. First Biennial Report, 1891-1892, J. A. Holmes, State Geologist, 1893. 8, 111 pp., 12 pi., 2 figs. Postage 6 cents. Administrative report, giving Object and Organization of the Survey; Investigations of Iron Ores, Building Stone, Geological Work in Coastal Plain Region, including supplies of drinking waters in eastern counties, Report on Forests and Forest Products, Coal and Marble, Investigations of Diamond Drill Biennial Report 1893-1894, J. A. Holmes, State Geologist, 1894. 8 15 pp. Postage 1 cent. Administrative report. Biennial Report, 1895-1896, J. A. Holmes, State Geologist, 1896. 8, 17 pp. Postage 1 cent. Administrative report. Biennial Report, 1897-1898, J. A. Holmes, State Geologst, 1898. 8, 28 pp. Postage 2 cents. Administrative report. Biennial Report, 1899-1900, J. A. Holmes, State Geologist, 1900. 8, 20 pp. Postage 2 cents. Administrative report. Biennial Report 1901-1902, J. A. Holmes, State Geologist, 1902. 8, 15 pp. Postage 1 cent. Administrative report. Biennial Report, 1903-1904, J. A. Holmes, State Geologist, 1905. 8, 32 pp. Postage 2 cents. Administrative report. Biennial Report, 1905-1906, Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, 1907. 8, 60 pp. Postage 3 cents. Administrative report; report on certain swamp lands belonging to the State, by W. W. Ashe; it also gives certain magnetic observations at North Carolina stations. Biennial Report, 1907-1908, Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, 1908. 8. 60 pp., 2 pi. Postage 5 cents. Administrative report. Contains Special Report on an examination of the Sand Banks along the North Carolina Coast, by Jay F. Bond, Forest Assistant, United States Forest Serv- ice; certain magnetic observations at North Carolina stations; Results of an Investigation Relating to Clam Cultivation, by Howard E. Enders of Purdue University. Biennial Report 1909-1910, Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, 1911. 8, 152 pp. Postage 10 cents. Administrative report, and contains Agreements for Cooperation in Statistical Work, and Topographical and Traverse Mapping Work with the United States Geological Survey; Forest Work with the United States Department of Agriculture (Forest Service) ; List of Topo- graphic maps of North Carolina and counties partly or wholly topographically mapped; de- scription of special Highways in North Carolina; 'suggested Road Legislation; list of Drainage Districts and Results of Third Annual Drainage Convention; Forestry reports relating to Connolly Tract, Buncombe County and Transylvania County State Farms; certain Watersheds; Reforestation of Cut-over and Abandoned Farm Lands on the Woodlands of the Salem Acad- emy and College; Recommendations for the Artificial Regeneration of Longleaf Pine at Pine- hurst; Act regulating the use of and for the Protection of Meridian Monuments and Standards of Measure at the several county seats of North Carolina; list of Magnetic Declinations at thp county seats, January 1, 1910; letter of Fish Commissioner of the United States Bureau of Fisheries relating to the conditions of the North Carolina fish industries; report of the Survey for the North Carolina Fish Commission referring to dutch or pound-net fishing in Albemarle and Croatan sounds and Chowan River, by Gilbert T. Rude, of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey; Historical Sketch of the several North Carolina Geological Surveys, with list of publications of each. Biennial Report, 1911-1912, Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, 1913. 8, 118 pp. Postage 7 cents. Administrative report, and contains reports on method of construction and estimate of cost of road improvement in Stantonsburg Township, Wilson County; report on road conditions in Lee County; report on preliminary location of section of Spartanburg-Hendersonville Highway 176 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. between Tryon and Tuxedo; report of road work done by U. S. Office of Public Roads during biennial period; experiments with glutrin on the sand-clay road; report on Central Highway, giving Act establishing and report of trip over this Highway; suggested road legislation; report on the Asheville Citv watershed; report on the Struan property at Arden, Buncombe County ; report on the woodlands on the farm of Dr. J. W. Kilgore, Iredell County ; report on examination of the woodlands on the Berry place, Orange County ; report on the forest prop- erty of Miss Julia A. Thome, Asheboro, Randolph County; report on the examination of the forest lands of the Butters Lumber Company, Columbus County ; proposed forestry legislation ; swamp lands and drainage, giving drainage districts; suggested drainage legislation; proposed Fisheries Commission bill. Biennial Report, 1913-1914, Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, 1915. 8, 190 pp. Postage 14 cents. Samples of any mineral found in the State may be sent to the office of the Geological and Economic Survey for identification, and the same will be clas- sified free of charge. It must be understood, however, that NO ASSAYS OB QUANTITATIVE DETEBMiNATioNS WILL BE MADE. Samples should be in a lump form if possible, and marked plainly on outside of package with name of sender, postoffice address, etc.; a letter should accompany sample and stamp should be enclosed for reply. These publications are mailed to libraries and to individuals who may desire information on any of the special subjects named, free of charge, except that in each case applicants for the reports should forward the amount of postage needed, as indicated above, for mailing the bulletins desired, to the State Geologist, Chapel Hill, N. C. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW 5w-10,'22 Ashe P58 Lobloll; T t or North A8 Carolina j ,ine. 1* UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY