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 BOARD OF TRADE. 
 
 DECEMBER GTH, 1902. 
 
 E E P R T 
 
 ON A 
 
 VISIT TO AMERICA, 
 
 September 19th to October 31st, 1902, 
 
 BY 
 
 LIEUT.-COLONEL H. A. YORKE, R.E., 
 
 CHIEF INSPECTING OFFICER OF RAILWAYS. 
 
 $rcscnicb to both Douses of ^parliament bji <2Iomm;tnb of ps 
 
 LONDON : 
 
 PRINTED FOE HIS MAJESTY'S STATIONERY OFFICE, 
 BY DARLING & SON, LTD., 34-40, BACON STREET, E. 
 
 And to be purchased, either directly or through any Bookseller, from 
 
 EYRE & SPOTTISWOODE, EAST HARDING STREET, FLEET STREET, E.C., 
 
 and 32, ABINGDON STREET, WESTMINSTER, S.W. ; 
 
 or OLIVER & BOYD, EDINBURGH; 
 or E. PONSONBY, 116, GRAFTON STREET. DUBLIN. 
 
 [Cd. 1466.] Price 5d. 
 
 1903. 
 
BPRECKELS 
 
 i 
 
REPORT 
 
 ON A 
 
 VISIT TO AMERICA, 
 
 September I9th to October 31st, 1902, 
 
 BY 
 
 LIEUT. -COLONEL H. A, YORKE, R.E. 
 
 CHIEF INSPECTING OFFICER OF RAILWAYS. BOARD OF TRADE. 
 
 TO THE RIGHT HONOURABLE GERALD W. BALFOUR, M.P., 
 PRESIDENT OF THE BOARD OF TRADE. 
 
 RAILWAY DEPARTMENT, 
 
 BOARD OF TRADE, 
 8 Richmond Terrace, Whitehall, S.W., 
 
 6th December, 1902. 
 SIR, 
 
 I HAVE the honour to forward herewith the diary of my movements and 
 investigations during my recent visit to the United States, made in pursuance 
 of your instructions, and to report briefly on some of the more important 
 matters that came under my notice. 
 
 I directed my attention chiefly to the construction and equipment of : 
 
 1. Steam railroads ; 
 
 2. Surface lines or tramways, subways, and elevated railways ; 
 
 3. High speed electric interurban railways ; 
 but incidentally I saw many other things of interest. 
 
 I. STEAM RAILROADS. 
 
 Construction. There is a fundamental difference between the modes of con- 
 struction of English and American railways. In England the bull-headed rail 
 resting in cast-iron chairs is almost universally adopted for lines of heavy 
 traffic. In America the T-rail or (as it is sometimes called in England) Vignoles 
 rail is invariably employed, the rail being secured to the sleepers or ties by means 
 of ordinary spikes. The Americans claim that their permanent way is easier 
 and quicker to lay, cheaper to maintain, smoother to run over, and as durable as 
 the English type. As regards weight of rails there is not much difference 
 between the two countries, the American engineers having now adopted 100-lb. 
 rails, with a base 6 ins. wide, as their standard for heavy lines, as against rails ot 
 80 Ibs. and 85 Ibs. which were formerly employed. Of course there are in the 
 States many lines with rails lighter than any of the above, but I am now 
 referring only to the more important lines, on which heavy rails are found 
 to be necessary. In England the weight of rails for main lines now varies 
 from 85 to 103 Ibs., e.g., those used by the London and North-Western Railway 
 
 1500 Wt 28508 3/03 D * S 1 14230r A 3 
 
 201530 
 
Company weigh from 90 to 1U3 Ibs. ; by the Great Western Railway Company 
 from 92 to 97| Ibs. ; by the Great Northern Railway Company 92 Ibs. ; and 
 by the London and South- Western Railway Company 85 Ibs. The English 
 railway chair weighs from 40 to 54 Ibs. 
 
 In America the number of sleepers or ties is greater than in England, but 
 the difference between. the practice of the two countries is not so great as is 
 sometime^ supposed. In America the average number of ties employed with 
 heavy rails is 14 or 16 to a 30-ft. length of rail, and 18 with light rails of the 
 same length. In England the number of .sleepers, used is 12 to a 30-ft. length of 
 heavy rail. The average dimensions of an American tie are, 8 ft. long, 8 ins. wide, 
 and 7 ins. deep. For a 30-ft. length of rail with 14 ties this gives a bearing 
 area as between the ties and ballast of 74'6 square ft., and with 16 ties, 85'3 
 square ft. 
 
 The dimensions of an English sleeper are, 9 ft. long, 10 ins. wide, and 5 ins. 
 deep. This gives a bearing area for the same length of track of 90 square ft. 
 The advantage in this respect is therefore with the English practice. 
 
 Again as regards the bearing area of the rails on the ties, the American 
 method with 14 ties gives 14 by 6 ins. by 8 ins. = 672 square ins. for one 30-ft. 
 rail, or with 16 ties, 768 square ins. The English chair for heavy rails has a base 
 of 105 square ins., so that 12 of these give a total area of 12 by 105, or 1,260 
 square ins. Here again the advantage is with the English method. 
 
 It must however be noted that the American ties are of hard wood, such as 
 oak or chestnut, and are therefore better able to resist the pressure of the rails, 
 than the English sleepers of Baltic timber. 
 
 The lateral support afforded to the rails by the English chair is of the 
 greatest value especially on curves, and in America the absence of chairs renders 
 it necessary to use rail braces, which are of the nature of small steel brackets or 
 struts, to support the rails at any place, such as a curve or switch, where there is 
 much lateral pressure. It is also usual in many places to employ bearing plates, 
 or tie plates, between the rails and the ties so as to increase the bearing of the 
 rail on the tie and to afford mutual support to the spikes. The effect of these 
 tie plates however is to shear off the heads of the spikes. The fact that these 
 additions are found to be necessary, shows that the American mode of construc- 
 tion is lacking in certain elements of stability, which are inherent in the English 
 type of permanent way. 
 
 The Americans do not place their rail joints opposite each other as we do in 
 England, and there is a good deal to. be said in favour of the American practice 
 in this respect. The joint is admittedly the weakest part ol the permanent way 
 both vertically and laterally, and it can hardly be doubted that it is an 
 advantage to make the rails break joint, so that the weak spot on one side of the 
 track, shall be supported by the continuous rail on the other side. 
 
 Perhaps the detail most open to criticism in the American permanent way 
 is the use of spikes, in the place of screws or fang bolts, to fasten the rails to the 
 ties. These are constantly working loose, and then have to be driven home 
 again. When this process has been often repeated, the holding power of the 
 spikes must be diminished. But with hard wood ties this defect is not so serious 
 as it would be with the soft wood sleepers used in England. In fact hard wood 
 seems to be essential for the American style of permanent way. If this be so, 
 there would probably be no economy in England in adopting American practice, 
 for the extra cost of the ties would more than balance any saving due to the 
 omission of chairs. The American road would, I consider, be vastly improved, 
 if some form of fang bolt with rail clips were used instead of spikes, for fastening 
 the rails to the ties. 
 
 As to the cost of maintenance, I cannot help thinking that the English 
 method must give the best results, but many factors, such as the difference in 
 the prices of labour and materials, and in the nature of the traffic, have to be 
 taken into account. 
 
 : . The ballasting of the heavy lines in America, so far as I saw them, is as 
 good as anything to be found in England, and there is no doubt that as a rule 
 
railway travelling in America 'is smooth and quiet, a feature which, though 
 partly due to the road, may be also partly attributable to the invariable use of 
 long and heavy brgie coaches. 
 
 Movable frogs or crossings are largely used in America, and give general 
 satisfaction. In England they are almost unknown, though the London and 
 South-Western Railway Company are now experimenting with them. Their 
 advantage is that they abolish gaps in the rails, and therefore enable crossings to 
 be laid with much flatter angles than are possible with fixed crossings, besides 
 affording smoother running. The} 7 are not unlike a combination of facing and 
 trailing points, and are operated by levers in a signal cabin, and should be 
 interlocked with the signals. As they are heavy and require a considerable 
 force to operate them, they are specially suitable at places where a power plant 
 has been installed for operating the points and signals. 
 
 Spring frogs are also common, but opinion is divided as to their merits. 
 Some engineers assured me that they had no trouble with them, while others 
 say that the springs are liable to- break, and that under such conditions they 
 may cause a derailment. 
 
 Signalling. Signalling in America is in an inchoate condition, there being 
 no uniformity of practice throughout the country. Some portions of the 
 principal railroads are fully signalled, but on many others hardly any signals 
 are used, and even where signals are used, their shapes, colours, and meanings 
 vary upon different lines. Signals are divided into various classes in a manner 
 unknown in England, such as Automatic signals, Interlocking signals. Telegraph 
 block signals, Train order signals, &c. Similarly with block woi'king, only 
 about 2.5,000 miles out of a total mileage (measured as single track) of 200,000 
 are at present worked in America on the block system, but its use is being 
 gradually extended. Block working, however, is not so strictly interpreted as it 
 is in England ; two or more trains are constantly permitted to be in the same 
 section at the same time, and trains are allowed under certain conditions to 
 travel in either direction on either track, even where the lines are doubled or 
 quadrupled. On two occasions it occurred to the train in which I was travelling, 
 to be switched across from the proper track to the wrong track, without any 
 halt, and without any formalities other than the handing to the driver or 
 conductor of a train order, giving him instructions to travel on the wrong track, 
 regardless of opposing trains. On both occasions we travelled in this way for 
 several miles at a high rate of speed, there being of course no signals for 
 the guidance or control of the train. Such a mode of working must be 
 dangerous, as the least misunderstanding between the men who give and receive 
 the train order, or any negligence on their part must lead to an accident. 
 
 Single lines, which form the bulk of the railroads of America, are operated 
 almost entirely on the " train order " system, no train staff or tablet being used 
 as in England, there being no less than 13 standard forms of "train orders " in 
 use. The train order system was tried in England, and has long ago been 
 abandoned as troublesome and dangerous, and I believe that the American 
 train service would be probably conducted with greater punctuality and economy 
 and certainly with greater safety, if the electric staff or tablet system were 
 introduced on the single lines. 
 
 For some time past American railroads have been using automatic 
 signalling, about which a great deal has been recently said in England. The 
 main (four track) lines of the Pennsylvania railroad between New York and 
 Pittsburgh are signalled in this fashion, and so are parts of several other 
 railways. The New York Central Company are also about to adopt it in the 
 neighbourhood of New York, and its use will doubtless extend. Recently in 
 England the London and South- Western Railway Company have equipped a 
 section of their line between Grateley and Andover with automatic signals, and 
 preparations are also being made on the North- Eastern railway for testing this 
 mode of signalling. 
 
 The most modern and satisfactory mode of applying the system is by 
 means of a "track circuit." A low tension current flows from a battery along 
 one rail of the track through a relay, and back to the battery along the second 
 
rail. The relay makes and breaks a local circuit, which by means of electro- 
 magnets controls the mechanism, electric or pneumatic or whatever it may be, 
 for operating the signals. When the current is flowing along the line the relay 
 completes the local circuit, and signal is held " off." When, however, an 
 engine or vehicle with metal wheels and axles is in the section a short circuit is 
 established in the track circuit, the relay becomes inoperative, the local circuit 
 is broken, and the signal returns to danger. By insulating the rail joints at 
 intervals, the line is divided into sections, to each of which a separate current is 
 supplied, and signals are placed at the commencement of each section, by means 
 of which the driver of an approaching train is informed whether the section 
 ahead is clear or not. It must be borne in mind that a fundamental difference 
 exists between " manual " signals, and " automatic " signals, in that the former 
 have human agency and human intelligence behind them, and convey a direct 
 order to a driver as to what he is to do, whereas the latter merely tell him the 
 line is clear for a short distance ahead. 
 
 In America the sections for this system of signalling vary in length 
 from about 700 yards to 1 5 300 yards, the average being 1,000 yards. As 
 at the commencement of each section two signals (a home and a distant) 
 are erected for each lino of rails, signals become exceedingly numerous, and 
 whereas the signals on American railroads have hitherto been too few, there 
 is now a risk of their becoming too many. Block working, at any rate 
 in England, means the maintenance of an adequate interval of space between 
 two trains travelling on the same track. Goods trains of great length are 
 now coming into use, and they are not infrequently as much as 800 yards 
 long. With trains of such dimensions the interval of space between two trains 
 may, if block sections are only 1,000 yards long, be as small as 200 yards, 
 which, except at very low speeds, cannot be regarded as adequate. Again, the 
 number of block sections into which a line requires to be divided depends on the 
 number of trains which it is desired to pass over it in a given time. With 
 block sections of 1,000 yards, and trains running at 60 miles an hour, the 
 interval of time, or, as the Americans call it, the " headway " between them may 
 be only 34 seconds, which is clearly impracticable and dangerous. Even at a 
 speed of 20 miles an hour the headway may be only 1 min. 42 sees., and at 10 
 miles an hour, 3 mins. 24 sees., and as it can only occur at starting points or at 
 terminal stations that it is necessary for trains to follow each other at such 
 brief intervals as these, it is difficult to see the advantage of such very short 
 sections in other parts of a line, where trains have to travel at speed, and where 
 fast trains are mixed up with slow. Signals placed at such short distances apart 
 are more likely to be confusing than helpful to drivers, whose confidence when 
 running at speed must also be lessened by the shortness of the block sections. 
 The only reason that I have been able to discover for the introduction of such 
 short block sections, is that " track circuits " do not work well on sections of 
 greater length, but it is difficult to believe that this defect cannot be remedied. 
 
 A difficulty arises in England in connection with such signals, and that 
 is how to deal with them in time of fog. In America fogs are said to be rare, 
 at any rate no special precautions are taken to meet such an emergency. But here 
 it will be as necessary to provide means for " fogging " automatic signals as any 
 other signals. Men for the purpose Avill be difficult to find, and if mechanical 
 means are adopted for the purpose, the complication and weight of the signals 
 will be increased, and the mechanism will be more liable to fail. The effect 
 of climate and of weather upon automatic signals in England has yet to be 
 ascertained, and it must be remembered that a signal which fails at any time 
 to give a correct indication is likely to be a source of danger. Probably 
 the greatest risks are to be anticipated from snow, frost, and lightning, any 
 one of which may, under certain conditions, cause a signal to remain at " all 
 right," when it ought to be at " danger." Should that happen, a most serious 
 condition of affairs would exist, the results of which might be disastrous. Even 
 under normal conditions the reliability of automatic signals depends on the most 
 careful and trustworthy maintenance. In America, it is said, that the failures as 
 a rule, result in a signal remaining at i! danger," when it ought to be at safety, 
 and as this would be likely to cause delay to the traffic, drivers are instructed, 
 
7 ' 
 
 when they find such a signal at danger, to bring their trains to a stand, and 
 then to proceed forward at caution, without waiting for the signal to be 
 lowered. This rule may be unavoidable, but* it is easy to see that sooner or 
 later it must result in two trains being in the same section at one and the same 
 time, which defeats the whole object of block working. Telephonic com- 
 munication is usually provided, telephones being placed on every second or 
 third signal post, so that in case of a break down, the trainmen can communicate 
 with the nearest signal box. 
 
 In England the problem is further complicated by the existence of 
 numerous industrial sidings on the main lines, the points and signals of which 
 must necessarily be interlocked with the automatic signals, arid require human 
 agency to operate them. 
 
 There is something attractive about the term " automatic signalling," and 
 the conclusion is sometimes hastily arrived at, that its adoption will immediately 
 effect increased safety, greater economy and simplicity of operation, a reduction 
 of expenses, and larger dividends. But the cost of installing a system of 
 automatic signalling is great, involving as it does the erection of a power 
 plant, electric or pneumatic, to supply the power for operating the signals, 
 the laying of pipes, conduits, or cables for the entire length of the line for 
 conveying the power to the signals, the provision of numerous wires, batteries, 
 and relays tor controlling the power, and the erection of a great number of 
 signals, and the bridges or posts supporting them. .Moreover, if the system 
 is to take the place of an existing installation of manual signals, it is to be 
 remembered that the whole of the latter has to be " scrapped." A considerable 
 advantage, such as a large saving of wages, and a largely increased capacity 
 of the railway must therefore be assured, in order to justify the outlay. 
 
 Automatic signalling does not of itself introduce greater safety of operation. 
 It is merely a labour-saving device. No doubt it eliminates the risks due to 
 mistakes of signalmen, but it introduces other risks peculiar to itself, due either 
 to inefficient maintenance, to failure of the mechanism, to weather, and to 
 accidents of various sorts. Moreover, the chief object of a system of automatic 
 signalling must be to enable more trains to pass over a given section of the line 
 in a given time, and more trains under such conditions necessarily involve 
 increased chances of accident. 
 
 From what has been said it will be seen that the whole question of automatic 
 signalling requires to be further considered before its applicability to main lines 
 in England can be thoroughly ascertained, and the results of the trials of the 
 system upon the London and South Western and North Eastern Railways, will 
 be of the greatest value in the investigation of the subject. 
 
 But in " tubes," subways, tunnels, and especially on electrically operated 
 railways, on which speeds are uniform, junctions and sidings are few and far 
 between, sections short, and which are self-contained, automatic signalling will 
 undoubtedly prove exceedingly useful, and some of the railways in London now 
 being equipped for electric traction are to be signalled in this fashion. 
 
 Power icorking of Points and Signals. The application of some form of 
 power, pneumatic or electric, to the operation of points and signals, is becoming 
 a common feature in America at places where large signal cabins are necessary. 
 Such installations possess many advantages, reducing the physical labour to a 
 minimum, and rendering it possible to employ fewer men. They also economise 
 space and abolish all rods and wires from the station yards. The chief, if not the 
 only, objection to them is their cost, which in the first instance is much greater 
 than that of an ordinary manual plant, and it is simply a matter of calculation 
 whether at any particular place the economies to be derived from such an 
 apparatus balance the initial cost. There are two systems in general use, viz., 
 the electro-pneumatic and the low pressure pneumatic. In the former the 
 movement of the points or signals is effected by air at 75 Ibs. pressure, which is 
 admitted to cylinders containing pistons connected to the switches (or signals) 
 by means of valves which are controlled by electric currents. In the latter the 
 mechanism is operated by air at 15 Ibs. pressure, the valves being controlled by 
 
8 
 
 a secondary air supply at 7 Ibs. pressure. In England a large installation of a 
 similar nature has lately been erected by the London and North Western 
 Railway at Crewe in which the motive power, as well as the controlling agency, 
 is electricity. The North Eastern Railway and Lancashire and Yorkshire 
 Railway Companies are at the same time about to test the electro-pneumatic 
 system, and the London and South Western Railway Company are trying 
 the low pressure air method. It will therefore soon be possible to compare the 
 results obtained by these three systems. 
 
 Hotting Stock. Probably the feature of American railways which at first 
 sight makes the most impression on a stranger is the colossal size of the engines 
 and cars employed thereon, and to this is due much of the correspondence: which 
 at intervals fills the columns of the pupers concerning American methods of 
 handling traffic. There is no doubt that the engines are very big, some of 
 them standing 16 ft. high above rail level, and many more of them 14 ft. 6 in. 
 and 15 ft. Such engines have great power and are able to haul trains of great 
 weight and length. In the early days of American railroads over-bridges and 
 tunnels were almost unknown, and now that such are being constructed, they 
 have to accommodate themselves to the rolling stock, instead of the rolling stock 
 to the bridges, as in England. In America over-bridges are built 18 ft. above 
 rail level, whereas in England the height of such works is as a rule only 14 ft. 
 3 ins. above the rails. Moreover, on double lines in the States the space 
 between the tracks is 7 ft., against 6 ft. in England. It can therefore be 
 understood that what is possible in the one country is impossible in the other, 
 and we can never hope in England to equal America, in the size of our engines 
 or cars. 
 
 A great deal lias recently been said about the long freight cars used in 
 America, and English railway managers have been criticised for not adopting 
 cars of equal dimensions in this country. I think some misapprehension 
 occasionally arises on the subject. The important factor in the case is not the 
 length of the car, but the carrying capacity of the car in relation to its weight. 
 American freight cars are all carried on bogies, and as a rule there are eight 
 wheels to a car. Their carrying capacity varies from 30 to 50 tons, and their 
 " tare " weight from 15 to 20 tons. One of the most popular forms of car at 
 the present time appears to be the 50 ft. steel framed car with a capacity of 
 50 tons (of 2,000 Ibs.) and a tare of about 20 tons, the total weight per axle 
 being 17 tons 10 cwt. So long as these proportions are adhered to it makes no 
 difference, so far as the cost of transportation is concerned, whether the load is 
 carried in one car with eight wheels or in two cars with four wheels each. 
 That is to say, the result will be the same if, instead of one car of the size and 
 weight mentioned, two cars are employed, each with a capacity of 25 tons and 
 a tare of 10 tons, and each having four wheels. Not all the cars in America 
 offer such favourable conditions as those just mentioned. The box cars have 
 as a rule a carrying capacity of 30 to 40 tons and a tare of 16 to 18 tons ; the 
 paying load in these cases having a less proportion to the dead load than is the 
 case with the 50 ton cars. 
 
