BIOLOGY 
 
 UB8ARY 
 
 G 
 
GUIDE 
 
 TO 
 
 ,THE STUDY OF INSECTS,, 
 
 AND A TREATISE ON THOSE 
 
 ItfJUEIOUS AND BENEHCIAL TO CKOPS : 
 
 FOR THE USE OF 
 
 COLLEGES, FARM-SCHOOLS, AND AGRICULTURISTS, 
 
 BY 
 
 A. S. PACKARD, JK., M.D. 
 \\ 
 
 WITH FIFTEEN PLATES AND SIX HUNDRED AND SEVENTY WOOD-CUTS. 
 
 FOURTH EDITION. 
 
 SALEM : 
 NATURALISTS' AGENCY 
 
 BOSTON: ESTES & LAURIAT. 
 
 NEW YORK: DODD & MEAD. 
 
 LONDON: TRUBNER & co. 
 
 1874. 
 
ft. 
 
 
 
 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1869 by 
 
 A. S. PACKARD, JR., 
 in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. 
 
 Printed at the SALEM PRESS. 
 F. W. Putnam & Co., Salem, Mass. 
 
Plate # 
 
 TRANSFORMATIONS OF MOTH 
 
PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION. 
 
 SEVERAL corrections of some importance have been made 
 in this edition, mostly, however, verbal, due in part to changes 
 in synonymy. On p. 78, fig. 68 of the third edition has been 
 replaced by a figure of Arthrolycosa antiqua Harger. On p. 
 258 correct figures of the larva and pupa of Melitcea Harrisii 
 are given. The most important addition, however, is on p. 
 438, where a brief account of LeConte's new family Platypsyl- 
 lidce is given, and his figure of Platypsylla castoris Ritsema 
 reproduced. On p. 597, line 20, it is stated that the mouth of 
 the Libellulidse " is not furnished with palpi." This is morpho- 
 logically inexact, as Gerstaecker has recently stated that the 
 dragon-flies possess a one-jointed maxillary palpus, and two- 
 jointed labial palpi. These are not of the usual palpus shape, 
 but more or less rudimentary and modified in accordance with 
 the peculiar mouth parts of these and allied insects. On p. 
 669, for lines 22, 23, read Macrobiotus Americanus JPack. has 
 been discovered by Rev. W. R. Cross in Maine. 
 
 Some important changes have been made in the classifica- 
 tion of the Coleoptera. The weevils, Curculionidce, should in 
 accordance with the views expressed by Dr. LeConte be placed 
 at the end of the group. The Coccinellidce and Erotylidce 
 should also in accordance with the views of Mr. G. R. Crotch 
 (Check List of the Coleoptera of America north of Mexico, 
 1874), be placed in the Clavicorn series, those and allied 
 families being placed in the following succession : Der- 
 mestidce, JEndomychidce, Cioidce, Erotylidce, Atomariidce, Cu- 
 cujidce, Colydiidce, Rhizophagidce, Trogositidce, Nitidulidce, 
 Coccinellidce, Cistelidce, etc. At the end of the series the 
 succession of families is as follows : Cerambycidce, Bruchidce, 
 Chrysomelidce, Tenebrionidce, ^Eyialitidce, Alleculidce, 
 
IV PREFACE. 
 
 Pyrochroidce, Anthicidce, Melandryidce, Mordellidce, Stylopidce, 
 Meloidce, Cephaloidce, (Edemeridce, Mycteridce, Pythidce, Cur- 
 culionidce, Scolytidce, and Anthribidce, Brenthidce being the 
 last. 
 
 The author should here state, in justice to himself, that the 
 primary object in preparing the systematic portion of the 
 work was to give as clear a view as possible of the larger 
 groups of insects ; so that the groupings of the families into 
 subdivisions of suborders have been omitted for the sake of 
 perspicuity. Thus, the difference between the Heteropterous 
 and Hemipterous divisions of the Hemiptera is not perhaps so 
 clearly indicated as may seem desirable ; so also, the difference 
 of the Tenthredinidae and Uroceridae from the rest of the 
 Efymenoptera, of the Lice from the rest of the Hemiptera, or 
 the Lepismatidae, Campodese and Poduridse, from the remainder 
 of the Neuroptera. Perhaps in endeavoring to bring out 
 clearly the essential unity of organization in the members of 
 the larger groups, sufficient justice has not been paid to the 
 frequent diversity observable. Certain small and unimportant 
 families have also been omitted ; it is believed, without detri- 
 ment to a work of this scope. 
 
 Most authors regard the Hymenoptera and equivalent 
 groups as "orders" rather than "suborders." When the 
 reader prefers, he might alter to suit his views. It is not 
 improbable that the Hexapoda, Arachnida and Myriopoda are 
 subclasses ; hence, the Hymenoptera, etc., may be considered 
 as orders, and then, for example, the Hemiptera, Heteroptera 
 and Lice (Pediculina and Mallophaga) might be regarded as 
 suborders of the grand group Hemiptera. It matters little to 
 the author, so long as the fact (or what he believes to be the 
 fact) be recognized, that the Hexapods, Arachnids and Myrio- 
 pods are subdivisions of a class, and not separate classes 
 equivalent each to the Crustacea, for example. 
 
 Salem, April, 1874. 
 
PREFACE . 
 
 THIS introduction to the study of insects is designed to 
 teach the beginner the elements of entomology, and to serve 
 as a guide to the more elaborate treatises and memoirs which 
 the advanced student may wish to consult. Should the 
 book, imperfect as the author feels it to be, prove of some 
 service in inducing others to study this most interesting and 
 useful branch of natural history, the object of the writer will 
 have been fully attained. 
 
 In order to make it of value to farmers and gardeners, 
 whose needs the writer has kept in view, and that it may be 
 used as a text book in our agricultural colleges, concise ac- 
 counts have been given of insects injurious or beneficial to 
 vegetation, or those in any way affecting human interests. 
 
 When the localities of the insects are not precisely given, 
 it is to be understood that they occur in the Eastern Atlantic 
 States from Maine to Pennsylvania, and the more northern of 
 the Western States. When the family names occur in the 
 text they are put in spaced Italics, to distinguish them from 
 the generic and specific names which are Italicized in the usual 
 way. 
 
 The succession of the suborders of the hexapodous insects 
 is that proposed by the author in 1863, and the attention of 
 zoologists is called to their division into two series of sub- 
 orders, which are characterized on page 104. To the first 
 and highest may be applied Leach's term METABOLIA, as 
 they all agree in having a perfect metamorphosis ; for the 
 second and lower series the term HETEROMETABOLIA is pro- 
 
v PREFACE. 
 
 posed, as the four suborders comprised in it differ in the 
 degrees of completeness of their metamorphoses, and are 
 all linked together by the structural features enumerated 
 on page 104. ^ 
 
 The classification of the Hymenoptera is original with the 
 author, the bees (Apidse) being placed highest, and the saw- 
 flies and Uroceridse lowest. The succession of the families 
 of the Lepidoptera is that now generally agreed upon by en- 
 tomologists. Loew's classification of the Diptera, published 
 in the "Miscellaneous Collections" of the Smithsonian 
 Institution, has been followed, with some modifications. 
 Haliday's suggestion that the Pulicidae are allied to the 
 Mycetophilidae gives a clue to their position in nature 
 among the higher Diptera. Leconte's classification, of the 
 Coleoptera is adopted as far as published by him, i.e., to 
 the Bruchidae. For the succeeding families the arrangement 
 of Gerstaecker in Peters and Cams' "Handbuch der Zoo- 
 logie" has been followed, both being based on that of Lacor- 
 daire. The Hemiptera are arranged according to the author's 
 views of the succession of the families. The classification of 
 the Orthoptera is that proposed by Mr. S. H. Scudder. This 
 succession of families is the reverse of what has been given 
 by recent authors, and is by far the most satisfactory yet 
 presented. The arrangement of the Neuroptera (in the Lin- 
 mean sense) is that of Dr. Hagen, published in his "Synop- 
 sis," with the addition, however, of the Lepisrnatidse, Cam- 
 podeae and Poduridae. 
 
 The usual classification of the Arachnida is modified by 
 placing the Phalangidse as a family among the Pedipalpi, and 
 the succession of families of this suborder is suggested as be- 
 ing a more natural one than has been previously given. 
 
 The arrangement of the Araneina, imperfect as authors 
 have left it, is that adopted by Gerstaecker in Peters and 
 
PREFACE. V 
 
 Carus' "Handbuch der Zoologie." In the succession of the 
 families of the Acarina, the suggestions of Claparede, in his 
 "Studien der Acariden," have been followed, and in the 
 preparation of the general account of the Arachnids the 
 writer is greatly indebted to Claparede's elaborate work on 
 the " Evolution of Spiders." 
 
 In the preparation of this "Guide" the author has con- 
 suited and freely used West wood's invaluable "Introduction 
 to the Modern Classification of Insects;" Gerstaecker's 
 " Arthropoden" in Peters and Carus' "Handbuch der Zoo- 
 logie;" Siebold's " Anatomy of the Invertebrates" (Burnett's 
 translation, 1854) ; Newport's Article "Insecta" in Todd's 
 Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology; and Dr. T. W. 
 Harris' "Treatise on Insects injurious to Vegetation." He 
 would also acknowledge his indebtedness to Professor L. 
 Agassiz for many of the general ideas, acquired while the 
 author was a student in the Museum of Comparative Zoo- 
 logy at Cambridge, regarding the arrangement of the orders 
 and classes, and the morphology of the Articulates. 
 
 For kind assistance rendered in preparing this book, the 
 author is specially indebted to Baron R. von Osten Sacken, 
 who kindly read the proof sheets of the chapter on Diptera ; 
 to Mr. F. G. Sanborn for the communication of many speci- 
 mens and facts ; and also to Messrs. Edward Norton, S. H. 
 Scudder, J. H. Emerton, C. T. Robinson, A. R. Grote, G. D. 
 Smith, E. T. Cresson, P. R. Uhler, C. V. Riley, Dr. J. L. Le- 
 conte, Dr. Hagen, W. C. Fish, and E. S. Morse. For much 
 kind assistance and very many favors and suggestions, and 
 constant sympathy and encouragement during the printing 
 of the work, he is under special obligation to his valued 
 friend, Mr. F. W. Putnam. The types of the new species 
 noticed here are deposited in the Museum of the Peabody 
 Academy of Science. He would also express his thanks to 
 
VI PKEFACE. 
 
 the American Entomological Society, the Society of Natural 
 History at Boston, the Secretary of the Massachusetts Board 
 of Agriculture, the Essex Institute, the Smithsonian Institu- 
 tion, the Secretary of the Maine Board of Agriculture, and 
 to Mr. R. Hardwicke, the publisher of "Science-Gossip," 
 Prof. Sanborn Tenney, the author of "A Manual of Zo- 
 ology," and to his coeditors of the "American Naturalist," 
 for the use of many of the cuts, a list of which may be 
 found on the succeeding pages. 
 
 PEABODY ACADEMY OP SCIENCE, 
 
 SALEM, Nov. 10, 1869. 
 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. 
 
 FiGS. 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 33, 34, 35, 38, 39, 40, 84, 86, 87, 91, 93-106, 124, 
 126, 130, 131, 132, 142, 144, 146, 151, 180, 191-196, 201, 202, 204, 205, 
 206, 207, 2086, 209, 212, 213, 215, 219, 220, 221, 224, 225, 226, 246, 256 
 -260, 267, 320, 321, 332, 333, 379, 404, 408, 409, 421, 422, 442, 455, 480, 
 481, 484, 485, 487, 493, 500, 501, 502, 509, 513, 518, 519, 521, 531, 534, 
 535, 552, 561, 562, 576, 579, 593, 601 and 651, were borrowed from the 
 American Entomological Society, at Philadelphia. 
 
 FIGS. 2, 14, 15-24, 27, 48, 63-67, 69, 181, 216, 217, 222, 230, 231, 233 
 -235, 247, 369, 389, 420, 424, 427, 435, 436, 438, 497, 508, 578, 630 and 
 631 were loaned by the Boston Society of Natural History. 
 
 FIGS. 25, 36, 37, 55, 83, 128, 136, 237, 242, 269, 350, 352-357, 362, 368, 
 372, 373, 380, 511, 512, 514, 542, 543, 544, 545, 546, 556, 585-587, 589, 
 590, 591, 594, 602, 603, 604 and 605, were borrowed from the report of 
 the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture for 1862. 
 
 FIGS. 155-165, 169-179, 270, 271, 285-296, 300, 303-306, 345-348, 358, 
 359, 632, 633 and 634, were loaned by the Smithsonian Institution. 
 
 FIGS. 1, 5, 8, 10, 30, 31, 32, 51, 52, 57, 58, 62, 64, 68, 72, 79, 80, 81, 82, 
 85, 89, 92, 110-121, 127, 185, 186, 227, 228, 239, 248, 250, 252, 262, 263, 
 273, 278, 298, 307-314, 317-319, 322, 324-327, 329-331, 334-343, 361, 
 363a, 375, 387, 412, 413, 425, 426, 428, 430, 432, 433, 437, 439, 447-451, 
 456-458, 463, 464, 474, 475, 504, 516, 576, 577, 580-584, 588, 592, 608, 
 613, 615, 627, 636, 637, 638, 639, 641, 642, 646-649, were taken from the 
 " American Naturalist." 
 
 FIGS. 41, 70, 71, 88, 129, 138, 143, 152, 200, 232, 249, 253, 255, 349, 
 492, 554, 618, and 645 were borrowed from the "Report of the Maine 
 Board of Agriculture for 1862." 
 
 FIGS. 73-78, were kindly loaned by Prof, Jeffries Wyman. 
 
 FIGS. 570, 571, 574, 575, 617 and 635, were loaned by the Illinois 
 Geological Survey. 
 
 I am also indebted to Prof. Sanborn Tenney for the use of Figs. 
 189, 190, 198, 315, 323, 563-567, from his "Manual of Zoology." 
 
 The publishers of Hardwick's " Science-Gossip," London, afforded 
 me stereotypes of Figs, 517, 557, 569, 573, 606, 607, 609-611, 616, 620 
 -622, 628, 629 and 640. 
 
 Electrotypes of Figs. 119, 261, 281, 281c-284, 328, 344, 351, 360, 363, 
 367, 374, 376, 414, 429, 434, 452-454, 466, 468-471, 477, 479, 494, 506 1 , 
 506 2 , 510 ? 522-526, 530, 532, 533, 536-541, 547-551, 564, 568, 595-598, 
 were purchased of the publishers of the " American Entomologist." 
 
 The following figures were engraved expressly for the work, viz : 
 Figs. 11, 12, 13, 26, 28, 29, 42, 43-47, 49, 50, 53, 54, 56, 59-61, 80, 107- 
 
 (Vii) 
 
2 
 
 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 Articulated animals are also very distinctly bilateral, i. e. the 
 body is symmetrically divided into two lateral halves, and 
 not only the trunk but the limbs also 
 show this bilateral symmetry. In a less 
 marked degree there is also an antero- 
 posterior symmetry, i.e. each end of 
 the body is opposed, just as each 
 side of the body is, to the other.* 
 The line separating the two ends is, 
 however, imaginary and vague. The 
 antenna, on the anterior pole, or head, 
 are represented by the caudal, or anal, 
 stylets (Fig. 2), and the single parts 
 on the median line of the body corre- 
 spond. Thus the labrum and clypeus 
 are represented by the tergite of the 
 eleventh segment of the abdomen. 
 Fig 2 In all Articulates (Fig. 3) the long, 
 
 tubular, alimentary canal occupies the centre of the body ; above 
 it lies the "heart," or dorsal vessel, and below, upon the under 
 side, rests the nervous system. be a 
 
 The breathing apparatus, or 
 u lungs," in Worms consists of 
 simple filaments, placed on the 
 front of the head ; or of gill-like 
 processes, as in the Crustaceans, 
 which are formed by membran- 
 ous expansions' of the legs ; or, a Fig . 3 . 
 as in the Insects (Fig. 4), of delicate tubes (tracheae), which 
 
 * Professor Wyman (On Symmetry and Homology in Limbs, Proceedings of the 
 Boston Society of Natural History, 1867) has shown that antero-posterior symmetry 
 is very marked in Articulates. In the adjoining figure of Jcera (Fig. 2) the longi- 
 tudinal lines illustrate what is meant by bilateral symmetry, and the transverse 
 lines "fore and aft" symmetry. The two antero-posterior halves of the body are 
 very symmetrical in the Crustacean genera Jcera. Oniscus, Porcellio, and other 
 Crustacea, and also among the Myriopods, Scutigera, Polydesmus, " in which the 
 limbs are repeated oppositely, though with different degrees of inequality, from the 
 centre of the body backwards and forwards." "Leuckart and Van Beneden have 
 shown that Mysis has an ear in the last segment, and Schmidt has described an eye 
 in the same part in a worm, Amphicora." From Wyman. 
 
 FIG. 3 represents an ideal section of a Worm. / indicates the skin, or mus- 
 cular body-wall, which on each side is produced into one or more fleshy tubercles, 
 usually tipped with bristles or hairs, which serve as organs of locomotion, and 
 
THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 3 
 
 ramify throughout the whole interior of the animal, and con- 
 nect with breathing pores (stigmata) in the sides of the body. 
 They do not breathe through the mouth as do the higher ani- 
 mals. The tracheae and blood-vessels follow closely the same 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 course, so that the aeration of the blood goes on, apparently, 
 over the whole interior of the body, not being confined to a 
 single region, as in the lungs of the vertebrate animals. 
 
 Thus it is by observing the general form of the body-walls, 
 and the situation of the different anatomical systems, both in 
 relation to themselves and the walls of the body, or crust, 
 which surrounds and protects the more delicate organs within, 
 that we are able to find satisfactory characters for isolating, in 
 our definitions, the articulates from all other animals. 
 
 We shall perceive more clearly the differences between the 
 three classes of Articulates, or jointed animals, namely, 
 the WORMS, CRUSTACEANS, and INSECTS, by examining 
 
 often as lungs. The nervous cord (a) rests on the floor of the cylinder, sending a 
 filament into the oar-like feet (/), and also around the intestine or stomach (6), to a 
 supplementary cord (d), which is situated just over the intestine, and under the 
 heart or dorsal vessel (c). The circle c and e is a diagram of the circulatory sys- 
 tem ; c is the dorsal vessel, or heart, from the side of which, in each ring, a small 
 vessel is sent downwards and around to e, the ventral vessel. Original. 
 
 FIG. 4. An ideal section of a Bee. Here the crust is dense and thick, to which 
 strong muscles are attached. On the upper side of the ring the wings grow out, 
 while the legs are inserted near the under side. The tracheae (d) enter through the 
 stif/ma, or breathing pore, situated just under the wing, and their branches sub- 
 divide and are distributed to the wings, with their five principal veins as indicated 
 
THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 their young stages, from the time of their exclusion from the egg, 
 until they pass into mature life. A more careful study of this 
 period than we are now able to enter upon would show us how 
 much alike the young of all articulates are at first, and how 
 soon they begin to differ, and assume the shape characteristic 
 of their class. 
 
 Most Worms, after leaving the egg, are at first like some 
 infusoria, being little sac-like animalcules, often ciliated over 
 nearly the entire surface of the infinitesimal body. 
 Soon this sac-like body grows longer, and con- 
 tracts at intervals ; the intervening parts become 
 unequally enlarged, some segments, or rings, 
 Fig. 5. formed by the contraction of the body-walls, 
 greatly exceeding in size those next to them; and it thus 
 assumes the appearance of being more or less equally ringed, 
 as in the young Terebella (Fig. 5), where the 
 ciliae are restricted to a single circle surrounding 
 the body. Gradually (Fig. 6) the cilise disap- 
 \ e pear and regular locomotive organs, consisting 
 of minute paddles, grow out from each side ; 
 feelers (antennae), jaws, and eyes (simple rudi- 
 mentary eyes) appear on the few front rings 
 of the body, which are grouped by themselves 
 into a sort of head, though it is difficult, in a 
 large proportion of the lower worms, for un- 
 skilled observers to distinguish the head from 
 the tail. 
 
 Thus we see throughout the growth of the 
 worm, no attempt at subdividing the bod} r 
 into regions, each endowed with its peculiar 
 L functions ; but only a more perfect system of 
 , , Fi 6 ' rings, each relatively very equally developed, 
 
 in the figure, also to the dorsal vessel (c), the intestine (6), and the nervous cord (a). 
 The tracheas and a nervous filament are also sent into the legs and to the wings. 
 The tracheae are also distributed to the dorsal vessel and intestine by numerous 
 branches which serve to hold them in place. Original. 
 
 FIG. 5. Young Terebella, soon after leaving the egg. From A. Agassiz. 
 
 FIG. 6 represents the embryo of a worm (Autolytus cornutus) at a later stage 
 of growth, a is the middle tentacle of the head ; e, one of the posterior tentacles; 
 b, the two eye-spots at the base of the hinder pair of feelers ; c is one of a row of 
 oar-like organs (cirri) at the base of which are inserted the locomotive bristles, 
 
THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 5 
 
 but all becoming respectively more complicated. For example, 
 in the Earth-worm (Lumbricus) , each ring is distinguishable into 
 an upper and under side, and in addition to these a well- 
 marked side-area, to which, as for example in marine worms (e. g. 
 Nereis) , oar-like organs are attached. In most worms eye-spots 
 appear on the front rings, and slender tentacles grow out, and 
 a pair of nerve-knots (ganglia) are apportioned to each ring. 
 
 In the Crustaceans, such as the fresh-water Crawfish (Astdr 
 CMS), as shown by the German naturalist Rathke ; and also in 
 the earliest stages of the Insect, the body at once assumes a 
 worm-like form, thus beginning its embryonic life from the goal 
 reached by the adult worm. 
 
 The young of all Crustaceans (Fig. 7) first begin life in the 
 egg as oblong flattened worm-like bodies, each end of the body 
 being alike. The young of the lower Crustaceans, such as the 
 Barnacles, and some marine forms (Copepoda), and some 
 lowly organized parasitic species inhabiting the gills of 
 fishes, are hatched as microscopic embryos which would readily 
 be mistaken for young mites (Acarina). In the higher Crus- 
 taceans, such as the fresh-water Crawfish, the 
 young, when hatched, does not greatly differ 
 from the parent, as it has passed through the 
 worm-like stage within the egg. 
 
 Fig. 7 represents the young of the fresh- 
 water Lobster (Crawfish) before leaving the 
 egg. The body is divided into rings, ending 
 in lobes on the sides, which are the rudiments 
 of the limbs, b is the rudiment of the eye- Fig. 7. 
 stalk, at the end of which is the eye ; a is the fore antennae ; 
 c is the hind antennae ; d is one of the maxilla-feet ; e is the 
 first pair of true feet destined in the adult to form the large 
 "claw." Thus the eye-stalks, antennae, claws, and legs are 
 moulded upon a common form, and at first are scarcely distin- 
 
 with the cirri serving as swimming and locomotive organs ; d, the caudal styles, or 
 tail-feelers. In this figure we see how slight are the differences between the 
 feelers of the head, the oar-like swimming organs, and the caudal filaments; we 
 can easily see that they are but modifications of a common form, and all arise 
 from the common limb-bearing region of the body. The alimentary canal, with 
 the proventriculus, or anterior division of the stomach, occupies the middle of the 
 body; while the mouth opens on the under side of the head. From A. Agassiz. 
 FIG. 7. Embryo of the Crawfish. -From Rathke. 
 
 1* 
 
6 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 guishable from each other. Here we see the embryo divided 
 into a head-thorax and a tail. 
 
 It is the same with Insects. Within the egg at the dawn of 
 life they are flattened oblong bodies curved upon the yelk- 
 mass. Before hatching they become more cylindrical, the 
 limbs bud out on the sides of the rings, the head is clearly 
 demarked, and the young caterpillar soon steps forth from the 
 egg-shell ready armed and equipped for its riotous life. 
 
 As will be seen in Fig. 8, the legs, jaws, and antennae are 
 first started as buds from the side of the rings, being simply 
 
 elongations of the body-wall, 
 which bud out, become larger, 
 and finally jointed, until the 
 \x buds arising from the thorax or 
 abdomen become legs, % those 
 from the base of the head be- 
 come jaws, while the antennae 
 and palpi sprout out from the 
 front rings of the head. Thus 
 while the bodies of all articulates 
 are built up from a common em- 
 bryonic form, their, appendages, which are so diverse, when we 
 compare a Lobster's claw with an Insect's antenna, or a Spider's 
 spinneret with the hinder limbs of a Centipede, "are yet but 
 modifications of a common form, adapted for the different uses 
 to which they are put by these animals. 
 
 FIG. 8. A Caddis, or Case-fly (Mystacides) in the egg, with part of the yolk 
 (#) not yet inclosed within the body- walls, a, antennae; between a and b the mandi- 
 bles; 6, maxilla; c, labium; rf, the separate eye-spots (ocelli), which afterwards in- 
 crease greatly in number and unite to form the compound eye. The "neck" or 
 junction of the head with the thorax is seen at the front part of the yolk-mass ; e, 
 the three pairs of legs, which are folded once on them selves;/, the pair of anal legs 
 attached to the tenth ring of the abdomen, as seen in caterpillars, which form long 
 antenna-like filaments in the Cockroach and May-fly, etc. The rings of the body are 
 but partially formed; they are cylindrical, giving the body a worm-like form. 
 Here, as in the other two figures, though not so distinctly seen, the antennae, jaws, 
 and last pair of abdominal legs are modifications of but a single form, and grow 
 out from the side of the body. The head-appendages are directed forwards, as 
 they are to be adapted for sensory and feeding purposes ; the legs are directed 
 downwards, since they are to support the insect while walking. It appears that the 
 two ends of the body are perfected before the middle, and the under side before the 
 upper, as we see the yolk-mass is not yet inclosed and the rings not yet formed 
 above. Thus all articulates differ from all vertebrates in having the yolk-mass 
 situated on the back, instead of on the belly, as in the chick, dog, or human em- 
 bryo. From Zaddach. 
 
THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 7 
 
 The Worm is long and slender, composed of an irregular 
 number of rings, all of very even size. Thus, while the size of 
 the rings is fixed, their number is indeterminate, varying from 
 twenty to two hundred or more. The outline of the body is a 
 single cylindrical figure. The organs of locomotion are fleshy 
 filaments and hairs (Fig. 3,/) appended to the sides. 
 
 In one of the low intestinal worms, the Tape-worm (Tcenia), 
 each ring, behind the head and "neck," is provided with organs 
 of reproduction, so that when the body becomes broken up 
 into its constituent elements, or rings (as often occurs naturally 
 in these low forms for the more ready propagation of the 
 species, since the young are exposed to many dangers while 
 living in the intestines of animals) , they become living inde- 
 pendent beings which "move freely and somewhat quickly 
 like Leaches," and until their real nature was known they 
 were thought to be worms. This ami other facts prove, that, 
 in the Worm, the vitality of the animal is very equally dis- 
 tributed to each ring. If we cut off the head or tail of some 
 of the low worms, such as the Flat Worms (Planaria, etc.), 
 each piece will become a distinct animal, but an Insect or Crab 
 sooner or later dies when deprived of its head or tail, (abdomen). 
 
 Thus, in the Worm the vital force is very equally distributed 
 to each zoological element, or ring of the body ; no single 
 part of the body is much honored above the rest, so as to sub- 
 ordinate and hold the other 
 parts in subservience to its 
 peculiar and higher ends in 
 the animal economy. 
 
 The Crustacean, of which 
 the Shrimp (Fig. 9) is a 
 typical example, is com- 
 posed of a determinate 
 number (21) of rings which rig. 9. 
 
 are gathered into two regions; the head-thorax (cephalo- 
 thorax) and hind -body, or abdomen. In this class there 
 is a broad distinction between the anterior and posterior ends 
 of the body. The rings are now grouped into two regions, 
 and the hinder division is subordinate in its structure and 
 
 TIG. 9. A Shrimp. Pandalus annulicornis. a, cephalothorax ; 6, abdomen. 
 
8 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 uses to the forward portion of the body. Hence the nervous 
 power is transferred in some degree towards the head; the 
 cephalothorax containing the nervous centres from which nerves 
 are distributed to the abdomen. Nearly all the organs perform- 
 ing the functions of locomotion and sensation reside in the front 
 region ; while the vegetative functions, or those concerned 
 in the reproduction and nourishment of the animal, are mostly 
 carried on in the hinder region of the body (the abdomen). 
 
 The typical Crustacean cannot be said to have a true head, 
 in distinction from a thorax bearing the organs of locomotion, 
 but rather a group of rings, to which are appended the organs 
 of sensation and locomotion. Hence we find the appendages 
 of this region gradually changing from antennae and jaws to 
 foot-jaws, or limbs capable of eating and also of locomotion ; 
 they shade into each other as seen in Fig. 9. Sometimes the 
 jaws become remarkably like claws ; or the legs resemble jaws 
 at the base, but towards their tips become claw-like ; gill-like 
 bodies are sometimes attached to the foot-jaws, and thus, as 
 stated by Professor J. D. Dana in the introduction to his great 
 work on the Crustacea of the United States Exploring Expedi- 
 tion, the typical Crustaceans do not have a distinct head, but 
 rather a "head-thorax" (cephalothorax). 
 
 When we rise a third and last step into the world of Insects, 
 we see a completion and final development of the articu- 
 late plan which has been but obscurely hinted at in the two 
 lowest classes, the Worms and Crustaceans. Here we first meet 
 with a true head, separate in its structure and functions from 
 the thorax, which, in its turn, is clearly distinguishable from 
 the third region of the body, the abdomen, or hind-body. 
 These three regions, as seen in the Wasp (Fig. 10), are each 
 provided with three distinct sets of organs, 
 each having distinct functions, though all are 
 governed by and minister to the brain force, 
 now in a great measure gathered up from the 
 Fig. 10. posterior rings of the body, and in a more 
 
 concentrated form (the brain being larger than in the lower 
 articulates) lodged in the head. 
 Here, then, is a centralization of parts headwards ; they are 
 
 FIG. 10. Philanthus ventildbris Fabr. A Wood- wasp. From Say. 
 
COMPOSITION OF THE INSECT-CRUST. 9 
 
 brought as if towards a focus, and that focus the head, which 
 is the meaning of the term " cephalization," proposed by Pro- 
 fessor Dana.* Ring distinctions have given way to regional 
 distinctions. The former characterize the Worm^ the latter 
 the Insect. In other words, the division of the body into three 
 parts, or regions, is in the insect, on the whole, better marked 
 than the division of any one of those parts, except the abdo- 
 men, into rings. 
 
 COMPOSITION OP THE INSECT-CRUST. Before describing the 
 composition of the body-wall, or crust, of the Insect, let us 
 briefly review the mode in which the same parts are formed in 
 the lower classes, the Worms and Crustaceans. We have seen 
 that the typical ring, or segment (called by authors zoonule, 
 zoonite, or somite, meaning parts of a body, though we prefer 
 the term arthromere, denoting the elemental part of a jointed 
 or articulate animal), consists of an upper (tergite), a side 
 (pleurite), and an under piece (sternite). This is seen in its 
 greatest simplicity in the Worm (Fig. 2), where the upper and 
 ventral arcs are separated by the pleural region. In the Crus- 
 tacean the parts, hardened by the deposition of chitine and 
 therefore thick and unyielding, have to be farther subdivided to 
 secure the necessary amount of freedom of motion to the body 
 and legs. The upper arc not only covers the back of the ani- 
 mal, but extends down the sides ; the legs are jointed to the 
 epimera, or flanks, on the lower arc ; the episternum is situated 
 between the epimerum and sternum ; and the sternum, form- 
 ing the breast, is situated between the legs. In the adult, there- 
 fore, each elemental ring is composed of six pieces. It 
 should, however, be borne in mind that the tergum and ster- 
 
 * In two papers on the Classification of Animals, published in the American 
 Journal of Science and Arts, Second Series, vol. xxxv, p. 65, vol. xxxvi, July, 1863, 
 and also in his earlier paper on Crustaceans, " the principle of cephalization is 
 shown to be exhibited among animals in the following ways : 
 
 1. By a transfer of members from the locomotive to the cephalic series. 
 
 2. By the anterior of the locomotive organs participating to some extent in ce- 
 phalic functions. 
 
 3. .By increased abbreviation, concentration, compactness, and perfection of 
 structure, in the parts and organs of the anterior portion of the body. 
 
 4. By increased abbreviation, condensation, and perfection of structure in the 
 posterior, or gastric and caudal portion of the body. 
 
 5. By an upward rise in the cephalic end of the nervous system. This rise 
 reaches its extreme limit in Man." 
 
10 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 num each consist, in the embryo, of two lateral parts, or halves, 
 which, during development, unite on the median line of the 
 body. Typically, therefore, the crustacean ring consists pri- 
 marily of eight pieces. The same number is found in all insects 
 which are wingless, or in the larva and pupa state ; this applies 
 also to the Myriupods and Spiders. 
 
 In the Myriopoda, or Centipedes, the broad tergum overlaps 
 the small epimera, while the sternum is much larger than in 
 the Spiders and Insects. In this respect it is like the broad 
 flat under-surface of most worms. Hence the legs of the 
 Centipede are inserted very far apart, and the "breast," or 
 sternum, is not much smaller than the dorsal part of the crust. 
 In the Julus the dorsal piece (tergum) is greatly developed 
 over the sternum, but this is a departure from what is ap- 
 parently the more typical form of the order, i. e. the Centipede. 
 In the Spiders there is a still greater disproportion in size 
 between the tergum and the sternum, though the latter is very 
 large compared with that of Insects. The epimera and episterna, 
 or side-pieces of the Spiders, are partially concealed by tne 
 over-arching tergum, and they are small, since the joints of the 
 legs are very large, Audouin's law of development in Articu- 
 lates showing that one part of the insect crust is always 
 developed at the expense of the adjoining part. In the Spider 
 we notice that the back of the thorax is a single solid plate 
 consisting originally of four rings consolidated into a single 
 hard piece. In like manner the broad solid sternal plate 
 results from the reunion of the same number of sternites cor- 
 responding, originally, to the number of thoracic legs. Thus 
 the whole upper side of the head and thorax of the Spider is 
 consolidated into a single hard horny immovable plate, like 
 the upper solid part of the cephalothorax of the Crab or 
 Shrimp. Hence the motions of the Spiders are very stiff com- 
 pared with those of many Insects, and correspond to those of 
 the Crab. 
 
 The crust of the winged insect is modified for the per- 
 formance of more complex motions. It is subdivided in so 
 different a manner from the two lower orders of the class, that 
 it would almost seem to have nothing in common, structurally 
 speaking, with the groups below them. It is only by examin- 
 
COMPOSITION OF THE INSECT-CRUST. 11 
 
 ing the lowest wingless forms such as the Louse, Flea, 
 Podura, and Bark-lice, where we see a transition to the Or- 
 ders of Spiders and Myriopods, that we can perceive the plan 
 pervading all these forms, uniting them into a common 
 class. 
 
 A segment of a winged six-footed insect (Hexapod) consists 
 typically of eight pieces which we will now examine more 
 leisurely. Figure 12 represents a side-view of 
 the thorax of the Telea Polyphemus, or Silk- pt- 
 worm moth, with the legs and wings 4*emoved. 
 Each ring consists primarily of the tergum, the 
 two side-pieces (epimerum and episternum) and 
 the sternum, or breast-plate. But one of these Fig. 11. 
 pieces (sternum) remains simple, as in the lower orders. The 
 tergum is divided into four pieces. They were named by Au- 
 douin going from before backwards, Fig. 12. 
 
 the prcescutum, scutum, scutellum, scm ms " 
 
 and postscutellum. 
 
 The scutum is invariably present pt 
 and forms the larger part of the 
 upper portion (tergum) of the tho- 
 rax ; the scutellum is, as its name 
 indicates, the little shield so promi- 
 nent in the beetle, which is also 
 uniformly present. The other two tr te c" tr c'" tr 
 
 pieces are usually minute and 
 
 crowded down out of sight, and placed between the two oppos- 
 ing rings. As seen in Fig. 11, the praescutum of the moth is 
 a small rounded piece, bent vertically down, so as not to be 
 seen from above. In the lowly organized Hepialus, and some 
 
 FIG. 11. Tergal view of the middle segment of the thorax of Telea Polyphemus, 
 prm, praescutum; ms, scutum; scm, scutellum; ptm, postscutellum; pt, patagium, 
 or shoulder tippet, covering the insertion of the wings. Original. 
 
 FIG. 12. Side view of the thorax of T. Polyphemus, the hairs removed. 1, Pro- 
 thorax ; 2, Mesothorax; 3, Metathorax, separated by the wider black lines. Tergum 
 of the prothorax not represented, ms, mesoscutum ; scm, mesoscutellum; ms" , 
 metascutum; scm", metascutellum ; pt, a supplementary piece near the inser- 
 tion of patagia; w, pieces situated at the insertion of the wings and surrounded by 
 membrane ; em, epimerum of prothorax, the long upright piece above being the 
 episternum; epm", episternum of the mesothorax; em", epimerum of the same; 
 epm", episternum of the metathorax; em", epimerum of the same, divided into two 
 pieces; c, c", c", coxae; te', le", le", trochantines ; tr, tr, tr, trochanters. 
 Original. 
 
14 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 insects. In the higher series of suborders, comprising the Dip- 
 tera, Lepidoptera and Hymenoptera, placing the highest last, 
 the thorax shows a tendency to assume a globular shape ; the 
 upper side, or tergum, is much arched, the pleural region bulges 
 out full and round, while the legs conceal at their insertion 
 the sternum which is minute in size. 
 
 In the lower series, embracing the Coleoptera, Hemiptera, 
 Orthoptera, and Neuroptera, the entire body tends to be more 
 flattened ; in the thorax the terguin is broad, especially that of 
 the prothorax, while the pleurites (episterna and epimera) are 
 short and bulge out less than in the higher series, and the ster- 
 num is almost invariably well developed, often presenting a 
 large thick breast-plate bearing a stout spine or thick tubercle, 
 as in (Edipoda. We can use these characters, in classifying 
 insects into suborders, as they are common to the whole order. 
 Hence the use of characters drawn from the wings and mouth- 
 parts (which are sometimes wanting), leads to artificial dis- 
 tinctions, as they are 2)eripheral organs, though often convenient 
 in our first attempts at classifying and limiting natural groups. 
 ^ The abdomen. In the hind body, or third region of the 
 trunk, the three divisions of the typical ring (arthromere), are 
 entire, the tergum is broad and often not much greater in ex- 
 tent than the sternum ; and the pleurites also form either a 
 single piece, or, divided into an epimerum and episternum, 
 form a distinct lateral region, on which the stigmata are sit- 
 uated. The segments of the abdomen have received from 
 Lacaze-Duthiers a still more special name, that of urite, and 
 the different tergal pieces belonging to the several rings, 
 but especially those that have been modified to form the genital 
 armor have been designated by him as tergites. We have 
 applied this last term to the tergal pieces generally. The typi- 
 cal number of abdominal segments is eleven. In the lowest 
 insects, the Neuroptera, there are usually eleven ; as we have 
 counted them in the abdomen of the embryo of Diplax. In 
 others, such as the Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera, there may 
 never be more than ten, so far as present observation teaches 
 us. 
 
 The formation of the sting, and of the male intromittent 
 organ, may be observed in the full-grown larva and in the in- 
 
COMPOSITION OF THE OVIPOSITOR. 
 
 15 
 
 complete pupa of the Humble-bee, and other thin-skinned 
 
 Hymenopterous larvae, and in a less satisfactory way in the 
 
 young Dragon-flies. 
 
 If the larva of the Humble-bee be taken just after it has 
 
 become full-fed, and as it is about to enter upon the pupa state, 
 
 the elements 
 (sterno - rhab- 
 dites Lacaze- 
 Duthiers), or 
 tubercles, 
 destined to 
 
 form the ovipositor, lie in 
 separate pairs, in two groups, 
 exposed distinctly to view, 
 
 Fig. 16. 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 
 as in Figures 14-18. 
 
 Fig. 15. 
 
 The ovipositor thus consists of three 
 
 pairs of slender non-articulated tubercles, situated in juxta- 
 position on each side of Fig. 17. 17 a. 
 the mesial line of the 
 body. The first pair arises 
 from the eighth abdominal 
 ring, and the second and 
 third pair grow out from 
 the ninth ring. The ends 
 of the first pair scarcely 
 reach beyond the base of 
 the third pair. With the 
 growth of the semi-pupa, 
 the end of the abdomen 
 decreases in size, and is Fig. is. 
 
 FIG. 14. Rudiments of the sting, or ovipositor, of the Humble-bee. 8, 9, 10, 
 sternites of eighth, ninth, and tenth abdominal rings in the larva, a, first pair, situ- 
 ated on the eighth sternite ; 6, second and inner pair ; and c, the outer pair. The let- 
 tering is the same in figures 14-22. The inner pair (6), forms the true ovipositor, 
 through which the eggs are supposed to pass when laid by the insect, the two 
 outer pairs, a, and c, sheathing the inner pair. Ganin shows that in the embryo of 
 Polynema (Fig. 655), the three pairs of tubercles arise from the 7th, 8th and 9th sg- 
 ments respectively. FIG. 15, 16. The same .1 little farther advanced. 
 
 FIG. 17. The three pairs now 'appear as if together growing from the base of the 
 ninth segment; 17 a, side view of the same, showing the end of the abdomen grow- 
 ing smaller thi-ough the diminution in size of the under side of the body. 
 
 FIG. 18. The three pairs of rhabdites now nearly equal in size, and nearly 
 ready to unite and form a tube; 18, side view of the same; the end of the abdo- 
 men still more pointed ; the ovipositor is situated between the seventh and tenth 
 rings, and ib partially retracted within the body. 
 
 18 a. 
 
12 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 Neuroptera, such as the Polystcechotes (Fig. 13 a), the prse- 
 scutum is large, well developed, triangular, and wedged in 
 between the two halves of the scutum. The little 
 piece succeeding the scutellum, i. e. the postscu- 
 tellum, is still smaller, and rarely used in descrip- 
 tive entomology. Thus far we have spoken of the 
 middle, or mesothoracic, ring, where these four 
 pieces are most equally developed. In the first, al | 
 or prothoracic, ring, one part, most probably the 
 scutum, is well developed, while the others are 
 aborted, and it is next to impossible to trace them 
 in most insects. The prothorax in the higher in- 
 sects, such as the Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, and Diptera is 
 very small, and often intimately soldered to the succeeding or 
 mesothoracic ring. In the lower insects, however, such as the 
 Coleoptera, the bugs (Hemiptera), grasshoppers and their 
 allies (Orthoptera), and the Neuroptera, the large broad pro- 
 thorax consists almost entirely of this single piece, and most 
 writers speak of this part under the name of "thorax," since 
 the two posterior segments are concealed by the wings when 
 the animal is at rest. The metathorax is usually very broad 
 and short. Here we see the scutum split asunder, with the 
 praescutum and scutellum wedged in between, while the post- 
 scutellum is aborted. 
 
 On the side are two pieces, the upper (epimerum) placed 
 just beneath the tergum, which is the collective name for the 
 four tergal, or dorsal, pieces enumerated above. In front of 
 the epimerum and resting upon the sternum, as its name im- 
 plies, is the episternum. These two parts (pleurites) compose 
 the flanks of the elemental ring. To them the legs are articu- 
 lated. Betweetf the two episterna is situated the breast-piece 
 (sternum), which shows a tendency to grow smaller as we 
 ascend from the Neuroptera to the Bees. 
 
 In those insects provided with wings, the epimera are also 
 subdivided. The smaller pieces, hinging upon each other, as 
 it were, give play to the very numerous muscles of flight 
 
 FIG. 13. A tergal view of thorax of Hepialus (Sthenopis} ; 1, prothorax ; 2, meso- 
 thorax ; 3, metathorax. The prothorax is very small compared with that of Poly- 
 stcechotes (13 a, 1), where it is nearly as long as broad. Original. 
 
COMPOSITION OF THE INSECT-CRUST. 13 
 
 needed by the insect to perform its complicated motions 
 while on the wing. 
 
 The insertion of the fore wing is concealed by the " shoulder 
 tippets," or patagia (Fig. 11), which are only present in the 
 mesothorax. The external opening of the spiracles just under 
 the wing perforates a little piece called by Audouin the peri- 
 treme. 
 
 A glance at Figures 11 and 12 shows how compactly the 
 various parts of the thorax are agglutinated into a globular 
 mass, and that this is due to the diminished size of the first 
 and third rings, while the middle ring is greatly enlarged to 
 support the muscles of flight. There are four tergal, four 
 pleural, two on each side (and these in the Hymenoptera, Lepi- 
 doptera, and Diptera subdivide into several pieces), and a 
 single sternal piece, making nine for each ring and twenty- 
 seven for the whole thorax, with eight accessory pieces (the 
 three pairs of peritremes and the two patagia) , making a total 
 of thirty-five for the entire thorax ; or, multiplying the four 
 tergal pieces by two, since they are formed by the union of two 
 primitive pieces on the median line of the body, we have 
 thirty-nine pieces composing the thorax. 
 
 TABLE OF THE PARTS OF THE THORAX APPLIED TO THE PRO-, 
 MESO-, AND METATHORAX, RESPECTIVELY. 
 
 * Praescutum, 
 Dorsal S Scutum, 
 Surface i Scutellum, 
 
 * Postscutellum. 
 , C Epimerum, 
 Thorax Pleural > Episternum, 
 
 Surface ^ Episternal apophysis, Stigma, Peritreme. 
 
 We must remember that these pieces are rarely of precisely 
 the .same form in any two species, and that they differ, often in 
 a very marked way, in different genera of insects. How sim- 
 ple, then, is the typical ring, and how complex are the va- 
 rious subdivisions of that ring as seen in the actual, living 
 insect, where each part has its appropriate muscles, nerves, and 
 tracheae ! 
 
 We have seen how the thorax is formed in Insects generally, 
 let us now advert to the two types of thorax in the six-footed 
 
16 
 
 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 Fig. 19. 
 
 gradually incurved toward the base (Fig. 18), and the three 
 pairs of rhabdites approach each other so closely that the two 
 outer ones completely ensheath the inner, until a complete 
 extensible tube is formed, which is gradually withdrawn entirely 
 within the body. 
 
 The male genital organ is originally composed of three pairs 
 (two pairs, apparently, in ^32s- 
 chna, Fig. 19) of tubercles all 
 arising from the ninth abdominal 
 ring, being sternal outgrowths 
 and placed on each side of the 
 mesial line of the body, two be- Fi s- 20. 
 ing anterior, and very unequal in size, and the 
 third pair nearer the base of the abdomen. The ex- 
 ternal genital organs are to be considered 
 as probably homologous with the limbs, as 
 Ganin has shown that they bud out in the 
 same manner from (see p. 704 
 fig. 655) the arthromere.* 
 ~ b This view will apply to the 
 genital armor of all Insects, so 
 far as we have been able to observe. It is 
 so in the pupa of jiEschna (Fig. 21), and 
 the pupa of Agrion (Fig. 22), which com- 
 pletely repeats, in its essential features, the 
 structure of the ovipositor of Bombus. Thus 
 Agrion the ovipositor consists of a pair of closely appressed ensi- 
 form processes which grow out from under the posterior edge of 
 the eighth abdominal ring, and are embraced between two pairs 
 
 * This term is proposed as better defining the ideal ring, or primary zoological 
 element of an articulated animal than the terms somite or zoonite, which seem too 
 vague ; we also propose the term arthroderm for the outer crust, or body Avails, of 
 Articulates, and arthropleura for the pleural, or limb-bearing region, of the body, 
 being that portion of the arthromere situated between the tergite and sternite. 
 
 FIG. 19. The rudiments of the male intromittent organ of the pupa of ^schna, 
 consisting of two flattened tubercles situated on the ninth ring; the outer pair 
 large and rounded inclosing the smaller linear oval pair. 
 
 FIG. 20. The same in the Humble-bee, but consisting of three pairs of tubercles, 
 x, y, z; 8,9, 10, the last three segments of the abdomen. 
 
 FIG. 21. The rudimentary ovipositor of the pupa of JEschna, a Dragon-fly. 
 
 FIG. 22. The same in pupa of Agrion, a small Dragon-fly. Here the rudiments 
 of the eleventh abdominal ring are seen, d, the base of one of the abdominal false 
 gills. The ovipositor of Cicada is formed in the same way. Figs. 14-22 original. 
 
 Fig. 21. 
 
 in 
 
 and 
 
COMPOSITION OF THE OVIPOSITOK. 
 
 17 
 
 L 
 
 of thin lamelliform pieces of similar form and structure, arising 
 from the sternite of the ninth ring. These outgrowths appar- 
 ently also homologize with the filiform, antennae-like, jointed 
 appendages of the eleventh ring, as seen in the Perlidae and 
 most Neuroptera and Orthoptera (especially in Mantis tes- 
 sellata where they (Fig. 23) closely 
 resemble antennae), which, arising as 
 they do from the arthropleural, or limb- 
 bearing region of the body, i. e. between Fig. 23. 
 
 the sternum and episternum, are strictly homologous with the 
 abdominal legs of the Myriapoda, the " false legs" of cater- 
 pillars, and the abdominal legs of some Neuropterous larvae 
 (Corydalis, Phryganeidce, etc.). 
 
 It will thus be seen that the attenuated form of the tip is 
 produced by the decrease in size of certain parts, the actual 
 disappearance of others, and the perfection of those parts to 
 be of future use. Thus towards the extremity of the body 
 the pleurites are absorbed and disappear, the tergites overlap 
 on the sternites, and the latter diminish in size and are 
 withdrawn within the body, while the last, or eleventh sternite, 
 entirely disappears.* Meanwhile the sting grows larger and 
 
 larger, until finally we 
 have the neatly fashioned 
 abdominal tip of the bee 
 concealing the complex 
 sting with its intricate 
 system of visceral ves- 
 Fig. 24. sels and glands. 
 
 The ovipositor, or sting, of all insects, therefore, is formed 
 on a common plan (Fig. 24). The solid elements of the arthro- 
 
 *In Ranatra, however, Lacaze-Duthiers has noticed the curious fact that in 
 order to form the long respiratory tube of this insect, the tergite and sternite of the 
 pregenital (eighth) segment are aborted, while the pleurites are enormously en- 
 larged and elongated, so as to carry the stigmata far out to the end of the long tube 
 thus formed. 
 
 FIG. 23. End of the abdomen of Mantis tessellata ; p, many-jointed anal style 
 resembling an antenna. 5-11, the last seven abdominal segments; the 8-llth ster- 
 nites being obsolete. From Lacaze-Duthiers. 
 
 FIG. 24. Ideal plan of the structure of the ovipositor in the adult insect. l-7t, 
 the tergites, connected by clotted lines with their corresponding sternites. b, the 
 eighth tergite, or anal scale; c, epimerum; a, a, two pieces forming the outer pair 
 of rhabdites; i, the second pair, or stylets; and /, the inner pair, or sting; d, the 
 
18 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 mere are modified to form the parts supporting the sting alone. 
 The external opening of the oviduct is always situated between 
 the eighth and ninth segments, while the anal opening lies at 
 the end of the eleventh ring. So that there are really, as 
 Lacaze-Duthiers observes, three segments interposed between 
 the genital and anal openings. 
 
 The various modifications of the ovipositor and male organ 
 will be noticed under the different suborders. 
 
 THE STRUCTURE OF THE HEAD. After studying the com- 
 position of the thorax and abdomen, where the constituent 
 parts of the elemental ring occur in their greatest simplicity, 
 we may attempt to unravel the intricate structure of the head. 
 We are to determine whether it is composed of one, or more, 
 segments, and if several, to ascertain how many, and then to 
 learn what parts of the typical arthromere are most largely 
 developed as compared with the development of similar parts 
 in the thorax or abdomen. In this, perhaps the most difficult 
 problem the entomologist has to deal with, the study of the 
 head of the adult insect alone is only guesswork. We must 
 trace its growth in the embryo. Though many writers consider 
 the head as consisting of but a single segment, the most emi- 
 nent entomologists have agreed that the head of insects is com- 
 posed of two or more segments. Savigny led the way to these 
 discoveries in transcendental entomology by stating that the 
 appendages of the head are but modified limbs, and homol- 
 ogous with the legs. This view at once gave a clue to the 
 complicated structure of the head. If the antennae and biting 
 organs are modified limbs, then there must be an elemental 
 segment present in some form, however slightly developed in 
 the mature insect, to which such limbs are attached. But the 
 best observers have differed as to the supposed number of such 
 theoretical segments. Burmeister believed that there were two 
 only ; Carus and Audouin thought there were three ; McLeay 
 and Newman four, and Straus-Durckheim recognized seven. 
 From the study of the semipupa of the Humble-bee (Bombus) 
 
 support of the sting; , the support of the stylet (i). R, the anus ; 0, the outlet of 
 the oviduct. The seventh, eighth, and ninth sternites are aborted. From Lacaze- 
 Duthiers. 
 
THE STRUCTURE OF THE HEAD. 19 
 
 and several low Neuropterous forms, as the larva of Ephemera, 
 but chiefly the embryos of Diplax, Chrysopa, Attelabus, Nema- 
 tu&, and Pulex, we have concluded that there are four such ele- 
 mental segments in the head of hexapodous insects. 
 
 On reference to fig. 57 it will be seen that there is a sternal 
 portion on the under side of the two posterior segments of the 
 head, and in the embryo of Attelabus we have seen sterna also 
 developed in the antennal and mandibular segments, so that we 
 may conclude that there are four segments in the head of all 
 six footed insects, corresponding to the jointed appendages, 
 i. e. the labium, or second maxillae, the first maxillae, the man 
 dibles, and the antennae. Though having, in accordance with 
 the generally received opinions of Milne-Edwards, Dana, and 
 others, believed that the eyes of Crustacea, and therefore of 
 Insects, were the homologues of the limbs, and developed on 
 separate segments placed in front of the antennal segment, as 
 stated in the previous editions of this work ; I have, however, 
 on farther study of the subject, been led to reconsider the mat- 
 tir, and decide that the eyes are but modified dermal sense 
 cells, and in certain articulates developed on limb-bearing seg- 
 ments. Thus in the King Crab (Limulus) a pair of ocelli are 
 situated on the first segment of the body, and the large com- 
 pound eyes grow out on the back of the third segment, both 
 bearing limbs. In the embryos of all the insects yet exam- 
 ined, the eyes are groups of specialized cells of the skin which 
 grow out on the upper, or tergal, side of the same segment 
 which bears the antennae. In certain mites, as Hydrachna, and 
 its allies, the simple eyes are situated over the second pair of 
 legs, and at a considerable distance behind the head. Among 
 the worms, also, organs of sight, as in Polyoplithalmus, are 
 developed on each segment of the body ; or, as in certain Pla- 
 narians, scattered irregularly over the body. 
 
 The three ocelli, when present, are developed after the eyes 
 appear. Each of these three ocelli is situated upon a distinct 
 piece ; but we must consider the anterior single ocellus as in 
 reality formed of two, since in the immature pupa of Bombus 
 the anterior ocellus is transversely ovate, resulting from the 
 fusion of two originally distinct ocelli. There are, therefore, 
 apparently two pairs of ocelli. The clypeus and labrum are 
 
20 
 
 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 simply a fold of the skin of the front part of the antennary 
 segment, and are not to be compared with the tergite or rudi- 
 ment of the eleventh segment of the abdomen. 
 
 Now, since the arthropleural is the limb-bearing region in 
 the thorax, it must follow that this region is quite well devel- 
 oped in the head, while the tergal region, bearing the organs of 
 sight, sometimes of enormous size, is perhaps still more largely 
 developed ; and as all the parts of the head are subordinated 
 in their development to that of the appendages of which they 
 form the support, it must follow logically that the larger por- 
 tion of the body of the head is pleural and tergal, and that the 
 sternal parts are very slightly developed. Thus each region of 
 the body is characterized by the relative development of the 
 three parts of the arthromere. In the abdomen the upper 
 (tergal) and under (sternal) surfaces are most equally devel- 
 oped, while the pleural line is reduced to a minimum. In the 
 thorax the pleural region is much more developed, either quite 
 as much, or often more than the upper, or tergal portion, while 
 the sternal is reduced to a minimum. In the head the tergites 
 form the main bulk of the region, and the sternites are reduced 
 to a minimum. 
 
 TABLE OF THE SEGMENTS OF THE HEAD AND THEIR APPENDAGES, 
 BEGINNING WITH THE MOST ANTERIOR. 
 
 Preoral. 
 
 First Segment 
 ( Antennary) , 
 
 Tergal, 
 
 Antennas, together with 
 the labrum, epipharynx, 
 clypeus, eyes, and ocelli. 
 
 
 Pastoral. 
 
 
 Second Segment 
 (Mandibular), 
 
 } Pleural, 
 
 Mandibles. 
 
 Third Segment 
 
 (First Maxillary'), 
 
 | Pleural, 
 
 First maxillae. 
 
 Fourth Segment 
 
 (Second Maxillary, or) 
 Labial), 
 
 ^Tergal (occiput), 
 > Pleural (gena), 
 } Sternal (gula), 
 
 Second maxillae 
 (Labium). 
 
 The Appendages. We naturally begin with the thoracic 
 appendages, or legs, of which there is a pair to each ring. The 
 leg (Fig. 25) consists of six joints, the basal one, the coxa, in 
 the Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, and Diptera, consisting of two 
 
THE APPENDAGES. 21 
 
 pieces, i. e. the coxa and trochantine (see Fig. 12) ; the tro~ 
 chanter; the femur; the tibia, and, lastly, the tarsus, which is 
 subdivided into from one to five joints, the latter being 
 the normal number. The terminal joint ends in a pair 
 of claws between which is a cushion-like sucker called 
 the pulvillus. This sucking disk enables the Fly to 
 walk upside down and on glass. 
 
 In the larva, the feet are short and horny, and the Fig. 25. 
 joints can be still distinguished. In Myriopods, each segment 
 of the abdomen has a pair of feet like the thoracic ones. We 
 must consider the three pairs of spinnerets of Spiders, which 
 are one to three-jointed, as homologous with the jointed limbs of 
 the higher insects. In the six-footed insects (Hexapoda), the 
 abdominal legs are deciduous, being present in the Coleopterous 
 grub, the Dipterous maggot, the caterpillar, and larva of the 
 Saw-fly, but disappearing in the pupa state. They are often, 
 as in most maggots, either absent, or reduced in number to the 
 two anal, or terminal pair of legs ; while in the Saw-flies, there 
 are as many as eight pairs. These "false" or "prop-legs" 
 are soft and fleshy, and without articulations. At the retrac- 
 tile extremity is a crown of hooks, as seen in caterpillars or the 
 hind-legs of the larva of Chironomus (Fig. 26), in which the 
 prothoracic pair of legs is reduced to inarticu- 
 late fleshy legs like the abdominal ones. 
 
 The position of the different pairs of legs 
 deserves notice in connection with the principle 
 of " antero-posterior symmetry." The fore- 
 legs are directed forwards like the human arms, Fi s- 26< 
 but the two hinder pairs are directed backwards. In the Spiders, 
 three pairs of abdominal legs (spinnerets) are retained through- 
 out life; in the lower Hexapods, a single pair, which is ap- 
 pended to the eleventh segment, is often retained, but under 
 a form which is rather like an antenna, than limb-like. In 
 some Neuropterous larvae (Phryganea, Corydalus, etc.) the 
 anal pair of limbs are very well marked ; they constitute the 
 " anal forceps " of the adult insect. They sometimes become 
 true, many-jointed appendages, and are then remarkably like 
 
 FIG. 25. A, coxa; B, trochanter; C, femur; D, tibia; F, tibial spurs; E x tarsus, 
 divided into five tarsal joints, the fifth ending in a claw From Sanborn. 
 
22 
 
 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 antennae, as in the instance of Mantis tessettata described by 
 Lacaze-Duthiers (Fig. 23). In the Cockroach these append- 
 ages, sometimes called "anal cerci," resemble the antenna? of 
 the same insect. In the Lepidoptera and Itymenoptera they 
 do not appear to be jointed, and are greatly aborted. 
 
 The Wings. The wings of insects first appear as little soft 
 vascular sacs permeated by tracheae. They .grow out in the 
 preparatory stages (Fig. 27) of the pupa from the side of the 
 thorax and above the insertion of the 
 legs, i.e. between the epimerum and 
 tergum. During the pupa state they 
 are pad-like, but when the pupa skin is 
 thrown off they expand with air, and 
 in a few minutes, as in the Butterfly, 
 enlarge to many times their original 
 size. The wings of insects, then, are 
 simple expansions of the crust, spread 
 over a framework of horny tubes. 
 These tubes are really double, consist- 
 ing of a central trachea, or air tube, 
 inclosed within a larger tube filled with 
 blood, and which performs the functions of the veins. Hence 
 the aeration of the blood is carried on in the wings, and thus 
 they serve the double purpose of lungs and organs of flight. 
 
 The number and situation of these veins and their branches 
 (veinlets) are of great use in separating genera and species. 
 The typical number of primary veins is five. They diverge 
 outward at a slight angle from the insertion of the wing, and 
 are soon divided into veinlets, from which cross veins are 
 thrown out connecting with others to form a net-work of veins 
 and veinlets, called the venation of the wing (Figs. 28, 29). 
 The interspaces between the veins and veinlets are called cells. 
 At a casual glance the venation seems very irregular, but in 
 many insects is simple enough to enable us to trace and name 
 the veinlets. The five main veins, most usually present, are 
 
 FIG. 27. The semipupa of Bombus, the larva skin having been removed, show- 
 ing the two pairs of rudimentary wings growing out from the mesothorax () and 
 metathorax (m). n and the seven succeeding dots represent the eight abdominal 
 stigmata, the first one (n) being in the pupa situated on the thorax, since the first 
 ring of the abdomen is in this stage joined to the thorax. Original. 
 
 Fig. 27. 
 
THE WINGS. 
 
 23 
 
 Fig. 28. 
 
 called, beginning at the costa, or front edge, the costal, subcostal, 
 median, submedian, and internal, and sometimes the median 
 divides into two, making six 
 veins. The costal vein is un- 
 divided ; the subcostal and me- 
 dian are divided into several 
 branches, while the submedian 
 and internal are usually simple. 
 
 The venation of the fore- 
 wings affords excellent marks 
 in separating genera, but that 
 of the hind wings varies less, 
 and is consequently of less use. 
 
 The wings of many insects 
 are divided by the veins into 
 three well-marked areas ; the 
 costal, median, and internal. 
 The costal area (Fig. 316) forms 
 the front edge of the wing and 
 is the strongest, 
 since the veins are 
 nearer together than 
 elsewhere, and thus 
 afford the greatest 
 resistance to the air Fi g . 2 g. 
 
 FIG. 28. Fore and hind wings of a Butterfly, showing the venation. I. fore wing : 
 a, costal vein; b, subcostal vein; 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, five subcostal veinlets; c, inde- 
 pendent vein (it is sometimes a branch of the subcostal, and sometimes of the me- 
 dian vein) ; d, median vein ; di, d2, ds, d4, four median veinlets ; e, submedian vein ; 
 /, internal vein ; ft, interno-median veinlet (rarely found, according to Doubleday, 
 except in Papilio and Morpho) ; 6 and d are situated in the " discal cell ; " g l ,g2,'g3 t 
 the upper, middle, and lower discal veinlets. In the Bombycidae and many other 
 moths gi and g% are thrown off from the subcostal and median veins respectively, 
 meeting in the middle of the cell at g%. They are sometimes wholly absent. 
 
 II. The hind wing; the lettering and names of the veins and veinlets the same 
 as in the fore wing. Slightly changed from Doubleday. 
 
 FIG. 29. Fore wing of a Hymenopterous insect, c, costal vein; sc, subcostal 
 vein; m, median vein; sm, submedian vein; i, internal vein; c, 1,2,3, the first, 
 second, and third costal cells ; the second frequently opaque and then called the 
 pterostigma. sc, 1, 2, 3, 4, the four subcostal cells; TO, 1, 2, 3, 4, the median cells; 
 sm r 1, 2, 3, the three submedian cells ; il, the internal cell; this is sometimes divided 
 into two cells, and the number of all but the costal cells is inconstant, the oute 
 row of cells (4, 4, 3) being the first to disappear. 
 
 The costal edge extends from c to c ; the outer c, the apex ; the outer edge extends 
 from the apex (c) to , and the inner edge extends from n, the inner angle, to the 
 insertion of the wing at i. Original. Figs. 30-32 from Scudder. 
 
24 
 
 THE CLASS OF INSECTS, 
 
 during flight. The median area (Fig. 31 a) is the largest. It is 
 in the grasshoppers and crickets sometimes modified to form a 
 musical organ, being 
 drum-like, as in the 
 CEcantlius (Fig. 30), or 
 rasp-like, as in Archyp- 
 tera (Fig. 31 a). The 
 internal area (c) is the 
 smallest, and less dis- 
 tinctly marked than the 
 two other regions ; the musical file-like or- 
 gan of Phaneroptera curvicauda, a grass- 
 hopper (Fig. 32 d) is situated on this area. 
 
 The limits of the edges of the wing vary 
 in almost every genus, and their comparative length affords 
 excellent generic characters. The front edge (Fig. 29) is called 
 the costal, its termina- 
 tion in the outer angle 
 of the wing is called 
 the apex; the outer edge 
 is situated between the 
 apex and the inner an- 
 gle, between which and 
 the base of the wing is 
 the inner, or internal, 
 edge. These distinc- 
 tions are of most use 
 in describing the butter- 
 flies and moths. 
 
 The Appendages of 
 Fig. si a. the Head. These organs 
 are divided into two groups, 
 the first of which comprise the 
 sensory organs, i. e. the ocelli, 
 eyes, and antennae, which are attached to the region in front 
 of the mouth, or preoral region of the head. The second 
 group consists of the sensorio-digestive appendages, combining 
 the power of finding and seizing the food and preparing it for 
 digestion. They are inserted behind the mouth and belong 
 to the jpostoral region of the head. 
 
THE APPENDAGES OF THE HEAD. 25 
 
 We will first describe the ocelli, which are theoretically the 
 most anterior organs of the head, ending with the basal appen- 
 dages, the labium (second maxillae) being the hindermost. 
 
 The simple eye, Ocellus, or JStemma, is the simplest form of 
 the eye. Its most elementary form (seen in the larva of the 
 ^Bot-fly and the Cecidomyian larva of Miastor) is that of a brown 
 spot, or group of pigment-cells lodged under the skin and 
 against which a nerve-filament impinges. Over this spot New- 
 port states that the tegument is transparent and convex, 
 resembling a true cornea, or eye-lens. A well-developed 
 ocellus consists, according to Newport, of a "very convex, 
 smooth, single cornea, beneath which is a spherical crystalline 
 lens, resting upon the plano-convex surface of the expanded 
 vitreous humor, the analogue of the transparent cones of the 
 compound eyes." Muller believes that the function of the ocelli 
 is the perception of nearer objects, while that of the compound 
 eyes is to see more distant objects. The ocelli constitute the 
 only visual organs in the Myriapods (except Cermatia), the 
 Arachnida, and the larvae of many Six-footed Insects ; they 
 are usually from one to six on a side. In adult insects 
 they are generally three in number, and 
 are generally present except in the large 
 majority of Coleoptera. Their normal site 
 is in front of the eyes, but they are usually j^g. 33. 
 
 thrown back, during the growth of the insect, behind the eyes, 
 on the vertex, or topmost part of the head (Fig. 33). 
 
 The Compound Eyes are a congeries of simple eyes. During 
 the growth of the insect the simple eyes of the larva increase 
 in number, and finally coalesce to form the compound 
 eye, or compound cornea, the surface of which is 
 Fig. 34. very convex and protuberant in the predaceous insects, 
 or those requiring an extended field of vision. 
 
 The number of facets, or cornese, vary from fifty (in the Ant) 
 to 3,650, the latter number being counted by Geoffroy in the 
 eye of a Butterfly. These facets are usually hexagonal, as in 
 the Dragon-fly (Fig. 34), or, rarely, quadrangular. 
 
 FIG. 33. Ocelli of three species of Sand-wasps, Pompilus. From Cresson. 
 FIG. 34. Three hexagonal facets of the compound eye of a fossil Dragon-fly, 
 greatly magnified. From Dawson. 
 
26 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 The Antennae (Figs. 35, 36) are inserted usually in the adult 
 insect between, or in front of the eyes, though in the embryo 
 they are inserted below and in front of the eyes. 
 It is normally a long, filiform, slender, many- 
 jointed appendage, undergoing great changes 
 in form. When it is highly specialized, as in 
 Coleoptera and Hymenoptera, it is divided 
 into three parts, the basal or scape, the middle 
 or pedicel, and the terminal part or flagellum, Fi s- 36 - 
 Fig. 35. or davola, which usually comprises the greater part of 
 the antenna. 
 
 It is believed by some that the sense of hearing is lodged 
 in the antennae, though Siebold has discovered an auditory 
 apparatus situated at the base of the abdomen of^ some, and 
 in the fore-legs of other species of Grasshoppers. 
 
 Mr. J. B. Hicks has made the latest studies on the auditory 
 apparatus. According to him "it consists first of a cell, sac, 
 or cavity filled with fluid, closed in from the ah* by a mem- 
 brane analogous to that which closes the foramen ovale in the 
 higher animals ; second, that this membrane is, for the most 
 part, thin and delicate, but often projects above the surface, in 
 either a hemispherical, conical, or canoe-shaped, or even hair- 
 like form, or variously marked ; thirdly, that the antennal nerve 
 gives off branches which come in contact with the inner wall of 
 the sacs ; but whether the nerve enters, or, as is most probable, 
 ends in the small internally projecting papilla which I have 
 shown to exist in many of these sacs, it is very difficult to say. 
 The principal part of the nerve proceeds to these organs, the 
 remaining portion passing to the muscles, and to the roots of 
 the hairs, at least to those of the larger sort." On the other 
 hand, Lefebvre, Leydig, and Gerstaecker regard this so-called 
 "auditory apparatus" as an organ of smell. 
 
 The antennae have also the sense of touch, as may readily be 
 observed in Ants, Bees, and the Grasshopper and Cockroach. 
 "The Honey-bee, when constructing its cells, ascertains their 
 proper direction and size by means of the extremities of these 
 
 FIG. 35. Filiform antenna of Amphizoa. From Horn. 
 
 FIG. 36. A, lamellate antenna of a Lamellicorn Beetle; B, antenna of a Fly, 
 with the bristle thrown off from the terminal joint; C, bristle-like antenna of a 
 Dragon-fly, Libellula, From Sanborn. 
 
THE APPENDAGES OF THE HEAD. 
 
 27 
 
 organs ; while the same iirsect, when evidently affected by 
 sounds, keeps them motionless in one direction, as if in the act 
 of listening." (Newport.) 
 
 After cutting off one or both antennae of the June beetle, 
 Lachnosterna, the insect loses its power of directing its flight 
 or steps, wheeling about in a senseless manner. Dr. Clemens 
 observed that the Cecropia moth was similarly affected after 
 losing its antennae. 
 
 The Mandibles (Fig. 37) are inserted on each side of the 
 mouth-opening. They usually consist of but a single joint, 
 
 Fig. 37. 
 
 representing probably the basal part of the ideal limb. This 
 part, however, is often subdivided by two longitudinal furrows 
 into three parts, each ending in a "tooth" of unequal size for 
 tearing and cutting the food. This tripartite form of the man- 
 dibles, to which attention has been called by Mr. Scudder, is 
 more fully carried out in the maxilla, where each portion is 
 highly specialized. The mandibles vary greatly in form and 
 size. The two cutting edges are usually opposed to each other, 
 or frequently overlap in the carnivorous forms. Their base is 
 often concealed by the clypeus 
 and labrum. Their motion is 
 transverse, being the reverse of 
 the motion of the jaws of Ver- 
 tebrates. 
 
 Fig. 38. b The JfoazKce(Figs.38&,39)are Fig. 39. 
 
 much more complicated organs than the mandibles. They are 
 
 FIG. 37. Different forms of mandibles. A, mandible of Cicindelapurpurea; B, 
 Phylloptera, a green grasshopper; C, Libellula trimaculata; D, Vespa maculata, or 
 paper-making Wasp ; E, " rostrum" or jointed sucker of the Bed-bug, Cimex lectu- 
 larius, consisting of mandibles, maxillae, and labium; F, proboscis, or sucker, of a 
 Mosquito, Culex, in which the mandibles are long and bristle-like. From Sanborn. 
 G, mandible of Amphizoa ; H, mandible of Acratus, a genus of Cockchafers. From 
 Horn. 
 
 FIG. 38. a, mentum and labial palpi; b, one maxilla, with its palpus, of Acra- 
 tus. From Horn. 
 
 FIG. 39. Maxilla of Amphizoa, with the two lobes (stipes and lacinia), and the 
 palpifer bearing the four-jointed palpus. From Horn. 
 
28 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 inserted on the under side of the head and just behind the 
 mouth. The maxilla consists of a basal joint, or cardo, 
 beyond which it is subdivided into three lobes, the stipes, or 
 footstalk ; the pdlpifer, or palpus-bearer ; and the lacinia, or 
 blade. The stipes forms the outer and main division of the 
 organ. The lacinia is more membranaceous than the other 
 parts, and its upper surface is covered with fine hairs, and 
 forms a great part of the side of the mouth. It is divided 
 into two lobes, the superior of which is called the galea, or 
 helmet, which is often a thick double-jointed organ edged with 
 stiff hairs, and is used as a palpus in the Orthoptera and many 
 Coleoptera. The inferior lobe is attached to the internal angle 
 of the lacinia. It terminates in a stiff minute claw, and is 
 densely covered with stout hairs. The maxilla^ palpi are 
 long, slender, one to four-jointed organs. In Perla I have found 
 that both pairs of palpi bear organs probably of smell. 
 
 The maxillae vary greatly in the different groups. Their office 
 is to seize the food and retain it within the mouth, and also to 
 aid the mandibles in comminuting it before it is swallowed. 
 This function reminds us of that of the tongue of vertebrate 
 animals. 
 
 The labium, or second maxillce (Fig. 40), is placed in front of 
 the gula, which forms the under part of the head, and is bounded 
 a on each side by the gence, or cheeks, and 
 f]T\ posteriorly by the occiput. The genae are 
 \ J bounded laterally by the eplcranium and 
 LJ the under side of the eyes. In front are 
 **& 40 - situated the basal parts of the labium, or 
 
 second maxillae, which embraces the submentum and mentum 
 (or labium proper). The labial palpi are inserted into the 
 mentum, but often the latter piece is differentiated into two, 
 the anterior of which takes the name of palpiger, called by 
 Dr. Leconte (Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections) the ligula, 
 and from which the palpi originate. The ligula is the front 
 edge of the labium, being thfe piece forming the under lip. 
 It is often a fleshy organ, its inner surface being continuous 
 
 FIG. 40. Ligula and labial palpi of AmpMzoa, an aquatic beetle. It is quadrate 
 and without paraglossae; a, mentum of the same, being deeply incised, and with a 
 tooth at the bottom of the excavation. From Horn. 
 
THE APPENDAGES OF THE HEAD. 29 
 
 with the soft membrane of the mouth. In the Bees, it is enor- 
 mously developed and covered with soft hairs. It is often 
 confounded with the palpiger. In Hydrous it is divided into 
 two lobes. In most of the Carabidce and Bees it is divided 
 into three lobes, the two outer ones forming the paraglossce 
 (Fig. 41 m), and acting as feelers, while the middle, usually 
 much longer, forms the lingua, or tongue, being the continuation 
 of the ligula. In the bees, where 
 the ligula is greatly developed, 
 it performs the part of the tongue 
 in Vertebrates, and aids the max- 
 illae in collecting nectar and 
 pollen. 
 
 The roof of the mouth is 
 formed by the labrum and the 
 epipharynx (Fig. 42 c), a small 
 fleshy tubercle concealed beneath 
 the labrum. It is seen in the 
 bees on turning up the labrum. 
 It probably corresponds to the 
 "labellum" of Schiodte. The 
 labrum (Fig. 41 e) is usually 
 transverse and situated in front 
 of the dypeus (Fig. 416). The 
 shield-like dypeus is the broad, Fig. 41. 
 
 visor-like, square piece forming usually the front of the head. 
 Behind it is the dypeus posterior, or supra-dypeus, a subdivision 
 of the clypeus, and especially observable in the Hymenoptera. 
 The epicranium forms a large part of the head ; it is bounded 
 posteriorly by the occiput, on the sides by the eyes, and in 
 front by the clypeus, and though usually described as a 
 single piece, is really composed of several. The ocelli often 
 appear to be situated upon it, though in reality they are placed 
 upon a distinct piece or pieces. The " epicranial suture" is the 
 line of junction of the two "procephalic lobes" (Huxley). 
 
 FIG. 41. Front view of the head of a bee, Anthopliora. a, compound eyes; c, 
 three simple eyes, situated upon the epicranium; 6, clypeus; e, labrum; d, an- 
 tennae;/, mandibles; i, maxillae; h, maxillary palpi; I, palpifer; j, labial palpi; m, 
 paraglossae ; k, ligula. From Newport. 
 
 3* 
 
30 
 
 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 (These lobes will be explained farther on when speaking 
 of their development in the embryo.) Behind the epicra- 
 
 nium is the occiput, 
 or base of the head. 
 It belongs to the la- 
 bial, or second max- 
 illary segment, and 
 helps to form a com- 
 plete ring, articulat- 
 ing with the thorax. 
 It is perforated by a 
 foramen to afford a 
 connection between 
 the interior of the 
 head and thorax. It 
 is sometimes, as in 
 many Coleoptera, Or- 
 thoptera, and Hemip- 
 tera, elongated be- 
 Fi s- 42 - hind and constricted, 
 
 thus forming a "neck." It will be seen beyond, that the 
 labrum and clypeus are in the embryo developed from a 
 4 'tongue-like process whose inferior part eventually becomes 
 the labrum, while superiorly it sends a triangular process (the 
 rudiment of the clypeus) into the interval between the proce- 
 phalic lobes." * This part (i. e. the clypeus and labrum) is the 
 most anterior part of the head, and in the embryo, as in the 
 adult, is normally situated in front of the ocelli, but is not to 
 be compared with the " anal plate," or eleventh tergite, of the 
 larva, or with the telson of the scorpion, as Huxley f supposes. 
 
 FIG. 42. Side view of the front part of the head, together with the mouth- 
 parts of the Humble-bee (Bombus). a, clypeus covered with hairs; 6, labrum; 
 c, the fleshy epipharynx partially concealed by the base of the mandibles (d); 
 e, lacinia, or blade of the maxilla?, with their two-jointed palpi (/) at the base ; j, the 
 labium to which is appended the ligula (<?); below are the labial palpi; A, the two 
 basal joints, being greatly enlarged; b, the compound eyes. Original. 
 
 * These lobes are folded back upon the top of the base of the head, and they 
 seem to form the tergal portion of the antennary ring, to which they respectively 
 belong, and do not seem to us to be the sternal portion, as suggested by Huxley, 
 for they are apparently developed in front of the mouth-opening, and form the roof 
 of the mouth. 
 
 t " Lastly, there are certain parts developed singly in the median line in the Artic- 
 vlata. Of this nature are the frontal spines of Crustacea, their telson, and the sting 
 
THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM. 31 
 
 In describing Insects the vertex, or crown, of the head is the 
 highest part ; and the front is the part usually in front of the 
 insertion of the antennae. 
 
 THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM lies just beneath, and is continuous 
 with the integument. It consists of numerous "distinct isola- 
 ted straight fibres, which are not gathered into bundles united 
 by common tendons, or covered by aponeuroses [or tendinous 
 sheaths] to form distinct muscles, as in the Vertebrata, but 
 remain separate from each other, and only in some instances 
 are united at one extremity by tendons." (Newport.) These 
 minute fibres form layers, which Newport regards as separate 
 muscles. "Each fibre is composed of a great number of very 
 minute fibrillae, or fasciculi of fibrillae," and has been observed 
 by Wagner and Newport to be often striated as in Vertebrates. 
 The muscular system is simplest in the lower insects and the 
 larvae of the higher forms, and is more complex in the head 
 than elsewhere, and more complex in the thorax than in the 
 abdomen. These minute muscles are exceedingly numerous. 
 " Lyonnet, in his immortal work on the anatomy of the larva 
 of Cossus ligniperda, found two hundred and twenty-eight dis- 
 tinct muscles in the head alone, and, by enumerating the fibres 
 in the layers of the different segments, reckoned 1,647 for the 
 body, and 2,118 for the internal organs, thus making together 
 3,993 muscles in a single larva. In the larva of Sphinx ligus- 
 tri we have found the muscles equally numerous with those 
 discovered by Lyonnet in the Cossus." (Newport.) 
 
 The muscular system corresponds to the jointed structure of 
 insects, as do the other internal systems of organs. Of the 
 muscles belonging to a single ring, some stretch from the front 
 edge of one segment to the front edge of the next, and others 
 
 of the Scorpion, whose mode of development appears to be precisely similar to 
 that of a telson. In the same category we must rank the labrum in front of the 
 mouth, which in the Crustacea (at least) appears to be developed from the sternum 
 of the antennary, or third somite, the metastoma (or so called labium, or lingua) 
 of Crustacea, and the lingua of Insecta, behind the oral aperture. 
 
 " However much these appendages may occasionally simulate, or play the part 
 of appendages, it is important to remember, that, morphologically, they are of a 
 very different nature, and that the confusing them with true appendages must 
 tend completely to obscure the beautiful relations which obtain among the dif- 
 ferent classes of the Articulata." Huxley, Linnaean Transactions, vol. xxii. 
 London. 
 
 
32 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 
 
 to the hinder edge ; there are also sets of dorsal and ventral 
 muscles going in an oblique or vertical course. The muscles 
 are either colorless and transparent, or yellowish white ; and 
 of a soft, almost gelatinous consistence. In form they are 
 simply flat and thin, straight, band-like, or pyramidal, barrel 
 or feather-shaped. They act variously as rotators, elevators, 
 depressors, retractors, protrusors, flexors, and extensors. 
 
 The muscular power of insects is enormous. The Flea will 
 leap two hundred times its own height. Certain beetles can 
 support enormous weights. Newport cites the case of Geo- 
 trupes stercorarius which is "able to sustain and escape from 
 beneath a pressure of from twenty to thirty ounces, a prodi- 
 gious weight when it is remembered that the insect itself does 
 not weigh even so many grains." Some beetles have been 
 known to gnaw through lead-pipes, and the Stag-beetle of 
 Europe, Lucanus cervus, has, as stated by Mr. Stephens, 
 gnawed "a hole an inch in diameter through the side of an 
 iron canister in which it was confined." 
 
 "The motions of the insect in walking as in flying are 
 dependent, in the perfect individual, entirely upon the thoracic 
 segments, but in the larva chiefly upon the abdominal. Al- 
 though the number of legs in the former is always six, and in 
 the latter sometimes so many as twenty-two, progression is 
 simple and easy. Miiller states (Elements of Physiology, p. 
 970, Translation) that on watching insects that move slowly 
 he has distinctly perceived that three legs are always moved at 
 one time, being advanced and put to the ground while the 
 other three propel the body forwards. In perfect insects, those 
 moved simultaneously are the fore and hind feet on one side, 
 and the intermediate foot on the opposite ; and afterwards the 
 fore and hind feet on that side, and the middle one on the 
 other, so that, he remarks, in two steps the whole of the legs 
 are in motion. A similar uniformity of motion takes place 
 in the larva, although the whole anterior part of the body is 
 elevated and carried forwards at regular distances, the steps of 
 the insect being almost entirely performed by the 'false/ or 
 abdominal legs." 
 
 " In flight the motions depend upon the meso- and meta- 
 thoracic segments conjointly, or entirely upon the former. The 
 
 </^? 
 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. S3 
 
 sternal, episternal, and epimeral pieces, freely articulated 
 together, correspond in function with the sternum, the ribs, 
 and the clavicles of birds.* The thorax is expanded and con- 
 tracted at each motion of the 
 wings, as in birds and other ani- 
 mals, and becomes fixed at each 
 increased effort as a fulcrum or 
 point of resistance upon which 
 the great muscles of the wings 
 are to act, thus identifying this 
 part of the body in function as 
 in structure with that of other ani- 
 mals." (Newport.) 
 
 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. In its 
 simplest form the nervous system 
 consists of two longitudinal cord&f 
 each with a swelling (nerve-knot, 
 or ganglion,) corresponding to 
 each segment (Fig. 43). This 
 cord lies on the ventraljdde of the 
 body, but in the head it passes 
 upwards, sending a filament from 
 each side to surround the cesoph- 
 agus.t As in the Vertebrates, 
 the nervous cord of insects is 
 composed of two distinct columns Fi s- 43 - 
 
 of fibres placed one upon the other. "The under or external 
 column, which is nearest to the exterior of the body, is that in 
 which the ganglia, or enlargements, are situated. The upper 
 one, or that which is internal and nearest to the viscera, is 
 entirely without ganglia, and passes directly over the ganglia 
 of the under column without forming part of them, but in very 
 
 *Bennetonthe Anatomy of the Thorax in Insects, and its Function during 
 Flight. Zoological Journal, vol. i, p. 394. 
 
 fThe brain of insects is formed of several pairs of ganglia, corresponding^ 
 probably, to the number of primitive segments composing the head. The nervous 
 cord is thus, in the head, massed together and compacted to form a brain. 
 
 FIG. 43. Nervous System of Corydalus cornutus. , "cerebrum;" 6, "cere- 
 brellum;" c, thoracic ganglia, which distribute a nerve to each leg; d, eight pairs 
 of abdominal ganglia. The dotted lines represent the wings. From Leidy. 
 3 
 
34 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 close approximation to them." Newport also believes that the 
 ganglionless upper, or internal, column of fibres is analogous 
 to the motor column of Vertebrata, while the external, or under 
 one, corresponds to the sensitive column, thus representing the 
 cerebro-spinal system of the Vertebrata. 
 
 From each pair of ganglia are distributed special nerves to 
 the various organs. In the larva of Sphinx the normal num- 
 ber of double ganglia is thirteen, and the nervous cord of the 
 Neuroptera and other lowly organized and attenuated forms of 
 insects corresponds in the main to this number. In the adult 
 insect, especially in the Coleoptera, Diptera, Lepidoptera, and 
 Hymenoptera, the three thoracic ganglia are fused together, 
 following the fusion and general headwise development of the 
 segments of the tegument. Besides the central nervous cord, 
 corresponding to the spinal cord of the Vertebrates, there is a 
 vagus, or visceral nerve, representing the S3'mpathetic nerve of 
 higher animals. This nerve "arises, in the larva, from the 
 anterior part of the cerebrum, and, forming a ganglion on the 
 upper surface of the pharynx, always passes backward beneath 
 the brain, along the middle line of the oesophagus." In its 
 microscopic structure the nervous cord, like that of Vertebrata, 
 consists of a central u gray" substance, and an outer or periph- 
 eral part, the u white" substance. 
 
 In the embryo the ganglia are very large and close together, 
 the commissures, or connecting filaments being very short, and 
 small in proportion. 
 
 ORGANS OF NUTRITION. These consist of the alimentary canal 
 and its appendages, or accessory glands (Fig. 44). We have 
 already treated of the external appendages (mouth-parts) 
 which prepare the food for digestion. The simplest form of 
 the alimentary canal is that of a straight tube. In the larva 
 of Stylops and the sedentary young of Bees, it ends in a blind 
 sac, as they live on liquid food and expel no solid excretions. 
 When well developed, as in the adult insect, it becomes a long 
 convoluted thick muscular tube, subdivided into different parts 
 which perform different functions and have distinct names, 
 taken from analogous organs in the vertebrate animals. This 
 digestive tube is composed of three coats, the outer, or peri- 
 
ORGANS OF NUTRITION. 
 
 85 
 
 toneal; the middle, or muscular; and the inner, or mucous. The 
 mucous coat is variously modified, being plaited or folded ; or, 
 
 c d 
 
 as in the Orthoptera and carnivorous Coleoptera, it is solidified 
 and covered with rows of strong horny teeth, forming a sort of 
 gizzard. The alimentary canal is held in place by retractor 
 muscles, but principally by exceedingly numerous branches of 
 the main tracheae. 
 
 This canal (Fig. 45) is subdivided into the mouth and pha- 
 rynx, the oesophagus, supplementary to which is the crop, or 
 " sucking stomach" of Diptera, Lepidoptera, arid Hymenoptera ; 
 iheproventricufus, or gizzard ; theventriculus, or true stomach, 
 and the intestine, which consists of the ileum, or short intes- 
 
 FIG. 44. Anatomy of Sphinx ligustri. m, t, g, the nervous cord resting on 
 the floor of the body ; at c, the ganglia form a brain-like organ, much larger than 
 the ganglia of the thorax (m) and abdomen (g). From the brain Is sent off the 
 suboesophageal nerve which surrounds the gullet into Avhieh the food is conveyed 
 by the maxillae, or spiral tongue (a), which, when at rest, is rolled up between the 
 labial palpi (6). 
 