 There are serious difficulties in the way of introducing for general service 
 in England wagons of great length. The sidings, goods sheds, weigh 
 bridges, turn tables, coal tips, screens, &c. are as a rule quite unsuitable for 
 wagons of the dimensions named, to say nothing of the usual conditions of 
 trade which are based on the present style of vehicle. It is sometimes 
 suggested that English companies should forthwith reconstruct the whole of 
 these works and appliances, but no one has as yet estimated what the cost of 
 such alterations would amount to. It is probably incalculable, and the question 
 arises, whether after all this vast expenditure had been incurred and the whole 
 trade of the country had been disorganised during the transition period, the 
 saving in handling the traffic would pay the interest on the outlay. 
 
 The four-wheeled wagon will therefore in all probability remain the 
 standard wagon of the country, and economy is to be sought in improving the 
 design of such wagons and increasing their carrying capacity in relation to their 
 tare, rather than iu introducing wagons of greater length. 
 
There is no reason why this should not be done, in fact it lias already been 
 accomplished on some railways. Both the London and North- Western Railway 
 and the Great Western Companies Railway have lately built four wheeled 
 wagons, having a capacity of 20 tons, and a tare of about eight tons, which 
 gives the same proportion of paying load to dead load, as an American car of 
 50 tons capacity. 
 
 Another argument against the employment of very long cars or wagons is, 
 that in the case of a derailment or collision the results would be more serious, 
 and the removal of the wreckage would be a much more difficult operation 
 than at present. 
 
 There is also the difficulty to be considered due to the private ownership of 
 the bulk of the wagons used upon English railways. This, though serious, need 
 not perhaps be regarded as insuperable, as if the railway companies throughout 
 the Kingdom were unanimous in adopting wagons of a new design, means could 
 be found, perhaps with the assistance of the Legislature, either to abolish 
 privately owned wagons, or else to compel the owners thereof to adopt 
 whatever type of wagon was found to be beneficial to the trade of the country. 
 
 It is not suggested that long wagons will never be used, as it is evident 
 that for some purposes such wagons are desirable or even necessary. But for 
 ordinary trade purposes in this country the four-wheeled wagon, of improved 
 design and increased capacity is, I believe^ the best suited. 
 
 The wheels of American cars, both passenger and freight, are smaller than 
 those used in England, being only 33 inches in diameter, instead of 86 inches 
 as in England. It seems worth consideration, whether 33-inch wheels might 
 not with advantage be introduced in England for goods wagons. This would 
 enable an additional depth of 3 inches to be given to the wagons thereby 
 increasing their capacity without adding to their height, and would at the same 
 time lessen their weight, and effect some economy in their first cost. All 
 the wheels of American freight cars, and occasionally also of passenger cars, 
 are of cast iron with chilled rirns. They are not turned in a lathe or machined 
 in any way, but are used just as they come from the foundry. When the 
 wheels are worn out the manufacturing company takes them back at a fixed 
 price, breaks them up, and recasts them. The net cost of such wheels to the 
 railway company is, therefore, very small. Recently fractures of these cast 
 iron wheels have increased in number, and it is a question whether, as at 
 present made, they are suitable for the increased loads put upon them by 
 the introduction of heavy cars. Improved modes of manufacture may overcome 
 this defect, or wheels with cast iron centres and steel tyres or wheels wholly 
 of steel, may become necessary. 
 
 Couplings. The law of the American Congress relating to the use of 
 automatic couplings and air brakes on all freight trains engaged in inter-state 
 commerce came into full force on the 1st August, 1900, and the fifteenth annual 
 report of the Inter- Slate Commerce Commission, published in 1902, is a highly 
 interesting document. From this it appears that the coupling mechanism is still 
 far from perfect, especially in regard to the uncoupling attachments. Another 
 " common defect in couplers, and one which is the cause of much trouble and 
 expense to the railroads, is the breakage of the ' knuckle.' ' The Commissioners 
 are evidently not satisfied with the couplers as at present used, for the report 
 says, " it will be seen that the needs of the future, in respect to couplers, may 
 be described under the heads of strength, simplicity, and finish." 
 
 Air brakes. The same report contains some severe criticisms on " the 
 present condition of the air brakes on the freight cars of the country, the 
 lack of thorough training and discipline of the men in charge of trains, 
 and the insufficiency of the forces assigned to inspection and repair " ; the 
 result being that "some companies, more particularly in the east, are still 
 controlling trains on steep descending grades by the use of the hand brakes." 
 This is in accordance with what I saw" on the Pennsylvania Railroad, where 
 numerous heavy coal and goods trains were being taken down the Horse 
 Shoe incline by means of the hand brakes, the brakesmen having, in 
 consequence, to run about on the roofs of the cars while the trains were 
 
 13875 j 
 
10 
 
 in motion, a practice which is highly dangerous and a fruitful cause of 
 accident to the train men. One reason assigned for this non-use of the 
 air-brake on such inclines is that the driver may by repeated application 
 and release of the brakes exhaust all the air in the air reservoirs. It then 
 becomes necessary for him to re-charge them, and the doing so releases all 
 the brakes, during which time the train may gain a dangerous degree of speed, 
 and get beyond control. To overcome this difficulty ' ; retaining valves " have 
 been introduced for partially controlling the air pressure in the brake cylinders 
 during the process of re-charging the reservoirs. These retain a pressure of 
 lolbs in the cylinders during the time that the reservoirs are being recharged, 
 and are described in the report already alluded to as " a device for more 
 efficiently and safely controlling the speed of trains on steep descending 
 grades." " While under favourable conditions the air brake is efficient without 
 this auxiliary, its use is a valuable additional safeguard, and on very steep 
 grades it is a necessity." 
 
 Unfortunately the handles for operating these retaining valves are on the 
 roofs of the cars so that their use still renders it necessary for the train men to 
 be above. As the number of bridges over the railroads is increasing, the danger 
 to the men on the tops of high cars becomes greater, and a primitive arrange- 
 ment for their protection is a common feature on American railroads. This 
 consists of a rope supported on posts and stretched across the tracks on either 
 side of an overbridge. From this rope depend short vertical lengths of thinner 
 rope at close intervals, their lower ends being about the level of the underside 
 of the bridge. The idea is that a man on the top of a high car would be struck 
 by one of these ropes, and warned of the neighbourhood of the bridge in time to 
 avoid the danger. 
 
 The law does not render it obligatory on the companies to use the air 
 brake on all the cars of a freight train, but only on so many as will enable the 
 driver to have sufficient brake power at his disposal for controlling the train 
 down the inclines. This partial use of the air brake is a cause of accidents, for 
 when the brake is brought into operation on some of the cars of a train, the 
 cars not so braked are by their momentum forced against those that are braked, 
 with such violence as to crush, and sometimes derail one or more cars. The 
 law in this respect seems to require amendment. If the air brake is to be 
 used at all on freight trains, it should be operative on every car. 
 
 From the above facts it will be seen that the problem of safely working 
 heavy American freight trains down steep grades by means of the air brake 
 has not yet been entirely solved. And when it is remembered that some of 
 the large American engines require three men on the foot plate, viz., driver, 
 fireman, and assistant fireman, and that the train <erew consists of a conductor 
 and two, three or four brakesmen, it may be questioned whether the economies 
 claimed for the American methods are as great, as is sometimes hastily 
 assumed. 
 
 Grade crossings. It is interesting to note that American railroads are 
 imitating English practice in one respect, and that is in the abolition of level or 
 grade crossings. Enormous sums of money are now being spent Avith this object. 
 This is specially the case on the Pennsylvania Railroad, on which line some very 
 large works, such as viaducts, bridges, and deviation lines are in progress for the 
 purpose of raising the tracks above streets and roads, and for improving grades 
 and curves. These works are being paid for out of revenue and not charged to 
 capital. The guiding principle followed in America on this much debated 
 question is, I was told, as follows : When a new work, however large, does not 
 tap new sources of revenue, and does not serve a fresh area, but merely 
 improves existing conditions and facilities, the cost is charged to income. 
 When, on the other hand, new districts arc reached, and fresh sources of traffic 
 developed, the cost is charged to capital. To what extent the cost of works, 
 such as those I saw in progress, amounting as they do in many places to a 
 complete re-alignment and reconstruction of the railway, can be legitimately 
 be regarded as a charge against ,income I cannot say, but it is not surprising 
 that the shareholders should grumble at being willed upon to make such 
 sacrifices for the benefit of those who will succeed them. I heard one argument 
 
11 
 
 advanced, which, if not openly avowed, may have an occasional influence on 
 American railway finance, viz., that as American railways were built almost 
 entirely with money raised on bonds or debentures, and that as the ordinary 
 stock, to a large extent, merely represents " paper," there is no obligation on 
 those controlling the line to do more than pay the interest on the bonds and 
 debentures, and that the ordinary stockholders have little or no moral claim to 
 consideration. 
 
 Railway Service. In the mode of selection of men for employment upon 
 railways, and in the opportunities for advancement offered to them, the 
 American railways are ahead of English companies. The following information 
 on this matter was given to me by one of the chief railway officers in the 
 
 States. 
 
 " Applicants for employment must be of sound health, free from physical, 
 mental, or moi-al infirmities, and must produce satisfactory evidence of previous 
 record, character, and ability. Employes are selected from applicants whose 
 character, intelligence, physical capacity, and general appearance indicate that 
 their services will be efficient and satisfactory, and who are likely to develop 
 ability sufficient to merit advancement in the service. 
 
 "All employes are regarded as in the line of promotion, and examinations 
 for promotion are held from time to time as may be required. 
 
 " Applicants who fail on the first examination must within one year make 
 written application for re-examination. Those who fail on the second exami- 
 nation will be dropped from the service. 
 
 " Flagmen, brakesmen, and firemen who do not apply for examination 
 within five years may be dropped from the service. 
 
 " The object of fixing a limit of five years to the term of service of a 
 flagman, brakesman, or fireman is that these occupations are considered as 
 preparatory training for the positions of conductor and engineman, which are 
 the fixed types of employment in the transportation service ; and a person 
 who has not the capacity to qualify for either of these positions after five 
 years' service is not likely to do so at any time, and should make way for 
 those who are more capable and progressive." 
 
 In this way it happens that every man employed upon an American 
 railway has the road open to him to rise to the highest positions, and many 
 of the most prominent men in the railway world have so risen. 
 
 II. SURFACE LINES, SUBWAYS, AND ELEVATED RAILWAYS. 
 
 Surface Lines. I examined the surface lines and tramways in a great man} 
 cities, viz., New York, Brooklyn, Washington, Boston, Pittsburgh, Detroit 
 Buffalo, Toronto, and Chicago, and was interested to find that grooved girder rails 
 such as are invariably used in England are being almost universally adopted 
 for lines in the public streets, in place of the " step " rails formerly employed 
 The latter are a serious hindrance to ordinary vehicular traffic, though they 
 are said to be convenient to heavy lorries, and for this reason are retained in 
 some of the streets in Boston and Pittsburgh. As a rule street railways are 
 electrically equipped on the overhead trolley system, but in New York and 
 Washington the conduit system with centre slot is used, there being objections 
 to the overhead system in the streets of those cities. In all cases the rails are 
 laid upon cross ties, concrete being as a rule placed between the ties, which 
 does not seem to be the best place for it. The use of wood for supporting the 
 rails makes a much quieter track than the English method of laying the rails 
 direct on concrete, but the American method does not enable such a good 
 surface to be maintained on the roadway. English tramways often have a hard 
 and noisy track, and it might be an advantage if a wooden stringer or cushion 
 were placed between the rail and concrete at any rate an experiment in this 
 direction would be worth trying. 
 
 13875 
 
 S 3 
 
12 
 
 In some cities rails 60 ft. long are used, and as by this means the number 
 of joints, which are invariably a source of trouble, is reduced by 50 per cent., 
 considerable benefit may be expected from their adoption. A similar experiment 
 might with advantage be made in England. 
 
 American cars are all single decked, there being no roof seats, but they 
 are wider and generally longer than English cars. I also think that as a rule 
 they have more powerful motors than are usual in England, which is an 
 advantage, as the motor- men have greater control over their cars. Speeds in 
 the city streets are about the same as in England, but in the suburbs are higher 
 than are usual here. The life guards are indifferent, and accidents are numerous, 
 though no records are obtainable on the subject. As a rule the hand brake 
 only is used, though in Pittsburgh, where grades are severe and speeds high, 
 the Newell magnetic slipper brake is fitted to the cars, and is in regular use. 
 This brake is, I believe, a most useful appliance. It consists of a " slipper " 
 which is practically a horse-shoe magnet, and which is energised by current 
 from the motors, when the latter are acting as generators, i.e., when the current 
 from the trolley wire is cut off. Care must be taken not to cause the wheels to 
 skid by means of the hand brake, as when the wheels cease to revolve no 
 current is generated by the motors and the magnet is not energised. In 
 Chicago the Christensen direct airbrake is adopted, but here three and four 
 cars are allowed to. be coupled together. 
 
 Elevated Railways. Of the elevated railways of New York, Brooklyn, 
 Boston, and Chicago it is not necessary to say much, as they are not likely to 
 be imitated in any English town. They are noisy and unsightly, and the 
 columns supporting them occupy a great deal of street space and constitute a 
 hindrance to street traffic. They are all, with the exception of that in New 
 York, operated entirely by electric energy at 550 or 600 volts, the current 
 being conveyed by a third rail. In New York the elevated railway has 
 hitherto been worked by steam locomotives, but electric traction is being 
 rapidly introduced, and both steam and electric trains are now running on it. 
 It is expected that when the electrical equipment of this line is completed, its 
 capacity will be largely increased, owing to higher speeds, more rapid accelera- 
 tion, and the use of longer trains. 
 
 The Boston elevated lines are equipped with automatic (electro-pneumatic) 
 signals, and with triggers working in conjunction with the signals, whereby the 
 brakes are applied to any tiain, which is allowed by the motor-man to pass a 
 signal at danger. The equipment and organization of this line, and the arrange- 
 ments at certain stations for enabling passengers to change from the tramcars to 
 the railway or vice versa, are particularly good. 
 
 All trains on the elevated lines are of the multiple unit type, the master 
 controllers being either of the Sprague, Westinghouse, or General Electric 
 Company's pattern, for each of which special merits are claimed. Fairly high 
 speeds are attained, but the numerous sharp curves on all these lines, due to 
 their following the directions of the streets, are a serious drawback. 
 
 Subways. The most recent attempt to solve the problem of urban locomo- 
 tion is to be found in the subways of New York and Boston, each of which is 
 the outcome of Special Rapid Transit Commissions appointed, in the one case 
 by the State of New York, and in the other by the State of Massachusetts the 
 former in 1894 and the latter in 1801. These Commissions studied the problem 
 of transportation in and around the cities named, and made specific recommenda- 
 tions for the construction of subways to accommodate either two or four lines 
 of rails, the routes to be followed and the sums to be spent being in each case 
 laid down. It was decided that the New York subway should be worked as a 
 railway, two tracks being reserved for express traffic, and two for local traffic. 
 At Boston it was first intended to devote all the tracks to the use of the surface 
 (or tram) cars. This was subsequently changed, and where four tracks exist two 
 are now given up to the trains from the elevated railway and two to the surface 
 cars. This change of plan was unfortunate, as the grades and curves in the 
 subway, which are suitable for single cars, are found to be detrimental to the 
 trains, causing not only delay, but also undue wear and tear of the wheels, 
 rails, and rolling stock. 
 
13 
 
 As a rule these subways are rectangular in section, but that in New York 
 is now being extended under the East Iliver, by means of a " tube," the 
 internal diameter of which is 15 ft. 6 ins. It is much to be regretted that the 
 " tubes " in London have not been constructed of similar dimensions. The cost 
 no doubt would have been greater, but if the method of financing these works in 
 America had been adopted in London, the increased cost Avould not have been 
 felt while the advantage gained would have been great. 
 
 The cost of the Boston subway was borne by the city, and the Boston 
 Elevated Railway Company, which owns the surface and elevated lines, leases 
 the subway from the city, paying 5 cents for each car passing through, subject 
 to a minimum payment of 4j per cent, on the cost of construction. The lease 
 is for 20 years. The Company laid the tracks and supply the power and 
 equipment. 
 
 The cost of the New York subway is also borne by the city, the Rapid 
 Transit Subway Construction Company being the contractors for the work, and 
 having a lease of 50 years for operating the subway when completed. The 
 contracting company is paid for the work in accordance with their tender, but 
 has to pay in its turn a rental equal to the interest on the bonds issued by the 
 city to provide the funds for the work, and in addition a sinking fund of 1 per 
 cent, by which the principal will be redeemed within the period of the lease. 
 The Company has to provide equipment, power, and machinery, which the city 
 is to purchase at a valuation at the end of the lease. This arrangement is 
 similar to that under which the Chemin de fer Metropolitain of Paris is being 
 built. The advantage of such an arrangement is that, at the end of the period 
 of the lease, the railway is paid for, and becomes the property of the city free 
 of cost. There seems no reason why some similar arrangement should not be 
 arrived at in London. 
 
 The Commissions referred to are permanent bodies, and all schemes affecting 
 transportation within the limits of their respective cities have to be submitted 
 to, and approved by, them. For instance, the proposal of the Pennsylvania 
 Railroad Company to construct tunnels under the Harbour and East River, so 
 as to enable their main lines to obtain access to New York City, had to 
 receive the sanction of the Rapid Transit Commission of New York. 
 
 The three cities Paris, New York, and Boston afford an object lesson to 
 London. They have faced the problem of urban communication in a business- 
 like fashion, have decided what they want, have arranged for the financing of the 
 work, and have settled the routes along which transportation is to be provided, 
 before allowing the ground to be broken, instead of proceeding in a haphazard 
 fashion, and leaving the most valuable concessions to be scrambled for by private 
 companies. It is much to be hoped, if I may be permitted to say so, that a 
 tribunal will be appointed before it is too late, to consider the congestion of 
 the London streets and to propose a remedy. 
 
 The subway in New York is still incomplete, and will not be opened for 
 traffic before the year 1904, but that in Boston has been in use since 1898. In 
 both cases the subways arc as near the surface of the streets as possible, and 
 have, as in Paris, convenient stairways to afford access to the stations, no 
 elevators being therefore needed. Such subways are in many ways preferable 
 to deep level ''tubes." They are safer, more easy of access, possess a purer 
 atmosphere, and afford conveniences to the public, which are worth considerable 
 sacrifices to attain. What New York has cheerfully suffered and is still suffering 
 to obtain its subway, has to be seen to be believed. 
 
 New York has one advantage over London, in that the city is built almost 
 entirely upon rock, and no disturbance is therefore to be feared of the foundations 
 of existing buildings. On the other hand, this rock, which is intensely 
 hard, renders the work of excavating the tunnel a most costly and tedious 
 undertaking. 
 
 In one respect I anticipate that the subway will prove a disappointment to 
 the inhabitants of New York, for although it will increase the facilities of travel 
 between the outskirts of the city and the business centres, it will not do much 
 
14 
 
 to relieve the congestion of traffic in the streets. It will 
 
 mitigate 
 
 the undue 
 
 crowding of the cars on the tramways and elevated railway, which is at all 
 times uncomfortable, and occasionally even dangerous, but it will not reduce 
 the number of vehicles in the streets, as there ore practically no omnibuses and 
 very few cabs to be affected by it. In London the case would be different, as 
 the construction of a subway or " tube " is sure to cause a diminution in the 
 number of 'buses plying along the same route. 
 
 III. ELECTRIC (HIGH SPEED) INTER-URBAN RAILWAYS. 
 
 Of all the developments of facilities for transportation, the inter-urban lines, 
 which are now such a prominent feature in the United States, are the most 
 interesting and instructive. These are becoming increasingly numerous, every 
 city having a network of such lines radiating from it. 
 