 From the nervous cord is also thrown off a pair of nerves to each pair of legs 
 (as at n, o,p) and a branch, d, is sent off from above, distributing nerves to the 
 muscles of flight. 
 
 The heart, or dorsal vessel (e,/), lies just beneath the median line of the body, 
 and is retained in place by muscular bands (as at /) as well as by small tracheal 
 branches. 
 
 The alimentary canal (h,j, g), forms a straight tube in the head and thorax; h, 
 the crop, or sucking stomach, which opens into the resophagus; j, the true, chyle- 
 forming stomach, which contracts posteriorly, and then dilates near its anal outlet 
 into a cloaca (indicated at $r, but not distinctly, as it is concealed by the numerous 
 urinary vessels). The urinary vessels also indicated at g, form long tubes (which 
 correspond to the kidneys of Vertebrates), opening into the pyloric end of the 
 stomach. The position of the testes (fc) is the same as that of the ovary, and the 
 dotted line I shows the course of the efferent duct (vas deferens) and also of the 
 oviduct of the female. 
 
 The figure represents a longitudinal section of the insect, the legs and ends of 
 the antennae having been removed. From Newport. 
 
3C THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 tine, and the colon and rectum. The latter part, as well as the 
 crop and proventriculus, are sometimes absent. 
 
 Of the appendages of the canal, the first 
 are the salivary glands, which are usually 
 long simple tubes, which in the larva, ac- 
 cording to Newport, form the silk vessels. 
 They "empty themselves by a single duct 
 through the spinneret on the floor (labium) 
 of the mouth." In the Ant-lion (Myrtneleon) 
 the silk is spun from "a slender telescopic- 
 like spinneret, placed at the extremity o/ 
 its body," and Westwood also states that the 
 larva of Chrysopa spins a cocoon "from the 
 spinneret, at the extremity of the body." 
 
 These silk glands when taken out of the 
 larva, just as it is about ready to transform, 
 are readily prepared as "gut" for fish-lines, 
 etc., by drying on a board. 
 
 In the Bees these glands are largely de- 
 veloped to produce a sufficient amount of 
 salivary fluid to moisten the dry pollen of 
 rig. 45. flowers, before it enters the oesophagus. 
 
 "Bee-bread" consists of pollen thus moistened and kneaded 
 by the insect. The Honey-bee also dissolves, by the aid of the 
 salivary fluid, the wax used in making its cells. Newport 
 believes this fluid is alkaline, and forms a solvent for the other- 
 wise brittle wax, as he has seen this insect "reduce the per- 
 fectly transparent thin white scales of newly secreted wax to 
 a pasty or soapy consistence, by kneading it between its man- 
 dibles, and mixing it with a fluid from its mouth, before apply- 
 ing it to assist in the formation of part of a new cell." 
 
 Insects have no true liver; its functions being performed 
 "by the walls of the stomach, the internal tunic of which is 
 composed of closely-aggregated hepatic cells." (Siebold.) In 
 the Spiders and Scorpions, however, there is a liver distinct 
 from the digestive canal. In the Spiders it is very large, 
 enveloping most of the other viscera. 
 
 FIG. 45. Alimentary tube of Corydalus cornutus. a, oesophagus; 6, proven- 
 triculus; c, ventriculus; d, large intestine; e, urinary tubes; /, coecum ; gr, testis or 
 ovary. From Leidy. 
 
THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 37 
 
 Siebold states that in some insects the ileum has glandular 
 appendages whose product is perhaps analogous to the pancre- 
 atic fluid. In the larva of insects is found the corpus adiposum, 
 or fat-body, in the form of large lobes of fat-cells which spread 
 through the intervals of the viscera in the general cavity of 
 the body. It is interpenetrated and retained in place by 
 numerous tracheae. 
 
 THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. The vascular, or circulatory, 
 system is not a closed sac as in the Worms and Vertebrates. 
 The organs of circulation consist of a contractile, articulated 
 dorsal vessel, or so-called "heart," which terminates in a 
 cephalic aorta. The dorsal vessel receives the venous current 
 through the lateral valvular openings and pumps the blood into 
 its prolongation or cephalic aorta, whence it escapes, traversing 
 the body in all directions, in regular currents, which do not 
 have, however, vascular walls. "In this way, it penetrates the 
 antennae, the extremities, the wings, and the other appendages 
 of the body, by arterial currents, and is returned by those of a 
 venous nature. All the venous currents empty into two 
 lateral ones, running towards the posterior extremity of the 
 body, and which enter, through lateral orifices, the dorsal 
 vessel." (Siebold.) 
 
 "The blood of the Insecta is usually a colorless liquid, 
 though sometimes yellowish, but rarely red. In this liquid are 
 suspended a few very small, oval, or spheroidal corpuscles, 
 which are always colorless,- have a granular aspect, and are 
 sometimes nucleated. 
 
 "The dorsal vessel, which is constricted at regular intervals, 
 is always situated on the median line of the abdomen, being 
 attached to the dorsal wall of its s'egments by several trian- 
 gular muscles whose apices point outwards. Its walls contain 
 both longitudinal and transverse fibres, and, externally, are 
 covered by a thin peritoneal tunic. Internally, it is lined by 
 another very fine membrane, which, at the points of these con- 
 strictions, forms valvular folds, so that the organ is divided 
 into as many chambers as there are constrictions. Each of 
 these chambers has, at the anterior extremity on each side, a 
 valvular orifice which can be inwardly closed. The returning 
 
38 
 
 THE CLASS OF INSECTS, 
 
 blood is accumulated about the heart and enters into it during 
 the diastole of each of its chambers, through the lateral 
 orifices (Fig. 46 i). It then passes, by the regularly successive 
 
 Fig. 47. 
 
 Fig. 46. 
 
 contractions of the heart, from behind forwards into the aorta, 
 which is only a prolongation of the anterior chamber. This 
 aorta consists of a simple, small vessel, situated on the dorsal 
 surface of the thorax (Fig. 44 e) , and extending even to the 
 cephalic ganglion, where it either ends in an open extremity, or 
 divides into several short branches which terminate in a like 
 manner. The length of the dorsal vessel depends, in all the 
 three states of insects, upon that of the abdomen. The number 
 of its chambers is very variable, but is, most usually, eight. 
 
 "The blood, after leaving the aorta, traverses the body in 
 currents which are also extravascular, and in this way bathes 
 all the organs. The newly-prepared nutritive fluid passes 
 through the walls of the digestive canal in which it is found, 
 into the visceral cavity, and thence directly into the blood. 
 Latterly, this extravascular circulation has been called in 
 question, but its presence may be easily and directly observed 
 
 FIG. 46. Part of the dorsal vessel or heart of Lucanns cervus ; a, the posterior 
 chambers (the anterior chambers are covered by a part of the ligaments which hold 
 the heart in place), i, the auriculo- ventricular openings ; #, g, the lateral mus- 
 cles fixed by the prolongations h, h, to the upper side of the abdomen. From 
 Straus Dnrclcheim. 
 
 FIG. 47. Interior of the dorsal vessel; a, the inner walls with their circular 
 fleshy fibres; c, the auriculo-ventricular opening; with its semilunar valve (c), in 
 front of which is d, the interventricular valvule. From Straus Durckheim. 
 
THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 39 
 
 with very many perfect Insecta and their larvae. The vascular 
 walls, supposed to have been seen at certain points, are, un- 
 doubtedly, the result of some error of observation or interpre- 
 tation. This is also true of the pulsatile organs supposed to 
 have been observed in the legs of many water-bugs, and which 
 were thought to affect the circulation." 
 
 Blanchard and Agassiz believe in a "peritracheal circula- 
 tion," and other observers agree that the course of the circula- 
 tion is along the tracheae, i. e. that the blood circulates in the 
 space between the loose peritoneal envelope and the trachea 
 itself. Professor H. J. Clark objects to this view that the blood 
 disks are too large to pass through such an exceedingly minute 
 space as the distance between the trachea and its enveloping, 
 or peritoneal, wall. 
 
 Newport thinks that there are actual blood vessels distrib- 
 uted from the heart and ''passing transversely across the 
 dorsal surface of each segment in the pupa of Sphinx. If 
 they be not vessels distributed from the heart, it is a some- 
 what curious circumstance that the whole of the blood should 
 be first sent to the head of the insect, and the viscera of the 
 abdominal region be nourished only by the returning blood, 
 which has in part passed the round of the circulation." 
 
 Newport also describes in Sphinx the supra~&pinal, or great 
 ventral vessel which lies in the abdomen just over the nervous 
 cord, and which is also found in the Scorpion and Centipede. 
 He believes "this vessel to be the chief means of returning 
 the blood from the middle and inferior portion of the body to 
 the posterior extremity of the dorsal vessel or heart." He 
 strongly suspects that anteriorly this great ventral vessel is 
 connected with the aorta. The circulation of Insects, there- 
 fore, is probably as much a closed one as in the Myriapods, for 
 he states that the "blood certainly flows in distinct vessels, at 
 least in some parts of the body in perfect insects, and that 
 vessels exist even in the larva." Observations on the vascular 
 system are exceedingly difficult from the delicate structure of 
 the vessels, and the subject needs renewed observations to 
 settle these disputed points. 
 
 The blood is forced through the vessel into the body by regu- 
 lar pulsations. Herold counted thirty to forty in a minute in a 
 
40 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 full-grown caterpillar ; we have counted about sixty a minute 
 in the recently hatched larva of Dif)lax. During excitement, 
 the number of pulsations increases in rapidity. Newport found 
 the pulsations in a bee, Antliophora, when quiet, to be eighty a 
 minute ; but when "the insects were quite lively, and had been 
 exposed to the sun for an hour or two, the number of pulsa- 
 tions amounted to one hundred and forty." 
 
 He found that the number of pulsations decreased after each 
 moult of the larva of Sphinx ligustri, but increased in force; 
 when it was full grown and had ceased feeding it was thirty. 
 "After it had passed into the pupa state the number fell to 
 twent3'-two, and afterwards to ten or twelve, and, during the 
 period of hibernation, it almost entirely ceases ; but in the per- 
 fect insect it rose from forty-one to fift3 T , and when excited by 
 flight around the room it was from one hundred and ten to one 
 hundred and thirty-nine." 
 
 ORGANS OF RESPIRATION. All insects breathe air, or, when 
 they live in the water, respire, by means of branchiae, the 
 air mixed mechanically with water. Respiration is carried on 
 by an intricate system of tubes (pul- 
 monary tracheae) which open by pores 
 (spiracles or stigmata) in the sides of 
 the body ; or, as in aquatic insects, by 
 branchiae, or gill-like flattened expan- 
 sions of the body-wall penetrated by 
 tracheae (branchial tracheae). 
 
 There are normally eleven spiracles, 
 or breathing-holes (Fig. 48), on each side 
 of the body ; each consisting of an oval 
 horny ring situated in the peritreme 
 Fl s- 48 - and closed by a valve, which guards 
 
 the orifice (Fig. 49). Within this valve is a chamber closed 
 within by another valve which covers the entrance into the 
 tracheae. The air-tube itself (Fig. 50) consists of "an external 
 
 FIG. 48. Larva of the Humble-bee just beginning to change to a pupa, showing 
 eleven pairs of stigmata. In the adult bee, only the third pair is apparent, the 
 remaining pairs being concealed from view, or in part aborted. In most insects 
 there are usually only nine pairs of stigmata. Original. 
 
ORGANS OF RESPIRATION. 41 
 
 serous, and an internal mucous membrane, inclosing between 
 them a spirally convoluted fibre, thus giving great strength 
 and flexibility to the tube." 
 
 Nearly all the air enters through the thoracic and first 
 abdominal spiracles, so that on pinching most insects on 
 the thorax they can be 
 
 - ' irfL ^k^fl^* easi lj deprived of 
 breath and killed. 
 
 "In some aquatic 
 larvae such as those 
 of Dyticidce, Eristalis 
 Fig. 49. (Fi g> 51 ? pupa), and 
 
 Epliydra, and also in some perfect insects, 
 as in Nepa and Ranatra, the parts sup- 
 porting the stigmata are prolonged into slen- Fig. 50. 
 der tubes, through which the insect, on rising to the surface, 
 breathes the atmospheric air. 
 
 Agrion (Fig. 52) affords a good instance of branchiae 
 or gill-like expansions of the crust, or skin. It . is 
 supposed that these false gills, or branchiae, "absorb 
 the air from the water, and convey it by the minute 
 ramifications of the tracheal ves- 
 sels, with which they are abun- 
 dantly supplied, and which ter- 
 Fig.51. minate in single trunks, into the 
 
 main tracheae, to be distributed over the whole body, 
 as in insects which live in the open atmosphere." 
 (Newport.) 
 
 Of branchiae there are three kinds. The first, as in 
 the larvae and pupae of Gnats, consist of slender fila- 
 ments arranged in tufts arising from a single stem. Fig.ra. 
 In the larva of Gyrinus and the aquatic caterpillar of a moth, 
 
 FIG. 49. Chamber leading into the trachea; a, a, external valve protecting the 
 outer opening of the stigma, or breathing hole; 6, c, c, inner and more complicated 
 valve closing the entrance into the trachea (Z, &); m, conical occlusor muscle 
 closing the inner orifice. From Straus DurcJcheim. 
 
 FIG. 50. Portion of a trachea divested of its peritoneal envelope, a, spirally 
 convoluted fibre, closely wound around the trachea, as ate; c, origin of a secondary 
 tracheal branch. From Straus DurcJcheim. 
 
 FIG. 52. One of the three gill-like appendages to the abdomen of the larva and 
 pupa of Agrion enlarged, consisting of a broad leaf-like expansion, permeated by 
 tracheae which take up by endosmosis the air contained in water. Original. 
 4* 
 
42 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 Hydrocampa stratiolata, they form short stiff bristles placed 
 along the side of the body. Ayr ion and Ephemera, in their 
 larval stages, afford the second kind of branchiae, and Libellula 
 the third kind, or internal gill, situated in the colon. The 
 Mosquito breathes both by branchiae which form large club- 
 shaped organs, and by lateral filaments. 
 
 In those insects that fly, most of the tracheoa are often dilated 
 into air-vesicles, so that by filling and emptying them of air the 
 insect can change its specific gravity. That their use is also 
 to lighten the body is shown by their presence in the heavy 
 mandibles and head of the male of Lucanus cervus. In the 
 adult Humble-bee there are two very large vesicles at the base 
 of the abdomen. These vesicles are not found in the larvae, 
 or in the adult forms of creeping insects. 
 
 The act of respiration consists in the alternate dilation and 
 contraction of the abdominal segments, the air entering the 
 body chiefly at the thoracic spiracles. As in the Vertebrates the 
 frequency of the acts of breathing increases after exertion. 
 " When an insect is preparing itself for flight, the act of res- 
 piration resembles that of birds under similar circumstances. 
 At the moment of elevating its elytra and expanding its wings, 
 which are, indeed, acts of respiration, the anterior pairs of 
 spiracles are opened, and the air rushing into them is extended 
 over the whole body, which, by the expansion of the air-bags, is 
 enlarged in bulk, and rendered of less specific gravity ; so that 
 when the spiracles are closed at the instant the insect endeavors 
 to make the first stroke with and raise itself upon its wings, it 
 is enabled to rise in the air, and sustain a long and powerful 
 flight with but little muscular exertida. In the pupa and larva 
 state respiration is performed more equally by all the spiracles, 
 and less especially by the thoracic ones." 
 
 During hibernation the act of breathing, like the circulation 
 of the blood, almost entirely ceases, and the heat of the body 
 is greatly lowered. Indeed Newport has shown that the devel- 
 opment of heat in Insects, just as in Vertebrates, depends on the 
 "quantity and activity of respiration, and the volume and 
 velocity of the circulation." The Humble-bee, according to 
 Newport, possesses the voluntary power of generating heat by 
 breathing faster. He says, confirming Huber's observations, 
 
ORGANS OF SECRETION. 43 
 
 "the manner in which the bee performs her incubatory office is 
 by placing herself upon the cell of a nymph (pupa) that is 
 soon to be developed, and then beginning to respire at first 
 very gradually. In a short time the respirations become more 
 and more frequent, until at length they are increased to one 
 hundred and twenty, or one hundred and thirty per minute. 
 The body of the insect soon becomes of a high temperature, 
 and, on close inspection, is often found to be bathed with per- 
 spiration. When this is the case the temperature of the insect 
 soon becomes reduced, and the insect leaves the cell, and an- 
 other bee almost immediately takes her place. When respira- 
 tion is performed less violently, and consequently less heat is 
 evolved, the same bee will often continue on a cell for many 
 hours in succession. This extreme amount of heat was evolved 
 entirely by an act of the will in accelerating the respiratory ef- 
 forts, a strong indication of the relation which subsists between 
 the function of respiration and the development of animal heat." 
 
 ORGANS OF SECRETION. The urinary vessels, or what is 
 equivalent to the kidneys of the higher animals, consist in In- 
 sects of several long tubes which empty by one or two common 
 secretory ducts into the posterior or "pyloric" extremity of 
 the stomach. There are also odoriferous glands, analogous to 
 the cutaneous glands of vertebrates. The liquid poured out is 
 usually offensive, and it is used as a means of defence. The 
 Bees, Wasps, Gall-flies, etc., and Scorpions, have a poison-sac 
 (Fig. 54 g) developed in the tip of the abdomen. The bite of 
 the Mosquito, the Horse-fly, and Bed-bug is thought by New- 
 port to be due to the simple act of thrusting their lancet-like 
 jaws through the skin, and it is not known that these and 
 other insects which bite severely eject any poison into the 
 wound. But in the spiders a minute drop of poison exudes from 
 an orifice at the end of the mandibles, "which spreads over the 
 whole wound at the instant it is inflicted." This poison is 
 secreted by a gland lodged in the cephalo-thorax, and which 
 is thought by Audouin to correspond in position to the salivary 
 apparatus and the silk glands of the Winged Insects. 
 
 ORGANS OF GENERATION. We have already described the 
 external parts. The internal parts of the male insect consist, 
 
44 
 
 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 of a duct, the ductus ejaculatorius, which opens into the external 
 intromittent organ. This duct extends backwards, connecting 
 with the vesiculce seminales, which lead by 
 the vasa deferentia to the testes (Fig. 53). 
 The latter are usually rounded glandular 
 bodies, sometimes, as in Mdolontha and 
 Lucanus, numbering six on a side. These 
 organs lie in the abdominal cavity, usually 
 above and on each side of the alimentary 
 canal. 
 
 The sperm, or fertilizing fluid, contains 
 very active 
 spermatic par- 
 ticles which 
 are developed 
 in large cells 
 in the testes, 
 Fig. 53. where they are 
 
 united into bundles of various 
 forms. 
 
 In the female, the internal re- 
 productive organs (Fig. 54) are 
 more simple than those of the 
 other sex. The external open- 
 ing of the female is situated at 
 the end of the oviduct, that 
 leads by two tubes to the ovary, 
 which consists of two or more 
 tubes (in the Queen Bee one hundred and sixty to one hundred 
 and eighty) in which the ova are developed. On the upper side 
 
 Fig. 54. 
 
 FIG. 53. Male organs of Athnlia centifolice. h, the penis, or external portion, 
 in which the ductus ejaculatorius (/) terminates, which extends backwards, and is 
 connected with the vesiculce seminales (e), and rasa deferentia (rf) which are con- 
 nected with the epididymis (6), and the testes (a), i and I, two pairs of homy plates, 
 surrounded by a horny ring (/). ?, horny prehensile hooks attached to k. m, two 
 elongated muscular parts inclosing the penis (7i). From, Newport. 
 
 FIG. 54. Female organs of generation of Athalia centifolife. a, 6, c, the eighteen 
 ovarial tubes originating from each of the two' oviducts (e), and containing the im- 
 mature eggs ; /, the spermatheca ; <7, poison-sac, the poison being secreted in the 
 secretory vessels h. The poison flows through the oviduct into the sting and thence 
 into the wound made by the sting. 10, the terminal ganglia of the nervous cord. 
 From Newport. 
 
ORGANS OF GENERATION. 45 
 
 of the oviduct are from one to five appendages, the most impor- 
 tant of which is the spermatheca (the others being sebaceous 
 glands), which receives the fertilizing fluid of the male during 
 sexual union, and in which, according to Darwin, the male ele- 
 ment "is enabled to keep alive four or five years." 
 
 Insects bisexual. With the exception of the Tardigrades, 
 which are doubtfully referred to the Mites (Acarina), there are 
 no hermaphrodites among Insects, that is, there are no individ- 
 uals having both male and female organs, and capable of self- 
 impregnation. On the contrary, the sexes are distinct ; Insects 
 are bisexual. 
 
 Hermaphrodites, so-called.t Cases not nnfrequently occur in 
 which from arrest of development of the embryo, the sexual 
 organs are imperfectly developed, so as to present the appear- 
 ance of being both male and female. "Siebold has investigated 
 some hermaphrodite Honey-bees belonging to the Italian race, 
 obtained from a Dzierzon hive at Constance. He found in 
 many of them a combination of sexual characters, not only in the 
 external parts, but also in the generative organs. The mixture 
 of the external characters is manifested sometimes only in the 
 anterior or posterior part of the body, sometimes in all parts 
 of the body, or only in a few organs. Some specimens pre- 
 sent male and worker characters on the two sides of the body. 
 The development of the internal organs is singularly correla- 
 ted with these peculiarities of external organization. The sting, 
 with its vesicle and gland, is well developed in hermaphrodites 
 with the abdomen of the worker ; soft in those with the drone- 
 abdomen. The seminal receptacle, when present, is empty. 
 The ovaries contain no ova. In the hermaphrodites with the 
 drone-abdomen, the male sexual organs are well developed, and 
 the testes contain spermatozoids. Frequently with testicular 
 and ovarian organs present on each side, the epididymis and 
 copulatory apparatus are well developed, and an imperfect 
 poison-apparatus exisfs. In these cases the tube contains 
 spermatozoids, but there are no ova in the ovaries. The her- 
 maphrodites are thrown out of the cell by the workers as soon 
 as they emerge, and speedily perish. Siebold ascribes the pro- 
 duction of these hermaphrodites to an imperfect fecundation 
 of the ovum." (Zeitschrift fur Wissenschaftliche Zoologie, 
 1864, p. 73. See Gunther's Zoological Review for 1864.) 
 
46 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 Mr. Dunning describes a specimen of Fidonia piniaria, 
 "which was sexually a female, and the abdomen was appar- 
 ently distended with eggs ; the general color was midway be- 
 tween the colors of the ordinary male and female, but the size 
 and markings were those of the male. (Transactions Ento- 
 mological Society, London, Aug. 7, 1865.) Professor West- 
 wood states that "he had an Orange-tip Butterfly (Anthocharis 
 cardamines) , which was female in every respect, except that 
 on the tip of one fore- wing were about a dozen of the bright 
 orange scales which characterize the male." 
 
 THE EGG. Professor H. J. Cl^i'k (Mind in Nature) defines 
 an egg to be a globule surrounded by the vitelline membrane, 
 or yelk-envelope, which is protected by the clwrion, or egg- 
 shell, consisting of "two kinds of fluid, albumen and o?7, which 
 are always situated at opposite sides or poles." "In the earli- 
 est stages of all eggs, these two poles shade off into each 
 other," but in the perfectly developed egg the small, or albu- 
 minous pole, is surrounded by a membrane, and forms the 
 Purkinjean (germinal) vesicle ; and thirdly and last, the inner- 
 most of the three globules is developed. This last is the 
 Wagnerian vesicle, or germinal dot. The oily matter forms the 
 yolk. Thus formed, the egg is the initial animal. It becomes 
 an animal after contact with the male germs (unless the product 
 of organic reproduction), and the egg-shell or chorion is to be 
 considered as a protection to the animal, and is thrown off 
 when the embryo is hatched, just as the larva throws off its 
 skin to transform into the pupa. So that the egg-state is 
 equivalent to the larva state, and hence there are four stages 
 in the life of an insect, i. e. the egg, the larva, the pupa, and 
 the imago, or adult state. 
 
 The egg is not always laid as a perfect egg (Clark). It 
 sometimes, as in the Ants, continues to grow after it is laid by 
 the parent, like those of frogs, which, according to Clark, "Are 
 laid before they can hardly be said to have become fully formed 
 as eggs." Again, others are laid some time after the embryo 
 has begun to form ; and in some, such as Melopliagus and 
 Bmula, the larva is fully formed before it is expelled from the 
 oviduct. 
 
THE EGG. 47 
 
 Eggs are usually small in proportion to the size of the 
 parent ; but in many minute forms (i.e. Pulex, Pediculus, etc.) 
 they are proportionately much larger. In shape eggs are 
 either spherical or oblong. In some there are radiating append- 
 ages at one end, as in those of Nepa and Eanatra ; or they are 
 provided with a single stalk, as in Chrysopa, Cynips, and 
 Opliion. 
 
 The eggs of most Hymenoptera, Diptera, and many Coleop- 
 tera are usually cylindrical ; those of Lepidoptera are more 
 generally spherical. The eggs of the Mosquito are laid in a 
 boat-shaped mass, which floats on the surface of quiet pools, 
 while those of the Chrysopa, or Lace-winged Fly (Fig. 55), are 
 supported on long pedicels. 
 They are almost invariably 
 laid near or upon objects des- 
 tined to be the food of the Fig. 55. 
 future larva. Thus the Copris, or "Tumble-bug," places its 
 egg in a ball of dung which it rolls away to a secure place ; 
 the Flesh-fly oviposits on meat ; and all vegetable-feeders lay 
 their eggs on the food-plant where the larva, upon its exit 
 from the egg, shall readily find an ample supply of food. 
 
 The posterior end of the egg is more often the fixed one, and 
 it may thus be distinguished from the anterior pole. In the 
 eggs of some Diptera and Orthoptera, the ventral side of the 
 embryo, according to Gerstaecker, corresponds to the convex 
 side of the egg, and the concave side of the latter corresponds 
 to the dorsal region of the embryo. 
 
 The surface of the chorion, or egg-shell, which is dense and 
 brittle, is often covered by a mosaic-work of more or less regu- 
 lar facets. In many small eggs the surface is only minutely 
 granulated, or ornamented with ribs and furrows, as in those 
 of many Butterflies. 
 
 TJie Micropyle. On the anterior end (though sometimes 
 at both ends) of the egg is one or more pores of exceeding 
 minuteness, through which the spermatozoa (more than one 
 of which, according to Darwin, is requisite to fertilize an 
 ovule) enter to fertilize the egg-contents. In some cases 
 these micropyles are scattered over the whole surface of the egg. 
 Fig. 56 a represents the micropyles of Nepa cinerea, consisting 
 
48 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 of a whorl of long bristles. Those of Locnsta viridissima (Fig. 
 
 566) slightly resemble toadstools. Fig. 56 c represents the an- 
 terior pole of the egg with 
 the mieropyles of Pyrrkocoris 
 apterus. (From Gerstaecker.) ^ 
 
 This contact of a maUr 
 sperm-cell with the yolk is 
 the fertilization of the egg. 
 From this moment begins the 
 
 t5 
 
 life of the embryo. Fertiliza- 
 tion of the female germ by 
 Fig - M- means of the male sperm, 
 
 through the congress of the sexes, is the rule with bisexual 
 animals, but there are exceptions among insects. An embryo 
 may start into being without the interposition of the male ; to 
 this mode of generation has been applied by Leuckart the term 
 
 Parthenogenesis. Among certain species of insects there are 
 some individuals which, by a sort of budding process, and with- 
 out the aid of the male element, throw off summer broods, con- 
 sisting of "asexual" individuals, which, as winter approaches, 
 are succeeded by a brood of true males and females, the latter 
 of which lay eggs. This phenomenon, called by Steenstrup 
 ''alternation of generations," has been observed among a com- 
 paratively few species, and the apparent design of such an 
 anomalous mode of reproduction is to afford an immense num- 
 ber of individuals, thus providing for the continuance of the 
 species. The individuals in whom this budding process takes 
 place are called "asexual" because, though they may resemble 
 the female sex outwardly, their sexual organs are only partially 
 developed. This budding process is the same in kind with that 
 observable in the Jelly-fish, which throw off b}- parthenogen- 
 esis, or alternations of generations, summer broods of immense 
 extent, but in winter propagate b} r true eggs. Huxley has 
 studied the development of Aphis by parthenogenesis, the 
 anomalous nature of which had previously been discovered by 
 Bonnet, Trembly, Lyonet, Degeer, Kyber, and others, arid 
 arrives at the following conclusions : 
 
 "1. Ova deposited by impregnated female Aphides in autumn 
 are hatched in the spring. 
 
ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS. 49 
 
 2. From these ova viviparous, and, in the great majority of 
 cases, apterous forms proceed. 
 
 3. The broods to which these give rise are either winged or 
 apterous, or both. 
 
 4. The number of successive broods has no certain limit, but 
 is, so far as we know at present, controlled only by tempera- 
 ture and the supply of food. 
 
 5. On the setting in of cold weather, or in some cases on the 
 failure of nourishment, the weather being still warm, males 
 and oviparous females are produced. 
 
 6. The males may be either winged or apterous. 
 
 7. So far as I am aware, there is no proof of the existence 
 of any exception to the law that the oviparous female is apte- 
 rous. 
 
 8. Viviparous Aphides may hybernate, and may co-exist with 
 oviparous females of the same species." (Linnsean Transac- 
 tions, xxii, p. 198.) 
 
 The origin of the viviparous, asexual, or agamic (from the 
 Greek a, without ; game, marriage) individual, as it may be 
 more properly called, is, up to a certain stage, the same as 
 that of the true egg, i.e. until the germ (pseudovum) of 
 the former is detached from the false ovary (pseudovarium). 
 "From this point onwards, however, the fate of the pseudovum 
 is different from that of the ovum. The former begins at once 
 to be converted into the germ ; the latter accumulates yelk-sub- 
 stance, and changes but little. Both bodies acquire their mem- 
 branous investment rather late; within it the pseudovum 
 becomes a living larva, while the ovum is impregnated, laid, 
 and remains in a state of rest for a longer or shorter period. 
 
 "Although, then, the pseudovum and the ovum of Aphis 
 are exceedingly similar in structure for some time after they 
 have passed out of the condition of indifferent tissue, it cannot 
 be said that the sole difference between them is, that the one 
 requires fecundation and the other not. When the ovum is of 
 the size of a pseudovum which is about to develop into an em- 
 bryo, and, therefore, long before fecundation, it manifests its 
 inherent physiological distinctness by becoming, not an em- 
 bryo, but an ovum. Up to this period the influence of fecunda- 
 tion has not been felt ; and the production of ova, instead of 
 4 
 
50 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 pseiidova, must depend upon a something impressed upon the 
 constitution of the parent before it was brought forth by its 
 viviparous progenetrix." (Huxley.) 
 
 Siebold has also shown that the "ova of the Queen-bee pro- 
 duces females or males, according as they are fecundated or 
 not. The fecundated ovum produces a queen or a neuter 
 according to the food of the larva and the other conditions to 
 which it is subjected; the unfecundated ovum produces a 
 drone." This is analogous to the agamic reproduction of 
 Aphis, and " demonstrates still more clearly the impossi- 
 bility of drawing any absolute line of demarcation histologi- 
 cally between ova and buds." 
 
 This process of reproduction is not known in the Myriapods. 
 It occurs among the mites (Acarina), and occurs in isolated 
 genera of Hemiptera (Aphis, Chermes, Lecanium, and Aspidi- 
 otus according to Gerstaecker). 
 
 Among Lepidoptera the Silk-moth sometimes lays fertile 
 eggs without previous sexual union. This very rarely hap- 
 pens, for M. Jourdain found that, out of about 58,000 eggs 
 laid by unimpregnated silk-moths, many passed through their 
 early embryonic stages, showing that they were capable of 
 self-development, but only twenty-nine out of the whole 
 number produced caterpillars. (Darwin.) Several other moths* 
 have been found to lay fertile eggs without previous sexual 
 union, and among Hymenoptera, Nematus ventricosus, Cynips, 
 Neuroterus, perhaps Apophyllus (according to Gerstaecker), 
 and Cynips spongijica (according to Walsh, Proceedings of 
 
 * We give a list from Gerstaecker (Bronn's Classen und Ordnungen des Thier- 
 reichs) of all the known cases of agamic reproduction in this suborder, with the 
 number of times the phenomenon has been observed, and the names of the ob- 
 
 Gastropacha quercus, once (Plieninger). 
 Liparis dispar, once (Carlier). 
 
 Sphinx ligustri, once (Treviranus). 
 Smerinthus populi, four times (Nord- 
 
 mann). 
 
 Smerinthus ocellatus, once (Johnston). 
 Euprepia caja, five times (Brown, etc.). 
 
 " villica, once (Stowell). 
 Telea Polyphemus, twice (Curtis). 
 Gastropacha pini, three times (Scopoli, 
 
 Gastropacha quercifolia, once (Easier). 
 potatoria, once (Burmeis- 
 ter). 
 
 The subject has been also discussed by Siebold in his work entitled, A true Par- 
 thenogenesis in Lepidoptera and Bees; by Owen, in his "Parthenogenesis," and 
 by Sir J. Lubbock in the Philosophical Transactions, London, vol. 147, pt. 1. 
 
 " Efjgermoth" (? Liparis dispar), (Tardy, 
 
 Westwood). 
 
 Liparis ochropoda, once (Popoff). 
 Orgyia pudibunda, once (Werneburg). 
 Psyche apiformis, once (Rossi). 
 
 " helix (Siebold). 
 Solenobia lichenella (Siebold). 
 
 " triquetrella (Siebold). 
 Bombyx mori, several times. 
 
ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS. 51 
 
 the Entomological Society of Philadelphia). Parthenogenesis, 
 or agamic reproduction, is, then, the result of a budding pro- 
 cess, or cell-growth. This process is a common mode among 
 the Radiates, the low Worms, and the Crustaceans. Metamor- 
 phosis is simply a series of marked stages, or periods, of 
 growth ; and hence growth, metamorphosis, and agamic re- 
 production are morphologically identical. All animals, there- 
 fore, as well as plants, grow by the multiplication of cells. 
 
 After hearing the surprising revelations of Bonnet, Reaumur, 
 Owen, Burnett, and Huxley on the asexual mode of generation 
 in the Aphis, we are called to notice still a new phase of repro- 
 duction. None of the observers just mentioned were accus- 
 tomed to consider the virgin aphis as immature, but rather as 
 a wingless adult Plant-louse. But Nicolas Wagner, Professor 
 of Zoology at Kasan,* supported by able vouchers for the 
 truth of his assertions, both in Russia and in Germany, who 
 have repeated and thoroughly tested his observations, has 
 observed an asexual reproduction in the larva of a Cecidomy- 
 ian fly, Miastor metraloas (Fig. 297), and Meinert has observed 
 it in this species and the Oligarces paradoxus Meinert. 
 
 Says Dr. R. Leuckart, whose article f we have drawn largely 
 upon in the present account, "This reproduction was said to 
 commence in autumn, to continue through the winter and 
 spring, giving origin, during the whole of this period, to a 
 series of successive generations of larvae, until, finally, in June, 
 the last of them were developed into perfect and sexually 
 mature animals. The flies, then, as usual, after copulation, 
 lay eggs, and thus recommence the developmental cycle just 
 described." 
 
 Professor Leuckart has observed these facts anew in the 
 larvae of a species of dipterous gall-fly, and which he believes 
 distinct from the Russian species, found under the bark of a 
 half dead apple-tree that was attacked by fungi. The young 
 are developed within the body of the larva-like parent from a 
 
 *K. E. Von Baer, "Report on a New Asexual Mode of Reproduction observed 
 by Professor Wagner in Kasan." Bull. Acad. St. Petersburg, 1863, pt. vi, p. 239. 
 Also, Wagner in the Journal of the University of Kasan, 1861. 
 
 f On the Asexual Reproduction of Cecidomyia Larvae. Annals and Magazine 
 of Natural History, March, 1866. Translated from Zeitschrift f ttr Wissenschaftliche 
 Zoologies Bd. xiv. 
 
52 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 "germ-ball" essentially agreeing with the ovary, and the asex- 
 ual larvae begin life as egg-like bodies developed from this 
 germ-ball, just as eggs are developed in the little tubes of 
 which the ovary is an aggregation. Hence these worms bud 
 out from the germ-stock, just as we have seen in the case of 
 the Aphides. Leuckart and Wagner farther agree, that " the 
 so-called chorion never being formed in either of them, the 
 vitellus [yelk] remains without that envelope which has so re- 
 markable and peculiar a development in the true egg of in- 
 sects." .... "The processes of embryo-formation agree in 
 all essential points with the ordinary phenomena of devel- 
 opment in a fecundated egg, exactly as has been proved (by 
 Huxley) to be the case in the Aphides." .... "The only 
 difference consists in the germ-chambers of the Cecidomyide 
 larvae separating from the germ-stock, and moving about freely 
 in the cavity of the body, whilst in the Aphides they remain 
 permanently attached, and constitute an apparatus which, in 
 its form and arrangement, reproduces the conditions of the 
 female organs." 
 
 Another case of psedogenesis, which unites that of Miastor 
 with the parthenogenesis of the Cocci dee, has been discovered 
 by Grimm who found, in the spring of 1869, the pupa of a 
 species of Chironomus laying eggs. But in the autumn other 
 pupae become flies without laying eggs, while the fly itself de- 
 posits a larger number of eggs than the spring pupa. Grimm 
 also found that on removing from the perfectly developed in- 
 sect, before it has left the pupa-case, the eggs which would 
 otherwise have been fertilized, and preserving them in water, 
 the development of the larva took place in them also, but 
 lasted a little longer (about six days). Previous to the forma- 
 tion of the primitive band, the germ develops as in the Coc- 
 cidce ; afterwards it resembles that of other Diptera (Simu- 
 /wm and Chironomidce). 
 
 Dimorphism is intimately connected with agamic reproduc- 
 tion. Thus the asexual Aphis, and the perfect female, may be 
 called dimorphic forms. Or the perfect female may assume 
 two forms, so much so as to be mistaken for two distinct spe- 
 cies. Thus Cynips quercus-spongiftca occurs in male and female 
 broods in the spring, while the fall brood of females were 
 
DIMORPHISM. 53 
 
 described as a separate species, C. aciculata. Mr. B. D. Walsh 
 considers the two sets of females as dimorphic forms, and he 
 thinks that C. aciculata lays eggs which produce C. quercus- 
 spongifica. 
 
 Huber supposes there are two sizes of the three forms (i. e. 
 male, female, and worker) of Bombus, one set being a little 
 larger than the other. 
 
 Alfred Wallace has discovered that there are two forms of 
 females of Papilio Memnon of the East Indies ; one is normal, 
 having its wings tailed and resembles a closely allied species, 
 Papilio Coon, which is not dimorphous, while the other is tail- 
 less, resembling its tailless male. Papilio Pammon has three 
 sorts of females, and is hence "trimorphic." One of its forms 
 predominates in Sumatra, and a second in Java, while a third, 
 (described as P. Romulus) abounds in India and Ceylon. P. 
 Ormenus is trimorphic, as Mr. Wallace obtained in the island 
 of Waignion, "a third female quite distinct from either of the 
 others, and in some degree intermediate between the ordinary 
 male and female." Much the same thing occurs in the North 
 American P. Turnus. Papilio Glaucus is now known to be a 
 dimorphic form of the former butterfly, both having, according 
 to Mr. Uhler, been bred from the same batch of eggs. Mr, 
 W. H. Edwards has found that Papilio Ajax is polymorphous, 
 the same batch of eggs giving rise to P. Ajax, and varieties 
 Walshii, Telamonides, and Marcellus. The male sex also pre- 
 sents dimorphic forms. Mr. Pascoe states that there are di- 
 morphic forms of Anthribidce; that they occur in the males 
 of Stenocerus and Micoceros. Six species of Dytiscus have two 
 female forms, the most common having the elytra deeply sul- 
 cate, while in the rarer forms the elytra are smooth as in the 
 male. 
 
 There is a tendency, we would observe, in the more abnor- 
 mal of the two sexual forms, to revert to a lower type. Thus 
 the agamic Aphis is more generally wingless, and the tailless 
 female butterfly mimics the members of a lower genus, Pieris. 
 The final cause of Dimorphism, like that of agamic reproduc- 
 tion, is the continuance of the species, and is, so far as yet 
 known, an exceptional occurrence. 
 
 Mimetic forms. Many insects often resemble, in a remark- 
 
54: THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 able manner, those of other groups. They are called mimetic 
 forms. Insects are related to each other by analogy and affin- 
 ity. Thus the truly tailless species of Papilio, i. e. those where 
 the tail is absent in both sexes, are related by affinity to Pie- 
 ris, which has rounded hind wings. They also stand next to 
 Pier is in the system of Nature. But there are, on the other 
 hand, mimetic forms, which borrow the features of groups far 
 above them in the natural system. Thus the Sesia resembles a 
 Bee, Bombylius and Laphria resemble Bombus; the Syrphus 
 flies are easily mistaken for Wasps. So in the second series 
 of suborders of Insects, Forficula resembles the Staphylinus ; 
 Termes resembles the true Ant ; Psocus, the Aphis; Ascalaphus 
 resembles Papilio ; Mantispa recalls the Orthopterous Mantis, and 
 Panorpa reminds us of the Tipulce (Bittacus being strikingly 
 analogous to the Dipterous Bittacomorpha) . Thus these lower, 
 more variable groups of insects strive, as it were, to connect 
 themselves by certain analogous, mimetic forms, with the more 
 stable and higher groups. 
 
 Comprehensive types are mimetic forms which combine the 
 characters of other and generally higher groups. Thus each 
 Neuropterous family contains mimetic forms which ally them 
 strongly with some one of the six other suborders of insects. 
 The early fossil insects are remarkable for combining the char- 
 acters of groups which appear ages after. The most remark- 
 able comprehensive type is a Carboniferous insect, the Eugereon 
 Boeckingi mentioned farther on. 
 
 HYBRIDITY. Hybrids are sometimes produced between differ- 
 ent species, but though it is known that different genera unite 
 sexually, we know of very few authentic instances of the pro- 
 duction of hybrids therefrom. One is related by Mr. Midford, 
 who exhibited at the March 4th (1861) meeting of the London 
 Entomological Society, hybrids produced from a male Phiga- 
 lia pilosaria, and a female Nyssia hispidaria. " The males 
 resemble JV. hispidaria, but in color have the lighter and 
 greener tint and transparency of wing of P. pilosaria." 
 
 THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS. Immediately after the fer- 
 tilization of the egg, the first act in the organization of the 
 
THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS. 
 
 55 
 
 future embryo is the formation of the germinal layer, or blas- 
 toderm (from the Greek, meaning primitive skin) . This layer 
 is formed at the surface out of a surface-layer of largerj often 
 nucleolated, cells which nearly encompass the yolk-mass. At 
 one point there is a break in this cellular layer, and the yolk 
 granules reach to the surface, so that it appears darker than 
 the other parts of the egg. This cellular layer is soon resolved 
 into the blastoderm, or germinal layer, which thickens and 
 narrows, forming a longitudinal band. This is the first stage 
 of the embryo, which lies as a thin layer of cells upon the outer 
 surface of the yolk. Both ends of the body are alike, and we 
 shall afterwards see that its back lies next to the centre of the 
 egg, its future ventral side looking outwards. The embryo is 
 thus bent on itself backwards. 
 
 In the next stage the blastoderm divides into a certain num- 
 ber of segments, or joints, which appear as indentations in the 
 body of the embryo. The head can now be distinguished from 
 the posterior end chiefly by its larger size, and both it and the 
 tail are folded back upon the body of the embryo, the head 
 especially being sunk backwards down into the yolk-mass. 
 
 In a succeeding stage, as we have observed in the embryo of 
 Diplax, a Dragon-fly (Fig. 57), the head is partially sketched 
 
 Fig. 58. 
 
 out, with the rudiments of the limbs and mouth-parts ; and the 
 sternites, or ventral walls/ of the thorax and of the two basal 
 rings of the head appear. The anterior part of the head, in- 
 cluding the so-called "procephalic lobes" overhangs and con- 
 
 FIG. 57. Side view of embryo. The procephalic lobes are not shown. 1, antennae; 
 2, mandibles; 3, maxillae; 4, second maxillae (labium); 5-7, legs. These numbers 
 and letters are the same in all the figures from 57-60. The under-side (sternum) 
 of six segments are indicated. FIG. 58. Ventral view of the same. 
 
56 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 ceals the base of the antennae. It is probable that more 
 careful observation would have shown the end of the abdomen 
 folded back upon the dorsal region, as usual at this period in 
 the embryos of those insects whose embryology has been 
 studied. 
 
 The antennae, mandibles, and maxillae form a group by them- 
 selves, while the second maxillae (or labium) are very much 
 larger and turned backwards, being temporarily grouped with 
 the legs. 
 
 There are traces only of the two basal sterna of the abdo- 
 men. This indicates that the basal abdominal segments grow 
 in succession from the base of the abdomen, the middle ones 
 appearing last. The post-abdomen (Fig. 59 A) has probably 
 been developed synchronous with the procephalic lobes, as it is 
 in all insect and crustacean embryos yet observed. As stated 
 by Zaddach, these two lobes in their development are exact 
 equivalents ; antero- posterior symmetry is very clearly de- 
 marked, the two ends of the body at first looking alike. But 
 in this stage, after the two ends of the body have been evolved 
 from the primitive cell-layer, development in the post-abdomi- 
 nal region is retarded, that. of the head progressing with much 
 greater rapidity. 
 
 In the next stage (not figured) the yolk is completely walled 
 in, though no traces of segments appear on the back or side of 
 the embryo. The revolution of the embryo has taken place ; 
 the post-abdomen being curved beneath the body, and the back 
 presenting outwards. 
 
 The rudiments of the eyes appear as a darker, rounded mass 
 of cells indistinctly seen through the yolk-granules, and situ- 
 ated at the base of the antennae. They consist of a few epithe- 
 lial cells of irregular form, the central one being the largest. 
 
 The second maxillae are a little over twice the length of the 
 first maxillae and are grouped with the legs, being curved back- 
 wards. They are, however, now one-third shorter than the an- 
 terior legs. The second maxillary sternum is still visible. 
 
 The tip of the abdomen (or post-abdomen) consists of four 
 segments, the terminal one being much the larger, and ob- 
 scurely divided into two obtuse lobes. 
 
 The abdominal sternites are now well marked, and the ner- 
 
THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS. 
 
 57 
 
 32 E 
 
 1 C 
 
 vous cord is represented by eight or nine large oblong-square 
 'seen sideways) ganglia, which lie contiguous to each other. 
 
 The formation of the eyes, the post-abdomen, the sternites, 
 and median portion of the nervous cord seems nearly synchro- 
 nous with the closing up of the dorsal walls of the body, though 
 the division of the tegument into segments has not apparently 
 taken place over the yolk-mass. 
 
 The succeeding stage (Fig. 59) is signalized by the appear- 
 ance of the rudiments of the intestine, 
 while the second maxillae are directed 
 more anteriorly. 
 
 In form the body is ovate-cylin- 
 drical, and there is a deep constric- 
 tion separating the post -abdomen 
 from the anterior part of the abdo- 
 men. 
 
 The terminal (eleventh) ring is 
 immensely disproportioned to its size in the embryo just pre- 
 vious to hatching (see Fig. 61, where it forms a triangular piece 
 
 situated between its appendages, 
 the anal stylets). At a later 
 period of this stage two more ab- 
 dominal segments have been added, 
 one to the end of the main body 
 of the abdomen, and another to 
 the post- abdomen. They have 
 been apparently interpolated at the 
 junction of the post-abdomen to 
 the abdomen proper. Should this 
 observation be proved to be correct, it may then be considered 
 as a rule that, after reaching a certain number of segments, all 
 additional ones are interpolated between the main body of the 
 abdomen and its terminal segment or segments. This is the 
 law of increase in the number of segments in Worms, and in 
 Myriopods (lulus, according to Newport's observations), in 
 Arachnids (Claparede), and Crustacea (Rathke). 
 
 The next stage (Fig. 60), is characterized by the differentia- 
 
 FIG. 59. An embryo much farther advanced, c, clypeus; E, eye; A, bi-lobed 
 extremity of the abdomen ; i, the rudiments of the intestines. 
 
 c!23 
 
58 
 
 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 tion of the head into the rudiments of the antennary ring, and 
 the supraclypeal piece, and clypeus, together with the approx- 
 imation of the second pair of maxillae, which, when united, form 
 the labium, the extremities of which are now situated in the 
 middle of the body. r<a 
 
 The antennae now extend to the middle of the labium, just 
 passing beyond the extremities of the mandibles and maxillae. 
 The oesophagus can also be seen going from the mouth-opening 
 situated just beneath the labium. It curves around just behind 
 the eyes. There are at this period no appearances of movable 
 blood-disks or of a dorsal vessel. 
 
 The abdomen is now pointed at the extremity and divided 
 into the rudiments of the two anal stylets, which form large, 
 acute tubercles. The yolk-mass is also almost 
 entirely inclosed within the body walls, form- 
 ing an oval mass. 
 
 Another embryo, observed July 27th, had 
 reached about the same stage of growth. The 
 front of the head, including the antennary 
 segment, is farther advanced than before. The 
 entire head is divided into two very distinct 
 regions ; i. e. one before the mouth-opening 
 (the preoral region, including the antennary, 
 or first segment of the head, carrying the 
 organs of vision ; namely, the ocelli and com- 
 pound eyes, and the organs of sense, or an- 
 tennae) ; and the other behind the mouth 
 (pastoral) consisting of the mandibular, or 
 second segment, the first maxillary, or third segment, and the 
 second maxillary, or labial, being the fourth and last segment. 
 At a later period the embryo is quite fully formed, and is 
 about ready to leave the egg. The three regions of the body 
 are now distinct. The articulations of the tergum are present, 
 the yolk-mass being completely inclosed by the tergal walls. 
 
 FIG. 61. The embryo taken from the egg, but nearly ready to hatch. T, the 
 dotted line crosses the main trachea, going through the yolk-mass, now restricted 
 to the thoracic region. At x, the tracheae send off numerous branches around an 
 enlargement of the intestine (colon), where the blood is aerated ; better seen in fig. 
 62. The abdomen consists of eleven segments, the last being a minute triangular 
 piece. 
 
 Fig. 61. 
 
THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS. 
 
 59 
 
 The body is so bent upon itself that the extremities of the 
 second maxillae just overlap the tip of the abdomen. 
 
 The two limbs of the labium are now placed side by side, 
 with the prominent spinous appendage on the outer edges of 
 the tip. These spines are the rudiments of the labial palpi. 
 
 The general form of the embryo at a still later period (Fig. 
 61), on being taken from the egg and straightened out, re- 
 minds us strikingly of 
 the Thysanura, and, in 
 these and other re- 
 spects, tend to prove 
 that the Podurse and 
 Lepismse, and allied 
 genera, are embryonic, 
 degraded forms of Neu- 
 roptera, and should 
 therefore be considered 
 as a family of that sub- 
 order. Seen laterally, 
 the body gradually ta- 
 pers from the large N 
 head to the pointed ex- 
 tremity. The body is 
 flattened from above 
 downwards . At this 
 stage the appendages 
 are still closely ap- 
 pressed to the body. 
 
 Just before the ex- 
 clusion of the embryo, 
 the legs and mouth- 
 parts stand out freer Fig. 62. 
 from the body. The labium, especially, assumes a position at 
 nearly right angles to the body. The antennae, mandibles, 
 and maxillae have taken on a more definite form, being like 
 
 FIG. 62. The larva just hatched and swimming in the water. N, ventral cord or 
 nervous ganglia; D, dorsal vessel, or "heart," divided into its chambers. The 
 anal valves at the end of the abdomen, which open and shut during respiration, are 
 represented as being open. Both of the dotted lines cross the tracheae, x, net- 
 work of the tracheae, surrounding the cloaca. 
 
60 
 
 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 Fig. 63. 
 
 that of the young larva, and stand out free from the body. 
 The head is much smaller in proportion to the rest of the 
 body, and bent more upon the breast. 
 
 The Larva (Fig. 62) 
 when hatched is about 
 five hundredths of an 
 inch in length. The 
 head is now free and 
 the antennae stand out 
 free from the front. 
 The thorax has greatly 
 diminished in size, 
 while the abdomen has 
 become wider, and the 
 limbs very long ; and 
 the numerous minute tubercles, seen in the preceding stage, 
 have given origin to hairs. The dorsal vessel can now, for the 
 first time, be seen. When in motion, the resemblance 
 to a spider is most striking. The flow of blood to 
 the head, and the return currents through the lacunar 
 or venous circulation along the side of the body were 
 easily observed. The vessels were not crowded with 
 blood disks, the latter being few in number, only one 
 Fig. 64. or two passing along at a time. Two currents, pass- 
 ing in opposite directions, were observed in the legs. 
 
 FIG. 63. Side view of the head of the larva of Diplax before the first moult, c, 
 deciduous tubercles terminating in a slender style; their use is unknown; they 
 have not been observed in the full-grown larva, e, the compound eyes. 1, the 
 three jointed antennae, the terminal joint nearly three times as long as the two 
 basal ones. 2, the mandibles, and also enlarged, showing the cutting edge divided 
 into four teeth. 3, maxillae divided into two lobes : d, the outer and anterior lobe, 
 2-jointed, the basal joint terminating in two setae; and a, the inner lobe concealed 
 from view, in its natural position, by the outer lobe, d. 4, the base or pedicel of 
 the second maxillae, or labium, the expanded terminal portion being drawn sepa- 
 rately; d and a, two movable stout styles representing, perhaps, the labial palpi; 
 the lobe to which they are attached is multidentate, and adapted for seizing 
 prey ; on the right side the two styles are appressed to the lobe, x represents, 
 perhaps, the ligula; but we have not yet studied its homologies carefully: this 
 part is attached to a transversely linear piece soldered to the main part of the 
 labium. y, the llth abdominal ring, with its pair of conical anal styles. 2, the 
 last tarsal joint and pair of long slender claws. 
 
 FIG. 64. The pupa of Diplax, having rudimentary wings, in which the eyes are 
 much larger, and the legs much shorter than in the recently hatched larva; in- 
 troduced to be compared with the young larva. Figs. 57-64, original. 
 
TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE INSECT. 61 
 
 On review it will be seen how remarkable are the changes in 
 form of the insect before it is hatched, and that all are the 
 result of simple growth. We have seen that the two ends of 
 the body are first formed, and that the under side of the body 
 is formed before the back ; that the belly is at first turned out- 
 wards, and afterwards the embryo reverses its position, the 
 back presenting outwards. All the appendages are at first 
 simple protrusions from the body-walls, and new segments are 
 interpolated near the tip of the abdomen. These changes take 
 place very rapidly, within a very few days, and some of the 
 most important and earlier ones in a few hours. We can now 
 better understand that the larva and pupa stages are the result 
 of a similar mode of growth, though very marked from being 
 in a different medium, the insect having to seek food and act 
 as an independent being. 
 
 TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE INSECT. We have seen that 
 during the growth of the embryo, the insect undergoes remark- 
 able changes of form, the result of simple growth. The meta- 
 morphoses of the animal within the egg are no less marked 
 than those which occur after it has hatched. It will also be 
 seen that the larva and pupa stages are not always fixed, defi- 
 nite states, but only pauses in the development of the insect, 
 concealing beneath the larva and pupa skins the most impor- 
 tant changes of form. 
 
 The process of hatching. No other author has so carefully 
 described the process of hatching as Newport, who observed 
 it in the larva of Meloe. "When the embryo larva is ready 
 for its change, the egg-shell becomes thinned and concave on 
 that side which covers the ventral surface of the body, but is 
 much enlarged, and is more convex on the dorsal, especially 
 towards the head. The shell is then burst longitudinally along 
 the middle of the thoracic segments, and the fissure is ex- 
 tended forwards to the head, which then, together with the 
 thoracic segments, is partially forced through the opening, but 
 is not at once entirely withdrawn. The antennae, parts of the 
 mouth, and legs are still inclosed within separate envelopes, 
 and retain the larva in this covering in the shell. Efforts are 
 then made to detach the posterior segments of the body, which 
 
62 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 are gradually released, and with them the antennae, palpi, and 
 legs, and the larva removes itself entirely from the shell and 
 membranes. In this process of evolution the young Meloe 
 throws off two distinct coverings : first, the shell with its lining 
 membrane, the analogue of the membrane in which, as I have 
 elsewhere shown,* the young Myriopod is inclosed, and re- 
 tained several days after the bursting of the ovum, and which 
 represents in the Articulata, not the allantois, but apparently 
 the amnion, of Vertebrata ; next, the first, or foetal deciduation 
 of the tegument, analogous probably to the first change of skin 
 in the Myriopod, after it has escaped from the amnion, and 
 also to the first change which the young Arachnidan invariably 
 undergoes a few clays after it has left the egg, and before it 
 can take food. This tegument, which, perhaps, may be analo- 
 gous to the vernix caseosa of Vertebrata, thrown off at the 
 instant of birth, is left by the young Meloe with the amnion 
 in the shell ; and its separation from the body, at this early 
 period, seems necessary to fit the insect for the active life it 
 has commenced." (Linn. Trans, xx. p. 306, etc.) 
 
 The larva state. The larva (Latin larva, a mask) was so 
 called because it was thought to mask the form of the perfect 
 insect. The larvae of Butterflies and Moths are called cater- 
 pillars; those of Beetles, grubs; and those of the two-winged 
 Flies (Diptera) maggots; the larvae of other groups have no 
 distinctive common names. 
 
 As soon as it is hatched the larva feeds voraciously, as if in 
 anticipation of the coming period of rest, the pupa state, for 
 which stores of fat (the fatty bodies) are developed for the 
 supply of fat globules out of which the tissues of the new 
 body of the pupa and imago are to be formed. 
 
 Most larvae moult, or change their skin, four or five times. 
 In the inactive thin-skinned larvae, such as those of Bees, 
 Wasps, and Gall-flies, the moults are not apparent ; as the 
 larva increases in size it out-grows the old skin, which comes 
 off in thin shreds. But in the active larvae, such as cater- 
 pillars, grasshoppers, and grubs, from the rapid absorption of 
 vessels in the outer layer of the skin, just before the change, 
 
 * Philosophical Transactions, Pt. 2, 1841, p. 111. 
 
TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE INSECT. 63 
 
 it becomes hard and dry, and too small for the growing in- 
 sect, and is then cast off entire. 
 
 A series of bee-larvae can be selected showing a graduation 
 in size and form from the egg and recently hatched larva up to 
 the full-grown larva. In the caterpillar and other active larvae, 
 there are usually four or five stages, each showing a sudden and 
 marked increase in size. Newport states that the caterpillar 
 of Sphinx ligustri moults six times, and at the last moult be- 
 comes a third larger than at any earlier period ; the larva of 
 Arctia coy a moults from five to ten times. 
 
 A few days before the assumption of the pupa state, the 
 larva becomes restless, stops eating, and deserts its food, and 
 usually spins a silken cocoon, or makes one of earth, or chips, 
 if a borer, and there prepares for the change to the pupa state. 
 
 During this semipupa period (lasting, in many insects, only 
 for a day or several days, but in some Saw-flies through the 
 winter) the skin of the pupa grows beneath that of the quies- 
 cent larva. While the worm-like larva exhibits no trire- 
 gional distinctions, the muscles of the growing pupa contract 
 and enlarge in certain parts so as to modify the larva form, 
 until it gradually assumes the triregional form of the adult 
 insect, with the differentiation of the body into a head, thorax, 
 and abdomen. 
 
 In a series of careful studies, abundantly illustrated with 
 excellent plates, Weismann has recently shown that Swammer- 
 dam's idea that the pupa and imago skins were in reality 
 already concealed under that of the larva is partially founded 
 in truth. Swammerdam states, "I can point out in the larva 
 all the limbs of the future nymph, or Culex, concealed beneath 
 the skin," and he also observed beneath the skin of the larvae 
 of bees just before pupating, the antennae, mouth-parts, wings, 
 and limbs of the adult. (Weismann.) 
 
 During its transformations the pupa skin is developed from 
 the hypodermis, or inner layer of skin. This peals off, as it 
 were, from the inner layer of the old larva skin, which soon 
 dries and hardens, and is thrown off. Meanwhile the muscles 
 of the body contract and change in form, thus causing the origi- 
 nal segments of the larva to infold and contract at certain parts, 
 gradually producing the pupa form. If, during this period, the 
 
64 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 insect be examined at intervals, a series of slight changes of 
 form may be seen, from the larva to the imago state. In some 
 cases each change is accompanied by a moult, as in the "ac- 
 tive " Ephemera, where Lubbock counted twenty one moults. 
 
 As a general rule, then, it may be stated that the body of 
 the larva is transformed into that of the imago ; ring answer- 
 ing to ring, and limb to limb in both, the head of the one 
 is homologous with that of the other, and the appendages of 
 the larva are homologous with the appendages of the imago. 
 
 Weismann has shown that in the larva of the Meat-fly, Musca 
 vomitoria, the thorax and head of the imago are developed 
 from what he calls "imaginal disks." These disks are minute 
 isolated portions of the hypodermis, which are formed in the 
 embryo, before it leaves the egg, and are held in place within 
 the body-cavity of the larva by being attached either to nerves 
 or tracheae, or both. After the outer layer of the larva skin 
 dries and hardens, and forms the cask-shaped puparhim, the 
 use of which corresponds to the cocoon of moths, etc., these 
 imaginal disks increase in size so as to form the tegument of 
 the thorax and head. The abdomen of the Meat-fly, however, 
 is formed by the direct conversion of the eight hinder segments 
 of the body of the larva, into the corresponding segments of 
 the imago. 
 
 Accompanying this change in the integument there is a 
 destruction of all the larval system of organs ; this is either 
 total or effected by the gradual destruction of tissues. Now 
 we see the use of the "fatty body;" this breaks up, setting 
 free granular globules of fat, which, as we have seen in the 
 embryo, produces by the multiplication of cells the new tissues 
 of the pupa. Thus the larva- skin is cast aside, and also the 
 softer organs within, but the formation of new tissues keeps 
 even pace with the destruction of the old, and the insect pre- 
 serves its identity throughout. The genital glands, however, 
 are indicated even in the embryo, and are gradually developed 
 throughout the growth of the insect, so that this histotysis, or 
 destruction of tissues, is not wholly complete. The quiescent 
 pupa-state of Musca is long-continued, and its vitality is latent, 
 the acts of respiration and circulation being almost suspended. 
 (Weismann. ) 
 
TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE INSECT. 65 
 
 In the metamorphosis of Corethra, a Mosquito-like Fly, which 
 is active both in the larva and pupa states, "the segments of 
 the larva are converted directly into the corresponding seg- 
 ments of the body of the imago, the appendages of the head 
 into the corresponding ones of the. head of the imago ; those 
 of the thorax are produced after the last moult of the larva 
 as diverticula of the hypodermis round a nerve or trachea, 
 from the cellular envelope of which the formation of tissue in 
 the interior of the appendages issues. The larval muscles of 
 the abdominal segments are transferred unchanged into the 
 imago ; the thoracic muscles peculiar to the imago, as also 
 some additional abdominal muscles, are developed in the last 
 larval periods from indifferent cellular cords which are indi- 
 cated even in the egg. The genital glands date back to the 
 embryo, and are gradually developed ; all the other systems of 
 organs pass with little or no alteration into the imago. Fatty 
 body none or inconsiderable. Pupa-state short and active." 
 (Weismann.) 
 
 As the two types are most clearly discriminated by the 
 presence or absence of true imaginal disks, Weismann suggests 
 that those insects which undergo a marked metamorphosis 
 might be divided into Insecta discota (or Insects with imaginal 
 disks), and those without, into Insecta adiscota. 
 
 The metamorphosis of Corethra may prove to be a type of 
 that of all insects which are active in their preparatory stages ; 
 and that of Musca typical of all those that are quiescent in the 
 pupa-state, at least the Lepidoptera and those Diptera which 
 have a coarctate * pupa, together with the Coleoptera and those 
 Neuroptera in which the metamorphosis is complete, as Pliry- 
 ganea, Hemerobius, etc. 
 
 The transformations of the Humble-bee are easily observed 
 by taking a nest after the first brood have matured, when we 
 shall find individuals in all stages of development from the 
 larva to the imago state. The figures below show four stages, 
 but in reality there is every gradation between these stages. 
 
 *The larvae of some of the higher Diptera spin a slight cocoon, while the true 
 flies, such as the Muscidse and Syrphidae, etc., change to pupse within the larva 
 skin which contracts into a cylindrical "puparium" corresponding in use to the 
 cocoon; such pupae are called "coarctate." 
 
 5 
 
66 
 
 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 Fig. 64 shows what we may call the semipupa, concealed by 
 the old larval skin. There are ten pairs of stigmata, two 
 thoracic and eight abdominal. The head of the semi-pupa 
 lies under the head (a) and prothoracic ring (6). The basal 
 ring of the abdomen (c), or fourth ring from the head, is un- 
 changed in form. This figure also will suffice to represent 
 
 k I 
 
 Fig. 65. 
 
 Fig. 66. Fig. 67. 
 
 the larva, though a little more produced anteriorly than in 
 its natural form. 
 
 In another stage (Fig. 65) of the semi-pupa, the larval skin 
 is entirely sloughed off, the two pairs of wing-pads lying paral- 
 lel, and very equal in size, like the wings of Netiroptera. The 
 thoraco- abdominal ring, or propodeum (c), is distinguished by 
 its oblong spiracle (n), essentially differing from those on 
 the abdomen. At this point the body contracts, but the head 
 
TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE INSECT. 67 
 
 and thorax together are yet, as still more in the previous 
 stage, much smaller than in the pupa, and there is still a con- 
 tinuous curve from the tip of the abdomen to the head. (0, 
 antenna ; 7i, lingua, maxillae, and palpi ; i, fore-legs ; ,;', mid- 
 dle legs ; ft, meso-scutum ; Z, meso-scutellum ; w, spiracle of 
 the propodeum.) 
 
 In a succeeding stage (Fig. 66) of the semi-pupa, the head 
 and thorax together nearly equal in size the abdomen, and the 
 propodeum (c) has become entirely transferred to the thorax. 
 The head has become greatly enlarged ; the rings are very un- 
 equal, the hinder pair are much smaller, and overlaid by the 
 anterior pair ; the three terminal pair of abdominal rings, so 
 large in Fig. 65, have been absorbed, and partially inclosed in 
 the cavity of the abdomen ; and there has been a farther dif- 
 ferentiation of the ring into the sternite (d), pleurite (e), and 
 tergite (/). (a, eye; 7i, lingua; o, ovipositor, two outer 
 rhabdites exposed to view.) The abdominal: spiracles in Figs. 
 65 and 66, are represented by a row of dots. In the pupa 
 they are concealed by the tergites, which overlap the sternites. 
 
 Fig. 67 represents the pupa state, where the body has become 
 much shorter, and the appendages of the head and thorax greatly 
 differentiated ; the external genital organs are wholly retracted 
 within the cavity of the abdomen ; the head is freer from the 
 body, and the whole bulk of the head and thorax together, in- 
 cluding the appendages, greater than that of the abdomen. 
 These changes of form, assumed by the insect in its passage 
 from the larva to the pupa state, are nearly as striking as 
 the so-called " hypermetamorphosis " of Meloe and Sitaris 
 described by Newport and Fabre. (7, mesoscutellum ; p, cly- 
 peus ; g, maxillae with the palpi ; r, lingua.) 
 
 We have also observed similar changes in the semi-pupa of a 
 Tineid larva, which we found in the mud-cells of Odynerus 
 albophaleratus. There were over a dozen specimens in different 
 stages of growth from the larva to the pupa, which were but 
 partially paralyzed by the well-directed sting of the intelligent 
 wasp, so that some continued to transform into perfect pupae. 
 
 The following changes were noticed : the larva straightened 
 out, and became a little shorter, the prothoracic ring remaining 
 the same ; the head of the pupa being beneath it ; the meso- 
 
68 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 thoracic ring enlarged, swelling and rounding above and on the 
 sides, and with this increase in size drawing the meta-thorax 
 forwards. The first visible portion of the pupa beneath is the 
 mesothorax. The thoracic legs of the larva are now con- 
 stricted at their base, and have become useless. 
 
 In the next stage, the most important change noticed is in 
 the metathorax, which now becomes broadly heart-shaped. In 
 a succeeding stage, the whole thorax bulges out, and is much 
 larger and clearly distinguished from the head and abdomen. 
 The prothorax of the larva disappears, and that of the pupa 
 takes its place. The occiput of the pupa, just before the larva- 
 skin is thrown off, can be distinctly seen under the larval occi- 
 put, pushing aside each half of the latter. 
 
 In the last stage of Bombus just before the imago leaves its 
 cell, the body and limbs are surrounded by a thin pellicle. 
 This pellicle also envelops the moth, just before it leaves the 
 pupal state, and is cast off when it moults the pupa-skin. This 
 is probably identical with the skin cast by the active subimago 
 of Ephemera, soon after it has taken its flight. Westwood also 
 considers this subimago skin identical with that covering the 
 bodies of coarctate Diptera, as in Eristalis. 
 
 Newport states, that when the imago of Sphinx is about to 
 cast off the pupa-skin the abdominal segments are elongated 
 beyond their original extent, this being the first part of the 
 insect that is entirely freed from its attachment within the 
 pupa-case. After this the thorax slits down, and the body is 
 drawn out of the rent. In the Butterfly the wings mature in a 
 few moments, but those of /Sphinx being thicker, require two 
 or three hours. 
 
 Newport (Philosophical Transactions, London, 1832 and 
 1834) has detailed with great minuteness the internal changes 
 of Sphinx ligustri while transforming. The most marked 
 changes are in the nervous and digestive systems. 
 
 Several anomalous modes of metantorphosis have been ob- 
 served, one in Diptera and the other in Sitaris and Meloe. The 
 development of the latter insect will be noticed beyond. 
 
 Sir John Lubbock has described the singular metamorphosis 
 of Lonchoptera, which he considers to be allied to Sargus, 
 though the adult stages differ greatly. The larvae are oblong 
 
TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE INSECT. 69 
 
 ovate, flattened, with four long setae in front and two behind, 
 with the sides of the body emarginate and spinulated. They 
 were found under logs. "When the larva is full grown, it de- 
 taches itself from the skin, which retains its form, and within 
 which the insect changes into a white opaque fleshy grub con- 
 sisting apparently of thirteen segments which gradually dimin- 
 ish in size from one end to the other. There are no limb-cases. 
 According to analogy the pupa should be i incomplete ; ' it is 
 probable, therefore, that the legs and wings njake their appear- 
 ance at a later stage. If this be so the perfect form is only 
 attained after passing through three well-marked stages. I re- 
 gret, however, that the specimens at my disposal did not enable 
 me to decide this point." (Trans. Ent. Soc. London, Third 
 Ser. i, 1862.) 
 
 Haliday states that Thrips goes through a propupa and pupa 
 stage. There are five well-defined stages in the Homopterous 
 Typhlocyba, and more than three in Aphis. Yersin has noticed 
 several stages in the development of Oryllus campestris, and 
 the genus Psocus has four such stages. 
 
 The duration of the different stages varies with the changes 
 of the seasons. Cold and damp weather retards the process of 
 transformation. Reaumur kept the pupa of a Butterfly two 
 years in an ice-house before, on being removed to a warm place, 
 it changed to a butterfly. Chrysalids survive great alter- 
 nations of heat and cold ; they may be frozen stiff on ice, and 
 then, on being gradually exposed to the heat, thaw out and 
 finish their transformations. 
 
 Retrograde Development. There are certain degradational 
 forms among the lowest members of each group of Insects 
 which imitate the group beneath them. The Tardigrades (which 
 are considered by some authors to be allied to the Mites) are 
 mimicked by the low parasitic worm-like Demodex folliculorum ; 
 the low Neuroptera, such as Lepisma. imitate the Myriopoda ; 
 and the wingless Lice remind us of the larvse of the Neuropter- 
 ous HemeroUus. 
 
 Among the Coleoptera, the history of Stylops affords a strik- 
 ing example. The active six-footed larva is transformed into 
 the strange bag-like female which takes on the form of a cylin- 
 drical sac, the head and thorax being consolidated into a 
 
70 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 minute flattened portion. The process of degradation here 
 seems carried out to its farthest limit. 
 
 Thus the degraded forms of the lower series of Hexapods 
 take on a Myriopod aspect. In the more highly cephalized 
 Diptera, Lepidoptera, and Hymenoptera the degraded forms 
 are modelled on a higher articulate type. The idea of a divis- 
 ion into three regions is involved. Thus the wingless forms 
 of Flies, such as the Bird-louse, Nirmus; the Bat-tick, Nycte- 
 ribia; the Bee-lojise, Braida; and Chionea resemble strikingly 
 the biregional Arachnids. 
 
 In the wingless female of Orgyia and the Canker-worm moth, 
 the head is free, but the thorax is merged into the abdomen. 
 The resemblance to the lower insects is less striking. The 
 worker ants and wingless Ichneumons, Pezomachus, still more 
 strictly adhere to the type of their suborder, and in them the 
 triregional form of the body persists. Among the first of the 
 examples here cited we have seen the workings of a law, by 
 which most degraded forms of insects (and this law is exerted 
 with greater force in Crustacea) tend to revert to the worm-like, 
 or, as we may call it, the archetypal, form of all Articulata. 
 
 We have seen that many winged forms mimic the groups 
 above them, whereas the wingless degraded species revert to a 
 worm-like form. In either case, the progress is towards a 
 higher or a lower form. The latter is the more exceptional, as 
 the evolution and growth of all animals is upwards towards a 
 more specialized, differentiated form. 
 
 The Imago. After completing its transformations the adult 
 insect immediately seeks to provide for the propagation and 
 continuance of the species. The sexes meet, and, soon after, 
 the male, now no longer of use in the insect economy, perishes. 
 The female hastens to lay her eggs either in, upon, or near 
 what is to be the food of the young, and then dies. This 
 period generally occurs in the summer and autumn, and during 
 the winter the species is mostly represented by the egg alone. 
 Rarely does the adult insect hibernate, but in many species 
 the pupa hibernates to disclose the adult in early summer. 
 The larva seldom, as such, lives through the winter. 
 
 Re'aumur kept a virgin butterfly for two years in his hot- 
 house. From this it would seem that the duration of the life 
 
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. 71 
 
 of an insect may be in this way greatly prolonged. Most in- 
 sects live one year. Hatching from the egg in early summer, 
 they pass through the larva state, and in the autumn become 
 pupae, to appear as images for a few days or weeks in the 
 succeeding summer. Many Lepidoptera are double-brooded, and 
 some have even three broods, while the parasitic insects such as 
 Lice and Fleas, and many Flies, keep up a constant succession 
 of broods. Warmth, Mr. R. C. R. Jordan remarks in the Ento- 
 mologists' Monthly Magazine, has much to do with rapidity 
 of development, as insects may be forced artificially into hav- 
 ing a second brood during the same season. Some Coleoptera, 
 such as the Lamellicorns, are supposed to live three years in 
 the larva state, the whole time of life being four years. The 
 Cockchafer (Melolontha) of Europe is three years in arriving 
 at the perfect state, and the habits of the Goldsmith Beetle 
 (Cotalpa lanigera), according to Rev. Samuel Lockwood 
 (American Naturalist, vol. 2, p. 186), and of the June Beetle, 
 and allied genera, are probably the same. 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. The insect-fauna of a coun- 
 try comprises all the insects found within its limits. The 
 Polar, Temperate, and Tropical zones each have their distinct 
 insect-fauna, and each continent is inhabited by a distinct 
 assemblage of insects. It is also a curious fact that the insect- 
 fauna of the east coast of America resembles, or has many an- 
 alogues in, that of the Eastern hemisphere, and the west coast 
 of one repeats the characteristics of the west coast of the 
 other. Thus some California insects are either the same spe- 
 cies or analogues (i.e. representative species) of European 
 ones, and the Atlantic coast affords forms of which the ana- 
 logues are found in Eastern Asia and in India. This is corre- 
 lated with the climatic features which are repeated on alternate 
 sides of the two hemispheres. 
 
 The limits of these faunae are determined by temperature and 
 natural boundaries, i. e. the ocean and mountain ranges; Thus 
 the insect-fauna of the polar regions is much the same in 
 Europe, Asia, and North America ; certain widely spread polar 
 species being common to all three of these continents. 
 
 When we ascend high mountains situated in the temperate 
 
72 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 zone, whose summits nearly reach the snow-line, we find a 
 few insects which are the same or very similar to those of the 
 polar regions ; such an assemblage is called an Alpine fauna. 
 
 The insect-fauna of each great continent may be divided into 
 an Arctic, or polar, a Temperate, and a Tropical fauna, and an 
 Alpine fauna if there are mountains in the warm latitudes which 
 reach near the snow-line. Mountain barriers, inland seas, des- 
 erts, and peculiarities in the flora (or collection of plants 
 peculiar to a certain district), are boundaries of secondary 
 importance in limiting the distribution of species. 
 
 On the other hand insects are diffused ~by winds, rivers, 
 oceanic currents, and the agency of man. By the latter im- 
 portant means certain insects become cosmopolitan. Certain 
 injurious insects become suddenly abundant in newly cultivated 
 tracts. The balance of nature seems to be disturbed, and 
 insects multiplying rapidly in newly settled portions of the 
 country, become terrible pests. In the course of time, how- 
 ever, they seem to decrease in numbers and moderate their 
 attacks. 
 
 Insect-faunae are not limited by arbitrary boundaries, but 
 fade into each other by insensible gradations corresponding in 
 a general way to the changes of the temperature of different 
 portions of the district they inhabit. 
 
 The subject of the geographical distribution of insects, of 
 which we have as yet but given the rudiments, may be studied 
 to great advantage in North America. The Arctic insect-fauna 
 comprises Greenland, the arctic American Archipelago, and the 
 northern shores of the continent beyond the limit of trees. A 
 large proportion of the insects found in this region occur in 
 arctic Europe and arctic Asia, and are hence called circum- 
 polar, while other species are indigenous to each country. 
 Again, the arctic fauna of Labrador and Hudson's Bay differs 
 from that of the arctic portions of the region about Behring's 
 Straits, certain species characterizing one side of the continent 
 being replaced by representative species which inhabit the 
 opposite side. 
 
 The Alpine fauna of the White Mountains consists, besides 
 a very few peculiar to them, of circumpolar species, which are 
 now only found in Labrador and Greenland, and which are 
 
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. 73 
 
 supposed to be relics of a glacial fauna which formerly inhab- 
 ited the northern part of the temperate zone, and in former 
 times followed the retreat of a glacial, or arctic climate from 
 the low-lands to the Alpine summits. These patches, or out- 
 liers, of an Arctic fauna, containing however a preponderance 
 of subarctic forms, also occur in the Colder parts of New 
 England. 
 
 The subarctic fauna is spread over British North America, 
 stretching north-westerly from the interior of Labrador and the 
 northern shores of the St. Lawrence, following the course of 
 the isothermal lines which run in that direction, and north of 
 which no cereals grow. There are subarctic forms which inhabit 
 the shores of the Bay of Fundy, especially about Eastport, 
 Maine, where the fogs and cold arctic marine currents lower 
 the climate. 
 
 Dr. J. L. Leconte, in a paper on the Coleoptera of Kansas 
 and Eastern New Mexico (Smithsonian Contributions to Knowl- 
 edge), thus subdivides the Coleopterous fauna of the United 
 States, and gives a useful map to which the reader is referred. 
 
 "The whole region of the United States is divided by merid- 
 ional, or nearly meridional lines into three, or perhaps four, 
 great zoological districts, distinguished each by numerous 
 peculiar genera and species, which, with but few exceptions, do 
 not extend into the contiguous districts. The eastern one 
 of these extends from the Atlantic Ocean to the arid prairies on 
 the west of Iowa, Missouri, and Arkansas, thus embracing 
 (for convenience merely) a narrow strip near the sea-coast of 
 Texas. This narrow strip, however, belongs more properly 
 to the eastern province of the tropical zoological district of 
 Mexico. 
 
 "The central district extends from the western limit of the 
 eastern district, perhaps to the mass of the Sierra Nevada of 
 California, including Kansas, Nebraska, Utah, New Mexico, 
 Arizona, and Texas. Except Arizona, the entomological fauna 
 of the portion of this district west of the Rocky Mountains, 
 and in fact that of the mountain region proper, is entirely un- 
 known ; and it is very probable that the region does in reality 
 constitute two districts bounded by the Rocky Mountains, and 
 the southern continuation thereof. 
 
74 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 "The western district is the maritime slope of the continent 
 to the Pacific, and thus includes California, Oregon, and Wash- 
 ington Territories. 
 
 "These great districts are divided into a number of prov- 
 inces, of unequal size, and which are limited by changes in 
 climate, and therefore sometimes distinctly, sometimes vaguely 
 defined." 
 
 "The method of distribution of species in the Atlantic and 
 Pacific districts, as already observed by me in various memoirs, 
 is entirely different. In the Atlantic district, a large number 
 of species are distributed over a large extent of country ; many 
 species are of rare occurrence, and in passing over a distance 
 of several hundred miles, but small variation will be found in 
 the species obtained. In the Pacific district, a small number- 
 of species are confined to a small region of country ; most 
 species occur in considerable numbers, and in travelling even 
 one hundred miles, it is found that the most abundant species 
 are replaced by others, in many instances very similar to them ; 
 these small centres of distribution can be limited only after 
 careful collections have been made at a great number of locali- 
 ties, and it is to be hoped that this very interesting and im- 
 portant subject of investigation may soon receive proper atten- 
 tion from the lovers of science of our Pacific shores. 
 
 " In the Central district, consisting, as it does to a very 
 large extent, of deserts, the distribution seems to be of a mod- 
 erate number of species over a large extent of country, with a 
 considerable admixture of local species ; such at least seems to 
 be the result of observations in Kansas, Upper Texas, and 
 Arizona." 
 
 There are a very few species which range from New England 
 to Brazil, and fewer still (Xyleutes robinice, according to Bois- 
 duval, is found in California) range from New England to 
 California. Junonia ccem'a, according to authors, is found both 
 in the Southern States and California, and Pyrrliarctia Isabella 
 of the Eastern States would be easily confounded with P. Cali- 
 fornica. 
 
 Variation. Islands afford more variable forms than conti- 
 nents ; the Madeiran insects and those of Great Britain vary 
 more than the same species found on the continent of Europe. 
 
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. 75 
 
 A species spread through two zones of temperature also varies j 
 many European species, according to McLachlan, becoming 
 "melanized" in going northward, while others become paler. 
 Such varieties have been described as different species. 
 
 Mr. Alfred Wallace finds that the most constant forms of 
 species are those the most limited in their geographical range 
 as to a particular island, while those species, which range over 
 a large part of the Malayan Archipelago, vary very consider- 
 ably. It is a general rule throughout the animal and vegetable 
 world, that the most widely spread species are those capable of 
 withstanding the greatest climatic changes, and adapting them- 
 selves to the greatest diversities of topography. 
 
 While the most widely distributed species are thought to be 
 the most variable, Mr. Scudder finds in the genus Chionobas 
 that C. semidea, restricted to the summit of Mt. Washington 
 varies almost as much as C. Oeno, which is circumpolar, being 
 found both in Labrador and Northern Europe. 
 
 Mr. Wallace (Transactions of the Linnsean Society, xxv, 
 1865, p. 14) mentions the following facts "as showing the 
 special influence of locality in giving a peculiar fades to the 
 several disconnected species that inhabit it." 
 
 " On examining the closely allied species, local forms, and 
 varieties distributed over the Indian and Malayan regions, I 
 find that larger or smaller districts, or even single islands, give 
 a special character to the majority of their Papilionidse. For 
 instance: 1. The species of the Indian region (Sumatra, Java, 
 and Borneo) are almost invariably smaller than the allied spe- 
 cies inhabiting the Celebes and Moluccas ; 2. The species of 
 New Guinea and Australia are also, though in a less degree, 
 smaller than the nearest species or varieties of the Moluccas ; 
 3. In the Moluccas themselves the species of Amboyna are larg- 
 est ; 4. The species of Celebes equal or even surpass in size those 
 of Amboyna ; 5. The species and varieties of Celebes possess 
 a striking character in the form of the anterior wings, differing 
 from that of the allied species and varieties of all the surrounding 
 islands ; 6. Tailed species in India or the Indian region become 
 tailless as they spread eastward through the archipelago." 
 
 Variety breeding. Varieties may be produced artificially ; 
 thus negro varieties of insects may be raised "from parents 
 
76 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 more or less tainted with melanism, and according to Knaggs, 
 there is a "frequent recurrence of individuals wanting a hind 
 wing, which may be noticed even at large in Macaria notata." 
 "Few species are liable to the same extent of variation, and 
 many apparently to none at all." Certain species vary "ac- 
 cording as they may have reproduced, generation after gen- 
 eration, on a chalky, peaty, gravelly, or other soil." Food also 
 exerts an influence in inducing variation, according as cater- 
 pillars of the same species feed on different plants ; this occurs 
 most Commonly in the Micro-lepidoptera. (Knaggs, in the 
 Entomologist's Monthly Magazine, London.) 
 
 Introduced species of insects, like those of plants, often thrive 
 more vigorously than the native forms. This is instanced by 
 native insects which abound in unusual numbers in newly 
 cleared districts where the former presence of forests and 
 their natural foes kept them under. The Potato-beetle, Can- 
 ker-worm, and Clisiocampa must have lived formerly in mod- 
 erate numbers on our native plants, where now countless hosts 
 affect our introduced plants. Among species introduced from 
 a foreign country we have only to instance the Hessian Fty, 
 the Wheat-midge, the Coddling-moth, the Clothes-moth, the 
 Apple Bark-louse, and the Grain-weevil. Mr. W. T. Brig- 
 ham informs us that some of the most abundant insects in the 
 Hawaiian Islands are introduced species carried by vessels 
 from Europe. Vanessa Antiopa, Pyrameis cardui, and P. 
 Atalanta, so abundant in this country, are supposed to be intro- 
 duced butterflies. Aphodius fimetarius, found by us living in 
 dung on Mt. Washington, is one of our most common beetles, 
 and the Asparagus-beetle, introduced from Europe a few years 
 since, is common in gardens in Eastern New York, while Mr. 
 Walsh has recorded the appearance of the European Gooseberry 
 Saw-Fly, which ravages the Gooseberry and Currant. Pieris 
 rapce, the Cabbage-butterfly, introduced from Europe into 
 Quebec about 1859, soon became abundant within a circle of 
 forty miles radius about that city, and has even spread into 
 Maine and Vermont along the railroads leading from Quebec. 
 
 Insect Years. There are insect years as well as "apple 
 years," seasons when insects most abound. Every collector 
 knows that there are certain years when a particular species of 
 
GEOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION. 77 
 
 insect is unusually common. The Army-worm, Leucania uni- 
 puncta, swarms in countless numbers in a summer following 
 a dry and warm spring. After a cold and rainy spring, insects 
 are less abundant. Mr. F. Smith remarks that in England the 
 summer and autumn of 1860 were unusually wet, which dis- 
 abled the bees, wasps, and fossorial hymenoptera generally, in 
 building their nests. We know how ants are hindered from 
 building their nests by rain, and in a very r&my season num- 
 bers probably die. A succession of rainy seasons caused the 
 Andrense, or Spring bees, to disappear from the vicinity of 
 London. While a severe winter, if the cold be continuous, is 
 not injurious to insects, mild periods in winter, when it is warm 
 enough to rouse them from torpidity, are as fatal to insects as 
 to vegetation, should severe cold immediately follow. 
 
 GEOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION. The geological distribution of 
 insects corresponds generally with that of other animals, 
 though insect-remains are few in number, owing naturally to 
 the difficulty with which their fragile forms are preserved 
 in the rocks. Professor C. F. Hartt has discovered near St. 
 John, New Brunswick, the oldest insect-remains in the world. 
 They occur in some plant-beds of the Upper Devonian forma- 
 tion, and consist of six species of Neuroptera. Mr. Scudder, 
 who has referred to them in vol. 1 of the American Naturalist, 
 states that with the exception of one or two Ephemeridse, or 
 May-flies, they mostly represent families which are now extinct. 
 He describes a gigantic May-fly, Platephemera antiqua (PL 1 , 
 fig. 3) ; Litlientomum Harttii (PL 1, fig. 5) ; Homothetus fossi- 
 lis (PL 1, fig. 7) ; and Xenoneura anti-quorum which is supposed 
 to bear a stridulating organ like that of the Grasshoppers, 
 so that he "is inclined to believe there were chirping Neu- 
 roptera in those days." 
 
 Ascending to the Carboniferous rocks, insect-remains appear 
 more abundant. At Morris, Illinois, have been collected some 
 remarkable forms. Among them are Miamia Bronsonii Dana 
 (PL 1, fig. 1), allied to the White Ants and Hemeristia occi- 
 dentalis Dana, allied to Hemerobius and Chrysopa. From the 
 same locality Mr. Harger has described Arthrolycosa antiqua 
 (Fig. 68), a singular form with a jointed abdomen. 
 