 I am not now referring to the mere extensions of the street tramways into the 
 country, though these might be regarded as inter-urban in their character, but 
 to lines of heavy construction and equipment, and specially designed tor high 
 speeds. In some instances the lines are branches of the main railroads, which 
 have recently been equipped for electric traction. But in the majority of cases 
 the inter-urban lines have been specially constructed for operation by electricity. 
 
 Among branch railways, originally built for steam trains, but now operated 
 electrically, may be mentioned the following examples, which are to be found 
 on the New York, New Haven, and Hartford Railroad, but there are 
 many others : 
 
 (1.) Stamford to New Canaan, 8 miles of single track. 
 
 (2.) Hartford to Bristol, 16'6 miles of single track. 
 
 (3.) Berlin to New Britain, ."> miles of double track. 
 
 (4.) Braintree to Cohasset, ITS miles of double track. 
 
 (5.) Nantasket Junction to Pemberton, 6'9 miles of double track. 
 
 (6.) Providence to Fall River, 18 miles, of which 10 miles are double 
 track. 
 
 The first of these to be equipped electrically was the line from Nantasket 
 to Pemberton, in 1895. The New York, New Haven, and Hartford Railroad 
 found at that time that the trolley lines were seriously affecting their revenues, 
 and in order to meet this competition they decided to equip some of their 
 branches electrically. The result of doing this to branch No. 5 was so 
 satisfactory that the process was extended to the other branches, some of 
 which had up to that time been worked at a loss. 
 
 The following table, compiled from the most recent available returns, was 
 given to me, and shows the increase of annual passenger traffic due to the 
 change : 
 
 
 Branch. 
 
 Steam. 
 
 Electricity. 
 
 
 1 
 
 Passengers. 
 98,300 
 
 Passengers. 
 184,728 
 
 
 2 
 
 367,695 
 
 1,060,617 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 267,936 
 
 341,207 
 
 
 
 4 and 5 
 
 304,292 
 
 702,419 
 
 
 This large increase in traffic may be attributed to the greater frequency ol 
 the service, the reduction of fares, and the increase in speed. 
 
15 
 
 Branches 2, 3, and 4 are equipped with the third rail ; the others have the 
 overhead trolley. The trains consist of two to five cars, and are run at a 
 schedule speed of 30 miles per hour, with an average of one stop per two miles, 
 the maximum speed being 45 miles per hour. The weight of a motor car is 
 45 tons, and its seating capacity is 60 passengers. 
 
 On the Providence and Fall River Line the trains consist of one, two, or 
 three cars, there being 112 of such trains daily. The service is both local and 
 express, the running time of the local trains with 26 stops being 45 minutes, 
 which is equal to a schedule speed of 25 miles an hour. The express trains 
 with seven stops cover the distance in 33 minutes, which is equal to a schedule 
 speed of 32'7 miles an hour. 
 
 The old steam schedule between Providence and Fall River was 48 minutes 
 for local trains with 14 stops, and only 10 trains per day, and there was no 
 express service. 
 
 The rolling stock of this branch consists of 46 cars, of which 24 are 
 passenger coaches used as trailers, and nine are combination baggage and 
 passenger cars, the remainder being motor cars. The cars are 40 ft. in length 
 over all. The motor cars have four 80 H.P. motors, and weigh 30 tons. 
 
 The wheels on the motor cars are 36 ins. in diameter, having a l^-in. 
 flange and a 3 -in. tread. The rail used weighs 78 Ibs. per yard, and the road 
 bed has gravel ballast. The population of Providence is 175,000, and that of 
 Fall River 104,000, and the average daily traffic is 15,000 passengers, the fare 
 for the whole distance being 20 cents, which is half the whole steam fare. 
 
 The above description affords a good idea of the results obtained by the 
 operation of unremunerative branch lines of main railroads by electricity. 
 
 Of High Speed Inter-urban railways specially built for operation by 
 electricity, I visited four, viz. : 
 
 (1.) The Schenectady and Albany Railway. 
 
 (2.) The Buffalo and Lockport Electric Railway. 
 
 (3.) The Detroit and Port Huron Shore Railway. 
 
 (4.) The Aurora, Elgin, and Chicago Electric Railway. 
 
 (1) The Schenectady- Albany line is a high speed overhead trolley railway, 
 17 miles in length, between Schenectady and Albany, 4J miles of which are 
 Avithin the limits of the two cities. It is a double track located on the public high- 
 way, the district between the termini being rather sparsely populated. The 
 population of Albany is 100,000, and that of Schenectady 50,000. The average 
 schedule speed is, for the whole journey, 18 miles per hour, with nine inter- 
 urban stops and about 22 city stops. The schedule speed between the cities is 
 27 miles per hour, and the maximum speed is 50 miles per hour. 
 
 As a rule single cars are used, weighing 24 tons each, and with a length 
 over all of 48 ft. They are equipped with four 50-H.P. motors, and have a 
 seating capacity of 52. The motor truck wheels are 33 ins. in diameter, with 
 ^-in. flange and 2|-in. tread, the axle being 4i ins. in diameter. 
 
 The transmission current is three-phase-alternating at 11,000 volts, the 
 greatest distance to which it is transmitted being 17 miles. The working 
 current is 550 volts direct. 
 
 There is a 15-minute service between the two places during the day and 
 evening, and an hourly service during the night. The number of passengers 
 carried is about 3,700 daily, .the single fare being 25 cents (Is.), and the double 
 fare 40 cents. The Xew York Central has a steam railway alongside of the 
 electric line, the passenger traffic on which has been greatly reduced since the 
 latter was opened. The fare on the steam railway is 39 cents single ticket. It 
 takes about 55 minutes on the electric railway to travel from the centre of 
 Albany to the centre of Schenectady, and 40 minutes on the steam railway, but 
 the smaller fare and the frequency of the service render the former the more 
 popular route. 
 
16 
 
 There is an " express," i.e., baggage and parcel, service, and a freight service 
 on the electric road, separate cars for the purpose running every hour, the gross 
 tonnage carried averaging 1,043 tons per month. 
 
 The tracks are laid with 80-lb. T-rails on cross ties, and are well ballasted . 
 They occupy about two-thirds of the width of the public highway, and though 
 the Company' possesses no exclusive right to any portion of the highway, the 
 mode of construction of the railway, and the elevation of the rails above the 
 road practically deprive the public of the use of so much of the roadway as is 
 required for the railway. Probably no great inconvenience is experienced on 
 this account, as the highway is unmetalled, and is little used for vehicular 
 traffic. The advantages conferred on the public by the railway more than 
 balance any inconvenience due to its presence. 
 
 (2.) The Buffalo and Lockport Electric Railway is an overhead high 
 speed single track trolley line 25i- miles in length, of which 12i miles are 
 within city limits. The motor cars are 42 ft. long over all, and are fitted with 
 four 50-H.P. motors. There are also some 30-ton electric locomotives used 
 for freight service, \vhich haul ordinary freight cars, and which are equipped 
 with four 1GU-H.P. motors. 
 
 The schedule speed for inter-urban running is 27 miles an hour, and the 
 maximum is 50 miles an hour. The round trip fare from Buffalo to Lockport 
 and back is 75 cents (3s.). 
 
 The line is operated by the International Traction Company of Buffalo, 
 which also owns the electric railway between Buffalo and Niagara, etc. The 
 current is derived from the Niagara Falls Power Company. 
 
 (3.) The Detroit and Port Huron Shore railway is a single track road with 
 passing loops, having a total mileage, including lines within city limits and 
 passing loops, of 110 miles. It is a trolley line laid, so far as I saw it, along- 
 side the highway, and endeavours have here been made to interfere as little as 
 possible with the use of the highway for its original purpose. 
 
 The power station is at New Baltimore, about 32 miles from Detroit, and 
 the current is transmitted to a distance of 40 miles in one direction and 20 miles 
 in another. The transmission current is 16,000 volts, and there are live 
 sub-stations equipped with 200 K.W. converters from which the trolley current 
 is supplied. Most of the cars are geared for a maximum speed of 45 miles an 
 hour, some with two motor equipments and some with four. The freight cars 
 have four motors. Fifty passenger cars and 25 freight cars are in service. 
 
 Detroit is now the centre of about 400 miles of inter-urban railway, and 
 much valuable experience has been gained here in the operation of this class of 
 line. As the various lines were originally the property of different companies a 
 great variety of construction is to be found. Nearly all the lines are now under 
 the control of the Detroit United Railway Company, who are engaged in 
 establishing a uniform system of equipment and operation. 
 
 (4.) The Aurora, Elgin, and Chicago Railway is one of the most recent and 
 most important undertakings of this class yet constructed. The total length 
 of route is about 60 miles, the greater portion of which is double track. The 
 line is built entirely upon the company's own land except at public road 
 crossings, the width of land occupied being from 100 to 60 ft. It is laid 
 throughout Avith 80-lb. steel rails in 60-i't. lengths, with 2640 ties to the mile. 
 It is operated on the third rail system, the conductor rail weighing 100 Ibs. 
 per yard, and being of a special description of soft steel. The top of this third 
 rail is 6y\ ins. above the top of the running rails, and it is placed 19 ins. 
 outside the track. The track is most substantially constructed so as to be 
 suitable for very high speeds, the regular maximum speed being intended 
 to be 65 miles an hour, while 80 to 100 miles an hour can, it is anticipated, be 
 made with safety. Experiments with such speeds are to be made next spring, 
 after the road bed has had time to become thoroughly consolidated. The power 
 house is at Batavia at one end of the line, and there are six sub-stations. The 
 transmission current is 26,000 volts 3-phase alternating, and is carried by 
 aluminium stranded cables, on polos placed alongside the tracks, the same poles 
 
17 
 
 also carrying the telephone wires. The traction current is 600 volts direct, and 
 no direct current feeders are needed, as the third rail has sufficient carrying 
 capacity to conduct all the current needed from the sub-stations to the trains in 
 the different sections of the line. 
 
 The trains consist of one, two, or three cars. The one and two car trains 
 have every axle motor-driven ; the three car trains have one car without motors. 
 The cars are 47 ft. over all. Those carrying motors are of extra strength in 
 the sub-frame, and have four 125- H. P. motors, the most powerful equipment 
 ever put on a motor car, other than those used on elevated railways, where the 
 motor cars act as locomotives to haul several trailers. The wheels are 3G ins. in 
 diameter, and have Master Car Builders standard flanges and treads. 
 The axles are 6i ins. in diameter, being the largest yet used on an electric car. 
 The trains are expected to attain a speed of 50 miles an hour in 25 seconds 
 starting from rest, a performance never before attempted in electric railway 
 practice. 
 
 In most cases the traffic on inter-urban lines is conducted by means of train 
 orders given by telephone. The train despatcher has his office located in some 
 convenient spot, and the telephones are placed in cabins or booths or in the 
 sub-stations along the line. The train orders from the despatcher are received 
 at the telephone cabins by the conductor or motor man, and are repeated back 
 to the despatcher by the man receiving them, the other man standing by and 
 hearing them repeated. The orders are all received verbally, and no record is 
 kept of them. No car is permitted to leave a telephone station until such an 
 order has been received and repeated. This method seems to be cumbrous 
 and out of date. On single lines the use of the electric train staff or tablet 
 would be simpler and quicker, and would, I believe, add largely to the safety 
 of the traffic. The instruments should be of such a nature that they could be 
 operated by the conductors. 
 
 By the courtesy ot the Chief Engineer of the General Electric Company I 
 have particulars of several more inter- urban railways similar to the above, but 
 enough has been said to show what great developments are taking place in this 
 respect in the United States. Such lines are becoming of increasing 
 importance, population becomes more numerous in their vicinity, land values 
 are enhanced, industrial enterprise is stimulated, and the convenience of the 
 public is served by a frequent and cheap means of transportation not only for 
 passengers, but also for freight. Farmers are said to appreciate the facilities 
 thus afforded them for conveying their produce into the cities, and large 
 quantities of milk are now daily carried into the markets by electric cars. 
 Where steam railroads exist side by side with the electric lines, the competition 
 between the two has been keen. Steam roads having seen a large share of 
 their passenger business taken from them, have made a hard fight to retain the 
 local freight business. But it would appear that the increased prosperity and 
 activity in a district^ which are promoted by the presence of an electric line, 
 result in bringing more business to the steam lines. So that while the electric 
 lines will probably carry the local traffic, passenger and freight, for short 
 distances, they will act as feeders for the through business of the steam roads. 
 In other words, there is a place for each, and their interests are best served by 
 working in harmony. 
 
 The experience gained in America in regard to electric inter-urban railways 
 should be of great value to those engaged in the construction of similar lines, 
 under the name of " light railways" in this country. American engineers have 
 discovered that ' a modern first class electric railway should have a location 
 that will admit of the most direct route with as few curves as possible, and be 
 so laid out as to curves as to have them as easy as possible." It has been found 
 not only desirable but " most economical to purchase private rights of way," to 
 use heavy rails, large ties, and plenty of good ballast. Experience has proved 
 that a substantial, well laid track is a "vital factor" in the economical 
 operation of such a road, and a " large factor " in its earning capacity. The 
 question of the best type of car for such railways is still receiving much 
 attention in the State8> and has not yet been finally decided, but it is found 
 
 13875 C 
 
18 
 
 that a heavy substantial vehicle is necessary, and that the wheels should have 
 deep flanges, broad treads, and strong axles. In some instances, as for instance 
 on the Schenectady- Albany line the depth of the flange is limited by the grooved 
 rail over which the cars have to run within city limits, but where high speeds 
 are aimed at, safety requires that the wheels and wheel flanges should be similar 
 to those employed on fast steam roads. 
 
 In England the electrical inter-urban railways, which have been constructed 
 under the Light Railways Act of 1896, differ in every respect from similar lines 
 in America. They are almost invariably laid alongside the high roads, have 
 light rails, and insufficient ballast, while the cars employed on them are mostly 
 double-decked and have tramway wheels with small flanges. Such lines are 
 nothing more than tramways, and quite unsuitable for high speeds. If 
 railways of this nature are to be as successful here as they are in America, their 
 owners must, I venture to think, profit by American experience, and follow 
 American methods. 
 
 Descriptions of many other objects of interest will be found in my diary, 
 and need not be repeated here. 
 
 In conclusion I have to express my grateful acknowledgments to my 
 numerous American and Canadian friends, who did all in their power to make 
 my visit to their country enjoyable and instructive. The President of the 
 United States, to whom I paid my respects, gave me a friendly welcome, and all 
 with whom I came in contact, without exception, spared neither time nor 
 trouble to assist me in my enquiries, and to make me feel at home. Wherever 
 I went I was cordially received, and invitations were tendered to me to extend 
 my tour through the whole length and breadth of the country, of which, I hope, 
 I may be able to take advantage on some future occasion. 
 
 I have the honour to be, 
 
 Sir, 
 Your obedient Servant, 
 
 H. A. YORKE, 
 
 Lt.-CoL, R.E. 
 
DIAKY OF TRIP TO AMERICA 
 
 September 19th to October 31st, 1902. 
 
 Friday, September 19th. Sailed from Liverpool at 5 p.m. on board White 
 
 Star S.S. "' Celtic." 
 
 Sunday, September 2Sth. Arrived at New York at 8.30 a.m. After 
 passing baggage through the Customs, reached the Waldorf Astoria Hotel 
 at 11 a.m. 
 
 Monday, September 29 th. I went to the Grand Central Station and called 
 upon the officers of the New York Central and Hudson River Railroad. 
 Spent the day inspecting the Central Station, the signalling and working 
 of the traffic through the yard, and all the arrangements connected therewith. 
 The signal cabin contains 147 levers in use, the points and signals being 
 operated on the low pressure pneumatic system, installed by the Pneumatic 
 Signal Company, of New York. The yard is very much congested, and 
 the traffic operated under great difficulties. Many of the passenger trains 
 are " fly-shunted " into the station, the engine taking one track, and the train 
 being switched into another. The train travels into the station by its 
 momentum, being controlled by the hand brakes, the air brake being held in 
 reserve in case of emergency. The operation is risky, but has, hitherto, I was 
 told, been unattended by any mishap. I also visited the office of the American 
 Express Company, and saw the method of handling baggage and express freight. 
 
 Tuesday, September 30th. At 9.30 a.m. I went by the j Elevated railway 
 to call on Mr. Westinghouse at his office at 120, Broadway. Mr. Westinghouse 
 was not in the city, but I was received by Mr. Galvert Townley, who had been 
 told by Mr. Westinghouse to look out for me, and assist me. I went with 
 Mr. Townley to call upon and present my letters of introduction to Mr. E. P. 
 Bryan. General Manager of the Rapid Transit Subway Construction Company, 
 and Mr. W. B. Parsons, Engineer- in-Chief to the Rapid Transit Commission. 
 Both gentlemen received me with much friendliness, and promised me every 
 facility for seeing the Rapid Transit Subway at present under construction. 
 Fixed the date and time for my visit to the subway works. The day was 
 mostly occupied in making arrangements for my future movements. 
 
 Wednesday, October 1st. Mr. J. N. Beckley met me at the hotel and 
 arranged for a trip to Chicago and the West. At 10 a.m. I went to Mr. 
 Westinghouse'* office and found that gentleman there. He received me most 
 cordially and arranged for me to go with him on Friday, 3rd inst., to Pittsburgh. 
 I then went to call upon and present letter of introduction to Mr. A. Skitt, 
 Vice-President of the Manhattan Railway Company, and obtained from him 
 the necessary permission to visit the line, which is better known as Ihe 
 Elevated Railway of New York. 
 
 Thursday, October 2nd. I met Mr. G. S. Rice, Assistant to the Chief 
 Engineer of the Rapid Transit Commission, and accompanied him over a section 
 of the new subway. The works are on a very large scale, the excavation being 
 to a large extent through very Lard rock, about 300,000 cubic feet of rock 
 having to be removed out of a total of 3 million cubic yards. The length 
 of the line is 21 miles (7 miles being four track and 14 miles double track), 
 and the total estimate is 35 million dollars, out of which about 21 millions have 
 been expended. An enormous number of drains, pipes, and conduits have had to 
 
 13875 2 
 
20 
 
 be diverted, and the street traffic has to be continued without interruption. The 
 condition of some of the streets where the work is in progress is deplorable. 
 The subway provides for four tracks, two for express trains, and two for local 
 trains, and no portion of the work is yet open for traffic. The subway is 
 rectangular in section, and is constructed wholly of steel uprights and girders, 
 with concrete floor, walls, and roof. The concrete is of a high quality, 
 the cement (of American manufacture) being exceptionally good. Every effort 
 is being made to render the whole subway absolutely waterproof from end to 
 end. In the afternoon I called on Mr. Yreeland, President, Metropolitan Street 
 Kail way Co., and afterwards went with Mr. M. G. Starrett, Chief Engineer 
 of the Company, to see the power house of the street railways and to inspect 
 a portion of the track. These street railways are worked at present partly by 
 horse traction, partly by cable, and partly by electric power, but they are being 
 converted throughout into electric lines on the " conduit system." The rails are 
 of various descriptions and weights, arid the track in many places is in a bad 
 condition. It is, however, being gradually relaid, a grooved rail being now 
 adopted as the standard, the groove being wider than is usual in England. 
 The traffic on these tramways, or surface lines, is very great, the cars being 
 always full, and at certain times of the day crowded. The fare is 5 cents for 
 any distance. Tickets are not issued, but when necessary " transfers " are 
 given by the car conductors at places w r here different routes intersect, so as to 
 enable a passenger to change from one car to another without further payment. 
 A check is kept upon the conductors by means of a registering machine in each 
 car, which has to be operated by the conductor every time a fare is paid, and 
 which thus records the number of fares paid. Both single truck (or four- 
 wheeled) cars and double-truck (or bogie cars) are used upon these lines, there 
 being altogether about 2,600 cars in use. The cars are fitted with a hand 
 brake only and with a life guard of a type which is of little or no use. The 
 schedule speed is eight miles an hour, including stops, but " down town " the 
 speed is very much less than this. 
 
 The power station visited by me contains 88 15. and W. boilers 
 arranged in three tiers and 11 engines of 5,000 H.P. each, of which six are 
 running. The generators are 3,500 K. W. machines producing current at 
 6,600 volts (alternating), which is transformed in static transformers to 
 370 volts (alternating), and then converted in rotary converters into direct 
 current at 575 volts. The chimney of the power station is the highest in New 
 York, being 353 ft. high, with an internal diameter of 22 ft. 
 