78 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 In the Coal-beds of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, sev- 
 eral interesting Myriopodous, Neuropterous 
 and Orthopterous insects have been found ; 
 among them a Cockroach, Archimulacris 
 Acadica (PL 1,* fig. 2). In Europe, Car- 
 boniferous insects have been discovered at 
 Wettin, Saarbriick, etc. 
 
 The insects from these two formations 
 show a tendency to assume gigantic and 
 strange shapes. They are also compre- 
 Fig. 68. hensive types, combining the characters of 
 
 different families and even different suborders. The most re- 
 markable instance is the Eugereon Boeckingii Dohrn, from the 
 Coal Formation of Germany. It has been referred by Dr. 
 Hagen, with some doubt, to the Hemiptera, from its long im- 
 mense rostrum into which all the mouth-parts are produced, the 
 labium ensheathing them as usual in the Hemiptera. Its fore- 
 legs are large and raptorial ; but the filiform many-jointed an- 
 tennae, and the net-veined wings are Neuropterous characters. 
 Hence Dohrn considers it as a comprehensive type uniting 
 
 * EXPLANATION OF PLATE 1. 
 
 Fig. 1. Miamia Bronsonii. A Neuropterous insect found in iron-stone concre- 
 tions in the Carboniferous beds at Morris, Illinois. The figure is magnified one- 
 third, and has all its parts restored ; the dotted lines indicate the parts not existing 
 on the stone. Reduced from a figure in the Memoirs of the Boston Society of Nat- 
 ural History, Vol. I. 
 
 Fig. 2. Archimulacris Acadica. Wing of a Cockroach observed by Mr. Barnes 
 in the coal-formation of Nova Scotia. 
 
 Fig. 3. Platephemera antiqua. A gigantic May-fly obtained by Mr. Hartt in the 
 Devonian rocks of New Brunswick. 
 
 Fig. 4. Xylobius sigillarice. The Myriopod (or Gaily- worm) found in the coal- 
 formation of Nova Scotia, by J. W. Dawson. Copied from a figure in Dr. Dawson's 
 Air-breathers of the Coal-period. Magnified. 
 
 Fig. 5. Lithentomum Hartii. A Neuropterous insect, the specimen first dis- 
 covered by Mr. Hartt in the Devonian rocks of New Brunswick. This fossil, and 
 those accompanying it, are the oldest insect-remains in the world. 
 
 Fig. 6. Three facets from the eye of an insect, considered by Dr. Dawson a 
 Dragon-fly. It was found in coprolites of reptiles in the rocks containing the My- 
 riopod, represented in Fig. 4. Copied from Dr. Dawson's figure, greatly magnified. 
 
 Fig. 7. Homothetus fossilis. A Neuropterous insect from the Devonian rocks of 
 New Brunswick ; it was discovered by Mr. Hartt. 
 
 Fig. 8. HaplophleUum Barnesii. A curious Neuropterous insect, of large size, 
 probably allied to our May-flies; taken by Mr. Barnes from the coal of Cape Bre- 
 ton. 
 
 These figures, with the exception of 1, 4, and 6, are of life size, and borrowed 
 from the new edition of Dr. Dawson's Acadian Geology. 
 
Plate 1. 
 
 Fig.2. 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 FOSSIL INSECTS. 
 
GEOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION. 79 
 
 the characters of the Neuroptera and Hemiptera. It is a 
 large insect, spreading about two inches ; its body must have 
 measured over an inch in length. 
 
 In the Mesozoic rocks, the celebrated Solenhofen locality in 
 Bavaria is rich in Liassic insect-remains. Dr. Hagen (Ento- 
 mologist's Annual, London, 1862) states that among the Solen- 
 hofen fossils the Neuroptera and Orthoptera are most largely 
 represented ; as out of four hundred and fifty species of insects, 
 one hundred and fifty are Neuroptera, of which one hundred 
 and thirty-six are Dragon-flies, and besides "there is a Cory- 
 dalus, one Chrysopa, a large Apochrysa, and a beautiful 
 Nymplies. The last two genera, which do not seem very remote 
 from Chrysopa, are now found only in the Southern Hemi- 
 sphere, Nymphes is peculiarly an Australian genus." 
 
 The Lias of England is very rich in fossil insects, especially 
 the Purbeck and Rhoetic Beds (see Brodie's Work on Fos- 
 sil Insects and also Westwood in the Geological Journal, etc. 
 Vol. X.). 
 
 In the Trias, or New-Red Sandstone of the Connecticut 
 Valley, Professor Hitchcock has found numerous remains of 
 the larva of an aquatic insect. 
 
 The insects of the Tertiary formation more closely resemble 
 those of the present day. The most celebrated European 
 localit} T is GEningen in Switzerland. 
 
 According to Professor O. Heer, over five thousand specimens 
 of fossil insects have been found at CEningen, comprising 844 
 species, of which 518 are Coleopterous. From all Tertiary 
 Europe there are 1,322 species, as follows : 166 Hymenoptera, 
 18 Lepidoptera, 166 Diptera, 660 Coleoptera, 217 Hemiptera, 
 39 Orthoptera, and 56 Neuroptera. 
 
 "If we inquire to what insect-fauna of the present period 
 the Tertiary fauna is most analogous, we shall be surprised to 
 find that most of the species belong to genera actually found in 
 the old and the new world. The insect-fauna of (Eningen con- 
 tains 180 genera of this category, of which 114 belong to the 
 Coleoptera. Of these last, two (Dineutes and Caryborus) re- 
 main in Europe, while all the others are now found living both 
 in Europe and in America. The whole number of Coleopterous 
 genera furnished by CEningen, and known to me, amount to 
 
80 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 158 ; those that are common to both hemispheres forming then 
 more than two-thirds of the whole number, while of the actual 
 Coleopterous fauna of Europe, according to the calculation of 
 M. Lacordaire, there is only one-third. The genera found to-day 
 in both parts- of the world have then during the Tertiary epoch 
 played a more important part than is the case now ; hence 
 the knowledge of the character of the fauna is rendered more 
 difficult. We find at CEningen but a very small number (five) 
 of genera exclusively European ; seventeen are found to-day 
 in Europe, in Asia, and in Africa, but not in America. For the 
 most part they belong to the Mediterranean fauna (comprising 
 eight genera) and give to the insect-fauna of CEningen a strong 
 proportion of Mediterranean forms. In this fauna I only know 
 of one exclusively Asiatic genus ; two are peculiar to Africa, 
 and two others (Anoplites and Naupactus) are American. 
 
 "There are now living, however, in Europe certain genera 
 which, without being exclusively American, since they are found 
 in Asia and in Africa, belong more peculiarly to America ; such 
 are Belostomum, Hypselonotus, Diplonyclius, Evagorus, Sten- 
 opoda, Plecia, Caryborus, and Dineutes. . . . The genera peculiar 
 to our fauna of Tertiary insects amount to forty-four, of which 
 twenty-one belong to the Coleoptera; among the Orthoptera 
 there is one, and six Hymenoptera, six Diptera, and eleven 
 Hemiptera. They comprise 140 species." (Heer.) 
 
 An apparently still richer locality for Tertiaiy insects has 
 been discovered by Professor Denton west of the Rocky Moun- 
 tains, near the junction of the White and Green Rivers, Colo- 
 rado. According to Mr. Scudder "between sixty and seventy 
 species of insects were brought home, representing nearly all 
 the different suborders ; about two-thirds of the species were 
 Flies, some of them the perfect insect, others the maggot-like 
 larvae, but, in no instance, did both imago and larva of the 
 same insect occur. The greater part of the beetles were quite 
 small ; there were three or four kinds of Homoptera (allied to 
 the tree-hoppers), Ants of two different genera, and a poorly 
 preserved Moth. Perhaps a minute Tlirips, belonging to a 
 group which has never been found fossil in any part of the 
 world, is of the greatest interest." 
 
 He thus sums up what is known of American fossil insects. 
 
THE DISEASES OF INSECTS. 81 
 
 "The species of fossil insects now known from North America, 
 number eighty-one : six of these belong to the Devonian, nine 
 to the Carboniferous, one to the Triassic, and sixty-five to the 
 Tertiary epochs. The Hymenoptera, Honioptera, and Diptera 
 occur only in the Tertiaries ; the same is true of the Lepidop- 
 tera, if we exclude the Morris specimen, and of the Coleoptera, 
 with one Triassic exception. The Orthoptera and Myriopods 
 are restricted to the Carboniferous, while the Neuroptera occur 
 both in the Devonian and Carboniferous formations." Mr. 
 Scudder describes from the Carboniferous formation of Nova 
 Scotia, besides Xylobius sigillarice Daws., four additional spe- 
 cies (X. similis, fractus and Dawsoni, and Arcliiulus xylobio- 
 ides, n. g. and sp.), forming the family Archiulidce. 
 
 THE DISEASES OF INSECTS have attracted but little atten- 
 tion. They are so far as known mostly the result of the attacks 
 of parasitic plants and animals, though epidemics are known 
 to break out and carry off myriads of insects. Dr. Shinier 
 gives an account of an epidemic among the Chinch bugs, which 
 "was at its maximum during the moist warm weather that fol- 
 lowed the cold rains of June and the first part of July, 1865." 
 
 Species of microscopic plants luxuriate in infinitesimal for- 
 ests within the alimentary canal of some wood-devouring insects, 
 and certain fungi attack those species which are exposed to 
 dampness, and already enfeebled by other causes. Among the 
 true entophyte, or parasitic plants, which do not however ordi- 
 narily occasion the death of their host, Professor Leidy describes 
 Enterobryus elegans, E. spiralis, E. alternatus, Arthromitus 
 cristatus, Cladophytum comatum, and Corynodadus radiatus, 
 which live mostly attached to the mucous walls of the interior 
 of the intestine of Julus marginatus and two other species of 
 Julus, and Passalus cornutus. Eccrina longa Leidy, lives in 
 Polydesmus Virginiensis ; and E. moniliformis Leidy in P. 
 granulatus. 
 
 But there are parasitic fungi that are largely destructive to 
 their hosts. Such are Sphaeria and Isaria. "These fungi 
 grow with great rapidity within the body of the animal they 
 attack, not only at the expense of the nutritive fluids of the 
 latter, but, after its death, all the interior soft tissues appear 
 
82 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 to be converted into one or more aerial receptacles of spores." 
 (Leidy.) These fungi, so often infesting caterpillars, are hence 
 called "caterpillar fungi." They fill the whole body, distend- 
 ing even the legs, and throw out long filaments, sometimes 
 longer than the larva itself, giving a grotesque appearance to 
 the insect. Leidy has found a species which is very common 
 in the Seventeen-year Locust, Cicada septendecim. He found 
 "among myriads of the imago between twelve and twenty 
 specimens, which, though living, had the posterior third of the 
 abdominal contents converted into a dry, powdery, ochreous- 
 yellow, compact mass of sporuloid bodies." He thinks this 
 Cicada is very subject to the attacks of these fungi, and that 
 the spores enter the anal and genital passages more readily 
 than the mouth ; thus accounting for their development in the 
 abdomen. 
 
 The most formidable disease is the " Muscardine" caused by 
 a fungus, the Botrytus Bassiana of Balsamo. It is well known 
 that this disease has greatly reduced the silk crop in Europe. 
 Balbiani has detected the spores of this fungus in the eggs of 
 Bombyx mori as well as in the different parts of the body of 
 the insect in all stages of growth. Extreme cleanliness and 
 care against contagion must be observed in its prevention. 
 
 Among plants a disease like Muscardine, due to the presence 
 of a minute fungus (Mucor mellitopJiorus) , fills the stomach 
 of some insects, including the Honey-bee, with its colorless 
 spores, and greatly weakens those affected. Another fungus, 
 JSporendonema muscce, infests the common House-fly. 
 
 Another Silk-worm disease called ' ' Pebrine" carries off many 
 silk-worms. Whether it is of pathological or vegetable origin 
 is not yet settled. 
 
 There are also a few intestinal worms known to be para- 
 sitic in insects. The well-known "Hair-worm" (Gordius) 
 in its young state lives within the body of various insects in- 
 cluding the Spiders. The tadpole-like young differs greatly 
 from the parent, being short, sac-like, ending in a tail. Upon 
 leaving the egg they work their way into the body of insects, 
 and there live on the fatty substance of their hosts, where they 
 undergo their metamorphosis into the adult hair-like worm, 
 and make their way to the pools of water in which they live 
 
THE DEFORMITIES OF INSECTS. 83 
 
 and beget their species, and lay "millions of eggs connected 
 together in long cords." Leidy thus writes regarding the 
 habits of a species which infests grasshoppers. 
 
 "The number of Gordii in each insect varies from one to five, 
 their length from three inches to a foot ; they occupy a position 
 in the visceral cavity, where they lie coiled among the viscera, 
 and often extend from the end of the abdomen forward through 
 the thorax even into the head ; their bulk and weight are fre- 
 quently greater than all the soft parts, including the muscles, 
 of their living habitation. Nevertheless, with this relatively 
 immense mass of parasites, the insects jump about almost as 
 freely as those not infested. 
 
 "The worms are milk-white in color, and undivided at the 
 extremities. The females are distended with ova, but I have 
 never observed them extruded. When the bodies of Grass- 
 hoppers, containing these entozoa, are broken and lain upon 
 moist earth, the worms gradually creep out and pass below its 
 surface." 
 
 Goureau states that Filaria, a somewhat similar worm, in- 
 habits Hibernia brumata and Vanessa prorsa. (Ann. Ent. Soc. 
 France.) 
 
 Siebold describes Gordius subbifurcus which infests the 
 Honey-bee, especially the drones, though it is rather the work- 
 ers, which frequent the pools where the Gordii live, that we 
 would expect to find thus infested. Another entozoan is Mer- 
 mis albicans of Siebold, which is a very slender whitish worm 
 much like Gordius, and about five inches long. It is found in 
 the drone of the honey-bee and in some other insects. 
 
 Deformities of Insects. Numerous instances of supernume- 
 rary legs and antennae are recorded. The antennae are some- 
 times double, but more commonly the legs. "Of these As- 
 muss has collected eight examples, and it is remarkable that in 
 six of them the parts on one side are treble." Newport, from 
 whom we have quoted, states that "the most remarkable ex- 
 ample is that given by Lefebvre of Scarites Pyraclimon in which 
 from a single coxa on the left side of the prosternum two tro- 
 chanters originated. The anterior one, the proper trochanter, 
 supported the true prothoracic leg ; while the posterior one, in 
 the form of an oblong lanceolate body, attached to the base of 
 
84 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 the first, supported two additional legs equally well formed as 
 the true one." 
 
 The wings are often partially aborted and deformed ; this is 
 especially noticeable in the wings of butterflies and moths. 
 Mr. F. G. Sanborn has described and 
 figured a wing of a female of Libellula 
 luctuosa Burm. (Fig. 69), in which 
 among other deformities "the ptero- 
 Fig. 69. stigma is shorter and broader than that 
 
 of the opposite wing, and is situated about one-eighth of an inch 
 only from the nodus, only one cubital vein occurring between 
 them, instead of fourteen as in the opposite wing." (Proceed- 
 ings of the Boston Society of Natural History, vol. xi, p. 326.) 
 
 DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS. 
 Insects differ sexually in that the female generally appears to 
 have one abdominal ring less (one ring disappearing during the 
 semi-pupa state, when the ovipositor is formed), and in being 
 larger, fuller, and duller colored than the males, while the lat- 
 ter often differ in sculpture and ornamentation. In collect- 
 ing, whenever the two sexes are found united they should be 
 pinned upon the same pin, the male being placed highest. 
 When we take one sex alone, we may feel sure that the other 
 is somewhere in the vicinity ; perhaps while one is flying about 
 so as to be easily captured, the other is hidden under some 
 leaf, or resting on the trunk of some tree near by, w r hich must 
 be examined and every bush in the vicinity vigorously beaten 
 by the net. Many species rare in most places have a metropolis 
 where they occur in great abundance. During seasons when 
 his favorites are especially abundant the collector should lay 
 up a store against years of scarcity. 
 
 At no time of the year need the entomologist rest from his 
 labors. In the winter, under the bark of trees and in moss he 
 can find many species, or on trees, etc., detect their eggs, which 
 he can mark for observation in the spring when they hatch out. 
 
 He need not relax his endeavors day or night. Mothing is 
 night employment. Skunks and toads entomologize at night. 
 Early in the morning, at sunrise, when the dew is still on 
 the leaves, insects are sluggish and easily taken with the hand ; 
 
 
 
COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS. 85 
 
 so at dusk, when many species are found flying, and in the 
 night, the collector will be rewarded with many rarities, many 
 species flying then that hide themselves by day, while many 
 caterpillars leave their retreats to come out and feed, when the 
 lantern can be used with success in searching for them. 
 
 Wollaston (Entomologist's Annual, 1865) states that sandy 
 districts, especially towards the coast, are at all times prefer- 
 able to clayey ones, but the intermediate soils, such as the 
 loamy soil of swamps and marshes are more productive. Near 
 the sea, insects occur most abundantly beneath pebbles and 
 other objects in grassy spots, or else at the roots of plants. 
 In many places, especially in Alpine tracts, as we have found 
 on the summit of Mt. Washington and in Labrador, one has to 
 lie down and look carefully among the short herbage and in 
 the moss for Coleoptera. 
 
 The most advantageous places for collecting are gardens and 
 farms, the borders of woods and the banks of streams and 
 ponds. The deep, dense forests, and open, treeless tracts are 
 less prolific in insect life. In winter and early spring the moss 
 on the trunks of trees, when carefully shaken over a newspaper 
 or white cloth, reveal many beetles and Hymenoptera. In the 
 late summer and autumn, toadstools and various fungi and rot- 
 ten fruits attract many insects, and in early spring when the 
 sap is running we have taken rare insects from the stumps of 
 freshly cut hard- wood trees. Wollaston says, " Dead animals, 
 partially-dried bones, as well as the skins of moles and other 
 vermin which are ordinarily hung up in fields are magnificent 
 traps for Coleoptera ; and if any of these be placed around or- 
 chards and inclosures near at home, and be examined every 
 morning, various species of Nitidulce, Silphidoe, and other 
 insects of similar habits, are certain to be enticed and cap- 
 tured. 
 
 "Planks and chippings of wood may be likewise empkwed 
 as successful agents in alluring a vast number of species which 
 might otherwise escape our notice, and if these be laid down 
 in grassy places, and carefully inverted every now and then 
 with as little violence as possible, many insects will be found 
 adhering beneath them, especially after dewy nights and in 
 showery weather. Nor must we omit to urge the importance 
 
86 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 of examining the under sides of stones in the vicinity of ants' 
 nests, in which position, during the spring and summer months, 
 many of the rarest of our native Coleoptera may be occasion- 
 ally procured." Excrementitious matter always contains many 
 interesting forms in various stages of growth. 
 
 The trunks of fallen and decaying trees offer a rich harvest 
 for many wood-boring larvae, especially the Longicorn beetles, 
 and weevils can be found in the spring, in all their stages. Nu- 
 merous carnivorous Coleopterous and Dipterous larvae dwell 
 within them, and other larvae which eat the dust made by the 
 borers. The inside of pithy plants like the elder, raspberry, 
 blackberry, and syringa, are inhabited by many of the wild 
 bees, Osmia, Ceratina, and the wood-wasps, Crabro, Stigmus, 
 etc., the habits of which, with those of their Chalcid and Ich- 
 neumon parasites, offer endless amusement and study. 
 
 Ponds and streams shelter a vast throng of insects, and 
 should be diligently dredged with the water-net, and stones 
 and pebbles should be overturned for aquatic beetles, He- 
 miptera, and Dipterous larvae. 
 
 The various sorts of galls should be collected in spring and 
 autumn and placed in vials or boxes, where they may be rear- 
 ed, and the rafters of out-houses, stone-walls, etc., should be 
 carefully searched for the nests of Mud-wasps. 
 
 Collecting Apparatus. First in importance is the net. This 
 is made by attaching a ring of brass wire to a handle made 
 to slide on a pole six feet long. The net may be a foot in 
 diameter, and the bag itself made of thin gauze or mosquito- 
 netting (the finer, lighter, and more durable the better), and 
 should be about twenty inches deep. It should be sewed to a 
 narrow^ border of cloth placed around the wire. A light net 
 like this can be rapidly turned upon the insect w r ith one hand. 
 The insect is captured by a dexterous twist which also throws 
 the bottom over the mouth of the net. The insect should be 
 temporarily held between the thumb and fore-finger of the hand 
 at liberty, and then pinned through the thorax while in the net. 
 The pin can be drawn through the meshes upon opening the 
 net. The beating-net should be made much stouter, with a shal- 
 Jower cloth bag and attached to a shorter stick. It is used for 
 beating trees, bushes, and herbage for beetles and Hemiptera 
 
COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS. 87 
 
 and various larvae. Its thorough use we would recommend in 
 the low vegetation on mountains and in meadows. The water- 
 net may be either round or of the shape indicated in Fig. 70. 
 The ring should be made of brass, and 
 the shallow net of grass-cloth or coarse 
 millinet. It is used for collecting aqua- 
 tic insects. 
 
 Various sorts of forceps are indispen- Fig. 70. 
 
 sable for handling insects. Small delicate narrow-bladed for- 
 ceps with fine sharp points in use by jewellers, and made 
 either of steel or brass, are excellent for handling minute 
 specimens. For larger ones long curved forceps are very con- 
 venient. For pinning insects into boxes the forceps should be 
 stout, the blades blunt and curved at the end so that the insect 
 can be pinned without slanting the forceps much. The ends 
 need to be broad and finely indented by lines so as to firmly 
 hold the pin. With a little practice the forceps soon take the 
 place of the fingers. They will have to be made to order by 
 a neat workman or surgical-instrument maker. Some persons 
 use the ordinary form of pliers with curved handles, but they 
 should be long and slender. A spring set in to separate the 
 handles when not grasped by the hand is a great convenience. 
 
 Various pill-boxes, vials, and bottles must always be taken, 
 some containing alcohol or whiskey. Many collectors use a 
 wide-mouth bottle, containing a sponge saturated with ether, 
 chloroform, or benzine, or bruised laurel leaves, the latter be- 
 ing pounded with a hammer and then cut with scissors into 
 small pieces, which give out exhalations of prussic acid strong 
 enough to kill most small insects. 
 
 Besides these the collector needs a small box lined with 
 corn-pith, or cork, and small enough to slip into the coat- 
 pocket ; or a larger box carried by a strap. Most moths and 
 small flies can be pinned alive without being pinched (which 
 injures their shape and rubs off the scales and hairs) , and then 
 killed by pouring a little benzine into the bottom of the box. 
 
 Killing Insects for the Cabinet. Care in killing affects very 
 sensibly the looks of the cabinet. If hastily killed and dis- 
 torted by being pinched-, with the scales rubbed off and other- 
 wise mangled, the value of such a specimen is diminished 
 
88 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 either for purposes of study or the neat appearance of the col- 
 lection. 
 
 Besides the vapor of ether, chloroform, and benzine, the 
 fumes of sulphur readily kill insects. Large specimens may 
 be killed by inserting a pin dipped in a strong solution of ox- 
 alic acid. An excellent collecting bottle is made by putting 
 into a wide-mouth bottle two or three small pieces of cyanide 
 of potassium, which may be covered with cotton, about half- 
 filling the bottle. The cotton may be covered with paper 
 lightly attached to the glass and pierced with pin-holes ; this 
 keeps the insect from being lost in the bottle. For Diptera, 
 Loew recommends moistening the bottom of the collecting box 
 with creosote. This is excellent for small flies and moths, as the 
 mouth of the bottle can be placed over the insect while at rest ; 
 the insect flies up into the bottle and is immediately suffocated. 
 A bottle well prepared will, according to Laboulbene, last 
 several months, even a year, and is vastly superior to the old 
 means of using ether or chloroform. He states, " the incon- 
 venience of taking small insects from a net is well known, as 
 the most valuable ones usually escape ; but by placing the end 
 of the net, filled with insects, in a wide-mouthed bottle, and 
 putting in the cork for a few minutes, they will be suffocated." 
 
 Pinning Insects. The pin should be inserted through the 
 thorax of most insects. The Coleoptera, however, should be 
 pinned through the right wing-cover ; many Hemiptera are 
 best pinned through the scutellum. The specimens should all 
 be pinned at an equal height, so that about one-fourth of the 
 pin should project above the insect. 
 
 The best pins are those made in Berlin by Klager. They are 
 of five sizes, No. 1 being the smallest; Nos. 1, 2, and 5 are 
 the most convenient. For very minute insects still smaller pins 
 are made. A very good but too short pin is made by Edles- 
 ton and Williams, Crown Court, Cheapside, London. Their 
 Nos. 19 and 20 may be used to impale minute insects upon, 
 and then stuck through a bit of cork, or pith, through which a 
 No. 5 Klager pin may be thrust. Then the insect is kept out 
 of the reach of devouring insects. Still smaller pins are made 
 by cutting off bits of very fine silvered wire at the right length, 
 which may be thrust by the forceps into a piece of pith, after 
 the insects have been impaled upon them. 
 
COLLECTING AND PRESERVING. INSECTS. 89 
 
 Small insects, especially beetles, may be mounted on cards 
 or pieces of mica through which the pin may be thrust. The 
 French use small oblong bits of mica, with the posterior half 
 covered with green paper on which the number may be placed. 
 The insect may be gummed on the clear part, the two sexes to- 
 gether. The under side can be seen through the thin mica. 
 
 Others prefer triangular pieces of card, across the end of 
 which the insect may be gummed, so that nearly the whole un^ 
 der side is visible. 
 
 Mr. Wollaston advocates gumming small Coleoptera upon 
 cards. Instead of cutting the pieces of cards first, he gums them 
 promiscuously upon a sheet of card-board. "Having gummed 
 thickly a space on your card-board equal to, at least, the entire 
 specimen when expanded, place the beetle upon it, drag out 
 the limbs with a pin, and, leaving it to dry, go on with the 
 next one that presents itself. As the card has to be cut after- 
 wards around your insect (so as to suit it), there is no advan- 
 tage in gumming it precisely straight upon your frame, though 
 it is true that a certain amount of care in this respect lessens 
 your after labor of cutting-off very materially. When your 
 frame has been filled, and you are desirous of separating the 
 species, cut out the insect with finely pointed scissors." 
 
 For mending broken insects, i.e. gumming on legs and an- 
 tennae which have fallen off, inspissated ox-gall, softened with a 
 little water, is the best gum. 
 
 For gumming insects upon cards Mr. Wollaston recommends 
 a gum "composed of three parts of tragacanth to one of 
 Arabic, both in powder ; to be mixed in water containing a grain 
 of corrosive sublimate, without which it will not keep, until 
 of a consistency just thick enough to run. As this gum is of 
 an extremely absorbent nature, nearly a fortnight is required 
 before it can be properly made. The best plan is to keep add- 
 ing a little water (and stirring it) every few days until it is 
 of the proper consistency. It is advisable to dissolve the grain 
 of corrosive sublimate in the water which is poured first upon 
 the gum." 
 
 Preservative Fluids. The best for common use is alco- 
 hol, diluted with a little water ; or whiskey, as alcohol of full 
 strength is too strong for caterpillars, etc., since it shrivels them 
 
90 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 up. Glycerine is excellent for preserving the colors of cater- 
 pillars, though the internal parts decay somewhat, and the 
 specimen is apt to fall to pieces on being roughly handled. 
 
 Laboulbene recommends for the preservation of insects in a 
 fresh state plunging them in a preservative fluid consisting of 
 alcohol with an excess of arsenious acid in fragments, or the 
 common white arsenic of commerce. A pint and a half of al- 
 cohol will take about fourteen grains (troy) of arsenic. The 
 living insect, put into this preparation, absorbs about T <j 3 (j<y of its 
 own weight. When soaked in this liquor and dried, it will be 
 safe from the ravages of Moths, Anthrenus, or Dermestes. This 
 liquid will not change* the colors of blue, green, or red beetles 
 if dried after soaking from twelve to twenty-four hours. He- 
 miptera and Orthoptera can be treated in the same way. 
 
 A stay of a month in this arseniated alcohol mineralizes the 
 insect, so that it appears very hard, and, after drying, becomes 
 glazed with a white deposit which can, however, be washed off 
 with alcohol. In this state the specimens become too hard for 
 dissection and study, but will do for cabinet specimens designed 
 for permanent exhibition. 
 
 Another preparation recommended by Laboulbene is alcohol 
 containing a variable quantity of corrosive sublimate, but the 
 latter has to be weighed, as the alcohol evaporates easily, the 
 liquor becoming stronger as it gets older. The strongest soli*- 
 tion is one part of corrosive sublimate to one hundred of alco- 
 hol ; the weakest and best is one-tenth of a part of corrosive 
 sublimate to one hundred parts of alcohol. Insects need not re- 
 main in this solution more than two hours before drying. Both 
 of these preparations are very poisonous and should be handled 
 with care. The last-named solution preserves specimens from 
 mould, which will attack pinned insects during damp summers. 
 
 A very strong brine will preserve insects until a better liquor 
 can be procured. Professor A. E. Verrill recommends two sim- 
 ple and cheap solutions for preserving, among other specimens, 
 the larvae of insects "with their natural color and form remark- 
 ably perfect." The first consists of two and a half pounds of 
 common salt and four ounces of nitre dissolved in a gallon of 
 water, and filtered. Specimens should be prepared for perma- 
 nent preservation in this solution by being previously immersed 
 
COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS. 91 
 
 in a solution consisting of a quart of the first solution and 
 two ounces of arseniate of potash and a gallon of water. (Pro- 
 ceedings Boston Society Nat. Hist., vol. x, p. 257.) 
 
 The nests, cocoons, and chrysalids of insects may be pre- 
 served from injury from other insects by being soaked in the 
 arseniated alcohol, or dipped into benzine, or a solution of car- 
 bolic acid or creosote. 
 
 Preparing Insects for the Cabinet. Dried insects may be 
 moistened by laying them for twelve or twenty-four hours in 
 a box containing a layer of wet sand, covered with one thick- 
 ness of soft paper.' Their wings can then be easily spread. 
 /Setting-boards for spreading the wings of insects may be made 
 by sawing deep grooves in a thick board, and placing a strip 
 of pith or cork at the bottom. The groove may be deep enough 
 to allow a quarter of the length of the pin to project above 
 the insect. The setting-board usually consists of thin parallel 
 strips of board, leaving a groove between them wide enough to 
 receive the body of the insect, at the bottom of which a strip 
 of cork or pith should be glued. The ends of the strips should 
 be nailed on to a stouter strip of wood, raising the surface of 
 the setting-board an inch and a half so that the pins can stick 
 through without touching. Several setting-boards can be made 
 to form shelves in a frame covered with wire gauze, so that 
 the. specimens may be preserved from dust and destructive in- 
 sects, while the air may at the same time have constant access 
 to them. The surface of the board should incline a little to- 
 wards the groove for the reception of the insect, as the wings 
 often gather a little moisture, relax and fall down after the 
 insect is dried. Moths of medium size should remain two or 
 three days on the setting-board, while the larger thick-bodied 
 Sphinges and Bombycidce require a week to dry. The wings 
 can be arranged by means of a needle stuck into a handle 
 of wood. They should be set horizontally, and the front mar- 
 gin of the fore-wings drawn a little forward of a line perpen- 
 dicular to the body, so as to free the inner margin of the hind 
 wings from the body, that their form may be distinctly seen. 
 When thus arranged, they can be confined by pieces of card 
 pinned to the board as indicated in figure 71, or, as we prefer, 
 by square pieces of glass laid upon them. 
 
92 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 After the insects have been thoroughly dried they should not 
 be placed in the cabinet until after having been in quarantine 
 to see that no eggs of Dermestes or 
 Anthrenus, etc., have been deposited 
 on them. 
 
 For preserving dried insects in the 
 cabinet Laboulbene recommends plac- 
 ing a rare insect (if a beetle or any 
 Fig. 71. other hard insect) in water for an hour 
 
 until the tissues be softened. If soiled, an insect can be 
 cleansed under water with a fine hair-pencil, then submit it to 
 a bath of arseniated alcohol, or, better, alcohol with corrosive 
 sublimate. If the insect becomes prune-colored, it should be 
 washed in pure alcohol several times. This method will do 
 for the rarest insects ; the more common ones can be softened 
 on wet sand, and then the immersion in the arseniated alcohol 
 suffices. After an immersion of an hour or a quarter of an 
 hour, according to the size of the insect, the pin is not affected 
 by the corrosive sublimate, but it is better to unpin the insect 
 previous to immersion, and then pin it when almost dry. 
 
 For cleaning insects ether or benzine is excellent, applied 
 with a hair-pencil ; though care should be taken in using these 
 substances which are very inflammable. 
 
 After the specimens are placed in the cabinet, they should be 
 farther protected from destructive insects by placing in the 
 drawers or boxes pieces of camphor wrapped in paper perfo- 
 rated by pin-holes, or bottles containing sponges saturated with 
 benzine. The collection should be carefully examined every 
 month ; the presence of insects can be detected by the dust 
 beneath them. Where a collection is much infested with 
 destructive insects, benzine should be poured into the bottom 
 of the box or drawer, when the fumes and contact of the ben- 
 zine with their bodies will kill them. The specimens them- 
 selves should not be soaked in the benzine if possible, as it 
 renders them brittle. 
 
 Insect-cabinet. For permanent exhibition, a cabinet of shal- 
 low drawers, protected by doors, is most useful. A drawer 
 may be eighteen by twenty inches square, and two inches deep 
 in the clear, and provided with a tight glass cover. For constant 
 
COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS. 
 
 93 
 
 use, boxes made of thin, well-seasoned wood, with tight-fitting 
 covers, are indispensable. For Coleoptera, Dr. Leconte recom- 
 mends that they be twelve by nine inches (inside measurement). 
 For the larger Lepidoptera a little larger box is preferable. 
 Others prefer boxes made in the form of books, which may be 
 put away like books on the shelves of the cabinet, though the 
 cover of the box is apt to be in the way. 
 
 The boxes and drawers should be lined with cork cut into 
 thin slips for soles ; such slips come from the cork-cutter about 
 twelve by four inches square, and an eighth of an inch thick. A 
 less expensive substitute is paper stretched upon a frame. Mr. 
 E. S. Morse has given in the American Naturalist (vol. I, p. 
 156) a plan which is very neat and useful for lining boxes in a 
 large museum, and which 
 are placed in horizontal 
 show-cases (Fig. 72). "A 
 box is made of the re- 
 quired depth, and a light 
 frame is fitted to its in- 
 terior. Upon the upper 
 and under surfaces of this 
 frame, a sheet of white 
 paper (drawing or log- 
 paper answers the pur- 
 pose) is securely glued. Kg. 72. 
 The paper, having been previously dampened, in drying con- 
 tracts and tightens like a drum-head. The frame is then 
 secured about one-fourth of an inch from the bottom of the 
 box, and the pin is forced down through the thicknesses of 
 paper, and if the bottom of the box be of soft pine, the point 
 of the pin may be slightly forced into it. It is thus firmly held 
 at two or three different points, and all lateral movements are 
 prevented. Other advantages are secured by this arrangement 
 besides firmness ; when the box needs cleaning or fumigation, 
 the entire collection may be removed by taking out the frame, 
 or camphor, tobacco, or other material can be placed on the 
 bottom of the box, and concealed from sight. The annexed 
 figure represents a transverse section of a portion of the side 
 and bottom of the box with the frame. A, A, box ; B, frame ; 
 
94 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 P, P, upper and under sheets of paper ; C, space between 
 lower sheet of paper and bottom of box." 
 
 Other substitutes are the pith of various plants, especially 
 of corn ; and palm wood, and "inodorous felt" is used, being 
 cut to fit the bottom of the box. 
 
 Leconte recommends that "for the purpose of distinguish- 
 ing specimens from different regions, little disks of variously 
 colored paper be used ; they are easily made by a small punch, 
 and should bs kept in wooden pill-boxes ready for use ; at 
 the same time a key to the colors, showing the regions em- 
 braced by each, should be made on the fly-leaf of the catalogue 
 of the collection." He also strongly recommends that the 
 " specimens should all be pinned at the same height, since the 
 ease of recognizing species allied in characters is greatly in- 
 creased by having them on the same level." 
 
 He also states that "it is better, even when numbers with 
 reference to a catalogue are employed, that the name of each 
 species should be written on a label attached to the first speci- 
 men. Thus the eye is familiarized with the association of the 
 species and its name, memory is aided, and greater power given 
 of identifying species when the cabinet is not at hand." For 
 indicating the sexes the astronomical sign $ (Mars) is used for 
 the male, and <j> (Venus) for the female, and 9 for the worker. 
 
 Transportation of Insects. While travelling, all hard-bodied 
 insects, comprising many Hymenoptera, the Coleoptera, He- 
 miptera, and many Neuroptera should be thrown, with their 
 larvae, etc., into bottles and vials filled with strong alcohol. 
 When the bottle is filled new liquor should be poured in, and 
 the old may be saved for collecting purposes ; in this way the 
 specimens will not soften and can be preserved indefinitely, and 
 the colors do not, in most cases, change. Leconte states that 
 "if the bottles are in danger of being broken, the specimens, 
 after remaining for a day or two in alcohol, may be taken out, 
 partially dried by exposure to the air, but not so as to be brit- 
 tle, and these packed in layers in small boxes between soft 
 paper; the boxes should then be carefully closed with gum- 
 paper or paste, so as to exclude all enemies." 
 
 Lepidoptera and Dragon-flies and other soft-bodied insects 
 may be well preserved by placing them in square pieces of pa- 
 
REARING LARV^. 95 
 
 per folded into a triangular form with the edges overlapping. 
 Put up thus, multitudes can be packed away in tin boxes, and 
 will bear transportation to any distance. In tropical climates, 
 chests lined with tin should be made to contain the insect- 
 boxes, which can thus be preserved against the ravages of 
 white ants, etc. 
 
 In sending live larvae by mail, they should be inclosed in lit- 
 tle tin boxes, and in sending dry specimens, the box should be 
 light and strong, and directions given at the post-office to 
 stamp the box lightly. In sending boxes by express they 
 should be carefully packed in a larger box, having an inter- 
 space of two inches, which can be filled in tightly with hay or 
 crumpled bits of paper. Beetles can be wrapped in pieces of 
 soft paper. Labels for alcoholic specimens should consist 
 of parchment with the locality, date of capture, and name of 
 collector written in ink. A temporary label of firm paper with 
 the locality, etc., written with a pencil, will last for several 
 years. 
 
 Preservation of Larvce. Alcoholic specimens of insects, in all 
 stages of growth, are very useful. Few collections contain al- 
 coholic specimens of the adult insect. This is a mistake. Many 
 of the most important characters are effaced during the drying 
 process, and for purposes of general study alcoholic speci- 
 mens, even of Bees, Lepidoptera, Diptera, and Dragon-flies are 
 very necessary. 
 
 Larvce^ generally, may be well preserved in vials or bottles 
 of alcohol. They should first be put into whiskey, and then 
 into alcohol. If placed in the latter first, they shrivel and 
 become distorted. Mr. E. Burgess preserves caterpillars with 
 the colors unchanged, by immersing them in boiling water 
 thirty or forty seconds, and then placing them in equal parts 
 of alcohol and water. It is well to collect larvae and pupae 
 indiscriminately, even if we do not know their adult forms ; we 
 can approximate to them, and in some cases tell very exactly 
 what they must be. 
 
 REARING LARVAE. More attention has been paid to rearing 
 Caterpillars than the young of any other suborder of insects, 
 and the following remarks apply more particularly to them, but 
 
96 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 very much the same methods may be pursued in rearing the 
 larvae of Beetles, Flies, and Ifymenoptera. Subterranean 
 larvae have to be kept in moist earth, aquatic larvae must be 
 reared in aquaria, and carnivorous larvae must be supplied 
 with flesh. The larvae of Butterflies are rare ; those of 
 moths occur more frequently, while their imagos may be 
 scarce. In some years many larvae, which are usually rare, 
 occur in abundance, and should then be reared in numbers. 
 In hunting for caterpillars bushes should be shaken and 
 beaten over newspapers or sheets, or an umbrella; herbage 
 should be swept, and trees examined carefully for leaf-rollers 
 and miners. The best specimens of moths and butterflies are 
 obtained by rearing them from the egg, or from the larva or 
 pupa. In confinement the food should be kept fresh, and the 
 box well ventilated. Tumblers covered with gauze, pasteboard 
 boxes pierced with holes and fitted with glass in the covers, or 
 large glass-jars, are very convenient to use as cages. The bot- 
 tom of such vessels may be covered with moist sand, in which 
 the food-plant of the larva may be stuck and kept fresh for 
 several days. Larger and more airy boxes, a foot square, with 
 the sides of gauze, and fitted with a door, through which a bot- 
 tle of water may be introduced, serve well. The object is to 
 keep the food- plant fresh, the air cool, the larva out of the sun, 
 and in fact everything in such a state of equilibrium that the 
 larva will not feel the change of circumstances when kept in 
 confinement. Most caterpillars change to -pupae in the autumn ; 
 and those which transform in the earth should be covered with 
 earth, kept damp by wet moss, and placed in the cellar until the 
 following summer. The collector in seeking for larvae should 
 carry a good number of pill-boxes, and especially a close tin 
 box, in which the leaves may be kept fresh for a long time. 
 The different forms and markings of caterpillars should be 
 noted, and they should be drawn carefully together with a leaf 
 of the food-plant, and the drawings and pupa skins, and per- 
 fect insect, be numbered to correspond. Descriptions of cat- 
 erpillars cannot be too carefully made, or too long. The 
 relative size of the head, its ornamentation, the stripes and 
 spots of the body, and the position and number of tubercles, 
 and the hairs, or fascicles of hairs, or spines and spinules, 
 
ENTOMOLOGICAL WORKS. 97 
 
 which arise from them, should be noted, besides the general 
 form of the body. The lines along the body are called dorsal, 
 if in the middle of the back, subdorsal; if upon one side, lat- 
 eral, and ventral when on the sides and under surface, or stig- 
 matal if including the stigmata or breathing pores, which are 
 generally parti-colored. Indeed, the whole biography of an 
 insect should be ascertained by the observer ; the points to 
 be noted are : 
 
 1. Date, when and how the eggs are laid ; and number, size, 
 and marking of the eggs. 
 
 2. Date of hatching, the appearance, food-plant of larva, 
 and number of days between each moulting ; the changes the 
 larva undergoes, which are often remarkable, especially before 
 the last moulting, with drawings illustrative of these ; the hab- 
 its of the larva, whether solitary or gregarious, whether a day 
 or night feeder ; the Ichneumon parasites, and their mode of 
 attack. Specimens of larvae in the different moultings should 
 be preserved in alcohol. The appearance of the larvae when 
 full-fed, the date, number of days before pupating, the forma- 
 tion and description of the cocoon, the duration of larvae in the 
 cocoon before pupation, their appearance just before changing, 
 their appearance while changing, and alcoholic specimens of 
 larvae in the act, should all be studied and noted. 
 
 3. Date of pupation ; description of the pupa or chrysalis ; 
 duration of the pupa state, habits, etc. ; together with alcoholic 
 specimens, or pinned dry ones. Lepidopterous pupae should be 
 looked for late in the summer or in the fall and spring, about 
 the roots of trees, and kept moist in mould until the imago 
 appears. Many Coleopterous pupae may also occur in mould, 
 and if aquatic, under submerged sticks and stones, and those 
 of borers under the bark of decaying trees. 
 
 4. Date when the insect escapes from the pupa, and method 
 of escape ; duration of life of the imago ; and the number of 
 broods in a season. 
 
 ENTOMOLOGICAL WORKS. The titles of a few of the most im- 
 portant works on Insects are given below. The more advanced 
 student should, however, possess Dr. Hagen's Bibliotheca En- 
 tomologica, 8vo, 2 vols., Leipzig, 1862-3, which contains a 
 
 7 
 
98 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 complete list of all entomological publications up to the year 
 1862. Besides these he should consult the annual reports on 
 the progress of Entomology published in TViegmann's Archiv 
 fur Naturgeschichte, begun in 1834, and continued up to the 
 present time ; and also Giinther's Zoological Record (8vo, Van 
 Voorst, London), beginning with the year 1864. Occasional 
 articles are also scattered through the various government re- 
 ports, and those of agricultural societies and agricultural 
 papers. 
 
 GENERAL WORKS. 
 
 The works of Swammerdam, Malphighi, Leeuwenhoek, Lyonnet, Serres, Meckel,. 
 
 Ramdohr, Suckow, Merian, and Herbst. 
 Reaumur, Rene, Ant. de, M^moires pour servir a P Histoire des Insectes. Paris, 1734 
 
 -1742, 7 vols. 4to. 
 Roesel, Aug. Joh. Der monatlich herausgegeben Insekten-Belustigung. NUmberg, 
 
 1746-1761, 4 vols. 4to, illustrated. 
 Geer, Carl de. Memoires pour servir a 1' Histoire des Insectes, 1752-1778, 7 vols. 
 
 4 to. 
 
 Linnceus, Carolus. Systema Nahirae, 1735. 12th edition, 1766-1768. 
 Fabricius, Joh. Christ. Systema Entomologiae, 1775, 8vo. 
 
 . Genera Insectorum, 1777, 8vo. 
 
 i Species Insectorum, 1781. 2 vols. 8vo. 
 
 . Mantissa Insectorum, 1787, 2 vols. 8vo. 
 
 . Entomologia Systematica, 4 vols. 8vo, 1792-94. 
 
 Cramer, P. Papillons exotiques des trois parties du monde. 4 vols. 4to, 1775-82. 
 Stoll, Casper. Supplement to Cramer's Papillons exotiques. 4to, Amsterdam, 
 
 1787-91. 
 Smith, J. E.> and Abbot, John. The Natural History of the Rarer Lepidopterous 
 
 Insects of Georgia. Fol. Plates. London, 1797. 
 Latreille, Pierre Andre. Precis des caracteres generique des Insectes, 1796, Svo. 
 
 . Genera Crustaceorum et Insectorum, 4 vols. Svo, 1806-1809. 
 
 . Consideration generates sur P Ordre naturel des Animaux composant 
 
 les Classes des Crustaces, des Arachnides et des Insectes. 
 
 " . In Cuvier's Regne animal, Svo, 1810. 
 
 . Families naturelles du Regne animal, Svo, 1825. 
 
 . Cours d' Entomologie, Svo, 1831. 
 
 Fabricius, Otho. Fauna Groenlandica. Hafniae, 1780, Svo. Contains Libellula 
 
 virgo (erroneously), Phryganea rhombica, Termes divinatorium, etc. 
 Drury, Drew. Illustrations of Natural History, etc. London, 1770-1782, 4to,3 vols. 
 
 (ed. Westwood, 1&37). Numerous species are figured and described. 
 Treviranus, G. R. Vermischte Schriften anatomischen und physiologischen luhalts 
 
 Bd. 1 u. 2. Gottingen, 1816-17, 4to. 
 
 Mac Leay, W. S. Horae Entomologicae, 2 vols. London, 1819. 
 Meigen, F. W. Systematische Beschreibung der bekannten europaischen zweiflii- 
 
 geligen Insecten. 7 vols. Aachen and Hamm, 1818-1835. (Although this work 
 
 contains only European species, many of them are common to both continents.) 
 Say, T. American Entomology. 3 vols. With plates. Philadelphia, 1824, 25, 28. 
 . Complete Writings on the Entomology of North America, edited by J. L. 
 
 Leconte, M. D. 2 vols. Svo, colored plates. New York, 1859. 
 Baer, K. E. v. Beitrage zur Kentniss der niederen Thiere. (Extracted from Nova 
 
 Acta Acad. Leopold. Carolin. xiii. 2, 1827.) 
 
ENTOMOLOGICAL WORKS. 99 
 
 Palisot de Beauvais, A. J. Insectes recueillis en Afrique et en Ame'rique, dans les 
 royaumes d' Ovvare et de Benin, a Saint-Domingue et dans les Etats-Unis, pen- 
 dant les annees, 1786-97. Foi. with 90 plates, Paris, 1805-21. 
 
 Savigny, J. C. de. Description de 1' Egypte. Histoire naturelle. Crustaces, 
 Arachnides, Myriapodes et Insectes, 53 pi. in gr. fol. Paris, 1809-1838. Ex- 
 plication sommaire des planches par J. V. Atidouin, Paris, 1826, fol. 
 
 Curtis, John. Description of the Insects brought home by Commander James 
 Clark. Ross's Second Voyage. App. Nat. Hist., 1831 , 4to, plates. (Several Arctic 
 species are described.) 
 
 Kirby, W. $ W. Spence. An Introduction to Entomology; or, Elements of the Nat- 
 ural History of Insects. 4 vols. 8vo, 1828. Seventh edition (comprising vols. 3 
 & 4 of the early editions). London, 1856, post 8vo. 
 
 Wiedemann,C.R,W. Aussereuropaische Zweifliigelige Insecten. 2 vols. Hamm, 
 1828-30. With plates. 
 
 Curtis, John. Farm Insects ; being the Natural History and Economy of the Insects 
 injurious to the Field Crops of Great Britain and Ireland. 8vo. With plates and 
 wood-cuts. 1860. 
 
 Chevrolat, Aug. Coleopteres du Mexique. Strasbourg, 1834-5. 
 
 Stephens, J. F. Illustrations of British Entomology. London, 8vo, 1835. Sev- 
 eral species of European Insects mentioned in this work have been found in 
 North America. 
 
 Kirby, W. Fauna boreali- Americana, etc. Norwich, 1837, 4to. 
 
 Kollar, V. Naturgeschichte der schaedlichen Insekten. Wien, 1837, 4to. Contains 
 Termesflavipes, injurious in the hot-houses of Schoenbrunn and Vienna. This 
 description has been omitted in the translation of this work by Mr. London, 
 London, 1840. 
 
 Macquart, J. Dipteres Exotique nouveaux ou pen connus. 2 vols. en 5 parties, et 
 5 supplements, Paris, 1838-55. With numerous plates. (Published originally in 
 the Memoires de la Societe" des Sciences et des Arts de Lille, 1838-55.) 
 
 Burmeister, H. Manual of Entomology, translated by W. E. Shuckard. London, 
 8vo, 1836. 
 
 Burmeister, Hermann. Zoologischer Hand Atlas. Berlin, 1836-43 fol., 41 plates. 
 
 Westivood, J. O. An Introduction to the Modern Classification of Insects. 2 vols. 
 8vo. London, 1839-40. 
 
 Cuvier, G. Le Regne animal distribue" d'apres son Organisation. Nouvelle edi- 
 tion, accompagnee de planches gravees, representant les types de tons les Gen- 
 res, etc., publiee par un reunion de Disciples de G. Cuvier. Paris, 1S49, 8vo. 
 Insectes, Arachnides, Crustace's par Audouin, Blanchard, Doyere, Milne-Ed- 
 wards et Duges. 4 vols. Texte et 4 vols. atlas. 
 
 Guerin-Meneville, F. E. Iconographie du Regne Animal de G. Cuvier, ou repre- 
 sentation d'apres nature de 1'une des especes les plus remarquables et sou vent 
 non encore figurees de chaque genre d' animaux, vols. 6 et 7 : Annelides, Crus- 
 taces, Arachnides et Insectes, Paris, J. B. Bailliere, 1829-44, 164 pi. 8vo. 
 
 Griffith, E. The Animal Kingdom, described and arranged in conformity with its 
 organization. London, 1824-33, Svo. Class Insecta, 2 vols. with 140 pi.' 1832. 
 Classes Annelida, Crustacea et Arachnida. 1 vol. with 60 pi. 
 
 Suites a Buffon et Nouvelles suites a Buffon. Formant avec les (Euvres de cet 
 auteur un Cours complet d' Histoire naturelle. Paris, Dufart, 1798-1807. Paris, 
 Roret, 1834-1864, Svo. (Insectes, Crustaces, Arachnides etc., par Latreille, Lacor- 
 daire, Amyot, Audinet-Serville, Boisduval, Guenee, Rambur, Lepeletier de St. 
 Fargeau, Macquart, Milne- Edivards, Walkenaer, et Gervais). 
 
 Gosse, P. H. Canadian Naturalist. London, 1840. 
 
 Zetterstedt, J. W. Insecta Lapponica. Lipsiae, 1840, 4to. Several species from 
 Lapland have been found in the Arctic regions of North America. 
 
 Pictet, F. Histoire naturelle, etc., des insectes Neuropteres, Part I, Perlides; Part 
 II, Ephemerines. Geneve, 1841-45, Svo, with colored plates. 
 
100 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 Doubledcty, E., and Westwood, J. O. The Genera of Diurnal Lepidoptera. 86 col- 
 ored plates, 2 vols. fol. London, 1846-52. 
 
 Walker, F. List of the specimens of Lepidopterous, Dipterous, Neuropterous, and 
 Homopterous Insects in the Collection of the British Museum. London, 1848-67. 
 
 Amyot, C., and Serville, A. Hemipteres. 8vo, Paris, lloret, 1843. 
 
 Ratzeburg,J.T.C. Die Forstinsekten. 4to, 3 vols. Berlin, 1837-44. 
 
 Van der Hceven, J. Handbook of Zoology, English translation. 2 vols. 8vo, 1850. 
 
 Gerstaecker, A. Handbuch der Zoologie (in connection with V. Carus), 2 vols. 
 8vo. (vol. 2, Arthropoda). Leipzig, 1863. 
 
 De Selys Longchamps, E. Revue des Odonates on Libellules cV Europe avec la col- 
 laboration de H. Hagen. Paris, 1850, 8vo. (Memoir. Soc. R. Science de Liege, 
 vol. vi.) (Two species, Lib. Hudsonica, p. 53, and Agrion Doubledayi, p. 209, are 
 described in this work.) 
 
 Hagen, H. Revue des Odonates; Monographic des Calopterygines ; Monographic 
 des Gomphines (cf. Selys Longchamps). 
 
 Agassiz, L. Lake Superior, its Physical Character, its Vegetation, and its Animal 3, 
 Boston, 1850. With Catalogue of Coleoptera, by Dr. J. L. Leconte, and of the 
 Lepidoptera, by Dr. T. W. Harris. 
 
 Lacaze-Duthiers, H. Rechercb.es sur 1'armure ge"nitale femelle des Insectes. 
 Plates. 8vo. Paris, 1853. 
 
 Melsheimer, F. E. Catalogue of the described Coleoptera of the United States. 
 Smithsonian Institution. 8vo, 1853. 
 
 Dallas, W. S. Catalogue of Hemipterous Insects in the British Museum. 1,2. 
 Illustrated. London, 1852. 
 
 Fitch, Asa. The noxious, beneficial, and other Insects of the State of New York. 
 Reports 1-8, 1856-66. 
 
 Smith, Frederic. Catalogue of Hymenoptera in the British Museum. Parts i-vi. 
 Plates. London, 1857-58. 
 
 Fallen, C. F., Stal, C., and Fieber. Various papers on Hemiptera in Scandinavian 
 and German periodicals. 
 
 Hilbner, J. Sammlung Exotischer Schmetterlinge. 5 vols. 4to. Plates. 1800. 
 
 Guenee, A. Species general des Lepidopteres. (Noctuida?, Phalaenida? and Pyra- 
 lidse) Suite a Buffon. Paris, 8vo, 1852-57. 
 
 Stainton, H. T. The Natural History of the Tineina. 8vo, with many plates. Lon- 
 don, vols. 1-8, 1855-64, 8vo. 
 
 Lacordaire, J. T. Genera des Coleopteres. 8vo, tomes 1-7. Paris, Roret, 1854. 
 
 Boisduval, J. A. Histoire generate et Iconographie des Lepidopteres et des Che- 
 nilles de 1' Amerique septentrionale. 8vo. Paris, Roret, 1829-42. 
 
 . Species generate des Lepidopteres. 8vo. Roret, Paris, 1856. 
 
 Essai sur P Entomologie horticole. 8vo. Paris, 1867. 
 
 Practical Entomologist. Entomological Society of Philadelphia. Vols. 1, 2, 4to, 
 1865-67. 
 
 Harris, T. W. A Treatise on some of the Insects of New England, which are 
 injurious to Vegetation. Third edition, illustrated. Boston, 1862. 
 
 Leconte, J. L. Classification of the Coleoptera of North America. Part 1, 1861-2. 
 Smithsonian Institution. 
 
 . List of Coleoptera of North America. 8vo, 1863-6. Smithsonian Institu- 
 tion. 
 
 . New Species of North American Coleoptera. 8vo. Part 1, 1863-6. Smith- 
 sonian Institution. 
 
 . Coleoptera of Kansas and Eastern New Mexico. 4to. 3 plates. 1859. 
 
 Smithsonian Institution. 
 
 Hagen, H. Synopsis of the Neuroptera of North America. 8vo. 1861. Smith- 
 sonian Institution. 
 
 Morris, J. G. Catalogue of the described Lepidoptera of North America. 8vo, 
 1860. Smithsonian Institution. 
 
ENTOMOLOGICAL WORKS. 101 
 
 Osten Sacken, It. Catalogue of the described Diptera of North America. 1858. 
 
 Smithsonian Institution. 
 Loew, H., and Osten Sacken, R. Monograph of the Diptera of North America. 
 
 Parts 1, 2, 8vo, 1802-64. Smithsonian Institution. 
 Trimble, I. P. A Treatise on the Insect Enemies of Fruit and Fruit Trees. The 
 
 Curculio and Apple moth. 4to. Plates. New York, 1865. 
 
 MORPHOLOGY. 
 
 Savigny, J. C. Memoires sur les Animatix sans Vertebres. 1 Partie. Description 
 et Classification des Animaux invertebres et articules, 1. Fascicule. The"orie des 
 Organes de la Bouche des Crustaces et des Insectes. Paris, 1816. 
 
 Audouin, J. V. Ilecherches anatomiques sur le Thorax des animaux articules et 
 celui des Insectes hexapodes en particulier. (Annales d. Scienc. natur. 1, 1824, 
 p. 97 and 416.) 
 
 Eschscholtz, J. F. Beschreibung des inneren Skeletes einiger Insekten aus ver- 
 schiedenen Ordnungen. Dorpat, 1820, 8vo, p. 24-49, 2 Taf. 
 
 Baer, K. E. V. Ueber das aussere und innere Skelet (Meckel's Archiv. f. Anatom. 
 u. Physiol. 1826, p. 327-374). 
 
 Erichson, W. F. Ueber zoologische Charaktere der Insekten, Arachniden und 
 Crutaceen. (Entomographien, S. 1-28.) Berlin, 1840, 8vo. 
 
 Brulle, A. Kecherches sur les Transformations des Appendices dans les Arti- 
 cules (Annales des Sciences naturelles, 3. ser. II, 1844, p. 271-374). 
 
 Leuckart, R. Ueber die Morphologic und die Verwandtschaftsverhaltnisse der 
 Wirbellosen Thiere. Braunschweig, 1848, 8vo. 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 Straus- Diirckheim, H. Considerations generales sur 1' Anatomic compared des 
 Animaux articules, auxquelles on a joint 1' Anatomic descriptive du Melolontha 
 vulgaris. Paris, 1828, 4to. 10 pi. 
 
 Dufour, L. Numerous anatomical papers in the Annales des Sciences naturelles, 
 Paris. 
 
 Siebold, C. Th. v. Lehrbuch der Vergleichenden Anatomic der wirbellosen Thiere. 
 Berlin, 1848, 8vo. Translated by W. I. Burnett. Boston, 1851, 8vo. 
 
 Gegenbaur, C. Grundziige der vergleichenden Anatomic. Leipzig, 1859, 8vo. 
 
 Geoffrey St. Hllaire, Etienne. Considerations philosophiques sur la determination 
 du Systeme solide et du Systeme nerveux des Animaux articules. (Annal. d. 
 scienc. natur. II, 1824, p. 295 ff., Ill, p. 199 u. p. 453 ff.) 
 
 Newport, G. On the Structure, Relations, and Development of the nervous and 
 circulatory Systems, and on the existence of a complete Circulation of the Blood 
 in Vessels, in Myriapoda and Macrourous Arachnida. (Philosoph. Transact. 
 1843, p. 243-302.) 
 
 . On the Structure and Development of the Blood, L.ser. The Development 
 
 of the Blood Corpuscle in Insects and other Invertebrata, and its Comparison 
 with that of Man and the Vertebrata. (Annals of Nat. Hist. XV, 1845, p. 281-284.) 
 
 . On the Nervous System of the Sphinx ligustri Lin. and on the Changes 
 
 which it undergoes during a Part of the Metamorphoses of the Insect. (Philo- 
 soph. Transact. 1832, p. 383-398, and 1834, 380-423.) 
 
 . On the Temperature of Insects and its Connexion with Functions of Res- 
 piration and Circulation in this class of Invcrtebrated Animals. (Philosoph. 
 Transact. 1837, p. 259-338.) 
 
 Blanchard, E. Recherches anatomiques et zoologiques sur le Systeme nerveux des 
 Animaux sans vertebres. Du systeme nerveux des Insectes. (Annal. d. scienc. 
 natur. 3. ser. V, 1846, p. 273-379.) 
 
102 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 Blanchard, E. Du Systfeme nerveux chez les Inverte'bre's dans ses rapports avec la 
 
 Classification de ces Animaux. Paris, 1849, 8vo. 
 Milne- Edwards, H. Legons sur la Physiologic ct 1' Anatomic compare de 1'Homme 
 
 et des Animaux. Paris, Masson 1S57-G4, 8vo. 
 
 EMBRYOLOGY. 
 
 Itafhke, IT. Untersuchungen Uber die Bildung und Entwickelung des Flusskreb- 
 
 ses, Leipzig, Voss. 1829, Fol. mit 5 Taf. 
 . Zur Morphologic, Reisebemerkungen aus Taurien. Riga, 1837, 4to, mit 5 
 
 Taf. 
 Herold, J. M. Exercitationes de animalium vertebris carentium in ovo formatione 
 
 I. De generatione Aranearum in ovo. Untersuchungen Uber die Bildungsge- 
 
 schichte der Wirbellosen Thiere im Ei. 1. Th. Von tier Erzeugung der Spinnen 
 
 im Ei. Marburg, Krieger, 1824, fol. mit 4 Taf. 
 . Disquisitiones de animalium vertebris carentium in ovo formatione. De 
 
 generatione Insectorum in ovo. Fasc. I, II, Frankfurt a Main, 1835-38, fol. 
 Kolliker, A. Observationes de prima Insectorum genesi, adjecta articulatorum 
 
 evolutionis cum vertebratorum comparatione. Dissert, inaug. Turici, Meyer et 
 
 Zeller, 1842, 4to, c. tab. 3. 
 Zaddach, G. Untersuchung iiber die Entwickelung und den Bau der Gliederthiere. 
 
 Heft 1. Die Entwickelung des Phryganiden-Eies. Berlin, Reimer. 1854* 4to, c. 
 
 tab. 5. 
 Leuckart, E. Die Fortpflanzung und Entwickelung der Pupiparen nach Beobach- 
 
 tungen an Melophagus ovinus. (Abhandl. d. naturf. Gesellsch. zti Halle IV, 1858 
 
 S. 145-226.) 
 Huxley, T. On the agamic Reproduction and Morphology of Aphis (Transact. 
 
 Linnean Soc. of London, XXII, p. 193-236.) 
 Lubbock, J. On the Ova and Pseudova of Insects (Philosophical Transactions 
 
 of the Royal Soc. 1859, p. 341-369. 
 
 Claparede, E. Recherches sur P evolution des Araignees. 4to. Utrecht, 1802. 
 Weismann, A. Ueber die Entstehung des vollendeten Insekts in Larveund Puppe. 
 
 Ein Beitrag zur Metamorphose der Insekten, Frankfurt a Main, 1863, 4to. 
 . Die Entwickelung der Dipteren im Ei, nach Beobachtungen an Chii-ono- 
 
 mus, Musca vomitoria und Pulex canis (Zeitschrift fur Wissenschal'tliche Zo- 
 
 ologie XIII, p. 107-204.) 
 . Die nachembryonale Entwickelung der Musciden nach Beobachtungen an 
 
 Musca vomitoria und Sarcophaga carnaria. (The same, XIV, p. 187-336.) 
 
 FOSSIL INSECTS. 
 
 Giebel, C. Fauna der Vorwelt mit steter Beriicksichtigung der lebenden Thiere. 
 2. Bd. Gliederthiere. 1. Abtheilting. Die Insekten und Spinnen der Vorwelt mit 
 steter Beriicksichtigung der lebenden Insekten und Spinnen. Leipzig, 1856, 8vo. 
 
 Berendt, C. G. Die im "Bernstein, befindlichen organischen Reste der Vorwelt, ge- 
 sammelt und in Verbindung mit Mehreren herausgegeben. 1. Band. 2, Abth. 
 Die im Bernstein befindlichen Crustacean, Myriapoden, Arachniden und apteren 
 der Vorwelt, bearbeitet von C.L.Koch und C. G. Berendt. 1. Band. Die im 
 Bernstein befindlichen Hemipteren, Orthopteren, und Neuropteren der Vorwelt, 
 bearbeitet von E. F. Germar, F. J. Pictet, und H. Hagen. Berlin, 1854-56, fol. 
 
 Heer, O. Die Insecten-fauna der Tertiaergebilde von CEningen und Radoboj. Leip- 
 zig, 1849, 4to, 3 vols. 
 
 Scudder, S. H. An inquiry into the Zoological Relations of the first discovered 
 Traces of fossil Neuropterous Insects in North America. From the Memoirs of 
 the Boston Society of Natural History, Vol. 1, 18C7, with a plate. 
 
ENTOMOLOGICAL JOURNAL. 103 
 
 PERIODICAL WORKS (now in course of publication). 
 
 Edwards, W. H. Butterflies of North America. Colored plates. Commenced 1868. 
 
 Annales de la Societe entomologique de France, Paris. Commenced 1832. 
 
 Transactions of the Entomological Society of London. Commenced 1834. 
 
 Z/' Insectologie Agricole, Monthly Journal, Paris. Commenced 1867. 
 
 Zeitung. Entomologische Verein, Stettin. Commenced 1840. 
 
 Limited entomologica. Entomologische Verein, Berlin. Commenced 1846. 
 
 Zeitschrift. Entomologische Verein, Berlin. Commenced 1857. 
 
 Annales de la Societe entomologiqne Beige, Brussels. Commenced 1857. 
 
 Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia. Commenced 1819. 
 
 Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia. Commenced 1817. 
 
 Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. New Series. Commenced 
 1818. 
 
 Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History. Commenced 1834. 
 
 Journal of the Boston Society of Natural History. Commenced 1834. 
 
 Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York. Commenced 1824. 
 
 Proceedings and Transactions of the American Entomological Society, Philadel- 
 phia. Commenced 1861. 
 
 Proceedings and Communications of the Essex Institute, Salem. Commenced 1848. 
 
 American Naturalist, Salem. Commenced March, 1867. 
 
 ENTOMOLOGICAL JOURNAL. Every collector should keep a 
 daily journal of his captures and observations, noting down 
 every fact and hint that falls under his notice. In this book, 
 commenced as soon as the season opens in early spring, can 
 be placed on record the earliest appearance, the time of great- 
 est abundance, and the disappearance of every insect in any of 
 its stages. Also the descriptions of larva* , with sketches, and 
 observations upon their habits ; though drawings had better 
 be kept upon separate pieces of paper for easier reference. 
 The insects, when captured and unnamed should be numbered 
 to agree with corresponding numbers in the note-book. At 
 the close of the season one will be surprised to see how much 
 material of this kind has accumulated. He can then make a 
 calendar of appearances of perfect insects and larvae, so as 
 to have the work of the next season portioned out to him ; 
 he will thus know when and where to look for any particular 
 insect or caterpillar. 
 
 / 
 
 THE NUMBER OF SPECIES OF INSECTS. Oswald Heer estimates 
 that the Insects comprise four-fifths of the whole animal king- 
 dom. While there are about 55,000 species of animals known, 
 excluding the Insects, the number of this last single class 
 amounts to upwards of 190,000 known species, according to 
 
104 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 Gerstaecker's estimate. He reckons that there are at least 
 25,000 species of Hymenoptera, from 22,000 to 24,000 Lepidop- 
 tera, about 24,000 Diptera, and 90,000 Coleoptera ; the number 
 of the other suborders cannot be easily estimated. Besides 
 these there are about 4,600 Arachnida, and 800 Myriopods. 
 
 GROUPING OF INSECTS INTO ORDERS AND SUBORDERS. Be- 
 fore beginning an account of the Six-footed Insects, we 
 present the following tabular view of the Classification of In- 
 sects. The idea that the Myriopods, Spiders, and Six-footed 
 Insects formed orders and not classes was first proposed by R. 
 Leuckart in 1848, and afterwards supported by Agassiz and 
 Dana. The arrangements proposed by these and other authors 
 are put in tabular form on page 106. 
 
 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 Order L Segments grouped into three distinct re- "] 
 
 gions ; eyes compound and simple ; two pairs of HEXAPODA 
 wings;* three pairs of thoracic legs; one pair of J> (Six-footed In- 
 jointed abdominal appendages. A more or less I sects). 
 complete metamorphosis, J 
 
 Order II. Segments grouped into two regions, a") 
 false cephalothorax f and an abdomen ; no antennae ; I A 
 eyes simple -"wingless ; four pairs of thoracic legs ; }> /A . * x , I y' 
 three pairs of jointed abdominal appendages (spin- | 
 nerets) often present. No metamorphosis, . . J 
 
 Order III. Body cylindrical, worm-like. Segments *| 
 
 not grouped into regions. Head free ; eyes sim- MYRI PODA 
 pie; antennae present; wingless; numerous ab- ^ 
 dominal legs present; yelk-sac present for a 
 short period after hatching. No metamorphosis. J 
 
 THE ORDER OF SIX-FOOTED INSECTS J (Hexapoda). 
 
 Metabola. The body usually cylindrical ; prothorax "| 
 
 small ; mouth-parts more generally haustellate | HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 (formed for sucking) ; metamorphosis complete ; ^ LEPIDOPTEKA. 
 
 pupa inactive; larva usually cylindrical, very DIPTERA. 
 
 unlike the adult, . . . . . . j 
 
 Heterometabola. The body usually flattened ; pro- ^ COLEOPTFRA 
 
 thorax large and squarish; mouth-parts usually HFMIPTFRA ' 
 
 adapted for biting; metamorphosis in a large J ' 
 
 number incomplete; pupa often inactive; larva 
 
 flattened, often resembling the adult, . . 
 
 * The number of wingless forms is comparatively few. The Diptera have but 
 one pair. 
 
 fThe so-called " cephalothorax" of Spiders is not like that region in the Crabs, 
 the head being much freer from the thorax. 
 
 J Leuckart's classification is an advance on others in his considering the Hexa- 
 poda, Arachuida, and Myriapoda as orders instead of classes, but he says nothing 
 
GROUPING OF INSECTS. 
 
 105 
 
 The following diagram shows, in a rude way, the relative 
 rank and affinities of the seven suborders, and of the two 
 series of Six-footed Insects. 
 
 Neuroptera. 
 
 Through Lepisma, and Podura which are wingless Neuropter- 
 ous insects, the lower series is connected with the Myriopods, 
 the minute degraded myriopod, Pauropus of Lubbock, per- 
 haps forming the connecting link ; and through the wingless 
 flies, Braula, Chionea, and Nycteribia, the Diptera, belonging 
 to the higher series, assume the form of the Spiders, the head 
 being small, and sunken into the thorax, while the legs are 
 long and slender. The first and highest series culminates in 
 Apis, the Honey-bee ; and the second, or lower, in Citindela, 
 the Tiger-beetle. 
 
 regarding the rank and value of the minor groups. Professor Agassiz extended 
 Leuckait's views in considering the seven grand divisions of the order of Hexapods 
 as suborders. In 1863 (How to Observe and Collect Insects, Maine Scientific Sur- 
 vey, and Synthetic Types of Insects, Boston Journal of Natural History), we 
 proposed a new classification of these suborders, by which they are thrown into 
 two main groups headed by the Hymenoptera and Coleoptera respectively. These 
 two groups, as represented in the diagram, are nearly equivalent in value, and 
 stand in a somewhat parallel relation. There is nothing like a linear series in the 
 animal kingdom, but it is like a tree. The higher series of suborders form more 
 of a linear series than the lower series, so that in the diagram the Neuroptera, 
 Orthoptera, Hemiptera, and Coleoptera form a more broken series than the Hy- 
 menoptera, Lepidoptera, and Diptera. A Bee, Butterfly, and House-fly are much 
 more closely allied to each other than a Beetle, a Squash-bug, a Grasshopper, 
 and a Dragon-fly are among themselves. The Neuroptera are the most indepen- 
 dent, and stand at the bottom of and between the two series, though by the Orthop- 
 tera they are very intimately linked with the Hemiptera and Coleoptera. 
 
106 
 
 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 
 
 
 
 s o. 
 
 . ^ 
 
 1 
 
 "S S co 
 
 CO 
 
 111 
 
 PACKARD, 
 18G3. 
 
 2gSS 
 
 O a ej.3 ^ 
 
 j> S'aa.2 S 
 
 1 
 
 IB -8 
 
 S O 8.0 
 
 ^ ^ = & 
 
 O 53 c 
 
 tll 
 
 cgg 
 
 Ml lit 
 
 Arachnida. 
 Suborders 1 
 Arauea3, 
 Acari. 
 
 | ||||||g| || 
 
 o 
 
 11 
 
 FABUICIU, 
 
 1799. 
 
 a 
 
 c3 
 
 cf S 
 
 l 
 
 o ^3 SjS-S 
 
 cj 
 
 co-So^ 
 
 
 I I 
 
 Si 
 
 P! 
 ^ a* 
 
 . 
 
 -a 
 
 2,8 
 
 O 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 S.2 
 
 O ^^-^ 
 
 & 
 II 
 
HYMENOPTERA. 107 
 
 HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 THE Bees, Wasps, Saw-flies, Ants, and other members of this 
 suborder differ from all other insects in having, in the higher and 
 more typical forms, the basal joint of the abdomen thrown for- 
 ward upon and intimately united with the thorax. The head 
 is large, w r ith large compound eyes, and three ocelli. The 
 mouth-parts are well developed both for biting, and feeding on 
 the sweets of plants, the ligula especially, used in lapping 
 nectar, being greatly developed. The other regions of the 
 body are more distinct than in other insects ; the wings are 
 small but powerful, with comparatively few and somewhat 
 irregular veins, adapted for powerful and long-sustained flights ; 
 and the genital appendages retracted, except in the Ichneu- 
 mon parasites and Saw-flies, within the body, are in the female 
 modified into a sting. 
 
 The transformations of this suborder are the most complete 
 of all insects ; the larvae in their general form are more unlike 
 the adult insects than in any other suborder, while the pupae, 
 on the other hand, most clearly approximate to the imago. 
 The larvae are short, cylindrical, footless (excepting the young 
 of the Saw-flies, the lowest family, which are provided with 
 abdominal legs like Lepidopterous larvae), worm-like grubs, 
 wiiich are helpless, and have to be fed by the prevision of the 
 parent. The pupa has the limbs free, and is generally contained 
 in a thin silken cocoon ; that of the Saw-flies, however, being 
 thick. 
 
 The Hymenoptera exhibit, according to Professor Dana, the 
 normal size of the insect-type. "This archetypic size is be- 
 
 NOTE to page 106. Ray divided the Hexapods into Coleoptera and Aneloptera, 
 the latter division embracing all the other suborders except the Coleoptera. His 
 Ametamorphota Hexapoda contained the wingless hexapoda; while the Ametamor- 
 phota poly poda comprise the Myriopods, and the A. octopoda the Arachnids. Lin- 
 naeus' Aptera (with numerous feet) are equivalent to the Myriopods, and his Aptera 
 (with 8-14 feet) to the Ai-achnids. In Fabricius' system the Eleutherata are equiva- 
 lent to the Coleoptera ; the Ulonata to the Orthoptera ; the Synistata to the Neurop- 
 tera ; the Piezata to the Hymenoptera ; the Odonata to the Libellulidae ; the Glossata 
 to the Lepidoptera ; the Rhyngota to the Hemiptera; the Antliata to the Diptera. 
 The Mitosata are the Myriopods, and the Unogata, the Arachnids. In Latreille's 
 system the Suctoria, or FleasJ are now referred to the Diptera; the Parasita or 
 Lice, to the Hemiptera, and the Thysanura to the Neuroptera. 
 
108 HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 tween eight and twelve lines (or twelfths of an inch) in length, 
 and two and a half and three lines in breadth." This size is 
 probably a smaller average than in any other suborder ; thus the 
 Hymenoptera while being the most cephalized, consequently 
 comprise the most compactly moulded insectean forms. 
 
 Besides these structural characters, as animals, endowed 
 with instincts and a kind of reason differing, perhaps, only in 
 degree from that of man, these insects outrank all other Articu- 
 lates. In the unusual differentiation of the individual into males 
 and females, and, generally sterile workers, with a farther dimor- 
 phism of these three sexual forms, such as Huber has noticed 
 in the Humble-bee, and a consequent subdivision of labor 
 among them ; in dwelling in large colonies, thus involving new 
 and intricate relations with other insects (such as Aphides, 
 ant-hill-inhabiting beetles, and the peculiar bee-parasites) ; 
 their wonderful instincts, their living principally on the sweets 
 and pollen of flowers, and not being essentially carnivorous 
 (i.e. seizing their prey like the Tiger-beetle) in their habits, as 
 are a large proportion of the other suborders, with the exception 
 of Lepidoptera ; and in their relation to man as a domestic an- 
 imal, subservient to his wants, the Bees, and Hymenoptera 
 in general, possess a combination of characters which are not 
 found existing in any other suborder of insects, and which 
 rank them first and highest in the insect series. 
 
 The body-wall of the Hymenoptera is unusually dense and 
 hard, smooth and highly polished, and either naked, or covered 
 with hair as in a large proportion of the bees. The head is 
 large, not much smaller than the thorax, and its front is A r erti- 
 cal. The antennae are short, filiform, often geniculate, very 
 rarely pectinated. The mandibles are large, stout, toothed, and 
 the maxillae are well developed into their three subdivisions, 
 the palpi being usually six-jointed ; the labial palpi are usually 
 four-jointed, and the prolongation of the under lip, or ligula, 
 is highly developed, being furnished with a secondary pair 
 of palpi, the paraglossae, while in the pollen-gathering species 
 the ligula is of great length, and thus answers much the same 
 purpose as the spiral tongue (maxillae) of the Lepidoptera. 
 
 Reaumur states that the Bee does not suck up the liquid 
 sweets, but laps them up with its long slender hairy tongue. 
 
HYMENOPTERA. 109 
 
 "Even in the drop of honey the bee bends the end of its 
 tongue about, and lengthens and shortens it successively, and, 
 indeed, withdraws it from moment to moment." The liquid 
 passes along the upper surface of the pilose tongue, which is 
 withdrawn between its sheaths, the palpi and maxillae, and thus 
 " conveys and deposits the liquid with which it is charged 
 within a sort of channel, formed by the upper surface of the 
 tongue and the sheaths which fold over it, by which the liquid 
 is conveyed to the mouth." (Shuckard.) 
 
 The thorax forms a rounded compact oval mass, with the 
 prothorax and metathorax very small, the mesothorax being 
 large, and also the propodeum, to which the pedicel of the ab- 
 domen is attached. The pleurites are large and bulging, 
 while the sternum is minute. The coxae and trochantines are 
 large, and quite free from the thorax ; and the trochanters 
 are small, while the rather slender legs <are subject to great 
 modifications, as they are devoted to so many different uses 
 by these insects ; thus, in the Sand-wasps they are strongly 
 bristled for the purpose of digging, and in the Bees, the 
 basal joint of the tarsi is much enlarged for carrying pollen. 
 
 "The manner in which the bee conveys either the pollen, or 
 other material it purposes carrying home, to the posterior 
 legs, or venter, which is to bear it, is very curious. The 
 rapidity of the motion of its legs is then very great,; so great, 
 indeed, as to make it very difficult to follow them j but it 
 seems first to collect its material gradually with its mandibles, 
 from which the anterior tarsi gather it, and that on each side 
 passes successively the grains of which it consists to the inter- 
 mediate legs, by multiplicated scrapings and twistings of the 
 limbs ; this, then, passes it on by similar manoeuvres, and de- 
 posits it, according to the nature of the bee, upon the pos- 
 terior tibiae and tarsi, or upon the under side of the abdomen. 
 The evidence of this process is speedily manifested by the pos- 
 terior legs gradually exhibiting an increasing pellet of pollen. 
 Thus, for this purpose, all the legs of the bees are more or less 
 covered with hair. It is the mandibles which are chiefly used 
 in their boring or excavating operations, applying their hands, 
 or anterior tarsi, only to clear their way ; but by the construc- 
 tive, or artisan bees, they are used both in their building and 
 
110 HYMENOPTERA . 
 
 mining operations, and are worked like trowels to collect moist 
 clay, and to apply it to the masonry of their habitations." 
 (Shuckard.) 
 
 The four wings are present, except in rare instances. They 
 are small ; the hinder pair long, narrow, ovate, lanceolate. 
 The costal edge of the fore-wing (Fig. 29), is generally 
 straight, becoming a little curved towards the apex, which 
 is obtusely subrectangular ; the outer edge is bent at right 
 angles, while the inner edge of the wing is long and straight. 
 The veins are often difficult to trace, as in the outer half of the 
 wing they break up into a system of net-veins, which are few 
 in number, yet the continuations of the subcostal, median, and 
 submedian veins can be distinguished after careful study. 
 
 In some low Ichneumonidce, the Proctotrupidce, and 
 Clialcididm, the veins show a tendency to become obsolete, 
 only the simple subcostal vein remaining ; and in Pteratomus, 
 the veins are entirely obliterated, and the linear feather-like 
 wings are in one pair fissured, reminding us of the Plume- 
 moths, Pterophorus. 
 
 The abdomen is composed in the larva state of ten segments, 
 but in the adult stinging Hymenoptera, of six complete seg- 
 ments in the females, and seven in the males ; while in the 
 lower families the number varies, having in the Tenthredi- 
 nidce, eight tergites on the upper side and six sternites on the 
 lower side. The remaining segments are, during the transfor- 
 mations of the insect, aborted and withdrawn within the body. 
 The ovipositor and corresponding parts in the male have 
 been described on pp. 14-18. 
 
 The nervous system consists in the larvae of eleven ganglia, 
 in the adult five or six of these remain as abdominal ganglia, 
 while the remainder, excluding the cephalic ganglia, are placed 
 in two groups in the thorax. The cerebral ganglia are well 
 developed, evincing the high intellectual qualities necessary in 
 presiding over organs with such different uses as the simple 
 and compound eyes, the antennae, and lingua and palpi, and 
 mandibles, especially in those sociable species which build 
 complete nests. 
 
 The digestive system, in those bees which sip up their food, 
 consists, besides the external mouth-parts, of a "long cesoph- 
 
HYMENOPTERA . Ill 
 
 agus which dilates into a thin-walled sucking stomach," which 
 in the Api arias and Vespidce may be simply a lateral fold, 
 or, as in many Crabroniclce, "attached solely by a short and 
 narrow peduncle." In Formica, Cynips, Leucospis, and Xypliid- 
 ria there is a globular uncurved callous gizzard, which is en- 
 veloped by the base of the stomach, according to Siebold, who 
 also states that "those Hymenoptera which are engaged during 
 a long and active life in labors for the raising and support of 
 their young, have a pretty long and flexuous stomach and in- 
 testine, and the first has, usually, many constrictions ; " while 
 the Cynipidce, Ichneumonidce, and Tenthredinidce, 
 which take no care of their young, have only a short small 
 stomach and intestine. The salivary glands consist of two 
 rather short ramified tufts, often contained entirely in the head. 
 
 The tracheae consist, as in other insects, of two main branches, 
 from which numerous transverse anastomosing branches are 
 given off, with numerous vesicular dilatations. Two such vesi- 
 cles of immense volume are situated at the base of the abdo- 
 men, w T hich according to Hunter and Newport "serve chiefly 
 to enable the insect to alter its specific gravity at pleasure dur- 
 ing flight, and thus diminish the muscular exertion required 
 during these movements." 
 
 The urinary vessels are very numerous in the Hymenoptera ; 
 they are usually short and surround the pylorus in numbers of 
 from twenty to one hundred and fifty. 
 
 The two poison glands (Fig. 54, h,g) are composed of long 
 ramose tubes, resembling the salivary glands in their minute 
 structure. The poison is poured from these into a pyriform 
 sac lodged near the base of the sting, which is provided with a 
 peculiar muscular apparatus for its sudden extension and with- 
 drawal. The poison, in the Ants, Bees, and Wasps, consists, 
 according to Will, of "formic acid, and a whitish, fatty, sharp 
 residuum, the former being the poisonous substance." (Bur- 
 nett.) 
 
 The wax-secreting apparatus consists of special dermal 
 glands, as Milne-Edwards supposed. Glaus has shown (see 
 G-egeiibaur's Verg. Anatomic) that these minute glands arc 
 mostly unicellular, the external opening being through a fine 
 chitinous tube on the outer surface of the integument. In the 
 
112 HYMEXOPTERA. 
 
 wax-producing insects these glands are developed in great 
 numbers over certain portions of the body. In the Aphides, 
 whose bodies are covered with a powder consisting of fine waxy 
 threads, these glands are collected in groups. Modifications of 
 them appear in the Coccidae. In the wax-producing Hyrnen- 
 optera the apparatus is somewhat Complicated. The bees 
 secrete wax in thin, transparent, membranous plates on the 
 under side of the abdominal segments. Polygonal areas arc 
 formed by the openings of an extraordinarily large number oT 
 fine pore-canals, in which, surrounded by very numerous tra- 
 cheal branches, the cylindrical gland-cells are densely piled 
 upon each other. These form the wax organs, over which a 
 fatty layer spreads. In those bees which do not produce wax, 
 the glands of the wax organs are slightly developed. Wax 
 organs also occur in the Humble bees. 
 
 The honey is elaborated by an unknown chemical process, 
 from the food contained in the proventriculus, or crop, and 
 which is regurgitated into the honey-cells. 
 
 The ovaries consist of many-chambered, four, six, or a hun- 
 dred, short tubes. "The receptacula seminis is nearly always 
 simple, round or ovoid, and necked, and is prolonged into a 
 usually short seminal duct." The glandula appendicularis con- 
 sists of a bifurcate tube which opens into the ductus seminalis, 
 and only rarely into the capsula seminaUs itself. 
 
 In the Tenthredinidce, " this apparatus is formed on a 
 different type ; the seminal vesicle is a simple diverticulum of 
 the vagina, and more or less distinct from it, besides it is defi- 
 cient in the accessory gland. The copulatory pouch is absent in 
 all the Hymenoptera, as are also the sebaceous glands with those 
 females which have a sting and a poison gland," while in other 
 insects the sebaceous glands are present, and it would be nat- 
 urally inferred, therefore, that the two are homologous, but 
 modified for diverse functions. 
 
 The two testes of the male are "composed of long follicles, 
 fasciculate and surrounded, together with a portion of the 
 torose deferent canal, by a common envelope ; but more com- 
 monly the two testes are contained in a capsule situated on the 
 median line of the body." (Siebold.) 
 
 The eggs are usually long, cylindrical, and slightly curved in 
 
HYMENOPTERA. 113 
 
 the Bees ; in the Wasps they are more globular, and affixed by 
 their smaller somewhat pedicelled end to the side, near the bot- 
 tom of the cell in which they are laid. The eggs of the lower 
 families tend to assume a spherical form. The eggs of dif- 
 erent species of Bombus present no appreciable differences. 
 
 The larvae of the Bees and Wasps, especially the social 
 species, which live surrounded by their food, are of a very 
 persistent form, the various genera differing but slightly, while 
 the species can scarcely be separated. Such we have found to 
 be the case in the Bees and Wasps ( Vespidce) and Fossorial 
 Wasps. The sexes of the species with a very thin tegument, 
 such as Apis, Bombus, and Vespa, can be quite easily distin- 
 guished, as the rudiments of the genital armor can be seen 
 through. 
 
 The Hymenoptera are mostly confined to the warmer and 
 temperate regions of the earth ; as we approach the poles, the 
 Bees disappear, with the exception of Bombus, and perhaps 
 its parasite Apathus ; a species of Vespa is found on the Lab- 
 rador coast, which has a climate like that of Greenland. No 
 fossorial species of Wasps are known to us to occur in the arc- 
 tic regions, while a few species of Ants, and several Chalcidi- 
 dce and Ichneumonidce are not uncommon in Northern 
 Labrador and Greenland. Our alpine summits, particularly 
 that of Mt. Washington, reproduces the features of Northern 
 Labrador and Greenland as regards its HymenopterouB fauna. 
 The tropics are, however, the home of the Hymenoptera, and 
 especially of the Bees. 
 
 There are estimated to be about twenty-five thousand living 
 species of this suborder, and this is probably a much smaller 
 number than are yet to be discovered. 
 
 In geological history, the Hymenoptera do not date far back 
 compared with the Neuroptera and Orthoptera, and even the 
 Coleoptera. Indeed they were among the last to appear upon 
 the earth's surface. The lower forms, so far as the scanty 
 records show, appeared first in the Jura formation ; the Ants 
 appear in the Tertiary period, especially in amber. 
 
 As we have noticed before, the Hymenoptera are more purely 
 terrestrial than any other insects. None are known to be 
 aquatic in the early stages, and only two genera have been found 
 8 
 
114 HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 swimming in the adult state on the surface of pools, and they 
 are the low, minute, degraded Proctotrupids, Prestivichia 
 natans and Polynema natans described by Mr. Lubbock. The 
 Hymenoptera do not imitate or mimic the forms of other in- 
 sects, but, on the contrary, their forms are extensively copied in 
 the Lepidoptera, and especially the Diptera. A partial excep- 
 tion to this law is seen in the antennae of the Australian genus 
 Thaumatosoma, where they are long and slender, and knobbed 
 as in the butterfly, and also in Tetralonia mirabilis of Smith, 
 from Brazil. ;? 
 
 The Hymenoptera, also, show their superiority to all other in- 
 sects in the form of their degraded wingless species, such as 
 Pezomaclms, the workers of Formica and the female of Mutilla. 
 In these forms we have no striking resemblances to lower orders 
 and suborders, but .a strong adherence to their own Hymenop- 
 terous characters. Again ; in the degradational winged forms, 
 we rarely find the antennae pectinated ; a common occurrence 
 in the lower suborders. In a low species of the Apiarice, 
 Lamprocolletes dadocerus, from Australia, that land of anom- 
 alies, the antennae are pectinated. This, Mr. F. Smith, the 
 best living authority on this suborder, says, "is certainly the 
 most remarkable bee that I have seen, and the only in- 
 stance, to my knowledge, of -a bee having pectinated antennae ; 
 such an occurrence, indeed, in the Aculeate Hymenoptera is 
 only known in two or three instances, as in Psammotlierma flab- 
 ellata amongst the Mutillidce, and again in Ctenocerus Klugii 
 in the Pompilidce; there is also a modification of it in one or 
 two other species of Pompilidce ." Among the Tenthre- 
 dinidce, the male Lophyrus has well-pectinated antennae, as 
 also has Cladomacra macropus of Smith, from New Guinea 
 and Celebes. 
 
 The wings of perhaps the most degraded Hymenoptera, the 
 Proctotrupidce, are rarely fissured ; when this occurs, as in 
 Pteratomus Putnamii, they somewhat resemble those of Ptero- 
 phorus, the lowest moth. It 'is extremely rare that the com- 
 pound eyes are replaced by stemmata, or simple eyes ; in but 
 one instance, the genus Anthophorabia, are the eyes in the 
 male sex reduced to a simple ocellus. This species lives in the 
 darkness of the cells of Anthophora. 
 
115 
 
 By reason of the permanence of the type, due to the high 
 rank of these insects, the generic and specific characters are 
 founded on very slight differences, so that these insects, and 
 particularly the two higher families, the Wasps ( Vespidce) and 
 Bees (Apioarioe) are the most difficult insects to study. The 
 easiest characters for the recognition of the genera, lie in the 
 venation of the wings ; though in the fossorial families the legs 
 vary greatly. The best specific characters lie in the sculptur- 
 ing and style of coloration, but the spots and markings are apt 
 to vary greatly. The great differences between the sexes are 
 liable to mislead the student, and hence large collections are 
 indispensable for their proper study. Bees act as "marriage 
 priests" in the fertilization of plants, conveying pollen from 
 flower to flower, and thus insuring the formation of the fruit. 
 It is said that many plants could not be fertilized without 
 the interposition of Bees. 
 
 Their interesting habits deserve long and patient study ; it 
 is for their observations on the insects of this suborder that the 
 names of Reaumur, the two Hubers, and Latreille will be ever 
 held in special remembrance. 
 
 Most Hymenoptera love the sun, and they may be caught 
 while flying about flowers. The nests of bees, wasps, and ants 
 should be sought for and the entire colony captured, together 
 with the parasites. The hairy species should be pinned while in 
 the net, and the naked ones can be put in the collecting-bot- 
 tle. The larger species may be pinned, like other insects, 
 through the thorax ; but the minute Chalcids, etc., should be 
 gummed, like small Coleoptera, upon cards. 
 
 The nests of bees and of wasps and ants and the young in 
 various stages of growth should be collected, and in such num- 
 bers as to show their different stages of construction, to serve 
 as illustrations of insect architecture. 
 
 APIARI^E Latreille (Apidce Leach) . This and those families 
 succeeding which are provided with a true sting, were called 
 by Latreille Hymenoptera Aculeata- The male antennae are 
 mostly thirteen-jointed, while in the female they are twelve- 
 jointed. The females (and the workers, when they exist) 
 feed the larvae, which mostly live in nests or cells. 
 
116 HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 In the social Bees, besides the normal male and female forms, 
 there are asexual females, whose inner genital organs are partly 
 aborted, though externally only differing in their smaller size 
 from the true females. The male antennae are longer, tapering 
 more towards the tips, and the eyes of the male approach each 
 other closer over the vertex than in the opposite sex, though 
 these are characters which apply to other Hymenoptera. The 
 mouth-parts are in the higher genera greatly elongated, the 
 labium being long, with the lingua of great length, and the 
 lobes of the maxillae long and knife-shaped ; but these parts, as 
 well as the form of the jaws, are subject to great modifications 
 in the different genera : the labial palpi are four-jointed, and 
 the maxillary palpi are from one to six-jointed. The hind 
 tibia and basal joint of the tarsi are, in the pollen-gathering 
 species, very broad ; the tibia is in Apis and Boinbus hollowed 
 on the outside, and stiff bristles project over the cavity from 
 each side of the joint, forming the honey-basket (corbiculum) , 
 on which the "clodden masses of honey and pollen" are con- 
 veyed to their nests. In the parasitic genera, such as Apatlius, 
 the tibia is, on the contrary, convex, rather than concave, 
 though of the usual width ; while in Nomada, also parasitic, 
 the legs are narrow, the tibia not being dilated. 
 
 In Andrena and its allies, Halictus and Colletes, the mouth- 
 parts, especially the tongue, are much shortened, thus afford- 
 ing a passage into the Vespidce. In these genera the tongue 
 is folded back but once between the horny encasement of the 
 maxillae, but in the higher Apiarice the part formed by the 
 union of the lingua and maxilla is twice bent back, and thus 
 protected by the horny lobes of the maxillae. The fore- wings 
 have two or three subcostal (cubital) cells. 
 
 There are two thousand species of this family. The differ- 
 ences between the larvae of the various genera of this family 
 are very slight, those of the parasitic species are, however, 
 readily distinguished from their hosts. 
 
 The higher Apiarice, comprising the subfamily Apinw, have 
 the ligula long, cylindrical, while the labial palpi have two 
 very long, slender, compressed basal joints, and two short 
 terminal joints. 
 
 The genus Apis has no terminal spurs on the hind tibiae, 
 
APIAKUE. 117 
 
 while the fore-wings have three subcostal (cubital) cells, the 
 middle of which is elongated and acutely wedge-shaped. The 
 eyes in the male are united above ; the mouth-parts are nearly 
 aborted, and the hind legs are smooth. In the female there 
 are two paraglossae on the ligula, and the maxillary palpi 
 are one-jointed. The worker only differs externally from the 
 female in the shorter abdomen. 
 
 The larva of the Hojiey-bee closely resembles that of Bom- 
 bus, but the body is shorter, broader, and more flattened, while 
 the head is less prominent, and the lateral tubercles along the 
 body are, perhaps, less prominent than in the young Humble- 
 bee, otherwise the two genera are, in the larval state, much 
 alike. In its natural position, the larva lies at the bottom of 
 the cell doubled upon itself, .ho 
 
 Though the larvae are said usually to feed upon pollen, 
 Mr. Desborough states that honey alone is the food of the 
 grub, as he reared 729 larvae with no other food than honey. 
 But as with the wild bees they may extract honey from the 
 pollen provided for them. He says the matured bees may be 
 observed feeding at night on the bee-bread (pollen). Lang- 
 stroth (The Hive and Honey-bee), however, states that "pol- 
 len is indispensable to the nourishment of the young. It is 
 very rich in the nitrogenous substances which are not contained 
 in the honey." 
 
 The Honey-bee, Apis melliftca^ is now distributed over the 
 civilized world. It was introduced into this country during 
 the seventeenth century, and into South America in 1845 (Ger- 
 stsecker). The Italian, or Ligurian, bee is considered by F. 
 Smith as being a climatic variety. 
 
 The cultivation of the Honey-bee is rapidly increasing in this 
 country, but the German Bee-masters have made the most pro- 
 gress in theoretical and practical Bee-culture. Convenient 
 hives are now constructed by which all the operations of the 
 bees can be observed at leisure. Gerstaecker thus sums up 
 the habits of the Honey-bee : A fertilized queen which, with a 
 few workers, has wintered over, lays its eggs in the spring first 
 in the worker, and afterwards, at a later period, in the drone- 
 cells (both arranged in two perpendicular rows of cells). Early 
 in summer, the workers construct the larger flask-shaped queen- 
 
118 H YMENOPTERA . 
 
 cells, which are placed on the edge of the comb, and in these 
 the queen-larvae are fed with rich and choice nourishment. 
 As soon as the first of the new brood of queens is excluded 
 from its cell, which it indicates by a peculiar buzzing noise, the 
 old queen deserts the nest, carrying away with her a part of the 
 swarm, and thus forms a new colony. The recently excluded 
 queen then takes its marriage flight high in the . air with a 
 drone, and on its return undertakes the management of the 
 hive, and the duty of laying eggs. When another queen is 
 disclosed, the same process of forming a new colony goes on. 
 When the supply of young queens is exhausted, the workers 
 fall upon the drones and destroy them without mercy. The 
 first brood of workers live about six w r eeks in summer, and 
 then give way to a new brood. Mr. J. G. Desborough states 
 that the maximum period of the life of a worker is eight months. 
 The queens are known to live five years, and during their whole 
 life lay more than a million eggs (V. Berlepsch). Langstroth 
 states that "during the height of the breeding season, she 
 will often, under favorable circumstances, lay from 2,000 to 
 3,000 eggs a day." According to Von Siebold's discovery 
 only the queens' and workers' eggs are fertilized by sperm- 
 cells stored in the receptaculum seminis, and these she can 
 fertilize at will, retaining the power for four or five years, 
 as the muscles guarding the duct leading from this sperm-bag 
 are subject to her will. Drone eggs are laid by unfertilized 
 queen-bees, and in some cases even by worker-bees. This last 
 fact has been confirmed by the more recent observations of 
 Mr. Tegetmeier, of London. 
 
 Principal Leitch, according to Tegetmeier, has suggested the 
 theory that a worker egg may develop a queen, if transferred 
 into a queen-cell. "It is well known that bees, deprived of 
 their queen, select several worker-eggs, or very young larvae, 
 for the purpose of rearing queens. The cells in which these 
 eggs are situated are lengthened out and the end turned down- 
 ward." He suggests that the development into a queen was 
 caused by the increased temperature of the queen-cell, above 
 that of the worker-cells. 
 
 But Messrs. F. Smith and Woodbury (Proceedings of the 
 Entomological Society of London, January 2, 1862) support F. 
 
APIARI^. 119 
 
 Huberts theory, that the change is due to "the quality as well 
 as quantity of food with which the royal larva is supplied," 
 though Dr. Leitch objects, that it has been by no means con- 
 clusively proved " that the so-called royal jelly differs in any 
 respect from the ordinary food supplied to the worker larva ; " 
 and Mr. Woodbury cites the experiments of Dzierzon, as 
 quoted by Kleine, "that as Huber, by introducing some royal 
 jelly in cells containing worker-brood, obtained queens, it may 
 be possible to induce bees to construct royal cells, when the 
 Apiarian prefers to have them, by inserting a small portion of 
 royal jelly in cells containing worker-larvae." Kleine takes " an 
 unsealed royal cell which usually contains an excess of 
 royal jelly and removes from it a portion of the jelly, on 
 the point of a knife or pen, and by placing it on the inner 
 margin of any worker cell, feels confident that the larvae in 
 them will be reared as queens." 
 
 Before these points are settled we must study the habits of 
 the Wild Bees, and of the other social Hymenoptera and White 
 Ants, together with the social Aphides more carefully. Mr. F. 
 W. Putnam pertinently states, "at present I cannot believe 
 that the peculiarity of food, or the structure of the cells, pro- 
 duces a difference of development in Humble-bees, for the lar- 
 vae, as has been previously stated, were seen to make their own 
 cells from the pollen paste. Is it not more natural to believe, 
 as has been suggested to me by Professor J. Wyman, that the 
 difference in the development of the eggs is owing to their be- 
 ing laid at various times after impregnation? Thus, if I am 
 right in supposing that the queens are impregnated by the 
 males late in the summer, the eggs, laid soon after, produce 
 the large queen larvae ; * the next-set of eggs, laid in the spring, 
 produce the workers, or undeveloped females, while from those 
 deposited still later, male bees are principally developed." 
 (Proceedings of the Essex Institute, Salem, vol. iv, 1864, p. 
 103.) 
 
 Referring to Mr. Putnam's statement that there are both small 
 and large queens (besides the workers) , Dr. Gerstaecker infers, 
 
 * Dr. Gerstaecker, on the other hand, states that " from the brood-cells of a nest 
 of Bombus muscorum, found by him on the 18th of September, there were devel- 
 oped at the end of the same month only workers." 
 
120 HYMEXOPTERA. 
 
 "from the examination of numerous individuals found flying in 
 the spring after hibernation, that these could not be considered 
 as true queens, since their ovaries were only moderately devel- 
 oped, though larger than those of the workers, while in the 
 true queen, captured in the summer, the ovaries were perfectly 
 developed. This corresponds almost entirely to what we find 
 in the wasps, whose spring females have only moderately de- 
 veloped ovaries." 
 
 How the Honey-bee builds its cells, and whether they are ex- 
 actly hexagonal, are questions that have interested the best 
 observers from Maraldi who wrote in 1712, and Reaumur, 
 whose Memoires appeared in 1740, down to the present date. 
 Their solution involves not only the closest observation of the 
 insect while at work, but also the shrewdest judgment to ex- 
 plain the facts observed and deduce a legitimate theory. Does 
 the bee intelligently plan her work out beforehand, or does she 
 follow the guidance of what is called instinct? Does she 
 construct hexagonal cells which are mathematically exact, 
 or does she vary the proportions of each cell, so that it is per- 
 fect only in its general ideal form? Again, in making the cell, 
 is the bee actually capable of making such a cell alone, or is it 
 due to the resultant action of several bees? Professor J. Wy- 
 man is of the latter opinion, as he thinks "that if left alone to 
 build a single cell, this would most probably be round. In the 
 cells of Melipona, as Huber's plate shows, they are only hex- 
 agonal when in contact with the adjoining, cells." (Proceed- 
 ings of the Boston Society of Natural History, x, p. 278, 
 1866.) 
 
 A similar view is that proposed in 1862 by the Rev. Samuel 
 Haughton, in a paper read before the Natural History Society 
 of Dublin, where he says, according to Mr. F. Smith, that the 
 hexagonal form of the cell " may be accounted for simply by the 
 mechanical pressure of the insects against each other during 
 the formation of the cell. In consequence of the instinct that 
 compels them to work with reference to a plane, and of the 
 cylindrical form of the insect's body, the cells must be hex- 
 agonal." 
 
 Mr. G. R. Waterhouse (Transactions of the Entomological 
 Society of London. Third series, vol. ii, p. 129, 1864) has 
 
APIARI^E. 121 
 
 proposed what has been called the "circular theory," or what 
 the author himself terms "the principle of working in seg- 
 ments of circles." He contends " that the hexagonal form of the 
 cells of certain bees and wasps may, and does, arise out of this 
 mode of action when under certain conditions ; that those condi- 
 tions are, that the cells are so commenced that their natural cir- 
 cumferences, as the work proceeds, are either simply brought 
 into contact with each other, or that the cells are so placed that 
 the (we will say theoretical) circumferences must intersect. 
 Contact with adjoining Cells, then, is an essential condition to 
 bring about the hexagonal form as I have before pointed out 
 (See Proceedings of the Entomological Society, 1858, p. 17) ; 
 but for this result it is not necessary that a hexagonal cell 
 should be completely surrounded by other cells." 
 
 Is not this theory, after all, too mechanical ? Is not our bee 
 more of a free agent ? Does it not have a mind to design its 
 work ? Mr. F. Smith, who has devoted years to the study of 
 Hymenoptera, especially the higher forms of this suborder, the 
 Bees and Wasps, replies to both theories of Waterhouse and 
 Haughton, by bringing in the case of the Wasps which also 
 build hexagonal cells, showing that a solitary wasp will build 
 its cells in very regular hexagons. Thus the nest of the soli- 
 tary Wasp, Icaria guttatipennis, "consists of a double row, the 
 number of cells being ten ; I now direct your attention to the 
 fact that all the cells are perfectly hexagonal, the exterior 
 planes being as beautifully finished as those in contact with 
 the inner planes of the opposing cells. I have placed a draw- 
 ing of this nest (Plate 5, Fig. 7) in the box on the table, and I 
 particularly wish you to observe, that the first cell is carried 
 up in a perfectly hexagonal form above the adjoining cells ; a 
 proof that, if Wasps never build perfect isolated hexagonal cells, 
 they certainly possess the capability of doing so. The exterior 
 of all the cells, as I before observed, is hexagonal, not cylindri- 
 cal, until fresh cells are added on the outer side, as was ob- 
 served to be the case in combs of the Hive-bee, by Mr. 
 Tegetmeier." (Proceedings of the Entomological Society of 
 London. Third series, ii, 1864, p. 135.) 
 
 An examination of the cells of three species of Polistes (the 
 female of which begins alone in the spring to build her nest, 
 
122 HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 the cells of which are afterwards greatly increased in number 
 after the first brood of females appear) , convinced us that 
 the Wasp begins with the circular cup-shaped form of cell, and 
 when about depositing an egg in it, changes her mode of ope- 
 rating, builds up the edges into a hexagonal form, and carries 
 up the rim of each cell independently to its required height. 
 She thus apparently changes her plan at a certain stage of the 
 work, and is so far a free agent. 
 
 Mr. Smith also exhibited a portion of the nest of another 
 wasp, Tatua Morio (Plate 5, Fig. 9), that proved to his mind 
 the primary intention of the wasp instinctively to build cells 
 with exactly six sides. The figure represents part of one of 
 the flat floors, on which the foundations of the cells are laid in 
 regular hexagons, instead of beginning in hemispherical cups. 
 
 Mr. Smith (p. 141) concludes, "that all hexagonal cells are 
 not constructed upon a circular principle, and that the primary 
 idea of all social bees and wasps is not to produce cylindrical 
 cells with hemispherical bases." 
 
 In this connection the following extract from Mr. Smith's 
 remarks is of interest : "It may not be known that in order to 
 expedite the building of honey -combs, it is a common practice 
 with bee-keepers in Germany to furnish hives with artificial 
 foundations for the cells ; these consist of sheets of wax, upon 
 which is impressed a series of pyramidal hollows ; in fact, the 
 counterpart of a comb built by the bees themselves, entirely 
 deprived of the cell-walls ; and it is from such a piece of comb 
 that the casts for the artificial foundations are obtained. A 
 piece of casting of this description I lay before you, and I par- 
 ticularly call your attention (addressing the members of the 
 Entomological Society of London) to the commencement of the 
 outer cells ; you will see, in some instances, a single plane of 
 the hexagonal cell commenced, in others two or three are in 
 progress ; here you have a ground-plan supplied, or, I may say, 
 the foundations of the habitations ready prepared, upon which 
 the laborers are to raise the walls, and you may see how admi- 
 rably they have done it. Instinct enables the bee to construct 
 hexagonal cells without teaching, and, we are told, in one un- 
 deviating manner. Surely the example before us exhibits an 
 amount of intelligence on the part of the bees in availing them- 
 
APIARI^E. 123 
 
 selves of such adventitious aid. Must we not henceforth, 
 when speaking of the marvels of the hive or the vespiary, erase 
 from our vocabulary such terms as blind instinct ; and must we 
 not cease to stigmatize the bee as a mere machine ? " 
 
 At the meeting of the same society held Feb. 1, 1864, Mr. 
 F. Smith exhibited a collection of Wasps' nests, one of Vespa 
 rufa, the rest of V. vulgaris; they were in various stages of 
 formation, the earliest consisting of only a single cup contain- 
 ing the first egg, others consisting of three or four cups, whilst 
 others again were more complete. The whole had been arti- 
 ficially obtained by Mr. Stone, who tempted the wasps to build 
 by excavating holes in banks and furnishing them with foot- 
 stalks ; in fact, Mr. Stone appeared to possess the power of 
 inducing wasps to build nests of almost any shape he 
 pleased. 
 
 But to return to the cell of the Bee. It should first be 
 proved that the cells are not exactly and mathematically per- 
 fect hexagons, though sufficiently so for the purpose for which 
 they are used. In the Proceedings of the American Academy 
 of Arts and Sciences, vol. vii, 1866, Professor Wyman has, by 
 a most careful as well as novel and ingenious mode of investiga- 
 tion, proved that the cells are all more or less imperfect, and 
 that a hexagonal cell mathematically exact, does not exist in 
 nature, but only in theory. 
 
 The form of the cell is liable to marked variations, chief 
 among which the following may be mentioned, in the author's 
 own words : 
 
 "1. The diameters of workers' cells may so vary, that ten 
 of them may have an aggregate deviation from the normal 
 quantity equal to the diameter of a cell. The average varia- 
 tion is a little less than one half that amount, namely, nearly 
 0.10 inch, in the same number of cells. 
 
 U 2. The width of the sides varies, and this generally in- 
 volves a variation of the angles which adjoining sides make 
 with each other, since the sides vary not only in length but in 
 direction. 
 
 "3. The variation in the diameters does not depend ^upon 
 accidental distortion, but upon the manner in which the cell 
 was built. 
 
124 
 
 HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 "4. The relative size of the rhombic faces of the pyramidal 
 base is liable to frequent variation, and this where the cells are 
 not transitional from one kind to another. 
 
 "5. When a fourth side exists in the basal pyramid, it may 
 be in consequence of irregularity in the size of the cells, or of 
 incorrect alignment of them on the two sides of the comb." 
 
 Sometimes one of the faces is lost, and a new one formed, 
 
 so that all the basal portion of the cell becomes reversed, as 
 
 ABC will be seen by refer- 
 
 ence to Figs. 73 and 
 74 ; the first repre- 
 73. senting the cells when 
 
 the base is viewed, and the second when looked at perpendic- 
 ularly to one of the sides. In both figures A indicates the 
 ordinary form of the cell. The whole ABC 
 series of Fig. 74 shows the gradual 
 introduction of the new face, which 
 is seen on the lower border, and the 
 elimination of one of the original faces, 
 which is seen on the upper border. At 
 B, which is intermediate between the 
 two extremes, the four faces consist of two equal rhombs, 
 one of which is the outgoing and the other the incoming one, 
 A fl c and two equal hexagons. B, Fig. 
 
 74, represents the sides of the same 
 cell, which, instead of forming three 
 trapeziums, as at A, a, 6, c, now 
 form two pentagons, a' and c', and a 
 parallelogram, &'. At C, Figs. 73 
 and 74, the forms are in all respects 
 the reverse of those of A. A and C 
 are symmetrical with each other, and 
 B is S3'mmetrical in itself. No pre- 
 cise number of cells is necessary 
 for the purpose of making this transition, for it may take 
 place in two or three, or extend through a long series, as in 
 
 a T> C 
 
 Fig. 74. 
 
 Fig. 75. 
 
 "6. Ordinarily, the error of alignment does not amount to 
 more than one or two diameters of a cell. But occasionally 
 
APIARIJE. 125 
 
 the rows of cells on one side of the comb may deviate from 
 
 their true direction with regard to those on the other, to the 
 
 extent of 30." 
 
 u Thus, if a piece of normal comb be held in the position in 
 
 which it was built, two of the opposite angles of the hexagon, 
 
 Fig. 75, A, a, will be in the 
 
 same vertical line, and two 
 
 of the sides will be parallel 
 
 to this. The same is true 
 
 of the opposite side of the 
 
 comb ; and thus all the cor- * T f T r~/ 
 
 responding parts of the cells 
 
 on the two sides will be par- 
 allel. In the deviation we 
 
 are now noticing, the change 
 
 is like that represented in A, 
 
 where the cell a is in its 
 
 true position, while the cell 
 
 6, which is from the oppo- 
 site side, and is in contact 
 
 with <x, varies from it by 
 
 about 30. If we look at 
 
 these two cells in the direc- 
 tion of their sides as at B, 
 
 the prism a will have one Fig. 76. 
 
 of its angles towards the eye, and b one of its sides. 
 
 In consequence of this deviation and the continual crossing 
 
 of the rows on opposite sides, the pyramidal base is not made, 
 
 and the cell is shortened. 
 
 " 7. In curved or bent combs the 
 cells on the concave side tend to be- 
 come narrower, while those on the 
 other tend to become broader to- 
 wards their mouths. In Fig. 76 
 (this and Figs. 77 and 78 are made 
 77> from impressions obtained directly 
 
 from the comb and transferred to wood ; they represent the 
 
 form of the cells exactly), as in the central line of cells, there 
 
 are a variety of hexagons, each resulting from the union 
 
126 
 
 HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 of two cells, the base being double while the mouth is 
 single. That on the line a, 6, has three sides at one end, 
 united by two long sides with one at the other, and thus two 
 of the opposite sides are not parallel ; at c, cZ, two sides at 
 
 b 
 
 ' ff 
 
 c d e f 
 
 Fig. 78. 
 
 either end are united by two long sides, these last being par- 
 allel ; and at e, /, the mouth of the compound cell has seven 
 sides. Each has a partition at its base, separating the two 
 originally distinct cells, and each was lined with a cocoon, 
 showing that it had been used for rearing young. At g, not 
 only has the partition between the combining cells disappeared, 
 but also three of the sides of each cell." 
 
 The bees do not appear to have any systematic way of mak- 
 ing a transition from worker to drone cells, which are one-fifth 
 larger than the former. More commonly, they effect it by a 
 gradual alteration of the diameters, thus enlarging a worker 
 into a drone, or narrowing a drone into a worker cell. This 
 alteration is usually made in from four to six rows. In one case 
 
APIARI^E. 127 
 
 Professor Wyman noticed the transition made with only one 
 cell, as in Fig. 78, but not without destroying the regularity of 
 the two adjoining rows. 
 
 "In consequence of the gradual narrowing or widening of 
 the transition cells, the comb tends to become more or less tri- 
 angular and the cells to become disturbed. The bees counter- 
 act this tendency by the occasional intercalation of an additional 
 row, of which two instances are given in Fig. 78, at a and 6, 
 where three rows of worker cells are continuous with two of 
 drone cells, c, d and e, /; or, reversing the statement, and 
 supposing the transition, as in the building of the comb, is 
 from worker to drone-cells, a row of the latter is from time to 
 time omitted as the rows a and 6; in this way, the regularity of 
 the comb is preserved." 
 
 Honey-cells are formed either by enlarging the ordinary 
 brood-cells, or adding them to others often larger, or by con- 
 structing a new comb, devoted entirely to the storing of honey. 
 "While the cells of this last are built unequivocally in accord- 
 ance with the hexagonal type, they exhibit a range of variation 
 from it which almost defies description." 
 
 No Ichneumon-flies are known to attack the larva of the 
 Honey-bee, nor in fact, with few exceptions, any of the wild 
 bees, owing, probably, to the difficulty of their gaining access 
 to them, since Anomalon vesparum has been reared from the 
 cells of wasps which are more exposed than those of bees. 
 But the Honey, as well as the wild bees, are afflicted by a 
 peculiar assemblage of insect-parasites, some of which have 
 the most remarkable habits. The most formidable pest of the 
 Hive-bee is the Bee Fly, Phora incrassata, which in Europe 
 sometimes produces the well-known disease called "foul- 
 brood." The Bee-louse, Braula cceca, is, in Europe, sometimes 
 troublesome to the adult bee, while Trichodes apiarius, a beetle, 
 devours the larvae. The larvae of Meloe and Stylops are known 
 in Europe to infest the Honey-bee, and among the low intesti- 
 nal worms Assmus enumerates Gordius subUfurcus which in- 
 fests the drones of the Honey-bee as well as other insects. 
 Professor Siebold has also described Mermis albicans, which 
 is a similar kind of hair-worm, from two to five inches long, 
 and whitish in color. This worm is also found, strangely 
 
128 HYMEXOPTERA. 
 
 enough, only in the drones, though it is the workers which 
 frequent watery places (where the worm deposits its eggs) to 
 appease their thirst. The Wax-moths, G-alleria cereana and 
 Achroia alvearia, do much harm by consuming the wax and 
 thus breaking down the cells, and by filling the hive with 
 their webs.* 
 
 The genus Apis is indigenous in South America, though the 
 Honey-bee has been extensively introduced into the West In- 
 dies. Our Honey-bee is replaced in the tropics by the stingless, 
 minute bees, which store up honey and live in far more numer- 
 ous colonies. The cells of Melipona are hexagonal, nearly 
 approaching in regularity those of the Hive-bee, while the 
 honey-cells are irregular, much larger cavities, which hold about 
 one-half as much honey as a cell of the Humble-bee. From a 
 paper on the Brazilian Honey-bees, read by Mr. F. Smith be- 
 fore the Entomological Society of London, March, 1863, he 
 states that the Meliponas are small insects, having wings shorter 
 than the abdomen, the latter being very convex and oblong ; 
 their mandibles never being dentate ; while the Trigonas have 
 the wings more ample, and longer than the abdomen, which is 
 short, somewhat triangular, while the mandibles are serrated, 
 denticulate, or sometimes edentate. The Meliponas are re- 
 stricted to the new world, while Trigona extends into Africa, 
 India, and Australasia. 
 
 " All these bees are honey gatherers, but the honey collected 
 by the different species varies greatly in quality : from the 
 nests of some it is excellent ; from others, worthless. The 
 honey of the species ' Mombuca* is said to be black and sour, 
 the quality being dependent on species of flowers from which 
 the honey is collected. This great difference in the honey of 
 the various species is apparently confirmatory of the fact that 
 each species confines itself to particular flowers, never visiting 
 any other kind. The different relative length of the tongue in 
 
 * EXPLANATION OF PLATE 2. Parasites of the Honey-bee. Fig. 1, Phora incras- 
 sata; Fig. 2, pupa; Fig. 3, larva. Fig. 4, Braula caeca; Fig. 5, larva. Fig. 6, Tri- 
 chodcs npiarius : , larva; 5, pupa. Fig. 7, Meloe angusticollis ; Fig. 8, freshly hatched 
 larva; Fig. 9, second stage of larva; Fig. 10, first stage of semi-pupa; Fig. 11, 
 pupa. Fig. 12, Stylops Chttdreni in the body of a wild bee, Andrena ; Fig. 13, top 
 view of the same removed from its host; Fig. 14, male of the same; a, side view. 
 Fig. 15, Mucor mellitophorus, a parasitic fungus. Fig. 16, unknown larva found in 
 nest of Humble-bee. Descriptions of the insect parasites will be given beyond. 
 
Plate 2. 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 Fig. 13. 
 
 PARASITES OF THE HONEY BEE. 
 
API ART M. 129 
 
 the species is also confirmatory of the same supposition ; in- 
 deed, the great diversity in this respect observable in these 
 bees, appears to me to be analogous to a similar diversity in the 
 length of the bills of humming-birds, which, it is well known, 
 are always adapted for reaching the nectaries of the particular 
 flowers which they usually frequent." 
 
 In regard to the immense numbers of individuals in a col- 
 ony, Mr. Stretch, who collected them at Panama, "found a 
 nest several feet in length in the hollow of a tree, containing 
 thousands of individuals, their numbers being, as he informs 
 me, apparently countless. 
 
 "Gardner, in his travels, gives a list of such species (of 
 Melipona) as he met in the provinces of Piauhy and Goyaz, 
 where he found them numerous ; in every house, he says, 'you 
 find the honey of these bees ; ' many species, he tells us, build in 
 the hollow trunks of trees, others in. banks ; some suspend 
 their nests from branches of trees, whilst one species constructs 
 its nest of clay, it being of large size ; the honey of this spe- 
 cies, he says, is very good." (Smith.) 
 
 In a nest of Trigona carbonaria from Eastern Australia, 
 Smith, of the British Museum, found from 400 to 500 dead 
 workers crammed in the spaces between the combs, but he 
 did not find a female among them. The combs are arranged 
 precisely similar to those of the common wasp. The number of 
 honey-pots, which are placed at the foot of the nest, amounted 
 to 250. 
 
 Smith inclines to the opinion that the hive of Trigona con- 
 tains several prolific females ; ' ' the accounts given of the mul- 
 titudes inhabiting some nests is too great, I think, to render it 
 possible that one female could produce them all. Mr. Stretch 
 described 'a hive that be saw, occupying the interior of a decay- 
 ing tree, that measured six feet in length, and the multitude of 
 bees he compared to a black cloud. M. Guerin found six fe- 
 males in a nest of Melipona fulvipes" 
 
 Hill states, in Gosse's Naturalist's Sojourn in Jamaica, 
 "that the wax of these bees [Trigona] is very unctuous and 
 dark colored, but susceptible of being whitened by bleaching. 
 The honey is stored in clusters of cups, about the size of 
 pigeon's eggs, at the bottom of the hive, and always from the 
 
130 HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 brood-cells. The brood-cells are hexagonal ; they are not 
 deep, and the young ones, when ready to burst their casement, 
 just fill the whole cavity. The mother bee is lighter in color 
 than the other bees, and elongated at the abdomen to double 
 their length." Smith also states that the female of this genus 
 has the abdomen greatly distended, reminding one of the 
 gravid female of the White Ant. (Smith, Proc. Ent. Soc., 
 London, Dec. 7, 1863.) 
 
 In North America, our nearest airy, as regards its habits, of 
 the true Honey-bee, is the Humble-bee (Bombus), of which 
 over forty species are known to inhabit North America. 
 
 The economy of the Humble-bee is thus : the queen awakens 
 in early spring from her winter's sleep beneath the leaves or 
 moss, or in deserted nests, and selects a nesting-place generally 
 in an abandoned nest of a field-mouse, or beneath a stump or 
 sod, and "immediately," according to Mr. F. W. Putnam, 
 "collects a small amount of pollen mixed with honey, and in 
 this deposits from seven to fourteen eggs, gradually adding to 
 the pollen mass until the first brood is hatched. She does not 
 wait, however, for one brood to be hatched before laying the 
 eggs of another ; but, as soon as food enough has been collected, 
 she lays the eggs for a second. The eggs [Plate 4, Fig. 2] 
 are laid, in contact with each other, in one cavity of the mass 
 of pollen, with a part of which they are slightly covered. They 
 are very soon developed ; in fact, the lines are nowhere dis- 
 tinctly drawn between the egg and the larva, the larva and 
 pupa, and again between the latter and the imago ; a perfect 
 series, showing this gradual transformation of the young to the 
 imago, can be found in almost every nest. 
 
 "As soon as the larvae are capable of motion and commence 
 feeding, they eat the pollen by which they are surrounded, and, 
 gradually separating, push their way in various directions. 
 Eating as they move, and increasing in size quite rapidly, they 
 soon make large cavities in the pollen mass. When they have 
 attained their full size, they spin a silken wall about them, 
 which is strengthened by the old bees covering it with a thin 
 layer of wax, which soon becomes hard and tough, thus form- 
 ing a cell. [Plate 4, Figs. 1, 2.] The larvae now gradually 
 attain the pupa stage, and remain inactive until their full devel- 
 
Plate 3. 
 
 PARASITES OF WILD BEES. 
 
APIARI^E. 131 
 
 opment. They then cut their way out, and are ready to assume 
 their duties as workers, small females, males or queens. 
 
 "It is apparent that the irregular disposition of the cells is 
 due to their being constructed so peculiarly by the larvae. 
 After the first brood, composed of workers, has come forth, 
 the queen bee devotes her time principally to her duties at 
 home, the workers supplying the colony with honey and pollen. 
 As the queen continues prolific, more workers are added, and 
 the nest is rapidly enlarged. 
 
 "About the middle of summer eggs are deposited which 
 produce both small females and males." . . . "All eggs laid 
 after the last of July produce the large females, or queens ; 
 and, the males being still in the nest, it is presumed that the 
 queens are impregnated at this time, as, on the approach of 
 cold weather, all except the queens, of which there are several in 
 each nest, die." (Putnam, Com. Essex Inst., vol. iv, p. 98, 1864.) 
 
 Besides Apathus, the larvae of various moths consume the 
 honey and waxen cells ; the two-winged flies, Volucella and 
 Conops, and the larvae of what is either an Anthomyia or 
 Tachina-like fly ; several species of Anthrax, the Coleopterous 
 Anobium paniceum of Europe, Meloe, Stylops, and Anthero- 
 phagus ochraceus are parasitic on Humble-bees.* 
 ' The habits of the genus Apathus are not clearly known, but 
 they are supposed to prey, in the larva state, upon the larvae of 
 Bombus, being found in their nests ; their habits, so- far as 
 known, ally them with Nomada. The species are distinguished 
 by the tibiae being convex, instead of concave, as in Bombus, 
 while the mandibles of the females are acute, triangular, biden- 
 tate, being spatulate and three-toothed in Bombus, and they 
 have no pollenigerous organs. There are males an^ 7 females 
 only, as in all the remaining genera of the family. Apathus 
 Ashtonii (Plains, Fig. 1) is found in the Northern States. 
 
 * EXPLANATION OF PLATE 3. Parasites of the Humble and Leaf-cutter Bees. 
 Fig. 1, Apathus Ashtonii. Fig. 2, Neplwpteryx Edmandsii; a, larva; 6, pupa. Fig. 
 3, 3 a, Microgaster nephoptericis, an Ichneumon parasite of Nephopteryx. Fig. 4, 
 Antherophagus ochraceus. Fig. 5, Anthomyia ? larva; a, side view. Fig. 6, Re- 
 cently hatched larva of Stylops Childrenii; a, side view. Fig. 7, larva; a, pupa of 
 Anthophorabia megachilis, a Chalcid parasite on Megachile. Fig. 8, Fteratomus 
 Putnamii, an exceedingly minute Proctotrupirl fly, supposed to be parasitic on An- 
 thorphorabia megachilis ; a, a hind wing. Fig. 9, a Mite found in the nests of 
 Humble-bees. 
 
132 HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 Xylocopa, the Carpenter-bee, is "the largest and most bulky 
 of all known bees," but less hirsute than Bombus, while the 
 basal joint of the labial palpi is almost -four times as long as 
 the second ; and the maxillary palpi are six-jointed, the mouth- 
 parts being very highly organized. The larva of X. Virginica 
 (Plate 4, Fig. 3, adult ; Fig. 4, larva ; Fig. 5, nest) is slenderer 
 than that of Bombus, the body tapering more rapidly towards 
 each end. 
 
 The power of boring the most symmetrical tunnels in solid 
 wood reaches its perfection in the large Virginian Carpenter- 
 bee (Xylocopa Virginica). We have received from Mr. James 
 Angus, of West Farms, N. Y., a piece of trellis for a grape- 
 vine, made of pine wood, containing the cells and young in 
 various stages of growth, together with the larvae and chrysa- 
 lids of Anthrax sinuosa (Plate 4, Fig. 6, larva ; Fig. 7, pupa), 
 a species of fly parasitic on the larva of the bee, and which 
 buries its head in its soft bod} r and feeds on its juices. 
 
 Mr. Angus thus writes us regarding its habits, under date of 
 J.ily 19 : "I asked an intelligent and observing carpenter yes- 
 terday, if he knew how long it took the Xylocopa to bore her 
 tunnel. He said he thought she bored about one-quarter of an 
 inch a day. I don't think myself she bores more than one- 
 half inch, if she does that. If I mistake not, it takes her 
 about two da} r s to make her own length at the first start ; but 
 this being across the grain of the wood may not be so easily 
 done as the remainder, which runs parallel with it. She always 
 follows the grain of the wood, with the exception of the en- 
 trance, which is about her own length. The tunnels run from 
 one to one and a half feet in length. They generally run in 
 opposite directions from the opening, and sometimes other gal- 
 leries are run above the first, using the same opening. I 
 think they only make new tunnels when old one% are not to be 
 found, and that the same tunnels are used for many years. 
 Some of the old tunnels are very wide! I have found parts of 
 them about an inch in diameter. I think this is caused by 
 rasping off the sides to procure the necessary material for con- 
 structing, their cells. The partitions are composed of wood- 
 raspings, and some sticky fluid, probably saliva, to make it 
 adhere. 
 
"APIAROS. 133 
 
 "The tunnels are sometimes taken possession of by other 
 bees and wasps. I think when this is the case, the Xylocopa 
 prefers making a new cell to cleaning out the mud and rubbish 
 of the other species. I frequently find these bees remaining 
 for a long time on the wing close to the opening, and bobbing 
 their heads against the side, as if fanning air into the opening. 
 I have seen them thus employed for twenty minutes. Whether 
 one bee, or more, makes the tunnel, that is, whether they take 
 turns in boring, I cannot say at present. In opening the cells, 
 more than one are generally found, even at this season. About 
 two weeks ago, I found as many as seven, I think, in one." * 
 
 The hole is divided by partitions into cells about seven-tenths 
 of an inch long. These partitions are constructed of the 
 dust or chippings made by the bee in eating out her cells, for 
 our active little carpenter is provided with strong cutting jaws, 
 moved by powerful muscles, and on her legs are stiff brushes 
 of hair for cleaning out the tunnel as she descends into the 
 heart of the solid wood. She must throw out the chips she 
 bites off from the sides of the burrow with her hind legs, pass- 
 ing the load of chips backwards out of the cell with her fore- 
 limbs, which she uses as hands. 
 
 The partitions are built most elaborately of a single flattened 
 band of chips, which is rolled up into a coil four layers deep. 
 One side, forming the bottom of the cell, is concave, being 
 
 * " Since writing the above I have opened one of the new holes of Xylocopa 
 which was commenced between three and four weeks ago, in a pine slat used in 
 the staging of the greenhouse. The dimensions were as follows : Opening fully 
 3-8 wide ; depth 7-16 ; whole length of tunnel 6 and 5-16 inches. The tunnel branched 
 both ways from the hole. One end, from opening, was 2 and 5-8, containing three 
 cells, two with larva and pollen, the third empty. The other side of the opening, or 
 the rest of the tunnel, was empty, with the exception of the old bee (only one) at 
 work. I think this was the work of one bee, and, as near as I can judge, about 
 twenty-five days' work. Width of tunnel inside at widest 9-16 inch. 
 
 For some days this bee has been discharging a great quantity of saw-dust and 
 pollen, which I had collected by placing a vessel under it. It would seem that she 
 had cells constructed also in the opposite side of the hole, and that she removed 
 them to enlarge the tunnel. Among the stuff thrown out, I find a partition of a cell 
 nearly entire. 
 
 I have just found a Xylocopa bobbing at one of the holes, and in order to ascer- 
 tain the depth of the tunnel, and to see whether there were any others in them, I 
 sounded with a pliable rod, and found others in one side, at a depth of five and one 
 half inches; the other side was four inches deep, without bees. The morning was 
 cool, so that the object in bobbing could not be to introduce fresh currents of air, 
 but must have had some relation to those inside. The legs on such occasions are, 
 as 1 have noticed, loaded with pollen.-' American Naturalist, vol. 1, p. 370. 
 
134 HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 beaten down and smoothed off by the bee. The other side of 
 the partition, forming the top of the cell, is flat and rough. 
 
 At the time of opening the burrow, July 8th, the cells con- 
 tained nearly full-grown larvae, with some half developed. 
 They were feeding on the masses of pollen, which were as large 
 as a thick kidney-bean, and occupied nearly half the cell. Sa- 
 pyga repanda is parasitic in the cells of Xylocopa violacea of 
 Southern Europe. 
 
 The habits and structure of the little Ceratina ally it closely 
 with Xylocopa, as it hollows out the stems of plants, and builds 
 in them its cylindrical cells. This bee is oblong in form, with 
 tridentate mandibles, and a short labrum. The maxillary palpi 
 are six-jointed, and the labial palpi are two-jointed. Ceratina 
 dupla Say is a common small bright-green smooth-bodied species, 
 which, in the middle of May, according to Dr. Harris' MS. notes, 
 tunnels out the stems of the elder or blackberry, syringa, or any 
 other pithy shrub, excavating them often to a depth of six or 
 seven inches, and also, according to Mr. Haldeman (Harris 
 MS.), bores in Cocorus. She makes the walls just wide enough 
 to admit her body, and of a depth capable of holding three or 
 four, often five or six cells (Plate 4, Fig. 11). The finely built 
 cells, with their delicate silken walls, are cylindrical and nearly 
 square at each end, though the free end of the last cell is 
 rounded off. They are four and a half tenths of an inch long, 
 and a little over one-third as broad. The bee places them at 
 nearly equal distances apart, the slight interval between them 
 being filled in with dirt. 
 
 Dr. T. W. Harris* states that, "May 15, 1832, one female 
 laid its eggs in the hollow of an aster-stalk. Three perfect in- 
 sects were disclosed from it July 28th." The observations of Mr. 
 Angus, who saw some bees making their cells, May 18th, also 
 confirms this account. The history of our little upholsterer is 
 thus cleared up. Late in the spring she builds her cells, fills 
 them with pollen, and lays one or more eggs upon each one. 
 Thus in about two months the insect completes its transforma- 
 tions ; within this period passing through the egg, the larval 
 and chrysalid states, and then, as a bee, living through the win- 
 ter. Its life thus spans one year. 
 
 * According to a note in MSS. deposited in the Library of the Boston Society of 
 Natural History. 
 
APIARI^. 135 
 
 The larva (Plate 4, Fig. 10) is longer than that of Mega- 
 chile, and compared with that of Xylocopa, the different seg- 
 ments are much more convex, giving a serrate outline to the 
 back of the worm. The pupa, or chrysalis, we have found in 
 the cells the last of July. It is white, and three-tenths of an 
 inch long. It differs from that of the Leaf-cutter bee in having 
 four spines on the end of the body, and in having a much 
 longer tongue and maxillae, both being almost twice as long. 
 
 In none of the wild bees are the cells constructed with more 
 nicety than those of our little Ceratina. She bores out with 
 her jaws a long deep well just the size of her body, and then 
 stretches a thin delicate cloth of silk, drawn tight as a drum- 
 head, across each end of her chambers, which she then fills with 
 a mixture of pollen and honey. 
 
 Her young are not, in this supposed retreat, entirely free 
 from danger. The most invidious foes enter and attack 
 them. Three species of Ichneumon-flies, two of which belong 
 to the Chalcid family, lay their eggs within the body of the 
 larva, and emerge from the dried larva and pupa skins of the 
 bee, often in great numbers. The smallest parasite, belonging 
 to the genus Anthophorabia (so called from being first known 
 as a parasite on another bee, Anthophora), is a minute species 
 found also abundantly in the tight cells of the Leaf-cutter bee. 
 
 The species of Anthiclium, according to Smith, are gaily 
 marked with yellow bands and spots ; the ligula is almost twice 
 as long as the labial palpi, and acutely pointed ; the paraglossae 
 are short, the maxillary palpi are two-jointed, and there are two 
 subcostal cells. The males are longer than the females, with an 
 elongated and stoutly toothed abdominal tip. The female lines 
 her nest, situated in any hole convenient for its purpose, with 
 down from woolly-stemmed plants. They pass the winter in 
 the larva state, and the bees do not appear until mid-summer. 
 The species mostly occur in the old world. 
 
 In Anthophora, which approaches nearer to Bombus in its 
 plump and hairy body than the two preceding genera, the lig- 
 ula is twice as long as the labial maxillae, ending in a bristle- 
 like point ; the basal joint of the hind tarsus is thickly hirsute, 
 while the middle tarsus of the males is generally elongated. 
 The species are gregarious, their numerous cells, while indepen. 
 
136 HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 dent, are crowded together in grassy banks. Species of 
 Melecta are parasitic on them, ovipositing in their cells. The 
 larvae are infected by the Chalcid flies, Anthophorabia and 
 Monodontomerus, and by a peculiar species of Mite, Hete- 
 ropus ventricosus, described by Newport. Say has described 
 Antliopliora abrupta and A. taurea from Indiana. 
 
 In Eucera the antennae are very long, while the body is still 
 plump and hairy : our more common form in the Middle States 
 is Eucera maculata St. Fargeau. The species are likewise 
 gregarious, and, according to Smith, their habits are precisely 
 the same as those of Anthophora. 
 
 In Megachile, the Leaf-cutter Bee, the head is broad, the 
 body stout, oblong, the ligula is about one-half longer than 
 the labial palpi, being quite stout, while the paraglossse are 
 short and pointed ; the maxillae are long and sabre-shaped, 
 while their palpi are short and two-jointed. There are two 
 subcostal cells in the fore wing. It is a thick-bodied bee, with 
 a large square head, stout scissor-like jaws, and with a thick 
 mass of dense hairs on the under side of the tail for the pur- 
 pose of carrying pollen, since it is not provided with a pollen 
 basket as in the Honey and Humble-bees. The larva is broader 
 and flatter than that of Bombus, the raised pleural region is a 
 little more prominent, and the raised, thickened tergal portion 
 of each ring is more prominent than in Bombus. 
 The Megachile lays its eggs in burrows in the stems of the 
 elder (Plate 4, Fig. 9), which we have received from Mr. 
 James Angus ; we have also found them in the hollows of the 
 locust tree. Mr. F. W. Putnam thus speaks of the economy 
 of M. centuncularis, our most common species. "My attention 
 was first called, on the 26th of June, to a female busily en- 
 gaged in bringing pieces of leaf to her cells, which she was build- 
 ing under a board, on the roof of the piazza, directly under 
 my window. Nearly the 'whole morning was occupied by the 
 bee in bringing pieces of leaf from a rose-bush growing about 
 ten yards from her cells, returning at intervals of a half minute 
 to a minute with the pieces which she carried in such a manner 
 as not to impede her walking when she alighted near her hole. 
 [We give a figure of the Leaf-cutter bee in the act of cutting 
 out a circular piece of a rose-leaf (Plate 4, Fig. 8). She 
 
API ART JE. 137 
 
 alights upon the leaf, and in a few seconds swiftly runs her 
 scissors-like jaws around through the leaf, bearing off the 
 piece in her hind legs.] About noon she had probably com- 
 pleted the cell, upon which she had been engaged, as, during 
 the afternoon, she was occupied in bringing pollen, preparatory 
 to laying her single egg in the cell. For about twenty days 
 the bee continued at work, building new cells and supplying 
 them with pollen. . . . On the 28th of July, upon removing 
 the board, it was found that the bee had made thirty cells, 
 arranged in nine rows of unequal length, some being slightly 
 curved to adapt them to the space under the board. The 
 longest row contained six cells, and was two and three-quarters 
 inches in length ; the whole leaf-structure being equal to a 
 length of fifteen inches. Upon making an estimate of the 
 pieces of leaf in this structure, it was ascertained that there 
 must have been at least a thousand pieces used. In addition 
 to the labor of making the cells, this bee, unassisted in all her 
 duties, had to collect the requisite amount of pollen (and 
 honey?) for each cell, and lay her eggs therein, when com- 
 pleted. Upon carefully cutting out a portion of one of the 
 cells, a full-grown larva was seen engaged in spinning a slight 
 silken cocoon about the walls of its prison, which were quite 
 hard and smooth on the inside, probably owing to the move- 
 ments of the larva, and the consequent pressing of the sticky 
 particles to the walls. In a short time the opening made was 
 closed over by a very thin silken web. The cells, measured on 
 the inside of the hard walls, were .35 of an inch in length, and 
 .15 in diameter. The natural attitude of the larva is some- 
 what curved in its cell, but if straightened, it just equals the 
 inside length of the cell. On the 31st of July, two female 
 bees came out, having cut their way through the sides of their 
 cells." In three other cells "several hundred minute Ichneu- 
 mons [Anthophorabia megachilis] were seen, which came forth 
 as soon as the cells were opened." (Com. Essex Inst., vol. iv, 
 p. 105, 1864.) 
 
 Megachile integer Say MS., according to Dr. Harris (MS. 
 notes), forms its nest of leaves the first of August. This spe- 
 cies is twice as large, but closely resembles Megachile brevis of 
 Say. The front of the head is covered with dense ochreous 
 
138 HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 hairs, becoming shorter and black on the vertex. The nest, 
 preserved in the Harris collection, now in the Museum of the 
 Boston Society of Natural Histo^, is made of rose-leaves, and 
 is scarcely distinguishable from that of M. centuncularis. 
 
 Osmia, the Mason Bee, is another genus of Carpenter or 
 Upholsterer bees. The species are generally bluish, with 
 greenish reflections, with smooth shiny bodies, and the species 
 are of smaller size than in Megachile. The tongue in this 
 genus is three times as long as the labium, tapering from the 
 base to the acute apex, and clothed with short hair. 
 
 Mr. F. Smith states that the larva of the English species 
 hatch in eight days after the eggs are laid, feeds ten to twelve 
 days, when it becomes full-grown, then spins a thin silken 
 covering, and remains in an inactive state until the following 
 spring, when it completes its transformations. 
 
 The habits of the little Mason-bees are quite varied. They 
 construct their cells in the stems of plants and in rotten posts 
 and trees, or, like Andrena, they burrow in sunny banks. An 
 European species selects snail-shells for its nest, wherein it 
 builds its earthen cells, while other species nidificate under 
 stones. Curtis found two hundred and thirty cocoons of a 
 British species (Osmia paretina) , placed on the under side of 
 a flat stone, of which one-third were empty. Of the remainder, 
 the most appeared between March and June, males appearing 
 first ; thirty-five more bees were developed the following spring. 
 Thus there were three successive broods for three succeeding 
 years, so that these bees lived three years before arriving at 
 maturity. 
 
 Mr. G. R. Waterhouse, in the Transactions of the Entomo- 
 logical Society of London, for 1864 (3d series, vol. 2, p. 121), 
 states that the cells of Osmia leucomelana "are formed of mud, 
 and each cell is built separately. The female bee, having de- 
 posited a small pellet of mud in a sheltered spot between some 
 tufts of grass, immediately commences to excavate a small 
 cavity in its upper surface, scraping the mud away from the 
 centre towards the margin by means of her jaws. A small 
 shallow mud-cup is thus produced. It is rough and uneven on 
 the outer surface, but beautifully smooth on the inner. On 
 witnessing thus much of the work performed, I was struck with 
 
APIARIJC. 139 
 
 three points. First, the rapidity with which the insect worked ; 
 secondly, the tenacity with which she kept her original position 
 whilst excavating ; and thirdly, her constantly going over 
 work which had apparently been completed. . . . The lid is 
 excavated and rendered concave on its outer or upper surface, 
 and is convex and rough on its inner surface ; and, in fact, is a 
 simple repetition of the first-formed portion of the cell, a part 
 of a hollow sphere." 
 
 The largest species of Osmia known to us is a very dark-blue 
 species which seems to be undescribed. We will call it the 
 wood-boring Osmia (Osmia lignivora). It is larger than 
 the Osmia lignaria of Say, being just half an inch long. The 
 head is much shorter, and less square than in Say's spe- 
 cies. The front of the head below the antennae is clothed with 
 dark hairs, but above and on the thorax with yellowish ochreous 
 hairs. The body is deep blackish blue, with greenish reflec- 
 tions. We are indebted to a lady for specimens of the bees 
 with their cells, which had been excavated in the interior of a 
 maple tree several inches from the bark. The bee had industri- 
 ously tunnelled out this elaborate burrow (Plate 4, Fig. 12), 
 and, in this respect, resembles the habits of the Carpenter-bee 
 (Xylocopa) more closely than any other species of its genus. 
 
 The tunnel was over three inches long, and about three- 
 tenths of an inch wide. It contracted a little in width between 
 the cell, showing that the bee worked intelligently, and wasted 
 no more of her energies than was absolutely necessary. The 
 burrow contained five cells, each half an inch long, being 
 rather short and broad, with the hinder end rounded, while the 
 opposite end, next to the one adjoining, is cut off squarely. 
 The cell is somewhat jug-shaped, owing 'to a slight constriction 
 just behind the mouth. The material of which the cell is com- 
 posed is stout, silken, parchment-like, and very smooth within. 
 The interstices between the cells are filled with rather coarse 
 drippings made by the bee. 
 
 The bee cut its way out of the cells in March, and lived for 
 a month afterwards on a diet of honey and water. It eagerly 
 lapped up the drops of water supplied by its keeper, to whom 
 it soon grew accustomed, and whom it seemed to recognize. 
 
 The female of Osmia lignaria Say MS., according to Dr. 
 
140 HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 Harris' MS. notes, was found in the perfect state in cocoons 
 within earthen cells under stones, April 15th. The cell she con- 
 structs is half an inch long, oval, cylindrical, and contracted 
 slightly into a sort of neck just before the opening for the exit 
 of the bee. From Mr. James Angus I have received the pellets 
 of pollen, about the size of a pea, in which it deposits its eggs ; 
 the larvae were about one-third grown in August. 
 
 This species is larger than Osmia simillima of Smith, while 
 the male antennae are much paler, being fuscous. The front 
 of the head is covered with long dense yellow ochreous hairs. 
 The vertex is not of so dark a green as in 0. simillima, and 
 is covered with coarse punctures. The thorax is heavily clothed 
 with yellow ochreous, thick hairs. The abdomen is yellowish, 
 and much more hairy. The legs are stout, fuscous, with yel- 
 lowish hairs. Length, .35 inch. 
 
 Our smallest and most abundant species is the little green 
 Osmia simillima of Smith. It builds its little oval, somewhat 
 urn-shaped cells, against the roof of the large deserted galls of 
 the oak-gall fly (Diplolepis confluentus), placing them, in this 
 instance, eleven in number, in two irregular rows, from which 
 the mature bees issue through a hole in the gall (Plate 4,* Fig. 
 14. From specimens communicated by Mr. F. G. Sanborn). 
 The earthen cells, containing the tough dense cocoons, were 
 arranged irregularly so as to fit the concave vault of the larger 
 gall, which was about two inches in diameter. On emerging 
 from the cell the Osmia cuts out with its powerful jaws an 
 ovate lid, nearly as large as one side of the cell. Both sexes 
 may be found in April and May in the flowers of the willow 
 
 * EXPLANATION OF PLATE 4. Fig. 1, a cell of the Humble-bee; natural size, 
 with the pollen mass upon the top. Fig. 2, end view of the same mass, showing 
 the three eggs laid in three divisions of the cavity. Fig. 3, Xylocopa Virginica, the 
 Carpenter Bee. Fig. 4, the larva of Xylocopa Virginica ; natural size. Fig. 5, 
 the nest containing the cells of the same, with the partitions and pollen masses, 
 on which the young larva is seen in the act of feeding; natural size. Fig. 6, 
 young larva of Anthrax simtosa; side view. Fig. 7, pupa of Anthrax sinnosa, 
 side view; natural size. Fig. 8, the Leaf-cutter Bee (Megachile), on a rose leaf, 
 in the act of cutting oxit a circular piece. Fig. 9, cells of Megachile, in the elder; 
 natural size. Fig. 10, larva of Ceratina dupla, the little green Upholsterer Bee ; 
 enlarged. Fig. 11, cells of the same in the stem of the elder; natural size. Fig. 
 12, cells of Osmia lignivora, new species, the wood-devouring Mason-bee, exca- 
 vated in the maple ; natural size. Fig. 13, cells of Osmia simillima, the common 
 green Mason-bee, built in the deserted gall of the Oak-gall Fly. Fig. 14, a single 
 earthen cell of the same; natural size. Fig. 15, pollen mass, or bee-bread of 
 Osmia lignaria ; natural size. It is made up of distinct pellets of pollen, which 
 are probably stuck together with saliva. 
 
Plate 4. 
 
 ARCHITECTURE OF BEES. 
 
APIARIJE. 141 
 
 and fruit trees which blossom later. The antennae are black, 
 and the green body is covered with fine white hairs, becoming 
 yellowish above. 
 
 In the Harris collection are the cells and specimens of Osmia 
 padjica Say, the peaceful Osmia, which, according to the man- 
 uscript notes of Dr. Harris, is found in the perfect state in 
 earthen cells (Plate 5, Fig. 2) beneath stones. The cell is oval 
 cylindrical, a little contracted as usual with those of all the spe- 
 cies of the genus, thus forming an urn-shaped cell. It is half 
 an inch long^ and nearly three-tenths of an inch wide, while the 
 cocoon, which is rather thin, is three-tenths of an inch long. 
 
 The following genera, called Cuckoo Bees, are parasitic on 
 other bees, laying their eggs in the cells, or nests, of their host. 
 In Codioxys the body is stout, and the bee closely mimics its 
 host, Megachile. The ligula is very long, being almost three 
 times the length of the labium, and the paraglossse are wholly 
 wanting ; the maxillary palpi are short, three-jointed, and the 
 abdominal tip of the male is variously toothed. Codioxys octo- 
 dentata Say, is abundant late in the summer about flowers. An 
 allied genus, Melecta, is parasitic on Anthophora, and Epeolus is 
 parasitic on Colletes. 
 
 The species of Nomada are very numerous ; in all, the tongue 
 is long and acute, with paraglossse about one-fourth as long 
 as the tongue ; the maxillary pair of palpi are six-jointed ; 
 and there are three subcostal cells. The species in their slen- 
 der, smooth, gaily colored body resemble the wasps. These 
 Cuckoo-bees lay their eggs in the nests of Andrena and Ha- 
 lictus, and, according to English authors, Panurgus and Eucera, 
 where they may be found in all stages of development corre- 
 sponding to those of their hosts. The females do not sting 
 severely. The species emit sweet, balmy, or balsamical odors. 
 Shuckard states that these bees should be killed with burning 
 sulphur to preserve their bright colors. 
 
 The larvae differ greatty from those of their hosts, Andrena, 
 the head being much smaller, the body being smoother and 
 rounder, and belonging to a more degraded, lower type. The 
 whole body is more attenuated towards both extremities. 
 The pupa differs from those of any other genus of this family 
 known to us, except Andrena, by having three conspicuous 
 
142 HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 spines on the upper and posterior edge of the orbit f which are 
 also found in the pupa of Stigmus, a Crabronid genus, and which 
 evidently aid in locomotion. Thus the same law of degrada- 
 tion obtains in these highly organized bee-parasites as in the 
 lower parasitic species, though in a much less marked degree. 
 
 From specimens found in the nests of Andrena and Halictus, 
 collected at Salem by Mr. J. H. Emerton, and now in the Mu- 
 seum of the Essex Institute, we have been enabled in great 
 part to clear up the history of this bee. We have found in the 
 nests of Andrena vicina both sexes of Nomada imbricata Smith, 
 and several females of Nomada pulchella of Smith ; and in the 
 cells of Halictus parallelus Say, specimens of Nomada imbri- 
 cata. Both full-grown larvae and pupae of different ages, up 
 to the adult Nomada, ready to take leave of its host, were 
 found in the cells of the Andrena vicina. It seems, there- 
 fore, that the newly hatched young of Nomada must feed 
 on the pollen mass destined for the Andrena. But there 
 seems to be enough for both genera to feed upon, as the young 
 of both host and parasite were found living harmoniously to- 
 gether, and the hosts and their parasites are disclosed both at 
 the same time. Does not this mild sort of parasitism in No- 
 mada throw much light on the probable habits of Apathus, the 
 Humble-bee parasite ? It is more than probable that the Apa- 
 thus larvae simply eat the food of the Bombus larvae, and do 
 not attack the larvae of their hosts. Both Nomada and Apathus 
 in their adult stages live harmoniously with their hosts, and 
 are seen gathering food from the same flowers, and flying about 
 the same nest. 
 
 In the second subfamily, Andrenetce, the ligula, or tongue, is 
 for the most part short and broad, and the maxillary palpi 
 have four joints of equal size. 
 
 In Sphecodes the body is smooth and wasp-like, and in its 
 habit of running and flying in dry sandy places, it resembles 
 Sphex, whence its generic name. The abdomen is generally 
 light red, farther aiding in the resemblance to the Sphegidce. 
 The ligula is short, lancet-shaped, fringed with setae ; the para- 
 glossae are not so long as the tongue, while the labial palpi are 
 shorter than the paraglossae, and the maxillae are broad, lan- 
 ceolate, with six-jointed palpi. The antennae of the males are 
 
APIARI^E. 143 
 
 short and sometimes moniliform. Spliecodes dichroa Harris is 
 our most common species. Mr. F. Smith, from direct observa- 
 tion, states that this genus builds cells, though earlier authors 
 have stated that it is parasitic on Halictus and Andrena. 
 
 Prosopis is generally yellow on the face, and is "less pubes- 
 cent than any of the bees." The tongue is broad, subemar- 
 ginate, the paraglossae reach a little beyond the tongue ; the 
 labial palpi are as long as the tongue, while there are two sub- 
 costal cells in the fore wings. Smith states that the genus is 
 not parasitical as formerly supposed, as he has "repeatedly 
 bred them" from cells laid in a regular order in the hollow of 
 bramble stems. Mr. S. Saunders has also raised them in Alba- 
 nia where "they construct their cells in bramble sticks (which 
 they bore in the same manner as Colletes) with a thin transpa- 
 rent membrane, calculated for holding semi-liquid honey, which 
 they store up for their young. The species are much attacked 
 by Stylops." Like Spliecodes and Ceratina, this genus, accord- 
 ing to Smith, is unprovided with pollenigerous organs. We 
 have several species in this country of which P. affinis Smith, 
 and P. elliptica Kirby, are found northward. The habits of 
 our species are not known. 
 
 Augochlora comprises beautiful shining metallic green spe- 
 cies, very commonly met with. The thorax is globose, and 
 the anterior wings have one marginal and three submarginal 
 cells ; the first submarginal cell as long as the second and third 
 united. Augochlora purus Smith is a small, green, rather 
 common species. Mr. J. H. Emerton has found its nests in Sa- 
 lem, near those of Andrena. The mouth of the hole opened 
 under a stone, and was built up so as to form a tube of sand 
 (Plate 5, Fig. 1). The burrow on the 28th of June was four 
 inches deep. 
 
 Andrena is a genus of great extent, and the species are often 
 difficult to distinguish. The lanceolate tongue is moderately 
 long, and the paraglossne are half as long as the tongue itself, 
 while the six-jointed maxillaiy palpi are longer than the maxillae 
 themselves. The wings have three subcostal cells, with the 
 rudiments of a fourth one ; the second is squarish, and the 
 third receives a recurrent nervure near the middle. The pos- 
 terior legs "have a long curled lock upon the trochanter be- 
 
144 HYMEXOPTERA. 
 
 neath, and the anterior upper surface of the femora is clothed 
 with long loose hair, which equally surrounds the whole of the 
 tibiae." (Shuckard.) The abdomen is banded more or less 
 conspicuously with reddish. 
 
 The larva (Fig. 80) is stout and thick, with a head of moder- 
 ate size, and the mouth-parts are a little shorter than usual, the 
 maxillae and labium especially. The segments of 
 the body are much more convex (angularly so) 
 than usual, giving a tuberculate outline to the 
 body. It is stouter than that of Halictus, the 
 wings are less convex than in that genus ; while the 
 maxillae are much stouter and blunter. The pupa 
 is distinguished from the other genera by much the 
 same characters as the imago, except that there 
 Fig. 79. are t wo tubercles on the vertex near the ocelli. 
 From a comparison of all its stages, this genus stands inter- 
 mediate between those placed above, and Halictus, which, in 
 all its characters, is a more degraded form. The males often 
 differ widely from the other sex, in their broad heads and widely 
 spreading bidentate mandibles. 
 
 Mr. Emerton has observed the habits of our most common 
 species, Andrena vicina Smith, which builds its nest in grassy 
 fields. The burrow is sunken perpendicularly, with short pas- 
 sages leading to the cells, which are slightly inclined downwards 
 and outwards from the main gallery. The walls of the gallery 
 are rough, but the cells are lined with a mucus-like secretion, 
 which, on hardening, looks like the glazing of earthen-ware. In 
 Fig. 80 Mr. Emerton gives us a profile view of natural size of 
 the nest showing the main burrow and the cells leading from it ; 
 the oldest cell, containing the pupa (a) is situated nearest the 
 surface, while those containing larvae (b) lie between the pupa 
 and the cell (e) containing the pollen mass and egg resting 
 upon it. The most recent cell (/) is the deepest down, and 
 contains a freshly deposited pollen mass. At c is the begin- 
 ning of a cell ; g is the level of the ground. The bees were 
 seen at work on the 4th of May, at Salem, Mass., digging their 
 holes, one of which was already six inches deep ; and by the 
 15th, hundreds of holes were observed. On the 28th of May, 
 in unearthing six holes, eight cells were found to contain pol- 
 
APIAKI^E. 
 
 145 
 
 len, and two of them a small larva. On the 29th of June six 
 full-grown larvae were exhumed, and one about half-grown. 
 About the first of August the 
 larva transforms to a pupa, and 
 during the last week of this month 
 the mature bees appear. 
 
 In Halictus, which is a genus 
 of great extent, the head is trans- 
 verse, and flattish; the mouth- 
 parts are of moderate length, the 
 tongue being very acute, with 
 acute paraglossae half the length 
 of the tongue, while the labial 
 palpi are not quite so long as 
 the paraglossae. There are three 
 subcostal cells in the wings, with 
 the rudiments of a fourth often 
 present, and the second cell is 
 squarish. The abdomen is ob- 
 long ovate, with a longitudinal 
 linear furrow on the tip in the 
 female. In the males the body 
 is longer and the antennae more 
 filiform and slender than usual in 
 this family. 
 
 The larvae are longer, and with 
 more acutely convex segments 
 than in Andrena. The pupae 
 differ much as the adult bees from /I 
 Andrena, especially in the shorter 
 mouth-parts. 
 
 Halictus parallelus Say excavates cells almost exactly like 
 those of Andrena ; but since the bee is smaller, the holes are 
 smaller, though as deep. Mr. Emerton found one nest, in a 
 path, a foot in depth. Another nest, discovered September 9th, 
 was about six inches deep. The cells are in form like those of 
 Andrena, and like them are glazed within. The egg is rather 
 slender and much curved ; in form it is long, cylindrical, ob- 
 tuse at one end, and much smaller at the other. The larva 
 10 
 
 Fig. 80. 
 
146 HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 (Figs. 79, 81) is longer and slenderer, and quite different from 
 the rather broad and flattened larva of Andrena. The body is 
 rather thick behind, but in front tapers slowly 
 towards the head, which is of moderate size. Its 
 body is somewhat tuberculated, the tubercles aid- 
 ing the grub in moving about its cell. Its length 
 is .40 of an inch. On the pupa are four quite dis- 
 tinct conical tubercles forming a transverse line 
 Fig. si. j us t j n front of the ocelli ; and there are also 
 two larger, longer tubercles, on the outer side of each of 
 which an ocellus is situated. Figure 82 represents the pupa 
 seen from beneath. 
 
 Search was made for the nests on July 16th, when 
 the ground was very hard for six inches in depth, 
 below which the soil was soft and fine, and over 
 twenty cells were dug out. "The upper cells 
 contained nearly mature pupae, and the lower ones 
 larvae of various sizes, the smallest being hardly 
 distinguishable by the naked eye. Each of these 
 small larvae was in a cell by itself, and situated 
 upon a lump of pollen, which was of the size and shape of a 
 pea, and was found to lessen in size as the larva grew larger. 
 These young were probably the offspring of several females, 
 as four mature bees were found in the hole." (Emerton.) 
 The larva of an English species hatches in ten days after the 
 eggs are laid. 
 
 Another brood of bees appeared the middle of September, 
 as on the ninth of that month (1864) Mr. Emerton found sev- 
 eral holes of the same species >of bee made in a hard gravel 
 road near the turnpike. When opened, they were found to 
 contain several bees with their young. September 2, 1867, the 
 same kind of bee was found in holes, and just ready to leave 
 the cell. 
 
 Like Bombus, the females are supposed to hybernate, the 
 males not appearing until late in the season. Like Andrena, 
 these bees suffer from the attacks of Stylops, and according to 
 Shuckard, an Ichneumon preys upon them, while certain spe- 
 cies of Cerceris, Philanthus, and Crabro carry them off to store 
 their nests with. 
 
VESPARI^E. 147 
 
 In Colletes the females, as Shuckard observes, resemble the 
 workers of the Honey-bee, while there is considerable disparity 
 between the sexes, the males being much smaller, the tongue 
 and maxillae very short; and the four-jointed labial palpi 
 much shorter than the paraglossae. There are three subcostal 
 cells, with the rudiments of a fourth. These bees form large colo- 
 nies, burrowing in the earth eight or ten inches deep, lining their 
 cells ' ' at the farther end with a very thin transparent mem- 
 branaceous coating, resembling goldbeaters' skin." They thus 
 furnish six or eight cartridge-like cells, covering each* with a 
 cap, "like the parchment on a drum-head." Smith, from whom 
 we have been quoting, states that Miltogramma punctata, which 
 is a Tachina-like fly, and the Cuckoo-bee, Epeolus variegatus, 
 have, in Europe, been reared from their cocoons. 
 
 VESPARI^E Latreille, Wasps. In this family, which comprises 
 about 900 species, the body is more attenuated, more cylindri- 
 cal, with a harder and smoother tegument than in the Ap iarice . 
 In the species with densely populated colonies, such as Vespa, 
 and Polistes, there are workers which are often very numerous, 
 while in Eumenes and Odynerus, etc., there are only males and 
 females. The antennae are elbowed, the mandibles are large, 
 stout ; the maxillae and labium of varying length ; the maxil- 
 lary palpi are six-jointed ; while on the labial palpi, which are 
 four-jointed, there are well-developed paraglossae. The pro- 
 thorax is prolonged on each side to the insertion of the wings 
 which are long and narrow, and once folded longitudinally 
 when at rest ; the fore pair have two or three subcostal cells ; 
 the hind shanks and tibiae are smooth. The eggs, when first 
 laid, are globular, soon becoming oval. 
 
 The larvae of this family are soft, fleshy, with larger heads in 
 proportion to the rest of the body, than in the Apiariw; 
 the antennal tubercle, or rudimentary antennae, are more dis- 
 tinct, and the mandibles are larger. The surface of the body 
 is smoother in Vespa and Polistes, but more tuberculated in the 
 solitary genera, Odynerus and allies, while the end of the body 
 is more acute. 
 
 As in the Apiarice the higher genera are social, building 
 papery nests, while the lower are solitary and build cells of mud 
 or sand in protected places. 
 
148 HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 In Vespa, the Paper Wasp, the ligula is squarish, with the 
 paraglossse nearly as long as the tongue, the outer maxillary 
 lobes rounded oval, half as long as the palpi, and the labial 
 maxillae are scarcely longer than the tongue. The abdomen 
 is broad at base, acutely conical. The nests are either with or 
 without a papery covering, supported by a short pedicel. 
 
 Such females as have hybernated, begin to make their 
 cells in the early part of summer. Smith states that the soli- 
 tary female wasp " begins by making three saucer-shaped re- 
 ceptacles, in each of which she deposits an egg ; she then 
 proceeds to form other similar -shaped receptacles, until the 
 eggs first deposited are hatched and the young grabs require a 
 share of her attention. From the circular bases she now be- 
 gins to raise her hexagonal cells, not building them up at once, 
 but from time to time raising them as the young grubs ^grow. 
 (Proc. Ent. Soc., London, 1858, p. 35.) 
 
 Waterhouse states that the cells formed by the solitary fe- 
 male early in the season appear u to be built entirely of glisten- 
 ing, whitish, silk-like threads which I have little doubt are a 
 secretion from the insect, all the threads being firmly attached 
 together as if they had originally been of a glutinous nature." 
 The cells formed later in the season by the workers, differ 
 in consisting of masticated rotten wood. "Almost simultane- 
 ously with the commencement of the cells, it appears that the 
 nest-covering is commenced. At first it has the appearance of 
 a miniature umbrella, serving to shelter the rudimentary cells." 
 Plate 5, Fig. 3, shows a group of cells surrounded by one 
 layer of paper, and the beginning of another. As the nest 
 
 grows larger the cells are ar- 
 ranged in galleries, supported by 
 pedicels, and the number of 
 layers in the outside covering 
 greatly increases in number. 
 
 While our common and largest 
 species, Vespa maculata Linn. 
 (Fig. 83), and the yellow wasp, 
 Y. arenariaFabr., build papery 
 nests consisting of several galleries, with the mouth of the cells 
 directed downwards, the East Indian species, V. orientals, 
 
VESPARI^. ' 149 
 
 builds its cells of clay, and, according to Waterhouse, "the 
 work is exceedingly beautiful and true." Another species, 
 according to Smith, makes its nest of sandy loam, the exterior 
 being so hard that a saw used in opening one of its sides was 
 blunted. 
 
 The larva of Vespa arenaria is long and cylindrical, not 
 so much curved as in Polistes. Its position in its cell corre- 
 sponds to its form, as the cell is longer and narrower than that 
 of Polistes. Each segment of the body is posteriorly some- 
 what thickened, as is the lateral (pleural) ridge of the body. 
 The tip of the abdomen is rather blunt, the last sternite be- 
 ing large and transverse. The pupa is provided with a single 
 tubercle on the vertex, where there are two in the Crabron- 
 idce and Sphegidce. 
 
 By the time the nest of V. arenaria is large enough to 
 contain ten full-grown larvae, and has about fourteen cells in 
 all, being about an inch in diameter, the occupants of the two 
 or three central cells will have changed to pupae, and one wasp 
 will have been excluded. 
 
 In a nest of the same species two inches in diameter, there 
 were a second brood of larvae. The outer row of cells were 
 occupied by pupae, while the central ones, emptied of the first 
 brood, were filled with a second brood of larvae. Evidently as 
 soon as an imago leaves its cell, the female deposits an egg 
 therein, as very minute larvae were found occupying cells next 
 to those containing large full-grown larvae. 
 
 In comparing a number of pupae from a large nest, they 
 will be found to be in all stages of perfection, from the 
 larva which has ceased feeding, and is preparing to transform, 
 to the imago, still veiled by its thin subimago pellicle. It is dif- 
 ficult to draw lines between these stages. Also when com- 
 parecl closely side by side, it is difficult, if not impossible to find 
 any two pupae just alike, the development proceeding very un- 
 equally. Thus the limbs may be more perfect than the antennae, 
 or certain parts may be less perfect in some than in others, while 
 the limbs may be more highly colored like the imago. 
 
 Like the bees, Vespa suffers from numerous parasites, includ- 
 ing Rhipiphorous paradoxus, which is a beetle allied to Stylops, 
 and Lebia (Dromius) linearis. The larva of Volucella is said 
 
150 ' HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 to feed on the Vespa-larvae, and Mr. Stone says that Anthomyia 
 incana is also parasitic in Wasps' nests, while two species 
 of Ichneumons, one of which is Anomalon vesparum, also in- 
 fest the larvae. No parasites have been as yet detected in this 
 country. 
 
 The Hornet, V. crabro Linn., has, according to Mr. Angus, 
 become domesticated about New York. This and the smaller 
 wasps are sometimes injurious by eating into ripe fruit, but the 
 injury is more than counterblanced by the number of flies and 
 other insects they feed their young with. 
 
 Indeed, as Saussure states, the species of Vespa are more 
 omnivorous in their tastes than any other w^asps. They live by 
 rapine and pillage, and have obtained a worse repute than other 
 insects more injurious. In spring and early summer they feed on 
 the sweets of flowers ; but later in the season attack strawber- 
 ries, plums, grapes, and other fruits, and often enter houses and 
 there help themselves to the dishes on the table. They will eat 
 raw meat, 'and then aid the butcher by devouring the flies that 
 lay their eggs on his meats. They will sometimes destroy Honey- 
 bees, attacking them on their return from the fields laden with 
 pollen ; they throw themselves upon their luckless victims, and 
 tear the abdomen from the rest of the body, and suck their 
 blood, devouring only the abdomen. They fall upon flies and 
 butterflies, and, biting off their wings, feet, and head, devour 
 the trunk. In attacking insects they use only their powerful 
 jaws, and not the sting, differing in this respect from the 
 fossorial wasps. 
 
 Saussure states that though wasps do not generally lay up 
 food, yet at certain periods they do fill the cells with honey. 
 
 The females feed their young with food chewed up and re- 
 duced to a pulp. Saussure questions whether the larvae of one 
 sex are not fed on animal and the other on vegetable food, 
 since Huber had shown "what a great influence the kind of 
 food exerts on the sex of Bees." But it is now known that the 
 sexes of some, and probably all insects are determined before 
 the larvae is hatched. I have seen the rudiments of the ovi- 
 positor in the half-grown larvae of the Humble-bee, and it is 
 most probable that those rudiments began to develop during 
 embryonic life. It is far more probable that the sexual differ- 
 ences are determined at the time of conception. 
 
151 
 
 Westwood states that the larvae, which live head-downward 
 from the reversed position of the comb, retain their position in 
 the cell, while young, by a glutinous secretion, and afterwards 
 ' ' by the swollen front of the body which fills the open part of 
 the cell." "The female cells are mostly placed apart from 
 those of the males and neuters, those of the males being often 
 mixed, but in a small number, in the neuter combs. The egg 
 state lasts eight days, the larva state thirteen or fourteen, and 
 that of the pupa about ten. After the imago has been produced, 
 one of the old workers cleans out the cell, and fits it for the 
 reception of a fresh inhabitant. The upper tier of cells, being 
 first built, serves for the habitation of the workers ; the females, 
 being produced at the end of the summer, occupy the lowest 
 tiers." When about to transform the larvae spin a thin cover- 
 ing, thus closing over the cell. 
 
 In Polistes the paraglossae are slender, and a little longer 
 than the long, or as in one instance noticed by us in P. Cana- 
 densis, barrel-shaped ligula, which is split at the end'; the palpi 
 are stouter, while the whole body is much longer than in Vespa ; 
 the abdomen is subpedunculate, and the thorax is rather ob- 
 long than spherical, as in Vespa. 
 
 The larva differs from that of Vespa in its much larger head, 
 and shorter, more ovoid form of the body, which is dilated in 
 front so as to retain the insect in its cell, while the tip is 
 more acute ; the antennal tubercles are closer together ; the 
 clypeus is more regularly triangular and more distinct, while 
 the labrum is much larger and excessively swollen, as are the 
 mouth-parts generally. The mandibles are bidentate, where in 
 Vespa they are tridentate. The pupa differs from that of Vespa, 
 besides the usual generic characters, in having the tubercle on 
 the head smaller. 
 
 The nests of Polistes (Plate 5, Fig. 4, nest of P. annularis 
 Fabr., from Saussure) are not covered in by a papery wall as in 
 Vespa, but may be found attached to bushes, with the mouth 
 of the cells pointed downwards. While at Burks ville Junction, 
 Va., in the last week of April, I had an opportunity of watch- 
 ing three species beginning their cells on the same clump of 
 bushes. They all worked in the same method, and the cells 
 only differed slightly in size. The cells were formed mostly of 
 
152 HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 crude silk, and the threads could be seen crossing each other, the 
 same structure being observed at the top and bottom of each 
 cell. 
 
 In the three-celled nest of Polistes (Plate 5, Fig. 5, 5 a) 
 first noticed April 29th, there were but two eggs deposited, the 
 third cell being without an egg, and a little smaller, and 
 the rim not so high as in the other two. The outer edge did 
 not seem to be perfectly circular, though stated by Water- 
 house to be so in the incipient cells, for in some cases we de- 
 tected two slight angles, thus making three sides, which, 
 however, would be easily overlooked on casual observation ; 
 as there are only two sides within, the cell, from being at its 
 earliest inception hemispherical, or "saucer-shaped," becomes 
 five, and subsequently six-sided, and thus from being cir- 
 cular, it is converted by the wasps into a hexagonal cell. In 
 some cells, perhaps a majority, both in this and the other spe- 
 cies, the newly made rim of the small cells is thinner than the 
 parts below, and slightly bent inwards ; thus being quite the re- 
 verse of the thickened rim of the cells of the Hive Bee. It 
 would seem that the wasp plasters on more silk, especially on 
 the angles, building them out, and making them more promi- 
 nent, in order to complete, when other cells are added, their 
 hexagonal form. The three cells are of much the same size 
 and height when the third egg is laid, as we observed in another 
 nest, that of Polistes Canadensis (Linn.)-, built at the Defences 
 of Washington, near Munson's Hill, June 9th. 
 
 Again, when one or two more cells have been added to the 
 nest, and there are four or five in all (Plate 5, Fig. 6 ; 6 a, top 
 view, in which there are four cells), two of them are nearly 
 twice as large as the others, while the fifth has been just begun, 
 and is eggless. The form of the two which run up much higher 
 than the others is the same as that of the smaller and shorter 
 ones, L e. they are on one side nearly semicircular, and on the 
 other, partly hexagonal, and the angular sides show a tendency 
 to be even more circular than when the others are built around 
 them, for the little architect seems to bring out the angles 
 more prominently when carrying up the walls of the other cells. 
 Thus she builds, as if by design, one and the same cell both 
 by the "circular" and "hexagonal" methods, afterwards adopt- 
 
VESPARI^. 153 
 
 ing only the latter, and if she devotes her attentions specially 
 to plastering the corners alone, with the design of making the 
 cell six-sided, then we must allow, contrary to Mr. Water- 
 house's views, that the wasp builds the hexagon by choice, and 
 not as the mere result of her blindly "working in segments of 
 circles ;" for if our point be proved, and the most careful obser- 
 vation of the wasp while at work is needed to prove it, then it 
 may be shown that the wasp is a free agent, and can abandon 
 one method of working at a certain stage of her work, and 
 adopt a different mode of operating. 
 
 The eggs are oval, pointed at the end, ancl glued to the in- 
 side of the cell. They are situated midway from the top and 
 bottom of the incipient cell, and placed on the innermost sides, 
 so that in a group of several cells the eggs are close together, 
 only separated by the thin cellular walls. In a completed cell 
 the egg is placed very near the bottom. 
 
 For several days a Polistes Canadensis was engaged in build- 
 ing its nest in my tent in camp near Washington. When first 
 noticed on June 9th, there were three cells, two of which con- 
 tained eggs; and it was not for two days, the llth, that the 
 third cell was completed, and a third egg deposited in it. The 
 wasp paid especial attention to strengthening the pedicel, going 
 over it repeatedly for an hour or two with its tongue, as if lay- 
 ing on more silken matter, and then proved the work by its 
 swiftly vibrating antennae. It would often fly out of the tent, 
 and on its return anxiously examine each cell, thrusting its head 
 deep down into each one. It gradually became accustomed to 
 my presence, but eventually abandoned the nest, without adding 
 more cells. The others, while at work on the bushes, abscond- 
 ed at my approach, and seemed very wary and distrustful, as 
 if desirous of concealing their abodes. Mr. Smith has found 
 Trigonalys bipustulatus to be a parasite on Polistes lanio Fabr. 
 (P. Canadensis Linn.), from St. Salvador, S. A. 
 
 Saussure arranges the higher Vespidse into two parallel series. 
 Vespa is offset by Chartergus and Nectarina ; lower down we 
 find Tatua and Synoeca, while Polistes is offset by Polybia. 
 These five genera are tropical, and in their habits, the general 
 appearance of their nests, and in the number of individuals 
 represent Vespa and Polistes of the temperate zone. The 
 
154 HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 genus Nectar ina is a short plump wasp, somewhat like Odyne- 
 rus in shape ; its distinguishing mark is the concealment of 
 the postscutellum by the scutellum. Nectarina mellifica Say, 
 of Mexico, builds a large nest externally like that of a wasp, 
 but it is more irregular, and the papery covering consists of 
 but one layer. The interior of the nest is very different, the 
 galleries of cells, instead of being parallel, being arranged in 
 concentric spheres. 
 
 Chartergus has the tip of the clypeus slighted excavated, and 
 an oval sessile abdomen. C. chartarius Olivier makes an ex- 
 ceedingly thick tough nest, attached by a broad base to the 
 bough of a tree, about twice as long as thick, and ending in a 
 cone, pierced in the centre by the entrance which passes 
 through the middle to the basal gallery ; the other galleries are 
 formed by a continuation of the sides of the nest, and arrayed 
 in a conical plane. 
 