 Friday, October 3rd. I left New York at 7.40 a.m. with Mr. Westinghouse 
 in his private car for Pittsburgh, travelling by the Pennsylvania Railroad viu 
 'Philadelphia and Harrisburgh. Had a very pleasant and interesting journey by 
 daylight over this fine railroad, which is the premier line in the States. The 
 scenery in places is very attractive, especially in the Alleghany mountains and 
 when passing round the celebrated Horse Shoe curve. The railroad consists of 
 four tracks and is laid with heavy rails (flatbottomed as is usual in the States) 
 and broken stone ballast. It is in fine order, and is apparently as good as the 
 best type of English road. We arrived at Pittsburgh at 7 p.m. and went 
 direct to Mr. Westinghouse's private residence at Holmwood. I should 
 .mention that the line from New York to Pittsburgh is signalled throughout 
 on the automatic (electro-pneumatic) system, which is said by the railway 
 officials to be entirely satisfactory. 
 
 Saturday, October 4th. At 8.30 a.m. I visited the Union Switch and 
 Signal Co.'s works (the company is one of the Westinghouse undertakings) 
 and spent the whole morning with the general manager examining the details 
 of the electro-pneumatic appliances for operating points and signals and for 
 automatic signalling. There is a large gallery fitted up with a circular track 
 and a complete installation of automatic signals. A model train actuated by 
 electricity travels round the track and exemplifies the working of the 
 . signals, &c. 
 
 In the afternoon I visited the Pittsburgh railway station and signal cabin. 
 The station, which is new, contains 16 tracks and is well provided with 
 waiting rooms, &c. The waiting accommodation at important modern American 
 
21 
 
 stations is very complete and far superior to anything to be found in England. 
 In addition to large waiting halls, well warmed and fitted with ample seating 
 accommodation, there are comfortable rooms for women containing all sorts of 
 toilet requisites and conveniences, even cots for babies being provided ; there 
 are also smoking rooms for men, and barber's shops, besides baths and lavatories 
 of a superior description. The restaurants are excellent and the kitchen arrange- 
 ments are of the most modern type and supplied with every labour-saving 
 appliance for cooking and washing up. 
 
 The station yard is laid out and signalled in the most approved fashion, 
 the points and signals being operated by the electro-pneumatic system from the 
 signal cabin, which contains 131 levers, of which 12 are spare. A cabin such as 
 this contains about five or six men, viz., one to watch the traffic from the 
 window and give directions to the men at the frame ; one to attend to the 
 telephones and receive from and send to the station staff information relative to 
 the departure and arrival of trains ; one to make entries in the train register of 
 the movement of trains ; and two or three at the frame itself. In England such 
 a cabin would not contain more than two, or at the most, three men. 
 
 Movable crossings and spring frogs are used throughout the yard and are 
 said to answer very well. 
 
 Sunday, October 5th. I drove round Pittsburgh which is a very smoky 
 place, the city being as black and grimy as London, but the scenery round 
 the place is good. 
 
 Monday, October 6th. At 8.30 a.m. I went to the Westinghouse Brake 
 Company's works with Mr. Herman Westinghouse, who is the President of 
 that Company. This, which was the first of Mr. George Westinghouse's 
 undertakings, is still one of the most important, as it practically has the 
 monopoly for supplying the whole of the American railways with brake gear. 
 I examined the details of the " High Speed Brake " and the "'Rapid Acting 
 Brake," the former being a development of the latter. The High Speed 
 Brake is as the name implies suitable only for heavy trains travelling at very 
 high speeds. It requires a pressure of 1 1 Ibs. of air when it is first applied, 
 and is fitted with a reducing valve, which, as the speed of the train diminishes, 
 gradually reduces the air pressure to the normal pressure of 75 Ibs. The object 
 of this device is as follows. If the pressure of 110 Ibs. were applied to brake 
 blocks acting on wheels revolving at moderate velocities, and carrying only 
 moderate axle loads, it would cause the wheels to skid. On the other hand the 
 normal pressure of 75 Ibs. is not sufficient to produce an immediate effect upon 
 wheels revolving at high speeds, and probably carrying heavy axle loads. The 
 high pressure is therefore necessary for the high speeds, but if continued too 
 long, i.e., after the original speed has been diminished, it would cause the 
 wheels to skid. For this reason the high pressure after its first application is 
 automatically and gradually reduced to the normal pressure of 75 Ibs. From 
 time to time references to this appliance have appeared in the English papers, and 
 our English railways have been urged to adopt it, and have been blamed for 
 not doing so. But as a fact the responsible officers of the brake company do 
 not consider that the High Speed Brake is necessary, or indeed suitable, for 
 English conditions, because unless employed with the greatest care on English 
 trains it would lead to the skidding of the wheels. Moreover, not many 
 English Companies use the Westinghouse brake, the majority of them having 
 the vacuum brake. The Rapid Acting Brake employs air at the normal 
 pressure of 75 Ibs., and the feature of it is the rapidity with which it acts upon 
 every coach in a long train, so that the interval of time between the application 
 of the blocks upon the front and rear wheels of a train, however long, is 
 inappreciable. Its action is in fact instantaneous throughout a train, and a 
 train can therefore by its means be stopped very quickly. Those English 
 companies which use the Westinghouse brake might, with advantage, adopt the 
 " Rapid Acting" type. 
 
 I also examined all the details of Newell's magnetic brake for tramways 
 and street railways. The invention is that of a Mr. Newell, an engineer of 
 Chicago, and the Westinghouse Company has bought up. the rights. Much 
 
99 
 
 time and care have been spent in perfecting the appliance before placing it or. 
 the market, but it is now being manufactured on a large scale. It is a slipper, 
 or track, brake, consisting of an electro-magnet, which is excited by current 
 generated by the motors acting as " generators." The slipper, when thus 
 magnetised, is strongly attracted to the rails, and acts as a very powerful brake. 
 The slipper is also connected to brake blocks on the wheels by a system of 
 levers in such a way that the drag on the slipper caused by its adhesion to the 
 rails, presses the blocks against the wheels, so that the magnetic brake operates 
 as a wheel brake as well as a track brake. Resistances are provided, which 
 automatically regulate the current in the magnets, and these resistances are 
 utilised in winter for heating the car. I believe this brake is one of much value 
 for tramway purposes. 
 
 I was then shown the Westinghouse Friction draw gear, which has been 
 designed to absorb the shocks produced on the draw bars by the starting or 
 stopping the large freight cars, now in such general use on American railways. 
 It is said to give good results, and is being largely adopted throughout the 
 States, with the consequence that broken draw bars are less frequent. 
 
 Another ingenious device shown to me was an automatic coupler for 
 automatically coupling the brake pipe, and (for passenger cars) the steam 
 heating pipe as well. This coupler is an unsightly object, but may prove to be 
 useful. At present the advantage of the automatic draw gear coupling between 
 freight cars is partly neutralised by the necessity which exists for men to go 
 between the cars for the purpose of coupling or uncoupling the brake pipe. It 
 is, therefore, evident that if this latter operation can be performed automatically 
 at the same time as the former, the risk of injury to the men will be still further 
 reduced. 
 
 In the afternoon I went to the Westinghouse Electric Works. These are 
 very extensive and are equipped in the most modern fashion. Here every 
 description of electrical machinery is manufactured, such as generators, motors, 
 transformers, converters, switch boards, controllers, &c. I saw some exceedingly 
 large alternating generators being built, the external diameter of which was 
 42 ft., the diameter of the revolving armature being 32 ft. I examined the 
 Westinghouse method of pneumatic control for multiple unit trains, which 
 seems to possess the great advantage that no high voltage electric currents 
 are introduced into the driver's compartment or carried through the train, the 
 movement of the controller switches being effected by compressed air, supplied 
 from a reservoir charged by means of a motor-compressor. The valves 
 regulating the admission of the air to the controllers are operated by electro- 
 magnets energised by low tension currents from a local battery, these currents 
 being manipulated by the driver's handle. A very large shop, 1,200 ft. long, is 
 devoted to the manufacture of motors for railways and tramways. The 
 company are manufacturing eight large generators for the Manhattan Elevated 
 Railway of New York and eight others for the New York Subway. 
 
 Tuesday, October 7th. At 9 a.m. I started on an electric car, which the 
 management kindly placed at my disposal, to examine the street railways, or 
 tramways, of Pittsburgh, which are operated by the Pittsburgh Railways 
 Company, a recently formed combination of several separate companies. The 
 system comprises about 250 miles of track, equal to 125 miles of double line. 
 The track is laid with a variety of sections of rail, but a " step " rail is now the 
 standard. This rail has a depth of nine inches and a weight of 90 Ibs. per 
 yard. It is laid on cross ties or sleepers, the latter resting on ballast without 
 any concrete. The old tracks are in a very indifferent state of repair, but the 
 new track is good. The section of rail though not one suitable for English 
 streets, and one which is being discarded in most American cities, appears to be 
 popular in Pittsburgh because it affords a convenient track for heavy lorries or 
 " teams," the gauge being 5 ft. 2J ins. The gradients in many places are steep 
 and the curves are sharp, the worst having radii of 50 ft. The speeds attained 
 are high according to English ideas, especially when the congested state of. the 
 streets in Pittsburgh is considered, while outside the busiest portion of the city 
 the cars travel at speeds of 25 to 30 miles an hour. The cars are mounted, 
 some on 4-wheeled (single) trucks, aud some on <S-wheeled (bogie) trucks. 
 
23 
 
 The single truck which gives the most satisfaction here is the McGuire truck 
 with 7 ft. 6 in. centres ; the bogie truck is the Bemis with four wheels of equal 
 diameter, viz., 33 inches. The tread of the wheels is 2J ins. and the flange is 
 | in. wide and | in. deep. Considering the speed at which the cars travel at 
 outside the city limits the dimensions of the flanges are hardly sufficient. The 
 single trucks have motors of 56 H. P. each, and the bogie cars have four motors 
 of 45 H.P. each, or a total of 180 H.P. per car. The life of a wheel is about 
 nine months, equal to about 35.000 miles of travel. The cars are all fitted with 
 the Newell magnetic brake already described, which the superintendent of the 
 cars regards as the most important and valuable modern invention for tramway 
 purposes. 
 
 Many of the junctions are fitted with electric switches, an apparatus that I 
 have never seen in England. These switches are operated from the car and are 
 almost automatic. A section of the trolley wire is insulated from the rest and 
 is fed independently. If the car on reaching this takes current, the current 
 passes through a powerful electro-magnet, which by a system of levers pulls 
 over the switch before the car reaches it. If the road is set (i.e., if the switch is 
 lying in the position) for the track the car has to take, the motor-man must shut 
 off the current before he reaches the insulated section of the trolley wire, and 
 pass across that section by means of the impetus already possessed by the car. 
 The switch then will not be moved. If, however, the switch requires to be 
 moved, to enable the car to take the turn out, the motor-man must not close 
 his controller, but should allow current to flow as he passes over the insulated 
 section. The magnet is thereby operated and the switch is pulled over before 
 the car reaches it. This device seems convenient, as it saves delay and renders 
 unnecessary the employment of men or boys for the purpose of shifting tramway 
 switches, who are often exposed to danger in so doing. 
 
 In places where a double- track joins a single track, and where the view is 
 bad, the lines are fitted with automatic electric signals of a simple description, 
 operated by the trolley, which inform the motor-man of a car whether the 
 single line ahead is occupied by a car approaching from the opposite direction 
 or not. This is a useful arrangement, and makes for safety. 
 
 During my trip over these tramways I was given the opportunity of 
 visiting the Carnegie Steel Works at Homestead, which have recently been 
 acquired by the American Steel Trust. The works are very extensive, and 
 cover over two miles of the river bank. My visit was of necessity a hurried 
 one, but I was shown by general manager some of the most modern plant for 
 manufacturing steel. The works are turning out 5,000 tons of finished material, 
 i.e., steel girders, steel rails, plates, angles, joists, &c., daily. The process is 
 mostly the Siemens-Martin basic method, and the metal is never allowed to 
 cool from the time it leaves the smelting furnaces until it is in its finished form, 
 whatever that may be. Natural gas is largely employed in the furnaces, being 
 brought by the Company's own pipe line from a distance of over 100 miles. 
 The machinery is all operated by electricity, and is so designed that the number 
 of men required for the various processes is wonderfully small. 
 
 In the afternoon I went to the Westinghouse Machine Company's works, 
 which form another of the enterprises initiated and controlled by Westinghouse. 
 Here [ saw some very large engines being built for electric power stations. The 
 most interesting features were the turbine engines (Parsons), of which the 
 Company has obtained the American rights. One of these engines, which I saw 
 being tested, has 500 h.p. with 1,500 revolutions per minute ; and another has 
 1,000 h.p. with 3,600 revolutions per minute. The steam enters one end of 
 the turbine at a pressure of 160 Ibs., and passes out at the other end into the 
 exhaust chamber, the vacuum in Avhich is about 28 inches. Some very large 
 turbines of 5,000 k.w. are being built here. 
 
 The construction of these turbines is very simple. They consist of solid 
 wheels or discs of varying diameters, on the perimeters of which are fixed radially 
 gun-metal blades or teeth, a few inches in length. These blades are curved 
 in section, and are placed close together thus ( ((((((( The discs revolve 
 in a cylindrical case upon the inner surface of which are fixed similar blades in 
 
24 
 
 a reverse position thus ) ))))))) There are several rows of these blades 
 in the case corresponding Avith the number of wheels or discs, and the blades on 
 the latter revolve between the fixed blades on the case, the intervals between 
 the two being as small as possible. The steam on being admitted into the end 
 of the cylindrical case impinges against the concave surfaces of the fixed blades, and 
 is thereby diverted so as to strike the hollows of the revolving blades ; it then 
 passes to the next row of fixed blades, and is again diverted into the next row 
 of revolving blades, and so on. By the impact of the steam upon the blades 
 and by its reaction in leaving them, motion is communicated to the latter, 
 which immediately commence to revolve at very high speed. In order that 
 there may be no loss of steam, and' therefore of power, the clearances between 
 the revolving blades and the casing, and between them and the fixed blades, 
 must be as small as possible. The power varies according to the diameter of 
 the wheels or discs, the length of the blades, the pressure of steam, and the 
 completeness of the vacuum. These turbines are said to be remarkably efficient 
 under all conditions of loading. There can be no doubt about their simplicity ; 
 they occupy little space ; and they have remarkably high speed. It is the 
 opinion of manv engineers in America that the turbine engine is the engine of 
 the future, at least as far as the generation of electricity is concerned. 
 
 The Westinghouse- Parsons turbine is fixed on a horizontal shaft, and in 
 this respect differs from another type of turbine, which is attached to a vertical 
 shaft, and which will be described later on. 
 
 Another speciality of the Westinghouse Machine Company's works is the 
 gas-engine, which they are taking great pains to develop, for driving generators. 
 I saw some 300 h.p. and 500 h.p. gas-engines which were running with 
 remarkable smoothness, and which gave no trouble whatever. The governing 
 devices are now so perfect that the action of these engines is almost automatic, 
 after they are once started. 
 
 After this I was taken to the manufactory lately started by Westinghouse 
 for the production of the Nernst lamp. This is an incandescent lamp, the 
 filament of which is incombustible, and requires 110 vacuum. It derives its 
 name from that of its inventor, Dr. Nernst, a German scientist. The filament, 
 or, as it is called, the " glower," is a non-conductor of electricity at normal 
 temperatures, and the lamp is fitted with a " heater " to give the glower 
 sufficient heat to make it conductive. As soon as this takes place the current 
 traversing the glower causes it to emit a brilliant light, and also develops 
 sufficient internal heat to keep it in the conductive condition, the heater being 
 then automatically cut out of circuit. The Nernst lamp requires only about 
 half the electrical energy needed by ordinary incandescent lamps for any given 
 illumination. The glower has a life of 800 hours, and v/hen used up can be 
 easily renewed without affecting the other parts of the lamp. The lamp gives a 
 soft light of a pleasanter character than that of the ordinary incandescent lamp. 
 It is now being placed on the market in America, but owing to an agreement 
 with the parent company in Germany, the Westinghouse Company is debarred 
 from supplying the English or Continental markets with it, the latter having 
 to depend upon Germany for their supply. This is unfortunate, as the 
 Westinghouse type of Nernst lamp seems likely to prove a great success. 
 
 At 7 p.m. I left Pittsburgh with Mr. Westinghouse and party in his 
 private car for New York. We dined and slept on the car, which is a very 
 fine one, being 78 ft. long, with sleeping accommodation for eight persons, 
 two lavatories, dining room, smoking room, kitchen, &c. 
 
 Wednesday, October &th. We arrived in New York at 10.30 a.m. after a 
 very comfortable journey. When Hearing New York the train was switched 
 across from the east-bound track, i.e., the one we were on, to the west-bound, 
 or, as we should say in England, the " facing " track. Why this was done 
 I could not ascertain, as there seemed to be no obstacle 011 the right track. 
 But, whatever the reason, we ran without any halt or pilotman at high speed on 
 the wrong track, there being of course no signals for our train. It seems to be 
 a regular practice in America to do this, when for any reason it is thought 
 convenient a system which according to English ideas is most undesirable 
 
25 
 
 and dangerous. American railway practice in such matters may be more 
 elastic than English, but it is not so safe ; but in America they take " more 
 chances." 
 
 In the afternoon I visited the office of Westinghouse, Church, Kerr & Co., 
 which is an engineering concern instituted by Mr. Westinghouse for the purpose 
 of initiating, designing, and executing large works of all sorts. They do not 
 act as consulting engineers, but as engineering contractors. They are prepared 
 to make the whole of the plans and estimates, to work out all the engineering 
 problems connected with any scheme however large, to make all the calculations, 
 and to carry out the work on a percentage basis. They work in concert with 
 the other Westinghouse companies, but form an independent undertaking. 
 Their offices are very large, their organisation very complete, and they have a 
 brilliant staff of engineers in their employ. 
 
 I was shown by Mr. Kerr the designs for the new tunnels about to be 
 constructed for the Pennsylvania Railroad Co., under New York Harbour, for 
 the purpose of giving that railroad access into New York City. At present 
 this railway has its terminus in New Jersey City, and all passengers and freight 
 for New York have to be ferried across the harbour to quays in New York. 
 Sometimes whole trains are placed on barges and ferried over, the barges or 
 " flats " having on their decks three railway tracks each capable of holding 
 several cars. But for the bulk of the passengers ordinary ferry boats are 
 provided, which meet every train, and pass backwards and forwards all day. 
 At present there is no communication except by water between New Jersey and 
 New York, and as several railways from the west and south have their termini 
 in New Jersey a good deal of delay and inconvenience is caused to passengers. 
 The Pennsylvania Co. now intend to rectify this. They have, with the assistance 
 of Westinghouse, Church, Kerr, & Co., got out a big scheme for driving two 
 tunnels or tubes under the harbour, or North river, into a large underground 
 station in the heart of New York. From this station four tunnels will be driven 
 under the East river into Brooklyn and Long Island, where a large marshalling 
 yard and depot will be laid out. The lines will then come to the surface and will 
 be connected with the Long Island Railway, which has already been acquired by 
 the Pennsylvania. On the west side the lines will join the existing main track 
 of the Pennsylvania Company about five miles from their present terminus in 
 New Jersey, so that direct communication into the heart of New York, and, if 
 needed, into Long Island, will be available. The tunnels are to be cylindrical 
 in section with a diameter of 19 ft. 6 ins., and the traffic through them will be 
 worked by electric locomotives. Four " blocks " have been acquired for the site 
 of station in New York, which is to be on a very large scale. The lines and 
 station in the city will be entirely in tunnel, which will be several miles 
 long, and which, it is expected, will be driven almost entirely through rock. 
 Altogether this is the biggest scheme of the sort ever contemplated, and is 
 estimated to cost 50 million dollars. The firm of Westinghouse, Church, Kerr, 
 and Company have had the designing and execution of this work entrusted to 
 them, a joint committee having been formed, comprising officers of the railway 
 company, members of the firm, and members of the Rapid Transit Commission, 
 to settle the details. It is expected that the work will be commenced shortly. 
 
 Thursday, October 9th. I started at 9.30 a.m. from the Grand Central 
 Station to inspect the track, &c., of the New York Central Railroad. Mr. 
 Wilgus, the Chief Engineer, kindly went with me, together with other officers 
 of the Company. We travelled in Mr. Wilgus's car, the engine attached 
 to which has an inspection coach on the top of the boiler between the " cab " 
 and the chimney, forming a very convenient, though rather warm, place from 
 which to view the track, signals, &c. We ran about 70 miles from New 
 York and back at a speed of 50 to 60 miles an hour. The scenery on this 
 section of the line is very beautiful. I was struck by the smoothness of the 
 track and the absence of noise and vibration, which may be due to the mode of 
 construction adopted in America, namely, the flat-bottomed or Vignoles rail 
 resting directly upon the sleepers or " ties " without the intervention of chairs. 
 The standard rail now in use on the New "York Central Railway is of the 
 Vignolcs section, weighing 100 Ibs. per yard, with a head 3 ins. wide, a flange 
 6 ins. wide, and a web 6 ins. deep, and this in use between Albany and New 
 
 13875 D 
 
S56 
 
 York. The rail rests upon ties 2ft. 2 ins. apart, to which it is secured ' by 
 spikes," no screw fastenings of any sort being employed. The line is admirably 
 ballasted with broken stone, and is in all respects (except perhaps as regards: the 
 spikes, which I regard as weak fastenings) in best possible condition. The 
 essential difference between this and the English typa of permanent way,- lies in 
 the absence of chairs. So far as I understand the matter, the advantage of 
 chairs is that they afford a much larger bearing area between the rail and the 
 tie, and prevent the former from cutting into the latter. In America the same 
 object is partly obtained by using more ties than in England, but as English 
 companies are now increasing the number of sleepers the difference in this 
 respect between the two systems is -not so great as it was. The Americans .are 
 finding out that with their modern heavy engines the bearing of the rails on the 
 sleepers is not sufficient, for they are using bearing plates, between the -rails 
 .and the ties to increase this area, and to enable the spikes to give mutual 
 support to each other. They are also making much use of " braces," or side 
 supports, for the rails, especially on curves. And when these additions have 
 been made they have made a considerable approach towards a chair road. I 
 venture to think that the weak point about the American road is in the spikes, 
 and 1 believe that if they would use screw fastenings between the rails and the 
 ties their road would be vastly improved. The rail formerly used by New 
 York Central Railway weighed 80 Ibs. per yard, and though the line is being 
 relaid with the 100-lb. rail, it will be some years before the 80-lb. rail has 
 disappeared. The rails are all 33 ft. long, and the joints are not opposite! to 
 each other as is usual in England. The joints are usually " supported "instead 
 of " suspended " as in England. The curves as a rule do not exceed 955 ft. iu 
 radius (6 degrees), but there is one curve near Albany with a radius of 700 ft. 
 This company makes large use of " spring frogs " and also of " movable frogs," 
 of both of which appliances the engineers spoke well. As regards spring 
 frogs, opinion in America is by no means unanimous ; but as regards movable 
 frogs, which are operated from a signal cabin, and interlocked with the signals 
 and fitted with locks and lock-bars, they seem to give general satis factioii. 
 These appliances are practically unknown in England, but the London and 
 South- Western Railway have recently introduced a few sets for experiment. 
 
 The signalling of this section of the New York Central Railway is on 
 " controlled manual " or Syke's system ; but automatic signals are to be 
 installed shortly. The distant signals have at present a yellow ami, arid at 
 'night show a green light when in the ''danger" position, and white light for 
 '" all right." The home signals are painted red and at night' shew a 'red light 
 for " danger." and a white light for " all right." The signals are operated by 
 double wires, that is to say, there is a wire to place them at danger as well as to 
 pull them " off." 
 
 On my return to New York I was taken round the harbour by the engineer 
 'of the New York Central Railway in the company's steam launch. The feature 
 that strikes one most is the immense activity apparent on all sides.. Vessels 
 of all descriptions are always on the move. There are the public ferry "boats, 
 and the railway ferry boats, and the railway barges with whole trains 
 of freight cars on their decks, crossing the harbour from one side 
 to the other. And there are coastwise steamers and ocean going steamers 
 steaming up and down the central channel : and there are yachts, and launches 
 darting hither and thither, and seeming to invite constant risk of being run 
 down ; 'the busy appearance being more marked than anything one sees .-oit the 
 Thames or Mersey. Another feature that attracts attention, is the manner in 
 which every yard of river front is occupied with docks. These are not docks 
 such as are known in England, but rather a succession of bays arranged at right 
 angles to the shore, with dividing piers or quays between them, each of which 
 has a conspicuous number above.it. These bays are long enough to take the 
 longest ocean going steamers, which enter them stem first, and come to rest with 
 their bows against the shore and their broadsides along the piers. There are no 
 gates, and no large enclosed sheets of water, these being quite unnecessary owing 
 to the fact that the rise and fall' of tide does not exceed 5 ft. and vessels can 
 enter and leave the docks at all times irrespective of the tide. These bays extend 
 on both sides of Manhattan Island, on which New York City is situate, and also 
 
27 
 
 on the sea fronts of Jersey City, and of Brooklyn. The accommodation thus 
 afforded is enormous, and the harbour has capabilities such as few, if any, other 
 places possess. I steamed all round the harbour both in the North River and 
 the East River. I also visited the Navy Yard, which is situated in Brooklyn 
 and saw some of the United States war vessels, most of them being cruisers 
 equipped for the Spanish-American war. 
 
 To revert for a moment to the New York Central Railway I should mention 
 that the company intend to introduce electric traction on their main lines for a 
 distance of 35 miles out of New York. This is being forced upon them in 
 consequence of the disastrous collision that occurred in the tunnel under the 
 city which occurred in January last. There are four tracks through' the 
 tunnel which are daily used by a- large number of trains belonging to the 
 different companies using the Grand Central Station. So that the tunnel is 
 constantly tilled with smoke and steam, its condition having fora long time past 
 been a cause of much complaint. 
 
 The company are encouraging their staff to take a pride in appearance of 
 the , track and stations and give yearly prizes for the best kept sections and 
 stations, some of latter in the neighbourhood of New York being very neat and 
 attractive. Not only are gardens a common feature, but well trimmed lawns 
 alongside the tracks are frequently met with. The company is also following 
 the example of English companies in the introduction of water troughs to 
 enable engines to take up a supply of water wnile running. 
 
 Friday, October lOtJi. At 10 a.m. I went from New York to Boston with 
 Mr. C. Townley. We arrived at Boston at 3 p.m., and I at once called on General 
 Bancroft and Mr. C. S. Sergeant, president and vice-president respectively of the 
 Boston Elevated Railway Company. This Company operates the surface lines 
 (or tram lines) as well as the Elevated railway, the two together forming a. very 
 extensive system, extending on all sides to the neighbouring towns. The 
 problem of locomotion through the City of Boston became urgent about the year 
 1891, and a Commission was appointed by the Legislature of Massachusetts to 
 investigate a.nd consider the subject of rapid transit in the City. 
 
 In 1892 the Commission reported to the Legislature, and recommended 
 that a tunnel or subway should be built under Boston Common and Tremont 
 Street, where the traffic was most congested, for the use of the tramways, 
 and that two elevated railways through the city should be constructed. 
 The work was commenced in 1895 and completed in. 1898. The Elevated 
 Railway Company, which acquired by purchase or lease the control of the 
 surface lines as well- of the elevated, pays a rent for the use of the subway, 
 and the system of communication both in the city itself and in the surrounding 
 townships is more complete in Boston than in any other city I visited. The 
 subway contains five miles of track ; the Elevated railway consists of 1 (> miles 
 of track, and the Surfo.ce lines of 385 miles of track, in all cases measured as 
 single line. The subway was originally designed for tramcars only, and it was 
 at a later date that it was decided to devote two of the tracks in it (in places 
 where there are four tracks) to the use of the trains from the Elevated railway. 
 In this way it has come about that there are in it many curves and gradients, 
 which though not unsuitable for tramcars are a serious obstacle to the Elevated 
 trains, the service upon which suffers accordingly. I spent some time on 
 Friday evening watching the traffic passing through Park Street Station on the 
 subway. This is one of the busiest places on the subway, and in the evening 
 the number of passengers is great. There are four tracks through the station, 
 two for the tram lines and two for the elevated trains. The tram lines are in 
 the middle and terminate here in a loop, the tracks used by the elevated 
 trains being outside the others, and separated by a sufficient space to make 
 room for the loop. The tramcars from all the routes pass through this place 
 in an endless succession, each car being conspicuously marked to indicate its 
 route. The crowd is so great at the busy hcur that a special force of inspectors 
 is employed to prevent people from boarding the cars while they are in motion. 
 The tramcars run singly, but the trains of the Elevated railway consist of four 
 
 cars. 
 
 i 
 
 13875 D 2 
 
28 
 
 Saturday, October llth. I spent the morning on the Elevated railway, 
 and the afternoon on the Surface or tram lines. 
 
 The Elevated railway, which is 6J miles long, comprises about 16 miles 01 
 track including sidings, laid with 85-lb. rails, the third rail (or conductor rail) 
 weighing 100 Ib. per yard. As its name implies, the Elevated line for 
 the most part is carried on a steel viaduct along the streets, but, as already 
 stated, in places it passes into and through the subway. The whole 01 
 the steel structure is bonded and connected with the power station so 
 as to assist in acting as a return conductor. On the whole it is a more 
 substantial structure than the elevated line in New York, advantage having 
 been taken of the experience gained in the latter city. Where, as often 
 happens, the street tramways pass below the elevated line, the trolley wires of 
 the former are attached to the underside of the viaduct, being at the same time 
 doubly insulated therefrom. There are 120 cars on the elevated railway, and 
 the trains consist of three or four cars. Each car has two bogie trucks, on one 
 of which are placed two motors of 150 H.P. each, making a total H.P. on each 
 car of 300, there being a controller at each end of each car. The trains are 
 fitted with the Westinghouse automatic air brake, the air for which is supplied 
 by an electric air compressor on each car. The controllers are of the Sprague 
 multiple unit pattern, the handles of which fly back to the " off" position if let 
 go. This ensures that if anything happens to the motor-man the trains shall 
 come to rest. The current is supplied from the power stations, of which there 
 are seven for the whole system, elevated as well as surface, at 550 volts (direct). 
 The cars have each four " shoes " or " slippers " for collecting the current from 
 the third rail, the latter being placed outside the rails in the space between the 
 tracks. The wheels have 4], in. treads and flanges l in. deep. 
 
 The line is signalled throughout on the electro-pneumatic automatic 
 system, the insulated joints between the sections being placed in each case 
 200 ft. beyond the signals marking the entrance to the sections. Alongside of 
 the signals and working in conjunction with them are placed automatic triggers 
 which apply the brakes should a train overrun a danger signal. This installa- 
 tion of automatic signalling is unusually interesting, as it is the first instance of 
 this system being introduced on an electric railway using the rails (or one of 
 them) for the return of the propulsion current. Track circuits for signalling 
 purposes require the exclusive use electrically of at least one rail of each track 
 to which the signals refer. Under ordinary conditions it is not found feasible 
 to surrender one of the rails for this purpose. But on the Boston Elevated 
 Railway, owing to the great capacity of the elevated structure as a return 
 conductor, it was found possible to devote one rail entirely to block signalling 
 purposes, the other rail being common to both the block and the propulsion 
 circuits. Special means were devised to prevent the operation of the signals, or 
 the damage of their controlling mechanism, in case the propulsion current should 
 find a return through the block rail and instruments, and polarised relays had 
 to be used so as to respond to currents in one direction only. The problem 
 seems to have been cleverly solved on this line. The electrical energy for the 
 block system is supplied by four motor generators placed in convenient places, 
 driven by current drawn from the main propulsion feeders, and delivering current 
 at 90 volts, which by means of resistances is reduced to 15 volts in the track circuit 
 The air for operating the signals is supplied from air compressors fixed at the 
 terminal station, these also being driven by energy drawn from the main feeders. 
 
 A very completely equipped school is provided for the instruction of the 
 motor- men in all the details of the controllers and brake equipment, and the 
 men have to pass a strict examination, and are also tested for eyesight and 
 colour blindness, before being allowed to take charge of a train. The training 
 of motor-men for Surface lines and all electrically operated railways appear to be 
 more thorough in America than it is in England. 
 
 Sullivan Square Station, where the elevated trains and surface cars meet 
 and exchange traffic, is a very interesting place and is admirably planned. This 
 is a terminal station for the Elevated trains, which here run round a single line 
 loop, one side of which forms a single track through the middle of the station 
 while the other makes a circuit outside. The surface cars run into the station 
 
29 
 
 on either side of the centre line, there being altogether 10 tracks (five on each 
 side) devoted to them. These tracks form dead end bays, or as they are called 
 in America " stub tracks." The elevated trains run at two minutes' interval, 
 which is found to be the shortest that can be obtained with the signals arranged 
 as at present, but it is contemplated to fix the signals nearer together so as to 
 enable a still more frequent service to be obtained. 
 
 At junctions and places where there are switches to be operated, electro- 
 pneumatic interlocking plants have been erected. 
 
 A good deal of trouble is caused by the sharpness of the curves on the 
 subway section of the elevated railway. These curves not only affect the 
 speed but have a very injurious action upon the wheels, upon which a series of 
 ridges is soon formed, owing to the slipping of the wheels round the curves. 
 The wheels have at very short intervals of time to be taken into the repairing 
 shop, where instead of being turned in a lathe they are ground true by means 
 of a grindstone. This is found to be quicker than turning them. 
 
 At Dudley Street Station on the Elevated railway the surface cars again 
 exchange traffic with the elevated trains. This is a terminus for both elevated 
 trains and Surface cars, all of which run round single line loops instead of into 
 stub tracks. In fact, loops form a marked feature of most electric railways in 
 America, as they do on the Metropolitan Railway of Paris, as I pointed out in 
 my report last year. 
 
 In the afternoon I travelled over a. section of the surface lines or tramways. 
 These are at present laid with a variety of rails, but the grooved rail, with a 
 wider groove than is usual in England, is now adopted as the standard. It 
 weighs 80 Ibs per yard. Where the vehicular traffic is heavy, especially where 
 heavy lorries, or " teams " as they are called, are numerous, the " step " rail or 
 tram rail is used. Outside the city the lines are laid on the grass alongside the 
 roadway, and here an ordinary T railway rail is employed, which is laid with 
 its upper surface level with the grass, the latter being brought close up to the rails 
 on all sides, both between the rails and between the tracks. The Surface lines 
 are practically double throughout, this being a feature of most American 
 tramway lines, single lines not being approved. 
 
 The cars on these tramways are chiefly bogie cars, and a few of them have 
 maximum traction trucks, which, however, are found here, as elsewhere, to be 
 unsatisfactory. Some cars are four-wheeled, but these are said to be hard on the 
 track, and are not liked by the management. All the cars have two motors, 
 those on the bogie cars being of 40 H.P. each, and those on the small four- 
 wheeled cars being of 30 or 37 H.P. each. The cars are all fitted with the 
 ordinary hand brake, but no emergency brake. They have life guards 
 or fenders of three different patterns, none of which can be regarded as 
 satisfactory. 
 
 The tracks are laid on cross ties at about 2^ ft. centres, and concrete is 
 placed between the ties, but not underneath them. This is a very usual mode 
 of construction in America, but I cannot help thinking that the concrete is in 
 the wrong place, and that it would be better below the ties, or at any rate 
 below the rails as is the custom in England. Heavy iron gauge rods are used to 
 keep the track to gauge. 
 
 The speeds in the city streets is low, not exceeding six or eight miles an 
 hour, but outside the town the cars are run at a speed of 20 to 25 miles an hour. 
 The motor-men are well trained and handle their cars with care and skill. 
 
 The Company have to run some postal cars for the collection and distribu- 
 tion of letters under contract with the Post Office. 
 
 The overhead trolley system of traction is made use of, the current being 
 supplied from seven power houses, the voltage being 550. The same power 
 houses supply also the elevated lines. As already stated, the tram lines pass 
 into the subway at certain spots and use the same stations as the elevated trains. 
 As a general rule the termini of the tram lines are formed by means of single 
 line loops and not with cross-over roads. 
 
30 
 
 Sunday, October 12th. I spent the morning examining the Boston South 
 Station belonging to the Boston Terminal Company, which is an association of the 
 five companies which run into it, viz., the New York, New Haven, and Hudson 
 River Railroad Company, the Boston and Albany Railroad Company, the New 
 England Railroad Company, the Boston and Providence Railroad Corporation, 
 and the Old Colony Railroad Company. 
 
 This station is a remarkable structure, its most attractive features being the 
 waiting halls, toilet rooms, and restaurant. The main car shed covers an area 
 of 506,430 square feet, and the whole of the building is built on piles over 
 which a concrete foundation has been placed. The roof of the car shed is ugly, 
 being of a flat arched shape with a covering of tarred felt or paper. The result 
 is that the interior of the shed is dark, except when lighted artificially. Steam 
 pipes have been laid along all the valleys or gutters of the roof, for the purpose 
 of thawing the snow and preventing any accumulation of it. The arrangements 
 for heating and lighting are very complete, and the kitchen and feeding arrange- 
 ments are admirable and far beyond anything that exists in England at any 
 station. 
 
 I attach a printed statement giving a number of statistics concerning this 
 station, about which a great deal has from time to time been said by English 
 visitors. From this it will be seen that the greatest number of trains in both 
 directions which use this place daily is 801, and the number of passengers per 
 annum is 25 millions, or 68,500 per diem. 
 
 Comparing this with Liverpool Street Station in London, where the daily 
 trains number 1,060, and the daily passengers on very busy days reach the large 
 total of 179,680, it will be seen that, in spite of all that has been said, the 
 operations at Boston are not so large as those here. And this fact becomes the 
 more notable when it is remembered that at Liverpool Street there are onlv 
 18 platform lines as against 28 at Boston, and only six tracks leading into the 
 fprmer as against eight at the latter. Again, at Cannon Street Station, where 
 there are nine platform lines and one middle road, with eight lines leading to and 
 from them, the number of trains dealt with daily is 920, and at Charing Cross, 
 with six platform lines and four tracks in and out, the number of trains handled 
 is 550 daily. 
 
 The station yard at Boston is very well laid out, and the permanent way is 
 good. Moveable frogs and spring frogs are largely used ; and here as elsewhere 
 the former are well spoken of, but the verdict in regard to spring frogs is not so 
 unanimous, some engineers approving of them and others disliking them. 
 
 The signalling throughout the yard is on the electro-pneumatic system, all 
 the switches and signals being worked by power from three signal boxes, which 
 contain 165 levers. About half a mile outside the station there is a bascule 
 opening bridge of the rolling type. This bridge has two spans each of which 
 weighs 500 tons, five-eighths of which is counterweight. The bridge is opened 
 and closed by electric power, but owing to the skilful way in which it is 
 balanced by the counterweights the electric energy required to operate the bridge 
 is exceedingly small, the cost of each operation of opening and closing being 
 only 2 cents. This type of opening bridge is very common in the States, there 
 being several in Chicago and elsewhere. 
 
 Below the main station there is a subway to accommodate local trains. In 
 this there are two loop single line tracks, so that the local trains can run through 
 the station, and all shunting or shifting of the engine from one end of a train 
 to the other is avoided. There are four tracks through the yard for these local 
 trains. The subway is not yet in actual use. 
 
 . In the afternoon I visited the public library in Boston, which is a fine 
 building and admirably appointed. The facilities afforded to the public by these 
 free libraries is remarkable, even children having large rooms ses apart for them 
 in which suitable books are provided. I. then went to Hartford, and after 
 dinner I was taken to see the power house of the Hartford Electric Lighting and 
 Power Company. The chief source of power utilised by this Company is water, 
 two water turbines having been erected 10 miles away, viz., one of 2,000 H.P; 
 
31 
 
 and one of 1,600 H.P., the current there generated being 10,000' volts 
 alternating. This is 'conveyed to Hartford on overhead conductors j it is then 
 transformed to 2,400 A'olts, at which voltage it is distributed to several works, 
 but for use in the centre of the city it is still further reduced, and is supplied at 
 220 A'olts direct. The most interesting feature was the steam turbine, which 
 has been erected in the power house to supplement the water poAver, should that 
 fail. The steam turbine Avas adopted because of its lower first cost as compared 
 with a reciprocating engine ; its smaller cost of installation ; its relatively high 
 efficiency at fractional loads ; and the email space occupied by it. It Avas 
 supplied by the Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company, and has a 
 rated capacity of 2,000 kiloAvatts, Avhich can be increased by superheating. 
 The steam is supplied by three Aultman-Taylor water tube boilers, each having 
 a rated capacity of 500 H.P., which however can be increased by superheating. 
 
 This turbine has given entire satisfaction, and though it is not often called 
 upon to supply energy, it is kept always ready in case of emergency and for use 
 Avhen the Joad is excessive. 
 