 In Tatua, the abdomen is pedicelled, but the petiole is not 
 enlarged, and the abdomen itself is very regularly conical. T. 
 morio Cuvier, from Cayenne, forms a nest like that of Charter- 
 gus ; but the galleries form a flat floor, and each gallery has an 
 entrance from the outside of the nest, where in the latter there is 
 one common entrance. Plate 5, Fig. 9, shows how the bases 
 of the cells are laid out on the edge of a gallery. In Synceca 
 the peculiarly shaped abdomen is cordate and compressed. The 
 curious nest of S. cyanea Fabr. is formed of a single layer of 
 cells fixed against the trunk of a tree, and covered in with a 
 dense covering made from the bark of dead trees. Some nests 
 of Synoeca are three feet long. In the very extensive genus 
 Polybia, which resembles Polistes in its general shape, the abdo- 
 men is pedicelled, and the mandibles are four-toothed. The nests 
 are somewhat like those of Chartergus, but much smaller. Sev- 
 eral species occur in Mexico, and in Brazil the number of 
 species is very great. In Apo'ica the abdomen is very long, 
 and the third segment is as long as the second. Plate 5, Fig. 
 11, represents the nest of Apoica pallida Olivier, from Cayenne. 
 It is unprotected, with a conical base, and with a single row 
 of cells. 
 
 In Icaria we have an approach to Polistes in the slender 
 series of cells composing the nest, forming two or three rows 
 
VESPARLE. 155 
 
 only. Plate 5, Fig. 7, represents the nest of I. guttatipennis 
 Saussure, from Senegal ; 8, ground plan of a similar nest. These 
 wasps are mostly distinguished from Polybia by the petiole 
 ending in a globular mass. Plate 5, Fig. 10, represents 
 the elegant nest of Mischocyttarus laUatus Fabr., from Cay- 
 enne and Brazil, which consists of a few cells supported by a 
 long pedicel. The wasp itself much resembles Polistes, but 
 the petiole is very much longer. 
 
 The remaining genera noticed here are solitary, building 
 separate cells, and with only males and females. There are 
 three subcostal cells in the fore wings, and the maxillae and 
 labium are much elongated. 
 
 In Eumenes the abdomen has a long pedicel, being sessile in 
 Odynerus. While authors place Eumenes higher than Ody- 
 nerus, we would consider the latter as a higher, more cepha- 
 lized form, since the abdomen is less elongated, and the head 
 is larger. 
 
 In Odynerus the ligula is long, deeply forked at the 
 slender extremity, while the slender paraglossse are shorter, 
 ending in a two-toothed claw-like tip ; the maxillse are slender, 
 and the palpi have an elongated basal joint ; the clypeus is 
 nearly circular, toothed on the front edge. The larva differs 
 from those of the higher Vesparice,, in its more elongated head, 
 the square clypeus, the unusually deep fissure of the bilobate la- 
 brum, and in the larger tubercles of the body, as the larva is 
 more active, turning and twisting in its. cell, while feeding on 
 its living food ; and in this respect it is more closely allied to 
 the young Crabronidce . In the pupa of 0. albopJialeratus, 
 the tip is more incurved than in the pupa of Vespa, so that the 
 hind legs (tarsi) reach to the tip, and the abdomen is rounded 
 ovate, while in Vespa it is oblong. 
 
 The cells (Plate 4, Figs. 13, 14) of Odynerus alboplialeratus 
 Sauss. have been detected like those of Osmia in a deserted gall 
 of Diplolepis confluens, where several were found in a row, 
 arranged around one side of the gall, side by side, with the holes 
 pointing towards the centre of the gall. The cells are half an 
 inch long, and one-half as wide, being, formed of small pellets 
 of mud, giving a corrugated, granulated appearance to the 
 outside, while the inside is lined with silk. 
 
156 HYMENOPTERA . 
 
 We have received from Mr. Angus deserted cells of Cera- 
 tina in a syringa stem, in which we detected a pupa of an 
 Odjmerus, perhaps 0. leucomelas ; the cell was a little shorter 
 than that of the Ceratina it had occupied. The cocoon of 
 the Odyiierus was of silk, and almost undistinguishable from 
 the old cocoon of Ceratina. The wasp had dispensed with the 
 necessity of making a mud cell. If future research shows that 
 either this or any other species makes a mud cell or not at 
 will, it shows the intelligence of these little "free-agents;" 
 and that a blind adherence to fixed mechanical laws does not 
 obtain in these insects. 
 
 The larvae of Odynerus and Eumenes are carnivorous. I 
 found several cells of O. alboplialeratus, June 22d, in the 
 deserted nest of a Clisiocampa, which were stored with micro- 
 lepidopterous larvae and pupae, still alive, having been para- 
 lyzed by the .sting of the wasp. The larvae of the wasp was 
 short and thick, being, when contracted, not more than twice 
 as long as broad ; the rings of the body are moderate!}" convex, 
 and the pleural region is faintly marked. Prof. A. E. Verrill 
 has discovered the cells of an Odynerus at New Haven, forming 
 a sandy mass (Plate 5, Fig. 12) attached to the stem of a 
 plant. 
 
 In Eumenes the lingua is very long, being narrower and 
 more deeply divided than in Odynerus ; the second subcostal 
 space of the wings is long and narrow, while in Odyxferus it is 
 triangular. The genus is easily recognized by the very long 
 pedicel of the abdomen. Eumenes fraterna Say constructs a 
 thin cell (Plate 5,* Fig. 15) of pellets of mud, and as large 
 
 * EXPLANATION OF PLATE 5. Fig. 1. Mouth of the tunnel of Augochlora pnrus ; 
 from Emerton. Fig. 2. Cells of Osmia pacifica ; communicated by Mr. Sanborn. 
 Fig. 3. Vertical section of nest of Vespa with a group of primitive cells surrounded 
 by one layer of paper, and part of another; from Saussure. Fig. 4. Nest of Po- 
 listes annularis ; from Saussure. Fig. 5. Three primitive cells of Polistes; 5 a, top 
 view of the same, one being eggless. The sides adjoining are angular. Figs. G and 
 6 a, a cell farther advanced, consisting of four cells, each containing an egg, and 
 with the edges of the cells built up higher and more decidedly six-sided ; original. 
 Fig. 7. Cells of Icaria giittatipennis, showing that each cell is built up independently 
 in regular hexagons. Fig. 8. Ground plan of a similar nest. Fig. 9. Ground plan 
 of cells of Tatua morio ; from Smith. Fig. 1C. Nest of Hftschocyttfirus labiutus ; 
 from Saussure. Fig. 11. Nest of Apo'ica pallida ; from Saussure. Fig. 12, Nest of 
 Odynerus birenimaculatus . Fig. 13. Nest of Odynerus albophaleratus ; original, 
 Fig. 14. Mud cell of Pelopceus flavipes ; original. Fig. 15. A row of spherical cells 
 of Eumenes fraterna, with the female; from Harris. 
 
Plate 5. 
 
 ARCHITECTURE OF WASPS. 
 
CRABRONID^E. 157 
 
 as a cherry. It is attached by a short stout pedicel to bushes, 
 and the cavity is filled with the larvae of small moths. 
 
 Rapliiglossa odyneroides, from Epirus, described by S. S. 
 Saunders, makes elongated cells in galleries in briars, storing 
 them with the larvae of what he supposed to be weevils. The 
 dark brown dense tough cocoon of a Chrysis was also found in 
 the cells. 
 
 In Masaris, which connects the Ve spar ice, with the succeed- 
 ing family, the wings are not completely folded when at rest ; 
 there are but two subcostal cells ; the maxillae are rudimen- 
 tary ; and the antennae are clavate and eight-jointed. Masaris 
 vespoides Cresson, inhabits Colorado Territory. 
 
 CRABRONIDJS Latreille. Sand-wasps, Wood-wasps. In the 
 more typical genera the head is remarkably large, cuboidal, 
 while the clypeus is very short, and covered for the most part 
 with a dense silvery or golden pile. The antennae are genicu- 
 late, the long second joint being received, when at rest, in a 
 deep frontal vertical groove ; the mandibles are large, and of 
 even width throughout, and the mouth-parts are rather short, 
 especially the lingua, which is often, however, well developed. 
 There is only one subcostal cell, except in the Philanthince. 
 The thorax is sub-spherical, and the abdomen is either short 
 and stout, or more or less pedicellate. The forefeet are 
 adapted for digging and tunnelling, the forelegs in the females 
 being broad and flat, and in the males, which are supposed to 
 do no work, they are sometimes, as in Thyreopus, armed with 
 vexhillate expansions. 
 
 The larva is rather short and thick, a little flattened on the 
 under side, but much rounded above ; the segments are convex 
 above, the thoracic segments differing from the abdominal seg- 
 ments in not being thickened posteriorly on each ring. They 
 spin either a very slight cocoon, or a thin dense brown oval 
 cylindrical case, generally reddish brown in color. The pupae 
 have much the same character as the imago, with prominent 
 acute tubercles above the ocelli. 
 
 The members of this family afford, so far as we are ac- 
 quainted with their habits, most interesting examples of the 
 interdependence of structure and the habits of insects. Most 
 
158 HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 of the species are wood-wasps, making their cells in cy- 
 lindrical holes in rotten wood, or enlarging nail-holes in 
 posts, as is the case with Crabro singularis, according to the 
 observations of Mr. C. A. Shurtleff, thus adapting them to the 
 requirements of their young. Other genera (Rhopalum pedicel- 
 latum, Stigmus fraternus, and Crabro stirpicola) avail them- 
 selves of those plants whose stem has a pith which they can 
 readily excavate and refit for their habitations. The females 
 provision their nests with caterpillars, aphidae, spiders, and 
 other insects. 
 
 This family is most difficult to classify ; it consists rather of 
 groups of genera, some higher and some lower, though as a 
 general rule those genera with pedunculate abdomens are the 
 lowest in the series. In illustration, we regard Stigmus, w r ith 
 its elongated decephalized body, as inferior to Blepharipus, 
 which again is subordinate to the more cephalized Crabro, 
 where the body is shorter, the abdomen sessile, the anterior 
 part of the body more developed headwards, while its nests 
 are constructed more elaborately. The genus Psen, for the 
 same reason, is lower than Cerceris, of which it seems a de- 
 graded form. 
 
 Some of the most useful characters in separating the genera 
 of this family are to be found in the form of the clypeus, its 
 sculpturing and relative amount of pubescence or hirsuties ; in 
 the form and sculpturing of the propodewn (Newman), or tho- 
 racico-abdominal ring of Newport ; while the tip of the abdo- 
 men presents excellent generic and also specific characters, 
 depending on its grooved or flattened shape. 
 
 The species of this family are mostly found in the north 
 temperate zone, being very abundant in North America and in 
 Europe. The Pemphredoninse occur far north in abundance, 
 while Cerceris occurs farthest towards the tropics. 
 
 The subfamily Philanthince includes the three genera, Plii- 
 lantlms, Eucerceris, and Cerceris. In Philantlms (Fig. 84,' wing), 
 the head is short, transversely suboval, the clypeus longer 
 than broad, with the first joint of the abdomen nearly as broad 
 when seen from above as the succeeding one. Our more com- 
 mon form southward is Philantlms vertilabns Say (Fig. 85). 
 In Europe P. apivorus provisions its nest with honey-bees. 
 
CRABRONID^:. 
 
 159 
 
 Fig. 85. 
 
 Fig. 87. 
 
 Cresson remarks that Eucerceris (Fig. 86, fore wing of male ; 
 a, female) differs from Cerceris in the venation, which differs 
 greatly in the two sexes. E. zonatus Say 
 occurs in the west. 
 
 The species of Cerceris (Fig. 87, wing) 
 have transversely oblong heads, the front of 
 the head is flattened and destitute of hairs, 
 and the rings of the abdomen are contracted, 
 the middle part being un- 
 usually convex and coarsely 
 punctured, while the basal 
 ring is nearly one-half nar- 
 rower than the succeeding 
 ones. Cerceris deserta Say is our most com- 
 mon form. In Europe some species are 
 known to store their nests with bees, and the larvae of Cur- 
 culionidce and Buprestidce. Dufour unearthed in a sin- 
 gle field thirty nests of C. bupresticida which were filled with 
 ten species of Buprestis, comprising four hundred individuals, 
 and none of any other genus. Cerceris tuberculata provisions 
 its nest with Leucosomus ophthalmicus ; and C. triciucta with 
 Clythra. 
 
 In the subfamily Crabronince, there is a great disparity in 
 the sexes, the form of the females being the most persistent. 
 In the male the head is smaller, narrow behind, with shorter 
 mandibles, and a narrower clypeus ; the body is also much 
 slenderer, especially the abdomen, and the legs are simple in 
 Crabro, but in Thyreopus variously modified by expansions of 
 the joints, especially the tibia. The 
 species of Crabro (Fig. 88) are readily 
 distinguished by the large cubical 
 head, and the sharp mucronate abdo- 
 minal tip of the female. The more 
 typical form of this very extensive 
 genus is Crabro sex-maculatus Say, 
 so-called from the six yellow spots 
 
 on the subpedunculate abdomen. According to Dr. T. W. 
 Harris (MS. notes), this wasp was seen by Rev. Mr. Leonard, 
 of Dublin, N. H., burrowing in decayed wood, June 10th. 
 
160 HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 Crabro singularis Smith, was discovered by Mr. C. A. Shuvtleff 
 boring in a post. 
 
 In Thyreopus, the body is slender, and the forelegs are 
 curiously dilated in the males, often forming a broad expansion, 
 and so dotted as to present a sieve-like appearance, while the 
 head is much shorter, being more transverse. T. latipes Smith 
 is known by the broad, long, acute, mucronate, shield-like ex- 
 pansion of the fore tibia, which is striped with black at the 
 base. 
 
 The species of Rhopalum are usually blackish, without the 
 gay colors prevalent in the genera before mentioned ; the legs 
 are simple, and the abdomen is long and slender, with a long 
 peduncle. The body of the larva is short and thick, tapering 
 rapidly towards each extremity ; the segments are convex, 
 those of the thorax especially being smooth, broad, and regu- 
 larly convex, while the abdominal rings are provided with 
 prominent tubercles. The tip of the body is quite extensible, 
 and when protruded is subacute, terminating in a small knob- 
 like body, formed by the last ring. The larvae of this genus 
 differ from those of the Vesparice andApiarice known to us 
 by having a few hairs scattered over the body. 
 
 In the pupa the antennae, in their natural position, do not 
 quite reach to the second pair of trochanters, and reach onl}- 
 to the tip of the maxillary palpi. The tip of the abdomen is 
 very acute and elongated unusually far beyond the ovipositor. 
 On the head, between the ocelli and antennae, are two very 
 prominent, acute tubercles, and the abdominal segments are 
 dentate on the hind edge. Thus both the larva and pupa 
 would seem, by their anatomy, to be unusually active in their 
 loose, illy-constructed cells, which do not confine their food so 
 closely as in the other wasps, as the insects on which they prob- 
 ably feed have a greater range in their rather roomy cells. April 
 18th we opened several stems grown in the open air, and 
 found both larvae and pupae ; the latter in different stages of 
 development. The cells were placed in the closely packed 
 dust made by the larva of an JEgeria, or directly bored in the 
 pith of the plants. There were six such cells, each with its 
 inhabitant, within a space an inch in length, some laying cross- 
 wise, others along the middle. The larvae spin but a very 
 
CRABRONIDJE. 161 
 
 slight cocoon, not at all comparable with that of Crabro ; the 
 walls of the cell being simply lined with silken threads. Under 
 other circumstances, i. e. where the cells are more exposed, it 
 is not unlikely that a more elaborate cocoon may be spun. 
 
 Mr. James Angus has bred numerous specimens of Rlwpa- 
 lum pedicellatum Pack., from stems of the Rose, Corcorus, Ja- 
 ponica, and Spiraea, grown in hot-houses at West Farms, N. Y. 
 The larva is a quarter of an inch long. 
 
 The following genera belong to the subfamily Pemphre- 
 donince : 
 
 The genus Stigmus, as its name indicates, may at once be 
 known by the very large pterostigma, as well as the unusually 
 small size of the species. The body of the larva is moderately 
 long and slender, cylindrical, tapering slowly towards both ex- 
 tremities. The rings are short, very convex, subacutely so, 
 and the larva is of a beautiful roseate color. Stigmus frater- 
 nus Say burrows in the stems of the Syringa, of which speci- 
 mens have been received from Mr. Angus with the larvae and 
 pupae. 
 
 In Cemonus the front narrows rapidly towards the insertion 
 of the mandibles, and there is a short triangular enclosure on 
 the propodeum, while the abdomen is shorter and thicker than 
 in PempJiredon, a closely allied genus ; the rjedicel is also 
 longer. The larvae of Cemonus inornatus Harris live in irregu- 
 lar burrows in the elder, like those of Rhopalum from which 
 they have been reared by Mr. Angus. They are known by the 
 broad flattened head and body, serrate side and tergum of the 
 body, and large, conspicuously bidentate mandibles, as well as 
 by the peculiarly flattened abdominal tip. 
 
 In Passalcecus the labrum is very prominent, while the man- 
 dibles are very large, widening towards the tip, and in the com- 
 mon P. mandibularis Cresson they are white, and thus very 
 conspicuous. This species burrows in company w r ith the other 
 wood-wasps mentioned above in the stems of the elder and 
 syringa. The cells are lined with silk. The wasps appear 
 early in June. Their nests are tenanted by Chalcids. The 
 female stores her cells with Aphides, as we have found them 
 abundantly in stems of plants received from Mr. Angus. 
 
 The genus Psen seems to be a degraded Gerceris, but the 
 11 
 
162 HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 abdomen is pedicelled, and differs from Mimesa, a still more 
 slender-bodied genus, in having the tip of the abdomen more or 
 less grooved, while in Mimesa it is flat and not grooved at all. 
 Psen leucopus Say has a dense silvery pile on the front of 
 the head, with black antennae, and the pedicel is rather short. 
 
 NYSSONID^E Leach. In this family the head is transversely 
 longer and less cubical than in the preceding group ; the ver- 
 tex is higher and more convex, while the front is narrow, the 
 clypeus long and narrow, the eyes long and narrow, and the 
 antennae are more clavate than in the Crabronidoe, and 
 the propodeum is sometimes armed with acute spines, while 
 the enclosed space is smoothly polished or striated. The wings 
 are long and narrow, and the abdomen is sessile in the typical 
 genera, where it is obconic, but clavate when pedicellate. 
 
 In Trypoxylon the body is long, with a pedicellate clavate 
 abdomen. In Europe "Mr. Johnson has detected it frequent- 
 Ing the holes of a post pre-occupied by a species of Odynerus, 
 and into which it conveyed a small round ball, or pellet, con- 
 taining about fifty individuals of a species of Aphis ; this the 
 Odynerus, upon her return, invariably turned out, flying out 
 with it, held by her legs, to the distance of about a foot from 
 the aperture of her cell, where she hovered a moment, and then 
 let it fall ; and this was constantly the case till the Trypoxylon 
 had sufficient time to mortar up the orifice of the hole, and the 
 Odynerus was then entirely excluded ; for although she would 
 return to the spot repeatedly, she never endeavored to force 
 the entrance, but flew off to seek another hole elsewhere." 
 
 T. politum Say has purplish wings, and no enclosure on the 
 propodeum. 
 
 T. frigidum Smith lives in the stems of Syringa, from which 
 it has been reared by Mr. Angus. The thin, delicate cocoon is 
 long and slender, enlarging slightly towards the anterior end. 
 
 The genus Mellinus (belonging to the third subfamily, Mel- 
 linince,) is known by its broad front, and slender antennae, 
 and its pedunculate abdomen, while in Alyson, a slender- 
 bodied genus, it is sessile. Mellinus bimaculatus Say has a 
 black head, with pale tipped antennae, and two ovate yellow 
 spots on the abdomen. Atyson oppositus is black, with two 
 
NYSSONID^. 163 
 
 yellow spots on the abdomen, which has the basal ring yel- 
 lowish red in the female. * 
 
 The fourth subfamily is the Nyssonince, so named from Nys- 
 son, a typical genus. 
 
 The genus Gorytes is truly a mimetic form, closely simulat- 
 ing the genus Odynerus, one of the Vesparice. The front of 
 the head is narrow, while the clypeus is larger than usual. The 
 species are numerous, occurring late in the summer on the 
 flowers of Spiraea. Gorytes flavicornis Harris is polished russet 
 brown, with narrow yellow rings on the abdomen, the propo- 
 deum is smooth and polished, and the basal ring of the abdomen 
 is black. A species has been observed in Europe protruding 
 her sting into the frothy secretion of Tettigoniaa living on 
 grass, and carrying off the insect to provision its nest with. 
 
 Oxybelus is a short, stout, black genus, with whitish abdomi- 
 nal spots, and stout spines on the thorax, while the sessile 
 abdomen is distinctly conical. "Its prey consists of Diptera, 
 which it has a peculiar mode of carrying by the hind, legs the 
 while it either opens the aperture of its burrow or else forms a 
 new one with its anterior pair. Its flight is low, and in skips ; 
 it is very active." (West wood.) 
 
 Oxybelus emarginafus Say has two oval membranous appen- 
 dages to the metathorax, and is a common black species found 
 abundantly on the flowers of the Virginia Creeper. 
 
 In Nysson the body is a little longer, narrow compared with 
 that of Oxybelus, while the terminal joint of the antennae is 
 thickened, flattened, and excavated beneath. Nysson lateralis 
 Say is dull black, with six light spots on the abdomen. 
 
 The species of Stizus are of large size and easily recognized 
 by their hirsute body, stout legs, triangular silvery clypeus, 
 and the high transverse vertex of the head. The propodeum 
 has a faintly marked triangular enclosure. The species are 
 very rapacious, paralyzing grasshoppers and other large insects 
 with their formidable sting, and carrying them off to provision 
 their nests. Professor S. Tenney has sent us a specimen of 
 the Dog-day Cicada (C. canicularis) which Stizus speciosus had 
 thus stung. Mr. Atkinson has observed the same fact, and has 
 found the deep burrows of this species, the hole being three- 
 fourths of an inch in diameter. He has observed it feeding on 
 sap running from a tree. 
 
164 HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 The species of Larra are smaller, and differ from those of 
 Stizus in the long, narrow, very prominent labrum, the shorter 
 clypeus, broader front and longer abdomen, the tip of which is 
 without the broad subtriangular area which is present in Stizus 
 and the other genera of this family. Larra unicincta Say is black- 
 ish, with a single reddish band on the second abdominal ring. 
 
 BEMBECID^E Latreille. We have but two genera, Bembex 
 and Monedula, which have large heads and flattened bodies, 
 bearing a strong resemblance to Syrphus flies from their similar 
 coloration. The labrum is very large and long, triangular, like 
 a beak. The species are very active, flying rapidly about 
 flowers with a loud hum. "The female Bembex burrows in 
 sand to a considerable depth, burying various species of Dip- 
 tera (Syrphidae, Muscidae, etc.), and de'positing her eggs at the 
 same time in company with them, upon which the larvae, when 
 hatched, subsist. When a sufficient store has been collected, 
 the parent closes the mouth of the cell with earth." " An 
 anonymous correspondent in the Entomological Magazine, states 
 that B. rostrata constructs its nests in the soft light sea-sands 
 in the Ionian Islands, and appears to catch its prey (consisting 
 of such flies as frequent the sand ; amongst others, a bottle- 
 green fly) whilst on the wing. He describes the mode in 
 which the female, with astonishing swiftness, scratches its hole 
 with its forelegs like a dog. Bembex tarsata, according to 
 Latreille, provisions its nests with Bombylii" (Westwood.) 
 Dufour states that two Diptera, Panopea carnea and Toxophora 
 fasciata, the latter allied to Systrophus, are parasites on Bem- 
 bex. Mr. F. G. Sanborn has noticed the exceedingly swift 
 flight of our common Bembex fasciata Fabr. on sandy beaches 
 where it is found most abundantly. 
 
 Monedula differs from Bembex in its slenderer body, more 
 clavate antennae, and its shorter, very obtuse labrum. The 
 body is smoother, and most generally more highly colored and 
 more gaily spotted than in Bembex. 
 
 Monedula Carolina Fabr. and M. ^-fasciata Say are common 
 southwards of New England. 
 
 LARRID^E Leach. Mr. F. Smith defines this family as having 
 "mandibles notched exteriorly near the base ; the labrum con- 
 
LARRLLME. 165 
 
 cealed, with a single spine at the apex of the intermediate 
 tibiae ; the abdomen is ovoid-conical." 
 
 The genus Astata is a large hairy form, with long antennae 
 and palpi and an elongated prothorax. Its spiny legs show its 
 near relationship to the Sphegidce. Astata unicolor Say repre- 
 sents the genus in this country. 
 
 Tacliytes is also of larger size than the following genus. 
 It is covered with long dense golden short hairs, with a trap- 
 ezoidal front. Tacliytes aurulentus Fabr. is rare ; it frequents 
 the flowers of the Asclepias, as we have found pollen masses at- 
 tached to the spines of its legs. We figure 
 (89) a tarsus of a wasp belonging probably to 
 this genus, received from Mr. V. T. Chambers, 
 showing the pollen masses of Asclepias at- 
 tached to the spines. 
 
 The genus Larrada "contains those species 
 which have the marginal cell truncated at the 
 apex and appendiculated, and three submarginal 
 cells, the first as long as the two following ; 
 .... the metathorax [propodeum] truncated 
 posteriorly, elongate, the sides being generally 
 parallel ; the mandibles are large and arcuate, Fi o- 89. 
 with a tooth on their exterior towards the base ; abdomen 
 ovate-conical, acuminate at the apex." Larrada argentata 
 Beauv. is covered with silvery pile. It is a slender form, with 
 short, nearly unarmed legs. 
 
 A Brazilian species of Larrqda, according to Mr. H. W. 
 Bates, builds a nest composed apparently of the scrapings of 
 the woolly texture of plants ; it is attached to a leaf, having a 
 close resemblance to a piece of German tinder, or a piece of 
 sponge. The cocoons were dark brown, and of a brittle consist- 
 ency. The reporter, Mr. F. Smith, adds : "I am not aware of 
 any similar habit of building an external nest having been pre- 
 viously recorded; our British species of the closely allied 
 genus Tachytes, are burrowers in the ground, particularly in 
 sandy situations ; their anterior tarsi are strongly ciliated, the 
 claws bifid and admirably adapted for burrowing. On examin- 
 ing the insect which constructed the nest now exhibited, I find 
 the legs differently armed ; the anterior pair are not ciliated, 
 
166 HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 and the claws are simple and slender, clearly indicative of a 
 peculiar habit differing from its congeners, and how admirably 
 is this illustrated in the nest before us?" 
 
 SPHEGID^E Latreille. Smith defines this family as having 
 "the posterior margin of the prothorax not prolonged back- 
 wards to the insertion of the wings, and anteriorly produced 
 into a neck, with the abdomen petiolated." The very fossorial 
 legs are long and spiny, the posterior pair being of unusual 
 length. The mandibles are large, curved, narrow, and acute, 
 the base not being toothed externally, and the antennae are 
 long and filiform. The species are often gaily colored, being 
 ornamented with black and red, brown and red, or are entirely 
 black, or blue. They love the sunshine, are very active, rest- 
 less in their movements, and have a powerful sting. 
 
 The sting of these and other wasps which store up insects for 
 their young, penetrates the nervous centres and paralyzes the 
 victim without depriving it of life, so that it lives many days. 
 A store of living food is thus laid up for the young wasp. 
 After being stung the caterpillars will transform into chrys- 
 alids, though too weak to change to moths. Mr. Gueinzius, 
 who resides in South Africa, observes that "large spiders 
 and caterpillars became immediately motionless on being stung, 
 and I cannot help thinking that the poisonous acid of Hymen- 
 optera has an antiseptic and preserving property; for cater- 
 pillars and locusts retain their colors weeks after being stung, 
 and this, too, in a moist situation under a burning sun." 
 
 These insects either make their nests in the sand, or, like the 
 succeeding family, are "mud-daubers," building their cells of 
 mud and plastering them on walls, etc. 
 
 The tropical genus Ampulex is more closely allied to the 
 preceding family than the other genera. The species are 
 brassy green. Dr. G. A. Perkins has described in the Ameri- 
 can Naturalist, vol. 1, p. 293, the habits of a wasp, probably 
 the Ampulex Sibirica Fabr., which inhabits Sierra Leone, and 
 oviposits in the body of the cockroach. The dead bodies of 
 the cockroaches are often found with the empty cocoon of the 
 wasp occupying the cavity of the abdomen. 
 
 A species of this genus, abundant at Zanzibar at certain sea- 
 
SPHEGIDJE. 1(57 
 
 sons, was frequently observed by Mr. C. Cooke to attack the 
 cockroach. The cockroach, as if cowed at its presence, im- 
 mediately yields without a struggle. The Ampulex stings 
 and paralyses its victim, and then flies away with it. 
 
 Chlorion is closely allied, containing blue and metallic green 
 species, often with golden yellow wings. Chlorion cyaneum 
 Dahlb., a blue species, is found in the Southern States. 
 
 The genus Priononyx "differs from the genus Sphex in hav- 
 ing the claws quadridentate beneath at their base ; the neura- 
 tion of the wings and the form of the abdomen are the same as 
 in Harpactopus" which is found only in the tropics and Aus- 
 tralia. Priononyx Thomce is found from South Carolina to 
 Brazil, including the West Indies. 
 
 The genus /Sphex is quite an extensive one. The head is as 
 wide as the thorax ; the antennae are filiform, mandibles large 
 and acute, bidentate within, the teeth notched at their base, 
 forming a rudimentary tooth, the apical tooth being acute. 
 The thorax is elongate-ovate, truncated behind, with a trans- 
 verse collar (prothorax). The fore wings have one marginal 
 and three submarginal cells ; the marginal cell elongate, rounded 
 at its apex ; the 
 first submarginal 
 cell as long as the 
 two following. The 
 abdomen is pedun- 
 culated, conically 
 ovate, and the an- 
 terior tarsi are cili- 
 ated in the females. 
 
 /Sphex ichneumo- 
 nea Linn. (Figure 
 90) is a large rust- 
 red species, with a 
 dense golden pu- Fig. 90. 
 
 bescence. It is common from Massachusetts southwards. In 
 the last week of July, and during August and early in Sep- 
 tember, we noticed nearly a dozen of these wasps busily en- 
 gaged in digging their holes in a gravelly walk. In previous 
 seasons they were more numerous, burrowing into grassy 
 
1 G 8 H YMENOPTERA . 
 
 banks near the walk. The holes were four to six inches deep. 
 In beginning its hole the wasp dragged away with its teeth a 
 stone one half as large as itself to a distance of eight inches 
 from the hole, while it pushed away others with its head. In 
 beginning its burrow it used its large and powerful jaws almost 
 entirely, digging to the depth of an inch in five minutes, com- 
 pleting its hole in about half an hour. After having inserted 
 its head into the hole, where it loosened the earth with its 
 jaws and threw it out of the hole with its jaws and fore 
 legs, it would retreat backwards and push the dirt still 
 farther back from the mouth of the cell with its hind legs. In 
 cases where the farther progress of the work was stopped by a 
 stone too large for the wasp to remove or dig around, it would 
 abandon it and begin a new hole. Just as soon as it reached 
 the required depth the wasp flew a few feet to the adjoining 
 bank and falling upon an Orchelimum vulgare or O. gracile, 
 stung and paralyzed it instantly, bore it to its nest, and was out 
 of sight for a moment, and while in the bottom of its hole 
 must have deposited its egg in its victim. Reappearing it be- 
 gan to draw the sand back into the hole, scratching it in quite 
 briskly by means of its spiny fore tarsi, while standing on its 
 two hind pairs of legs. It thus threw in half an inch of dirt 
 upon the grasshopper and then flew off. In this w r ay one Sphex 
 will make two or three such holes in an afternoon. The walk 
 was hard and composed of a coarse sea-gravel, and the rapidity 
 with which the wasp worked her way in with tooth and nail was 
 marvellous. 
 
 Sphex tibialis St. Fargeau is a black, stout, thick insect. 
 Mr. J. Angus has reared this species, sending me the larvae in 
 a cavity previously tunnelled by Xylocopa Virginica in a 
 pine board. The hole was six inches long, and the oval cylin- 
 drical cocoons were packed loosely, either side by side, where 
 there was room, or one a little in advance of the other. The 
 interstices between them were filled with bits of rope, which 
 had perhaps been bitten up into pieces b}^ the wasp itself ; while 
 the end of the cell was filled for a distance of two inches with a 
 coarse sedge arranged in layers, as if rammed in like gun- wad- 
 ding. The cocoons are eighty to ninety hundredths of an inch 
 long, oval lanceolate, somewhat like those of Pompilus. They 
 
SPHEGIM;. . 1C9 
 
 consist of two layers, the outer ver} T thin, the inner tough, 
 parchment-like. The larvae hybernate and turn to pupae in 
 the spring, appearing in the summer and also in the autumn. 
 
 The larva is cylindrical, with the pleural ridge prominent, 
 and with no traces of feet ; the head, which is small and not 
 prominent, and rather narrow compared with that of Pelopseus, 
 is bent inwards on the breast so that the mouth reaches to the 
 sternum of the fourth abdominal ring. The posterior half of 
 each ring is much thickened, giving a crenulated outline to the 
 tergum. The abdominal tip is obtuse. 
 
 Spliex Lanierii Guerin, according to Smith (Proceedings 
 of the Entomological Society of London, Feb. 7, 1859), con- 
 structs its nest of a cottony substance, filling a tunnel formed 
 by a large curved leaf. The species of the genus are sup- 
 posed to burrow in the ground, and the two cases above 
 cited show an interesting divergence from this habit. Mr. 
 Smith adds, that in "the Sphex which constructs the nest in 
 the rolled leaf, the anterior tarsi are found to be very slightly 
 ciliated, and the tibiae almost destitute of spines, thus affording 
 another instance proving that difference of structure is indica- 
 tive of difference of habit." 
 
 The genus Pelopceus is of a slighter form than in Sphex, the 
 body being longer and slenderer ; the clypeus is as broad as 
 long, triangular above, in front convex, or produced and end- 
 ing in two teeth. The outer costal eell is lanceolate oval, the 
 second subcostal cell subtrapezoidal, being widest above ; it is 
 also somewhat longer than broad. The first median cell is very 
 long and narrow, much more so than usual. The pedicel of 
 the abdomen is long, the first joint in the male being often as 
 long as the remainder of the abdomen. 
 
 The larva of P. cceruleusl^mn. is much like that of Sphex, 
 having a cylindrical body with the rings thickened posteriorly. 
 It differs from that of Pompilus in its longer and narrower head, 
 the short broadly trapezoidal clypeus, and the distinctly marked 
 exserted labrum. The mandibles are long and tridentate. 
 
 The pupa (of P. flavipes) differs from that of the Ve spar ice 
 in having the head more raised from the breast ; the palpi are 
 not parltially concealed, as they may be easily seen for their 
 whole length. The long curved mandibles cover the base of the 
 
170 HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 maxillae and lingua, and the antennae reach to the posterior coxae. 
 The maxillae are slender, not reaching to the tip of the labium. 
 
 The female usually provisions her cells (Plate 5, Fig. 14) with 
 spiders. The cells are constructed of layers of mud of unequal 
 length, and formed of little pellets placed in two rows, and di- 
 verging from the middle. They are a little over an inch long, 
 and from a half to three-quarters of an inch wide, and are some- 
 what three-sided, the inner side next the object, either stone- 
 walls or rafters, to which it is attached, being flat. As the 
 earthen cells sufficiently, protect the delicate larvae within, the 
 cocoons are very thin, and brown in color. 
 
 The cells of .Pelopceus flavipes from Brownville, Texas, col- 
 lected by an United States officer and presented to the Boston 
 Society of Natural History, contained both spiders and numer- 
 ous pupae of a fly, Sarcophaga nudipennis Loew (MS) which is 
 somewhat allied to Tachina. These last hatched out in mid- 
 summer a few days before the specimens of Pelopaeus. It is 
 most probable that they were parasitic on the latter. These 
 specimens of P. flavipes were more highly ornamented with yel- 
 low .than in those found northwards in the Atlantic States, 
 the metathorax being crossed by a broad yellow band. 
 
 The genus Ammophila is a long slender form, with a petio- 
 late abdomen, the tip of which is often red. The petiole of the 
 abdomen is two-jointed, and very long and slender, being 
 longer than the fusiform part. In the males the petiole is in 
 some species much shorter. The wings are small, with the apex 
 more obtuse than usual ; the second subcostal cell is pentag- 
 onal, and the third is broadly triangular. 
 
 Westwood states that "the species inhabit sandy districts, 
 in which A. sabulosa forms its burrow, using its jaws in bur- 
 rowing ; and when they are loaded, it ascends backwards to 
 the mouth, turns quickly around, flies to about a foot's distance, 
 gives a sudden turn, throwing the sand in a complete shower 
 to about six inches' distance, and again alights at the mouth 
 of its burrow." 
 
 "Latreille states that this species provisions its cells with 
 caterpillars, but Mr. Shuckard states that he has observed the 
 female dragging a very large inflated spider up the nearly per- 
 pendicular side of a sand-bank, at least twenty feet high, and 
 
POMPILIDJE. 
 
 171 
 
 that whilst burrowing it makes a loud whirring buzz ; and, in 
 the Transactions of the Entomological Society of London, he 
 states that he has detected both A. sabulosa and A. hirsuta 
 dragging along large spiders. Mr. Curtis observed it bury 
 the caterpillars of a Noctua and Geometra. St. Fargeau, how- 
 ever, states that A. sabulosa collects caterpillars of large size, 
 especially those of Noctuse, with a surprising perseverance, 
 whereas A. arenaria, forming a distinct section in the genus, 
 collects spiders." (Westwood.) 
 
 Ammophila cementaria Smith, and A. urnaria Klug, are the 
 more common species in this country ;; they are red and white, 
 while A. hictuosa Smith is a black, shorter, stouter, more hirsute 
 species. They may all be seen flying about hot sandy places, 
 and alighting near wells and standing water to drink. 
 
 POMPILID^E Leach. In this family the body is oblong, the 
 sides often compressed, and the head shorter, when seen from 
 above, being more trans- 
 versely ovate than in 
 the- preceding family. 
 The antennae are long, 
 not geniculate, and in 
 the males are stouter 
 and with shorter joints 
 than in the females. 
 The eyes are narrow 
 oval, and the maxillary 
 palpi are six, and the 
 labial palpi four-jointed. 
 The prothorax is ex- 
 tended on the sides back 
 to the base of the wings, Fi s- 91< 
 
 which latter are large and broad, the fore pair having three 
 subcostal cells. The legs are very long and slender, with thick 
 slender spines. The Pompilidce, of which about seven hun- 
 dred species are known, have a wide geographical range, from 
 the temperate zone to the tropics. Like the Sphegidce, they 
 oviposit in the body of other insects, storing their nests, usually 
 built in the sand, with spiders and caterpillars. 
 
 The head of Pompilus (Fig. 91) is a little longer, seen from 
 
172 
 
 HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 above, than in the other genera ; the front of the head is about 
 
 a third longer than broad. The antennae are long and fili- 
 form and sometimes crenulate, as in Figure 91 a, in the 
 males ; the mandibles are stout, broad, sabre-shaped, 
 being much curved, with low flattened teeth, and the 
 maxillary palpi are longer than the labial palpi. The 
 wings are rather broad, with the three subcostal cells 
 lying in a straight row. The abdomen is slightly com- 
 pressed, and equals in length the remainder of the 
 body. The sting is very large and formidable, and ex- 
 cessively painful, benumbing the parts it enters. They 
 
 Fig. 91 a. are exceedingly active, running and flying over sandy 
 
 places like winged spiders. 
 
 There are about five hundred species of this genus described. 
 
 They are usually shining black or deep bluish black, with 
 
 Fig. 92. 
 
 smoky or reddish wings, and sometimes a reddish abdominal 
 band. This genus is interesting, as affording in its form a 
 mean between the globular thorax and short body of the 
 Apia rice and the elongated body of the Ichneumon idee. 
 
 The Pompilus formosus Say (Fig. 92), called in Texas the 
 Tarantula-killer, attacks that immense spider the Myyale Hentzii, 
 and, according to Dr. G. Lincecum (American Naturalist, May, 
 
1 
 
 1867), paralyzes it with its formidable sting, and inserting an 
 
 egg in its body, places it in its nest, dug to the depth of five 
 inches. There is but a single brood, 
 produced in June, which is killed off by 
 the. frosts of November. This species 
 feeds in summer "upon the honey and 
 pollen of the flowers of the Elder, and 
 of Vitis ampelopsis, the Virginia Creeper ; 
 but its favorite nourishment is taken from 
 the blossoms of Asdepias quadrifolium" 
 
 (Lincecum.) P. cylindricus Cresson (Fig. 93, wing) is one of 
 
 our smallest species, being 
 
 from three to five lines 
 
 long. It occurs in the 
 
 South and West. P. arctus 
 
 Cresson (Fig. 94, wing) in- 
 habits Colorado Territory. 
 
 P. Marice Cresson (Fig. 95, 
 
 ? enlarged) is a beautiful 
 
 and rare species found in 
 
 Pennsylvania. The genus 
 
 Priocnemis is characterized 
 
 by the two hind pair of 
 
 tibise being serrated ( 
 
 Fig. 96, a, wing ; 6, pos- 
 
 Fig. 95. 
 
 terior leg ; c, anterior leg), and by the want of spines on the an- 
 terior legs. P. unifasciatus Say is a wide-spread species and 
 
 readily recognized by the deep black 
 color of the body, the yellow an- 
 tennae and the large yellow spot at 
 the tip of each anterior wing. 
 
 The genus Agenia (Fig. 97, a, 
 wing ; 6, posterior leg) differs in 
 having smooth legs. A. brevis Cres- 
 son (Fig. 98, wing) is a little spe- 
 A. congruus Cresson (Fig. 99, wing) 
 
 \ 
 
 Fig. 96. 
 
 cies found in Georgia, 
 was captured in West Virginia ; and A. acceptus Cresson (Fig. 
 100, wing) in Georgia. The genus Notocyphus (Fig. 101, 
 ?,wing) is found in Brazil and Mexico. Planiceps (Fig. 102, 
 
174 
 
 HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 Fig. 101. 
 
 wing) contains a few species, of which P. niger Cresson, an 
 entirely black species, is found in Connecticut. Aporus (Fig. 
 103, wing) contains a single American 
 species, A. fasdatus Smith, taken in 
 North Carolina. 
 
 From Mr. F. G. Sanborn we have re- 
 ceived the larva and cocoon of Pompilus 
 Fig. 97. funereus St. Farg., a small black spe- 
 
 cies, which builds its nest in fields. The larva is short and 
 broad, with the lateral region rather prominent, and the tip of 
 the abdomen rather acute. It differs 
 from Pelopaeus in its stouter, rather flat- 
 tened body, and thickened segments, 
 though as our specimen is preserved in 
 alcohol these characters may have be- 
 come exaggerated. It more nearly re- 
 sembles Pelopaeus in its transverse 
 clypeus, thin bilobate labrum, and the 
 stout mandibles, which are, however, 
 much stouter than in Pelopaeus, while 
 the whole head is shorter, broader, and 
 rounder. It is probable that this pecu- 
 liar form of the head (which as in Sphex 
 is bent beneath the breast), together Fig. 103. 
 
 with the broad transverse clypeus, and broad, short, bilobate, 
 thin, transparent labrum, and especially the unidentate short 
 broad mandibles are family characters, sep- 
 arating the larvae of this group from those of 
 the Sp hegidce . The cocoon is ovate, long, 
 and slender, much smaller at one end than 
 the other, not being so regularly fusiform 
 as in Sphex. 
 
 Ceropales differs from the foregoing gen- 
 Fig. 100. era i n ^s broad head, its much shorter ab- 
 domen ; and also in the eyes being a little excavated, in the 
 depressed labium, the narrow front, which dilates above and 
 below the middle, and in the greatly elongated hind legs, gen- 
 erally banded with red or whitish. Ceropales bipunctata Say 
 is generally distributed throughout the United States. It 
 
8COLIADJE. 
 
 175 
 
 is easily recognized by the black body and legs, and red pos- 
 terior femora, and is six lines long. C. Robinsonii Cresson 
 (Fig. 104, <?) is an elegant 
 species found in West 
 Virginia. An allied genus 
 is Mygnimia (Fig. 105, 
 wing) containing M. Mex- 
 icana Cresson and M. us- 
 tulataDahlb., two Mexican 
 species. 
 
 In the genus Pepsis 
 (Fig. 106, wing) the max- 
 illary and labial palpi are 
 of equal length. The spe- 
 cies are large, some of 
 them being among the lar- 
 gest of Hymenoptera, and 
 are generally indigo-blue in color. Pepsis heros Dahlbom is 
 found in Cuba ; it is two inches long. P. cyanea Linn., 
 
 which is blackish-blue, with 
 blue abdomen and wings, 
 the latter reddish at the 
 apex, has been described by 
 Beauvois from the United 
 States,' while P. elegans St. 
 Farg. also occurs in the 
 Southern States. 
 
 P. formosa Say affords 
 another example of a species 
 rig. 106. common to both sides of the 
 
 Rocky Mountains, as it has been found both in Texas and Cal- 
 ifornia. It is black, with bluish or greenish reflections, with 
 bright fiery red wings, and is thirteen to eighteen lines long. 
 
 SCOLIAD^E Leach. This family forms a group very easily 
 distinguished from the Bembecidce or Chrysididce , as well 
 as the Pompilidce, by the broad front, the small indented eyes, 
 and the great sexual differences in the antennae, those of the 
 male being long and slowly thickened towards the tip, while in 
 
IK 
 
 ML 
 
 17i // * / HYMEX^PTERA. 
 
 174 \1k 
 
 the female they are short, thick, and elbowed on the second 
 joint. The clypeus is large, irregularly quadrilateral, becom- 
 ing shorter in the lower genera, and the labrum is small, 
 scarcely exserted, while the mandibles are, in the female es- 
 pecially, large and broad. The prothorax is very square in 
 front. In the fore-wings are three subcostal spaces. The 
 abdomen in the t}-pical genus (Scolia) is broad and flat, longer 
 than the rest of the body. The abdomen of Mutilla approaches 
 that of the Chrysididce in having the second ring much en- 
 larged over the others. The males usually have the anal 
 stylets very prominent, while the sting of the female is very 
 powerful. The body and legs are general^ very hirsute, and 
 the first tarsal joint is as long as the tibiae. 
 
 The genus Sapyga is easily recognized by its smooth slender 
 body, being ornamented with yellow, with transverse bands on 
 the abdomen. The head is long, very convex in front, and 
 the antennae are clavate ; the prothorax is very broad, giving 
 an oblong appearance to the thorax. The legs are slender and 
 smooth. It is said to be parasitic, laying its eggs in the cells 
 of Osmia. Sapyga Martinii of Smith is found northward. 
 
 The species of Scolia are often of great size, being black 
 and very hirsute, with the labium composed of three linear di- 
 visions ; the abdomen alone being banded or spotted with 
 yellow on the sides. They are found in the hottest places 
 about strongly scented flowers. In Europe, Scolia bicincta 
 u makes its burrows in sand-banks, to the depth of sixteen 
 inches, with a very wide mouth ; " and it is probable that the 
 nest is stored with grasshoppers. 
 
 Scolia quadrimaculata Fabr. is found in the Middle and 
 Southern States. The larva of Scolia Jlavifrons was found by 
 Passerini to live in the body of the lamellicorn beetle, Oryctes 
 nasicornis. In Madagascar, Scolia oryctophaga lives on 
 Oryctes simia, according to Coquerel. 
 
 Professor Sumichrast states that at Tehuacan (Department 
 of Puebla) the Scolia Azteca Sauss. is very common ; and is 
 particularly abundant in the leather tanneries, which leads him 
 to think that the females of this species also deposit their eggs 
 under the epidermis of the larva which abounds in the tan. 
 
 Tiphia is black throughout and rather hirsute. The antennae 
 
MUTILLARI^E. 177 
 
 are shorter than in Scolia or Myzine ; the clypeus is also shorter, 
 while the prothorax is longer. In the fore-wings the outer cos- 
 tal cell is short, broad, angulated, oval ; and of the two sub- 
 costal cells, the outer one is broad and triangular, twice as long 
 as broad, while the first median cell is regularly short rhom- 
 boidal, much more so than in the other genera. 
 
 The females, according to Westwood, "make perpendicular 
 burrows in sandy situations, for the reception of their eggs ; 
 but the precise food stored up for the larvae has not been ob- 
 served." Tipliia inornata Say is a common species with us, 
 and flies low over sandy places early in the season. 
 
 The short oval head, the large eyes, short meso-scutum, 
 large meso-scutellum, and the flattened, rather smooth body, 
 characterize the genus Myzine. The females are very different 
 from the males, the two sexes being for a long time considered 
 as separate genera. The female, especially, differs in the great 
 length of the square prothorax, which is very broad and convex 
 in front. In the male the eyes are lunate, while in the female 
 they are small, entire, and remote. In its general form the fe- 
 males much resemble Scolia, while the males are long and nar- 
 row, with broad yellow bands, especially on the abdomen, and a 
 large exserted sting-like organ. Myzine sexcincta Fabr. is seen 
 from New England southwards, flying low over hot sandy places. 
 The genus Elis is closely allied. Sumichrast (American Nat- 
 uralist, vol. 2), surmises that Elis costalis St. Farg. lives on 
 certain Scarabaeides, which undergo their metamorphosis in the 
 formicary of QEcodoma in Mexico. 
 
 MUTILLARI^: Latreille. This interesting family is character- 
 ized by the females alone being wingless, though Morawitz says 
 that wingless males occur in two species ; and by the absence, 
 generally, of the three ocelli. In Mutilla and Myrmosa the 
 thorax is still high, compressed, and oblong cuboidal, and ex- 
 cept in the closely united tergal pieces the females do not greatly 
 recede from the type of the winged males. The species are 
 very equal in size, are black, or black and red, and either 
 smooth or hirsute. 
 
 The antennae are inserted low down on the front, the clypeus 
 being very short and broadly ovate (especially in Myrmosa), 
 12 
 
178 HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 or it is indented, as in Mutilla. The tongue is shorter than usual. 
 The sides of the thorax contract in width, both before and be- 
 hind. The meso-scutum is squarer than usual, while the meso- 
 scutellum is much narrower and longer, and the propodeum is 
 squarely truncated behind, thus presenting a full convex surface. 
 The abdomen is not much longer than the rest of the body, be- 
 ing shorter than usual. In all these characters this family shows 
 its affinities to the Ants. The wings are very dissimilar in the 
 different genera. In Myrmosa the neuration closely approaches 
 that of Sapyga, while in the larger, more acute primaries of 
 Mutilla, and especially in the short outer costal cell, and short 
 open pterostigma, the latter genus differs from the others. 
 
 The male of Sderoderma closely mimics the Procto- 
 trypidce, the veins of the wings being absent, while the 
 form of the head and abdomen also reminds us of some genera 
 in that family. The wingless female is very different, having 
 more of the form of Mutilla, with a large oblong head and long 
 acutely conical abdomen. The species are minute and rarely 
 met with. S. contracta "Westwood is found in "Carolina." 
 
 In the female Methoca the eyes are very long, and the seg- 
 ments of the abdomen are widely separated, much as in the 
 ants. Methoca Canadensis Smith is shin- 
 ing black, and slightly villose. 
 
 The species of Myrmosa may be known 
 by the very short clypeus, the broad ver- 
 tex, and the rings of the abdomen of the 
 male being unusually contracted. The 
 Fig. 107. abdomen of the female is cylindrical, 
 
 about twice as long as broad, and thickest on the second ring. 
 The rings are densely hirsute on the hinder 
 edge. Myrmosa unicolor Say (Figs. 107, 
 male ; 108, female) is widely distributed. We 
 have taken this species in Maine, while sex- 
 ually united, early in June. The wingless 
 female is like an ant, and is pale reddish on 
 the thorax and basal ring of the abdomen, Fig. ios. 
 
 and the antennae and feet are concolorous, while the head and 
 remaining abdominal rings are much darker. It is .20 inch 
 long. The male is .28 inch long and entirely black. 
 
FOKMICARLE. ,179 
 
 The genus Mutilla is a very extensive one, and enjoys a wide 
 geographical range. It is throughout stouter than Myrmosa, 
 the head is more cubical, and the thorax and abdomen is 
 shorter, the tip of the latter being somewhat truncated. 
 
 The wingless female closely resembles, both in its form and 
 motions, a worker ant. The body is coarsely granulated and 
 either naked or densely hirsute, and of a scarlet, black, or pale 
 red, or brown-black color. The females are found running in 
 hot sandy places, and hide themselves quickly when disturbed, 
 while the males frequent flowers. Mutilla 
 occidentalis is a large species. It is of a 
 beautiful scarlet color and is armed with a 
 very powerful sting. According to Profes- 
 sor A. E. Verrill this species was found by 
 him, at New Haven, to construct deep 
 holes in a hard beaten path, storing its nest 
 with insects. This species is also said by 
 Kirby to be very active, "taking flies by surprise." (West- 
 wood.) Mr. Verrill noticed that this insect makes a slight 
 creaking noise. The larvae of M. Europcea are said to live 
 parasitically in Humble-bees' nests. Mutilla ferrugata Fabr. 
 (Fig. 109) is found frequently in New England. 
 
 FORMICARY Latreille. The family of ants would seem 
 naturally to belong with the truly fossorial Hymenoptefa, both 
 from their habits and structure. 
 
 Both males and females are winged, but the males are much 
 smaller than the females, while the wingless workers are smaller 
 than the males. In these wingless forms the segments of the 
 thorax become more or less separated, making the body much 
 longer and slenderer, and less compact than in the winged nor- 
 mal sexual forms, the prothorax being more developed than in 
 the males and females. The workers often consist of two 
 forms : one with a large cubical head, or worker major, some- 
 times called a soldier/ and the usual small-headed form, or 
 worker minor^ 
 
 The head is generally triangular. The eyes are large in the 
 males, smaller in the workers, anc^ in those of some genera 
 (Ponera, Typhlopone, etc.) they are absent; while in the 
 
180 HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 workers the ocelli are often wanting, though present in the 
 winged individuals of both sexes. The anteunaa are long, 
 slender and elbowed. The mandibles are stout, and toothed, 
 though in those species that do not themselves labor, but en- 
 slave the workers of other species, they are unarmed and 
 slender. The maxillary palpi are from one to six-jointed, and 
 the labial palpi two to four-jointed. The fore-wings usually 
 have but a single complete subcostal (cubital) cell. The sting 
 is often present, showing that in this respect as well as their 
 ^fossorial habits the ants are truly aculeate Hymenoptera. The 
 larva is short, cylindrical, with the end of the body obtuse. 
 The rings of the body are moderately convex. The head is 
 rather small and bent upon the breast. The larvae are fed by 
 the workers with food elaborated in their stomachs. 
 
 The larvae of the stingless genera usually spin a delicate 
 silken cocoon, while those of the aculeate genera do not. Both 
 Latreille and Westwood, however, state that sometimes, as in 
 Formica fusca, of Europe, the pupae are naked, and at other 
 times enclosed in a cocoon. 
 
 The colonies of the different species vary greatly in size. In 
 the nests of Formica sanguinea the number of individuals is very 
 great. The history of a formicarium, or ant's nest is as follows : 
 The workers only (but sometimes the winged ants) hibernate, 
 and are found early in spring, taking care of the eggs and 
 larvae produced by the autumnal brood of females. In the 
 course of the summer the adult forms are developed, swarming 
 on a hot sultry day. The little yellow ants, abundant in paths 
 and about houses in New England, generally swarm on the af- 
 ternoon of some hot day in the first week of September, when 
 the air is filled towards sunset with myriads of them. The 
 females, after their marriage flight in the air, may then be seen 
 entering the ground to lay their eggs for new colonies, or, as 
 Westwood states, they are often seized by the workers and 
 retained in the old colonies. Having no more use for their 
 wings they pluck them off, and may be seen running about 
 wingless. According to Gould, an early English observer, 
 the eggs destined to hatch the future females, males and 
 workers, are deposited at three different periods. 
 
 The nests of some species of Formica are six feet in diameter 
 
FORMIC ARI.E. 181 
 
 and contain many thousand individuals. Ants also build 
 nests of clay or mud, and inhabit hollow trees. They enjoy 
 feeding upon the sweets of flowers and the honey of the Plant- 
 lice, which they domesticate in their nests. Several species of 
 beetles, including some of the Stapliylinidce , take up their 
 abode in ants' nests. Ants are useful as scavengers, feeding 
 on decaying animal matter. A good method of obtaining the 
 skeletons of the smaller animals, is to place them on a densely 
 populated ant-hill. The habits of the ants, their economy and 
 slave-making habits, are described in the works of Huber, La- 
 treille, and Kirby and Spence. 
 
 Upwards of a thousand species of ants have already been 
 described ; those of this country have still to be monographed. 
 
 The first group of this extensive family consists of Dorylus 
 and its allies, and Formica and the neighboring genera, all of 
 which are distinguished by having only the first abdominal seg- 
 ment contracted, while in the second group (Myrmicarice) , the 
 two basal rings are contracted into knot-like segments. 
 
 The genus Dorylus was, by Latreille, Klug, and others, in- 
 cluded in the Mutillarice. The head is very short, the 
 ocelli are large and globular. The thorax and abdomen are 
 elongated, the last is cylindrical, with a small, round, basal 
 joint. The legs are short, with broad compressed femora and 
 feather-like tarsi. In the wings the outer subcostal cells are 
 wanting. The females are not yet known. Mr. F. Smith says 
 that Dorylus was found by Hon. W. Elliot to live in the man- 
 ner of ants, under the stone foundation of a house in India. 
 The society was very numerous. 'The difference in size of the 
 male and worker is very remarkable. The males are of large 
 size and are found in tropical Asia and Africa. 
 
 Typhlopone is an allied genus. T. pallipes Haldeman is 
 found in Pennsylvania. 
 
 To the genus Anomma belong the Driver-ants of Western 
 Africa. They march in vast armies, driving everything before 
 them, so formidable are they from their numbers and bite, 
 though they are of small size. They cross streams, bridging 
 them by their interlocked bodies. Only the workers are known. 
 Two species only, A. Burmeisteri Shuckard, and A. arcens 
 Westwood, are described from near Cape Palmas, West Africa. 
 
182 HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 The genus Ponera is found distributed throughout the 
 tropics. The females and workers are arrned with spines ; the 
 abdomen is elongated, the segments more or less diminished 
 in size, the first comparatively large and often cubical. The 
 legs are slender. P. ferruginea Smith is a Mexican species. 
 
 The allied genus Odontomachus springs like some leaping 
 spiders. It uses for this purpose its unusually long mandibles, 
 which are bent at right angles. 0. darus Roger lives in Texas. 
 
 Formica includes the typical species of ants. Over two hun- 
 dred species of this genus have been already described. The 
 body is unarmed. The abdomen is short, oval or spherical, 
 the scale-like first segment being lenticular in form, with a 
 sharp upper edge. The subcostal cell of the fore-wings ends in 
 a point. Formica sanguinea Latr. is one of our most abundant 
 species, making hillocks of sand or clay, according to the nature 
 of the ground. From the formicary walks, and underground 
 galleries, radiate in all directions. This species has been ob- 
 served making forays upon each others colonies. We have 
 found a variety of this species in Labrador, where it is com- 
 mon. It does not throw up hillocks, but tunnels the earth. 
 
 This species has been observed in Europe by P. Huber, to 
 go on slave expeditions. They attack a "negro-colony" be- 
 longing to a smaller black species, pillaging the nest, and carry- 
 ing off merely the larvae and pupae. The victors educate them 
 in their own nests, and on arriving at maturity the negroes take 
 the entire care of the colony. Polyergus rufescens is also a slave- 
 making ant, and "Latreille very justly observes that it is physi- 
 cally impossible for the rufescent ants (Polyergus rufescens), 
 on account of the form of their jaws, and the accessory parts of 
 their mouth, either to prepare habitations for their family, 
 to procure food, or to feed them." Formica sanguinea sallies 
 forth in immensely long columns to attack the negro ant. Hu- 
 ber states that only five or six of these forays are made within 
 a period of a month, at other seasons they remain at peace. 
 Huber found that the slave-making Polyergus rufescens when 
 left to themselves perish from pure laziness. They are waited 
 upon and fed by their slaves, and when they are taken away, their 
 masters perish miserably. Sometimes they are known to labor, 
 and were once observed to carry their slaves to a spot chosen 
 
FOKMICARLE. 183 
 
 for a nest. The F. sanguinea is not so helpless, "they assist 
 their negroes in the construction of their nests, they collect their 
 sweet fluid from the Aphides ; and 
 one of then* most usual occupations 
 is to lie in wait for a small species 
 of ant on which they feed ; and when 
 their nest is menaced by an enemy 
 they show their value for these faith- 
 ful servants, by carrying them down 
 into the lowest apartments, as to a 
 place of the greatest security." 
 (Kirby.) Pupae of both of the slave- 
 making species were placed in the 
 same formicary by Huber, where they Fig. no. 
 
 were reared by the "negroes," and on arriving at maturity 
 "lived together under the same roof in the most perfect amity," 
 as we quote from Kirby. Darwin states that in England, F. 
 sanguinea does not enslave other species. 
 
 In this country Mr. J. A. Allen has 
 described in the Proceedings of the 
 Essex Institute, vol. 5, 1866, a foray 
 of a colony of F. sanguinea upon a 
 colony of a black species of Formica, 
 for the purpose of making slaves of 
 them. 
 
 Formica Pensylvanica, our largest 
 species, is found in oaks and decay- 
 Fig. 111. ing trees, while F. herculanea Latr. 
 burrows in the earth, its hole opening beneath stones and sticks. 
 Gould, who wrote in 1747, states that there are two sizes of 
 workers of the common European Formica rufa, and flava; 
 one set of individuals exceeding the other by about one-third. 
 Kirby states that in his specimens "the large workers of For- 
 mica rufa are nearly three times, and of F. flava , twice the 
 size of the small ones." Mr. E. Norton describes F. fulvacea 
 (Fig. 110, worker minor), and also Tapinoma tomentosa (Fig. 
 Ill, worker major ; antennae broken off), from Mexico. 
 
 The tropical genus Polyrliacliis includes, according to Smith, 
 all those species that closely resemble Formica, but which 
 
184 
 
 HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 have the thorax and node of the peduncle armed with spines 
 or hooks. They construct small semicircular nests, of a kind 
 of net-work, on the leaves of trees and 
 shrubs. Their communities are small, sel- 
 dom exceeding twenty individuals. Mr. 
 Norton describes P. arboricola (Fig. 112, 
 worker major) from Mexico. An allied 
 genus is Ectatomma (Fig. 113, worker major 
 of E. ferruginea Norton, from Mexico). 
 
 Mr. F. Smith has described a new genus, 
 (Ecophylla, which is allied to Formica. 
 They are green ants, found building in trees Fig. 112. 
 
 in the tropics of the old world. The nest of (E. smaragdina 
 Smith is "formed by drawing together a number of green 
 leaves, which they unite with a fine web. Some nests are a 
 foot in diameter. They swarm, says Mr. Wallace, in hilly for- 
 ests in New Guinea. Their sting is not very severe. This 
 genus forms a link between Formica and Myrmica ; it 
 
 agrees with the former in hav- 
 ing a single node to the pe- 
 duncle, and with the latter in 
 Laving the ocelli obsolete in 
 the workers, and in being fur- 
 nished with a sting." 
 
 The curious Honey-ant of 
 Texas and Mexico, Myrmeco- 
 cystus Mexicanus West wood, 
 has two kinds of ' ' workers of 
 very distinct forms, one of the 
 usual shape," according to 
 Smith, "and performing the 
 - 113< active duties of the formica- 
 
 rium ; the other and larger worker is inactive and does not quit 
 the nest, its sole purpose, apparently, being to elaborate a kind 
 of honey, which they are said to discharge into prepared recep- 
 tacles, which constitutes the food of the entire population of 
 the community. In the honey-secreting workers the abdomen 
 is distended into a large globose bladder-like form. From 
 this honey an agreeable drink is made by the Mexicans." 
 
FOKMICARLE. 185 
 
 The second subfamily, Myrmicarice, includes those species 
 in which the two first abdominal segments are contracted and 
 lenticular. In Myrmica the females and workers are armed 
 with spines, and the ocelli are absent in the workers. The 
 species are very small, and mostly bright colored. Myrmica 
 molesta Say is found in houses all over the world. 
 
 Gr. Lincecum describes the habits of the Agricultural Ant of 
 Texas, Myrmica molefaciens. It lives in populous communi- 
 ties. "They build paved cities, construct roads, and sustain 
 a large military force." In a year and a half from the time 
 the colony begins, the ants previously living concealed beneath 
 the surface, appear above and "clear away the grass, .herbage, 
 and other litter, to the distance of three or four feet around the 
 entrance to their city, and construct a pavement, .... con- 
 sisting of a pretty hard crust about half an inch thick," formed 
 of coarse sand and grit. These pavements would be inun- 
 dated in the rainy season, hence, " at least six months pre- 
 vious to the coming of the rain," they begin to build mounds 
 rising a foot or more from the centre of the pavement. Within 
 these mounds' are neatly constructed cells into which the 
 "eggs, young ones, and their stores of grain, are carried in 
 time of rainy seasons." No green herb is allowed to grow on 
 the pavement except a grain-bearing grass, Aristida stricta. 
 This grain, when ripe, is harvested, and the chaff removed, 
 while the clean grain is carefully stored away in dry cells. 
 Lincecum avers that the ants even sow this grain. They also 
 store up the "grain from several other species of grass, as 
 well as seeds from many kinds of herbaceous plants." 
 
 Pheidole is distinguished by having workers with enormous 
 heads. P. notabilis Smith, from the Island of Bachian, Indian 
 Archipelago, is noted for the enormously enlarged, cubical 
 head of the worker major, which is at least six times the size 
 of the abdomen, while in the worker minor, the head is of 
 the ordinary size. An Indian species, P. providens "VYestwood, 
 according to Col. Sykes, "collects so large a store of grass 
 seeds as to last from January and February, the time of 
 their ripening, till October." 
 
 The genus Atta is also well-armed, while the workers have 
 a very large, deeply incised and heart-shaped head, without 
 
186 
 
 HTMENOPTEEA. 
 
 ocelli, and the second abdominal knot-like ring is very trans- 
 verse. A. clypeata Smith is a Mexican species. 
 
 In Etiton the man- 
 dibles nearly equal 
 the length of the in- 
 sect itself. This ge- 
 nus is the most 
 ferocious of all the 
 ants, entering the nest 
 of species of Formica 
 and tearing them, 
 limb from limb, and 
 then carrying off the 
 remains to their own 
 houses. 
 
 Eciton Mexicana 
 Roger (Fig. 114, 
 worker major, a, front 
 view of head, show- 
 Fig, lu. ing the immense 
 sickle-like mandibles, and only the two basal joints of the 
 antennae ; Fig. 115, worker minor, with a front view of the 
 head, showing the mandi- 
 bles of the usual size). 
 This species, with Eciton 
 Sumiclirasti Norton, (Fig. 
 116, worker minor) has 
 been found by Professor 
 Sumichrast at Cordova and 
 Orizaba, Mexico. 
 
 The males of Eciton are 
 not yet known. Smith 
 supposes that Labidus (a 
 genus allied to Dorylus) is 
 the male form, and Sumi- 
 chrast thinks this conjec- 
 ture is "sustained by the rig. 115. 
 fact that it is in the season when the sorties of the Eciton 
 are the more frequent that the Labidus also show themselves." 
 
FORMIC ARLE. 
 
 187 
 
 An allied genus is Pseudomyrma. P. bicolor Guerin (Fig. 
 117) is found in Central America. P.flamdula Smith, found in 
 Central and South America, in Mexico lives, according to 
 Sumichrast, within the spines which arm the 
 stems of certain species of Mimosa. These 
 spines, fixed in pairs upon the branches, are 
 pierced near the end by a hole (Fig. 118 a), 
 which serves for the entrance and exit of the 
 ants. 
 
 The genus (Ecodoma differs from Atta in 
 having the thorax armed with spines. CE. Fig. lie. 
 Mexicana Smith (Figs. 119, female; 120, worker major) is 
 abundant on the Gulf Coast of Mexico. In many places, ac- 
 cording to Sumichrast, the natives eat the females after hav- 
 ing detached the thorax. The intelligence of these 
 ants is wonderful. They are seen in immense num- 
 bers transporting leaves. Sumichrast states that 
 "the ground at the foot of the tree, where a troop of 
 these 'ameras,' or workers, is assembled for despoil- 
 ing it of its leaves, is ordinarily strewn with frag- 
 ments cut off with the greatest precision. And if the 
 Fig, 117. tree i s no t t 00 lofty, one can satisfy himself that a 
 party of foragers, which have climbed the tree, occupies itself 
 wholly in the labor of cutting them off, while at the foot of 
 the tree are the carriers which make the journeys between the 
 tree and the nest. This manage- 
 ment, which indicates among these a 
 insects a rare degree of intelligence, 
 is, perhaps, not a constant and in- 
 variable practice, but it is an. incon- 
 testable fact, and one which can be 
 constantly proved." 
 
 "It is specially in the argillaceous 
 countries that the QEcodomas build 
 their enormous formicaries, so that 
 one perceives them from afar by the Fig. us. 
 
 projection which they form above the level of the soil, as 
 well as by the absence of vegetation in their immediate 
 neighborhood. These nests occupy a surface of many square 
 
188 HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 metres,* and their depth varies from one to two metres. 
 Very many openings, of a diameter of about one to three in- 
 ches, are contrived from the exterior, and conduct to the inner 
 cavities which serve as storehouses for the eggs and larvae. 
 The central part of the nest forms a sort of funnel, designed 
 for the drainage of water, from which, in a country where 
 the periodical rains are often abundant, they could hardly es- 
 cape without be- 
 ing entirely sub- 
 merged, if they 
 did not provide 
 for it some out- 
 let. 
 
 "The system 
 which reigns in 
 Fig. 119. the interior of 
 
 these formicaries is extreme. The collection of vegetable 
 debris brought in by the workers is at times considerable ; 
 but it is deposited there in such a manner as not to cause any 
 inconvenience to the inhabitants, nor impede their circulation. 
 It is mostly leaves which are brought in from without, and it 
 is the almost exclusive choice of this kind of vegetation which 
 makes the (Ecodo^a a veritable scourge to agriculture. At 
 each step, and in almost every place in the 
 elevated woods, as on the plains ; in desert 
 places as well as in the neighborhood of 
 habitations, one meets numerous columns 
 of these insects, occupied with an admirable 
 zeal in the transportation of leaves. It 
 seems even that the great law of the divi- 
 Fig. 120. sion of labor is not ignored by these little 
 
 creatures, judging from the observations which I have often 
 had occasion to make." (Sumichrast.) 
 
 "The (E. cephalotes" says H. W. Bates, "from its immense 
 numbers, eternal industry, and its plundering propensities, be- 
 comes one of the most important animals of Brazil. Its immense 
 hosts are unceasingly occupied in defoliating trees, and those 
 most relished by them are precisely the useful kinds. They 
 
 * A metre is about thirty-nine (39.37) inches. 
 
FORMICARY . 189 
 
 have regular divisions of laborers, numbers mounting the trees 
 and cutting off the leaves in irregularly rounded pieces the size 
 of a shilling, another relay carrying them off as they fall." 
 "The heavily laden fellows, as they came trooping in, all de- 
 posited their load in a heap close to the mound. About the 
 mound itself were a vast number of workers of a smaller size. 
 The very large-headed ones were not engaged in leaf-cutting, 
 nor seen in the processions, but were only to be seen on dis- 
 turbing the nest." Bates also says, "I found, after removing 
 a little of the surface, three burrows, each about an inch in 
 diameter ; half a foot downward, all three united in one tubular 
 burrow about four inches in diameter. To the bottom of this I 
 could not reach when I probed with a stick to the depth of four 
 or five feet. This tube was perfectly smooth and covered with 
 a vast number of workers of much smaller size than those oc- 
 cupied in conveying the leaves ; they were unmixed with any 
 of a larger size. Afterwards, on probing lower into the bur- 
 row, up came, one by one, several gigantic fellows, out of all 
 proportion, larger than the largest of those outside, and which 
 I could not have supposed to belong to the same species. Be- 
 sides the greatly enlarged size of the head, etc., they have an 
 ocellus in the middle of the forehead ; this latter feature, added 
 to their startling appearance from the cavernous depths of the 
 formicarium, gave them quite a Cyclopean character." 
 
 Of another species, the (Ec. sexdentata, Mr. Smith quotes 
 from Rev. Hamlet Clark, that at Constancia, Brazil, the pro- 
 prietor of a plantation used every means to exterminate it and 
 failed. " Sometimes in a single night it will strip an orange or 
 lemon tree of its leaves ; a ditch of water around his garden, 
 which quite keeps out all other ants, is of no use. This spe- 
 cies carries a mine under its bed without any difficulty. In- 
 deed, I have been assured again and again, by sensible men, 
 that it has undermined, in its progress through the country, the 
 great river Paraiba. At any rate, without anything like a nat- 
 ural or artificial bridge, it appears on the other side and con- 
 tinues its course." This testimony is confirmed by Mr. 
 Lincecum (Proceedings of Academy of Natural Sciences, 
 Philadelphia, 1867, p. 24) in an interesting account of the (Ec. 
 Texana, which he has observed for eighteen years. He states 
 
190 HTMENOPTERA. 
 
 that they often carry their subterranean roads for several hun- 
 dred yards in grassy districts, where the grass would prove an 
 impediment to their progress. On one occasion, to secure ac- 
 cess to a gentleman's garden, where they were cutting the 
 vegetables to pieces, they tunnelled beneath a creek, which was 
 at that place fifteen or twenty feet deep, and from bank to bank 
 about thirty feet. He also observes that the smaller workers 
 which remain around the nest do not seem to join in cutting or 
 carrying the leaves, but are occupied with bringing out the 
 sand, and generally work in a lazy way, very differently from 
 the quick, active leaf-cutters. Also, that the pieces of leaves 
 are usually dried outside before being carried in, and that if 
 wet by a s,udden shower are left to decay without. He also 
 thinks that their lives are dependent upon access to 
 water, and that they always choose places where it 
 is accessible by digging wells. In one case, a well 
 was dug by Mr. Pearson for his own use, and water 
 found at the depth of thirty feet. The ant- well 
 which he followed was twelve inches in diameter." 
 Fig. 121. (Norton, American Naturalist, vol. 2.) 
 The genus Cryptocerus is remarkable for its flattened head, 
 with the sides expanded into flattened marginal plates, con- 
 cealing, or partly hiding the eyes. C. multispinosus Norton 
 (Fig. 121) is the most common species about Cordova, Mexico, 
 where they live, according to Sumichrast, within the trunks of 
 trees. 
 
 CHKYSIDID^E Latreille. In this small group the thirteen- 
 jointed antennae are elbowed, the eyes are oval and the ocelli 
 distinct. The maxillary palpi are five, and the labial palpi 
 three-jointed. There are about four hundred species known. 
 
 These insects are very different from the ants in their oblong 
 compact form, their nearly sessile, oblong abdomen, having only 
 three to five rings visible, the remaining ones being drawn with- 
 in, forming a long, large, jointed sting-like ovipositor, which 
 can be thrust out like a telescope. The abdomen beneath is 
 concave, and the insect can roll itself into a ball on being dis- 
 turbed. They are green or black. The sting has no poison- 
 bag, and in this respect, besides more fundamental characters, 
 
191 
 
 the Chrysis family approaches the Ichneumons. They best 
 merit the name of "Cuckoo-flies," as they fly and run briskly 
 in hot sunshine, on posts and trees, darting their ovipositor into 
 holes in search of the nests of other Hymenoptera, in which to 
 lay their eggs. Their larvae are the first to hatch and devour 
 the food stored up by other fossorial bees and wasps. "St. 
 Fargeau, however, who has more carefully examined the econ- 
 omy of these insects, states that the eggs of the Chrysis do 
 not hatch until the legitimate inhabitant has attained the greater 
 part of its growth as a larva, when the larva of the Chrysis 
 fastens on its back, sucks it, and in a very short time attains 
 its full size, destroying its victim. It does not form a cocoon, 
 but remains a long time in the pupa state." (Westwood.) 
 
 " In the Entomological Magazine has been noticed the dis- 
 covery of Hedychrum bidentulum, which appears to be parasitic 
 upon Psen caliginosus ; the latter insect had formed its cells in 
 the straws of a thatched arbor, as many as ten or twelve cells 
 being placed in some of the straws. Some of the straws, per- 
 haps about one in ten, contained one or rarely two, of the 
 Hedychrum, placed indiscriminately amongst the others. 
 Walkenaer, in his Memoirs upon Halictus, informs us that 
 Hedychrum lucidulum waits at the mouth of the burrows of 
 these bees, in order to deposit its eggs therein ; and that when 
 its design is perceived by the bees, they congregate together 
 and drive it away. St. Fargeau states that the females of 
 Hedychrum sometimes deposit their eggs in galls, while H. 
 regium oviposits in the nest of Megachile muraria ; and he 
 mentions an instance in which the bee, returning to its nearly 
 finished cell, laden with pollen paste, found the Hedychrum 
 in its nest, which it attacked with its jaws ; the parasite im- 
 mediately, however, rolled itself into a ball, so that the Mega- 
 chile was unable to hurt it ; it, however, bit off its four wings 
 which were exposed, rolled it to the ground and then deposited 
 its load in the cell and flew away, whereupon the Hedychrum, 
 now being wingless, had the persevering instinct to crawl up 
 the wall to the nest, and there quietly deposit its egg, which it 
 placed between the pollen paste and the wall of the cell, which 
 prevented the Megachile from seeing it." (Westwood.) 
 
 In Cleptes the underside of the abdomen is not hollowed out ; 
 
192 HYMENOPTEKA. 
 
 it is acutely oval, and with five rings in the male. Cleptes 
 semiaurata Latr. is found in Central Europe. "We have no na- 
 tive species. In Clirysis and the other genera, Stilbum, Parno- 
 pes, and Hedychrum, the abdomen is hollowed beneath, and 
 the tip is broad and square. Clirysis hilaris Dahlb. (Fig. 122) 
 is a short, thick, bluish green species, .32 inch in length. It 
 is not uncommon in New England. 
 
 In Hedychrum the maxillary palpi and ligula are rather short, 
 the last cordate ; the mandibles are three-toothed within. The 
 abdomen is broad and short, almost spherical, the second seg- 
 ment being the largest. H. dimidiatum Say is found in the 
 Middle States. 
 
 The European Stilbum splendidum, Fabr. according to Du- 
 four, lives in the cells of Pelopseus spirifex. It makes oblong 
 cocoons of a deep brown, with rounded 
 ends ; they are of great tenacity, being 
 mixed with a gummy matter. 
 
 Mr. Guenzius states that in Port 
 Natal "a species of Stilbum la}^s its 
 eggs on the collected caterpillars stored 
 Fig. 122. up by Eumenes tinctor, which con- 
 
 structs a nest of mud and attaches it to reeds, etc., not in a 
 single, but a large mass, in w T hich cells are excavated, similar 
 to the nest of Chalicodoma micraria ? * First, it uses its ovi- 
 positor as a gimlet, and when its point has a little penetrated, 
 then as a saw or rasp ; it likewise feels with its ovipositor, and, 
 finding an unfinished or an empty cell it withdraws it immedi- 
 ately, without laying an egg." 
 
 ICHNEUMONID^E Latrcille. The Ichneumon-flies are readily 
 recognized by the usually long and slender body, the long ex- 
 serted ovipositor, which is often very long, and protected by a 
 sheath formed of four stylets of the same length as the true 
 ovipositor. The head is usually rather square, with long, 
 slender, many-jointed antennae which are not usually elbowed. 
 The maxillary palpi are five to six-jointed, while the labial 
 
 * A query ( ?) after the name of a species indicates a doubt whether the insect 
 really belongs to that species ; so with a ? after the name of a genus. A ? before 
 both the genus and species expresses a doubt whether that be the insect at all. 
 
ICHNEUMONID^. 193 
 
 palpi are three to four-jointed. The abdomen is inserted im- 
 mediately over the hind pair of trochanters, and usually consists 
 of seven visible segments. The fore- wings have one to three 
 subcostal (cubital) cells. 
 
 The larva is a soft, fleshy, cylindrical, footless grub, the 
 rings of the body being moderately convex, and the head rather 
 smaller than in the foregoing families. The eggs are laid by 
 the parent either upon the outside or within the caterpillar, or 
 other larva, on which its young is to feed. When hatched it 
 devours the fatty portions of its victim which dies gradually of 
 exhaustion. The ovipositor of some species is very long, and 
 is fitted for boring through very dense substances ; thus Mr. 
 Bond, of England, observes that Rliyssa, persuasoria actually 
 bores through solid wood to deposit its eggs in the larvae of 
 Sir ex ; the ovipositor is worked into the wood like an awl. 
 When about to enter the pupa state the larva spins a cocoon, 
 consisting in the larger species of an inner dense case, and a 
 looser, thinner, outer covering, and escapes as a fly through 
 the skin of the caterpillar. The cocoons of the smaller genera, 
 such as Cryptus and Microgaster, may be found packed closely 
 in considerable numbers, side by side, or sometimes placed up- 
 right within the body of caterpillars. 
 
 The Ichneumon-flies are thus very serviceable to the agricul- 
 turist, as they must annually destroy immense numbers of cat- 
 erpillars. In Europe over 2,000 species of this family have 
 been described, and it is probable that we have an equal num- 
 ber of species in America ; Gerstaecker estimates that there 
 are 4,000 to 5,000 known species. 
 
 The Ichneumons also prey on certain Coleoptera and Hymen- 
 optera, and even on larvae of Phryganidce, which live in the 
 water. In Europe, Pimpla Fairmairii is parasitic on a spider, 
 Clubione holosericea, according to Laboulbene. Boheman 
 states that P. ovivora lives on a spider, and species of Pimpla 
 and Hemiteles were also found in a nest of spiders, according to 
 Gravenhorst. Bouche says that Pimpla rufata devours, during 
 winter and spring, the eggs of Aranea diadema, and Ratzburg 
 gives a list of fourteen species of Ichneumons parasitic on 
 spiders, belonging to the genera Pimpla, Pezomachus, Ptero- 
 malus, Cryptus, Hemiteles, Microgaster, and Mesochorus. Mr. 
 13 
 
194 HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 Emerton informs me that he has reared a Pezomachus from 
 the egg-sac of Attus, whose eggs it undoubtedly devours. They 
 are not even free from attacks of members of their own family, 
 as some smaller species are well known to prey on the larger. 
 Being cut off from communication with the external world, 
 the Ichneumon larva breathes by means of the two principal 
 
 tracheae, which 
 terminate in the 
 end of the body, 
 and are placed, 
 according to Ger- 
 staecker, in com- 
 munication with a 
 stigma of its host. 
 From the com- 
 plete assimilation 
 of the liquid food, 
 Fig. 123. the intestine ends 
 
 in a cul de sac, as we have seen it in the larvae of Humble-bees 
 and of Sty lops, and as probably occurs in most other larvae 
 of similar habits, such as young gall-flies, weevils, etc., which 
 live in cells and do not eat solid food. 
 
 The first subfamily, the Evaniidce, are insects of singular and 
 very diverse form, in which the antennae are either straight or 
 elbowed, and thirteen to fourteen- 
 jointed ; the fore-wings have one to 
 three subcostal (cubital) cells, and the 
 hind wings are almost without veins. 
 In Evania and Fcenus the abdomen 
 has a very slender pedicel, originating 
 next the base of the metanotum. The 
 former genus has a remarkably short 
 triangular compressed abdomen in the 
 female, but ovate in the male. The ri - 
 
 species are parasitic on Blatta and allies. Evania Icevigata 
 Olivier (Fig. 123, $ and pupa) is a black species, and is para- 
 sitic on the cockroach, Periplaneta, from the eggs of which we 
 have taken the pupa and adult. The eggs of the cockroach are 
 just large enough to accommodate a single Evania. This species 
 
ICHNEUMONIDJE . 
 
 195 
 
 is widely distributed, and in Cuba, according to Cresson, it 
 devours the eggs of Periplaneta Americana. 
 
 The genus Autocodes of Cresson, " forms a very close con- 
 necting-link between the minute Ichneumons and the Evaniae." 
 A. nigriventris Cresson (Fig. 124, a; &, metathorax; c, inser- 
 tion of the abdomen) lives in Cuba. 
 
 Fcenus is quite a different genus, as the abdomen is very long 
 and slender. Foenus jaculator Linn, is known in Europe to 
 
 frequent the nests ^ ^ ^ ,,- 
 
 of Crabronidce, 
 ovipositing in the 
 larvae. 
 
 Pelecinus is a fa- 
 miliar insect, the im- 
 mensely elongated, 
 linear abdomen of 
 the female easily Fig. 125. 
 
 distinguishing it. The male is extremely rare ; its abdomen 
 is short and clavate. It strikingly resembles Trypoxylon, 
 though the abdomen is considerably larger. Pelecinus poly- 
 cerator Drury (Fig. 125, $ and ?) is widely distributed 
 throughout this country. 
 
 The genuine Ichneumonidce have long, straight, multiarticu- 
 late antennas. The first subcostal (cubital) cell of the fore- 
 
 wings is united with the median 
 ) cell lying next to it, while the 
 secoriti is very small or wholly 
 wanting. There are two recurrent 
 veins. Mr. Cresson has described 
 the genus Eiplwsoma (Fig. 126), 
 Fig. 126. which he states may be known by 
 
 the long, slender, compressed abdomen, and the long posterior 
 legs, with their femora toothed beneath the tips. E. annu- 
 latum Cresson, a Cuban species, is, according to Poey, "para- 
 sitic upon a larva of Pyralis." (Cresson.) 
 
 Iii Opliion the antennae are as long as the body, the abdo- 
 men is compressed, and the species are honey-yellow in color. 
 0. macrurum Linn. (Fig. 127) attacks the American Silk- 
 worm, Telea Polyphemus. Anomalon is a larger insect and 
 usually black. A. vesparum is, in Europe, parasitic on Vespa. 
 
196 
 
 HYMENOPTERA . 
 
 The genus RJiyssa contains our largest species, and frequents 
 the holes of boring insects in the trunks of trees, inserting its 
 
 remarkably long ovipositor 
 in the body of the larvae 
 deeply embedded in the 
 trunk of the tree. Harris 
 states that Uliyssa (Pimpla) 
 atrata and lunator (Fig. 128, 
 male) of Fabricius, "may 
 frequently be seen thrusting 
 their slender borers, measur- 
 ing from three to four in- 
 ches in length, into the 
 trunks of trees inhabited 
 by the grubs of the Tre- 
 mex, and by other wood- 
 Fi s- 12 ?- eating insects ; and, like 
 
 the female Tremex, they sometimes become fastened to the 
 trees, and die without being able to draw their borers out 
 again." The abdomen of the male is very slender. 
 
 Pimpla has the ovipositor half as long as the abdomen. P. 
 pedalis Cresson is a parasite on Clisiocampa. 
 
 The genus Trogus leads to Ichneumon. The antennae are 
 shorter than the body ; the abdomen is slightly petiolate, fusi- 
 form, and the second subcostal cell 
 is quadrangular. Trogus exesorius 
 Brulle is tawny red, and is a para- 
 site of Papilio Asterias. 
 
 The genus Ichneumon (Fig. 129) 
 is one of great extent, probably 
 containing over three hundred spe- 
 cies. The abdomen is long and 
 slender, lanceolate ovate, slightly 
 petiolate. The second subcostal cell 
 is five-sided, and the ovipositor is 
 either concealed or slightly exserted. Fig. * 128. 
 
 Ichneumon suturaUs Say is a very common form, and has been 
 reared in abundance from the larva of the Army- worm, Leu- 
 cania unipuncta. The body is pale rust-red, with black sutures 
 on the thorax. Another common species, also parasitic on the 
 
ICHNEUMONIDJE. 
 
 197 
 
 Army-worm, is the Ichneumon paratus, which is blackish, 
 banded and spotted with yellow. 
 
 The singular genus Gfrotea, established by Mr. Cresson, has 
 a long and narrow thorax (Fig. 130 a), and a very long and 
 petiolated abdomen (c). We have 
 taken G. anguina Cresson, the only 
 species known, from the cells of 
 Crabro in raspberry stems received 
 from Mr. Angus. 
 
 Cryptus is a genus of slender 
 form, with a long, cylindrical abdo- 
 men, which is p etiolate. In the fe- 
 male it is oval with an exserted 
 ovipositor. Cresson figures a wing Fi &- 129 - 
 
 (Fig. 131) of C.? ornatipenniS) a Cuban species, which has the 
 wings differently veined from the other species. Westwood 
 remarks that in Europe a species of this genus preys on the 
 larvae of the Ptinidce. 
 
 Pezomaclius is usually wingless, and might at first sight read- 
 ily be mistaken for an ant. The body is small, the oval abdo- 
 men petiolate, and the wings, when pres- 
 ent, are very small. The species are very 
 numerous. Gerstaecker suggests that 
 some may be wingless females, belong- 
 ing to winged males of allied genera. 
 
 The third subfamily is the Braconidce, containing those 
 genera having long multiarticulate antennae, and with the first 
 subcostal cell separate from the first median, lying just behind 
 it. The second subcostal cell is usually 
 large, and there is only one recurrent vein. 
 