 Monday, October 13th. I left Hartford at 8.33 a.m. and reached New 
 York at noon. In the afternoon I met Mr. Potter of the General Electric 
 Company, and Colonel Heft, electrical engineer of the New Haven and Hartford 
 Railway Company. 
 
 Tuesday, October l-ith. I went over to Brooklyn at 10 a.m., and called 
 upon Mr. Calderwood, assistant to the president of Brooklyn Rapid Transit 
 Company. I then visited the surface lines of that Company. These lines are a 
 consolidation of the lines of six formerly existing companies, five of which 
 possessed surface lines, and one an elevated railway, in Brooklyn. The total 
 mileage now owned or leased by the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company is about 
 250 miles of double track, of which 28 miles form the elevated railroad. A new 
 power-house is being built containing 32 boilers on two floors, each boiler having 
 a capacity of 600 H.P., and eight engines of 4,500 H.P. each. There are two 
 direct current generators (550 volts) of about 4,OuO H.P. each, and six 
 alternating current generators (6,660 volts) also of 4,000 H.P. each. The surface 
 lines are Avorked on the overhead trolley system, and the elevated railroad on 
 
 the third rail system, the voltage in both cases being 550. 
 
 
 
 The surface lines are now being laid with grooved rails in 60 feet lengths, 
 which haA r e been adopted as the standard, the grooA'e being a wide one, and so 
 shaped as to be self cleaning. Outside the city limits the surface cars run upon 
 the same rails as the elevated trains, the speed attained being as high as 25 miles 
 an hour. Inside the city speed restrictions are imposed of 8, 10, and 15 miles 
 an hour. The cars, as is the universal custom in America, are " single decked," 
 
 The rails are laid on cross " ties " or sleepers, concrete being filled in 
 between the ties, as is the case in Boston and New York and elsewhere. 
 2\lthough, as already stated, I do not think this is a good way of using the 
 concrete, it undoubtedly makes a quiet and elastic road, but it is most difficult to 
 maintain and does not afford such a good surface to the street. The condition 
 of the streets is, however, not regarded in America as so important as It 
 is in English towns. 
 
 . The elevated railway is similar to that in Boston, already described, and 
 
 to that of New York, which AA r ill be described hereafter. The third or conductor 
 
 .rail is laid outside the track rails, and the current is collected by shoes or 
 
 , slippers, of which there are four on each motor car. The trains consist of fiA r e 
 
 cars, viz., three motor cars and two ordinary cars. The motor cars are fitted 
 
 .with the Westinghouse pneumatic multiple controllers. The motor cars have 
 
 ,twQ motors of 150 H.P. each, on the same truck, the wheels carrying the 
 
 motors being 33 inches in diameter and the other Avheels 30 inches. 
 
 ; Both the surface cars and the eleA^ated trains tra\-el over the Brooklyn 
 
 bridge into NCAV York, separate tracks being provided for them respectively, the 
 
 : elevated .tracks being in the centre of the bridge and the tramway tracks one on 
 
 one side of the bridge and the other on the other side. The bridge is .not 
 
32 
 
 regarded as sufficiently strong to allow the surface cars to follow each other 
 close together, and an interval of 100 feet has to be maintained between them. 
 
 I was disappointed with the Brooklyn Bridge, of which I had heard and read 
 so much. It is constructed of steel wire ropes, there being eight such ropes in 
 each of the four main cables. The slings supporting the floor girders consist 
 of similar ropes, one rope to each sling, and these are attached to the main 
 cables by iron straps or clips. One of these clips failed a short time ago and 
 created a good deal of alarm, and it was in consequence of this that the 
 regulation was made as to the distance of 100 feet being maintained between 
 the tram cars passing over it. The total length of the bridge is 5,989 feet, of 
 which the central or river span is 1,595 feet. It is interesting to compare 
 this with the Forth bridge, the two main spans of which have each a length of 
 1,700 feet. The Brooklyn bridge does not give one an idea of great strength, 
 and is not such an imposing structure as I was led to expect. 
 
 The elevated railway of Brooklyn terminates at the New York end of the 
 bridge in a station raised above the street level. The surface lines after passing 
 over the bridge descend to the street and spread out into four tracks, which circle 
 round the end of the bridge, forming four single line loops. 
 
 The congestion of traffic here at the busy times of the day, morning and 
 evening, is great, and forms one of the sights of New York. Many schemes 
 have been proposed to remedy this state of affairs, but no solution of the 
 difficulty has yet been found. The problem is worse now than ever, since 
 the number of cars allowed upon the bridge at one time is limited. 
 
 Wednesday, October lath. At 9 a.m. I met Mr. Potter, chief engineer of 
 the Railway Branch of the General Electric Company, and went with him over 
 the Manhattan, or New York, Elevated railway, which is now in process of being- 
 prepared for electric traction by the General Electric Company. This line has 
 hitherto been worked by steam, but many of the trains are already being 
 operated by electricity, both steam and electric trains using the same rails. The 
 line is supported on steel colums and girders, the level of the rails being about 
 that of the first floors of the adjacent houses. The permanent way has no 
 continuous flooring, the space between the ties being open. This has been done 
 in order not to shut out the light from the street below, but it is presumed that 
 some inconvenience must have been caused by ashes or water dropping from 
 the steam engines into the street. 
 
 e> 
 
 The length of the Manhattan Elevated railway is 55 miles of double track, 
 and the number of cars in service is 1,0X9, equal to about 230 trains. The 
 trains as a rule consist of five cars, when drawn by steam locomotive, and six! 
 cars when electrically propelled. The minimum interval between trains is 
 57 seconds, but the average interval is much more than this. The average 
 speed attained by the steam trains is said to be from 13 to 14 miles per hour, 
 including stops, but as the latter are very numerous, the distance between 
 stations being about 575 yards, the actual speed between stations must be much 
 higher. The above figures relate to the stopping trains, but there are four 
 tracks on some of the routes, two of which are reserved for express traffic, and 
 on these the schedule speed rises to 26'4 miles per hour. With electric traction 
 higher speeds than the above are expected. The trains in the busy time of the 
 day, viz., between 5 and 6 p.m., are densely crowded and very uncomfortable, it 
 being almost impossible to get a seat, and difficult to force one's way into or out 
 of a car oAving to the crowd of passengers standing in the centre passage and 
 end gangways. The platforms u down town "are thronged with people waiting 
 for the trains, and railings are fixed to prevent persons from being forced on to 
 the line, gaps being left in the railings opposite the gangways between the cars. 
 Marks are placed in the six-foot way to guide the motormen in stopping the 
 trains in the right place, so that the gangways may be opposite to the gaps in 
 the railings. 
 
 \ The electric trains are divisible into two units of three coaches each, and 
 during the middle of the day the trains are so split up. Each unit has two 
 motor cars, viz., one at each end with an ordinary car in the middle. In this 
 way the full sized train of six cars has four motor cars, two in the middle and 
 
33 
 
 one at each end. Each motor car has two motors of 125-H.P. each, both motors 
 being on the same bogie truck. The wheels carrying the motors are 33 inches 
 in diameter, the others 39 inches. 
 
 The sharpest curves on the Manhattan railway have radii of 90 feet and 
 the steepest gradient has an inclination of 2 per cent, or 1 in 50. These curves 
 are a drawback, and where they occur speed has to be reduced to eight miles an 
 hour and even less, partly on account of the risk of derailment, and partly 
 because the motorman cannot see round the curves, and does not therefore 
 know whether the line ahead is clear. 
 
 The line is not signalled, except at the curves, and the motormen regulate 
 their movement in accordance with that of the train ahead of them. The 
 service is in fact worked in the same way as that of a tramway. At the curves 
 automatic mechanical signals are provided, which indicate to a driver of any 
 train whether the previous train has cleared the curve or not. These are 
 operated by treadles alongside the track. Flag men are also stationed at some 
 of the worst curves. At switches and crossings, where such exist, ground 
 signals are provided, which are interlocked with the switches and are operated 
 from small ground frames. 
 
 The absence of block signals has hitherto been found to introduce no risks, 
 the speed of the steam-driven trains being low. But with the introduction of 
 electric traction, with its high speeds and higher rate of acceleration, viz., two 
 feet per second per second, it seems probable that signals will be required, though 
 at present it is not intended to provide them. Without them accidents will 
 almost certainly occur. 
 
 The tracks are everywhere provided with inside check rails and outside 
 timber wheel guards. The whole structure is bonded electrically and connected 
 with the rails, which form the negative conductor. 
 
 The trains are fitted with the Westinghouse automatic air brake, air being 
 supplied from compressors on each car driven by small auxiliary motors. 
 
 The controllers are of the General Electric Company's pattern, which 
 enables any number of units to be controlled from any car. The controller 
 magnets are placed underneath the car, asbestos sheets being attached to the 
 underside of the car above the magnets. If the motorman lets go of the 
 controller handle the current is at once cut off, and cannot be restored until 
 the controller handle has been moved to the " off " position and then moved 
 forward again. The removal of the reversing handle locks the controller 
 handle, so that all the motorman has to do when he leaves his compartment is 
 to remove the reversing handle and the controller is then out of use. This 
 enable's the space occupied by the motorman to be used by passengers when not 
 required for driving. 
 
 The cars are mostly the old ones, formerly used in the steam trains, and 
 which have been equipped for electric traction, for which, however, they do not 
 seem well, suited. 
 
 The track is laid with 80-lb. steel rails, and the conductor rail is of the same 
 weight and section. The latter is placed outside the running rails in the six- 
 foot way. The main transmission and feeder cables, from the power house to 
 the substations and from the latter to the line, are also carried on the top of the 
 girders of the railway in the six-foot way, an arrangement which is open to 
 much objection, as, if an accident occurred such as the derailment of a train, 
 and a short circuit were thereby caused, the results would be very serious and 
 probably disastrous. But in such matters Americans seem prepared to " take 
 chances " which would not be thought of in England. 
 
 The power house of the Manhattan railway contains eight alternating 
 generators of 5,000 kilowatts .each, there being two compound condensing 
 engines to each generator, steam being supplied from 64 Babcock and Wilcocks' 
 boilers arranged on two floors. The current in the first instance is 11,000 volts 
 (alternating), which is transformed down in the substations to 390 volts, and 
 afterwards converted by rotary converters into direct current at 600 volts. The 
 
 13875 E 
 
34 
 
 power house has four chimney stacks 280 feet high. Rouey mechanical stokers 
 are used, whereby only one third of the staff, which would otherwise be 
 required in the boiler room, is needed. 
 
 The operation of preparing the line for electric traction while the trains are 
 still running is highly dangerous to the men employed, the intervals between 
 trains being so small, and there being little or no space in which the men can 
 take. refuge. I saw one unfortunate man run down and killed by an electric 
 train a short distance ahead of the train in which I was travelling. 
 
 In the afternoon I had a very interesting trip to the mouth of the harbour 
 on board a steamer with " Curtis " steam turbines to drive her. The great 
 feature of these turbines was the extremely small space occupied bv them, and 
 their smoothness of running and absence of vibration were also remarkable. 
 The steamer had twin screws driven by two turbines, each of 1,250 H.P., and 
 the engine room was about ten feet square. The Curtis turbine is similar in 
 principle to the Parson's, but differs somewhat in detail. It has a reversing 
 turbine fitted on the same shaft as the forward driving turbines, but enclosed in 
 A separate steam chamber. When the engine is in forward gear the reversing 
 turbine is running free, no steam being admitted to it. But when the engine 
 is reversed the forward turbines run free, while steam is admitted to the 
 reversing turbine. The operation is instantaneous in action and very .simple. 
 Owing to the speed of revolution being exceedingly high a special form of 
 screw is necessary, otherwise a vacuum is produced by the screw which impedes 
 the forward movement of the ship. A thoroughly satisfactory form of screw 
 has not yet been discovered. 
 
 Thursday, October 16th. At 7.30 a.m. I went to Philadelphia, arriving 
 there about 11. I spent the morning in Baldwin's locomotive works, where 
 they turn out 2,000 locomotives a year, or more than 6 per day, the greater 
 number of which are for use in the States. The thing that struck me most 
 here was the extraordinary congestion of the works, which are so filled with 
 machinery, material, parts of engines, and engines in process of construction, 
 that it was hardly possible to walk through the shops. It seemed to me that 
 the men worked under much disadvantage in so crowded a place. A number 
 of books were given to me explaining all the features of the Baldwin engines, 
 and all the specialities for which the works are famous. The works are 
 situated in the heart of the city, and though they cover a large area it 
 appears that their size is insufficient for the amount of work turned out. 
 This concern is remarkable in America in that it has not been converted into 
 .a big public company. It still remains in private hands. 
 
 I lunched with Mr. Cassatt, the president of the Pennsylvania railroad, 
 Mr. Rea, vice-president, Mr. Pugh, another vice-president, and several of 
 the chief officers of the line being also present. Mr. Cassatt is regarded as 
 the most powerful railway man' in America. I then heard a good deal about 
 the scheme already alluded to for tunneling under the harbour at New York 
 so as to give the railroad access to that City. 
 
 Mr. Richards, engineer of the Philadelphia Division of the line, and 
 the signalling superintendent gave me all the information in their power on 
 their practice in track work and signalling. 
 
 The permanent way is similar to that already described as adopted on the 
 New I ork Central railway. It is in tine condition and admirably maintained, 
 -and as neat as care and attention can make it. Mr. Richards said that he 
 had tried a mile or so of line constructed according to London and North 
 Western method, and did not like it. But I do not think that he has tried 
 the latest type of London and North Western road, nor do I believe that a 
 test made under such conditions can be in any way regarded as conclusive. 
 
 The whole of the four tracks between New York and Pittsbugh are 
 signalled on ^ the automatic (electro-pneumatic) system of the Union Switch 
 and Signal Company. The signals are operated by compressed air controlled 
 by electric circuits in the track. The line is divided Into block sections about 
 1,000 or 1,300 yards long, a home and distant signal being placed at 
 
3.5 
 
 commencement of every section. The arrangement is such that when a 
 current is flowing along the track air is admitted to the mechanism operating 
 the signals and the signals are pulled " off," i.e., to the safety position. 
 When, however, any engine or car is in the section the track current is short- 
 circuited, the air valves are closed, and the signal returns to " danger." The 
 principle of automatic; signalling is good, but it is not easy to understand the 
 advantage of splitting up the line into such short sections. The number of 
 signals is bewildering, and it seems rather absurd to tell a driver who is, say, 
 running at 50 or 60 miles an hour that the line is clear for no greater 
 distance than 1,000 yards or so. The whole question of automatic signalling,, 
 and its suitability for English conditions, requires more consideration than it 
 has hitherto received. 
 
 The Pennsylvania Railroad Company use cast iron wheels with chilled 
 rims and flanges, not only on their freight trains, as is the general custom 
 on all American railroads, but also for their passenger trains. The risk with 
 these wheels is that the flanges are liable to be brittle and to break. If this 
 happens a derailment is almost certain to occur. The advantage of these 
 wheels is their cheapness. The manufacturing companies supplying them will 
 always take back the old wheels at a good price, and break them up and recast 
 them, so that the nett cost of the wheel to the railway company is very 
 small, probably not more than 3 or 4 dollars. 
 
 I returned to New York at about 6 p.m. 
 
 Friday, October 17th. I left New York at 8.45 a.m., in the private car 
 belonging to Mr. J. N. Beckley, president of the Toronto, Buffalo, and 
 Hamilton Railway, and president of the Pneumatic Signal Company of New 
 York and Rochester. Mr. Beckley, ou hearing that I was about to visit the 
 States, communicated with me in England and most kindly arranged to make 
 up a party of engineers and others for a tour to Albany, Buffalo, Niagara, 
 Toronto, Detroit, Chicago, Washington, and back to New York, the trip to last 
 about 10 or 11 days. In this way I was afforded an opportunity of visiting the 
 places named and of seeing various matters of interest under the most favourable 
 auspices. I was not disappointed, -for nothing was omitted to make the trip 
 successful and instructive. 
 
 The party at starting consisted of Mr. Beckley, General Eugene Griffin, 
 late of the U.S.A. Corps of Engineers, and now vice-president of the General 
 Electric Company of America, Mr. A. Spencer, director of the Railway 
 Signalling Company of Fazakerly, Liverpool, Mr. W. Craven, of Craven Bros., 
 Manchester, Mr. Hansel, vice-president of the Pneumatic Signal Company, and 
 myself. 
 
 We travelled by the New York Central Railroad to Albany, arriving there 
 about noon. The car was there detached from the train and placed in a siding, 
 while we all went by electric car to Schenectady over the new high speed inter- 
 urban line. This is a good specimen of the class of railway which is being 
 constructed in many parts of the States. The distance between Albany and 
 Schenectady is 17 miles, the population of the former being 100,000 and of the 
 latter 50,000. Hitherto the inhabitants have been served by the New York 
 Central Steam Railway, which runs between the two cities, and the electric railway 
 has captured about two-thirds of the passenger traffic from the older line and has 
 at the same time built up an additional traffic of its own. It now carries 3,700 
 passengers per day. The line connects with the tramways in Albany and 
 Schenectady, so that passengers have the advantage of travelling to or from the 
 centres of those cities without change of car. The usual service between the two 
 places is a car each way every 15 minutes, but in the morning and evening the 
 interval is reduced to 10 minutes. There is also an all night service, the cars 
 running every hour after midnight. An express baggage car runs every hour 
 and freight cars every 45 minutes. The schedule time between the centres of the 
 cities is 45 minutes, including stops, and including at least three miles over the 
 tram lines, on which the speed has to be low. This gives an average speed of 
 23 miles an hour, but the maximum speed is as high as 50 miles an hour. 
 The fare is 25 cents for the single journey and 40 cents for a return ticket. 
 Books of monthly tickets are sold at a reduced rate. 
 
 13875 E 2 
 
36 
 
 The line consists of two tracks laid on the public highway, of which they 
 occupy about two-thirds, the remainder being a mere unmetalled roadway full 
 of ruts. The railway is not fenced off, and the public have the right to walk 
 or drive over it. B ut as the rails are laid on cross ties or sleepers and are 
 raised above the surface of the roadway the public have little inducement to use 
 the portion of the road occupied by the railway. The rails weigh 80 Ibs. per 
 yard and are of the usual T section, except in the city of Albany where the 
 ordinary grooved tram rail is laid, which weighs 110 Ibs. per yard and is of the 
 girder section. The electrical equipment is on the overhead trolley system, 
 the trolley wire being supported on span wires carried on wood posts. The 
 power is transmitted from the power house at 10,000 volts (alternating three 
 phase) which is transformed and converted in the sub-stations into a direct 
 current of 550 volts in the trolley wire. The cars have four motors of 50 H.P. 
 each and seat 50 passengers. The wheels have cast iron centres and steel tires 
 with ^-inch flanges and 3-inch treads, the small flange being necessary to 
 permit of the cars running over the street railways in Albany and Schenectady. 
 
 The line cost 30,000 dollars per mile of double track, including equipment. 
 The one objectionable feature of the railway is that it is laid on the public 
 highway, and it is satisfactory to learn that the present tendency in America 
 is to lay high speed lines of this class on land acquired for the purpose. 
 
 The cars are equipped with the Westinghouse direct air brake, the air 
 reservoirs below the cars being charged at the sub-stations. 
 
 The works of the General Electric Company at Schenectady are very 
 extensive, and equipped with all the most modern plant. They employ about 
 9,000 hands. The Company are giving particular attention to the development 
 of the Curtis steam turbine, which differs in detail, though not in principle, 
 from the Parson's turbine. The blades of the Curtis turbine are somewhat 
 longer and thicker than those of the other, and are cut out of the solid 
 steel disc, instead of being built on to the latter. I saw some most ingenious 
 automatic tools at work, which have been devised for the purpose of cutting 
 and shaping the blades. This method of construction seems to possess greater 
 strength and durability than the other, but is probably more costly, though I 
 have no figures as to this. Another peculiarity of the Curtis turbine, as 
 manufactured by the General Electric Company for use with electric generators, 
 is that it is fixed upon a vertical shaft, the turbine being below and the 
 generator above, the weight of the shaft and of the machinery attached to it 
 being supported upon oil, which is forced in under pressure below the end of 
 the shaft, so that the latter revolves upon a film of oil. This arrangement of 
 the machine economises space and makes the whole thing remarkably 
 compact. 
 
 The party returned to Albany at 6 p.m., and was entertained at dinner by 
 Mr. Coffin, president of the General Electric Company, who came from New 
 York for this purpose. 
 
 Saturday, October \8th. The car was attached to the train for Buffalo, 
 leaving Albany at 8.15 a.m., and after a pleasant journey on the New 
 York Central Railroad \ve arrived at Buffalo at 4 p.m., where we were met by 
 Mr. Fisher, the superintendent of the Toronto, Hamilton, and Buffalo Railway. 
 After a drive round Buffalo, the party was entertained at dinner at the Buffalo 
 Club. After dinner I went to the power station at the Buffalo Electric 
 Lighting and Power Company, where current is received from the Cataract 
 Power and Condiiit Company, a sub-company of the Niagara Falls Power 
 Company, at 11,000 volts (three phase alternating) and is transformed or 
 converted into currents of less voltage (alternating or direct) according to the 
 needs of the various consumers. This is a most interesting place, the 
 transformers and converters being very numerous, and only requiring two men 
 to look after them. 
 
 Sunday October 12th. The party went by train at 10 a.m. to Niagara, and 
 after inspecting the low pressure pneumatic interlocking and signalling plant in 
 the signal cabin at Suspension Bridge we went to the power house of the Niagara 
 Falls Power Company and saw the celebrated turbines, &c. We were conducted 
 
37 
 
 over the power station by some of the officers of the Company, and were given 
 every opportunity of seeing all there is. Under its charter the Company has the 
 right to take 200,000 H.P. from the falls. At present only one power station is 
 at work with a capacity of 50,000 H.P., but a second station is nearly completed 
 of the same capacity, both these being supplied with water by the same canal. 
 The difference of level between the water in the river lj miles above the falls 
 and the river below the falls is about 200 ft. The power station is situated 
 1 J miles above the falls, and is connected with the river by a canal 250 ft. wide, 
 12 ft. deep, and 1,700 ft. long. Parallel with this is a wheel pit 425 ft. long, 
 18 5 ft. wide, and 178'5 ft. deep. From the wheel pit a tunnel 6,890 ft. long, 
 18 ft. 10 in. wide, and 21 ft. high is constructed under the town of Niagara, 
 and discharges into the river below the falls. It is of horse-shoe form through- 
 out, is lined with brickwork, and at its lower end is plated with steel. In the 
 sides of the canal are openings guarded by gratings, and from these steel 
 penstocks 7 '5 ft. in diameter conduct the water to the turbines in the wheel pit 
 below. The turbines, of which there are ten now at work, are twin wheels, 
 inverted, that is to say, the water enters them below and comes out above, and 
 they work under a head of 136 ft. Each turbine has a capacity of 5, COO H.P. 
 From the turbines hollow vertical shafts extend upwards to the generators 
 above, which revolve at 250 revolutions per minute. The generators are two 
 phase alternating current machines with revolving fields and fixed armatures, 
 producing current at 2,200 volts pressure. A portion of this current is then 
 transformed to 22,000 volts for transmission to Buffalo, the remainder being 
 transformed to 11,000 volts for transmission to the sub-station two miles away, 
 where it is stepped down for redistribution to the local factories. The most 
 distant sub-station in Buffalo is 31'4 miles from the falls. The whole district 
 between Niagai^a and Buffalo is being covered with manufactories, and there is 
 little doubt that in a few years' time the two cities will become very important 
 industrial centres. 
 
 On the Canadian side of the river the Canadian Niagara Power Company 
 are now installing a plant of 100,000 H.P., and a third company, the Ontario 
 Power Company, are also commencing work upon a similar station. 
 
 In the afternoon we visited the falls, and saw them from every point of 
 view, a car of the International (Electric) Railway Company being placed 
 at our disposal by the manager of the Company, who made every arrangement 
 for our convenience. This railway is a combination of several different lines, 
 including the one on the Canadian side of the falls and rapids. It has a total 
 mileage of about 200 miles of double track. It commences in Buffalo, whence 
 two main routes diverge, one a high speed line to Lockport and Olcott, on Lake 
 Ontario, and the other to Niagara. The latter line crosses the river just below 
 the falls by the steel arched bridge belonging to the Company, and recrosses it 
 some distance below the whirlpool and rapids by the new suspension bridge 
 recently erected, whence it returns to Niagara and Buffalo along the American 
 side of the river. 
 
 We then returned to Buffalo by way of the Buffalo and Lockport line, 
 which we joined at Tonawancla Junction, about half-way between Niagara and 
 Buffalo. This is a high speed single track trolley line, between Buffalo and 
 Lockport, with an extension to Olcott, the total mileage being about 35. The 
 schedule speed on it is 27 miles per hour outside the city limits, and the 
 maximum speed is 50 miles per hour. The round trip fare from Buffalo to 
 Lockport and back is 75 cents. The cars have four 50 H.P. motors, and weigh 
 22 tons. Two 30 ton electric locomotives are also used upon this line to handle 
 the freight service. These are capable of drawing trains of 650 tons at the 
 speed of 10 miles an hour, and trains of 450 tons at 15 miles per hour. The 
 locomotives have four motors of 165 H.P. each, making a total of 6<iO H.P. 
 They are fitted with air pumps for braking purposes, and with special trolleys, 
 which are controlled from the interior of the cab by means of pneumatic 
 pressure. 
 
 We returned to Buffalo at 7 p.m. 
 
38 
 
 Monday, October 2Qth. We left Buffalo at noon, after inspecting the low 
 pressure pneumatic signalling installation at the station, and arrived at Toronto at 
 4 p.m., travelling over the Toronto, Hamilton, and Buffalo Railway. This is a 
 single track line, a portion of it being jointly owned by Toronto, Hamilton, and 
 Buffalo Company and by the Canadian Grand Trunk. It forms a very useful 
 connection between America and Canada, and probably has a prosperous future 
 before it. It is in good condition and runs very smoothly. 
 
 Tuesday, October 2lst. I spent the morning examining the street railway 
 or tramway system of Toronto, which is owned and operated by the Toronto 
 Railway Company. This Company operates about 150 miles of line, including 
 those in the suburbs. The Company has to pay to the city of Toronto an 
 annual sum equal to 10 per cent, of its gross earnings, besides half the eost of 
 the maintenance of the streets as well. In return for this onerous obligation it 
 has received a 50 years' franchise. 
 
 The track is laid with a grooved rail in the city, the groove being 
 1-ii in. wide, and outside the city the ordinary T rail is used. The speed in the 
 streets is limited to six miles an hour by the local authorities, but outside the city 
 speeds of 10 and 12 miles and more are attained. The speeds are lower than 
 those prevailing in the States, resembling those usual on English tramways. 
 The cars are wide (8 ft.), and the clearance between passing cars is small, the 
 space between the tracks being only 3 ft. 6 ins. Both four-wheeled and 
 bogie cars are employed, the former having two motors of 42 H.P. each, and 
 the latter two motors of 50 H.P. each. Maximum traction trucks are used in 
 some cases, but are not a success. 
 
 The rail joints are cast welded, and the rails are laid upon cross ties as is 
 customary in America. 
 
 At 1 p.m. the party left Toronto, after inspecting the pneumatic inter- 
 locking and signalling plant at the station, and arrived at Hamilton at 4 p.m. 
 Here Ave spent a few hours driving round the place, which is a fairly prosperous 
 manufacturing town at the south-west extremity of Lake Ontario. We left at 
 6 p.m. and arrived at Detroit at 11 p.m. 
 
 The crossing of the Detroit River was interesting, the whole of the train 
 being placed upon the steam ferry boat and transported from the east to the 
 west side of the river with little delay. The boat has three tracks upon it, 
 capable of holding three or four cars each, and the train was split up between 
 them. 
 
 Wednesday, October 22nd. The half-yearly meeting of the American 
 Railway Association took place this morning at Detroit. This association 
 embraces the chief operating officers of all the railways, Canadian, American, 
 and Mexican, in the country. Each railway selects its own delegates, whose 
 names are registered, and whose voting powers are laid down. The organisation 
 is very complete, the headquarters of the association being in New York. 
 Although the companies are not bound by the vote of the majority, yet 
 practically it happens that the minority are usually compelled by circumstances to 
 fall into line with the decisions arrived at, and subjects of the utmost importance 
 are discussed and disposed of at these meetings. My host, Mr. Beckley, in 
 his capacity of president of the Toronto, Hamilton, and Buffalo Railway, is a 
 member of the Association, and introduced me to the president, Mr. Sullivan, 
 of the Illinois Central Railway, who in turn introduced me to the members 
 and invited me to be present during the sitting of the convention. In this 
 way I became acquainted with the chief officers of all the railways, and 
 received invitations from them all to visit all parts of the country, from Canada 
 to Mexico, invitations which I regretted I could not then accept. The most 
 friendly welcome was extended to me from all sides, and I had a most pleasant 
 experience. 
 
 . In the afternoon I went to inspect the street railways of Detroit, also 
 one of the numerous high speed electric lines which radiate from this city, 
 and the works of the American Car and Foundry Company. 
 
39 
 
 The street railways at this place call for no special remark, beyond a 
 note that they are among the best constructed of any that I saw in the States. 
 They are laid with a grooved rail, and are operated on the overhead trolley 
 system. The cars are mostly four-wheeled, with Dupont trucks with 8 ft. wheel 
 base. The cars are noticeable on account of the very long overhang at each 
 end, the total length of the curs being 33 ft., an arrangement which causes 
 the cars to pitch a good deal. 
 
 Detroit is remarkable for its system of high speed electric interurban 
 lines, there being nearly 400 miles of such lines measured as single track, in 
 addition to 187 miles of street railway in the city. Most of these lines are 
 single track with passing places, and all but one are under the control of the 
 Detroit United Railway Company, the one exception being the Detroit, Ypsilanti, 
 Ann Arbor, and Jackson Railway, which is 75 miles long. The lines controlled 
 by the Detroit United Railway Company are : 
 
 The Detroit and Pontiac Railway, 36'52 miles. 
 
 The Detroit and Rochester and Lake Orion Railway, 85'31 miles. 
 
 The Detroit and North-Western Railway, 58'77 miles. 
 
 The Wyandotte and Detroit River Railway, 10'75 miles. 
 
 The Detroit and Port Huron Shore Line Railway, 109*7 miles. 
 
 The service to the distant points is hourly, but to the nearer places a half- 
 hourly service is given. The capitalisation of these lines amounts to about 
 40,000 dollars a mile, half of which is represented by bonds. The earnings per 
 mile of track per annum may be taken on the average as 3,500 dollars. 
 
 The population of Detroit is 285,704, and that of the district served by the 
 interurban lines is about 150,000. 
 
 As this was one of the first places to adopt railways of this class, there is a 
 great variety of construction and rolling stock in existence, but the engineers 
 are gradually introducing a uniform standard of track and equipment. Many 
 of the lines are laid along the public highways, but the tendency here as 
 elsewhere is to lay all new lines on private lands acquired for the purpose. 
 All the lines carry freight, but the freight and passenger services are kept 
 distinct and separate. 
 
 The schedules of speeds on all the lines are similar, the average speed being 
 about 20 miles an hour, which, allowing for the number of stops and the 
 restrictions inside the city, necessitates running speeds of 40 and 50 miles 
 an hour. Four motors per car have been found here, as elsewhere, more satis- 
 factory than two, and the latest cars have four motors of 60 H.P. to 75 H.P. 
 each, and are capable of seating 50 to 60 passengers ; these cars are 50 ft. long- 
 over all, and weigh 30 to 35 tons. 
 
 I had a trip on the Detroit and Port Huron Railway for a few miles, 
 as far as the sub-station at Roseville. The main power station is situated about 
 half way between the terminals, from which high tension alternating current of 
 16,000 volts is distributed to the six sub-stations. The trolley current is 600 
 volts direct. There are 14 passenger cars and three 2 5 -ton freight cars in use 
 on this line. The wheels are 36 in. in diameter, and have flanges g in. deep, 
 and treads 2i] in. wide. 
 
 The rails are mostly 60 or 70 Ibs. per yard, some being in lengths of 60 ft., 
 and the tracks are in fairly good order. The switches have double spring 
 tongues, and the frogs are of the spring type. In some ca-jes aluminium is 
 used in place of copper for the main distributing wires. 
 
 All the lines are operated by means of telephones, which are located in 
 cabins or booths at intervals along the route, the train despatcher having 
 his head office at some central point. On arriving at one of these places 
 the conductor or motorman has to go to the telephone to ascertain his 
 orders, and both conductor and motorman must be present and hear the orders 
 
40 
 
 given and repeated. No car must leave one of these spots without an order 
 from the train despatcher. The cars travel about 300 miles a day. 
 
 The investigation of these lines at Detroit was most interesting and 
 instructive. 
 
 We then went to the works of the American Car and Foundry Company, 
 and saw some of the big 50-ft. pressed steel freight cars being built. These works 
 are very extensive, and are capable of turning out 40 to 50 complete steel cars 
 of various sizes per day. The presses are operated by hydraulic power and the 
 machine tools by electricity. I was glad to have an opportunity of seeing the 
 construction of the large steel cars, which are now such a marked feature upon 
 American railways. 
 
 At 8 p.m. we left Detroit for Chicago, the party now consisting of Mr. 
 Sullivan, president of the American Railway Association and assistant vice- 
 president of the Illinois Central Railway ; General Griffin ; Mr. Hansel ; 
 Mr. Wilson, President of the " Railway Age " ; Mr. Spencer, and myself. Mr. 
 Beckley had to return to his home in Rochester, but his car was still at our 
 disposal, and we all slept on board it. 
 
 Thursday, October 23rd. We arrived at Chicago at 7 a.m. 
 
 At 10 o'clock I called on Mr. Roach, president of the Union Traction 
 Company, Chicago, and Mr. C. Buckingham, president of the North -Western 
 Elevated Railroad, Chicago, to both .of whom I had letters of introduction. 
 These gentlemen promised me every facility for seeing their respective 
 railways. 
 
 Several high speed electric inter-urban railways start from Chicago, and 
 in the afternoon I went for a trip on one of them, viz., the Aurora Elgin and 
 Chicago, which is the most recent of these lines. At present a speed of' 
 60 miles an hour is attained, and experiments up to 100 miles an hour are to 
 be made early next year. 
 
 This line has 21 miles of double track, and two single track branches 
 of 14 and 16'5 miles respectively. On the latter there are several long sidings, 
 which bring the total mileage of the whole line, measured as single track, up 
 to 82 miles. The population per mile of track, exclusive of Chicago, is 14,000. 
 The track is laid with 80-lb. T-rails in 60-ft. lengths, the conductor rail 
 being 100-lb. T-rail. The ties are placed 2 ft. apart from centre to centre. 
 The transmission voltage is 26,400 volts, and the working current is 600 volts. 
 The maximum distance for transmission is 35 miles. The cars weigh 40 tons 
 and are 47 ft. long, with a seating capacity of 56. The wheels are 36 ins. 
 in diameter, and have M.C.B. flanges and treads, viz., l-in. flange, 
 and 3-in. tread. The schedule speed at present is 40 miles an hour, 
 including stops, and the maximum speed is 60 miles an hour. I travelled at 
 the latter speed for some distance, and the running of the car was smooth 
 and comfortable, it being in fact difficult to realise that one was moving at 
 so high a speed. The track, which is substantially constructed, is, however, so 
 new as to be hardly in a condition for such high speed. The line is laid on 
 the Company's " private right of way," i.e., on land which has been purchased 
 for the purpose. 
 
 The cars have four motors of 125 H.P. each, and reach full speed 
 in 30 seconds, the acceleration being at the rate of 2 miles per hour per second. 
 They have Christ ensen non -automatic air brakes and hand brakes. 
 
 The high tension transmission wires are of aluminium stranded, each 
 wire containing eight strands. 
 
 I visited one of the sub-stations of this line, where are situated the 
 transformers and converters for converting the high tension transmission 
 current to the direct current of 600 volts. The main current is controlled by 
 oil switches which are operated by small motors, the current for which is 
 supplied from local batteries. This seemed to me to be as safe a method of 
 handling these high potential currents as can be devised. 
 
41 
 
 Friday, October 24th. At 9.30 a.m. I went with the engineer, Mr. Murphy, 
 to examine the Chicago Union Traction Company's system of Surface lines or 
 tramways, which include all the tramways in the city, amounting to about 210 
 miles of double track. Of this total about 24 miles are operated by cable traction, 
 the remainder by trolley. As usual in the States there is a variety of rails 
 used in the streets, but the grooved rail is supplanting the others. The track 
 is in indifferent order, and the streets are, generally speaking, neglected and 
 uneven. Two, three, and four cars are allowed to be coupled together and to 
 run as trains through the streets, thus occupying a great deal of the roadway. 
 The speed down town is limited to 6 miles an hour ; elsewhere it is anything 
 up to 15 and 18 miles an hour. Some cars are four wheeled with two motors 
 of 35 H.P. each, others have two bogie trucks with more powerful motors. 
 The maximum traction trucks which are fitted to some of the cars are not 
 considered satisfactory. The electric cars have the direct (non-automatic) 
 Christensen air brake, while the cable cars have the slipper or track brake. The 
 cars are single deckers, douV.e decked cars being unknown in America. 
 
 The Union Traction Company have five power stations, of which the 
 principal one contains one 800 kilowatt Siemens- Halske direct current 
 generator, and five 1,500 kilowatt generators of the same make and nature. 
 Another has one 1,500 kilowatt generator, and three 800 kilowatt generators ; 
 the current in all instances is direct, and the voltage 550. 
 
 The cars are warmed in winter by means of small stoves placed in the 
 centre of each vehicle, and they are fitted with life guards of various types, 
 and of little merit. 
 
 In the afternoon I was taken by Mr. Hedley over the North Western 
 Elevated Railway, which in construction is similar to the Elevated roads of 
 New York and Boston. There are four of these elevated lines in Chicago, 
 viz., the South Side Elevated Railroad, the Metropolitan West Side Elevated 
 Railroad, the Lake Street Elevated Railroad, and the North Western 
 Elevated Railroad, all similar in design, but radiating in different directions. 
 In the centre of the city there is a rectangular loop (double track), and all 
 the elevated lines converge on this, entering it at different corners. This loop, 
 which is of considerable length, surrounds the business section of the city, and 
 enables the trains of each line to circle round and reverse their direction 
 without any switching at the same time affording a frequent service for local 
 passengers who may want to go from one part of the district enclosed by the 
 loop to another. On the loop the trains travel on the left hand track instead 
 of on the right, as is usual in America. The reason for this is not clear, but it 
 is said to be more convenient for the trains which have to cross each other at 
 the junctions. In consequence of the loop serving so many lines, the conges- 
 tion of the trains upon it is at times very great, the trains almost touching one 
 another as they pass round. 
 
 On the North Western Elevated line there are four tracks, two for 
 express and two for local traffic. The trains consist of four or five cars, viz., 
 one motor car and three or four trailers. The motor cars for the four car 
 trains have two motors of 160 H.P. each, and those of the five car trains have 
 four motors of the same horse power. The car trucks are bogies, of Hedley's 
 patent cast steel pattern. The rails weigh 80 Ibs. per yard, and the conductor 
 rail 50 Ibs. Inside check rails and outside wheel guards are fixed throughout 
 the track. The speed varies according to the number of stops to be made, and 
 on the express tracks is 25 or '60 miles an hour. But all trains have to slacken 
 speed to 8 miles an hour at the sharp curves, some of which have radii of 90 ft. 
 All curves are compounded. 
 
 The line is operated by direct current at 550 volts. 
 
 At the junctions and important stations signal cabins exist with 
 mechanical interlocking plants, the arrangements of which seem to be well 
 carried out. 
 
 Saturday, October sth. I spent the morning with Mr. Sullivan, assistant 
 vice-president of the Illinois Central Railroad and president of the American 
 
42 
 
 Railway Association, who took me to the Company's workshops and showed 
 me their large engines and cars, which are here repaired. The Company does 
 not build its own engines, bat executes its own repairs, for which purpose the 
 shops are very completely equipped. Some figures were given me of the 
 performances of the heavy engines now employed by the company, which are 
 instructive, as they are based on trial trips extending over 10,000 miles 
 made by four engines of different types over the same section of the line and 
 lasting from 94 to 124 days. The number of freight cars per train averaged 
 from '66 to 50, and the gross tonnage per train from 1,076 to 1,511. Each 
 engine made 96 trips, and the total cost to haul 10,000 tons (of 2,000 Ibs.) 
 one mile varies from 1'86 dollars to 2'02 dollars. 
 
 At 8.30 p.m. I left Chicago for St. Louis. 
 