 The genus Bracon is distinguished by the 
 deeply excavated clypeus. The first sub- 
 costal cell is completely formed behind, 
 wanting the recurrent nerve ; the second cell 
 is long, and four-sided. More than five 
 hundred species, mostly of bright, gay 
 colors, are already known. The genus Rliopalosoma of Cres- 
 son connects Bracon and other minute genera (Bracoriidae) 
 with the true Ichneumons. R. Poeyi Cresson (Fig. 132) is a 
 
 Fig. 131. 
 
198 HYHENOPTERA. 
 
 pale honey-yellow species, with a long club-shaped abdomen. 
 It lives in Cuba. 
 
 JRogas is a genus differing from Bracon in having the three 
 first abdominal rings long, forming a slender petiole. 
 
 In Microgaster, a genus containing numerous species, the 
 antennae are eighteen-jointed, and the abdomen is shorter than 
 ^__^ usual, and clavate. There are two or three 
 subcostal cells, the second very small. Mi- 
 crogaster nephoptericis (Plate 3, figs. 3, 3 a) is 
 parasitic on Nephopteiyx Edmandsii, found in 
 the cells of the Humble-bee. 
 
 Aphidius, the parasite of the Plant-lice, is 
 a most valuable ally of man. It is known by 
 its small size, and by having the second and 
 third segments of the abdomen moving free on 
 Fig. 132. eac k O ther. There are three cubital cells, though 
 the wings are sometimes wanting. Aphidius (Praon) arena- 
 phis of Fitch, the Oat-louse Aphidius, is black with honejr- 
 yellow legs, and is one-tenth of an inch long. Aphidius 
 (Toxares) triticaphis Fitch, the Wheat-louse Aphidius, is black, 
 shining, with thread-like antennae composed of twenty-five 
 joints. Its length is .08 inch. Frequently the large size of 
 the parasite causes the body of the dead Aphis to swell out 
 into a globular form. 
 
 PROCTOTKYPIDJE (Proctotrupii) Latreille. Egg-parasites. 
 In this family are placed very minute species of parasitic Ich- 
 neumon-like Hymenopters which have rather long and slender 
 bodies, with straight or elbowed antennae of various lengths, 
 often haired on the joints, usually ten to fifteen, sometimes only 
 eight in number, while the wings are covered with minute hairs 
 and most of the nervures are absent. The maxillary palpi are 
 three to six, the labial palpi usually three-jointed. The abdo- 
 men has from five to seven joints, and the tarsi are mostly five- 
 jointed, rarely four -jointed. These insects are often so minute 
 that they can scarcely be distinguished by the naked eye unless 
 it is specially trained ; they are black or brown, and very 
 active in their habits. ' They may be swept off grass and 
 herbage, from aquatic plants, or from hot sand-banks. They 
 
PROCTOTRYPID.E. 199 
 
 prey on the wheat-flies by inserting their eggs in their larvae, 
 on gall-midges, and gall-flies, and on fungus-eating flies. In 
 Europe, species of Teleas lay their eggs in those of other 
 insects, especially butterflies and moths and hemipters, where 
 they feed on the juices of the larvae growing within the egg, 
 coming out as perfect Ichneumons. We probably have many 
 species of these insects in this country. They usually occur in 
 great numbers where they are found at all. They are almost 
 too small to pin, and if transfixed would be unfit for study, 
 and should, therefore, be gummed on mica, or put into small 
 vials with alcohol. 
 
 In Proctotrupes the antennas are long, feathered, twelve- 
 jointed. The fore-wings have the beginning of a cubital cell, 
 and two longitudinal veins on the posterior half. The abdo- 
 men is spindle-shaped and very acutely pointed, the terminal 
 joints being tubular in their arrangement, 
 and thus, as West wood states, approaching 
 the CJirysididce. An unknown species 
 (Fig. 133) we have taken at the Glen, in 
 the White Mountains. 
 
 The head of Diapria is horizontal and Fig. 133. 
 
 longer than broad; the ocelli are moved forward on to the 
 front edge ; the long, filiform antennae have a projection on 
 the under side, with the basal joint much elongated ; in the 
 male they are thirteen or fourteen-jointed, with one joint less 
 in the female. The wings are without stigma or veins. The 
 abdomen is long, oval, pedicelled. In Europe, D. ceddomyi- 
 arum Bouche is parasitic on the larvae of Cecidomyia arte- 
 misiae. Esenbeck considers that this genus is also parasitic on 
 the earth-inhabiting Tipulidce. 
 
 Gonatopus is a wingless genus, with the head very broad, 
 transverse, and the front deeply hollowed out, while the ten- 
 jointed antennae are long, slightly clavate, and the thorax is 
 much elongated, deeply incised, forming two knot-like portions. 
 Gonatopus lunatus Esenbeck, found in Europe, is one and a 
 half lines long. 
 
 Ceraphron has the antennae inserted near the mouth ; they 
 are elbowed, and eleven-jointed in the male, and ten-jointed in 
 the female. The abdomen has a very short pedicel. The fore- 
 
200 HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 wings have a very short, bent costal (radial) vein. C. arma* 
 turn Say was described from Indiana. 
 
 The egg-parasite, Teleas, has the elbowed twelve-jointed an- 
 tennae inserted very near the front of the head, and slightly 
 hairy and simple in the male, but in the female terminated in a 
 six-jointed club. The thorax is short, the legs thickened and 
 adapted for leaping, and the abdomen is pedicelled. Many 
 species have been found in Europe. According to Westwood, 
 "the type of this genus is the Ichneumon ovulorum of Linnaeus 
 (Teleas Linncei Esenbeck), which Linnaeus and 
 De Geer obtained from the eggs of moths." It 
 has been raised from the eggs of several Bom- 
 bycidce. "Bouche observed the female deposit 
 rig. 134. an e gg i n each o f the eggs of a brood of Bom- 
 byx neustria. He describes the larva as elliptical, white, 
 shining, rugose, subincurved, and one-third of an inch long." 
 (Westwood.) 
 
 Of the extensive genus Platyg&ster over a hundred European 
 species are already known. The body, especially the abdomen, 
 is generally flattened, the antennae are ten-jointed, and in the 
 female clavate. The wing veins are absent ; the rather slender 
 legs are not adapted for leaping, and the tarsi are five-jointed. 
 A species of Platygaster (Fig. 134) not yet named, oviposits 
 in the eggs of the Canker-worm moth, Anisopteryx vernata, 
 and by its numbers does much to check the increase of this 
 caterpillar. We have seen several of these minute insects 
 engaged in inserting their eggs into those of the Canker- 
 worm. 
 
 Dr. Harris, in speaking of the enemies of the Hessian-fly, 
 states, that "two more parasites, which Mr. Herrick has not 
 yet described, also destroy the Hessian-fly, while the latter is 
 in the flax-seed or pupa state. Mr. Herrick says, that the egg- 
 parasite of the Hessian-fly is a species of Platygaster, that it is 
 very abundant in the autumn, when it lays its own eggs, four 
 or five together, in a single egg of the Hessian-fly. This, it 
 appears, does not prevent the latter from hatching, but the 
 maggot of the Hessian-fly is unable to go through its trans- 
 formations, and dies after taking on the flax-seed form. Mean- 
 while its intestine foes are hatched, come to their growth, spin 
 
PROCTOTRYPIDJE. 201 
 
 themselves little brown cocoons within the skin of their victim, 
 and in due time, are changed to winged insects/and eat their 
 way out." P. error Fitch (Fig. 135) is closely allied to P. 
 tipulce Kirby, which, in Europe, destroys great numbers of the 
 Wheat-midge. Whether this is a parasite of the midge, or 
 not, Dr. Fitch has not yet determined. 
 
 The habits of the genus Bethylus remind us of the fossorial 
 wasps. Bethylus fuscicornis, according to Haliday, "buries 
 the larvae of some species of Tinea, which feed upon the low 
 tufts of Rosa spinosissima, dragging them to a considerable 
 distance with great labor and solicitude, and employing, in the 
 instance recorded by Mr. Haliday, the bore of a reed stuck in 
 the ground instead of an arti- 
 ficial funnel, for the cells which 
 should contain the progeny of 
 the Bethylus, with its store of 
 provision." (Westwood.) 
 
 The genus Inostemma is re- 
 markable for having the basal 
 segment of the abdomen of the 
 females furnished with a thick rig. 135. 
 
 curved horn, which extends over the back of the thorax and 
 head. Dr. Fitch states that I. inserens is supposed by Kirby to 
 insert its eggs into those of the Wheat-midge. In the genus 
 Galesus of Curtis, the mandibles are so enlarged and length- 
 ened as to form a long beak, and Westwood farther states that 
 in some specimens the anterior wings have a notch at the ex- 
 tremity. Say's genus Coptera has similar wings. C. polita 
 Say was discovered in Indiana. 
 
 In the very minute species of My mar and its allies, the head 
 is transverse, with the antennae inserted above the middle of 
 the face ; they are long and slender and elbowed in the male, 
 but clavate in the female. There are no palpi, while the very 
 narrow wings have a very short subcostal vein and on the 
 edges are provided with long dense cilise. The antennae of 
 Mymar are thirteen-jointed in the male, and nine-jointed in the 
 female ; the club is not jointed. The tarsi are four-jointed, 
 and the abdomen is pedunculated. Mymar pulcliellus Curtis 
 is a quarter of a line long. It is found in Europe. An allied 
 
202 HYMENOPTEEA. 
 
 form Polynema ovulorum Linn, lays numerous eggs in a single 
 butterfly's egg. 
 
 In Anaplies the male antennae are twelve-jointed, those of 
 the female nine-jointed, and the abdomen is subsessile and 
 ovoid. In Anagrus the male antennae are thirteen-jointed, 
 those of the female nine-jointed, while the tarsi are four-jointed, 
 and the acutely conical abdomen is sessile. No native species 
 are known. 
 
 The smallest Hymenopterous insect known, if not the most 
 minute of all insects, is the Pteratomus Putnamii Pack. (Plate 
 3, figs. 8, 8 a, hind wing), which we first discovered on the 
 body of an Anthophorabia in the minute eggs of which it is 
 undoubtedly parasitic. It differs from Anagrus in the obtusely 
 conical abdomen, and the narrower, very linear wings, which 
 are edged with a fringe of long, curved hairs, giving them a 
 graceful, feathery appearance. The fore-wings are fissured, 
 a very interesting fact, since it shows the tendency of the 
 wings of a low Hymenopterous insect to be fissured like 
 those of Pterophorus and Alucita, the two lowest Lepidop- 
 terous genera. It is one-ninetieth of an inch in length. 
 
 CHALCIDID^E Westwood. This is a group of great extent ; 
 the species are of small size ; they are often of shiny colors, as 
 the name- of the principal genus implies, being either bronzen 
 or metallic. They have also elbowed antennae with from six 
 to fourteen joints, and the wings are often deficient in veins. 
 In some genera, including Chalcis, the hind thighs are thickened 
 for leaping. The differences between the sexes, generally very 
 marked in Hymenoptera, are here especially so. The abdo- 
 men is usually seven-jointed in the male and six-jointed in the 
 female, the other rings being aborted. The male of several 
 species has the joints of the antennae swelled and furnished with 
 long hairs above. Some of the species of Pteromalus are wing- 
 less, and closely resemble ants. They infest eggs and larvae. 
 Some species prey upon the Aphides, others lay their eggs in 
 the nests of wasps and bees. One species is known in Europe 
 to be a parasite of the common house-fly. Others consume 
 the larvae of the Hessian-fly, and those Cecidomyiae that pro- 
 duce galls, and also the true gall-flies (Cynips). Some are 
 
CHALCIDID^C. 203 
 
 parasites on other Ichneumon parasites, as there are species 
 preying on the genus Aphidius, which is a parasite on the 
 Aphis. Mr. Walsh has bred a species of Hockeria and of 
 Glyphe, which are parasitic on a Microgaster, which in turn 
 preys upon the Army-worm, Leucania unipuncta ; and Chalcis 
 albifrons Walsh, was bred from the cocoons of Pezomachus, an 
 Ichneumon parasite of the same caterpillar. 
 
 The pupae of some species are said to have the limbs and 
 wings soldered together as in Lepidoptera, and the larvae sel- 
 dom spin a silken compact cocoon. We have 
 probably in this country at least a thousand 
 species of these small parasites, nearly twelve 
 hundred having been named and described in 
 Europe alone. They are generally large enough 
 to be pinned or stuck upon cards or mica ; some 
 individuals should be preserved in this way, 
 others, as wet specimens. Fig. 136. 
 
 Chalcis is known by the abdomen having a long pedicel, its 
 much thickened, oval thighs, and curved tibiae. Chalcis bra- 
 cata (Fig. 136), so named by Mr. Sanborn "in allusion to the 
 ornamental and trousered appearance of the posterior feet" 
 is about .32 inch in length. "Reaumur has described and 
 figured a species of Chalcis, which is parasitic in the nest of 
 the American wasp Epipone nitidulans and which he regarded 
 as the female of that wasp." (Westwood.) 
 
 The genus Leucospis is of large size. It is known by having 
 the large ovipositor laid upon the upper surface of the abdo- 
 men, and being spotted and banded with 
 yellow, resembling wasps. One of our more 
 common species is the L. affinis (Fig. 137) of 
 Say. The Cuban L. Poeyi Guerin is para- 
 sitic on the Megachile Poeyi of Guerin. 
 
 The well-known Joint-worm, Eurytoma, 
 (or Isosoma Walsh) produces galls on wheat- 
 stems. The antennae are, in the male, slender and provided 
 with verticils of hairs. The acutely oval abdomen has a 
 short pedicel. The hind legs are scarcely thicker than the 
 fore limbs. E. hordei Harris (Fig. 138) is found in gall-like 
 swellings of wheat-stalks. It is still a matter of discussion, 
 
204 HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 whether it directly produces the galls, or is parasitic, like 
 many of the family, on other gall-insects. Dr. Harris, who has 
 studied the habits of the Joint-worm, states that the body of 
 the adult fly is jet black, and that the thighs, shanks (tibiae), 
 and claw-joints, are blackish, while the knees and other joints 
 of the feet, are pale-3 r ellow. The females are .13 inch long, 
 while the males are smaller, have a club-shaped abdomen, and 
 the joints of the antennae surrounded with a verticil of hairs. 
 The larva is described by Harris from specimens received from 
 Virginia, as varying from one-tenth to nearly three-twentieths 
 of an inch in length. It is of a pale yellowish white color, 
 with an internal dusky streak, and is destitute of hairs. The 
 head is round and partially retractile, with a distinct pair of 
 jaws, and can be distinguished from the larvae of the dipterous 
 gall-flies by not having the v-shaped organs on the segment 
 succeeding the head. During the sum- 
 mer, according to Mr. Gourgas's observa- 
 tions reported by Dr. Harris, and when ' 
 the barley or wheat is about eight or ten 
 inches high, the presence of the young 
 Joint-worms is detected "by a sudden 
 rig. 138. check in the growth of the plants, and 
 
 the yellow color of their leaves," and several irregular gall- 
 like swellings between the second and third joints, or, accord- 
 ing to Dr. Fitch, "immediately above the lower joint in the 
 sheathing base of the leaf;" or, as Harris states, in the joint 
 itself. The ravages of this insect have been noticed in wheat 
 and barley. During November, in New England, the worms 
 transform into the pupa state, according to the observations of 
 Dr. A. Nichols, and "live through the winter unchanged in 
 the straw, many of them in the stubble in the field, while others 
 are carried away when the grain is harvested." In Virginia, 
 however, the larva does not transform until late in February, 
 or early in March, according to Mr. Glover. From early in 
 May, until the first week in July, the four-winged flies issue 
 from the galls in the dry stubble, and are supposed to im- 
 mediately lay their eggs in the stalks of the young wheat or 
 barley plants. The losses by this insect has amounted, in 
 Virginia, to over a third of the whole crop. The best remedy 
 
CHALCIDID^E. 205 
 
 against the attacks of this insidious foe, is to burn the stubble 
 in the autumn or spring for several successive years. Plough- 
 ing in the stubble does not injure the insects, as they can 
 work their way out of the earth. 
 
 It has been objected by Westwood, Ratzburg, and more 
 recently by Mr. Walsh, (who afterwards changed his views), 
 that as all the species of this family, so far as known, are para- 
 sitic, the Eurytoma cannot be a gall-producer, and that the 
 galls are made by a dipterous insect (Cecidomyia) on which 
 the Eurytoma is a parasite ; but, as they offer no new facts to 
 support this opinion, we are inclined to believe from the 
 statements of Harris, Fitch, Cabell, T. Glover (Patent Office 
 Report for 1854), and others, that the larva of the Eurytoma 
 produces the gall. We must remember that the habits of 
 comparatively few species of this immense family have been 
 studied ; that the genus Eurytoma is not remotely allied to 
 the Cynipidse, or true gall-flies (which also comprise animal 
 parasites) , in which group it has actually been placed by Esen- 
 beck, for the reason that in Europe "several species of 
 Eurytoma have been observed to be attached to different 
 kinds of galls." (Westwood.) Dr. Fitch also describes the 
 Yellow-legged Barley-fly, Eurytoma Jla/uipes, which produces 
 similar galls in barley, and differs from the Wheat Joint- worm 
 in having yellow legs, while the antennae of the male are not 
 surrounded with whorls of hair. The Eurytoma secalis Fitch 
 infests rye. It differs from E. hordei in "having the hind pair 
 of shanks dull pale-yellow, as well as the forward ones." We 
 shall also see beyond that several species of Saw-flies produce 
 true galls, while other species of the same genus are external 
 feeders, which reconciles us more easily to the theory that the 
 Eurytoma hordei, and the other species described by Dr. Fitch, 
 differ in their habits from others of the family, and are not ani- 
 mal parasites. Indeed the Joint-worm is preyed upon by two 
 Chalcid parasites, for Harris records finding the larvae, proba- 
 bly of Torymus, feeding on the Eurytoma larvse, and that a 
 species of Torymus (named T. Harrisii, by Dr. Fitch, and per- 
 haps the adult of the first-named Torymus) and a species of 
 Pteromalus are parasites on Eurytoma. 
 
 In Monodontomerus (Torymus) the third joint of the an- 
 
206 HYMENOPTEKA. 
 
 tennse is minute, and the hind femora are thick, but not ser- 
 rated, and beneath armed with a tooth near the tip. 
 
 The wings are rudimentary so that it does not quit the cell. 
 Newport states that the larva is flat, very hairy, and spins a 
 silken cocoon when about to pupate. It is an "external feed- 
 ing parasite" consuming the pupa as well as the larva of An- 
 thophorabia. The imago appears about the last of June, 
 perforating the cell of the bee. It also lives in the nests of 
 Osmia, Anthophora, and Odynerus. 
 
 The genus Antliopliordbia is so-called from being a parasite on 
 Anthophora. The males differ remarkably from the females, 
 especially in having simple instead of compound eyes, besides 
 the usual three ocelli. A. megachilis Pack. (Plate 3 ; fig. 7, 
 larva; 7 a, pupa) is a parasite on a species of Megachile. 
 The larva is white, short and thick, cylindrical, with both 
 extremities much alike ; the segments are slightly convex, and 
 the terminal ring is orbicular and rather large. Length, .04 
 inch, being one-third as broad as long. On opening the cells 
 of Megachile, we found nearly a dozen containing these para- 
 sites, of which 150 larvae were counted clustering on the out- 
 side of a dead and dry Megachile larva. In England they 
 occur, according to Newport's observations, in much less num- 
 bers, as he found from thirty to fifty in a cell of Anthophora. 
 A few females hatched out in the middle of October, and there 
 were a few pupae left, but the majority wintered over in the 
 larva state, and a new and larger brood appeared in the spring. 
 
 Perilampus is a beautiful genus, with its shining, metallic 
 tints. The eleven-jointed antennae are short, lying when at 
 rest in a deep frontal furrow. The head is large, while the 
 abdomen is slightly pedicelled, being short, contracted, with 
 the ovipositor concealed. P. platygaster Say and P. triangu- 
 laris Say were described from Indiana. 
 
 The numerous species of Pteromalus often oviposit in the 
 larvae of butterflies. In this genus the antennae are inserted 
 in the middle of the front. The abdomen is nearly sessile, ob- 
 tusely triangular, or acutely ovate* in form, with the ovipositor 
 concealed. The femora are slender. There are about three 
 hundred species known to inhabit Europe. Pteromalus va- 
 nessce Hams is a parasite on Vanessa Antiopa. P. clisio- 
 
CHALCIDID^E. 
 
 207 
 
 Fig. 139.' 
 
 campce Harris infests Clisiocampa. " Pteromalus apum is 
 parasitic in the nests of the Mason-bee." (Westwood.) A spe- 
 cies of this or an allied genus (Fig. 139) 
 infests the eggs of the Clisiocampa Ameri- 
 cana. Its eggs are probably laid within 
 those of the Tent-caterpillar moth early 
 in the summer, hatching out in the autumn, 
 and late in the spring or early in June. 
 
 An allied genus, Siphonura, is a para- 
 site on galls. It resembles a beetle, Mor- 
 della, from its very peculiar scutum. 
 
 The antennae of Semiotellus are twelve-jointed. S. (Ceraph- 
 ron) destructor Say (Fig. 140), according to that author, 
 
 destroys the Hessian-fly, while lying 
 in the "flax-seed" state. Fitch de- 
 scribes it as being a tenth of an 
 inch long, black, with a brassy 
 green reflection on the head and 
 thorax, while the legs and base of 
 the abdomen are yellowish. 
 
 In Encyrtus^ which comprises 
 over a hundred species already 
 known, usually rather small in 
 Fig. 140. s i ze? ^e body is short and rounded. 
 
 The eleven-jointed antennae are inserted near the mouth. The 
 thorax is square behind, and the sessile abdomen is short and 
 broad at the base. Encyrtus Bolus 
 and E. JReate are described from 
 North America by Mr. F. Walker. 
 Encyrtus varicornis is in Europe 
 found as a parasite in the cells of 
 Eumenes coarctata. 
 
 The antennae of Euloplius are nine- Fig< 141 
 
 jointed, with a long branch attached to the third, fourth, and 
 fifth joints. The abdomen is flattened, sessile. E. basalts 
 Say was described from Indiana. We figure a Chalcid (Fig. 
 141, cT), allied to Eulopus, which preys upon the American 
 Tent Caterpillar. 
 
 A species of Blastophaga (B. grossorum Grav.) is interest- 
 ing as it is the means of assisting in the fertilization of the Fig 
 
208 
 
 HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 blossoms, which act, as applied to this instance of the fertiliza- 
 tion of flowering plants by insects, has been called by Mr. 
 Westwood " caprification." 
 
 CYNIPID^E Westwood. (Diploleparice Latreille.) Gall-flies. 
 In this most interesting family we have a singular combination 
 of zoological and biological characters. The gall-flies are closely 
 allied to the parasitic Chalcids, but in their habits are plant- 
 parasites, as they live in a gall or tumor formed by the ab- 
 normal growth of the vegetable cells, due to the irritation first 
 excited when the egg is laid in the bark, or substance of the leaf, 
 as the case may be. The generation of the summer broods is 
 also anomalous, but the parthenogenesis that occurs in these 
 forms, by which immense numbers of females are produced, is 
 necessary for the work they perform in the economy of nature. 
 When we see a single oak hung with countless galls, the work 
 of a single species, and learn how numerous are its natural 
 
 v. 
 
 Fig. 142 / 
 
 enemies, it becomes evident that the demand for a great nu- 
 merical increase must be met by extraordinary means, like the 
 generation of the summer broods of the Plant-lice. 
 
 The gall-flies are readily recognized by their resemblance to 
 certain Chalcids, but the abdomen is much compressed, and 
 usually very short, while the second, or the second and third seg- 
 ments, are greatly developed, the remaining ones being imbri- 
 cated or covered one by the other, leaving the hind edges 
 exposed. Concealed within these, is the long, partially coiled, 
 very slender ovipositor, which arises near the base of the abdo- 
 men.* Among other distinguishing characters, are the straight 
 
 *Fig. 142. I, abdomen of Cynips quercus-aciculata Osten Sacken, \vith the ovipos- 
 itor exserted ; II, the same with the ovipositor retracted ; III, the abdomen of the 
 female of Figites (Diplolepis) 5-Uneatus Say; IV, the same showing the ventral 
 portion, in nature covered by the tergal portion of the abdomen ; V, end view of the 
 
CYNIPID^E. 209 
 
 (not being elbowed) thirteen to sixteen-jointed antennae, the 
 labial palpi being from two to four-jointed, and the maxil- 
 lary palpi from four to six-jointed. The maxillary lobes are 
 broad and membranous, while the ligula is fleshy, and either 
 rounded or square at the end. There is a complete costal cell, 
 while the subcostal cells are incomplete. The egg is of large 
 size, and increases in size as the embryo becomes more devel- 
 oped. The larva is a short, thick, fleshy, footless grub, with 
 the segments of the body rather convex. When hatched they 
 immediately attack the interior of the gall, which has already 
 formed around them. Many species transform within the gall, 
 while others enter the earth and there become pupae. 
 
 It is well known that of many gall-flies the males have never 
 been discovered. "Hartig says that he examined at least 
 15,000 specimens of the genus Cynips, as limited by him, with- 
 out ever discovering a male. To the same purpose he collected 
 about 28,000 galls of Cynips divisa, and reared 9,000 to 10,000 
 Cynips from them ; all were females. Of G. folii, likewise, he 
 had thousands of specimens of the female sex without a single 
 male." (Osten Sacken.) Siebold supposes in such cases that 
 there is a true parthenogenesis, which accounts for the immense 
 number of females. 
 
 Mr. B. D. Walsh has discovered (American Entomologist, 
 ii, p. 330) that Gynips quercus-aciculata O. Sack., which pro- 
 duces a large gall in the autumn upon the black oak, in the 
 spring of the year succeeding lays eggs which produce galls 
 disclosing Cynips quercus-spongifica O. Sack. He proved this 
 by colonizing certain trees with a number of individuals of 
 G. quercus-aciculata, and finding the next spring that the eggs 
 laid by them produced G. quercus-spongifica. The autumn 
 brood of Cynips consists entirely of agamous females, while 
 the vernal brood consists of both males and females, and Mi\ 
 Walsh declares after several experiments that " the agamous 
 autumnal female form of this Cynips (G. q. aciculata) sooner 
 or later reproduces the bisexual vernal form, and is thus " a 
 mere dimorphous female form" of G. q. spongiftca. 
 
 abdomen of Cynips, showing the relations of segments 7-8, the sternal portion of 
 the eighth segment being obsolete ; sp, the single pair of abdominal spiracles ; VI, 
 terminal ventral piece, from which the sheaths (s s) and the ovipositor (o) take 
 their origin ; it is strongly attached at m to the tergites of the sixth and seventh 
 rings; o, ovipositor; .<?, s its sheaths; a, an appendage to v, the terminal sternite. 
 From Walsh. 
 
 H 
 
210 HYMENOPTER A . 
 
 In this connection he refers to tfce discovery of Glaus, in 
 1867, of several males of Psyche helix, which had been sup- 
 posed to be parthenogenous, thousands of specimens having 
 been bred by Siebold, all of which were females. 
 
 Baron Osten Sacken (in the Proceedings of the Entomol- 
 ogical Society of Philadelphia, vol. 1, p. 50) says that "a 
 strong proof in confirmation of my assertion is, that in 
 those genera, the males of which are known, both sexes 
 are obtained from galls in almost equal numbers ; even 
 the males, not unfrequently, predominate in number (see 
 Hartig, 1. c. iv, 399). Now the gall-flies, reared by me 
 from 'the oak-apple, were all females. Dr. Fitch, also, had 
 only females ; and Mr. B. D. Walsh, at Rock Island, 
 Illinois, reared (from oak-apples of a different kind) from 
 thirty-five to forty females, without a single male. This 
 leads to the conclusion that the Cynipes of the oak-apples 
 belong to the genera hitherto supposed to be agamous." 
 
 For an account of the habits and many other interesting 
 points in the biology of these interesting insects, we further 
 quote Baron Osten Sacken. ' ' Most of the gall-flies always attack 
 the same kind of oak ; thus, the gall of C. seminator Harris, 
 is always found on the white oak ; C. tubicola Osten Sacken on 
 the post oak, etc. Still, some galls of the same form occur on 
 different oaks ; a gall closely resembling that of C. quercus- 
 globulus Fitch, of the white oak, occurs also on the post oak, 
 and the swamp chestnut oak ; a gall very similar to the com- 
 mon oak-apple of the red oak occurs on the black-jack oak, etc. 
 Are such galls identical, that is, are they produced by a gall-fly 
 of the same kind? I have not been able to investigate this 
 question sufficiently. Again, if the same gall-fly attacks dif- 
 ferent oaks, may it not, in some cases, produce a slightly differ- 
 ent gall ? It will be seen below, that C. quercus-futilis, from a 
 leaf-gall on the white oak, is very like C. quercus-papillata from 
 a leaf-gall on the swamp-chestnut oak. I could not perceive 
 any difference, except a very slight one in the coloring of the 
 feet. Both gall-flies may belong to the same species, and 
 although the galls are somewhat different, they are in some 
 respects analogous, and might be the produce of the same gall- 
 fly on two different trees. 
 
CYNIPIM;. 211 
 
 ' ' Some gall-flies appear very early in the season ; Cynips 
 quercus-palustris for instance, emerges from its gall before the 
 end of May ; these galls are the earliest of the season ; they 
 grow out of the buds and appear full grown before the leaves 
 are developed. May not this gall-fly have a second generation, 
 and if it has, may not the gall of this second generation be 
 different from the first produced, as it would be under different 
 circumstances, in a more advanced season, perhaps on leaves 
 instead of buds, etc? 
 
 "A remarkable fact is the extreme resemblance of some of 
 the parasitical gall-flies with the true gall-fly of the same gall. 
 Thus, Cynips quercus-futilis, O. Sacken, is strikingly like Aulax? 
 futilis, the parasite of its gall. The common gall on the black- 
 berry stems produces two gall-flies which can hardly be told 
 apart at first glance, although they belong to different genera." 
 (Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Philadelphia.) 
 
 Hartig has divided this family into three sections : First, 
 Cynips and its allies, the true gall-flies (Psenides) in which the 
 second (counting the slender pedicel as the first) segment of 
 the abdomen is longer than half its length, and the subcostal 
 area is narrow, the basal areolet (cell) being opposite the base 
 of the former. 
 
 Cynips confluens Harris forms the oak-apple commonly met 
 with on the scrub-oak. There is a spring and summer brood. 
 These galls, sometimes two inches in diameter, are green and 
 pulpy at first, but when ripe have a hard shell with a spongy 
 interior, in the centre of which, lodged in a woody kernel, 
 which serves as a cocoon, the larva transforms, escaping 
 through a hole, which it gnaws through both the kernel and 
 shell. We have found the fly ready to escape in June, and Dr. 
 Harris has found it in October. Two galls are represented on 
 Plate 4, fig. 13 ; the larger of which has been tenanted, after 
 the gall-flies had escaped, by an Odynerus. Cynips gallce-tinc- 
 torice Olivier produces the galls of commerce, brought from 
 Asia Minor. 
 
 Biorhiza (Apophyllus Hartig) is a wingless genus, and lives 
 beneath the earth in galls formed at the roots of oak trees. 
 Biorhiza nigra Fitch is black throughout, including the antennae 
 and feet, and is but .08 inch long. 
 
212 H YMENOPTERA . 
 
 Galls are often found on the blackberry, tenanted by another 
 genus, Diastrophus, which has usually fifteen-jointed antennae 
 in the male, and one joint less in the female. On opening a 
 gall containing this fly, we often find an inquiline gall-fly, 
 Aulax, "showing the most striking resemblance in size, color- 
 ing and sculpture, to the Diastrophus, their companion. The 
 one is the very counterpart of the other, hardly showing any 
 differences, except the strictly generic characters." (Osten 
 Sacken.) These galls are also infested by Chalcid parasites, 
 Callimome (two species), Ormyrus, and Eurytoma. 
 
 Osten Sacken enumerates "eight cynipidous galls on the dif- 
 ferent kinds of roses of this country." The flies all belong to 
 the genus Rhodites, which is distinguished by the under side 
 of the last abdominal segment being drawn out into a long 
 point, while the antennae are fourteen-jointed 
 in both sexes. R. rosce produces the bede- 
 guar gall (" from the Hebrew bedeguacJi, said 
 to mean rose- apple"). It was formerly used 
 as a medicine. The galls form a moss-like 
 mass, encircling the rose branch. Rlwdites 
 Fig. 143. dichlocei-us of Harris (Fig. 143), produces 
 
 hard, woody, irregular swellings of the branches. 
 
 We now come to the second section, the Quest gall-flies (In- 
 quilinse), which are unable to produce galls themselves, as they 
 do not secrete the gall-producing poison, though possessing 
 a well developed ovipositor. Hence, like the Nomada, etc., 
 among bees, they are Cuckoo-flies, laying their eggs in galls 
 already formed. 
 
 This group may generally, according to Mr. Walsh, be dis- 
 tinguished from the preceding by the sheaths of the ovipositor 
 always projecting, more or less, beyond the "dorsal valve," 
 which is a small, hairy tubercle at the top of the seventh ab- 
 dominal segment. This dorsal valve also projects greatly. 
 In almost all the species, the ovipositor projects from between 
 the tips of the sheaths. 
 
 Among the Inquiline genera are Synophrus, Ambtynotus, 
 Synerges, and Aulax, which are guests of various species of 
 Cynipides. 
 
 In Figites and allies (Figitidae), the third section of the 
 
TENTHREDINID^E . 
 
 213 
 
 family, the second segment is shorter than half the length of 
 the abdomen, being much longer and less high and compressed 
 than in the Cynipides, and the ovipositor is retracted within 
 the abdomen. These insects are true internal parasites, re- 
 sembling the Chalcids. Ibalia is a parasite on a wood-beetle. 
 This genus has, by Walsh, been placed in the Cynipides. 
 Figites has feather-like antennae in the male ; it is a parasite 
 on the larvae of Sarcophaga. The genus Allotria is a para- 
 site on Aphis. 
 
 Walsh states thaj two genera, which he has identified as 
 Kleidotoma and Eucoila are true Figitidw, and "have the 
 wings fringed like a Mymar, and the former has them emargi- 
 nate at tip with the radial area in my species distinctly open, 
 and the latter simple at tip with the radial area in my species 
 marginally closed by a coarse brown vein." Eucoila is sup- 
 posed to be parasitic on some insect attacking the turnip. 
 
 TENTHREDINID^E Leach. The Saw-flies connect the Hymen- 
 optera with the Lepidoptera. In the perfect state they con- 
 form to the Hymeiiop- 
 terous type, but as b 
 
 larvae they would often 
 
 be mistaken for Lepi- rf 
 
 dopterous larvae, and |;7.- : 
 in their habits closely K 
 resemble many cater- 
 pillars. The three 
 divisions of the body, 
 usually so trenchantly 
 marked 'in the higher 
 Hymenoptera, are here 
 less distinct, since the abdomen is sessile, its basal ring being 
 broad and applied closely to the thorax, while the succeeding 
 rings are very equal in size. The head is broad and the thorax 
 wide, closely resembling that of the Lepidoptera. The wings 
 (Fig. 144, fore- wing) are larger in proportion to the rest 
 of the body than usual ; they are more net- veined, the cells 
 being more numerous and extending to the outer margin.* 
 
 *In treating of this family we avail ourselves largely of the important Avork on 
 the American species, publishing at the time of writing, by Mr. E. Norton, in the 
 Transactions of the American Entomological Society, vols. 1, 2. We therefore 
 
 144> 
 
214 HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 All these characters show that the saw-fly is a degraded 
 Hymenopter. 
 
 The antennae are not elbowed ; are rather short and simple, 
 clavate, but in rare instances fissured or feathered. The ab- 
 domen consists, usually, of eight external segments, the two 
 last being aborted on the under side, owing to the great develop- 
 ment of the ovipositor. The ovipositor or "saw" (compare 
 Fig. 24) consists of two lamellae, the lower edge of which is 
 toothed and fits in a groove in the under side of the upper one, 
 which is toothed above, both protected by the usual sheath-like 
 stylets. On pressing, says Lacaze-Duthiers, the end of the 
 abdomen, we see the saw depressed, leave the direction of 
 the axis of the body, and become perpendicular. By this 
 movement the saw, which both cuts and pierces, makes a gash 
 in the soft part of the leaf w r here it deposits its eggs. 
 
 The eggs are laid more commonly near the ribs of the leaf, 
 in a series of slits, each slit containing but a single egg. 
 "Some species, on the other hand, introduce their eggs by 
 means of their saws into the edges of leaves (Nematus conju- 
 gatus Dahlb.), and others beneath the longitudinal ribs of the 
 leaves. A few, indeed, merely fasten their eggs upon the outer 
 surface of the leaves (Nematus grossularice, etc.), attaching them 
 together like a string of beads (Reaumur, vol. v, plate 10, fig. 
 8) , whilst a few place them in a mass on the surface of the leaf 
 (ibid, plate 11, figs. 8, 9)." (Westwood.) The irritation set up 
 by the saws in the wounded leaf, causes a flow of sap which is 
 stated by Westwood to be imbibed by the egg, so that it swells 
 gradually to twice its original size. It is known that the eggs 
 of ants increase in size as the embryo develops, and we would 
 
 copy his diagram (Fig. 144), showing the venation of the wing (compare Fig. 29 
 and our nomenclature), with the explanation of parts given by him. 
 
 a, stigma; 6, costa or costal margin; c, apical margin; d, costal and post- 
 costal veins; e, externomedial ; /, g, anal; h, posterior margin; i, marginal vein; 
 j, submarginal vein; k, first, second, and third (transverse) submarginal nervures; 
 I, recurrent nervures (discoidal); m, discoidal vein; n, first and second inner api- 
 cal or submarginal nervures. Bullae or clear spots, on the veins or nervures, with 
 bullar or clear lines crossing them. 1,2, marginal or radial cells ; 3, 4, 5, 6, submar- 
 ginal or cubital cells; 7, 8, 9, discoidal cells; 10, costal cell; 11, 12, brachial or me- 
 dial cells ; 13, 14, inner and outer apical cells. (Hinder cells, Hartig. Cellule dn 
 limbe, St. Farg.) No. 11 is sometimes the medial, and Nos. 12 and 13 the submedial 
 cells; Nos. 9 and 14 the apical cells; Nos. 7 and 13 discoidal; Nos. 10, 11, 12, 15, the 
 first, second, third and foutti brachial cells; 15, lanceolate cell. 1, open; 2, con- 
 tracted; 3, petiolate; 4, subcontracted; 5, with oblique cross nervure; G, with 
 straight cross nervure. 
 
TENTHREDINIM:. 215 
 
 question whether the increase in size of the eggs of the Saw- 
 fly is not rather due to the same cause. 
 
 The punctures in the plant often lead, in some genera, to the 
 production of galls, in which the larvae live, thus showing 
 the near relationship of this family to the gall-flies (Cynipidae) . 
 
 The larvae strongly resemble caterpillars, but there are six 
 to eight pairs of abdominal legs, whereas the caterpillar has 
 but five pairs. Many species curl the hind body up spirally 
 when feeding or at rest. They are usually green, with lines 
 and markings of various colors. They usually moult four 
 times, the last change being the most marked. Most of the 
 larvae secrete silk and spin a tough cocoon, in which they hiber- 
 nate in the larva, and often in the pupa state. The pupa has 
 free limbs, as in the other families. The eggs are usually de- 
 posited in the leaves of plants, but in a few cases, according 
 to Norton, in slender or hollow stems. While some are slug- 
 shaped, like the Pear-slug, others like Lyda inanita, mentioned 
 by Westwood, live on rose bushes, and construct a "portable 
 case, formed of bits of rose-leaves arranged in a spiral coil ; " 
 and other species are leaf-rollers, like the Tortricids. The 
 larva of Ceplius does injury to grain, in Europe, by bftring 
 within the stems of wheat. A remarkable instance of the care 
 of the saw-fly for her young, is recorded by Mr. R. H. Lewis, 
 who observed in Australia, the female of Perga Lewisii deposit 
 its eggs in a slit next the midribs of an Eucalyptus leaf. They 
 were placed transversely in a double series. "On this leaf 
 the mother sits till the exclusion of the larvae ; and as soon as 
 these are hatched, the parent follows them, sitting with out- 
 stretched legs over her brood, protecting them from the attacks 
 of parasites and other enemies with admirable perseverance." 
 (Westwood.) 
 
 The species are mostly limited to the temperate zone, but 
 few being found in the tropics. The perfect insects mostly 
 occur in the early summer, and are found on the leaves of the 
 trees they infest, or feeding on flowers, especially those of 
 the umbelliferous plants. 
 
 The genus Cimbex contains our largest species, the antennae 
 ending in a knob. C. Americana Leach is widely distributed, 
 and varies greatly in color. The large whitish larva, with a 
 
216 HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 blackish dorsal stripe, may be found rolled up in a spiral on 
 the leaves of the elm, birch, linden and willow trees. When 
 disturbed it ejects a fluid from pores situated above the spira- 
 cles. It constructs a large tough parchment-like cocoon, and 
 the fly appears in the early summer. 
 
 The genus Trichiosoma is recognized by its hairy body, and 
 the antennae have five joints preceding the three-jointed club. 
 T. triangulum Kirby is found in British America and Colorado, 
 and a variety, T. bicolor Hams, on Mount Washington ; it is 
 black, except the tip of the abdomen, with the fourth and fifth 
 joints of the antennae piceous, and the thorax is covered with 
 ash-colored hair. 
 
 In Abia the antenna? are seven-jointed, with the club obtuse ; 
 the body is villose, the abdomen having a metallic silken hue. 
 The Abia capnfolii Norton (Fig. 145, larva) is very destruc- 
 tive to the Tartarian Honeysuckle, sometimes stripping the 
 bush of its leaves during successive sea- 
 sons in Maine and Massachusetts. It 
 hatches out and begins its ravages very 
 soon after the leaves are out, eating cir- 
 cular holes in them. It lies curled up 
 on the leaf and when disturbed emits 
 drops of a watery fluid from the pores in 
 the sides of the body, and then falls to 
 the ground. During the early part of 
 August it spins a pale yellowish silken 
 cocoon, but does not change to a pupa, 
 Mr. Rile}^ states, until the following 
 Fig. 145. spring. He describes the larva as being 
 
 common about Chicago ; that it is "bluish green on the back, 
 and yellow on the sides, which are pale near the spiracles, and 
 covered with small black dots. Between every segment is a 
 small, transverse, yellow band, with a black spot in the middle 
 and at each end. Head free, of a brownish black above and 
 color of the body beneath." The fly is described by Norton 
 as being black, with faint greenish reflections on the abdomen ; 
 there are two white bands at the base of the metathorax, and 
 the wings are banded. It is .36 inch long and the wings ex- 
 pand .70 inch. The larvae can easily be destroyed from their 
 
TENTHREDINID M . 217 
 
 habit of falling to the ground when the bush is shaken, where 
 they can be crushed by the foot. Dr. Fitch has reared AUa 
 cerasi from one or two cocoons found on the wild cherry, the 
 fly appearing in New York during March. 
 
 Hylotoma is a much smaller genus ; the basal joint of the 
 antenna is oval, while the second is small and round, and 
 the terminal joint is very long. The larva is twenty-footed, and 
 when eating curves the end of the body into the form of an S. 
 The pupa is protected by a gauzy, doubly enveloping cocoon. 
 H. McLeayi Leach is wholly black, sometimes with a tinge of 
 blue. It is found throughout the Northern States. 
 
 The genus Pristiphora, closely allied to Nematus, is known 
 by its nine-jointed antennae, and the single costal cell ; the first 
 submarginal (subcostal) cell having two recurrent veinlets. 
 P. identidem Norton has been discovered by Mr. W. C. Fish to 
 be destructive to the cranberry on Cape Cod. He has reared 
 the insect, and sent me the following notes on its habits, while 
 the adult fly has been identified by Mr. Norton, to whom I 
 submitted specimens. The larvae were detected in the first 
 week of June, eating the leaves ; "they were light or pale yel- 
 lowish green when first hatched," and grew darker with age. 
 The head of the young was dark, but in the full-grown worm 
 lighter. When full-grown they were about .30 of an inch in 
 length, and had two lighter whitish green stripes running along 
 the back from head to tail. They had spun their cocoons b}^ the 
 20th of June in the rubbish at the bottom of the rearing bot- 
 tles. On. the 29th of June they came out in the perfect state. 
 We would add to this description that the body, in two alco- 
 holic specimens of the larvae, was long, cylindrical, and smooth, 
 with seven pairs of abdominal feet. The head is full, rounded 
 and blackish, but after the last moult pale honey-yellow. The 
 male is shining black, and Mr. Norton informs me that it is 
 his P. idiota. P. grossularice Walsh is a widely diffused species 
 in the Northern and Western States, and injures the currant 
 and gooseberry. The female fly is shining black, while the 
 head is dull yellow, and the legs are honey-yellow, with the tips 
 of the six tarsi, and sometimes the extreme tips of the hinder 
 tibiae and of the tarsal joints pale dusky for a quarter of their 
 length. The wings are partially hyaline, with black veins, a 
 
218 HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 honey-yellow costa, and a dusky stigma, edged with honey- 
 yellow. The male differs a little in having black coxae. Mr. 
 Walsh states that the larva is a pale grass-green worm, half 
 an inch long, with a black head, which becomes green after 
 the last moult, but with a lateral brown stripe meeting with 
 the opposite one on the top of the head, where it is more or 
 less confluent ; and a central brown-black spot on its face. 
 It appears the last of June and early in July, and a second 
 brood in August. They spin their cocoons on the bushes on 
 which they feed, and the fly appears in two or three weeks, the 
 specimens reared by him flying on the 26th of August. P. 
 sycophanta Walsh is an "inquiline," or guest gall-saw-fly, 
 inhabiting a Cecidomyian gall on a willow. 
 
 The genus Euura comprises several gall-making species. It 
 differs from the preceding genus in the second, instead of the 
 first, submarginal cell having two recurrent venules. Mr. 
 Walsh has raised E. orbitalis Norton (E. genuina Walsh) from 
 galls found on Salix humilis. This gall is a bud which is 
 found enlarged two or three times its natural size, before it 
 unfolds in spring. The larva is twenty-footed, is from .13 to 
 .19 of an inch long, of a greenish white color, and the 
 head is dusky. It bores out of its gall in autumn, descending 
 an inch into the ground, where it spins a thin, silken, whitish 
 cocoon. The gall of E. salicis-ovum Walsh is found on Salix 
 cordata. The female is shining yellow, while the ground color 
 of the male is greenish white. The gall of this species is an 
 oval roundish, sessile, one-chambered, green or brownish swell- 
 ing, .30 to .50 of an inch long, placed lengthwise on the side of 
 small twigs. The larva is pale yellowish, and the fly appears 
 in April. The fly is, according to Walsh, " absolutely undistin- 
 guishable by any reliable character from the guest gall-saw-fly, 
 Euura perturbans Walsh," which inhabits dipterous galls made 
 by Cecidomyian flies on the willow and grape (Wal&h). If these 
 two "species" do not differ from each other, either in the larva 
 or adult state, "by any reliable characters," then one must 
 question whether the variation in habits is sufficient to separate 
 them as species, and whether E. salicis-ovum does not, some- 
 times, instead of forming a new gall, lay its eggs in a gall ready- 
 made by a dipterous gall-fly. We have seen that Odynerus 
 
TENTHREDINIDJE. 219 
 
 albophaleratus, which usually makes a mud cell situated in the 
 most diverse places, in one case at least, makes no cell at all, 
 but uses the tunnel bored out by a Ceratina ! and yet we should 
 not split this species into two, on account of this difference 
 in its habits. We had written this before meeting with Mr. 
 Norton's remark that "it is difficult to give a hearty assent 
 to Mr. Walsh's inquilines or guest-flies, without further inves- 
 tigation." (Transactions of the American Entomological 
 Society, vol. i, p. 194.) 
 
 In Nematus the nine-jointed antennae have the third joint 
 longest. There is one costal and four subcostal cells, the 
 second cell receiving two recurrent veinlets ; the basal half 
 of the lanceolate cell is closed ; the hind wings have two mid- 
 dle cells, and the tibiae are simple. 
 
 The larvae are hairy with warts behind the abdominal feet. 
 The}' have twenty feet, the fourth and eleventh segments (count- 
 ing the head as one) being footless. They are either solitary, 
 feeding upon the leaves of plants, or social and generally found 
 on pine trees, while some species live in the galls of plants. The 
 pupa, according to Hartig, is enclosed in an egg-shaped cocoon, 
 like that of Lophyrus, but less firm, though with more outside 
 silk. It is generally made in the earth, or in leaves which fall 
 to the ground. N. vertebratus Say is green, with the antennae 
 and dorsal spots blackish, the thorax being trilineate. There 
 are fifty species in this country, of which the most injurious 
 one, the Gooseberry saw-fly, has been brought from Europe. 
 This is the N. ventricosus Klug which was undoubtedly imported 
 into this country about the year 1860, spreading mostly from 
 Rochester, N. Y., where there are extensive nurseries. It does 
 more injury to the currant and gooseberry than any other native 
 insect, except the currant moth (Abraxas ribearia). Professor 
 Winchell, who has studied this insect in Ann Arbor, Michigan, 
 where it has been very destructive, observed the female on 
 the 16th of June, while depositing her cylindrical, whitish and 
 transparent eggs, in regular rows along the under side of 
 the veins of the leaves, at the rate of about one in forty-five 
 seconds. The embryo escapes from the egg in four days. 
 It feeds, moults and burrows into the ground within a period of 
 eight days. It remains thirteen days in the ground, being 
 
220 
 
 HYMENOPTERA . 
 
 most of the time in the pupa state, while the fly lives nine days. 
 The first brood of worms appeared May 21, the second brood 
 June 25. Winchell describes the larva as being pale-green, 
 with the head, tail and feet, black, with numerous black spots 
 regularly arranged around the body, from which arise two or 
 more hairs. Figure 146, 1, shows the eggs deposited along the 
 under side of the midribs of the leaf; 2, the holes bored by the 
 very young larvae, and 3, those eaten by the larger worms. 
 
 In transporting gooseberry and currant bushes, Walsh recom- 
 mends that the roots be carefully cleansed of dirt, so that the 
 
 cocoons may not be car- 
 ried about from one gar- 
 den to another. The leaves 
 of the bushes should be 
 examined during the last 
 week of May, and as only 
 a few leaves are affected 
 at first, these can be de- 
 tected by the presence of 
 the eggs and the little 
 round holes in them, and 
 should be plucked off and 
 burnt. The female saw- 
 fly is bright honey-yellow, 
 with the head black, but 
 yellow below the insertion of the antennae. The male differs 
 in its black thorax, and the antennae are paler reddish than in 
 the female.* 
 
 The genus Empliytus has nine-jointed antennae ; the third 
 
 * Mr. Norton has communicated the following description of the larva of another 
 saw-fly of this genus which infests the weeping-willow. 
 
 " Nematus trilineatus Norton. The larvae of this were first seen upon the weep- 
 ing-willows about August 1st, in immense numbers, almost wholly stripping large 
 trees of their leaves. They begin upon the edge of the leaf and eat all of it except 
 the inner midrib. They are very sensitive to disturbances, very lively, and are 
 generally found with the hinder part of their bodies bent up over the back. They 
 are twenty-footed, of a bright green color, palest at head and tail, with five rows of 
 black dots down the back, the outer row upon each side irregular and with inter- 
 vals. On each side above the feet is another row of larger black dots, and the three 
 anterior pair of feet are black at the base, middle and tip. 
 
 " A great number of the saw-flies were found flying about the trees, August 19th, 
 in the proportion of about ten males to one female. The males being almost 
 wholly black upon the thorax." 
 
 1*6- 
 
TENTIIREDIN ID^E . 
 
 221 
 
 and fourth joints of equal length ; the wings have two subcos- 
 tal and three median cells, the first as long as the second, gen- 
 erally longer ; the first receiving one recurrent vein, the second 
 two. We have found the larva of E. maculatus Norton on the 
 cultivated strawberry, to which, in the Western States, it some- 
 times does considerable damage, but it can be quite readily 
 exterminated by hand-picking. Mr. Riley has carefully ob- 
 served the habits of this insect, and we condense the follow- 
 ing remarks from his account in the Prairie Farmer : Early in 
 May, in Northern Illinois, the female saw-fly deposits her eggs 
 in the stem of the plant. They are white and .03 of an inch 
 long, and may be readily perceived upon splitting the stalk ; 
 though the outside 
 orifice, at which 
 they were intro- 
 duced, is scarcely 
 perceptible, their 
 presence causes a 
 swelling in the 
 stalk. By the mid- 
 dle of May the 
 worms will have 
 eaten innumerable 
 small holes in the 
 leaves. They are 
 dirty yellow and 
 gray green, and at rest curl the abdomen up spirally. They 
 moult four times, and are, when full-fed, about three-fourths of 
 an inch in length. They make a loose, earthen cocoon in the 
 ground, and change to perfect flies by the end of June and 
 the beginning of July. A second brood of worms appears, 
 and in the early part of August descend into the ground and 
 remain in the larva state until the middle of the succeeding 
 April, when they finish their transformations. The fly is pitchy 
 black, with two rows of dull, dirty white, transverse spots upon 
 the abdomen. The nine-jointed antennae are black, and the 
 legs are brown, and almost white at the joints. Fig. 147 rep- 
 resents the Strawberry Emphytus in all its stages of growth. 
 1, 2, ventral and side-view of the pupa; 3, the fly enlarged; 
 
 147 - 
 
222 
 
 HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 5, the same, natural size ; 8, an antenna enlarged ; 4, the 
 larva while feeding ; 6, the same, at rest ; 7, the cocoon ; 9, an 
 egg enlarged. 
 
 Of the genus Dolerus, known by the second submarginal cell 
 receiving two recurrents, D. arvensis Say, is a common blue- 
 black species found in April and May on willows. 
 
 The genus JSelandria is the most injurious genus of the 
 family. It embraces the Pear and Rose- slugs, the Vine-slug 
 and the Raspberry slug. The flies are small, 
 black, with short and stout nine-jointed an- 
 tennae, and broad thin wings. "The larvae 
 are twenty and twenty-two-footed, present- 
 ing great differences in appearance and habit, 
 being slimy, hairy or woolly, feeding in 
 companies or alone, eating the whole leaf as 
 they go, or, removing only the cuticle of the 
 leaf, and forming sometimes one and some- 
 times two broods in a year. Sdandria vitis, 
 the Vine-slug, is twenty-footed ; it has a 
 smooth skin, and the body is somewhat thick- 
 ened in the middle but slender towards the 
 tail. "While growing, the color is green 
 above, with black dots across each ring, and 
 yellow beneath, with head and tail black. 
 They live upon the vine and are very destruc- 
 tive, feeding early in August in companies, on 
 the lower side of the leaf, and eating it all as 
 they go from the edge inwards. There are two broods in a 
 season. The fly is shining black, with red shoulders, and 
 the front wings are clouded." (Norton.) 
 
 S. rubi Harris feeds on the raspberry, appearing in May. 
 The larva is green, not slinry, and feeds in the night, or early 
 in the morning. 3. tilice feeds on the linden. The Pear-slug, JS. 
 cerasi Peck (Fig. 148, larvae feeding on a leaf of the pear, and 
 showing the surface eaten off in patches ; a, enlarged ; 5, fly), 
 is twenty-footed ; it narrows rapidly behind the swollen thorax, 
 and is covered with a sticky olive-colored slime. It feeds on 
 the upper side of the leaves of both the wild and cultivated 
 cherry and pear trees, and has been found on the plum and 
 
TENTHREDINID^E. 223 
 
 mountain-ash. It appears in June and September. The fly is 
 shiny black, with the tips of the four anterior femora, and the 
 tibiae and tarsi, dull white. An egg-parasite, belonging to the 
 genus Encyrtus, renders, according to Peck, a great number 
 of its eggs abortive. 
 
 The Rose-slug, Selandria rosce Harris, is longer than the Pear- 
 slug, the body being scarcely thickened anteriorty, and not. 
 covered with slime. It is pale-green and yellowish beneath. 
 It appears in July and August, and does great injury in dis- 
 figuring and killing the leaves of the 
 rose, which remain dried and with- 
 ered on the bush. When full-fed, 
 the larva, like the Pear-slug, makes 
 a cocoon beneath the surface of the 
 ground. The flies are seen in abund- 
 ance about the rose-bushes as soon F ig 148. 
 as the leaves are expanded, when they may be caught with 
 nets, or the hand on cloudy days. Hand-picking, and the 
 application of a very weak solution of carbolic acid, coal oil, 
 whale oil soap, or quassia, are useful in killing the larvae. 
 
 On the 25th of July a young friend brought me a large num- 
 ber of some remarkable larvae (Fig. 149, natural size) of a 
 saw-fly, which I surmised might belong to this genus. It pre- 
 sented the appearance of an animated, white, cottony mass, 
 about an inch long and two-thirds as high. The head of the 
 larva is rounded, pale whitish, and covered with a snow-white 
 
 powdery secretion, with prominent 
 black eyes. The body (Fig. 150, 
 naked larva) is cylindrical, with eight 
 Fig. 150. pairs of abdominal legs, the segments 
 
 transversely wrinkled, pale pea-green, with a powdery secre- 
 tion low down on the sides, but above and on the back, arise 
 long, flattened masses of flocculent matter (exactly resembling 
 that produced by the woolly plant-lice and other Homopterous 
 Hemiptera) forming an irregular dense cottony mass, reaching 
 to a height equal to two- thirds the length of the worm, and con- 
 cealing the head and tail. On the 27th and 28th of July the 
 larvae moulted, leaving the cast skins on the leaf. They were 
 then naked, a little thicker than before, of a pale-green color, 
 
224 HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 and were curled on the leaf. They eat out the edge of the 
 leaf of the butternut tree. Sometime during August, two 
 
 cocoons were spun between the 
 leaves, but I did not succeed in 
 raising the saw-fly. On describing 
 the larva, in a letter to Mr. E. Nor- 
 ton, he kindly sent me alcoholic 
 specimens of larvae (without the 
 woolly substance, which dissolves 
 and disappears in alcohol) found 
 feeding on the hickory, which are 
 Fig - 151 ' apparently, from the comparison of 
 
 alcoholic specimens, identical with the Butternut Selandria. 
 The adult fly (Fig. 151, <?, a, cocoon), he has named S. caryce, 
 of which he has kindly furnished 
 me with the subjoined description.* 
 Allanius is closely related to Se- 
 landria, both in its structure and its 
 habits, but differs in having the an- 
 tennae short and somewhat clavate. 
 A. basilaris Say is a common species. Fig. 152. 
 
 The Pine saw-fly, Lopliyrus, may be known by the feathered 
 antennae of the male. L. abietis Harris (Fig. 152, female) 
 infests the fir and pitch-pine. The male is black above and 
 brown beneath, while the female is yellowish brown above, 
 
 * Selandria caryce Norton, nov. sp. (Belonging to tribe 2. Under wings with one 
 middle cell. Div. A. Antennae filiform, short). 
 
 Female. Color shining black. The pro- and mesothorax and scutellum rufous, 
 the apex of the latter black ; the nasus and legs white, with their tarsi blackish ; the 
 base of coxae and a line down the upper side of the legs black. Antennae ehort, 
 the second joint as long as the first; the four final joints together, not longer than 
 the two preceding. Nasus slightly incurved. Claws of tarsi apparently bifid, 
 Wings sub violaceous. Lanceolate cell petiolate, the first submedial cell above it, 
 with a distinct cross vein. Under wings with one submarginal middle cell (all 
 other species have this cell discoidal), the marginal cell with a cross nervure, and 
 all the outer cells closed by an outer nervure, which does not touch the margin. 
 The submedial cell extended nearly to margin. Length, .25 of an inch. Expanse 
 of wings .40 of an inch. 
 
 " The male resembles the female, but the under wings are without middle cells. 
 The larvae feed upon the leaves of the hickory (Juglans squamosa.) They are 
 found upon the lower side of the leaf, sometimes fifteen or twenty upon one leaf, 
 which they eat from the outer extremity inward, often leaving nothing but the 
 strong midribs. They cover themselves wholly with white flocculent tufts which 
 are rubbed off on being touched, leaving a green twenty-two legged worm, about .75 
 
TENTHREDINIDJE. 
 
 225 
 
 with a short black stripe on each side of the thorax. The 
 larvae are about half an inch long, of a pale dirty green, yel- 
 lowish beneath, striped with green, and when full-fed yellowish 
 all over. They are social, and may often be found in consider- 
 able numbers on a single needle of the pitch-pine. The larvae 
 spin tough cocoons 
 among the leaves, 
 and the flies appear 
 during August, but 
 probably in greater 
 numbers in the 
 
 spring. 
 
 These slugs can 
 be best destroj^ed 
 by showering them 
 with a solution of 
 carbolic acid, pe- 
 troleum, whale oil Fig. 153. 
 soap, or tobacco water. Mr. Fish has sent me the larvae of a 
 saw-fly, allied to L. abietis, which, in Eastham, Mass., ravaged 
 the young pitch-pines planted in the sandy soil of that region.* 
 The eggs are laid singly in the side of a needle of the pine ; 
 though sometimes an egg is inserted on each side of the 
 leaf. 
 
 Mr. Riley has described the habits of the White-pine saw-fly, 
 
 of an inch in length when fully grown ; darkest above, and with indistinct black- 
 ish spots upon the sides. The head is white with a small black dot upon each side. 
 
 " Specimens were taken upon the leaves July 4th. Went into the ground about 
 the 20th of July. The cocoon is formed near the surface of the ground of a little 
 earth or sand drawn together. Four specimens came forth about August 22d, all 
 seeming very small for so large larvae." 
 
 * On sending specimens of the male and female to Mr. Norton he writes that 
 this is an undescribed species, of which he has prepared the following description : 
 
 " Lophyrus pini-rigidce Norton. New Species. Female. Length, 0.30 ; expanse 
 of wings, 0.65 of an inch; antennae seventeen-jointed, short, brown; color, luteous 
 brown, with a black line joining the ocelli, a black stripe down each of the three lobes 
 of the thorax above, and the sutures behind ; body paler beneath ; the trochanters 
 and base of the tibiae waxen; claws with an inner tooth near the middle; wings 
 very slightly clouded ; cross nervure of the lanceolate cell straight. Male. Length, 
 0.25; expanse of wings, 0.55 of an inch; antennas fifteen-jointed, black, quite short, 
 with twelve branches on each side, those at the base nearly as long as the sixth 
 and seventh; apical joint simple, enlarged at base; color of insect black, with the 
 abdomen at apex and beneath yellow- brown ; legs the same color at base; below 
 the knees whitish. 
 
 15 
 
226 
 
 HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 L. Abbotii Leach. The flies appear early in June, and there is 
 but a single brood of larvae, which remain on the trees, in Illi- 
 nois, until November, and hibernate before changing to pupae. 
 The female is honey-yellow, with pale rufous legs, and the 
 male is jet black. Fig. 153 represents, after Riley, the trans- 
 formations of this species, whose habits closely resemble those 
 of L. abietis. 1, is the fly somewhat magnified; 6, magnified 
 antenna of the male ; 7, female antenna ; 2 and 3, pupae ; 
 4, larvae in different positions, natural size ; 5, cocoon. The L. 
 Lecontei Fitch has been found feeding on the Scotch and Aus- 
 trian pines in New Jersey, and has been . described by Mr. 
 Riley. The larva is an inch long, dirty or yellowish white, 
 with dorsal black marks wider before than behind, and usually 
 broken transversely in the full-grown individuals ; they are 
 farther apart than in L. Abbotii. "The lateral spots are some- 
 what square, with an additional row of smaller black marks 
 below them, and the last segment is entirely black above. The 
 antennae of the male fly are twenty- one-jointed, and have on 
 one side seventeen large, and on the other seventeen small 
 branches, there being eighteen on one side and fifteen on the 
 other in L. Abbotii. The female may at once be distinguished 
 from L. Abbotii by her abdomen being jet-black above, with a 
 small brown patch at the end, and a transverse line of the 
 same color just below the thorax." 
 
 There are several allied genera, such as Cladius (C. isomera 
 Harris), Lyda (L. scripta Say), and Xyela (X. infuscata Har- 
 ris), which belong here. The last genus, Cephus, which by some 
 
 " The females of Lophyrus are all much alike and I have found the number and 
 forms of the joints of the antennae, so far, the only reliable guide. The male looks 
 precisely like that of L. abietis, but the form of the antennae differs in being much 
 shorter. The female looks much like L. abdominalis Say, taken on the pine near 
 New York. The following list will show how the species may be distinguished by 
 counting the number of joints." 
 
 male, not described, 
 
 L. Fabricii Leach, 
 L. compar Leach, 
 L. pini-rigidaa Norton, 
 L. Abbotii Leach, 
 L. abietis Harris, 
 L abdominalis Say, 
 L. pinetum Norton, 
 L. Americanus Leach, 
 L. insularis Cresson, 
 L. Lecontei Fitch, 
 
 15 joints 
 not described 
 21 joints, 
 not described, 
 19 joints, 
 not described, 
 17 joints, 
 17 " 
 
 female, 16 joints. 
 16 
 17 
 17 
 18 
 38 
 18 
 19 
 20 
 21 
 
 Pine. 
 
 Pine. 
 
 Pine. 
 
UROCEBID^. 227 
 
 authors is placed in the next family, is retained by Norton in the 
 present group. The larva is, in Europe, injurious to rye and 
 wheat, boring in the stems of the plant. Cephus abbreviates Say 
 is our more typical form, though rarely met with. C. trimaculatus 
 Say is found in New York early in June, according to Dr. Fitch. 
 
 UROCERID^E Leach. The family of " Horntails" are so-called 
 from the long prominent horn on the abdomen of the males, 
 while the ovipositor or "saw," resembling that of the true saw- 
 flies, is attached to the middle of the abdomen, and extends far 
 beyond its tip. They are of large size, with a long cylindrical 
 body and a large head, square next the thorax, but much 
 rounded in front. The antennae are long and filiform. The 
 larvae are "cylindrical fleshy grubs, of a whitish color, with a 
 small rounded horny head, and a pointed horny tail. They have 
 six very small legs under the fore-part of the body, and are pro- 
 vided with strong and powerful jaws, wherewith they bore long 
 holes in the trunks of the trees they inhabit. Like other borers 
 these grubs are wood-eaters, and often do great damage to pines 
 and firs, wherein they are most commonly found." Harris 
 farther states that, when about to transform, the larvae make 
 thin cocoons of silk in their burrows, interwoven with little 
 chips made by the larva. "After the chrysalis skin is cast off, 
 the winged insect breaks through its cocoon, creeps to the 
 mouth of its burrow, and gnaws through the covering of bark 
 over it, so as to come out of the tree into the open air." 
 
 Xiphidria is so-called from the sword-like ovipositor, which 
 is much shorter than in the succeeding genera. The body is a 
 little flattened, somewhat turned up behind, and the tip of the 
 abdomen ends in an obtuse point, while the antennae are short, 
 curved and tapering at the end. Xiphidria albicornis Harris is 
 black with yellowish legs and white antennae, with the two 
 lowest joints black. It is nearly three-fourths of an inch long. 
 
 The typical genus of the family is Urocerus, which has a large 
 body, with a large ovipositor and long, sixteen to twenty-four- 
 jointed antennae, while the body of the male ends in a stout 
 acute horn. U. albicornis Fabricius has white antennae, and the 
 female is of a deep blue-black color, while the male is black. 
 It is found on pine trees in July. It is an inch in length. 
 
228 HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 The genus Tremex is known by the wings having two mar- 
 ginal and three submarginal cells. Tremex Columba Linn, in- 
 fests the elm, pear and button-wood. The female is an inch 
 and a half long, rust-red, varied with black, while the abdomen 
 is black with seven ochre-yellow bands on the upper side, all 
 but the two basal ones being interrupted in the middle. They 
 fly during the last of summer. 
 
 "Dr. Harris thus describes the habits of this interesting in- 
 sect. The female, when about to lay her eggs, draws her borer 
 out of its sheath, till it stands perpendicularly under the middle 
 of her body, when she plunges it, by repeated wiggling motions, 
 through the bark into the wood. "When the hole is made deep 
 enough, she then drops an egg therein, conducting it to the 
 place by means of the two furrowed pieces of the sheath. The 
 borer often pierces the bark and wood to the depth of half an 
 
 inch or more, and is sometimes driven 
 in so tightly that, the insect cannot 
 draw it out again, but remains fast- 
 ened to the tree till she dies. The 
 eggs are oblong oval, pointed at 
 each end, and rather less than one- 
 twentieth of an inch in length. 
 Fi s- 154< "The larva, or grub, is yellowish 
 
 white, of a cylindrical shape, rounded behind, with a conical, 
 horny point on the upper part of the hinder extremity, and it 
 grows to the length of about an inch and a half. It is often 
 destroyed by the maggots of two kinds of Ichneumon-flies 
 (Rhyssa atrata and lunator of Fabricius). These flies may 
 frequently be seen thrusting their slender borers, measuring 
 from three to four inches in length, into the trunks of trees 
 inhabited by the grubs of the Tremex, and by other wood-eat- 
 ing insects ; and like the female of the Tremex they some- 
 times become fastened to the trees, and die without being able 
 to draw their borers out again." 
 
 We have noticed the trunk of an elm, at Saratoga Springs, 
 perforated by great numbers of holes, apparently made by these 
 insects. T. latitarsus Cresson (Fig. 154 ; a, antenna ; 6, wing ; 
 c, hind leg) is remarkable for the expansions on the hind legs. 
 It lives in Cuba. 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 229 
 
 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS are readily recognized by their 
 cylindrical, compact bodies ; their small head, with its large 
 clypeus ; by the maxillae being prolonged into a tubular 
 
 Fig. 155.* Fig. 156. 
 
 "tongue;" the obsolete mandibles; and the broad, regularly 
 veined wings, which are covered with minute scales. 
 
 Their transformations are complete ; the active larvae assum- 
 ing a cylindrical, worm-like form, being rarely footless, and 
 
 ab 
 
 md 
 Fig. 157. Fig. 158. 
 
 having from one to five pairs of fleshy abdominal legs, besides 
 the three pairs of corneous jointed thoracic limbs. A large 
 proportion (butterflies excepted) spin silken cocoons before 
 
 *For explanation of cuts, 155 to 171, see pages 233 and 234. 
 
230 
 
 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 changing to pupae (chrysalids, nymphs). In the pupa state 
 the limbs and appendages of the head are soldered together, 
 and the head and thorax tend to form one region, upon which 
 the third region, or abdomen, is more or less movable. Three 
 
 Fig. 159. Fig. 160. Fig. 161. 
 
 or four genera of the lower families are partially aquatic, while, 
 as a whole, the suborder is purely terrestrial. 
 
 The three regions of the body are very distinct, but the head, 
 though free, is smaller and with its parts less equally developed 
 
 Fig. 162. 
 
 than in the Hymenoptera, and the "propodeum" has now be- 
 come plainly the first abdominal ring. The abdomen is also 
 longer, with the genital armor partially exserted, thus showing 
 a tendency to decephalization. In fine, the whole body is 
 
 Fig. 163. Fig. 164. 
 
 loosened and less compact than in the Hymenoptera. Their 
 broad wings ; obsolete mouth-parts, with the abnormally devel- 
 oped maxillae ; and active larvae, with their worm-like shape, 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 231 
 
 are also characters which show that they are more degraded than 
 the Hymenoptera. There is also a greater disproportion in the 
 relative size of the three thoracic rings. In the abdominal rings 
 the pleurites are much larger than in Hymenoptera, where they 
 are partially obsolete. They 
 scarcely use the legs, the fore 
 pair (so remarkably differen- J^ B 
 
 tiated in the higher Hymenop- 
 tera) being partially obsolete 
 in some butterflies (Vanessa, 
 etc.). They are essentially 
 fliers, not having the great 
 variety in the mode of loco- Fig. 165. 
 
 motion observable in the Hymenoptera. No parasites are 
 known to occur in this suborder. They are only social while in 
 the larval state, and then merely because their eggs, in such in- 
 stances, are laid in bunches, and on distinct food-plants to 
 which the larvae are confined. The adults rarely 
 take an active part in the economy of nature, 
 and have but little opportunity for the mani- 
 festation of instinct and reason, though the 
 larvae in seeking for suitable places in which 
 to undergo their transformations often exhibit 
 Fig. 166. wonderful instinct. 
 
 The readiest method of determining the natural position of 
 groups is by a comparison of their degradational forms. Thus 
 we find that in the degraded Hymenoptera the tripartite form 
 of the body is preserved ; while, on the contrary, in the wing- 
 less Lepidoptera (such as the female 
 of Orgyia and Anisopteryx) the body 
 is either oval, the head being less 
 free and smaller than in the winged 
 form, and the thorax and abdomen 
 continuous, their respective rings 
 being of much the same size and 
 shape, while the legs are feeble: 
 or, as in the female of CEketicus, Fig. 167. 
 
 the body is elongated, and worm-like. The wingless moths, 
 then, are much lower than the worker ants, the female Scolia, 
 
232 
 
 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 etc., giving us an unfailing test of the difference in rank of the 
 two suborders. In their habits and transformations, and 
 
 in their external 
 
 A anatomy, the Lep- 
 
 idoptera vary less 
 than other insects. 
 The Lepidop- 
 tera, while in the 
 perfect state, can 
 be scarcely said to 
 walk much, com- 
 pared with beetles 
 Fig. 168. ^, . an( j o ther walking 
 
 insects, the legs being only used to support them while at rest, 
 and not for locomotion. They move almost entirely by their 
 broad wings, which 
 with them are more 
 highly specialized 
 than in other in- 
 sects. Their fore 
 wings are usually 
 triangular in form, 
 while their hind 
 wings are some- 
 what square or rounded. 
 
 ...i 
 
 Fig. 170. 
 
 i 
 Fig. 169. 
 
 .The anterior wings are the most 
 typical in form and venation. 
 
 The surface, from the costa to the inner edge, may be 
 
 Fig. 171. 
 
 divided into three areas, the costal, median, and internal. 
 There are five principal veins : the costal and subcostal are 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 233 
 
 grouped together, and form the costa or front edge of the wing ; 
 the median occupies the middle of the wing; and the sub- 
 median and internal, the hinder, or internal, area of the wing. 
 The costal vein is usually simple, and joins the costa near its 
 outer third. The subcostal, near the middle of the wing, is 
 usually subdivided into five branches, which are called ven- 
 ules, while the median is usually subdivided into one venule 
 less, and the submedian and internal are simple. The last, or 
 fifth, subcostal venule, and the first median venule, generally 
 each throw out a small venule, which meet to form the discal 
 venule, thus enclosing a large central area called the discal area, 
 or cell. There are rarely any cross venules present. Some- 
 times, as in Hepialus, there is a transverse costal venule, and 
 an interno-submedian venule. They are usually found only in 
 degraded Lepidoptera, and recall the net-veined style of vena- 
 tion of the Neuroptera. 
 
 The legs are slender, cylindrical, and weak. The coxae are 
 closely united with the thorax, the trochanters are spherical, 
 
 FIGS. 155, 153, give a general view of the body of a butterfly denuded of scales. 
 FIG. 155. a, antenna ; 1, prothorax ; m, patagia, or shoulder-tippets ; k, mesoscutum ; 
 n, abdomen; A, costal edge of fore-wing; D, apex; C, outer edge excavated; E, 
 outer angle; B, inner edge; ab, discal cell; am, discal venules, throwing off the 
 independent vein, al. The dotted lines indicate the inner, middle and outer third 
 of the wing. FIG. 157 illustrates the mode of ornamentation of the wings 
 of moths; ab, am and al, the inner, the middle, and outer third of the wings. The 
 capitals are the same as in FIG. 155 ; sd, the basal line ; sa, the inner line ; sp, 
 the outer, and ms, the marginal line variously waved, scalloped and angulated. 
 In most of the Noctuidae are the dentiform spot, 1 6 ; mo, the orbicular, and mr, the 
 reniform spots ; between the two latter often runs the transverse shade, um. In 
 FIG. 158, hind wing, fr indicates the "bristle" which fits into the "hook" on 
 the fore- wing, uniting the two wings during flight; cm, situated in the discal cell, 
 indicates the "lunule," and beyond are the outer and marginal dusky bands. 
 FIG. 159, la, internal vein; Ib, submedian vein; 2, 3, 4, 5, the four branches 
 (venules) of the median vein (in FIG. 1GO, 5 becomes the independent venule) ; 
 6 to 12, branches of the subcostal (in FIG. 161, xii, is the costo-subcostal recurrent 
 venule). In FIG. 1(52, wings of the Hepialus, the venation is more irregular, and in 
 the fore-wing the discal cell is divided into an anterior and posterior discal 
 cellule, by the disco-longitudinal vein ; sd, x, and s, accessory cells. In the Tineids 
 the venation is very simple. In FIG. 163, the submedian and internal veins have 
 disappeared ; 9 is the costal vein ; 2, 3, the two branches of the median vein ; 4 to 
 8, branches of the subcostal vein. In FIG. 164, the internal vein is shortened, and the 
 submedian forked, while the median and subcostal are merged together. From 
 Heinemann, in Morris's Synopsis, Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections. Compare 
 also FIG. 29 on page 23. 
 
 FIGS. 156 and 165. a, antenna, on one side wholly, and on the other partially, 
 pectinate; 6, eye; /, ocellus; h, labial palpus; g, maxillae or "tongue;" o, coxa; 
 p, trochanter; g, femur; r, tibia; V, single anterior spur; r*, two middle tibial 
 spurs; 2, 3, two pairs of posterior tibial spurs; s, tarsus. 
 
234 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 and the femora, tibiae and tarsi, slender and very equal in 
 length. There are usually two tibial spurs. The tarsus is 
 five-jointed, the terminal joint ending in two slender claws. 
 
 The scales covering the body of Lepidoptera are simply 
 modified hairs. In studying the wing of the Cecropia moth, 
 we find the hairs of the body and base of the wing gradually 
 passing into the forms represented in Fig. 166. They are 
 attached to the wings and laid partially over one another like 
 the tiles on a roof (Fig. 167). They are inserted in somewhat 
 regular lines, though, as seen in the figure, these lines are often 
 irregular, as shown by the line of scars where the scales have 
 been removed. The scales are beautifully ornamented with mi- 
 croscopic lines. We find, on removing the scales, that the 
 head consists of three well-marked pieces,* i. e. the occiput 
 or basal piece which lies behind the ocelli ; the epicranium, 
 lying behind the insertion of the antennae, and carrying the eyes 
 and ocelli, and the clypeus, which constitutes the front of the 
 head. The latter piece is larger than in all other insects, its 
 size being distinctive of the Lepidoptera. There is a general 
 form of this piece for each family, and it affords excellent 
 characters in the different genera, especially among the butter- 
 flies (as Mr. L. Trouvelot has shown us in a series of drawings 
 made by him), and the Zygcenidce and Bombycidce. It is 
 largest, and most perfectly shield-shaped, in the Attaci. In the 
 Phal cen idee, it is smaller, and square ; and in the Tine idee 
 it is smaller still, while the occiput and epicranium are 
 larger. 
 
 The labrum is remarkably small and often concealed by the 
 overhanging clypeus. The labium is small, short, triangular, 
 and the mentum is nearly obsolete. The lingua is obsolete, its 
 place being supplied by the tongue-like maxillae. The labial 
 palpi are feebly developed, sometimes rudimentary, and consist 
 
 *Fio. 168. A, head of Ctenucha Virginica denuded; oc, occiput; ec, epicranium, 
 with the two ocelli, o, and the base of the antennae, at; e, eye; c, clypeus^ I, la- 
 brum; m, mandible; mx, tongue, or maxillae, with the end split apart; B, rudimen- 
 tary maxilla of Actias Luna, with its single-jointed rudimentary palpus, showing 
 the mode of attachment to the base of the maxilla; C, two-jointed, rudimentary 
 labial palpus of A. Luna; D, the same, single jointed, of Platysamia Cecropia. 
 
 FIGS. 169, 170. Head of amoth in relation to the prothorax (1). FIG. 171, A, B, side 
 view and (C) front view of the head of a moth; , antenna; b, eye; d, the "front;" 
 e, orbit of the eye; /, ocellus; g, maxilla situated between h, the three-jointed la- 
 bial palpi ; t, the maxillary palpus, sometimes very large and three-jointed. 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 235 
 
 of from one to three joints, the terminal one being small and 
 pointed. They are recurved in front of the head, on each side 
 of the spiral tongue, and are 
 covered with hairs ; their func- 
 tion, as touchers or feelers, 
 seeming to be lost. The man- 
 dibles are rudimentary, consist- 
 ing of a pair of horny tubercles, 
 partly concealed by the front 
 edge of the clypeus. The 
 maxillae, on the other hand, 
 are remarkably developed. In 
 their rudimentary state, as in Attacus, they form a pair of 
 grooved blades, the hollowed sides being opposed and held 
 
 Fig. 173. Fig. 174. Fig. 175. 
 
 together by a row of minute teeth, thus forming a canal. The 
 insect sucks through this long tube the sweets of flowers. 
 
 Fig. 176. Fig. 177. Fig. 178. Fig. 179. 
 
 The "tongue" is often nearly as long as the body of the insect 
 itself, and when at rest, is rolled up and held between the 
 palpi. At its base are the minute rudimental maxillary palpi, 
 
236 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 which are generally concealed, but are apparent in the smaller 
 and lower moths, Crambus and the Tineids. They are usually 
 from two to three-jointed, and even five to six-jointed, as in 
 Tinea granella, and longer than the maxillae, thus resembling 
 the Phryganeidce , or Caddis flies. 
 
 In seeking for honey with their long maxillae, the Lepidop- 
 tera play an important part in the fertilization of plants, 
 especially the Orchids. 
 
 The ocelli are often present, though they do not form a tri- 
 angle on the vertex, as there are only two, the third and most 
 anterior one being absent. The eyes are large and globose, 
 and vary in their distance apart in different families. 
 
 The antennae vary greatly ; they are either filiform (Fig. 172, 
 a), or setiform (Fig. 172, &), or fusiform, as in the Sphinges 
 (Fig. 172, c), or club-shaped, as in Papilio (Fig. 172, d). They 
 are rarely entirely naked, but are finely ciliated (Fig. 173), or 
 have a pair of bristles on each joint (Fig. 174), which are 
 sometimes tufted (Fig. 175). The joints are sometimes toothed 
 (Fig. 176), lamellate (Fig. 177), serrate (Fig. 178), or pec- 
 tinate (Fig. 179). 
 
 The thorax in Lepidoptera is remarkable for the small size 
 of the first, or prothoracic ring, the mesothorax being highly 
 developed. In Telea (Figs. 11 and 12, on page 11) the Char- 
 acteristic form is well shown. The tergal arch of the pro- 
 thorax is almost obsolete, the scutum alone being represented 
 by a corneous piece, while the pleural parts are more developed 
 as supports for the forelegs. In the mesothorax the prae- 
 scutum is present, but is usually vertical, being bent down 
 and concealed between the two rings, becoming visible, how- 
 ever, from above in Hepialus (Sthenopis), in which respect it 
 strikingly resembles the position and development of the same 
 piece in the neuropterous Polystoechotes. The scutum is large, 
 with convex sides, broadest behind the middle, and deeply 
 notched for the reception of the triangular scutellum, which 
 is about one-fourth the size of the scutum. The postscutellum 
 is transverse, and situated out of sight, unless the two hinder 
 thoracic rings are separated, under the scutellum. The epi- 
 sterna and trochantines are large, and the whole mesothoracic 
 flanks nearly twice as wide as those of the metathorax. The 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 237 
 
 metathorax is much compressed antero-posteriorly. The scu- 
 tum is thrown aside as it were by the scutellum into two lat- 
 eral, nearly square halves, the remaining tergal pieces being 
 usually obsolete and membranous, but in Sthenopis the prse- 
 scutum and scutellum (Fig. 13, page 12) are large, and meet 
 in the middle of the segment, much as in the neuropterous 
 Sialidce and Hemerobiidce. 
 
 The abdomen is oval in Papilio, becoming long and linear in 
 the Tineids. In the Zygcenidce, especially, the basal ring is 
 membranous and is partly adherent to the thorax, and somewhat 
 inflated on each side. The number of abdominal segments 
 varies, being either eight or nine ; the variation occurring, as 
 stated by Lacaze-Duthiers, in closely allied genera ; thus the 
 genital and anal openings are placed more usually behind the 
 eighth, but sometimes behind the ninth segment. 
 
 The genital armor is very simple, consisting of two valve- 
 like pieces. The parts beyond (anal stylets, etc.) are aborted, 
 so that the anus and external opening of the oviduct are 
 brought closely together. In the male the parts are more com- 
 plex, the anal forceps often, as in the Callosamia Promethea, 
 forming long curved hooks for clasping the abdomen of the 
 female. 
 
 The nervous system of Lepidoptera, and its changes during 
 the transformations of the larva, have been studied most 
 thoroughly by Herold (in Pieris) and Newport (in Sphinx 
 ligustri and Vanessa urticse). In the imago the ventral cord 
 consists of seven ganglia, while in the larva there are eleven. 
 This decrease in their number is due to the fusion, during the 
 pupa state, of the first, second, third and fourth ganglia of 
 the larva, exclusive of those situated in the front part of the 
 head ; these form the two thoracic ganglia which distribute 
 nerves to the legs and the muscles of the wings. Meanwhile 
 the fifth and sixth ganglia of the larva have either disappeared 
 entirely, or been united with the others. 
 
 The digestive system (see Fig. 44, on page 35) of butterflies 
 and moths is modified to suit their peculiar habits. They draw 
 in the sweets of plants through the "tongue" by a sucking 
 stomach which opens into the hinder end of the oesophagus. 
 4 'The ileum is long, small, and nearly always forms several 
 
238 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 convolutions. The colon is constantly of a large size, and is 
 often dilated into a caecum at its anterior portion." (Siebold.) 
 The salivary glands are composed of two simple tubes, which 
 are very large in the larval state, extending into the abdomen. 
 
 The respiratory system is normal and well developed. In 
 the larva the stigmata are wanting on the second and third 
 thoracic and last abdominal segment. In those species of 
 Sphingidce, Bombycidce and Noctuidce, which have a 
 long-sustained flight there are numerous vesicular dilatations 
 of the tracheae. 
 
 The urinary tubes are six in number ; they are long, free, 
 and open into the stomach by two excretory ducts. 
 
 The silk-glands consist of two long, flexuous, thick-walled 
 sacs, situated on the sides of the body, and opening by a 
 common orifice on the under lip (labium) usually at the 
 extremity of a short tubular protuberance (Siebold). They 
 are most developed when the larva approaches the pupa state. 
 
 We once found a larva of Clisiocampa Americana that had 
 just spun its cocoon, and to ascertain whether the silk had been 
 exhausted, we removed the worm from its cocoon, when it spun 
 another, but thinner one ; and upon removing it a second time 
 it spun a third very thin cocoon, before the supply of silk was 
 entirely exhausted. 
 
 The ovary consists of four very long, spiral, multilocular 
 tubes. The receptaculum seminis is pyriform, and often has a 
 long, spiral ductus seminalis. At its base is situated a large, 
 double sebaceous gland ; and there are two small ramose 
 glands, perhaps odoriferous, situated at the orifice of the vagina. 
 The copulatory pouch is a remarkably large, pyriform reservoir, 
 having for the reception of the male intromittent organ a 
 canal, which opens by a special orifice, situated below and 
 behind the external opening of the oviduct. (Siebold.) 
 
 The testes form two round or oval follicles, and the two 
 short deferent canals unite with two simple and very flexuous 
 accessory glands, to form the long ductus ejaculatorius. 
 
 Several interesting cases of hermaphroditism in butterflies 
 and moths have been published by European entomologists. 
 Mr. Edwards has noticed two remarkable instances in the Pro- 
 ceedings of the Philadelphia Entomological Society (vol. iv, 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 239 
 
 p. 380), the latter of which we have also seen. u A specimen of 
 Papilio Asterias is in my collection, and was captured by Mr. 
 J. Meyer of Brooklyn, L. I., two or three years since. It is a 
 fine instance of a perfect hermaphrodite. The right wings are 
 both male, the left wings both female, distinctly marked upon 
 both surfaces with no suffusion of color. The size is that of 
 the largest specimens of Asterias. The Saturnia Promethea 
 is in the collection of Mrs. Bridgham of New York, and is a 
 curious instance of an imperfect hermaphrodite. The left an- 
 tenna and left primary are male ; the right antenna and left 
 secondary are female ; the right primary is also female, but the 
 right secondary is something between the two, neither male 
 nor female. The color of the upper surface is nearly the same 
 as the under surface of the male. On the under side the 
 color and markings of the left primary are male, but the other 
 three wings are female. The color and markings of the male 
 Promethea are quite different from those of the female, and on 
 this hermaphrodite the confusion of the sexes is conspicuous. 
 It is a bred specimen. The body had been viscerated, so that it 
 is impossible to determine its sex." 
 