 Sunday, October 26th. I arrived at St. Louis at 8 a.m., where I was met 
 lay several of the principal railway officers, who took me to see the electro- 
 pneumatic signalling installation at the entrance to the station. The arrange- 
 ment of the station yard here is peculiar. The tracks are laid out in the shape 
 of an equilateral triangle, with the station at one angle. All trains from either 
 direction run past the station on the side of the triangle subtending the station 
 and are then backed into the station, so that the engines are always at the right 
 end for the trains to depart from the place, thus avoiding all switching of the 
 -engines. The tracks are laid out hi a very symmetrical fashion, as is usual at 
 all the new stations in America, and the interlocking is skilfully carried out. 
 The trains entering the station are controlled by the brakesman, who stands on 
 the end platform of the leading car and regulates the speed by means of the 
 air brake. 
 
 The station is very large, the train shed containing 32 tracks, all 
 available for the arrival or departure of trains. The waiting rooms, booking 
 halls, lavatories, women's room, &c., &c., are exceedingly comfortable, and 
 furnished and warmed in the elaborate manner customary in these new large 
 terminal stations in the States. In stations such as this the Americans are far 
 .ahead of anything we can show in England. The warming and lighting of 
 these stations are most carefully attended to, so that it is almost a pleasure to 
 have to wait for one's train, instead of misery as is so often the case elsewhere. 
 
 The station is the property of an independent company formed for the 
 purpose by the several lines running into St. Louis, an arrangement similar to 
 that at Boston and other places, where more than one railway enters a city. 
 
 After breakfast at the club I was taken for a drive through the grounds of 
 the Pan-American Exhibition, which is to be held here in 1904. The buildings 
 are in a very forward state and the preparations are on a colossal scale, the 
 intention being to make this the biggest thing of the sort ever attempted. 
 The buildings are of wood, without a particle of steel or iron in any part, and 
 are therefore peculiarly liable to fire. But as the woodwork is to be covered 
 with plaster facings and mouldings, so as to resemble stone or marble, they will 
 to a certain extent be protected. 
 
 At 8 p.m. I left St. Louis for Washington via the Yandalia (single track) 
 line, which is practically the property of the Pennsylvania Railroad. Though 
 the track was not quite of the high standard of the main line, it afforded very 
 smooth running. 
 
 Monday, October 27th. The train reached Pittsburgh at 7.15 a.m., and 
 after a short halt proceeded to Washington, where I arrived at 7 p.m., after a 
 very comfortable journey. At one time my train was switched across on to the 
 wrong track and travelled on it for several miles at high speed. This was done 
 because the eastbound track, on which we should have been, was occupied by 
 coal trains. The scenery approaching Washington is attractive. 
 
 Tuesday, October 28th. General Griffin, who, as a former engineer officer 
 of the United States Army, was well acquainted with the place, showed me all 
 the sights. I called on Mr. Moseley, secretary of the Interstate Commerce 
 Commission, and made some enquiries from him about the use of automatic 
 brakes on freight trains. I had been surprised on Monday, when descending 
 
43 
 
 the Horse- Shoe Curve on the Pennsylvania Railroad, to see the freight trains being 
 handled by means of the hand brakes and not by the air brakes. This is a 
 dangerous practice, as the brakesmen, of whom there are four or five on each 
 train, have to run about on the tops of the cars, in order to apply or release the 
 brakes, and seems to be contrary to the law, which prescribes the use of air . 
 brakes on all trains engaged in Interstate traffic. I had been informed that the 
 Pennsylvania Railroad Company have found a difficulty in operating trains 
 down this incline by means of the air brake, because, if the driver is not skilful 
 in the use of the air brake, there is a risk that he will exhaust all the air in the 
 reservoirs before reaching the bottom of the incline and will then be unable to 
 control his train. The Company, therefore, argue that it is safer to depend on 
 the hand brake and not on the air brake. Mr. Moseley did not agree with the 
 Company on this point, and said that the matter was engaging the attention of 
 the Commission. He said that the companies out West were able to work their 
 trains down the slopes of the Rockies with the air brakes, and could not, in fact, 
 do without them, and what they could do the Pennsylvania Company could 
 also do. 
 
 General Griffin obtained an introduction for me to President Roosevelt, 
 who received me very pleasantly, and honoured me with a few minutes informal 
 conversation in his study. 
 
 I visited the Capitol, which, though a fine building externally, is not 
 particularly impressive inside. 
 
 The Library of Congress, which is about a quarter of a mile from the 
 Capitol, is a handsome building, and the large octagonal reading room is grand. 
 The library contains over a million books and pamphlets, and has a capacity at 
 the present time of 2,085,000. This can be increased to 4,500,000 by the 
 addition of more shelves. The arrangements for the comfort and convenience 
 of readers are admirable, and the system of registering and storing the books is 
 excellent. Some very ingenious mechanism has been devised for conveying the 
 books to and from the book stacks, which are outside the reading-room, by 
 means of which a reader can obtain any book he requires in a few minutes. 
 There is also a tunnel connecting the library with the Capitol, with a book- 
 carrying apparatus operated by electricity in it, whereby any book desired by a 
 Member of Congress, can be despatched to the Capitol immediately after the 
 receipt of the telephonic message demanding it. 
 
 The tramway system of Washington has the centre slot or conduit mode of 
 construction with grooved rails, and possesses the best track of any I saw in 
 America. The streets also are well paved and cleaned, and Washington was 
 the most attractive city I saw. It is entirely residential, and not commercial or 
 industrial. 
 
 Wednesday, October 2$th. I left Washington at 9 a.m., via The Baltimore 
 and Ohio Railway as far as Philadelphia. Here the car was transferred to the 
 Philadelphia and Reading Railway, and I was invited to examine the pneumatic 
 low pressure interlocking installation at Wayne Junction, there being 64 levers 
 in the cabin. Automatic block signalling is also in force at this junction, and 
 from here to New Jersey City. The signalling arrangements at Wayne Junction 
 seem to be gcod. The automatic block signals were altogether distinct from 
 the signals operated from the cabin (called in America " interlocking signals "), 
 and before a driver is authorised to proceed on his journey, he has to make sure 
 that the automatic signal, as well as the interlocking signal, is at " clear." This 
 seems to have some advantages over the usual system of employing semi- 
 automatic signals, i.e., signals partly controlled by the track circuit and partly 
 by the signalman. Automatic indicators working in conjunction with the track 
 circuit are provided in the cabin to indicate to the signalman the position of any 
 train or engine in the neighbourhood. After this I was conveyed by special 
 train to Jersey City, and arrived in New York at 5 p.m. It was brought to my 
 notice that whereas the Philadelphia and Reading Railway have the Hall 
 automatic signals, the position of which is normally at danger, the New Jersey 
 Central Railway has the electro-pneumatic system, in which the normal position 
 of all signals is " clear." Having regard to the fact that with the normal danger 
 
 13875 F 2 
 
44 
 
 system it is necessary, in order to save delay, for each signal to drop to the safety 
 position sometime before a driver reaches it or even sees it, I am unable to see 
 much advantage in the system, especially as it requires additional mechanism 
 and introduces additional complication. 
 
 Thursday, October 30th. I said farewell to my many friends in New York, 
 who had done so much to make my stay in America pleasant and interesting. 
 At 11 p.m. I went on board the s.s. " Celtic," as we were to sail early the following 
 morning. 
 
 Friday, October 31st Sailed at 6 a.m. 
 
 Saturday, November 8th. Arrived at Liverpool 8 p.m. after an absence of 
 seven weeks and two days. 
 
 H. A. Y. 
 
 London, December oth, 1902. 
 
 P.S. I collected many plans, books, pamphlets, and other information, of 
 interest. I attach a list of these, which are at Richmond Terrace. 
 
45 
 THE BOSTON SOUTH STATION. 
 
 STATISTICS. 
 
 Station dedicated, December 30, 1898 ; operated, January 1, 1899. 
 
 Trains of N. Y., N. H. & H. R. R. Co.,.Plymouth and Midland Divs., entered January 1, 1899. 
 
 Trains of Boston & Albany Railroad Company entered July 23, 1899. 
 
 Trains of N. Y., N. H. & H. R. R. Co., Providence Division, entered September 10, 1899. 
 
 LAND. Area, about 35 acres ; covered by buildings, about 13 acres. 
 
 MAIN STATION. Length, maximum, 850 feet ; width, maximum, 725 feet. 
 Length, average, 765 feet ; width, average, 662 feet. 
 
 Area, 506,430 sq. feet. Area awnings, outside buildings, 46,000 sq. feet. 
 
 Area of connecting roofs, 17,500 sq. feet. 
 
 Total length of buildings on street front, 3,300 feet. 
 
 Height from sidewalk to top of eagle, 135 feet ; to top of flag-pole, 200 feet. 
 
 The clock dial in tower is 12 feet in diameter. 
 
 The granite eagle is about 8 feet high, 8 feet wide, and weighs about 8 tons. 
 MIDWAY. Area, 60,000 sq. feet. 
 
 WAITING ROOM. Length, 225 feet ; width 65 feet ; height 28i feet. 
 BAGGAGE ROOMS. Outward, 530 x 26 feet ; inward, 470 x 26 feet. 
 EXPRESS BUILDINGS. Length, 712 feet ; width, 50 feet. 
 POWER BUILDINGS. Length, 569 feet ; width, 40 feet. 
 
 TRAIN SHED. Length, 602 feet ; width, middle span, 228 feet. 
 Height over all, 112 feet ; two side spans each 171 feet. 
 
 Total width ... 570 feet. 
 
 Trusses, cantilever and 60 feet centre to centre. 
 
 TRACKS. Total length, about 15 miles ; length under roof, 4 miles. 
 
 Total number entering station, 32 ; 28 on main floor and 4 in the shape of two 
 
 loop tracks in subway (2 feet below level of mean high water in Boston 
 
 Harbour). 
 
 Number through throat in yard, 8 for main floor ; 4 for subway. 
 Total weight of rail, 2,500 tons 100 Ibs. to the yard. 
 Switches, double slip, 34 ^ equivalent to 255 Frogs, rigid, 173 
 Switches, single, power, 51 ) single switches. Frogs, movable, 68 
 
 Switches, single, hand, 52 241 
 
 137. 
 
 CAR CAPACITY. 344 sixty-five foot cars on main floor against platforms ; 252 of same 
 
 under roof. 
 
 60 forty-foot cars in subway. 
 
 116 cars in express yard ; 62 mail and express cars against platforms. 
 93 cars on other tracks. 
 
 Total, 613 cars. 
 
 Seating capacity of passenger cars that can be placed against platforms of 
 Station, 28,104. 
 
 INTERLOCKING. Semaphore signals, high type, 109 Levers in Tower No. 1, 143 
 
 Semaphore signals, dwarf, 28 Levers in Tower No. 2, 11 
 
 137 Levers in Tower No. 3, 11 
 
 Signal lamps, electric ......... 182 Signal bridges 
 
 Complete Lever movements in Tower No. 1, 28,450 per day. 
 
 Movements including indications j J Jjjjjj* Jj'ggJ } 44,264 per clay. 
 
 POWER PLANT. Entire capacity, 2,000 H.P., with room for 50 per cent, additional installation. 
 Daily capacity of Ice Plant, 25 tons. 
 Daily capacity of Gas Plant, 120,000 cubic feet. 
 
 MOVEMENTS. Daily, through yard, about 4,000. 
 
 Regular week-day trains, summer schedule, 801. 
 
 Regular week-day trains, winter schedule, 770. 
 
 Cars to and from station, daily, 3,000. 
 
 Mail and express cars to and from express building daily, 150 to 400 
 
 RESTAURANT. Seating capacity of dining rooms, 315 
 Seating capacity of lunch room, 185 
 
 Total seating capacity ... 500 
 
46 
 
 APPROXIMATE AMOUNT OF BUSINESS HANDLED 
 
 25,000,000 passengers annually. 
 
 2,000,000 pieces of baggage annually. 
 350,000 parcels in Parcel room annually. 
 
 150 tons of U.S. mail daily. 
 13 ton's of outward papers daily. 
 50 tons of inward N.Y. papers, Sunday. 
 
 2,500 persons employed at Terminal, including office forces of the different railroad and 
 express companies, trainmen, and Railway Mail Service employes. 
 
 IN CONNECTION WITH THE STATION THERE ARE : 
 
 250 arc lights. 
 
 7,047 incandescent lights ; of these 
 1,200 in main waiting room. 
 20 water meters. 
 29 storage vaults. 
 215 office rooms. 
 1,000 window shades. 
 200,000 Ibs. sash weights. 
 
 150 Pintsch gas connections. 
 56 steam heat connections. 
 48 air-brake test connections. 
 11 steam boilers. 
 4 electric generators, 225 K.W. 
 1 motor generator. 
 50 electric motors. 
 10 compressors. 
 17 steam engines. 
 19 heating and ventilating fans. 
 1 travelling crane. 
 
 34,100 sq. feet (about f acre) mosaic floor. 
 13 steam pumps. 
 
 2 draft fans. 
 
 25 electric elevators. 
 50 toilet rooms. 
 
 207 water closets. 
 
 6 shower baths (for trainmen). 
 143 set bowls. 
 
 26 sinks. 
 
 36 ticket windows (inc. subway). 
 
 90 baggage room doors. 
 
 71 express building doors. 
 
 78 clocks, electric self-winding. 
 
 3 fire alarm boxes, and 
 21 auxiliary stations. 
 
 1 watchman's time detector, and 
 33 registering stations. 
 31 fire risers, with 99 outlets. 
 50 miles piping. 
 
 LIST OF PLANS, BOOKS AND DOCUMENTS 
 COLLECTED BY COLONEL YORKE DURING HIS TRIP TO AMERICA. 1902. 
 
 1. Standard plans and specifications of permanent way work, New York Central 
 
 Railroad. 
 
 2. Standard plans and specifications of permanent way work, Pennsylvania Railroad. 
 
 3. Standard plans of track construction, New York street railways, Brooklyn street 
 
 railways, and Boston Elevated railway. 
 
 4. Contract drawings and specifications, Rapid Transit Subway, New York. 
 
 5. Detailed descriptions of numerous Interurban Electric High Speed railways. (2 vols.) 
 
 6. Descriptions of the Boston South Station, and the 'mechanical equipment of the same. 
 
 7. Master Car Builders' Dictionary. 
 
 8. Proceedings of the Master Car Builders' Association, 1902. 
 
 9. Massachussets Railroad Commissioners' Report, 1902. 
 
 10. Descriptions of the various types of engines built at the Baldwin Locomotive Works, 
 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 11. Various leaflets describing : Electro-pneumatic automatic signalling and interlocking 
 
 plant ; Electric semaphore ; Automatic air and steam pipe coupling ; Friction 
 draft gear ; Newell's magnetic brake and car-heating apparatus ; Westinghouse- 
 Parsons steam turbine. 
 
 12. Modern Locomotives, being a description of typical American and European 
 
 locomotives. 
 
 13. Standard Rule Books (signalling, block working, &c.) of the American Railway 
 
 Association. 
 
 14. Description of the Curtis' steam turbine. 
 
 15. An address on Railway Management and Operation, by A. W. Sullivan, Assistant Vice- 
 
 President, Illinois Central Railroad. 
 
47 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 American Car and Foundry Co.'s Works ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 40 
 
 Railway Association ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 38 
 
 type of Permanent Way 3, 4, 25, 26, 34 
 
 Steel Trust Works, Pittsburgh 23 
 
 Automatic couplings 9, 22 
 
 for air and steam pipes ... ... ... ... ... ... 22 
 
 electric switch, street railways ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 23 
 
 signalling, electro-pneumatic 5, 28, 34, 43, 20 
 
 Hall system ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 43 
 
 normal danger v. normal safety ... ... ... ... ... 43 
 
 Pennsylvania Railroad ... ... ... .., ... ... 20, 34 
 
 New Jersey Central Railroad 43 
 
 Baldwin Locomotive Works ... ... .;. ... ... ... ... ... ... 34 
 
 Boston, South Station... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 30, 45 
 
 , street railways 29 
 
 subway 12, 27 
 
 Elevated Railway 11, 27, 28 
 
 public library ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 30 
 
 Brooklyn Bridge ... 31,32 
 
 street railways ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 31 
 
 Elevated Railway ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 31 
 
 Brakes, Westinghouse air ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 21 
 
 high speed ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 21 
 
 rapid acting ... ... .., ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 21 
 
 Christensen, direct air ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 40, 41 
 
 Newell's magnetic, for street railways 12, 21, 23 
 
 , on freight trains ... ... ... ... ... ... ... .. ... 9, 43 
 
 Cars for interurban lines ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 17 
 
 Cast iron wheels 9 ? 35 
 
 Controllers, Westinghouse 22,31 
 
 Sprague 28 
 
 General Electric Co.'s 33 
 
 Chicago street railways ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 41 
 
 interurban railways... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 40 
 
 elevated railways 41 
 
 Detroit street railways 39 
 
 ir-terurban railways ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 39 
 
 Electro-pnsumatic signalling on the Pennsylvania Railroad 5, 20, 21, 34 
 
 Boston Elevated Railway 28 
 
 ,, ,, New Jersey Central Railroad 43 
 
 ,, power interlocking plant 20,21,30 
 
 Elevated railways at Boston 28 
 
 ,, New York 32 
 
 Brooklyn 31 
 
 Chicago 41 
 
 Fly shunting passenger trains 19 
 
 Friction draft gear ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 22 
 
 Frogs, moveable 5 26, 30 
 
 s P rin g '. 5', 26,' 30 
 
 Freight cars ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 
 
 Gas engines ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 24 
 
 General Electric Co.'s Works 3g 
 
 Grand Central Station, New York 19 
 
 Hall automatic signalling ... ... ... ... ... ... 43 
 
 High speed interurban railways, Schenectady .'.'.' ... 15, 35 
 
 >, Buffalo 16*, 37 
 
 > Detroit 16,39 
 
 > Chicago 16,4:0 
 
 Illinois Central Railroad 41 
 
48 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Nernst lamp ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 24 
 
 New York Central Railroad ........................... 25 
 
 Grand Central Station ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 19 
 
 Elevated Railway ... .. ............ ...... 32 
 
 street railways ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 20 
 
 Subway .............................. 12,19 
 
 Harbour ....................... ...... 26 
 
 Niagara Falls ................................. 36 
 
 Power Company ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 37 
 
 Pennsylvania railroad track ........................ ... 20,34 
 
 signalling .................... 5, 20, 34 
 
 working ......... ............ 24 
 
 tunnel, &c. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 25 
 
 Pittsburgh street railways ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 22 
 
 Station ....................... * ...... 20 
 
 Pneumatic (low pressure) interlocking ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 7 
 
 controller (Westinghouse) ..................... 22 
 
 Station, Grand Central, New York ........................ 19 
 
 (railway), Boston ................. ' ......... 30, 45 
 
 Pittsburgh ........................ 20 
 
 St. Louis .......... .................. 42 
 
 Steam turbines, Westinghouse-Parsons ..................... 23 
 
 Curtis ........................... -34,36 
 
 Signals, on New York Central Railroad ..................... 26 
 
 Street railways, New York ... ... ... ... ... ... ' ... ... ... 20 
 
 Brooklyn ............. . ............. 31 
 
 Boston ........................... 29 
 
 Chicago ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 41 
 
 Detroit ........................... 3g 
 
 
 
 Toronto 
 
 Pittsburgh .......................... 22 
 
 Washington ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 43 
 
 Subway, New York .............................. 12,19 
 
 Boston ... 12,27,29 
 
 Track, American and English compared ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 3, 4. 
 
 Washington street railways ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ./. ... 43 
 
 public buildings ........................ 43 
 
 Westinghouse Co.'s works ...... , ................. 20,21,22 
 
 Wrong line working ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 5 
 
 Wheels, cast-iron ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 9, 35 
 
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BOARD OF TRADE. 
 
 DECEMBER 6TH, 1902. 
 
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 VISIT TO 
 
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 September 19th to October 31st, 1902, 
 
 BY 
 
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 CHIEF INSPECTING OFFICER OF RAILWAYS. 
 
 flrcscnteb to both louses of parliament bjj tommanb of $is Jftaj 
 
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 And to be purchased, either directly or through any Bookseller, from 
 
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 or OLIVER & BOYD, EDINBTJRGH; 
 or E. PONSONBY, 116, GRAFTON STREET. DUBLIN. 
 
 [Cd. 1466.] Price bd. 
 
 1903. 
 
UNIVERSITY OP CALIFORNIA 
 LIBRARY 
 
 This is the date on which this 
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