 The larva of Ctenucha, which resembles that of Arctia, con- 
 structs its cocoon out of the hairs of its body, without spinning 
 any silken threads, so far as we could ascertain by microscopi- 
 cal examination. The hairs of this, as of probably most hairy 
 caterpillars, but more especially the Bombycid larvae, are 
 thickly armed with minute spinules, so that by 'being simply 
 placed next to each other, they readily adhere together. The 
 cocoon is finished in about twelve hours. We once noticed 
 a Ctenucha larva just beginning its cocoon. Early in the 
 morning it described an ellipse upon the side of the glass jar in 
 which it was confined, out of hairs plucked from just behind its 
 head. From this elliptical line as a base, it had by eight o'clock 
 built up, rather unequally, the walls of its cocoon, in some 
 places a third of the distance up, by simply piling upon each 
 other tlie spinulated hairs, which adhered firmly together. At 
 four o'clock in the afternoon, the arch was completed, and the 
 larva walled in by a light partition, and soon afterwards the thin 
 floor was made. No silk is spun throughout the whole opera- 
 tion, while in the cocoon of Pyrrharctia Isabella there is a 
 slight frame-work of silk upon which the hairs are placed. 
 
240 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 Trouvelot states that the Polyphemus larva constructs its 
 cocoon by drawing the leaves together as a support for the 
 threads, forming the foundation of the cocoon. "This seems 
 to be the most difficult feat for the worm to accomplish, as after 
 this the work is simply mechanical, the cocoon being made of 
 regular layers of silk united by a gummy substance. The silk 
 is distributed in zig-zag lines of about one-eight of an inch 
 long. When the cocoon is made, the worm will have moved 
 his head to and fro, in order to distribute the silk, about two 
 hundred and fifty-four thousand times. After about half a 
 day's work, the cocoon is so far completed that the worm can 
 hardly be distinguished through the fine texture of the wall ; 
 then a gummy, resinous substance, sometimes of a light brown 
 color, is spread over all the inside of the cocoon. "The larva 
 continues to work for four or five days, hardly taking a few 
 minutes of rest, and finally another coating is spun in the 
 interior, when the cocoon is all finished and completely air- 
 tight. The fibre diminishes in thickness as the completion of 
 the cocoon advances, so that the last internal coating is not 
 half so thick and so strong as the outside ones." 
 
 In those moths which spin a thick cocoon, the pupa, a few 
 days previous to its exit, secretes an acid fluid from two glands 
 opening into the mouth. This fluid, according to Mr. L. Trou- 
 velot (American Naturalist, vol. i, p. 33), in his account of the 
 Polyphemus silk-worm, dissolves the hard gummy substance 
 uniting the silken threads, until after the expiration of half an 
 hour, the moth is able to push the fibres aside, and work its 
 way out, without breaking a thread. 
 
 Trouvelot says that the larvae of the Polyphemus moth (and 
 this remark will probably apply to all other Lepidopterous 
 larvae) seem entirely unable to discern objects with their sim- 
 ple eyes, but can distinguish light from darkness. 
 
 In their adult state butterflies and moths take but little food, 
 consisting of honey, though Papilio Turnus, according to a 
 Canadian observer, is attracted to heaps of decaying fish. 
 
 Caterpillars grow very rapidly, and consume a great quantity 
 of food. Mr. Trouvelot gives us the following account of the 
 gastronomical powers of the Polyphemus caterpillar. "It is 
 astonishing how rapidly the larva grows, and one w r ho has no 
 experience in the matter could hardly believe what an amount 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 241 
 
 of food is devoured by these little creatures. One experiment 
 which I made can give some idea of it : when the young silk 
 worm hatches out, it weighs one-twentieth of a grain ; when 
 
 10 days old it weighs 1-2 a grain, or 10 times its original weight. 
 
 20 " " " " 3 grains " 60 " " " " 
 
 30 " " 31 " " 620 " " " " 
 
 40 " " " " 90 " " 1800 " " " " 
 
 56 K 207 4140 
 
 When a worm is thirty days old it will have consumed about 
 ninety grains of food ; but when fifty-six days old it is fully 
 grown and has consumed not less than one hundred and twenty 
 oak leaves weighing three-fourths of a pound ; besides this it 
 has drank not less than one-half an ounce of water. So the 
 food taken by a single silk-worm in fifty-six days equals in 
 weight eighty-six thousand times the primitive weight of the 
 worm. Of this, about one-fourth of a pound becomes excre- 
 mentitious matter ; two hundred and seven grains are assimi- 
 lated and over five ounces have evaporated. What a destruction 
 of leaves this single species of insect could make if only a one 
 hundredth part of the eggs laid came to maturity ! A few 
 years would be sufficient for the propagation of a number large 
 enough to devour all the leaves of our forests." The Lepidop- 
 tera are almost without exception injurious to vegetation and 
 are among the chief enemies of the agriculturist. 
 
 They are rarely found fossil owing ta the delicacy of their 
 bodies. Remains, doubtfully referred to the Lepidoptera, have 
 been found in the Jura formation. A Sphinx-like moth has 
 been discovered in the Tertiary formation of Europe, and a few 
 minute forms have occurred in Amber. 
 
 Butterflies are easily distinguished from the other groups by 
 their knobbed antennae. In the Sphinges and their allies the 
 feelers are thickened in the middle : in the Moths they are fili- 
 form and often pectinated like feathers. Lepidoptera have 
 also been, divided into three large groups, called Diurnal, Cre- 
 puscular and Nocturnal, since butterflies fly in the sunshine 
 alone, most Sphinges in the twilight (some of them, however, 
 fly in the hottest sunshine), while the moths are generally 
 night-fliers, though many of them fly in the day time, thus 
 showing that the distinctions are somewhat artificial. 
 
 The larger Lepidoptera (butterflies and the larger moths) 
 16 
 
242 . LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 have been called Macrolepidoptera, while the smaller ones, 
 including the smaller Pyralidce, the Tortricidce, and the 
 Tin ei dee, are called Microlepidoptera. 
 
 In studying these insects the best generic characters will be 
 found in the antennae, the shape of the head-parts, the vena- 
 tion and proportions of the wings : very slight changes in these 
 parts separating genera and species. Size and coloration, 
 which are usually very constant, afford good specific characters. 
 
 A good method of preserving larvae dry, adopted at Dresden, 
 is to squeeze out the intestines through a hole made near the 
 anal extremity of the larva, then to insert a fine straw, after 
 which it may be placed in a glass vase, itself placed in a tin 
 vessel and held over a lamp ; the larval skin is blown while 
 suspended over the lamp, by which the skin dries faster. It 
 mjay be done with a small tube or blow-pipe fixed at the end 
 of a bladder, held under the arm or between the knees, so as 
 to leave the hands at liberty ; and the straw which is inserted 
 into the body of the larva may be fastened by a cross-pin stuck 
 through the skin, and thus retained in its proper position 
 throughout the process of blowing. The small larvae, such as 
 those of the Tineae, may be put alive into a hot bottle, baked 
 until they swell to the proper extent and dry, when they can be 
 pinned with all their contents inside. (Westwood, Proceed- 
 ings of the Entomological Society of London, Sept. 7th, 1863.) 
 
 Dr. Knaggs has, in the Entomologist's Monthly Magazine, 
 given some directions for managing caterpillars. Very young 
 caterpillars, which will not eat the food provided, and become 
 restless, should be reared in air-tight jam-pots, the tops of which 
 are covered with green glass to darken the interior of the ves- 
 sel. When small larvae hide themselves by mining, entering 
 buds and spinning together leaves, they should have as small a 
 quantity of food as possible. In changing larvae from one plant 
 to a fresh one, a slight jar or puff of breath will dislodge them, 
 and they can be transferred to the jam-pot, or the glass cylin- 
 der, covered at one end with muslin, can be turned muslin end 
 downwards for them to crawl upon. The duplicate breeding 
 cage, pot or tube, should be "sweetened" by free currents of 
 fresh dry air and then stocked with fresh food. 
 
 Dr. Knaggs advises that "hiding places," or bits of chips, 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 243 
 
 etc., be provided for such Noctuid larvae as naturally lie 
 cealed, such as Orthosia, XantMa, Noctua, etc., "while for 
 Agrotis and a few others a considerable depth of fine earth or 
 sand is necessary." 
 
 "Larvae, which in nature hibernate, must either be stimulated 
 by warmth and fresh food to feed up unnaturally fast, or else 
 through the winter must be exposed to out-door temperature." 
 For such larvae as begin to eat before the trees are leaved 
 out, the leaves of evergreens must be provided, pine leaves, 
 chickweed, grasses and mosses. Hibernating, living larvae, 
 must during the winter be kept dry, otherwise the damp seems 
 to hang about their fur, and causes them to be attacked by a 
 white fungus ; while smooth larvae require the natural damp- 
 ness of the soil. Mr. Gibson strongly recommends that during 
 the winter all cages containing larvae be placed in front of a 
 window facing the east or north-east, so that the inmates may 
 be kept as cool as possible. 
 
 When the moth is fairly out of the pupa, as remarked by Mr. 
 Sanborn, their wings often fail to properly expand, on account 
 of the want of moisture, "the insect being unable to expand its 
 wings in a heated, dry room. He has avoided this difficulty 
 by placing the insect just emerged, or about to come forth, 
 beneath a bell-glass, within which he had placed moistened 
 pieces of bibulous paper." 
 
 Mr. Trouvelot has noticed that the difference in size of the 
 wings of moths or butterflies is due to the fact that some of 
 the fluid thrown into the wings during their development 
 escapes from a break in the surface of the wing, so that this 
 wing is smaller than the other. He has, by pinching a wing 
 while thus developing, caused the fluid to "flow from the punc- 
 ture, and immediately the wing so wounded ceased to grow, 
 while the three others continued their development to its full 
 extent." "I have sometimes advanced the development of the 
 wings of Telea Polyphemus. I selected for this purpose, 
 pupae very far advanced in their transformation, as is shown by 
 the looseness of the pupal skin, and by the color of the wings 
 of the moth, which can be seen through it. I took carefully 
 the pupal skin from around the moth and suspended the insect 
 in the position that Lepidoptera take when emerging from the 
 
244 LEPIDOPTEKA. 
 
 chrysalis. It is very rare that the wings of such an insect 
 are developed, though I have obtained some perfect specimens 
 in this way ; and in one instance the development of the wings 
 took place only three days after the pupal skin had been 
 removed. Success is more certain if the insect is put under a 
 glass jar with a moistened sponge, and something for the insect 
 to hang from ; the dampness of the air in the jar will prevent 
 the soft wings from drying too fast, and when the time arrives 
 for the insect to accomplish its transformation, the fluid will be 
 active. Such an insect has much analogy with a vertebrate 
 born prematurely ; the insect, like the quadruped, remains 
 almost motionless till the natural time for its birth arrives." 
 
 Latreille. The Butterflies, or Diurnal Lepi- 
 doptera, are at once distinguished from the moths by their 
 knobbed antennae, though they are sometimes nearly filiform. 
 The body is small, but there is a greater equality in the size of 
 the three regions than in the moths, the abdomen being much 
 shorter and smaller, as a general rule, than in the lower fami- 
 lies. The ocelli are usually wanting ; the spiral tongue or 
 maxillae, are long and well developed ; and the wings are car- 
 ried erect when in repose, and are not held together during 
 flight by a bristle and socket as in the moths. 
 
 The larvae vary greatly in shape and in their style of orna- 
 mentation, but they uniformly have, besides the thoracic legs, 
 five pairs of abdominal legs. The pupa is called a " chrysalis" 
 or "aurelian" from the bright golden hues which adorn those 
 of many species. They disappear as the wet tissues beneath the 
 pupa-skin harden just before the fly appears. The pupa is usu- 
 ally angulated on the sides of the thorax and along the upper 
 side of the abdomen. A few species, such as those of Vanessa, 
 hibernate, while several species, such as Vanessa Antiopa, are 
 social as young larvae. The most " perfect state of society is ex- 
 hibited by a Mexican butterfly (Eucheira socialis Westwood) , 
 the caterpillars of which construct a very strong parchment-like 
 bag, in which they not only reside, but undergo their change to 
 the pupa state." Butterflies also occasionally swarm while 
 in the perfect state, such as species of Colias, Cynthia and 
 Danais, multitudes of which are sometimes seen passing over- 
 
PAPILIONTD2E. 245 
 
 head in long columns. They are truly tropical insects, since 
 Gerstaecker mentions that three times as many species (600) 
 occur at a single point (Para, Brazil) as in all Germany, where 
 scarcely 200 species live. There are about 5,000 species known ; 
 900 inhabit North America and probably the number will be 
 increased to a thousand, while about 125 species have been 
 found in New England and its immediate border. 
 
 The noble genus Ornithoptera has very long, slightly knobbed 
 antennae, and a well developed prothorax ; while the fore- 
 wings are very large, elongated, triangular, and the hind wings 
 are relatively smaller and rounded. 0. Priamus Linn, is found 
 in the Moluccas. There are twenty species known. The larvae 
 as in some species of Papilio have an external forked sheath 
 for the " tentacles." The pupa is sustained by a silken thread 
 as in Papilio (Wallace). 
 
 Of the extensive genus Papilio, or "Swallow-tail," over 300 
 species are known. The larva is rather short and stout, with a 
 v-shaped scent-organ, or "tentacles." The pupa is supported 
 by a filament passed entirely around it. The common P. As- 
 terias Drury appears in New England in June, when it lays its 
 eggs on the leaves of parsley and other umbelliferous plants. 
 From this brood a new set of butterflies appear in August. 
 The larva is yellow, striped and spotted with black, and when 
 irritated, pushes out, from a slit in the prothoracic ring, a 
 v-shaped, yellow, fleshy, scent-organ, used as a means of de- 
 fence. The chrysalis is free, attached by the tip of the abdo- 
 men and supported by a loose silken thread, which is passed 
 over the back. It lives in this state from nine to fifteen days. 
 It has two ear-like projections on each side of the head and a 
 prominence on the back of the thorax. 
 
 Mr. W. Saunders has received from St. John's, Newfound- 
 land, several specimens of a butterfly, one of which I have before 
 me, and instead of being a very remarkable variety of P. As- 
 terias, seems to be a distinct and undescribed species, as^ 
 supposed by my friend to whose collection it belongs. He 
 writes me, after giving a detailed description, presented below,* 
 
 * " Papilio brevicauda Saundei's. Female. Expands three and one-fifth inches; 
 head, palpi and antennaB black; thorax black, fringed with yellow hairs on each 
 side, for about half its length ; body above black, with a row of seven or eight 
 yellow spots along each side which are largest about the middle of the row ; under 
 
246 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 that "this species resembles P. Asterias, but differs from it 
 in many points. In P. Asterias the palpi are edged within with 
 yellow ; in P. brevicauda they are black. P. Asterias has two 
 yellow spots above at the base of the antennae, which are either 
 wanting, or exceedingly faint in the other species. P. Asterias 
 has a spot of bright yellow on the anterior edge of each side of 
 the thorax ; P. brevicauda has a fringe of duller yellow, extend- 
 ing fully half the length of the thorax. On the primaries the 
 discal bar in P. Asterias is much narrower, and the inner row 
 of spots smaller and bright yellow, the upper one in the row 
 being divided ; in P. brevicauda the spots are fulvous, the upper 
 
 side of the body black, the abdomen being furnished with two rows of yellow spots 
 corresponding with those above, with several additional spots within near the tip ; 
 feet black. Primaries above brownish black, with a bar of yellow across the end 
 of the discal cell; just beyond this is a row of eight spots, extending across the 
 wing nearly parallel with the outer margin ; the upper one, which rests on the sub- 
 costal vein, is yellow, elongated and irregular, with a blackish dot beyond the mid- 
 dle ; the lower ones are fulvous ; the second and third smaller than the first and of 
 an elongated, triangular form, with the apex pointing inwards; the fourth, fifth 
 and sixth are similar in shape, but larger, the latter with its apex partially wanting; 
 the seventh spot is wider and slightly concave on both the inner and outer edges, 
 the inner edge is broken; the eighth is long, narrow and irregular, with its lower 
 edge close to the hind margin of the wing. Behind the upper spot in this row is a 
 second yellow spot nearly round. Between these and the outer margin is a second 
 row of spots, eight in number, but much smaller in size. These are all yellow, the 
 three upper ones nearly round, the lower ones more or less elongated, the lowest 
 contracted in the middle as if composed of two spots joined together; the fringe 
 of the wing is also spotted with yellow, the spots corresponding in number and 
 position with those forming the second row. 
 
 " Secondaries above brownish black, with a row of seven large spots nearly con- 
 fluent beyond the middle, in continuation of those on primaries, all more or less 
 triangular in form, the middle ones somewhat elongated; these spots are yellow 
 above and at the sides, fulvous from near the middle to the outer edge ; the fulvous 
 marking is less distinct on the second and third spots ; within the margin is a sec- 
 ond row, all yellow excepting the upper one which is tinged with fulvous ; the up- 
 per spot is oblong, the second nearly round; third, fourth and filth lunular, nearly 
 equal in size; the sixth similar in form, but much smaller; while the inner one is 
 irregularly concave above, holding in the cavity the eye-like spot at the anal angle. 
 On the outer edge are six yellow spots, larger and more striking than those form- 
 ing part of the fringe on the primaries. The space between the two inner rows of 
 spots is sprinkled with metallic blue atoms. At the anal angle is a round, red spot, 
 with a black dot in it below the middle, and a crescent of bluish atoms above; 
 \ails very short, scarcely one-eighth of an inch long, not more than half the 
 length of those of P. Asterias. 
 
 "Under surface of wings somewhat paler in color, with spots corresponding to 
 those above. The upper spot of the inner row on the primaries is tinted with 
 fulvous ; the spots composing the inner row on the secondaries are more decidedly 
 and uniformly fulvous ; the four upper spots in the second row are also streaked 
 with the same color; the bluish atoms between the rows are partially replaced by 
 green ones." Taken at St. John's, Newfoundland. 
 
PAPILIONIDJE. 247 
 
 one is undivided. The inner row of spots on the secondaries 
 are also entirely yellow in P. Asterias, smaller and very differ- 
 ent in form from those on P. brevicauda. The second row of 
 spots is also smaller in P. Asterias, and the red spot at the 
 anal angle paler, with a smaller black dot in it, and a wider 
 crescent of bluish atoms above. The length of the tail, which 
 is one of the most striking points of difference, has already 
 been noticed." 
 
 We have compared some interesting varieties of P. Asterias 
 in the Museum of the Boston Society of Natural History, col- 
 lected about Boston by Mr. Shurtleff, which approach (in the 
 reddish hue of the spots, usually yellow, especially on the under 
 side, and the shortness of the tail) the Newfoundland speci- 
 men kindly sent us by Mr. Saunders, and strongly suggest the 
 inference, with which Messrs. Scudder and Sanborn agree, that 
 P. brevicauda is a very remarkable 
 species allied to P. Asterias. 
 
 The yellow Papilio Turnus Linn, flies 
 in June and July through woods and 
 about lilacs. Its larva feeds on the 
 apple and wild thorn ; it is green with 
 two eye-like spots on the thorax, and 
 pupates in the middle of August. The 
 black dimorphic ? form, P. Glaucus, 
 is found in the Southern States. P. 
 Daunus Boisd. (Fig. 180) originally Fi s- 18 - 
 found in Mexico, has been found in Kansas, near the Rocky 
 Mountains, by Mr. James Ridings. He states that it strikingly 
 resembles P. Turnus, but has longer antennae, with longer, more 
 curved fore-wings, besides differing in other characters. It ex- 
 pands nearly five inches. P. Troilus Linn, appears more com- 
 monly southward. The larva feeds on the sassafras and lilac 
 trees, and was found by Mr. Saunders feeding, rolled up on 
 a leaf, on the spice bush, August 3d. "Its length was about 
 one and three-fourths inches, the body being thickest from the 
 third to the fifth segments. The head is rather small, flat in 
 front, slightly bilobed, dull flesh color, with a faint tinge of 
 brown. The body is bright pea-green, with a yellow stripe 
 across the anterior part of the second segment ; edged behind 
 with dull black. On the fourth segment are two prominent 
 
248 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 eye-like spots, of dull yellowish or yellowish buff, encircled 
 by a fine ring of black, and a large black pupil filling most 
 of the lower portion. The posterior portion of this black 
 pupil is encircled by a shining bluish black ring, the anterior 
 portion of which strikes a little beyond the middle of the 
 pupil ; there is also a line of black in front of the pupil ex- 
 tending nearly across the yellow portion, and a pale pinkish 
 spot in the upper part of the yellow which is edged with a 
 slightly darker shade. On the fifth segment are two large, 
 irregular spots of the same color, pale buff, encircled by a faint 
 ring of black, and having a faint pinkish spot on the anterior 
 portion of each ; these spots are nearer to each other than 
 those on the fourth segment, a portion of the space between the 
 fifth and sixth segments being deep black ; each segment, from 
 
 the sixth to the eleventh in- 
 clusive, has four blue dots, 
 encircled with black, those on 
 the seventh, eighth and ninth 
 segments being largest. On 
 each side, close to the under 
 surface, is a wide yellow 
 stripe, gradually softening 
 into the green above, and 
 Fig. MI. edged below with blackish 
 
 brown. Immediately below the spiracles is a row of blue dots 
 edged with black, one on each segment from the sixth to the 
 twelfth inclusive. The under surface is dull, pale greenish, or 
 3 r ellowish white, having a decided reddish tinge as it approaches 
 the yellow stripe on the sides. The feet partake of the same 
 general color." P. Phttenor Fabr. is black, with a greenish 
 reflection towards the outer border, with whitish spots on the 
 margin, and on the hind wings six whitish lunules. The larva 
 is brown, with two lateral rows of small, reddish tubercles, 
 and two long tubercles on the prothoracic segment. The 
 chrysalis (Fig. 181, side and dorsal view) is grajdsh violet, yel- 
 lowish on the back, with the head ending in a truncated cone. 
 The genus Pai*nassius has short, thick antennae, with a 
 rounded club, and the fore-wings are much rounded at the 
 apex ; it inhabits mountains. P. Smintheus Doubleday, with 
 three other species, is found in the Rocky Mountains. 
 
PAPILIONIDJE. 
 
 249 
 
 The White Turnip, or Cabbage butterfly, Pieris oleracea Harris 
 (Fig. 182 ; a, larva), is well known as being often destructive to 
 cruciferous plants. In this genus, and its allies, the wings are 
 rounded and entire on the edges, and are grooved on the inner 
 edge to receive the abdomen. The greenish caterpillars are 
 slender, "tapering a very little toward each end, and are spar- 
 ingly clothed with a short down which is quite apparent, how- 
 ever, in Pieris oleracea." We have found the larvae of this 
 species on turnip leaves in the middle of August, at Chamber- 
 lain Farm in Northern Maine. They are of a dull green, and 
 covered with dense hairs. They suspend themselves by the 
 tail and a transverse loop ; and their chrysalids are angular 
 at the sides, and pointed at both ends. (Harris.) Pieris 
 oleracea is white, with the 
 wings dusky next the body, 
 the tips of the fore- wings are 
 yellowish beneath, and the 
 hind wings are straw-colored 
 beneath. The yellowish, pear- 
 shaped, longitudinally ribbed 
 eggs, are laid three or four 
 on a single leaf. In a week 
 or ten days the larvae are 
 hatched. They live three Fig. 182. 
 
 weeks before becoming full-fed. The chrysalis state lasts ten 
 to twelve days. There is an early summer (May) and a late 
 summer (July) brood. Pieris rapce Schrank has been intro- 
 duced from Europe and is now found in the vicinity of Quebec 
 and the northern parts of New England. 
 
 P. Protodice Boisd. and Lee. is found southward. The 
 head of the chrysalis, kindly sent me by Mr. Saunders, is pro- 
 longed into a, tubercle, which is equilaterally triangular, seen 
 in outline, with two small tubercles near the base. On the 
 thorax is a high, thin dorsal ridge, edged with red. On each side 
 of the abdomen is a ridge, largest anteriorly, and rising into 
 a thin tubercle on the second ring. There is a thin dorsal 
 ridge on the posterior half of the abdomen. The tip is deeply 
 excavated by -a furrow extending the whole length of the ter- 
 minal ring. There are seven rows of black dots on each ring. 
 
250 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 It is pale whitish straw yellow throughout, with thick, black 
 dots on the anterior half of the body. It is .70 of an inch in 
 length. It also occurs in California. 
 
 The Sulphur-yellow butterflies, Colias, of which C. Pliilodice 
 Godart, our most common butterfly, is a type, occur everywhere. 
 There are three broods, one appearing in April and Ma}% and 
 the other in July ; while a third brood appears late in August 
 (Scudder). "The female deposited her eggs on the 24th of 
 July ; they were very long, tapering at each end, with twelve 
 or fourteen raised, longitudinal ribs, and smaller cross lines in 
 the concave spaces between them. They hatched on the 31st. 
 The freshly hatched larva is about a thirteenth of an inch long ; 
 the head is black, and the body dull yellowish brown. When 
 five-eighths of an inch long, it is nearly the same as when ma- 
 ture ; the head being dark green and slightly downy, with 
 minute hairs, which also give a downy appearance to the whole 
 body, which is also dotted minutely with paler points. There 
 is a yellowish white stripe, on each side close to the under sur- 
 face. Beneath, the body is slightly paler than above. The full 
 grown larva is an inch long, and differs from the young in hav- 
 ing an irregular streak of bright red running through the 
 whitish lateral line. It feeds on the clover and lupine, and on 
 the cultivated pea. It is not unlike a saw-fly larva in its ap- 
 pearance and movements, feeding on the upper surface of the 
 leaves and twisting its body into a coil when disturbed. The 
 chrysalis is about seven lines long, girt with a silken thread 
 across the greatest diameter of the body, which is full and bulg- 
 ing on the sides. The head is pointed conically, with a purplish 
 red line on each side, running to the tip and margined behind 
 with yellow. The body is pale green, with a yellowish tinge, 
 and a ventral line of a darker shade formed by a succession of 
 minute, yellowish dots ; a yellow stripe runs along the side on 
 the five hinder segments. Beneath, on the seventh, eighth and 
 ninth rings, is a blackish brown line on each side, deepening 
 in color about the middle of each segment, and a dorsal line 
 of dark green about the same length. It remains in the chrys- 
 alis state about ten days." (Saunders.) 
 
 Mr. Scudder has described three species of this genus from 
 the north. Colias Pelidne we have taken abundantly in 
 
PAPILIONIMJ. 251 
 
 Labrador. It represents our C. Philodice. C. interior lives 
 north of the Great Lakes, and C. occidentalis ranges from 
 Fort Simpson to the Gulf of Georgia. 
 
 The species of a closely allied genus, Terias (T. Lisa and 
 T. Delia), are much smaller and are more tropical. 
 
 The genus Danais has antennae with a long and curved knob, 
 the head and thorax are spotted with white, and the wings are 
 round and entire. - The caterpillars have projecting, thread-like 
 horns, arranged in pairs on the top of the second and eleventh 
 segments, and the body (D. Archippus) is banded with yellow, 
 black and white. The oval chrysalicls are short and thick and 
 decked with golden spots. The larva of D. Archippus Harris 
 feeds on the silk-weed, Asclepias, and matures in about two 
 weeks, changing its skin three times, while the chrysalis state 
 lasts for ten or twelve days. The butterfly appears from July 
 to September. 
 
 A very beautiful and quite aberrant tropical genus is Heli- 
 conia, in which the wings are small, very narrow and often very 
 transparent, while the antennae are nearly as long as the body. 
 The larvae are either long, cylindrical and spinose (Acraea 
 violae), or furnished with several pairs of long fleshy append- 
 ages, and the chrysalids are often brilliantly spotted with 
 golden and suspended by the tail. 
 
 According to H. W. Bates (Transactions of the Entomolog- 
 ical Society, 1857), the venation of the wing in many species 
 of Meclianitis and Ithomia, which are allied to Heliconia, varies 
 in different individuals of the same species. The sexes have 
 the closest resemblance in color and markings. They are 
 very gregarious in their habits. The Brazilian tc H. Melpomone 
 varies in a curious manner. I have no doubt they are hybrids 
 (i. e. the varieties), and I can almost point out the species with 
 which it hybridates. Strange to say, the hybrids occur in one 
 district and not in another, and one style of hybrids only occur 
 in one district and not in the others, the species being equally 
 abundant in all the districts." 
 
 Argynnis is readily recognized by the numerous round and 
 triangular silver spots on the under side of the hind wings-. 
 The very spiny caterpillars have a round head, and the spines 
 are branched, two of the prothoracic ones being the largest and 
 
252 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 reaching over the head. The angular arched chrysalids have 
 the head either square, or slightly notched, with a smooth 
 thorax, while on the back of the abdomen are two rows of 
 usually gold colored tubercles. They usually feed on violets, 
 and may be found from May to July. Argynnis Idalia Drury 
 is found the last of summer. A. Cybele Fabr. is found in the 
 Middle States, and A. Atlantis Edwards in the White Moun- 
 tain valleys and the colder portions of New England. 
 
 Mr. C. A. Shurtleff discovered the larva and pupa of the lat- 
 ter, July 17th, at Eastport, Maine, and being with him at the 
 time, we made the following description of them : The larva 
 is uniformly cylindrical, tapering alike towards each end of the 
 body. On each side of the vertex of the head is a small low 
 spine, giving the head an oblong shape when seen sidewise. 
 The front is broad, somewhat square, flattened, with scattered 
 hairs. On the first and second thoracic rings are two large 
 subdorsal spines and minute lateral warts bearing small bris- 
 tles, and on the hind edge of these rings are two large spines. 
 On the third thoracic ring are three large spines. On each 
 abdominal ring are six stout spines of the same size and placed 
 equidistant on the upper surface. The bristles on the spines 
 are nearly one-half as long as the spines themselves. Small pa- 
 pillae, giving rise to bristles, are scattered over the bocty, with 
 a row of them above the abdominal feet. The triangular anal 
 plate is small, papilliform and prominent. The larva is dark 
 velvety purple, the base of the head being of a pale horn color ; 
 the body beneath is scarcely paler than above ; the spines are 
 pale livid on the basal half. They were full-fed and ready to 
 pupate July 17th. The head of the pupa is square in front. 
 On the prothorax are two subdorsal spines, and an elevated 
 mesial ridge on the mesothoracic ring, rising highest behind. 
 At the base of each wing is a sharp, conical, prominent papilla, 
 immediately succeeded by a broad, thin-edged dilatation, con- 
 stricted and appressed to the base of the abdomen ; this is the 
 internal angle of the wings. On the abdomen are two lines of 
 subdorsal sharp papillae, one on each side. The wings extend 
 to the fifth abdominal ring, and from this point the abdomen 
 rapidly tapers to the tip. The surface of the body is wrinkled 
 with conspicuous black spiracles-. Its general color is chest- 
 
PAPILIONIM:. 
 
 253 
 
 nut brown, mottled with black ; the wings being black at the 
 base. The sexes of the rare and superb A. Diana Cramer differ 
 remarkably, the male being dark velvety brown, with a deep 
 orange border, while the female is blue-black, with lighter blue 
 spots and patches on the border of the wings. It has been 
 taken in West Virginia, Georgia and Arkansas. 
 
 A. Aphrodile (Fig. 183*) abounds in the Northern States. 
 According to Scudder, it is double-brooded, appearing about 
 the middle of June, and fresh specimens late in August. A. 
 Montinus, a more diminutive species, was discovered by Mr. 
 Scudder on the lower half of the barren summits of the White 
 Mountains. Allied to this last species by their size, are A. 
 Myrina Cramer and A. Bellona Fabr. found in damp meadows 
 late in summer. 
 A. Myrina has 
 tawny wings bor- 
 dered with black 
 above, and ex- 
 pands from one 
 and three-fourths 
 to one and eight- 
 tenths of an inch. 
 A. Bellona differs 
 from the other 
 species by not 
 
 having any silvery spots on the under side of the wings. Mr. 
 Saunders has reared A. Myrina from eggs deposited June 24th, 
 by a specimen confined in a box. "The egg is pale green, 
 elongated, shaped something like an acorn, with the base 
 smooth, convex and the circumference striated longitudinally, 
 with about fourteen raised striae which are linear and smooth ; 
 the spaces between are about three times wider than the striae, 
 depressed, concave in the middle, and ribbed by a number of 
 cross lines, fifteen to twenty between each stria, and distinctly 
 indented. The egg is contracted at the apex, the striae protrud- 
 ing at the tip all around a little beyond the body of the egg. 
 The larva hatched in six or seven days, and when fresh from the 
 
 * The upper side of the wings is figured on the left side, and the under side 
 on the right, in this and in FIGS. 184 and 188. 
 
254 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 egg was about one-tenth of an inch long. The head is medium 
 sized, black, and shining ; the body above is dark brown, with 
 transverse lines of a paler color, especially on the anterior seg- 
 ments ; it is thickly covered with stout hairs of a pale brownish 
 color ; between the first and second moult it is one-fourth of an 
 inch long. The head is bilobed, shining, black and hairy, and 
 the body above is greenish black, the greenish tinge most 
 apparent on the second and third segments, with a few small 
 yellowish dots along each side, and transverse rows of strongly 
 elevated, black tubercles, emitting numerous short, black hair- 
 like spines. 
 
 "The under surface is similar to the upper ; the feet are black 
 and shining, and the prolegs are black, tipped with a paler hue. 
 After the second moult there are two fleshy tubercles on the 
 second segment much longer than the others, being three or 
 four times their length, which are covered throughout with 
 small hair-like spines. The yellowish spots along the sides of 
 the body assume more of an orange tint, and there are one or 
 two faint, longitudinal streaks of the same color along the sides 
 close to the under surface, and between the rows of large, raised 
 tubercles, are many smaller ones which are also black and 
 appear but slightly raised. August 7th the larva was full- 
 grown. The head is, at this period, slightly bilobed, black, 
 shining, and covered with short, fine, black hairs. 
 
 "The body above is dark greyish brown, beautifully spotted 
 and dotted with deep velvety black ; the second segment, has 
 two long, fleshy horns, yellowish white at base, black above, 
 covered with minute, blackish, hair-like spines. The third and 
 fourth segment, have each four whitish spines tipped with 
 black, those on the sides placed on the anterior portion of 
 the segment, those above about the middle. All the other seg- 
 ments have six whitish spines, excepting the terminal one, 
 which has four. All the spines have fine branches of a black 
 or brownish black color and are about one-third the length of 
 the fleshy horns on the second segment. A pale line extends 
 along each side from the fifth to the terminal segments close to 
 the under surface. The under surface is brownish black, darker 
 on the anterior segments ; feet black and shining ; prolegs 
 brown, with a shining band of brownish black on the outside. 
 
PAPILIONIDJE. 255 
 
 The duration of the pupa stage was ten or eleven days." The 
 pupa, received from Mr. Saunders, has two large, conical tuber- 
 cles in front of the insertion of the antennae, and two acute 
 tubercles on the pro- 
 thorax. The thorax is 
 acutely bituberculated 
 on the sides, with an 
 acute thin dorsal ridge, 
 on each side of which 
 are two small, sharp 
 tubercles. Along the 
 back of the abdomen Fig. 184. 
 
 are two rows of tubercles, those on the third abdominal ring 
 being much larger. It is half an inch long, and pale ash, 
 with black dots and irregular lines. 
 
 Melitcea differs in not having silver spots beneath, while the 
 
 caterpillars are covered with 
 blunt tubercles which give rise 
 to short stiff bristles. They 
 feed on different species of 
 rig. 185. plantain. The clirysalids are 
 
 like those of Argynnis, but spotted with black or brown, and 
 not with golden. 
 
 Melitcea Phaeton Drury (Fig. 184) is found in damp bogs. 
 We have taken the young larva less than one-half of an inch 
 long, early in spring under leaves, where it had 
 doubtless hibernated. The mature larva (Fig. 
 185, enlarged, the specimen from which the 
 drawing was made, is too contracted, the head 
 being drawn in unnaturally ; fig. 186, pupa) is 
 cylindrical, and the head is slightly angulated. 
 There are nine rows of black spines which are 
 fleshy and surrounded at the tips with rather 
 long, thickset spinules. The head and thoracic 
 and last three abdominal rings are black ; the rest Fi s- 186 - 
 of the body being deep orange, with black lines between the 
 spines, and dots along the side. Towards the last of May and 
 early in June it changes to a chrysalis, which is white with a 
 slight bluish tinge, with yellow papillae, and scattered black 
 
256 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 spots, giving it a gay and variegated appearance. The butter- 
 fly rises from cold, swampy places the last of June and early 
 in July. Its wings are velvety black, with orange red cres- 
 cents and spots. It expands from two to two and a quarter 
 inches, being our largest species. 
 
 M. Tharos Boisd. and Leconte is a very abundant species in 
 New England. There are two broods, one appearing in June 
 and early in July, and the second one late in August and Sep- 
 tember. It has short, broad wings which are tawny orange 
 above, with black, irregular lines and spots ; it expands from 
 one and three-tenths to one and a half inches. 
 
 Mr. Saunders has sent us a remarkable and undescribed but- 
 terfly, under the name of Melitced Packardii Saunders, with the 
 following description: "It resembles M. Tharos in size, and 
 expands 1.42 of an inch. The palpi are pale brown above, yel- 
 lowish below; antennae black above, dotted with white and 
 tipped with red ; below white tipped with red. Head, thorax 
 and abdomen, black above, clothed with brownish hairs ; white 
 underneath ; feet brownish yellow ; wings above brown, with a 
 cupreous tinge, sprinkled with fulvous atoms, with a wide band 
 of dark brown on the outer margin, faintly edged on each side 
 with black. The primaries have a fulvous macular band a short 
 distance from the base, extending nearly across the wings, and 
 a patch of the same hue a little beyond and towards the front 
 margin. Beyond the middle is a wide band of the same, 
 divided by the veins into a series of seven spots ; the upper one 
 is very small, a mere dot with a whitish hue ; the second is much 
 larger ; the third and fourth are nearly uniform in size, larger 
 and more elongated than the second ; the fifth and sixth are the 
 largest and wider and longer than any of the upper ones ; the 
 seventh is nearly of the same width as the sixth, but not more 
 than half the length ; the fringe is dotted with white, especially 
 about the tip. 
 
 "On the secondaries a wide fulvous patch covers the inner 
 part of the wing, extending from near the base to near the 
 middle of the wing, and bounded towards the inner margin by 
 a brown edging ; within this patch are three rounded blackish 
 spots, one most distinct about the middle, the others near the 
 inner margin and partly lost in the brown edging of the wing 
 
PAPILTONIDJE. 257 
 
 Beyond this is an imperfect band of fulvous spots, in continua- 
 tion of those on the primaries ; the upper ones faint and indis- 
 tinct, and two of the lower ones prominent and nearly round ; 
 the last small and linear. The inner margin is edged with 
 fulvous, having a yellowish tinge which encroaches on the outer 
 brown marginal band at the anal angle. The fringe of the 
 secondaries is dotted with dull white. The primaries below 
 are fulvous, with a single wavy, brown line across the wing a 
 short distance within the outer margin ; base yellowish, costal 
 margin sprinkled with dark brown atoms, and a streak of the 
 same along the middle of the wing near the hind margin. At 
 the tip is a yellowish patch, occupying the space between 
 the brown line and the margin, and within this, one of silvery 
 white nearly equal in size. Below the white are three indis- 
 tinct, yellowish patches, the lower one extending to the outer 
 margin ; a large patch of yellow at the lower corner where the 
 outer and hinder margins meet. The secondaries below are 
 yellowish from the base to near the middle, with streaks and 
 spots of brown ; the yellowish color extending down the inner 
 to the hinder margin. Beyond the middle the wings are 
 silvery white, sprinkled with yellow and brown scales, divided 
 by the brown veins and partially crossed by an irregular streak 
 of brown. There are also two brown patches on the hind mar- 
 gin, the smaller one nearly round and occupying the space 
 between the first and second median venules ; the larger being 
 irregular and resting on the median vein, and extending across 
 the third to the second subcostal venule." (Canada.) This is 
 now known to be a suffused variety of M. Tharos. 
 
 Melitcea Nycteis Scudder is rarely found in Maine and Mas- 
 sachusetts ; it is pale fulvous above, with blackish brown 
 markings, and expands from one and three-fifths to one and 
 four-fifths inches. M. Harrisii Scudder may be readily distin- 
 guished from M. Nycteis by the under surface of the hind wings 
 being cinnamon-red, with bands and spots of white margined 
 with black. It expands one and three-fourths inches and is 
 found in New England, though rather a rare species. The larva 
 has been reared in Norway, Maine, by Mr. S. I. Smith. It feeds 
 on Diplopappus umbellatus, pupating from the middle to the 
 last of June, and remaining in the chrysalis state from ten to 
 17 
 
258 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 sixteen days ; the butterfly appears from June 20th to Aug. 
 1st. The larva (Fig. 187, with the chrysalis, after Mr. TV. H. 
 Edwards) closely resembles that of Melitcea Phaeton, but, 
 says Mr. Scudder in a letter, it is 
 smaller, and the orange color pre- 
 dominates over the black. Like that 
 of M. Phaeton the caterpillar lives in 
 swarms on its food plant, covering 
 the whole summit of the plant with a 
 web, which at all times is foul with 
 excrement, and presents a most un- 
 sightly appearance. The chrysalis, he also states, may be best 
 described by saying that it is a miniature copy of that of 
 Phaeton. 
 
 M. Chakedon Doubleday is found in California and the 
 Rocky Mountains, while M. Anicia Doubleday, the under side 
 of which is much like that of Chalcedon, occurs not only in 
 California and the Rocky Mountains but also in Kansas. M. 
 Texana Edwards is a Texan species expanding one and one- 
 half inches. 
 
 In Vanessa the wings are notched and angulated or tailed on 
 the hind edges, while the palpi are long and beak-like. The 
 larva is cylindrical and stoutly spined, the spines being long 
 and branched. The caterpillars are gregarious during the early 
 stages. "The head of the chrysalis is deeply notched, or fur- 
 nished with two ear-like prominences ; the sides are very angu- 
 lar ; in the middle of the thorax there is a thin projection, in 
 profile, somewhat like a Roman nose, and on the back are two 
 rows of very sharp tubercles of a golden color." (Harris.) 
 Vanessa Antiopa Linn, is one of our most abundant butterflies, 
 being much more common in this country than in Europe, 
 whither it has probably been carried. Its wings are purplish 
 brown above, with a broad buff yellow border in which is a row 
 of pale blue spots. The butterfly hibernates, appearing before 
 the snow is off the ground. It is seen until June, and then 
 not until the middle of August. The larva is black, spotted 
 minutely with white, with a row of eight dark, brick-red spots 
 on the back. The chrysalis is dark brown, with large tawny 
 spots around the tubercles on the back. The caterpillar defoli- 
 
PAPILIONID^E. 259 
 
 ates the willow, poplar and Balm of Gilead. Vanessa Mil- 
 bertii Godart is much smaller and is rather rare. It occurs 
 about roadsides in May, July and August. The larva feeds 
 on nettles. Mr. Saunders informs me that "it was found feed- 
 ing on the nettle, nearly full grown, July 26th. It was from 
 one to one and one-eighth inches long. The head is black, 
 thickly covered with fine, brownish white hairs, and sprinkled 
 with many minute whitish dots. The body is black, thickly 
 sprinkled with whitish dots and with small, fine, white hairs, 
 each segment, excepting the second, with a transverse row of 
 branching spines. A greenish yellow lateral line runs close to 
 the under surface, with a second broken line of a brighter yel- 
 low color. All the spines and their branches are black, except- 
 ing the lower row on each side from the fifth to the twelfth 
 segment, springing from the greenish yellow lines ; these are of 
 a greenish yellow color. Under surface dull greenish, minutely 
 dotted with whitish dots. There is a wide, central, blackish 
 stripe covering anteriorly, nearly the whole of the under sur- 
 face." V. Californica Boisd. is bright fulvous, with three black 
 bands on the anterior edge of the fore-wings, and there are no 
 black crescents in the black border of the wings. 
 
 The genus Grapta differs from the preceding in its deeply 
 incised wings, its smaller size, and red and brown colors. 
 The under side of the hind wings has usually a silvery or 
 golden dot and curved line, or both, imitating different punc- 
 tuation marks. Grapta interrogationis Doubleday is one of the 
 largest species, and has a golden semicolon beneath. It is found 
 in May, August, and in autumn. The caterpillars injure the 
 foliage of the elm and lime trees, and also the hop vine, some- 
 times defoliating the whole vine. The larva has been found, 
 by Mr. Saunders, feeding on the hop, August 7th. "When 
 full grown its length is one and one-fourth inches. The head 
 is reddish black, flat in front and somewhat bilobed, each lobe 
 tipped with a tubercle emitting five single, black, pointed 
 spines ; it is covered with many small, white, and several black- 
 ish tubercles. The body is cylindrical, black, thickly covered 
 with streaks and dots of yellowish white ; the second segment 
 is without spines, but with a row of yellowish tubercles in their 
 place ; the third segment has four branching spines, all black, 
 
260 LEPJDOPTERA. 
 
 with a spot of dark yellow at their base ; and on the fourth 
 segment are four spines, as there are on all the others, except- 
 ing the terminal, which has two pairs, one posterior to the 
 other. The spines are yellow, with blackish branches, except- 
 ing the terminal pair which is black ; and there is a row of 
 reddish ones on each side. The under surface is yellowish grey, 
 darker on the anterior segments, with a central line of blackish 
 and many small, black dots." The chrysalis state lasts from 
 twelve to fourteen days. It is ash brown, with the head deeply 
 notched, and eight silvery spots on the back. Grapta c-argen- 
 teum Kirby (Fig. 188, GL Progne Harris) is a small species 
 with a silvery L in the middle of the under side of the hind 
 wings. It is our most common species northward. It appears 
 the last of summer. The larva lives on the hop and elm. 
 
 Grapta comma Double- 
 day is more common 
 southward. It is known 
 by having a silvery 
 comma in the middle 
 of the hinder wings. 
 The caterpillar lives on 
 the hop and elm. Mr. 
 W. H. Edwards has 
 Fig. 188. found the larvae on the 
 
 broad-leaved nettle. He says "my attention was first attracted 
 by observing certain leaves drooping, and more or less eaten. 
 On the under side of these I usually found the caterpillar 
 inactive, and never more than one upon the same plant. The 
 half-grown larvae were black, with a 3 r ellowish stripe along the 
 side from the third segment to the tail, and with yellow stripes 
 across the back, and spots of the same color at the base of 
 the dorsal spines, which were yellow, tipped with black. The 
 mature larvae were white, mottled or striped with grey or 
 ashen, and with red spiracles." 
 
 The chrysalis is brownish gray or white, variegated with 
 pale brown, and ornamented with gold on the tubercles. The 
 fly appears in May, July, August and September. In the colder 
 and mountainous portions of New England and New York, 
 these species are replaced by the Ch-apta Faunus of Edwards, 
 
PAPILIONID^. 261 
 
 who states that "comparing Faunus with c-album, the former 
 is deeper colored by many degrees ; it is one-fifth larger, the 
 black spots and margins much heavier, and, owing to this and 
 the depth of the ground- color, the general hue of the surface is 
 much darker than either c-album or any of the American spe- 
 cies." The under side of Gr. Faunus is beautifully marbled in 
 several colors. 
 
 The genus Pyrameis differs from Vanessa in having the 
 wings simply scalloped, not notched ; beneath, they are not 
 marked with metallic colors, and the long, tapering palpi curve 
 upward. The larvae are covered with branched spines, corre- 
 sponding in size, and often wanting on the first and last seg- 
 ments ; the head is heart-shaped. They are solitary, hiding 
 under a rolled leaf or spinning a slight web, and hang by the 
 hind feet alone when about to transform. The chrysalids are 
 angular on the sides, with two or three lateral rows of sharp, 
 golden tubercles, and a short, thick tubercle on the top of the 
 thorax. P. cardui Linn, feeds on thistles and the sunflower, 
 the hollyhock, burdock and other rough-leaved plants, in June 
 and July. It remains in the pupa state twelve days, the but- 
 terfly appearing in Maine, about the 20th of July. Pyrameis 
 Santera Fabr. has much the same habits, while P. Atalanta 
 Linn, feeds on the nettle. These species are all double- 
 brooded, first appearing in May and then in July, August 
 and September. 
 
 Junonia is closely allied to Vanessa. J. coenia Boisd. and 
 Lee. is found in the Southern States, the West Indies, Mexico 
 and California. 
 
 In Limenitis the antennae are very slender, and the hind 
 wings are scalloped, while on both wings the discal area is 
 open. The caterpillar and chrysalis are like those of Danais. 
 L. Misippus Fal>r. (Fig. 189) is tawny yellow above, and of a 
 paler yellow beneath, with a broad, black border, spotted with 
 white, and black veins. It expands from three to three and a 
 half inches and flies from June to September. The larva is 
 pale brown, variegated with white on the sides, and some- 
 times with green on the back ; the prothoracic ring has two 
 slender, blackish, spinulated horns, and on the tenth and 
 eleventh rings are short tubercles. It feeds on the poplar and 
 
 
262 
 
 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 willow. The pupa is known by a thin, almost circular, projec- 
 tion standing out from its back. The young larvae winter in 
 cases "composed of the leaf of the willow, on which the larva 
 feeds, neatly joined by its longest opposite margins, so as to 
 form a cylindrical tube closed at one end and lined with silk." 
 (Trouvelot.) L. Ephestion Stoll is blue black, with three black 
 lines on the hind edges, and just within the outer border is a 
 row of orange colored spots. It lives on the scrub-oak (Quercus 
 ilicifolia) in June, and also on the whortleberry and the cherry. 
 Limenitis Artliemis Drury is smaller and has an oblique, broad, 
 white band, crossing both wings. It is common in the White 
 and Adirondack Mountains, where it is double brooded, ap- 
 pearing late 
 in June, and 
 again late in 
 August. 
 
 The superb 
 and regal ge- 
 nus Morplio 
 is the Atlas 
 among but- 
 terflies. The 
 broad wings 
 
 Fie. 189.* -, 
 
 spread nearly 
 
 six inches, and are usually of a brilliant blue above, and brown 
 beneath, with eye-like spots. Morplio Menelaus Linn., from 
 Brazil, expands five and a half inches. M. Polyphemus Chenu 
 is a Mexican species. M. Epistrophis Hiibner is of a delicate 
 pale green, with two rows of lunate brown spots on the hind 
 wings. The apex of the fore-wings is brown, and the discal 
 spot is connected with the brown costa. It inhabits Brazil. 
 
 The genus Satyrus, and its allies, Chionobas, HipparcMa and 
 Neonympha, are wood brown and ornamented, especially be- 
 neath, with eye-like spots, and have the wings entire, with the 
 veins of the fore-wings swelled at their base, and the discal 
 area open on the hind wings. They have a short, quick, jerky 
 flight. The caterpillars are green and smooth, spindle-shaped, 
 or cylindrical, tapering at both ends ; the hind end is notched, 
 
 *FiG8. 189, 190 and 198, are from Tenney's Zoology. 
 
PAPILIONID^E. 
 
 263 
 
 and the head entire or notched. They live mostly on grasses. 
 "The chrysalis is either oblong and somewhat angular on the 
 sides, with the head notched, and two rows of pointed tuber- 
 cles on the back, or short and rounded, 
 with the head obtuse." (Harris) . Chio- 
 nobas is found on Alpine summits and 
 in the Arctic regions and on subarctic 
 mountains. C. semidea Say (Fig. 190 ; 
 Fig. 191, hind wing) lives on the summit 
 of Mount Washington. It feeds on 
 sedges, according to Scudder. 
 
 Mr. Scudder, has in the accompanying 
 figures, closely exhibited the differences 
 between the Alpine and Arctic species 
 of Chionobas. C. Jutta Moschler (Fig. 
 Northern Labrador ; it extends as far south as Quebec, accord- 
 ing to Edwards. C. Chrixus Doubleday, (Fig. 193) is found 
 on Pike's Peak, Colorado Territory ; C. Calais Scudder (Fig. 
 194) is found on Albany River, Hudson's 
 Bay ; 0. Bore Schiodte (Fig. 195) we 
 have collected in Hopedale, Labrador, 
 as also C. (Eno Boisd. (Fig. 196). 
 
 Satyrus Alope Fabr. is our largest spe- 
 cies. It is dark brown, with a broad, 
 lg ' ' ochre-yellow band beyond the middle. 
 It is abundant in open fields in July and August, 
 green larva is striped with dark, the head is round, and the tail 
 is forked. The chrysalis is rather long, rounded on the sides 
 and with the head notched. 8. Nephele Kirby is the more 
 
 Fig. 190. 
 
 192) we took 
 
 in 
 
 Fig. 192. 
 
 The pale 
 
 Fig. 193. Fig. 194. Fig. 195. Fig. 196. 
 
 northern form, and in the upper Middle States, as about the 
 Catskill mountains, occupies higher ground, according to Mr. 
 Edwards, while S. Alope, which prevails southward, is found 
 in the lowlands and valleys. S. Nephele is smaller, darker, and 
 
 
264 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 there is no yellow band on the fore-wings, though, sometimes, 
 each eye-like spot is surrounded by a yellowish diffuse ring. 
 
 Neonympha Eurytris Fabr. flies low, with a jerky sort of 
 motion, in thick woods, in June and July. The larva is like 
 that of S. Alope, while the chrysalis is shorter with the head 
 obtusely rounded. The adult is dark brown, with two black 
 eye-spots, pupilled with a lead-colored dot, and surrounded 
 with an ochre-yellow ring. On the hind wing is a smaller, simi- 
 lar spot. It expands one and seven-tenths of an inch. 
 
 The aberrant ^enus Libythea, with its long, snout-like palpi, 
 reminds us of the Pyralids. It is small and the wings are 
 irregularly notched. L. Bachmanii of Kirtland is not a common 
 butterfly. It occurs southward, and in Central America is re- 
 placed by L. Garment a. 
 
 The small, delicate Theclas and Lycsenas are often of great 
 beauty and interest. The palpi are elongated, the wings 
 entire, and the hind pair are often once or double tailed. 
 The larvae are slug-like, as when moving on their short feet, 
 sixteen in number, they seem rather to glide than walk. They 
 are oval, flat below and rounded above, both extremities being 
 much alike, with the small head retracted within the body. 
 The short and thick chrysalids are flat beneath, but very con- 
 vex above and rounded at each end. Chrysophanus Ameri- 
 canus Harris, our most abundant form, is coppery red above. 
 Its green larva feeds on the sorrel, and there are three broods 
 of butterflies in the year. The chrysalis is usually suspended 
 under a stone. One sent by Mr. Saunders, is smooth, with 
 no fine hairs. The head and thorax, including the wings, is 
 dull reddish brown, dotted with black ; the abdomen is much 
 lighter cinereous, with very distinct, and irregular black dots, 
 and a lateral row of twin black dots, one dot being a little 
 behind its mate. On the middle of the back are three rows of 
 smaller black dots. It is .45 of an inch in length. Chryso- 
 phanus Thoe Westwood is quite a rare species. Mr. Saunders 
 describes the eggs as being "nearly round, a little flattened at 
 the apex and flattened also at the base, where it is fastened to 
 the box. They are greenish white, and thickty indented ; at the 
 apex is a considerable depression ; immediately around this, 
 the indentations are small, growing larger towards the base." 
 
PAPILIONHXE. 265 
 
 The genus Lyccena is azure blue throughout, with dark mark- 
 ings. Lyccena neglecta Edwards (Polyommatus pseudargiolus 
 Harris) is very common about the Kalmia and Rhodora in 
 May, and a new brood appears in June and July. It has been 
 reared by Mr. Saunders, from whom I have received the pupa, 
 which is a little hairy, being much smaller than in Thecla 
 Acadica and paler ashy. It is spotted quite thickly with black 
 blotches, and on each side of the abdomen is a subdorsal row 
 of rather large, black, contiguous blotches, more distinct than 
 in T. Acadica. It is .30 of an inch long. 
 
 L. comyntas Harris is quite common southward. It differs 
 from the other species in having a little tail on the hind wings, 
 at the base of which are two deep, orange-colored crescents. 
 It flies in July and August. The caterpillar lives on the Lespe- 
 deza. It is green with three darker stripes. The brown chrys- 
 alis has three rows of black spots on the back. 
 
 Thecla differs from the two preceding genera, in its conspic- 
 uous tails and the longer clubs of the antennae and its dusky 
 brown hues. The larvae are longer and flatter, and they usually 
 live on trees. Thecla Immuli Harris feeds on the hop-vine. 
 It flies in July and August. . Thecla niplion Godart, a dusky 
 rust-red butterfly, feeds on the pine. The larva is green, with 
 a dorsal yellow stripe, and a white one on each side. It 
 changes to a short, thick, greyish pupa, with two rows, of 
 blackish dots, and beyond these a row of rust-red ones. Mr. 
 Saunders has sent us the following description of the cater- 
 pillar and chrysalis of Thecla Acadica Edwards, found by him 
 at London, Canada West, feeding on the willow, June llth 
 and 18th. u lt was .63 of an inch in length, with a very small, 
 pale brown head, withdrawn within the prothoracic segment, 
 when at rest. The body is rather dark green, and is thickest 
 from the mesothoracic to the sixth abdominal segment. There 
 is a darker green, dorsal line, the dorsal region being flat, 
 rather wide, and edged on each side with a raised, whitish yel- 
 low line, and the sides of the body are inclined at almost an 
 acute angle, and striped with faint, oblique lines, of a greenish 
 yellow. A whitish yellow line borders the under surface, be- 
 ginning at the anterior edge of the second segment (the head 
 is, for convenience, counted as a single ring, or segment) and 
 
266 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 extending entirely around the body. The chrysalis is .32 of 
 an inch long, and .15 wide. It is fastened with a silken 
 thread. The abdomen is thickened and somewhat raised. It 
 is minutely hairy, pale brown, with many dots and patches of 
 a darker color ; the upper edge of the wings being quite dark, 
 with a dark ventral stripe, and four or five short, dark lines on 
 the side, It remains in the chrysalis state eight or nine days, 
 the caterpillar turning dark July 3d, just before pupating." 
 The body, especially the abdomen, is thicker and fuller than in 
 Chrysophanus Americanus. 
 
 TJiecla Mopsus Hiibner is found in New England and Canada. 
 Mr. Saunders sends me the following description of the larva 
 taken June 9th, by beating bushes, at London, Canada. "It 
 was .40 of an inch in length. The head is small, of a shin- 
 ing black color, with a pale stripe across the front just above 
 the mandibles, and is drawn within the second ring when at 
 rest. The body above is green along the middle rings, deep rose 
 color at each extremity, and is thickly covered with short, brown 
 hairs. The second segment is rosy above, greenish yellow at 
 the sides, with an edging of the same color in front ; the third 
 segment is entirely rose colored ; from the third to the tenth 
 segments is a dorsal stripe of rose which is wide on the fourth, 
 fifth, eight and ninth segments, but narrow and linear on the 
 intermediate ones ; on the tenth segment the green encroaches 
 on the rose color on the sides of the body, extending more than 
 half-way upon the segment behind the tenth. The body is 
 rose colored with a dorsal streak of a darker shade. The rose 
 color at each extremity is united by a rosy line along each side 
 close to the under surface which grows fainter on the middle 
 segments. The under surface is dull green, with a yellowish 
 tint; the feet and prolegs (abdominal legs) are yellowish 
 green. June 24th, the larva has now become quite large and 
 will probably soon go into the chrysalis state. I found it 
 would readily eat the plum and cherry. 
 
 "Its length is now .70 ; its width about .20 of an inch. The 
 head is very small, bilobed, black and shining, with a streak of 
 dull white across the front above the mandibles, which are 
 reddish brown. The body above is dull green, with a yel- 
 lowish tint, especially on the anterior segments, which are 
 
PAPILIONIM;. 267 
 
 thickly covered with very short, brown hairs, scarcely visible 
 without a magnifier; these hairs arise from small, pale, yel- 
 lowish dots which appear slightly raised ; there is a dorsal streak 
 of dark green arising from the internal organs showing through 
 the semitransparent skin. There is a patch of dull pink, or 
 rosy color, on the anterior segments from the second to the 
 fourth inclusive ; it is faint on the second ring, and covering 
 but a single portion of its upper surface, and nearly covering 
 the dorsal crest on the third segment, and reduced again to a 
 small, faint patch on the fourth. On the posterior segments is 
 a much larger rosy patch, extending from the hinder part of the 
 ninth segment to the end of the body. The hinder part of 
 the ninth segment is merely tinged. On the tenth segment it 
 becomes a rather large patch, widening posteriorly. Behind 
 this the body is entirely covered with rosy red. The sides of 
 the tenth segment, close to the under surface, have a streak of 
 the same color, and there is a faint continuation of this on the 
 ninth segment. The head is drawn within the second segment 
 when at rest. The second segment is smaller than the third ; 
 there is a wide dorsal crest, or ridge, from the third to the tenth 
 segments inclusive ; behind this the body is suddenly flattened, 
 the sides suddenly sloping. The under surface is yellowish 
 green, with a few very fine brownish hairs ; the feet and 
 prolegs are greenish, semitransparent. 
 
 "On June 29th it fastened itself to the lid of the box, chang- 
 ing to a chrysalis July 1st, which was .45 of an inch in 
 length, and its greatest width .20 of an inch. The body is 
 pale brown and glossy, with many small, dark brown or black- 
 ish dots distributed over the whole surface ; they are thicker 
 along the middle above, with a faint, imperfect, ventral stripe 
 from the seventh to the eleventh segments ; the surface is 
 thickly covered with very short, brown hairs, invisible without 
 a magnifier. The imago appeared July 13th." 
 
 Mr. Saunders has found the larva of Theda strigosa Harris, 
 a rare species in Canada and New England, feeding on the 
 thorn, Crataegus, July 13th. "The head is small, greenish, with 
 a faint tint of brown, and a black stripe across the front below 
 the middle, and a patch of white between this stripe and the 
 mandibles, which are brownish black above. The body is of a 
 
268 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 rich velvety green, with a yellowish tinge, slightly paler be- 
 tween the segments, and a dorsal stripe of a darker shade, 
 centred along the middle segments with a faint, j^ellowish 
 line. The anterior edge of the second segment is yellowish 
 brown, with a few dots of a darker color. The body is thickly 
 covered with minute hairs which are brown above and white 
 below, being scarcely visible to the naked eye. The body is 
 flattened above (dorsal crest not bordered with yellow as in T. 
 Acadica), steeply sloped at the sides, where it is striped with 
 faint oblique line's of yellowish, two or three on each segment. 
 The two last segments have a patch of yellowish 011 each side, 
 making the dark dorsal line appear much more prominent. A 
 faint yellowish line close to the under surface from the fifth to 
 the terminal segments. The under surface is bluish green, 
 with a darker patch on the last two segments. 
 
 " The chrysalis changed June 19th, and is nearly oval in form. 
 The head-case is rounded, and the body is dark reddish brown, 
 with black markings thickly covered with fine, short, whitish 
 hairs, rather more numerous on the anterior and posterior 
 segments. Anterior segments with many thickly set patches 
 of blackish, and a dark ventral line from the sixth to the 
 twelfth segments. It is bound by a few silken threads on 
 the anterior portion of the seventh segment." 
 
 The accompanying cut (Fig. 197) represents the pupa of a 
 
 Thecla, found in July b} T Mr. Sanborn, on the Glen road to 
 
 Mount Washington. The body is smooth and tapers gradually 
 
 from the mesothorax, and the venation of the wings is 
 
 very apparent. Another pupa, probably T. niplion, found 
 by Mr. Sanborn, is very different, being much stouter, 
 and thicker through the abdomen, by a third of its 
 Fig. 197. Diameter, than the chrysalis figured. It is rough and 
 covered with short, fine, stiff hairs ; the tegument is so thick, 
 that there are no traces of the veins of the wing, while the 
 sutures between the segments and the appendages are not 
 nearly as distinct. The larva, according to Mr. Sanborn's 
 notes, was found feeding upon the White Pine, July 13th. 
 "It was .45 of an inch long; the head was retracted, yellow- 
 ish, and the body pale, transparent green, with four longi- 
 tudinal, white stripes, and one transverse, lozenge-shaped 
 
PAPILIONID^. 269 
 
 patch, of the same color, on the eleventh segment. The rings 
 were all somewhat elevated in the middle of their diameter and 
 thinly covered with yellowish brown, short hairs." He did not 
 succeed in rearing the butterfly, but this description will be 
 useful to any entomologist who may be fortunate enough to 
 rear it hereafter. 
 
 The Hesperians, or Skippers, are a large group of small, 
 dark, dun-colored butterflies, whose antennae have the knob 
 curved like a hook, or ending in a little point bent to one side, 
 reminding us of the antennae of the Sphinges. * They are moth- 
 like in their motions, form, and larval characters. They are 
 stout bodied, with large heads and prominent eyes, and thick 
 palpi, almost square at the end. The larvae are spindle-shaped, 
 naked, and with a remarkably large head. They are solitary, 
 and often hide in folded leaves like the Tortricidce, trans- 
 forming in a rude cocoon of dead leaves or stub- 
 ble, held together by silken threads. The pupae 
 are somewhat conical, like those of moths, 
 smooth and generally covered with a bluish 
 white powder. They are fastened by the tail 
 and a slight band of threads within their rude Fl &- 198> 
 cocoons. We have many species in this country ; the largest 
 forms occurring southwards. 
 
 Eudamus Tityrus Cramer feeds on the locust and is our largest 
 species northward. E. Bathyllus flies in June and July. It feeds 
 on Glycine and Hedysarum in May and June. In Hesperia 
 the knobs are shorter, and end in a point turned sidewise. 
 The upper wings are raised, and the lower spread out flat when 
 at rest. The chrysalis has a long tongue-case free at the end, 
 in this respect showing a transition to the hawk-moths. They 
 are snuff-brown, with dark spots. 
 
 Mr. W. Saunders has been very successful in raising the 
 larvae of H. Hobomoc Harris and other butterflies and moths, 
 by watching for the fertile eggs in captured specimens, which 
 are often deposited on the sides of the collecting box. The 
 food-plant of the larvae can usually be discovered after experi- 
 menting with those plants on which other species of this or 
 allied genera are known to feed. "The egg, deposited June 
 17th, is nearly round, flattened on the lower side, and of a 
 
270 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 pale green color. Under the microscope it appears plainly 
 reticulated, with fine, six-sided markings, strongly resembling 
 the cornea of a fly's eye. The larva on finding its way out, 
 June 27th, began to eat the egg-shell at the centre above. 
 It feeds on grass, on the inside of the leaves near the joints, 
 drawing portions of the leaves together with silken threads. 
 When placed on a strongly ribbed blade of grass, it spins a 
 few threads from rib to rib, and stations itself behind the 
 threads. By the 14th of July the caterpillars were three- 
 eighths of an inch long and resembled those of H. Mystic 
 of the same age." Mr. Saunders did not succeed in raising 
 the caterpillars to maturity as they were unfortunately lost. 
 
 The most abundant species in New England is H. Wamsutta 
 Harris (Fig. 198) which frequents roadsides throughout the 
 summer. According to Mr. Saunders' notes, from "eggs de- 
 posited July 10th, the young larva was hatched July 24th, the 
 eggs growing darker about two or three days previous. The 
 egg is pale greenish yellow, or yellowish green, strongly con- 
 vex above, and flattened at the place of attachment. The flat- 
 tened portion is slightly concave and very faintly reticulated 
 under a power of forty-five diameters. 
 
 The young larva, when first hatched, is about the same as 
 that of Mystic and Hobomoc, probably .10 of an inch, and is 
 scarcely distinguishable from them, excepting that it is slightly 
 darker in color. The head is large and prominent and of a 
 shining black color. The second segment has a ring of brown- 
 ish black, encircling it above. The body is dull brownish yel- 
 low, very faintly dotted with black, each dot emitting a single, 
 rather long, brownish hair. The under surface is rather paler 
 than the upper. 
 
 Mr. Saunders has also reared the larva of H. Mystic Edwards 
 from the egg, which is "strongly convex above, flattened below 
 and depressed in the centre of the flattened portion. Under 
 a magnifying power of eighty diameters, the surface is seen 
 to be faintly reticulated ; it is pale yellowish green. The eggs 
 were deposited about the 20th of June and hatched on the 
 28th and 29th of June. When hatched it was .10 of an inch 
 long, with a large, black head, and was white, becoming yel- 
 lowish brown, especially towards the end of the body. It feeds 
 
SPHINGID^E. 271 
 
 on grass, and at this stage can scarcely be distinguished from 
 the young larva of H. Hobomoc. When an inch long the head 
 is not large in proportion to the body, though it is prominent 
 and wider than the second segment ; it is dull reddish brown 
 and black posteriorly. The body above is semitransparent, 
 dull brownish green, with minute, whitish hairs, similar to 
 those on the head, with a dorsal line and many darker dots 
 over the surface. The second segment is pale whitish, with a 
 line of brownish black across the upper surface, with a faint, 
 pale, lateral line close to the under surface : the terminal seg- 
 ments are paler than the rest of the body. The feet are 
 whitish, semitransparent. This species is found from Canada 
 to Maryland. 
 
 SPHINGID^E Latreille. The Hawk-moths or Humming-bird 
 moths are among the largest and stoutest of Lepidoptera. The 
 body is very stout, spindle-shaped, with narrow, powerful wings. 
 Their flight is, consequently, exceedingly swift and strong. 
 The antennae are prismatic in form and thickened in the mid- 
 dle. The tongue, or maxillae, is remarkably long, so that the 
 insect is able, while on the wing, to explore the interior of 
 deep flowers. This habit of remaining for a considerable time 
 poised in the air on their rapidly vibrating wings, causes them 
 to be mistaken for humming-birds. At rest the wings are 
 folded, roof-like, over the body. The larvae have sixteen legs, 
 and on the last segment is an acute horn, sometimes represented 
 by a simple tubercle. At rest they stand with the forepart 
 of the body elevated in a supposed Sphinx-like attitude. The 
 larvae descend into the earth and transform, often in rude, 
 earthen cocoons, moulded into form by the pressure of the 
 body. The tongue-case is usually free. 
 
 There are between 300 and 400 species known, a large part 
 of which are tropical American. Most of the species fly in 
 June and July. The larvae transform in the latter part of 
 August and in September. 
 
 In Ellema the body is small. The head is small, narrow and 
 somewhat tufted, and with small eyes. It might be passed over 
 on a hasty 'view for a Noctuid. The larva of Ellema Harrisii 
 Clemens is green, has no caudal horn, and lives on the pine. 
 
272 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 Mr. Saunders writes me that he has found it feeding on the 
 pine, about the middle of September. "It is two inches long, 
 the body being smooth and nearly cjdindrical and thickest in 
 the middle of the body. The head is large, pointed above, flat 
 in front and green, with a yellow stripe on each side. The 
 body is bright green, with a dorsal row of dark red spots on 
 the fifth to the twelfth segments inclusive, with a bright yel- 
 low stripe on each side of the reddish spots and a lateral 
 white stripe mixed with yellow." The moth is a very small, 
 ash grey species, only expanding two inches. It frequents 
 flowers at dusk in June. 
 
 The genus Sphinx, as now limited by systematists, is much 
 larger bodied, with a long and narrow head, small eyes and 
 long and narrow wings. The head of the larva is rather 
 large, semi-oval and flattened in front. The body is C3^1in- 
 drical, smooth and obliquely banded on the side, with an 
 arching, caudal horn. It transforms in a subterranean earthen 
 cell. The tongue-case of the pupa is short and free, instead 
 of being soldered to the body. Sphinx gordius Cramer is dark 
 brown, with a roseate tinge, and the thorax is blackish brown 
 above. The larva feeds on the apple. 
 
 Sphinx Jcalmice Smith is hoary and rust-red, and on the hind 
 wings are a median and marginal black band. The caterpillar 
 feeds on the lilac and laurel. It is pale green, with seven 
 oblique, lateral, pale yellow bands, edged above with black, 
 which is again bordered with pale blue. Sphinx drupiferarum 
 Smith has the fore- wings blackish brown, with the discal dot 
 and outer edge of the wing whitish fawn-color. The larva 
 feeds on the different species of plum. The body is pale green, 
 with lateral purple bands, edged beneath with white. Sphinx 
 chersis Hiibner (S. cinerea Harris) is the largest species we 
 have, and is pale ashen, and reddish gray beneath. The larva 
 feeds on the lilac. 
 
 The large " potato worm " belongs to the genus Macrosila, 
 containing our largest species of the family ; the head is pro- 
 portionally large, and the wings are rather broad, with the 
 interior angles dilated. M. cingulata Fabr. has pink hind 
 wings and pink spots on the abdomen. It feeds on the sweet 
 potato. M. quinque-maculata Haworth (Fig. 199, moth ; a, 
 
SPHINGID^E, 
 
 273 
 
 18 
 
274 
 
 LEPIDOPTEEA. 
 
 larva ; 6, pupa) is gray ; the fore-wings are immaculate at the 
 base, and on the hind wings are two distinct angulated bands. 
 The larva feeds on the tomato and potato vines. It is dark 
 green, with a series of greenish yellow angular bands on the 
 side. The tongue-case is long and much arched. M. Carolina 
 Linn, is cinereous, with a white spot at the base of the fore- 
 wing, while the central band of the hind wings are indistinct. 
 
 The larva (Fig. 200) 
 feeds on the tobacco 
 and tomato. It is dark 
 green with lateral, 
 oblique, white bands, 
 edged above with blu- 
 ish and short trans- 
 Fig. 200. , , , , . 
 
 verse black stripes. 
 
 The tongue-case is shorter and less curved than in M. 5-macu- 
 lata. The tongue of a Madagascar hawk-moth, M. cluentius, 
 Wallace states, is nine and a quarter inches long, probably 
 adapted for exploring the long nectaries of some Orchids. 
 
 In Ceratomia the body is thick, with the head and eyes small ; 
 the thorax is short and round, while the abdomen is rather 
 long. The larva is easily known by the 
 four thoracic horns, besides the usual 
 caudal horn. The tongue-case is not 
 free. C. Amyntor Hiibner (quadricornis 
 Harris) feeds on the elm. 
 
 We now come to the more aberrant 
 forms of the family. Under the name 
 of Cressonia Mr. Grote has separated 
 Fig. 201. from the genus Smerinthus, a species in 
 
 which the wings are more notched than in the latter genus, and 
 the antennae are slightly pectinated. Cressonia juglandis Smith 
 (Fig. 201, venation) is of a pale fawn-color, and has no e3^e-like 
 spots on the hind wings, as in Smerinthus. The larva is bluish 
 green, with a row of subdorsal and stigmatal reddish brown 
 spots, and six oblique, lateral, bright yellow bands. It lives on 
 the wild cherry. 
 
 In Smerinthus the body is stout, the head sunken and the 
 maxillae are only as long as the palpi, being almost obsolete. 
 
SPHINGID^. 275 
 
 The species are said to fly heavily and only in the night. The 
 head of the larva is semi-oval or pyramidal, acute above, and 
 the thoracic rings are obliquely banded on each side. The 
 pupa is smooth, cylindrical and somewhat conical in form. JS. 
 modestus Harris is a very large species, expanding nearly six 
 inches. It feeds on the Lombardy poplar. JS. exccecatus Smith 
 has the hind wings rosy on the inner angle. The "ocellus" or 
 eye-like spot is black, with a large, pale blue pupil. The 
 larva is apple green, with seven oblique, yellowish white lines 
 on the sides, and a bluish caudal horn. It feeds on the apple 
 and the Rosa Carolina. JS. geminatus Say (Fig. 202, venation 
 of the hind wing) is so called from the two sky-blue pupils in 
 the black ocellus on the roseate hind wings. 
 The pupa has been found at the roots of 
 willows. 
 
 In the genus Pliilampelus, or lover of the vine, 
 as its name indicates, the tongue is again as long Fi s- 202 - 
 as the body. The antennae have a long hook tapering to 
 the end, bearing cilise in the male. The abdomen is large and 
 thick, and the wings are deeply concave on the inner border. 
 The larva has a tubercle in place of a caudal horn. The 
 tongue-case of the pupa is not free. P. vitis Harris is olive 
 greeii, with pale green hind wings, which are rose-red towards 
 the inner margin. The larva is flesh-colored mixed with yel- 
 low, and with short, transverse, black lines, and lateral, semi- 
 oval, yellowish white bands, edged with black. 
 
 In Deilepliila the abdomen tapers suddenly at the tip and 
 the fusiform antennae end in a minute hook. The gaily colored 
 larva has a straight and rather short caudal horn. There are no 
 oblique bands on the sides of the body, but a row of subdorsal 
 spots on each side. Clemens states that the anterior segments 
 are much attenuated, and are capable of being withdrawn or 
 shortened, or much extended. " When disturbed they fall from 
 their food-plants, shorten the anterior segments and bend the 
 head inwards." They transform in a cell excavated from the 
 surface. The tongue-case of the pupa is not free. D. lineata 
 Fabr. is olive green, with six white lines on the thorax. The hind 
 wings are black with a rose colored central band. The larva is 
 yellowish green ; the subdorsal -spots consisting of two curved, 
 
276 
 
 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 short, black lines, with yellow above and beneath. It is double 
 brooded in Texas. The larva feeds on the purslane and turnip, 
 and will, in confinement, eat the apple. D. chamceneni Harris 
 has a white line on each side of the head and thorax. The 
 larva feeds on the willow-herb (Epilobium angustifolium) . It 
 is bronze green, dull red beneath, with nine round cream- 
 colored spots, pupilled with black, and a dull red caudal horn. 
 The genus Thyreus has a lateral tuft on each side of the tip of 
 the flattened, oval abdomen, and the head is broad and obtuse, 
 while the fore-wings are excavated just below the tips. The 
 
 body of the 
 larva tapers 
 ^ gently from 
 the first ab- 
 dominal ring, 
 and the last 
 segment has a 
 lenticular tu- 
 bercle instead 
 of a true horn. 
 When at rest 
 it throws its 
 head from side 
 to side thus 
 producing a 
 Fi s- 203 - crepitating 
 
 noise. It transforms in a cell on the surface. T. Abbotii 
 Swainson (Fig. 203 and larva) is dull chocolate brown, with 
 dull sulphureous hind wings, with a dark brown terminal band 
 broken up into short lines on a roseate spot at the inner angle. 
 The larva is reddish brown, with numerous patches of light 
 green. The tubercle is black, encircled at base by a yellowish 
 line and a blackish cordate patch. It feeds on the wild and 
 cultivated grape-vines and on the Ampelopsis quinquefolia, or 
 woodbine. 
 
 The Bee-moth or Clear-wing, Sesia, is smaller than the fore- 
 going genera, and the body is flattened, oval and gaily colored 
 with yellow, black and red, while the wings are transparent in 
 the middle. The larva tapers in front, has a dorsal stripe just 
 
277 
 
 above the row of stigmata, and a short recurved horn. It 
 transforms in an imperfect cocoon at the surface of the earth. 
 Sesia diffinis Boisd. is pale greenish yellow, with the abdomen 
 black beneath, and the legs black. The larva is 
 pale green, reddish beneath. Sesia Tliysbe Fabr. 
 is a more common species northward. The thorax 
 is deep olive green, with the abdomen reddish be- 
 neath, and with whitish legs. It is abundant, flying in June 
 in the hot sun about the lilac and Rhodora Canadensis. 
 
 Under the name of Lepisesia Mr. Grote has separated L. 
 flavofasciata Barnston (Fig. 204, venation of fore-wing) found 
 in Canada, from the genus Macroglossa, repre- 
 sented in Europe by M. stellatarum Linn. 
 Mr. Grote also separates from the latter 
 genus, under the name of Eupyrrlwglossum, Fig 205. 
 a Cuban moth, which has larger, fuller eyes, and larger hind 
 wings than in Macroglossa. E. Sagra (Fig. 205, venation of 
 fore-wing) is a handsome form described by Professor Poey. 
 
 Harris. These elegant and gaily colored moths, 
 which by the arrangement of their colors and their clear wings, 
 look like bees and wasps, are readily recognized by their small 
 size, narrow wings, thickened antennae, and by the tufts at the 
 end of the body, which they can spread out fan-like. They fly 
 very swiftly in the hottest sunshine. The larvae are borers, 
 living mostly in the hollowed stems of plants. They are whit- 
 ish, cylindrical, with sparse, short, inconspicuous hairs, and 
 they have no anal horns. They transform in a rude, oblong, 
 oval cocoon, constructed of the chips they make in boring out 
 their tunnels, cemented by a gummy secretion. The pupae are 
 chestnut-brown, with transverse rows of short teeth on the 
 abdominal rings, by which they make their way out, partly 
 through the hole previously made by the larva for the exit of 
 the moth. The shell of the chrysalis is often left protruding 
 from the hole. This family is, therefore, quite injurious to 
 gardeners. 
 
 uEgeria exitiosa Say (Fig. 206, $) the Peach-tree borer, has 
 caused the death of many peach trees and also, according to 
 Fitch, occasionally attacks the plum. It is a slender, dark 
 
278 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 blue moth, expanding an inch and a half, or more. The male 
 is much smaller than the female (Fig. 207), expanding one inch. 
 She deposits her eggs near the root of the tree. The larvae are 
 hatched and bore in to feed upon the inner bark and sap wood. 
 When one year old they make their cocoon under the bark or 
 at the root of the tree. Borers of all sizes, Harris states, will 
 be found in the trees throughout the year. 
 
 The trees should be protected by wrapping sheathing paper 
 around the bottom of the trunk, and putting fresh mortar around 
 the roots. The wounded part may be cov- 
 ered with clay. ^Egeria pyri Harris infests 
 the pear tree. It is purple black above and 
 golden yellow beneath, with three yellow 
 bands across the abdomen, the middle band 
 Fig. 206. being the larger. 
 
 The habits of the Grape-root borer, ^. polistiformis Harris, 
 resemble those of the Peach-tree borer. It sometimes de- 
 stroys grape-vines in the Middle and Western States, but does 
 not attack the Scuppernong variety. The larva lives under 
 ground, the female, according to Walsh, "depositing her egg 
 on the collar of the grape-vine, close to the earth ; the young 
 larvae, as soon as they hatch out, immediately descend into 
 the roots." They attack the sap-wood and bark of the roots, 
 eating irregular furrows. The cocoons are oval, and covered 
 with bits of wood and dirt. They are 
 found, through the summer, in the earth 
 near the roots of the grape, and the moths 
 fly from the middle of June until the mid- 
 dle of September, according to Dr. Kron. 
 Harris describes the moth as being dark 
 Fig. 207. brown, tinged with tawny orange on the 
 
 sides, and banded with bright yellow upon the edge of the 
 second abdominal ring. The thorax and fourth abdominal 
 ring are faintly tinged with yellow, or tawny orange, as are 
 the palpi, under side of the antennae, and the legs. The female 
 has a little orange colored tuft on each side of the tail, and 
 the males have two tufts on each side. The wings expand 
 from one to one and a half inches. Another species, ^E. 
 caudata Harris, inhabits the wild currant. 
 
ZYGJSNID.E. 
 
 279 
 
 The currant borer, ^Egeria tipuliforme Linn. (Fig. 208 ; 6, 
 larva ; a, pupa, enlarged) has been introduced from Europe, and 
 
 is a great pest in our gar- 
 dens, injuring the currant 
 bushes. It is a slender, 
 agile, dark blue moth, found 
 flying in July in the hot sun, 
 about the currant leaves. 
 The larva bores in the stems, 
 and by splitting them open, 
 in the fall and spring, we 
 shall find the larva, which 
 
 quinque 
 
 pupates towards the last of May. 
 
 Mr. James Ridings describes from Virginia 
 
 caudata (Fig. 209) which has 
 
 five filaments at the tip- of 
 
 the abdomen. Its body is 
 
 blue black, with a transparent 
 
 spot at the base of the hind 
 
 wings, while the third abdom- 
 
 inal segment is red above. 
 
 The Squash-vine borer, rig. 210. 
 
 Melittia cucurbitce Harris (Fig. 210 ; a, larva), often kills, very 
 
 suddenly, the squash plant. The moth is orange colored, 
 spotted with black, and its hind legs are 
 fringed with long, orange and black hairs. 
 She oviposits on the vine close to the roots, 
 from the tenth of July to the middle of Au- 
 gust. The larva eats out the interior of the 
 vine, and usually transforms in a rude earthen 
 cocoon near the roots, but as we have no- 
 
 ticed, within the stem, beginning to spin its cocoon the first 
 
 of October. 
 
 ZYG.ENID.E Latreille. This interesting group connects the 
 diurnal with the nocturnal Lepidoptera. Some of the forms 
 (Castnia) remind us strikingly of the butterflies. The group 
 may be recognized by the rather large free head, and the 
 simple antennae which are slightly swollen in the middle, or 
 
280 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 partially clavate, as in Zygsena. The wings are long and nar- 
 row in the typical genera, becoming shorter and broader in the 
 lower genera, such as Euremia, from India. The scales are 
 fine, powdery and scattered thinly over the surface, often leav- 
 ing naked spots on the wings. The species are usually green 
 or deep blue, with scales of purplish black, or entirely black, 
 alternating with gay colors, such as golden, bronze, or white 
 and red. They fly in the hot sunshine. 
 
 The sixteen-footed, greenish larvae are short, cylindrical, the 
 body being obtuse at each end. The head is veiy small and 
 when at rest is partially drawn into the prothoracic ring. The 
 segments are short and convex, with transverse rows of un- 
 equal tubercles which give rise to thin fascicles of very short 
 and evenly cut hairs, which are often nearly absent. The 
 larvae are either naked, as in Alypia, Eudryas and Castnia, or, 
 as in the lower moth-like species, they are hairy, like those of 
 the Lithosians and Arctians in the next family. Before trans- 
 forming, the larvse usually spin a dense, silken cocoon, though 
 Eudryas and Castnia make none at all, and Ctenucha a slight 
 one of hairs. The pupa of Zygsena, especially, is intermediate 
 in form between that of jEgeria and Arctia, being much 
 stouter than the first, and somewhat less so than the last. 
 The head is prominent, and the tips of the abdomen sub-acute. 
 Ctenucha is more like Arctia, while Castnia and Alypia are 
 elongate, slender, with the head made especially prominent by 
 a tubercle on the front of the clypeus. 
 
 In common with the Sphingidce, and ^Egeriadce, the 
 Zygsenidse are confined to the temperate and tropical regions. 
 The family type, Zygcena, has its metropolis about the Mediter- 
 ranean Sea, and thence spreads to the north of Europe, and 
 southward to the Cape of Good Hope. Zygcena exulans is 
 found as far north as Lapland, and in vertical distribution rises 
 6,000 to 7,000 feet in the Alps of Styria. 
 
 Castnia is, however, a tropical American genus. Alypia is 
 the most northern genus, extending into the Hudson Bay ter- 
 ritories. Glaucopis and allies, which comprise a large number 
 of species, are almost exclusively tropical American. In Aus- 
 tralia, as Klug observes, Castnia is represented by Synemon. 
 The American genus Eudryas is represented by very closely 
 allied South African genera. 
 
281 
 
 Castnia closely resembles the Hesperians, though much 
 larger. The species are of large size and of brilliant hues, and 
 fly in the day time, like the butterflies. The head is, however, 
 much narrower in front, and the antennae inserted higher up. 
 The larva is a borer, living in the stems of Orchids ; it is not 
 known, but probably has the usual form of boring caterpillars, 
 and the pupa is said by Klug to resemble that of Cossus. 
 
 Alypia comprises black moths, ornamented with white and 
 yellow patches on the wings. The antennae are long, and a 
 little thickened in the middle. The wings are short and broad. 
 The body of the pupa is not contracted at the base of the 
 abdomen as in Euclryas. The larva feeds on the grape and 
 constructs an earthen cocoon, like that of .ZEgeria, according 
 to Harris. A. octo-maculata Fabr. is black, with eight spots, 
 two on each wing, those on the fore wing being yellowish, those 
 on the hind wing white. 
 
 The genus Psychomorpha is allied to Alypia, but differs in 
 the broadly pectinated antennae, and the shorter palpi, which 
 do not pass beyond the front of the 
 head. P. epimenis Drury (Fig. 211) is 
 found from Connecticut southwards. 
 It is black, with a broad, yellow, white, 
 irregularly lunate patch crossing the 
 outer third of the wing, and on the un- 
 der side is larger, being triangular, 
 
 with two square black spots connected with the costa ; on the 
 hind wings is a little larger, mostly regular crescent-shaped 
 brick-red spot; it expands 1.10 inches. Doubleday (Harris 
 Correspondence) states on the authority of Abbot, that the 
 larva feeds on Bignonia radicans, in Georgia. "It is pale, 
 with black lines, and though having the full complement of 
 legs, seems to be a semi-looper in its walk, like Brephos." 
 
 Eudryas is a peculiar form, gaily colored, and easily known 
 by the densely tufted forelegs, and the short tufts of metallic 
 scales on the thorax and abdomen. The antennae are filiform, 
 and the abdomen is tipped with hairs. The larva of E. grata 
 F|ibr. is gaily colored with orange and blue, dotted with black. 
 The body is long and widens towards the eighth ring, which is 
 humped, from which the body rapidly narrows to the tip. 
 
282 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 Across each segment is a row of tubercles which give rise to 
 three fascicles of hairs. The pupa is rather long, with a promi- 
 nent tubercle on the front of the head, and the abdominal tip 
 ends in four tubercles. The larva feeds on the grape dur- 
 ing midsummer and at the end of August creeps down, bury- 
 ing itself three or four inches, without making any cocoon. 
 Mr. L. Mitchell of Norwich, Connecticut, has had the kind- 
 ness to send me "a piece of wood burrowed by the E. grata 
 with one of the pupae in position." As E. unio is now known 
 to burrow in the stems of plants, our opinion that Eudryas is 
 allied to Castnia would seem to be confirmed by the habits of 
 the larvae which seem, at least occasionally, to bore into wood. 
 Eudryas unio Hiibner according to Mr. Kirkpatrick, burrows 
 in the stems of Hibiscus, thus resembling Castnia in its habits. 
 Mr. Grote establishes the genus Euscirrhopterus for a moth 
 closely allied to Eudryas. E. Poeyi Grote (Fig. 212, fore 
 wing ; the venation of the hind wing 
 being "almost identical with that of 
 Eudryas") is a brown and yellow 
 Cuban species. 
 
 Zygcena is a European genus, and 
 its characters have been indicated 
 
 in describing those of the family. The antennae are much 
 thickened towards the end, the wings are long and narrow, 
 and the species are usually entirely blue black, or green with 
 red, or white and red bands and spots. 
 
 Acoloithus represents the Procris (P. vitis) of Europe, but 
 the wings are longer and narrower, and the hind wings are 
 very ovate. The gregarious larva of A. Americana is a little 
 over half an inch long, being short and thick. It is yellow with 
 a transverse row of black spots on each ring. Before pupating 
 it spins a dense cocoon in crevices. The moth is deep blue 
 black, with a saffron collar. Riley states that the u eggs are 
 deposited in clusters, and in twenty-five to thirty days from the 
 time of hatching, the worms, which then measure rather more 
 than half an inch, spin dirty white, flattened cocoons, mostly 
 in clusters on the leaf. Three days afterwards they become 
 chrysalids, also somewhat flattened, and of a shiny yellowish 
 brown ; while in ten days more the moths issue." 
 
BOMBYCIDJE. 283 
 
 The genus Pyromorpha has thin, oblong wings, very broad 
 at base, the hinder pair being as broad as the fore-pair ; with 
 a small, slender body. P. dimidiata Herrich-Schaeffer (after- 
 wards described by Clemens under the name of Malthaca per- 
 lucidula) is blackish brown, with the basal half of the costal 
 region of both wings yellowish. It expands one inch, and is 
 found sparingly in the Middle States, but has been detected 
 near Boston by Mr. Sanborn. 
 
 The species of Glaucopis and its allies, abounding in tropical 
 America, are represented in the Northern States by Ctenucha, 
 which has pectinated antennae, long, slender, acutely pointed 
 palpi, and rather broad wings ; the apex of the fore-pair being 
 much rounded. The thick-bodied larva feeds on sedges and 
 grass, and is very hairy, like an Arctian. The pupa is short 
 and thick, and much like that of Arctia. Ctenucha Virginica 
 Charpentier is of a deep indigo blue, with a smoky tinge on the 
 fore wings, a lighter blue abdomen and a saffron collar. It 
 flies in the hottest sunshine. The female lays 
 her smooth, green, spherical eggs in a broad mass. 
 
 Lycomorpha has dentated antennae, the body 
 is unusually slender, and the wings long and nar- 
 row. L. Pholus Drury is deep blue, the wings 
 being saffron at base. The larva feeds on lichens. From Mr. 
 E. Bicknell I have received the eggs of this moth. The 
 larvae hatched August 10th, and closely resembled the larvae 
 of the Arctians when of the same age. 
 
 The genus Callaluda, according to Grote, differs from its 
 better known ally, Ctenucha, by its antennae not being so 
 broadly pectinated, its shorter palpi, and by important differ- 
 ences in the venation of the wings. C. vermiculata Grote (Fig. 
 213, hind wing) occurs in Colorado Territory. 
 
 BOMBYCID^; Latreille. This large and handsome family com- 
 prises some of the largest and most regal of moths. Their 
 thick heavy bodies, and small sunken heads, and often obsolete 
 mouth-parts (the maxillae or tongue being especially short com- 
 pared with other moths), and the broadly pectinated antennae, 
 together with their broad, often falcate wings and sluggish 
 habits, notwithstanding numerous exceptions, afford good 
 
284 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 characters for distinguishing them. The clypeus is large, the 
 antennae are inserted higher up than in other moths, so that 
 when in doubt as to the position of some aberrant forms, a ref- 
 erence to these characters enables us to determine quite readily 
 as to their affinities. The larvae are thick, usually more hairy 
 than other moths, or, as in the typical forms, Attacus, etc., are 
 thick, fleshy and with seven longitudinal rows of long tubercles, 
 crowned with spines. The hairs, especially of the Arctians, 
 are thickly spinulated, so that the cocoons of the hairy species 
 are very dense and made with but little silk, while the naked 
 larvae, of which the silk-worm is a type, spin very dense co- 
 coons of the finest silk. It is probable that the caterpillars are 
 usually developed in the egg soon after it is laid in autumn. 
 Dr. Burnett has noticed that the embryos of the American Tent 
 caterpillar are developed before winter sets in, and ' ' Guerin- 
 Meneville has found that the larvae of the Japanese silk- worm 
 (Samia Yama-ma'i) are developed in the egg within a few days 
 of their deposition in autumn, although they are not hatched 
 until the following spring." (Zoological Record, 1864.) 
 
 Several moths of this family (Arctia pudica, Setina aurita, 
 Hypoprepia fucosa, etc.) have been known to produce a stridu- 
 lating noise by rubbing their hind legs over a vesicular expan- 
 sion situated on the sides of the thorax, and the Death's-head 
 Sphinx has long been known to produce a creaking sound. 
 The pupae are very short and thick and easily recognized by 
 their plump form. "Bar mentions the occurrence in Cayenne 
 of an aquatic caterpillar, which produces a moth, resembling 
 Bombyx phazdima of Cramer. This larva lives at the bottom 
 of the water, and feeds on the roots of an abundant weed." 
 (Bulletin Societe Entomologique de France, 1864.) 
 
 Lithosia and its allies (Lithosiinae) have very narrow wings, 
 the antennae filiform, and the body slender. The larvae are 
 cylindrical and covered with short, spinulated hairs. Some of 
 them do not spin cocoons, so far as we know, the pupa of Cro- 
 cota being found under stones with the dried larva skin still 
 adhering to the tip of the abdomen. Lithosia argillacea Pack, 
 is slate- colored, with yellow palpi and prothorax. The base of 
 the wings and the tip of the abdomen are yellowish. 
 
 Lithosia casta Sanborn (Fig. 214) is an undescribed species 
 
BOMBYCIDJE. 285 
 
 of great beauty, discovered by Mr. Sanborn at Berlin Falls, 
 N. H., August 10th, and also at Ausable Chasm, N. Y. It is 
 pure milk white, with a slight slate-colored tinge on the hind 
 wings, and is slate-colored beneath, especially on the fore 
 wings, and white on the inner edge of the hind wings. Just 
 behind the middle of the white abdomen are tufts of tawny 
 hairs, and the tip is white. It ex- 
 pands one and a quarter inches. 
 
 Crambidia has still narrower 
 wings. C. pcdlida Pack, is of an 
 uniform drab color and would be 
 easily mistaken for a Crambus. 
 Nudaria has broad wings like a Fi #- 214 - 
 
 geometrid moth, with hyaline spots. The larva is hirsute and 
 makes a thin cocoon of interwoven hairs. N. mundana is a 
 European moth. It is represented in this country by Euplidj- 
 nessa mendica Walk., which has broader wings and longer 
 palpi. The wings have two rows of smoky transparent spots. 
 Hypoprepia has rather broader wings than Lithosia. H. fu- 
 cosa Hiibner is deep scarlet, with three leaden stripes on the 
 fore wings, the middle stripe situated at the apex of the wing. 
 The larva, Mr. Saunders informs me, is "spiny and black, 
 sprinkled lightly with yellow dots and short lines ; there is a 
 dorsal row of yellow dots from the fifth to the twelfth segments. 
 The head is black." Early in May, according to Harris, it 
 
 makes its cocoon, which is thin 
 and silky, and the moth appears 
 twenty days afterwards. 
 
 Crocota is red, or yellowish red, 
 throughout, with black margins 
 and dots on the wings. The an- 
 Fig. 215. tennse are filiform and the wings 
 
 are broad, being triangular in form. Our most common 
 species is Crocota ferruginosa Walk., which is pale rust-red, 
 with two dusky broad bands on the outer half of the wing. A 
 much larger form is Utetlieisa bella Linn. (Fig. 215), a beautiful 
 moth, whose yellow fore wings are crossed by bands of white, 
 encircling black dots, while its scarlet hind wings are edged 
 irregularly with black. 
 
286 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 The genus Callimorpha is still larger, with broad wings. 
 C. Lecontei Boisduval is white, the fore wings being almost 
 entirely bordered with brown. The caterpillars of this genus 
 are usually dark colored, with longitudinal yellow stripes. By 
 day they hide under leaves or stones and feed by night on 
 various shrubby and herbaceous plants. C. interrupto-marginata 
 Beauv. (Fig. 216, fore wing) has an anchor-shaped black spot 
 when the wings are folded, one side of the anchor being seen 
 in the figure. 
 
 Arctia and its allies are stout-bodied, with short, moderately 
 broad wings, and simple or feathered antennae. The hairy 
 larvae are covered with dense whorls of long, spinulose hairs. 
 They make a loose cocoon of interwoven hairs under the 
 shelter of some board or stone. The pupa is short and thick. 
 Arctia virgo Linn, is an exceedingly beautiful insect. Its fore 
 wings sometimes expand two inches and a half, and are flesh- 
 red, streaked thickly with broad, black slashes, and on the 
 vermilion-red hind wings are seven or eight large black spots. 
 The caterpillar is brown. A. Anna Grote 
 is allied, but differs in the wholly black ab- 
 domen and black hind wings. It was de- 
 scribed first from Pennsj^lvania, and has 
 been detected by Mr. B. P. Mann on the 
 Alpine summit of Mount Washington, N. H. 
 
 The common black and reddish, very hairy caterpillar, found 
 feeding on various garden weeds, is the young of Pyrrharctia 
 Isabella Smith, a stout-bodied, snuff colored moth. The cater- 
 pillar hibernates, as do most of the others of the group of 
 Arctians, and we have kept it fasting for six weeks in the 
 spring, previous to pupating in the middle of June ; it re- 
 mained twenty-seven days in the pupa state, the moth appear- 
 ing early in June. 
 
 Leucarctia differs from Spilosoma in having narrower wings, 
 and the outer edge much more oblique. Leucarctia acrcea Smith 
 is white and buff colored. Its caterpillar is the salt-marsh cat- 
 erpillar, which at times has been very injurious by its great 
 numbers. It is yellow, with long hairs growing from yellow 
 warts, and it makes a coarse, hairy cocoon. 
 
 Hyphantria textor Harris is entirely white. The caterpillar, or 
 
BOMBYCHXE. 287 
 
 "fall web worm," is slender, greenish yellow, dotted with black, 
 with thin, silken hairs. It spins a thin and almost transparent 
 cocoon, or almost none at all. H. cunea Drury is white, spot- 
 ted with black dots. Mr* Saunders informs me that the larva 
 "will feed on Chenopodium album. The head is small, black, 
 shining, bilobate. The body is black, with a slight shade of 
 brown, and sprinkled with very small, whitish dots. Each seg- 
 ment has a transverse row of shining black tubercles, each 
 giving rise to a tuft of hairs of the same color ; on each side 
 of the body is a double row of orange-colored spots from the 
 sixth to the twelfth segment inclusive." 
 
 The "yellow bear" is the caterpillar of Spilosoma Virginica 
 Fabr. The moth is white, with a black discal dot on the 
 fore wings and two black dots on the hind wings, one on the 
 middle and another near the inner angle. 
 
 Halesidota has a more slender body, with longer antennae and 
 palpi, and longer wings than Arctia, being thin and yellowish, 
 crossed by light brownish streaks. The larva is very short 
 and thick, usually white, with dark pencils and tufts of hairs, 
 arising from twelve black tubercles on each ring, 
 placed as seen in the cut (Fig. 217). H. tessel- 
 laris Smith, the "checkered tussock moth," is 
 ochre -yellow, with its partially transparent fore 
 wings crossed by five rows of dusky spots. H. 
 caryce Harris is light ochreous, with three rows 
 of white semitransparent spots parallel to the very oblique 
 outer margin. "The chrysalis, according to Harris, is short, 
 thick, and rather blunt, but not rounded at the end and 
 not downy." Mr. Saunders writes me, that the larva of H. 
 maculata Harris "feeds on the oak. It is 1.30 inches in 
 length ; the body is black, thickly covered with tufts of bright 
 yellow and black hairs. From the fourth to the eleventh seg- 
 ments inclusive is a dorsal row of black tufts, the largest of 
 which is on the fourth segment." The moth appears early in 
 June ; it is light ochre-yellow, with large, irregular, light, 
 transverse, brown spots on the fore wings. 
 
 These tufted larvae lead to the tussock caterpillars, which, as 
 in Orgyia, have long pencils of hair projecting over the head 
 and tail. The pretty larvae of this genus are variously tufted 
 
288 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 and colored, and feed on the apple tree and various garden 
 vegetables. The males have very broad wings, with very 
 broadly pectinated antennae, and fly in the hot sunshine in 
 September. The females are wingless and often lay their eggs 
 on the outside of the cocoon, 1 and then die, scarcely moving 
 from their eggs. 0. antiqua Och. is tawny brown, while 0. leu- 
 costigma Smith is dark brown, with a lunate white spot near 
 the outer angle. 
 
 The thick and woolly -bodied, pale yellowish, crinkled-haired 
 Lagoa is an interesting genus. The tip of the abdomen is very 
 broad, and the antennae are curved and broadly pectinated, 
 while the wings are short and broad. The larva is very densely 
 pilose with short, thick, evenly cut hairs, those at the end being 
 longer and more irregular. It is broadly oval, and might easily 
 be mistaken for a hairy Limacodes larva, for, like it, the head is 
 retracted and the legs are so rudimentary as to impart a glid- 
 ing motion to the caterpillar when it walks. Lagoa crispata 
 Pack, is so named from the crinkled woolly hairs on the fore 
 wings. It is dusky orange and slate-colored on the thorax and 
 low down on the sides. Previous to the last moult it is whitish 
 throughout and the hairs are much thinner. The larva (Fig. 
 218) feeds on the blackberry, and, according to a cor- 
 respondent in Maryland, it feeds on the apple. The 
 cocoon is long, cylindrical and dense, being formed of 
 the hairs of the larva, closely woven with silk. The 
 pupa is very thin, and after the moth escapes, the 
 thin skin is found sticking partially out of the co- 
 coon, as in Limacodes and its allies (Cochlidiae). 
 rig. 218. This last group of genera is as interesting as it is 
 anomalous, when we consider the slug-like, footless larvae, 
 which are either nearly hemispherical, boat-shaped, or oblong, 
 with large fleshy spines, and are painted often with the gayest 
 colors. The pupae are very thin skinned, and the cocoons are 
 nearly spherical. The moths are often diminutive, the larger 
 forms being stout, woolly-bodied and with short, thick antennae, 
 pectinated two-thirds their length, while the smaller genera 
 with slender bodies have simple filiform antennae, and closely 
 resemble some of the Tortrices. 
 
 Eudea is a very stout and woolly genus ; the antennae are 
 
BOMBYCIM;. 289 
 
 three-fourths as long as the fore wings and pectinated on their 
 basal half. The fore wings are a little shorter than the body and 
 the hind wings reach to the tip of the broadly tufted abdomen. 
 Eudea Monitor Pack, is cinnamon brown, with a large irregular 
 green patch in the middle of the fore wings. We named 
 this species from the striking resemblance of the larva to the 
 iron-clad "Monitor." It is very regularly elliptical, flattened 
 above, and a broad conspicuous brown spot in the middle of 
 the back reminds one of the "cheese-box" or turret. Long, 
 fleshy, bristling spines arise from each end of the larva. 
 
 Empretia stimulea Clemens (Plate 8 ; Fig. 1 ; 1 a, larva) is 
 our largest species of this group. The moth is rarely found by 
 collectors, and is of a rich, deep velvety brown, with a reddish 
 tinge. There is a dark streak along the basal half of the me- 
 dian vein, on which is situated a golden spot, while there are 
 two twin golden spots near the apex of the wing. It expands 
 an inch and a half. The larva is thick and elliptical, the body 
 being rounded above, but flattened beneath, and a little fuller 
 towards the head. There is a pair of densely spinulated tuber- 
 cles on each side of the segments, the subdorsal pair on the 
 metathoracic ring, and a pair on the seventh abdominal ring, 
 being two-thirds as long as the body is wide. There are three 
 pairs of small, but well developed thoracic legs, while there are 
 none on the abdominal segments. The body is reddish, with 
 the upper side green between the two largest pair of spines, 
 centred with a broad elliptical reddish spot, edged with white, 
 as is the green portion along the side of the body. According 
 to Mr. S. I. Smith, of New Haven, from whom the specimen 
 figured was received, the larva feeds on the raspberry. He 
 states that the hairs sting, as its specific name indicates. The 
 cocoon is rounded, almost spherical, and is surrounded with a 
 loose web, the whole structure being over three-fourths of an 
 inch in length. The moth appeared June 18th. 
 
 Phobetrum has narrow wings, and the male is very unlike the 
 female, which has been raised by Mr. Trouvelot, and was con- 
 founded by us with the Thyridopteryx ephemerceformis of Ha- 
 worth. Its antennae are very broadly pectinated, and the 
 remarkably long, narrow fore wings are partly transparent. 
 Thyridopteryx nigricans Pack, must be considered as belonging 
 19 
 
290 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 to this genus. The cocoon of the latter species is tough, leath- 
 ery, brown, and nearly spherical. The larva of P. pithecium 
 Smith is broad, ovate, flattened, with six long, tongue-like, 
 fleshy lateral appendages. It feeds on the 
 plum, cherry and apple. 
 
 In Limacodes the fore wings are oblong, 
 the costa being straight, while the hind 
 wings scarcely reach to the tip of the ab- 
 Fig. 219. domen. The fore wings are often crossed 
 
 "by straight lines forming a V. L. scaplia Harris (Fig. 219) is 
 light cinnamon brown, with a dark tan-colored triangular spot, 
 lined externally with silver, which is continued along the costa 
 to the base of the wing and terminates sharply on the apex. 
 The larva, as its specific name indicates, is boat-shaped, being 
 of the form of a castana nut, and is green, spotted above with 
 brown, and pale beneath, while the sides 
 of the body are raised, the dorsal- surface 
 being flattened. It constructs a dense, oval, 
 spherical cocoon, surrounded by an outer 
 thin envelope. Fig. 220. 
 
 Callochlora chloris H-Sch. (Fig. 220) is a pale brown moth, 
 allied to Euclea, and with a broad, pea-green band crossing 
 the fore wings. 
 
 Lithacodes (L. fasciola Boisd. Fig. 221) and Tortricodes, 
 strikingly resemble the genus Tortrix, from their narrow 
 wings, slender bodies, and filiform antennae. 
 
 The subfamily Psy chinas, embraces some remarkably diver- 
 gent forms. The two genera, Phryganidia and Thyridop- 
 teryx, differing so much in the breadth of their 
 wings and thickness of their bodies, are, how- 
 ever, connected by many intermediate forms 
 occurring in Europe. Psyche is a hairy-bodied 
 Fig. 221. moth, with broad and thin wings, the female of 
 which is wingless and closely resembles the larva, and inhabits 
 a case, which is constructed of bits of its food-plant. The 
 female of Psyche helix has been known to produce young from 
 eggs not fertilized by the male. It lives in a case of grains of 
 sand arranged in the form of a snail shell, thus resembling 
 some Phryganeids in its habits, as it does structurally. 
 
BOMBYCID^E. 
 
 291 
 
 The male of Tliyridopteryx (T. ephemerceformis Haworth), 
 the "basket-worm," is stout-bodied, with broadly pectinated 
 antennae and a long abdomen ; the anal forceps and the adjoin- 
 ing parts being capable of unusual extension in order to reach 
 the oviduct of the female, which is wingless, cylindrical, and in 
 its general form closely resembles its larva, and 
 does not leave its case. On being hatched from 
 the eggs, which are, so far as known by us, not 
 extruded from its case by the parent, the young 
 larvae immediately build little, elongated, bas- 
 ket-like cones, of bits of twigs of the cedar, on 
 which they feed, and may then be seen walking 
 about, tail in the air, this tail or abdomen cov- 
 ered by the incipient case, and presenting a 
 comical sight. The case (Fig. 222) of the full 
 grown larva is elongated, oval, cylindrical, and 
 the fleshy larva transforms within it, while it 
 shelters the female through life. The genus 
 (Eceticus comprises large species, with much 
 the same habits, growing in tropical America 
 and in Australia. 
 
 A basket- worm, allied to (Eceticus^ has been 
 discovered in Florida, by Mr. Glover, feeding upon the orange, 
 and we give the following account of it from the study of 
 his admirable drawings. With much the same habits^-it be- 
 longs to quite a different and undescribed genus. The body 
 of the male resembles that of the broad winged Psyche, and 
 indeed, this moth may be regarded as a 
 connecting link between the latter genus 
 and CEceticuSo It may be called the 
 Platoeceticus Gioverii (Fig. 223). Its 
 body is slender, with pectinated an- 
 tennae ; the wings very broad, irregular, 
 and the hind wings are broad and 
 much rounded, reaching a third of their length beyond the tip 
 of the abdomen. It is dark brown throughout, and expands 
 three-fourths of an inch. The wingless, cylindrical, worm-like 
 female (Fig. 223 5) is acutely oval in form, and whitish. The 
 larva (Fig. 223 c) is rather flattened and resembles that of 
 
fc-lM 
 
 M 
 
 292 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 Thyridopteryx. It constructs an oval cocoon (Fig. 223 d) 
 which hangs to the edge of the leaf. 
 
 The genus Perophora, another sack-bearer (P. Melsheimerii 
 Harris) , is a gigantic Psychid, being about the size of the silk- 
 worm moth, which it closely resembles in the imago state. It 
 also lives in a case during the larva state, formed of two oblong 
 pieces of leaf, fastened together in the neatest manner by their 
 edges, and lined with a thick and tough layer of brownish 
 silk. The larva is cylindrical, as thick as a common pipe-stem 
 
 and light reddish brown in color. 
 The head has extensible, jointed 
 feelers which, when extended, are 
 kept in constant motion, while be- 
 hind is a pair of antenna-like organs, 
 broad and flattened at the end. The 
 Fig. 224. tail is widened and flattened, form- 
 
 ing a circular horny plate, which like the operculum of a whelk, 
 closes up the aperture of the case. Before transforming within 
 its case, the* larva closes each end with a circular silken lid. 
 The pupa is blunt at the hinder end and with a row of teeth on 
 each abdominal ring. Both sexes are winged. Our species, 
 P. Melsheimerii Harris, is reddish ash grey, sprinkled with 
 blackish points, and with a common oblique blackish line. 
 
 Notodonta and its allies (Ptilodontes Hiibner) are mostly 
 naked in the larva state, with large humps on the back, and the 
 hind legs often greatly prolonged, as 
 in Cerura, the "fork-tail." The pupa 
 and moths are best described by stat- 
 ing that they bear a close resemblance 
 to the Noctuids, for which they are 
 often mistaken. 
 
 Ccelodasys (Notodonta) unicornis Fi s- 225 - 
 
 Smith derives its specific name from the horn on the back of 
 the caterpillar, and its generic name from the large conical tuft 
 of hairs on the under side of the prothorax. The moth is light 
 brown, with irregular green patches on the fore wings. The 
 cocoon is thin and parchment-like, and the caterpillars remain 
 a long time in their cocoons before changing to pupae. Nerice 
 bidentata Walker (Fig. 224) is a closely allied moth. Edema 
 
BOMBYCID.E. 293 
 
 albifrons Smith (Fig. 225) is known by the costa being white 
 on the outer two-thirds. It feeds on the oak, to which it is oc- 
 casionally destructive. Mr. Riley (American Entomologist, 
 vol. i, p. 39) describes the larva as being of a "bluish white 
 ground-color, marked longitudinally with yellow bands and 
 fine black lines, with the head and a hump on the eleventh seg- 
 ment either of a light coral* or dark flesh color." It generally 
 elevates the end of the body. It pupates during the last of 
 September, the moth appearing about the middle of April, in 
 the vicinity of Chicago. 
 
 Platypteryx, a small geometra-like moth, with its broad fal- 
 cate wings, seems a miniature Attacus. Its larva is slender, 
 with fourteen legs, and naked, with several little prominences 
 on the back, and the tail is forked like 
 Cerura. The pupa is enclosed in a co- 
 coon among leaves. P. geniculata 
 Walker, and Dryopteris rosea Grote, 
 represent this interesting group. We 
 also give a rude sketch, traced from 
 Abbot's drawings, from the advanced 
 sheets of the Harris Correspondence, of 
 an undescribed species of Dryopteris 
 (Fig. 226, and its larva). Doubleday rig. 220. 
 
 states that the moth is rose-colored, with a few red dots in the 
 yellow portion of the hind wings. 
 
 ' The Chinese silk- worm, Bombyx mori Linn., has white falcate 
 fore wings, while the hind wings do not reach to the tip 
 of the abdomen, and the antennae are well pectinated. The 
 larva is naked, rather slender compared with those of the next 
 group, and cylindrical ; the second thoracic ring is humped, and 
 there is a long horn on the tail. It is three to three and a half 
 inches long. It is of an ashy or cream color, but "in almost 
 every batch of w r orms there will be seen after the first moult 
 has occurred, some dark colored, which, at the first glance, 
 appear to be a distinct species," but Captain Hutton, of India, 
 shows that "so far, however, are they from being a mere pass- 
 ing variety .that they are actually types of the original species, 
 and merely require to be treated according to the established 
 rules of breeding in order to render them permanent and 
 healthy." 
 
294 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 "He attributed the enormous loss of silk- worms by mus- 
 cardine and other diseases, and the consequent diminution 
 of the crop of silk, to the combined effects of bad and scanty 
 food, want of sufficient light and ventilation, too high a tem- 
 perature, and constant interbreeding for centuries of a debili- 
 tated stock. He asserted that there was no such thing now in 
 existence as a perfectly healthy -domesticated stock of silk- 
 worms ; and moreover, that it was useless to seek for healthy 
 seed, for whether in Europe, Persia, India or China, the worms 
 were all equally degenerated, or, if there were a difference at 
 all, it was in favor of the European race. He had for several 
 years been experimenting on Bombyx mori, with a view, if 
 possible, to reclaim the worms, to 'restore to them a healthy 
 constitution and to induce them to revert from their present 
 artificial and moribund condition to one of vigor and perma- 
 nent health. The occasional occurrence in a brood of one or 
 more dark grey or blackish-brindled worms the 'vers tigres' 
 or 'vers zebres' of the French contrasting strongly with 
 the pale sickly hue of the majority, must have been noticed by 
 all who have had experience in rearing silk-worms ; such occur- 
 rences have been always spoken of as indicating varieties aris- 
 ing from domestication. The author had endeavored, by a series 
 of experiments, to ascertain the cause of this phenomenon, his 
 conviction being, either that the species had at some time or 
 other been crossed by another of different colors, and that Na- 
 ture, as sooner or later she always would do, was making an 
 effort to separate them, or that the original color of the worm 
 had been dark, and an effort was being made to revert from a 
 sickly condition to the original healthy starting point. He ac- 
 cordingly picked out all the dark colored worms and reared 
 them separately, allowing the moths to couple only inter se, and 
 the same with the white worms. In the following spring the one 
 batch of eggs produced nearly all dark brindled worms, whilst 
 the other batch produced white worms, sparingly interspersed 
 with an occasional dark one ; these latter were removed into a 
 dark batch, which was also weeded of its pale worms. In the 
 third year the worms were still darker than before, and were 
 always larger and more vigorous than the pale ones, giving 
 larger and better stuffed cocoons. He finally succeeded in 
 
BOMBYCID.E. 295 
 
 getting an entire brood of dark worms, which he regarded as 
 a sign of increased health and strength in the larvae, thus 
 proving that the dark worms were of the original race, which 
 also agrees with the colors of the numerous species of the genus 
 of which he has, with others, made known nearly twenty. The 
 author also considers the white cocoons as a strong sign of de- 
 generacy, arguing that the good quality of the silk produced, 
 was no proof of the general health of the insect, as the mala- 
 dies affected rather the quantity produced, and the present great 
 fineness was due likewise to the di&ease." (Proceedings of the 
 Entomological Society of London.) The silk-worm is an an- 
 nual, though some species of this group yield two and three 
 broods in the warmer parts of India. It moults four times, but 
 occasionally only three times. 
 
 The cocoon of the silk-worm is white or whitish yellow and 
 is over an inch long and nearly half as broad ; 360 cocoons 
 weigh a pound and a half. In France and Italy about thirty- 
 six days elapse between the hatching of the larva and the for- 
 mation of the cocoon, it taking four days for the spinning of 
 the cocoon. In England and certain parts of India it requires 
 forty-six days for its formation. 
 
 The above remarks apply to Bombyx mori Linn., the Chinese 
 silk-worm, which feeds on the mulberry, originally derived from 
 the mountainous provinces of China. It is the largest and 
 strongest of the domesticated species. There are, however, as 
 shown by Captain Hutton, twelve species of silk-worms, most 
 of which have been confounded under the name of B. mori, 
 and which belong to the genera Bombyx of Schrank, Ocinara 
 of Walker, and Triloclia Moore. There are six domesticated 
 species of Bombyx. There is not silk enough in the cocoon 
 of Ocinara to make it worth cultivating (Hutton) . 
 
 Captain Hutton, speaking of the larvae of B. Huttoni, re- 
 marks that it "is curious to observe the instinctive knowledge 
 which these worms appear to possess of the approach of a hail- 
 storm. No sooner are the peals of thunder heard, than the 
 whole brood seems to regard them as a warning trumpet-call, 
 and all are instantly in motion, seeking shelter beneath the 
 thicker branches, and even descending the trunk of the tree to 
 some little distance, but never proceeding so low down as to 
 
296 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 lose the protecting shelter of the boughs. For rain they care 
 nothing, but appear to be able to distinguish between the com- 
 ing of a heavy shower, and the more pitiless pelting of the hail." 
 Attacus and its allies (Attaci) form the central and most 
 typical group of the family. They are among the largest of 
 insects. The genus Attacus is found in China, the East Indies 
 and the South Sea Islands, and in Brazil. Its immense size, 
 falcate wings, with the large triangular transparent spot in the 
 centre, readily distinguish it. A. Atlas Linn., from China, 
 expands from seven to nine inches. Samia is a smaller genus 
 and with a partially transparent lunate spot in the middle of 
 the wings. Samia Cynthia Linn, has been introduced from 
 China and is a hardy worm, quite easily raised, and the silk is 
 
 Fig. 227. 
 
 of a good quality. Mr. W. V. Andrews urges, in the American 
 Naturalist (vol. ii, p. 311), the cultivation of the Cynthia silk- 
 worm in this country, as it is double-brooded, our native spe- 
 cies bearing but a single crop of worms. It feeds on the ail- 
 anthus, and can be reared in the open air. Among many allied 
 forms, generally referred to the genus Attacus but which still 
 need revision, are the A. Mylitta (Tussah worm), from China 
 and India ; A. Pernyi, from Manchouria, which feeds on the oak, 
 and which has been raised in France, and the Japanese Anthercea 
 Yama-mai, all of which produce silk, though less reared in 
 Europe than the Cynthia worm. The silk of the Yama-mai 
 moth approaches nearest that of B. mori, and as it feeds on 
 
BOMBYCIDvE. 
 
 297 
 
 the oak, and can be raised in the open air, its cultivation has 
 gained much attention in Europe. A. Aurota Beauv. is com- 
 mon in Central and South America. In Brazil it could be 
 raised with success for home use, but is too delicate for a 
 northern climate. 
 
 Telea Polyphemus (PL 6, male ; PL 7, female) is brown, with 
 large transparent eye-like spots in the centre of the wings. 
 The thread of which the cocoon is 
 spun is continuous, and is readily 
 unwound. It is coarser than that 
 of the Bombyx mori, but has a rich 
 gloss and can be used very exten- 
 sively in commerce. Its larva 
 (Fig. 227), which feeds on the Fig. 228. 
 
 oak, is thick, fleshy, striped obliquely with white on the sides, 
 with -angulated segments, on which are tubercles giving rise 
 to a few short hairs. The pupa (Fig. 228) is very thick, and 
 the cocoon (Fig. 229) is regularly oval cylindrical. 
 
 Mr. L. Trouvelot gives an account in the American Natural- 
 ist (vol. i) of this silk -worm, which is our most hardy native 
 worm. So successful was he in rearing them that in a single 
 season "not less than a million could be seen feeding in the 
 open air upon bushes 
 
 ft 
 
 covered with a net." 
 The moths leave the co- 
 coons late in May, ap- 
 pearing until the middle 
 of June. They then lay 
 their eggs, generally 
 singly, on the under side Fig. 229. 
 
 of the leaves. In ten or twelve days the caterpillars hatch ; the 
 operation usually takes place early in the day. The worm 
 moults five times, the first four moultings occurring at intervals 
 of ten days, while about twenty days elapse between the fourth 
 and fifth moults, this process usually occurring late in the after- 
 noon. It makes its cocoon late in September, and in six or 
 eight days after beginning its cocoon assumes the pupa state, 
 and in this condition passes the winter. 
 
 The genus Actias is at once known by the hind wings be- 
 
298 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 ing prolonged into a long tail which reaches far behind the tip 
 of the abdomen. Actias Luna Linn, is green and the larva 
 closely resembles that of Telea ; it is, however, banded ob- 
 liquely with yellow instead of white, and spins a cocoon that is 
 of much the same shape. It is not so hardy a worm as the 
 Polyphemus caterpillar. It lives on the walnut, hickory and 
 maple. In the Museum 'of the Peabody Academy is a closely 
 allied and undescribed species from the west coast of Guate- 
 mala, which we would call Actias Azteca. It differs from A. 
 Luna in its much smaller size, expanding only three and a half 
 inches, and in the shorter fore wings, the apex being much 
 rounded and with shorter veins, while the "tails" on the hind 
 wings are only half as long as those of A. Luna. It also dif- 
 fers in having the origin of the first subcostal venule much 
 nearer the dis'cal spot than in A. Luna, being very near that 
 of the second subcostal venule. It is whitish green, with 
 markings not essentially differing from those of A. Luna. 
 
 Callosamia is a genus with broader wings and no transpa- 
 rent eye-like spots. The larva has large tubercles and is very 
 plump. Its characters are intermediate between those of 
 Sam-la and Platysamia. C. Promethea Drury is a smaller spe- 
 cies than the others. Its larva is pale bluish green, with the 
 head, tail and feet 3^ellow, with eight warts on each ring, those 
 on the two first thoracic rings being the largest, much longer 
 than the rest and coral red. The cocoon is hung by a stout 
 silken cord to the stem of the leaf which is then wrapped 
 around it. It may be found attached to the twigs of the 
 wild cherry, Azalea and Cephalanthus, or button bush, in 
 winter after the leaves have fallen. 
 
 Our most common species of this group is the Cecropia moth, 
 belonging to the genus Platysamia, which has a broader 
 head and wings than the foregoing genera. The caterpillar of 
 P. Cecropia Linn, is longer, with long spinulated tubercles, 
 especially marked on the thoracic rings ; the large, very dense 
 cocoon is open at one end and thus the silk cannot be un- 
 wound so well as that of the Polyphemus worm, but it is still 
 useful, and Platysamia Euryale Boisduval is cultivated in Cali- 
 fornia for its silk, though the cultivation of the Chinese silk- 
 worm (B. mofi) is carried on there very largely. 
 
BOMBYCID^E. 299 
 
 The next group, the Ceratocampadse of Harris, is composed 
 of large moths, in which the hind wings scarcely extend beyond 
 the tip of the abdomen, and the wings are often ocellated. 
 The larvae are longer than in the Attaci and more hairy. 
 
 Eucronia Maia Drury has a narrow, lunate, curved white 
 line in the centre of each wing ; it expands from two and a 
 half to three inches, and is black with a common, broad, yel- 
 lowish white band. The caterpillar is elongated, with six 
 long branched prickles on each ring. It feeds on the oak. 
 
 Hypercliiria lo of Walker (Saturnia lo of Harris) is a little 
 larger than the preceding. The male is yellow and the female 
 reddish brown, with a faint eye-like spot on the fore 
 wing, and on the hind wings a large round blue 
 spot, margined with black and pupilled with white. 
 The caterpillar is green, with spreading tufts of 
 spines, very sharp, stinging severely when the insect Flg " m 
 is handled, and arising from a tubercle, of which there are six 
 on each ring ; the fascicles on the side are as represented in 
 Fig. 230. The pupa is thick, pointed at the tip of the abdo- 
 men, and the cocoon is thin, being made under leaves on the 
 ground. It feeds on the corn and cotton, to which it is very 
 harmful southwards, and also on the maple, elm, etc. 
 
 Citheronia regalis Hiibner expands from five to six inches, 
 and its fore wings are olive colored, spotted with yellow and 
 veined with broad red lines, while the hind wings ate orange 
 red, spotted with olive, green and yellow. The caterpillar is 
 spiny, having four large acute spinulated 
 spines on the anterior thoracic segments. It 
 feeds on the walnut, hickory and the persim- 
 mon tree, and spins no cocoon. A second spe- 
 cies, O. Mexicana Grote and Robinson, has 
 been described, as its name indicates, from Mexico : it is 
 more orange and less red, with duller yellow patches. Fig. 
 231 is a rude sketch (from the Harris Correspondence) of the 
 young larva, with two of the peculiar long hairs next the head 
 magnified. A much smaller species, which expands only 3.10 
 inches, is the C. sepulcrcdis G. and R., which was discovered 
 at Andover, Mass., by Mr. J. O. Treat. It is purplish 'brown, 
 without any yellow spots, and with a diffuse discal spot, centred 
 
 V 
 
 | I 
 
300 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 with reddish scales. Mr. Treat has raised this fine moth from 
 the larva found on the common pitch pine ; it resembles that 
 of C. regalis. It also occurs in Georgia, as it has been figured 
 in the unpublished drawings of Abbot, now in the possession 
 of the Boston Society of Natural History. 
 
 Eacles imperialis Hiibner has broader wings, expanding from 
 four and a half to over five inches. The wings are yellow with 
 purple brown spots. The larva is but slightly tuberculated, 
 with long, fine hairs. Its chrysalis is like that of Anisota. 
 
 The genus Anisota is much smaller than the foregoing, with 
 variously striped larvae, which are naked, with two long, 
 slender spines on the prothoracic ring, and six much shorter 
 spines on each of the succeeding segments. They make no co- 
 coons, but bury themselves several inches deep in the soil just 
 before transforming, and the chrysalids end in a long spine, 
 with the abdominal rings very convex and armed with a row of 
 small spines. The species have much smaller, narrower wings, 
 with less broadly pectinated antennae than in the foregoing 
 moths. A. rubicunda Fabr. is rose colored, with a broad, 
 pale yellow band on the fore wings. Anisota senatoria Smith 
 is pale tawny brown, with a large, white, round dot in the cen- 
 tre of each fore wing. 
 
 The next group of this extensive family embraces the Lach- 
 neides of Hiibner, in which the moths have very woolly stout 
 bodies, small wings, with stoutly pectinated antennae, while the 
 larvae are long, cylindrical and hairy, scarcely tuberculated, and 
 spin a very dense cocoon. The pupae are longer than in the 
 two preceding subfamilies. Gasfropacha (Fig. 159, hind wing) 
 has scalloped wings, and a singular grayish larva whose body 
 is expanded laterally, being rather flattened. G. Americana 
 Harris is rusty brown, slightly frosted, and with ashen bands 
 on the wings. 
 
 In Tolype the wings are entire. T. Velleda Stoll is a curi- 
 ous moth, being white, clouded with blue gray, with two broad, 
 dark gray bands on the fore wings. The larva is hairy and is 
 liable to be mistaken for an excrescence on the bark of the 
 apple tree, on which it feeds. 
 
 The American Tent Caterpillar is the larva of Clisiocampa, 
 well known by its handsome caterpillars, and its large, con- 
 
BOMBYCID^E. 301 
 
 spicuous webs placed in neglected apple trees and on the wild 
 cherry. The eggs are laid on the twigs, in bunches of from 
 300 to 400, placed side by side and covered with a tough 
 gummy matter ; they are sometimes infested by chalcid para- 
 sites. 
 
 The larvae of C. Americana Harris hatch out just as the 
 leaves are unfolding and soon form a web, under which the col- 
 ony lives. They may be destroyed by previously searching 
 for the bunches of eggs on the twigs before the tree is leaved 
 out, and the caterpillars may be killed with a brush or mop 
 dipped into strong soap-suds, or a weak solution of petroleum. 
 
 The larvae become full grown about the middle of June, then 
 spin their dense white cocoons, under the bark of trees, etc., 
 and the moths appear about the 
 first of July. The larva of C. 
 Americana is about two inches 
 long, hairy, with a dorsal white 
 stripe, with numerous fine crin- 
 kled black lines on a yellow 
 ground, united below into a 
 common black band, with a blue 
 spot on the side of each ring. 
 The moth (Fig. 232, and larva) F & 232 - 
 
 is reddish brown, with two oblique, dirty white lines on the 
 fore wings. It expands from an inch and a quarter to an inch 
 and a half. The Forest Tent caterpillar, C. disstria Hubner 
 (C. sylvatica Harris) differs in the apex of the fore wings 
 being much longer, with two transverse rust brown, nearly 
 straight, parallel lines. It is sometimes destructive to the 
 apple and oak trees. 
 
 The Hepiali are a group of boring moths, the larvae boring 
 in the stems of plants or in trees. The wings are narrow, both 
 pairs being very equal in size, and show a tendency to recur to 
 the net-veined style of venation of the Neuroptera. Xyleutes is 
 a large moth, with a stout vein passing through the middle of 
 the discal space, and the short antennae have two rows of short 
 teeth on the under side. X. robinice Peck is gray, with irregu- 
 lar black lines and dots on the wings, and a black line on the 
 inside of the shoulder tippets. The hind wings of the male 
 
302 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 (X. crepera Harris) are distinctly triangular and yellow on the 
 outer half. The larva is nearly three inches long, is reddish 
 above and covered with sparse long hairs. It bores in various 
 directions through the red oak and locust, and spins a dense 
 cocoon. The pupa is much elongated, with the suture between 
 the segments well marked, and the head and thorax rather small. 
 Sthenopis is a gigantic moth, with more falcate wings than 
 in Hepialus. S. argenteomaculata- Harris expands nearly 
 three inches, and is ashy gray, variegated with dusky clouds 
 and bands, with a small, triangular, silvery spot and round 
 dot near the base of the fore wings. Hepialus is smaller, with 
 a larger head and straighter wings. H. humuli Linn, is 
 injurious to the hop vine in Europe. Our most common spe- 
 cies, H. mustelinus Pack., is sable brown, with slight silvery 
 lines on the fore wings. It expands a little over an inch and 
 a quarter. 
 
 Latreille (Noctuidoe). Owlet moths. There 
 is a great uniformity in the genera of this family, which are 
 characterized by their thick bodies, the thorax being often 
 crested, by the stout and well developed palpi, and the simple 
 and sometimes slightly pectinated antennae. The fore wings 
 are small and narrow, and the rather large hind wings are 
 when at rest folded under them, so that the moth looks much 
 smaller than when frying. They fly swiftly at night, and are 
 attracted by light. The fore wings have almost invariably a 
 dot and reniform spot in the middle of the wing, and the moths 
 are generally dark and dull colored. The larvae taper towards 
 each end, and are striped and barred in different ways. They 
 have sixteen feet, except those of the lower genera, such as 
 Catocala and other broad-winged genera, which have fourteen, 
 and look when they walk like the Geometers. They make 
 thin earthen cocoons, and the pupae generally live under 
 ground. In these and other more essential characters, this 
 family is intermediate between the Bombycidse and the Phalae- 
 nidae. There are about 2,500 species known. 
 
 These moths can be taken at dusk flying about flowers, while 
 they enter open windows in the evening, and during the night 
 are attracted by the light within. When alighted on the table 
 
303 
 
 under a lamp a slight tap with a ruler will kill them without 
 injuring the specimens. In warm, foggy evenings, they enter 
 in great numbers. The moths fly in July and August, but 
 many species occur only in autunin, while others hibernate and 
 are taken early in the spring. An English writer says, " moths' 
 are extremely susceptible of any keenness in the air ; a north 
 or east wind is very likely to keep them from venturing abroad. 
 Different species have different hours of flight." 
 
 An English entomologist states, that " after dusk the flowers 
 of the willow are the resort of several species of moths (Noo 
 tuidas), some of which have hibernated, and others have just 
 left their pupa state. It is now some fifteen years since the 
 collectors first took moths in this way, that were likely long to 
 have remained deficient in the collections but for the discovery, 
 by Mr. H. Doubleday, of the attractive powers of the sallow 
 blossoms. I believe it was the same gentleman who found out 
 about the same time that a mixture of sugar and beer [or rum 
 and sugar or molasses, etc.], mixed to a consistence somewhat 
 thinner than treacle, is a most attractive bait to all the Noc- 
 tuidce. The revolution wrought in our collections, and our 
 knowledge of species since its use, is wonderful." 
 
 "The mixture is taken to the woods, and put upon the 
 trunks of trees in patches or stripes, just at dusk. Before it is 
 dark some moths arrive, and a succession of comers continue 
 all through the night, until the first dawn of day warns the 
 revellers to depart. The collector goes, soon after dark, with 
 a bull's-eye lantern, a ring net, and a lot of large pill boxes. 
 He turns his light full on the wetted place, at the same time 
 placing his net underneath it, in order to catch any moth that 
 may fall. The sugar bait may be used from March to October 
 with success, not only in woods, but in lanes, gardens, and 
 wherever a tree or post can be found to put it upon. The best 
 nights will be those that are warm, dark and wet ; cold, moon- 
 light, or bright, clear and dry nights are always found to be 
 unproductive. It is also of no avail to use sugar in the vicinity 
 of attractive flowers, such as those of the willow, lime or ivy. 
 Sometimes one of the Geometridce or Tineidce comes, and 
 occasionlly a good beetle." The virgins' bower, when in blos- 
 som, is a favorite resort of Noctuse. Many can be taken by 
 
304 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 carrying a kerosene lamp into the woods and watching for 
 whatever is attracted by its light. 
 
 Tliyatira and Cymatophora are allied by their small, hairy 
 heads, to the Notodontae in the preceding family. In Thyra- 
 tira the palpi are long and depressed, and the 
 f ore w i n g s are dark, with five or six large light 
 spots, and the larva is like that of the Noto- 
 Fig. 233. dontae, the segments being humped, and the 
 anal legs raised while at rest, while Cymatophora is pale ashen, 
 the fore wings being crossed by four or five waved lines. The 
 larva is smooth, rather flattened beneath, with a large head. 
 It feeds on trees, between two leaves united by silk. C. cani- 
 plaga talker describes from Canada. Gramatophora trisig- 
 nata Doubleday (Fig. 233, fore wing) is a gaily colored spe- 
 cies, greenish, marbled with 
 black, with three large, round, 
 brown spots on the fore wings. 
 The larva (Fig. 234) is 
 humped, giving it a zig-zag 
 outline, and is brown with the 
 third to the sixth abdominal Fi e- 234. 
 
 rings much paler. It has the unusual power of boring very 
 smooth, cylindrical holes in solid pine wood. We have re- 
 ceived specimens of its tunnels from Mrs. J. Brigham. We 
 have found the larvae just moulting on the leaves of the lilac. 
 September 12th. 
 
 In Acronycta the head becomes large and broad, the fore 
 wings are broad and short, with dark streaks and a dark mark, 
 
 like the Greek letter Psi on the 
 inner margin. The larvae vary 
 in being humped or cylindrical, 
 - 235- downy, slightly hairy, or very 
 
 hairy, and feed exposed on shrubs. The pupa lies in a co- 
 coon made in moss or in crevices of bark. A. oblinita Smith 
 (Fig. 235, larva) is whitish gray, with darker streaks on the 
 fore wings. 
 
 Apatela Americana Harris is a large, pale gray moth, without 
 black streaks, whose woolly, yellowish caterpillar, with long, 
 slender pencils of black hairs, feeds on the maple. 
 
305 
 
 We have received from Mr. Sanborn a singular caterpiller 
 allied to this genus (Fig. 236), which is figured in the Harris 
 Correspondence as Acronycta acris? var. Americana. "It is 
 greenish brown," according to Harris, "each segment above 
 with a transverse oval greenish yellow spot ; the body is beset 
 with a few long black bristles, dilated at the end, which do not 
 grow, as usual, from small warts ; 
 there are no long bristles on 
 the second and third thoracic, 
 or on the tenth abdominal rings. 
 It moves very quickly, and rests 
 with the fore part of the body Fig. 236. 
 
 bent sideways. The chrysalis was found under a log fastened 
 to another with a few threads. The moth appeared June 28th." 
 In Leucania the fore-wings are short, the outer margin nearly 
 straight, while the hind wings are usually white. Leucania 
 unipuncta Hawofth (Plate 8, fig. 2; a, larva) is the "Army- 
 worm" of the Northern States. Its larva is smooth, cylindri- 
 cal, tapering rapidly towards each end, and striped with fine, 
 dark, longitudinal lines. It feeds on grasses, and in certain 
 years has greatly ravaged wheat fields. It hides by day among 
 tufts of grass. The moth is rusty, grayish brown, peppered 
 with black scales, and with an oblique row of about ten black 
 dots running towards the apex, and a white discal spot. It 
 expands a little over one and a half inches. It constructs, in 
 the middle of August, a rude earthen 
 cocoon, or cell of dry grass. The moth* 
 appears the last of August northwards. 
 Six species^ of Ichneumon, and one of 
 Tachina, prey upon this species. To pre- 
 vent the too great accumulation of this 
 Fig. 237. yer y Destructive caterpillar, the grass land 
 
 should be burnt over in autumn. When on the march their 
 armies may be kept out by ditching, and hogs and fowl should 
 be turned into fields during the middle of August, while they 
 are transforming, to prevent their attacks the succeeding year. 
 Agrotis, the Dart-moth, is known by its crested thorax; 
 the palpi are broad and truncated, level with the front, and 
 the antennae are either somewhat pectinated or distinctly cili- 
 
306 
 
 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 ated. The dot and reniform spot are very distinct, being sit- 
 uated on a black ground, and there is a basal, median, black 
 streak on the fore wing. The apex of the hind wings is much 
 
 produced. The larvae, 
 called "cutworms," are 
 thick, with a distinct, 
 horny, prothoracic 
 plate, like that in the 
 Tortrices, or leaf-rol- 
 lers ; they are marked 
 with shining and warty, 
 or smooth and coiicolor- 
 Mgt 238> ous spots, and often lon- 
 
 gitudinal dark lines, and live by day hidden under sticks and 
 the roots of low plants ; feeding by night. The pupa is found 
 living under ground. Agrotis tessellata of Harris (Fig. 237) 
 is dark ash colored ; the two ordinary spots bn the fore wings 
 are large and pale, and alternate with a triangular and a square, 
 deep, black spot. It expands an inch and a quarter. Agrotis 
 
 devastator Harris is the moth of 
 the cabbage cut-worm. Another 
 very abundant species, often seen 
 flying over the blossoms of the 
 I Golden-rod in autumn is the Agro- 
 tis subgothica (Fig. 238). Mr. 
 Riley states that this moth is the 
 "parent of a cut-worm which very 
 closely resembles that of A. Coch- 
 rani, but which has the dark side 
 divided into two stripes. The 
 Fig. 239. chrysalis remains somewhat longer 
 
 in the ground ? and the moth makes its appearance from four 
 to six weeks later than A. Cochrani." 
 
 A. suffusa Den. and Schief. (A. telifera of Harris, fig. 239) 
 is so named from the lance-like streaks on the fore wings. It 
 appears late in July, and probably attacks corn, as Mr. Uhler 
 has found the chrysalids at the roots of corn in Maryland. 
 Riley describes the larva under the name of the Large Black 
 Cut-worm. It is an inch and a half in length when crawling. 
 
NOCTU^ELITJE. 307 
 
 "Its general color above is dull, dark, leaden brown, with a 
 faint trace of a dirty yellow white line along the back. The 
 subdorsal line is more distinct, and between it and the stigmata 
 are two other indistinct pale lines. There are eight black, 
 shiny, piliferous spots on each segment ; two near the subdorsal 
 line, the smaller a little above anteriorly ; the larger just below 
 it, and a little back of the middle of the segment, with the line 
 appearing especially light above it. The other two are placed 
 each side of the stigmata, the one anteriorly a little above, 
 the other just behind, in the same line with them, and having a 
 white shade above it." 
 
 While cut-worms have usually been supposed to feed upon 
 the roots of grasses and to cut off the leaves of succulent 
 vegetables, Mr. Cochran, of Calumet, 111., has discovered that 
 one species ascends the apple, pear and grape, eating off the 
 fruit; buds, thus doing immense damage to the orchard. Mr. 
 Cochran, in a letter published in the "Prairie Farmer," states 
 that "they destroy low branched fruit trees of all kinds except 
 the peach, feeding on the fruit buds first, the wood buds as a 
 second choice, and preferring them to all things, tender grape 
 buds and shoots (to which they are also partial) not excepted ; 
 the miller always preferring to lay her eggs near the hill or 
 mound over the roots of the trees in the orchard, and if, as is 
 many times the case, the trees have a spring dressing of lime 
 or ashes with the view of preventing the operations of the May 
 beetles, this will be selected with unerring instinct by the mil- 
 ler, thus giving her larvae a fine warm bed to cover themselves 
 with during the day from the observation of their enemies. 
 They will leave potatoes, peas and all other young, green 
 things, for the buds of the apple and the pear. The long, 
 naked, young trees of the orchard are almost exempt from 
 their voracious attacks, but I found them about midnight, of a 
 dark and damp night, well up in the limbs of these. The 
 habit of the dwarf apple and pear tree, however, just suits 
 their nature, and much of the complaint of those people who 
 cannot make these trees thrive on a sandy soil, has its source 
 and foundation here, though apparently, utterly unknown to 
 the orchardist. There is no known remedy ; salt has no prop- 
 erties, repulsive to them ; they burrow in it equally as quick as 
 
308 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 in lime or ashes. Tobacco, soap and other diluted washes do 
 not even provoke them ; but a tin tube, six inches in length, 
 opened on one side and closed around the base of the tree, fit- 
 ting close and entering at the lower end an inch into the 
 earth, is what the lawyers would term an effectual estoppel to 
 further proceedings. 
 
 " If the dwarf tree branches so low from the ground as not to 
 leave six inches clear of trunk between the limbs and ground, 
 the limbs must be sacrificed to save the tree, as in two nights 
 four or five of these pests will fully and effectually strip a four 
 or five year old dwarf of every fruit and wood bud, and often 
 when the tree is green utterly denude it of its foliage. I look 
 upon them as an enemy to the orchard more fatal than the can- 
 ker worm when left to themselves, but fortunately for man- 
 kind, more surely headed off." 
 
 Mr. Riley has named this cut-worm Agrotis Cochrani (Fig. 
 
 240, and larva) and de- 
 scribes the larva which, 
 according to the obser- 
 vations of J. Townley 
 of Marquette, Wis., 
 also ascends standard 
 trees, not confining 
 Fig. 240. j^ i n j ur i eg to dwarf 
 
 trees. The cut-worm is 1.07 inches in length. "It is slightly 
 shagreened and the general color is of a dingy ash gray, with 
 lighter or darker shadings. The back is light, inclining to flesh 
 color with a darker dingy line along the dorsum. The sides, 
 particularly along the subdorsal line, are of a darker shade. 
 On each segment there are eight small, black, shiny, slightly 
 elevated points, having the appearance of black sealing-wax, 
 from each of which originates a small black bristle. The stig- 
 mata are of the same black color and one of the black spots is 
 placed quite close to them anteriorly. The head is shiny and 
 of the same dingy color, with two darker marks ; thick and 
 almost joining at the upper surface, becoming thinner below 
 and diverging towards the palpi. The upper surface of the 
 first segment is also shiny like the head. The ventral region is 
 of the same dingy color, but lighter, having a greenish tinge 
 
NOCTU^ELIT^. 309 
 
 anteriorly and inclining to yellow under the anal segment. 
 Prolegs and feet of the same color. It has a few short bristles 
 on the anterior and lateral segments. 
 
 "The head is light brown, with a dark brown spot on each 
 side and dark brown above, leaving the inverted Y mark in the 
 middle light brown, and having much the appearance of a 
 goblet, as one looks from tail to head. The cervical shield is 
 dark brown, except a stripe above and on each side. There 
 are sparse, short, white bristles laterally and posteriorly. 
 The venter and legs are of a glaucous glassy color, and the 
 feet are light brown." 
 
 "The moth in its general appearance bears a great resem- 
 blance to Hadena chenopodii, but the two are found to differ 
 essentially when compared. From specimens of H. chenopodii, 
 kindly furnished me by Mr. Walsh, and named by Grote, I am 
 enabled to give the essential differences, which are: 1. In 
 A. Cochraniy as already stated, the middle area exceeds some- 
 what in width either of the other two, while in H. chenopodii 
 it is but half as wide as either ; 2. In the Agrotis the space 
 between the spots and between the reniform and transverse 
 posterior is dark, relieving the spots and giving them a 
 light appearance, whilst in the Hadena this space is of the 
 same color as the wing, and the reniform spot is dark. The 
 claviform spot in the Hadena is also quite prominent, and one 
 of its distinctive features ; while in the Agrotis it is just about 
 obsolete. 
 
 Another larva is called by Mr. Riley the W-marked cut- 
 worm. "It measures one and an eighth inches, and its gen- 
 eral color is ash gray, inclining on the back and upper sides 
 to dirty yellow : it is finely speckled all over with black 
 and brown spots. Along the back there is a fine line of a 
 lighter color shaded on each side at the ring joints with 
 a darker color. Subdorsal line light sulphur yellow, with a 
 band of dirty brownish yellow underneath. Along the stig- 
 matal region is a wavy line of a dark shade with flesh colored 
 markings underneath it ; but the distinguishing feature is r 
 row of black velvety marks along each side of the back, on al 
 but the thoracic segments, and bearing a general resemblance 
 (looking from tail to head) , to the letter W. The ventral region 
 
310 LEPIDOPTEEA. 
 
 is greenish gray ; prolegs of the same color ; thoracic feet brown 
 black. Head black with white lines in front, resembling an in- 
 verted Y, and white at the sides. The thoracic segments fre- 
 quently have a greenish hue." It is the Noctua dandestma. 
 
 Still another, of which the moth is unknown, is described 
 by Mr. Riley under the name of the Pale Cut- worm. "It 
 is of the same length as Cochran's cut- worm, and the general 
 color is pale gray, with a lilac colored hue, caused by innumer- 
 able light purplish markings on an almost white ground. 
 There is no particular shading on the back, and it is very slight 
 along the subdorsal line. The stigmatal line, however, being 
 destitute of the above mentioned markings, is almost white. 
 Above this line there is a band of a darker shade than the rest 
 of the body. At first sight this worm appears quite smooth and 
 uniform in color, the most striking feature being the second 
 segment, which is shiny black, with three white lines. One of 
 
 these lines is on the 
 top, and continues 
 to some extent on 
 the head ; the others 
 are placed on each 
 side of this and do 
 not run down as far. 
 Fig. 2tt. a The anal segmen t 
 
 has also two black shiny marks on its surface. The stigmata 
 are black and the head is gray, below light shiny, and brown 
 above. Legs and feet of the same color as the under side of 
 the body which is nearly white with a glaucous tinge. There 
 are a few scattering hairs near the tail. This worm is 
 smoother than the others." 
 
 In Gortyna the antennae are crenulated in the male, and the 
 fore wings are yellow with darker markings. The larva is dull 
 colored with warty spots. That of G. Jlavago, an European 
 species, feeds in the stems of thistles and the burdock, chang- 
 ing to a pupa inside the stem. G. leucostigma attacks the colum- 
 bine (Harris) . The habits of the Dahlia and Aster stalk borer 
 (Gortyna nitela Guenee) have been described by Mr. Riley, 
 who states that the fore wings of the moth (Fig. 241 ; a, larva) 
 are lilac gray, speckled with minute yellow dots, with a dis- 
 
311 
 
 tinct white band running across them. The caterpillar is gen- 
 erally of a livid or purplish brown, though varying much as to 
 depth of shading and is darker before than behind. "The 
 young worm hatches about the first of July and immediately 
 commences its work of destruction. It works in such a sur- 
 reptitious manner as to be too often unnoticed till the vine is 
 destroyed. The plant does not generally show any signs of 
 decay until the cocoon is about fully grown, when it wilts and is 
 past recovery. This occurs about a month after the worm is 
 hatched, and it then crawls just under the surface of the ground, 
 fastens a little earth together around itself by a slight web and 
 changes to a chrysalis of a very light mahogany brown color, 
 and three-fourths of an inch long. The moth comes forth the 
 fore part of September. The careful culturist need fear nothing 
 from this troublesome insect, as an occasional close inspection 
 of the plants about the first of July will reveal the hole where 
 the borer has entered, which is generally quite a distance from 
 the ground, and by splitting downwards one side of the stalk 
 with a penknife it may be found and killed. If this inspection 
 be made at the proper time the worm will be found but a shott 
 distance from the hole and the split in the stalk will heal by 
 being kept closed with a piece of thread." (Prairie Farmer.) 
 
 Achatodes differs from Gortyna in not having the fore wings 
 falcate. A. zete, described by Harris, is rust-red with gray 
 clouds and bands on the fore wings and yellowish gray hind 
 wings ; it expands an inch and a half. The larva feeds inside 
 the stalks of corn, within which it transforms ; it is a little 
 over an inch long, smooth and naked, with the head and the 
 top of the first and last rings of the body black, and with a 
 double row of small, smooth, black dots across each of the 
 other rings. It also infests the dahlia and elder. 
 
 The genus Mamestra comprises rather large moths in which 
 the antennae are rather long and simple in the male ; the front 
 of the head is smooth and convex, and the reniform dot is 
 very distinct, while the outer margin of the fore wings is rather 
 oblique. The larva is longer than usual and feeds on the 
 leaves of low plants, remaining concealed by day. The pupa 
 is subterranean, the cocoon being made of earth. 
 
 Mamestra arctica Boisd. (Hadena arnica) is common north. 
 
812 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 ward, and is found in the colder subarctic regions of America 
 and Europe. It cuts off the leaves of roses and other shrubs. 
 Fitch states that the larva, late in May in New York, cuts off 
 the young shoots of the currant. It is an inch and a half long, 
 of a shining livid color, with faint dots, from which arise a very 
 short, fine hair. It remains in the pupa state about a month be- 
 neath the ground, the moth appearing in July. It is found also 
 in Labrador and in Europe. The moth expands an inch and 
 three quarters and is of a deep Spanish brown, variegated with 
 gray, with a very conspicuous reniform dot ; the outer edge is 
 bordered with blue gray. Harris also describes M. picta, a red- 
 dish brown species, with a conspicuous white Z on the outer 
 edge of the fore wing. The larva is yellow, gaily variegated 
 with three longitudinal stripes. It feeds on garden vegeta- 
 bles, and Mr. Fish informs me that it feeds on the cranberry. 
 
 The genus Plusia is quite unlike the foregoing genera, as 
 the palpi are long and slender, and the fore wings are acute, 
 with silver marks and lines, usually a dot and dash, like a 
 semicolon ; the inner angle is tufted, and the hind wings are 
 tiiangular. 
 
 Our most common species is Plusia precationis Guenee, 
 the larva of which, according to Mr. Saunders,. feeds on the 
 hollyhock in August. "It is one and a half inches long, 
 the body tapering anteriorly and thickening in the middle 
 and towards the end. The head is small, smooth, shining 
 green, with a black stripe on each side. The body is green 
 with dull whitish, longitudinal lines above and a whitish stripe 
 somewhat more distinct on each side near the spiracles. It 
 changed to a chrysalis August' 9th." A species of Plusia, like 
 P. prsecationis, is figured by Mr. Glover in his unpublished 
 plates of insects injurious to the cotton plant. It has a much 
 curved, semicircular discal spot, with a distinct dot just beyond, 
 the two spots arranged thus *" . The caterpillar is pale 
 green, the body increasing in size from the head to the tail and 
 with a lateral row of brown dots. "It was found eating the 
 cotton flower in Georgia the last of October." It forms a loose, 
 thin cocoon among the leaves, and the pupa is pale green, 
 spotted above with irregular brown spots. Mr. Glover also 
 figures quite a different species of Plusia, which has the same 
 
313 
 
 habits as the species just mentioned. It belongs, however, to 
 a different section of the genus, and on the discal area is an 
 oblique, golden, irregular oval patch, containing two unequal 
 dots. The larva is pale green and has a broad, lateral, white 
 stripe. The chrysalis is brown and protected by a thin, loose 
 cocoon. P. divergens Fabr. lives on the Alps, in Finmark, and 
 in Labrador. Mr. F. G. Sanborn found, July 6th, a closely allied 
 species on the summit of Mount Washington, N. H., which dif- 
 fers from P. divergens in the forked, golden, discal spot being 
 a third smaller, while the two branches of the spot go off at 
 right angles to each other. On the fore wings the second line 
 from the base is acutely dentate on the submedian vein, where 
 in P. divergens it is straight, and the outer line is also den- 
 tate, not being so in P. divergens. The hind wings are yel- 
 lowish at base, with a wide black margin. It may be called 
 Plusia montana. Mr. Grote has described P. ignea (P. alticola 
 of Walker) from Pike's Peak, which is closely allied 
 to P. divergens. Plusia cerea Hiibner (Fig. 242, side 
 view) is a reddish brown moth, with obscure markings, 
 and without the usual metallic spots. It expands a 
 little over an inch, and is not uncommon in the North- 
 ern States. 
 
 Anomis is a slender-bodied genus, with triangular Fig. 242. 
 fore wings. A. xylina Say feeds upon the cotton. It is a 
 brown moth with a dark discal oval spot centred by two 
 pale dots. She deposits, according to Mr. Glover, a low, much 
 flattened, vertically ribbed egg upon the surface of the leaf. 
 The larva is a looper, whence it can be readily distinguished 
 from the army and boll worms, and its body is thickest in the 
 middle, very hairy, green, dotted with black along a subdorsal 
 yellowish line, and with black dots beneath. It matures early 
 in the season, and a second brood becomes fully grown in Sep- 
 tember and October. When about to transform it gathers a 
 leaf together by a web, thus forming a rude cocoon. (Glover.) 
 
 Like our northern army worm (Leucania unipuncta) the 
 Army worm of the South (Fig. 243, egg and larva, Riley), 
 makes its appearance in great numbers in a single day, 
 committing the greatest havoc in a few hours. Professor J. 
 Darby, of Auburn, Ala., writes me that "Saturday, Septem- 
 
314 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 ber 19th, I was in the field examining the forms (buds before 
 flowering) and the young bolls (fruit after the floral organs 
 have fallen off) . I examined all carefully, with no signs of eggs 
 or worms. On Sunday I did not see it. On Monday I passed 
 it as usual and observed nothing unusual. On Tuesday morn- 
 ing I passed it and noticed nothing unusual. On Tuesday noon 
 every plant in the field was stripped of all its upper leaves ; 
 not one remaining as far as could be seen, and the plants were 
 covered with millions of worms. I counted on one plant forty- 
 six worms. They commence at the top of the plant, eating 
 every leaf. When the leaves were gone they attacked the 
 young bolls, eating through the perianth and consuming the 
 young cotton. In the course of four days the work was done. 
 They did not touch the grape, nor any other plant in the field. 
 
 Many left the field and thousands 
 were in the road and on the fences, 
 but not one in a thousand thus 
 escaped. To-day, September 23d, 
 there is scarcely one to be seen. 
 Their disappearance is as myste- 
 rious as their coming. They have 
 left no signs that I can see, either 
 243. oa the stalks or in the ground. 
 
 They have extended over hundreds of miles, and nothing 
 has proved a barrier to them, having been as destructive 
 on islands in the river, as elsewhera. One-third of the 
 cotton crop has been destroyed. Nothing of the kind has 
 occurred in thirty years past to my knowledge." The larva 
 is reddish brown, with distinct black spots, the dorsal line 
 being streaked with yellow and black. It hibernates as a 
 moth. The presence of this caterpillar in the "West Indies 
 caused the cultivation of cotton to be abandoned. The same, 
 or another species, also appears often in Guiana and other parts 
 of South America. A good remedy against the worm is a mix- 
 ture of two parts of carbolic acid with 100 of water, to be 
 sprinkled on the leaves of the plant. Heliotliis has pubescent 
 antennae, the thorax and abdomen are smooth, and the fore 
 wings slightly acute at tip. The larva is elongated, but not 
 attenuate, with a large head and distinct lines along the body. 
 
NOCTUJELIT^. 
 
 315 
 
 It feeds exposed on low plants, preferring the flowers. The 
 pupa is conical and subterranean. H. armigera Linn. (Fig. 
 244; a, larva) is the "boll 
 worm" of the Southern States, 
 so destructive to cotton crops. 
 Riley states that it also feeds 
 on the fruit of the tomato, and 
 in Southern Illinois on the silk 
 and green kernels of corn and 
 also the phlox, tomato and 
 corn-stalks, and, according to 
 Mr. T. Glover, it bores into the 
 pumpkin. Mr. Riley, in the Fig - 2M - 
 
 "Prairie Farmer," describes H. phloxiphaga Grote under the 
 name of the "Phlox worm" (Fig. 245, and larva). He states 
 that there are two broods in a year, the first appearing in July, 
 and becoming moths by the middle of August, 
 the second passing the winter in the ch^salis 
 state. The eggs are deposited singly on all 
 rig. 246. portions of the plant, and the caterpillar, 
 when about to become a chrysalis, enters the ground, and in- 
 terweaves grains of sand with a few silken theads, forming a 
 very slight elastic cocoon." The genus Helioclieilus differs 
 from Heliothis in its broader and shorter wings and its vena- 
 tion. H. paradoxus 
 Grote (Fig. 246, vena- 
 tion of fore wing) is a 
 pale testaceous moth, 
 with the fore wings 
 darker. It inhabits 
 Colorado Territory. 
 
 Anarta is rather a 
 small moth, with a 
 hairy body and small 
 head ; the fore wings Fig. 245. 
 
 are thick and velvety, with confused markings, and the hind 
 wings are yellow or white, often bordered with black. The 
 larva is short and smooth in repose, with the anterior portion 
 of the body bent under the breast. The pupa is enclosed in a 
 
316 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 cocoon of silk mixed with earth. The genus is arctic or sub- 
 arctic, and inhabits Alpine summits. A. algida Lefebvre in- 
 habits Labrador and Lapland. A closely allied and undescribed 
 species, seems to be peculiar to the summit of Mount Wash- 
 ington, N. H., where it has been detected by Mr. Sanborn. 
 
 Xanthoptem semicrocea Guenee (Plate 8, fig. 3 ; a, larva) is 
 brown, with the base of the wings saffron yellow ; it expands 
 a little less than one inch. Dr. A. W. Chapman, of Appalachi- 
 cola, Fla., states in a letter to Mr. Sanborn, that the larva 
 feeds on the leaves of the Pitcher plant, Sarracenia. It is red 
 and cylindrical, with short black tubercles on the top of each 
 segment, and a black cylindrical spine on each side of the 
 four basal rings of the abdomen, surmounted by fine hairs. 
 It does not spin a cocoon but hangs loosely by a few silken 
 threads within the pitcher-like leaf, and the moth is the only 
 insect that can get out of the bristly and narrow opening of 
 the "pitcher." 
 
 The little slender-bodied genus Erastria has filiform antennae 
 and a slender crested abdomen, with the usual lines and dots 
 quite distinct. The larva is smooth and slender, with only 
 three pairs of abdominal legs. The pupa is enclosed in a co- 
 coon among leaves or moss. E. carneola Guenee is a common 
 species, with the outer edge of the fore wings flesh colored. 
 
 In Breplws the hind wings are bright orange, the body is 
 hairy and the antennae are ciliated ; the abdomen is slender, 
 and the wings are broader than usual. The larva is smooth, 
 elongate, with sixteen legs, though the first two abdominal 
 pairs are useless for walking, hence the larva has a semi- 
 looping gait. It feeds on trees and makes a slight cocoon 
 in moss or under bark. B. infans Moschler inhabits Labrador 
 and New England. It flies early in April before the snow has 
 left the ground. 
 
 Catocala is a beautiful genus, the species being numerous 
 in this country and of very large size, often expanding three 
 inches or more ; the wings are broad, and in repose form a 
 very flat roof. The larva is elongate, slender, flattened beneath 
 and spotted with black, attenuated at each end, with fleshy 
 filaments on the sides above the legs, while the head is flat- 
 tened and rather forked above. It feeds on trees and rests 
 
317 
 
 attached to the trunks. The pupa is covered with a bluish 
 efflorescence, enclosed in a slight cocoon of silk, spun amongst 
 leaves or bark. C. piatrix Grote is brown on the anterior 
 wings and varied with black, while the hind wings are yellow 
 with a broad median and marginal band. It is common in the 
 Middle and Eastern States. 
 
 C. ultronia Hiibner (Plate 8, fig. 4 ; a, larva) expands two 
 and a half inches and is of a rich umber color, with a broad 
 ash stripe along the middle of the wings, not extending to- 
 wards the apex, which is brown. The hind wings are deep red, 
 dusky at base, with a median black band, and beyond is a red 
 band a little broader than the dark one, while a little less than 
 the outer third of the wing is blackish. The larva feeds on 
 the Canada plum. It is gray with black punctures, and the 
 head is edged with black. The segments are transversely 
 wrinkled, and on each one are two whitish and two brownish 
 papillae ; the two brown ones on 
 the eleventh ring are much en- 
 larged, and on the ninth ring is a 
 small brownish horn. On the 
 sides of the body, before the spir- 
 acles is a line of light pink fila- Fi - 247 - 
 ments fringing the scalloped sides. On July 15th the larva 
 changed to a chrysalis in an earthen cocoon, and the moth ap- 
 peared on the 2d of August. 
 
 Drasteria is a small, grayish moth, with two gemmate black 
 dots near the apex, and a broad diffuse line on the fore wing. 
 The larva is a looper, and the body is attenuated at each end. 
 D. erechtea Cramer flies very abundantly in grass lands in May 
 and early summer. Mr. Saunders informs me that the larva 
 (Fig. 247) is "one and a quarter inches long and walks 
 like a geometer ; the body is thickest in the middle, being 
 somewhat smaller towards the head, but tapering much 
 more posteriorly, while the head is not large and is rather 
 flattened in front and is pale brown, with darker longi- 
 tudinal lines. The body above is reddish brown, with many 
 longitudinal darker lines and stripes ; there is a double whitish 
 dorsal line, with a stripe on each side of the darker shade, 
 another stripe of the same hue on each side close to the stig- 
 
318 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 mata, and between these stripes are faint longitudinal lines. 
 It fed on clover and went into the chrysalis state Sept. 21st." 
 
 The two remaining genera have broad wings, and are black- 
 ish, with numerous transverse waved lines. The edges of the 
 wings are scalloped, the palpi are very long, and the head nar- 
 row between the eyes, thus showing their affinities to the 
 Phalcenidce. The species of Homoptera are of a dark ash 
 color. H. lunata Drury has a lunate discal spot. 
 
 Erebus is a gigantic moth, with the outer margin very 
 oblique and a large, incised, discal spot and sublunate margi- 
 nal spots. Our large, blackish species, dark as night, is Ere- 
 bus odora Drury ; it expands about five inches. The magnifi- 
 cent, pale gray Erebus Agrippina Cramer (E. strix of 
 Fabricius) inhabits Brazil ; it expands nearly ten inches. 
 
 Latreille (Gfeometridce) . The Geometrids are 
 easily known by their slender, finely scaled bodies and broad 
 thin wings, which in repose are not folded roof-like over the 
 body, but are spread horizontally and scarcely overlap each 
 other. The antennae are usually pectinated. They are deli- 
 cate, pale, often greenish or yellowish moths, and fly more by 
 day than the Noctuids. The palpi are short and slender, and 
 the tongue, or maxilla?, is weak and short. 
 
 The larvae rarely have more than ten legs, some having four- 
 teen, and a few (Metrocampa and Ellopia) twelve. Thus from 
 the absence of legs on the basal rings of the abdomen, the larvae 
 are loopers, or geometers, as grasping the object on which they 
 are walking with their fore legs, they bring the hind legs close 
 up to the fore legs, thus making a loop like the Greek letter 
 Omega. They usually let themselves down by spinning a 
 silken thread, hence they are sometimes called "Drop-worms." 
 When about to pupate, the larva either spins a slight, loose, 
 silken cocoon, or conceals itself under a covering of leaves 
 fastened together with silk, or buries itself in the ground 
 without any cocoon, while Harris states that a very few fasten 
 themselves to the stems of plants and are changed to chrysa- 
 lids, which hang naked and suspended by the tail. The pupa 
 is long, slender, conical, generally smooth, sometimes with 
 lateral protuberances on the head, and usually dark brown, but 
 
PHAI^GNIM). 319 
 
 often variegated. The species, of which there are about 1,800 
 described, are widely distributed, and more are found in the 
 arctic regions than of the preceding family. 
 
 We place at the head of this family the genus Urania and 
 its allies. From their large size, splendid colors, swallow- 
 tailed wings, the fore pair of which are elongated towards the 
 tips, while the outer edge is very oblique, as in Papilio ; their 
 habit of flying by day and other resemblances to the butter- 
 flies Latreille placed them among the butterflies immediately 
 after the Hesperians. They have also been supposed to belong 
 to the same group as Castnia, but the shape of the head, the 
 long geometriform antennae, the palpi and the conical pupa and 
 other characters ally them with the Urapteryx and the higher 
 Phalsenidae. Urania Leilus is velvet black, the fore wings 
 crossed by' emerald green striae, and the hind edge of the hind 
 wings are banded with light blue and golden, while the fringe 
 and long tail are white. It is found in Surinam and Brazil. 
 
 Urapteryx is a true Geometrid, with very square hind wings 
 extending beyond the abdomen, with their outer margin pro- 
 longed into a short tail. U. politia Cramer is a yellow species 
 found in Mexico and the West Indies. The larva of the 
 European U. sambucaria feeds on the oak, elder, bramble, 
 etc., and is elongate, with projections from the eighth and 
 twelfth segments. The pupa is elongate and enclosed in a net- 
 like cocoon suspended by threads. 
 
 In Choerodes the hind wings are still angulated, the angle 
 reaching beyond the tips of the abdomen ; the falcate apex of 
 the fore wings is acute, and the outer margin is entire and 
 angulated just above the middle. The species are usually pale 
 ochreous, with short transverse strigae and two darker lines, 
 the outer one of which is obtusely angulated just before the 
 apex. G. transversata Drury is a pale ochreous species, which 
 we have found resting on red maple leaves. 
 
 The genus Angerona comprises the single species A. croca- 
 tana Fabr., the larva of which (Plate 8, fig. 5 a) we have found 
 feeding on the cultivated strawberry during the last of June. 
 It is an inch and a half long and when at rest extends itself 
 straight out. The body gradually increases in size to the first 
 pair of abdominal legs. The head is flattened so as to be 
 
320 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 square above, and whitish green, with three longitudinal brown 
 lines. The prothoracic ring is concolorous with the head, from 
 which two brown lines extend, forming an inverted V on the 
 hinder edge. The body is pale grass green above, with the 
 sides bulging. There are four minute black dots on each ring, 
 a whitish, indistinct subdorsal line, and a lateral white line ex- 
 tending to the sides of the anal legs. The body is greenish 
 white. The moth (Plate 8, fig. 5, male) is of a rich yellow, 
 with brown patches on the wings, and appears in July. 
 
 In Endropia, which is closely allied to Choerodes, the outer 
 edge of the wings is deeply notched. E. tigrinaria Guenee 
 is dirty ochreous, the wings being sprinkled with black ; the 
 outer line is nearly straight, ferruginous, paler within, with 
 some submarginal spots, and the basal line on the fore wings 
 is angulated, while the apex is pale and margined' externally 
 with blackish. 
 
 Metrocampa is pearly white, with the wings a little bent in 
 the middle. M. perlata Guen. is pure white, with two darker 
 oblique lines not angulated ; it is found not uncommonly north- 
 ward. The larva of the English M. margaritata has twelve 
 legs, and like Catocala has fleshy filaments on the sides just 
 above the legs. The pupa lives on the surface of the earth. 
 
 Ellopia has pectinated antennae and exceedingly thin trans- 
 parent wings, which are angulated in the middle of the outer 
 edge, and with an inner and outer line, the latter bent nearly 
 at right angles. The larva has twelve legs, but is smooth. 
 The English E. fasdaria feeds on firs. Ellopia flagitiaria 
 Guenee is pale ashen ochreous, with the speckles and two bands 
 pale brown. It expands from six to eighteen lines. 
 
 In Caberodes the antennae are broadly pectinated, and the 
 apex of the fore wings is nearly rectangular. The species 
 are pale ochreous with thick wings, and the outer line termi- 
 nates near the apex. C. metrocamparia Guenee is common 
 northwards; with a blackish discal dot and outer dusky line 
 arcuated and margined with white. 
 
 The genus Nematocampa is characterized by the four fila- 
 ments on the back of the larva. N. Jilamentaria Guen. (Plate 
 8, fig. 7 ; 7 a, larva) is a small moth of a pale ochreous color, 
 with reddish brown lines and dots, a ring in the discal space, 
 
PHAL^NIDJS. 321 
 
 and just beyond a dark lead-colored band which becomes a 
 broad squarish patch on the inner angle, and which is continu- 
 ous with a broad band of the same color on the hind wings. 
 It expands three quarters of an inch. Its singular larva we 
 have found feeding, late in June, on the strawberry. It is .70 
 of an inch long, cylindrical and with two pairs of long curled 
 filaments, situated on the third and fifth abdominal rings re- 
 spectively ; its general color is wood gray, and the pupa is 
 pale reddish gray. The moth appeared on the 27th of July. 
 
 The genus Abraxas, to which our currant worm belongs, may 
 be known by the whitish or ochreous wings being covered with 
 dark, often partially transparent blotches, and the larva being 
 gaily speckled with black and golden spots. A. ribearia Fitch 
 is ochre-yellow, with two rows of dark spots, the inner row be- 
 ing incomplete and the outer row with a large blotch in the 
 middle of the wings. As soon as the leaves of the currant 
 and gooseberry are fairly expanded, late in May or early 
 in June, the young caterpillar may be found busily eating 
 them. In about three weeks after hatching it becomes 
 fully grown, being about an inch long, and bright yellow 
 with black dots. The chrysalis may be found under the 
 bushes, either upon the ground or just under the surface. 
 In two weeks after pupating the yellowish moth may be seen 
 flying about the garden. Riley states that by sprinkling 
 powdered hellebore upon the leaves, or applying a solution of 
 eight or twelve ounces to a bucket of water, the larvae will 
 be killed, while hand-picking and shaking the bushes will also 
 reduce their numbers. 
 
 The genus Ennomos is stouter and much more hairy than 
 any of the preceding genera ; the antennae are well pectinated 
 in the male, the wings are not so broad as usual and are den- 
 tate. The larva is rather long and twig-like, either smooth or 
 humped, and spins a cocoon consisting of leaves drawn to- 
 gether by silk. E. magnaria Guen. is yellow, punctured with 
 black, with two dusky lines, and the fringe is partly blackish. 
 E. subsignaria Hiibner (Fig. 248, moth ; Plate 8, fig. 6, larva) 
 is a delicate, white, widely distributed species, and in the city 
 of New York, where it is free from the attacks of its natural 
 enemies, it is very destructive to the elm trees. 
 21 
 
322 LEPIDOPTEKA. 
 
 A writer in the "Practical Entomologist" (vol. i, p. 57) states 
 that the caterpillars are hatched as soon as the leaves unfold, 
 and live unobserved for a week or so in the young shoots in 
 the tree-tops, and when half grown are seen crawling about the 
 tree. Towards the end of June they pupate, and in about a 
 week after the moth appears. The importation of the English 
 sparrow is said to have very effectually checked the ravages of 
 this caterpillar, which may be recognized by its resemblance to 
 the twigs of the tree on which it feeds, while its rather large 
 head and the terminal ring of the body are bright red. 
 
 In Amphidasys the body is very stout and the triangular 
 wings are inclined to be small (in Nyssia, an European genus, 
 the female has minute rudimentary wings) and narrow, while 
 the antennae are broadly pectinated. The larva is stout, twig- 
 like, being dark brown and 
 warted ; it is swollen at each 
 end, and the head is often bifid. 
 The pupa is subterranean. Such 
 are the habits of A. cognataria 
 Guen. which is white and very 
 thickly sprinkled with ashy 
 black. We have found the 
 larva feeding on the ' ' Missouri 
 Figt 248< currant," the gooseberry, and 
 
 the red Spiraea. It went into the pupa state on the 22d of 
 September. 
 
 Boarmia has pectinated antennae, the tip being generally 
 simple, while the abdomen is rather slender and the wings are 
 dusky gray and crossed by dentate lines. The larva is twig- 
 like, elongate, with small humps and lateral projections, and 
 lives on trees. The pupa is subterranean. B. gnopharia Guen. 
 is ashen, the wings clouded with fuscous, and dusted with black 
 scales, with four black dentate lines. A species of Boarmia, 
 figured by Mr. Glover, "eats the flowers of the cotton, being 
 found early in October." The larva is of the same thickness 
 throughout, with a rather large head angulated above, and two 
 tubercles near the tip. It is brown, with a double lateral 
 pale stripe. The chrysalis is brown and enclosed in an under- 
 ground cocoon. The moth expands nearly an inch and a half, 
 
and is ash colored, sprinkled densely with brown speckles, with 
 three angulated, transverse, black stripes. 
 
 Geometra and its allies (Nemoria, lodis, and Racheospila) , 
 have smooth, round or angular, entire wings, which are green, 
 often with whitish lines. Geometra is the largest genus; "it 
 has pectinated antennae, and the larva is rather short, downy, 
 with several dorsal humps. The pupa is enclosed in a trans- 
 parent cocoon amongst moss." (Stainton.) G. iridaria Guen. 
 is pea green, with two broad bands, and the costa of the fore 
 wings is white sprinkled with rust red. 
 
 A great many species, often difficult to identify from the 
 sameness in their markings, are comprised in the genus Adda- 
 lia, which is known by its rather thin wings, with the edges 
 usually entire, and with stripes and bands and other markings 
 common to both. The hind wings are often slightly angulated. 
 The larva is smooth, slender, and feeds concealed under low 
 plants. The pupa is subterranean, or lives in a cocoon among 
 leaves. A. nivosaria Guen. is pure white. A. enudeata Guen. 
 is whitish yellow ; its wings are speckled with brown, and 
 with pale lines and submarginal spots. 
 
 Macaria is easily recognized by its falcate wings, which 
 have a rounded excavation below the hooked tip, and there is 
 a rather prominent angle on the hind wings. 
 There are usually two large blotches, one in 
 the middle of the wing, and the other on the 
 outer third of the costa. The larva is rather 
 short and smooth, and feeds on trees and Fig. 249. 
 shrubs. The pupa is protected by a cocoon. M. granitoid. 
 Guen. is gray, with indistinct darker bands and minute black 
 speckles, with a rust red costal spot in front of a black discal 
 spot. ';-4h: 
 
 Zerene is a beautiful genus, with feathery antennae and broad, 
 thin, white wings. Z. catenaria Drury is white with black 
 discal dots, and two black scalloped lines. The larva is a gen- 
 eral feeder, eating sedges, the goldenrod, blueberry, waxwork, 
 and according to Mr. Fish, is injurious to the cranberry. It is 
 a pretty caterpillar (Fig. 249) and is straw colored, the seg- 
 ments being wrinkled and thickened, with two subdorsal darker 
 threads ; the head is yellow with six black dots ; the spiracles 
 
824 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 are black, situated in a white field, and with a black dot on 
 each side. In Maine it pupates about the middle of August, 
 making a thin gauzy cocoon, consisting of yellowish green 
 silken threads. The pupa is white, with scattered black dots 
 and black stripes ; it remains thirty-two days in the pupa 
 state, the moth appearing during the middle of September. 
 
 In Anisoptery'x the male antennae are simply pubescent, the 
 wings are ample, and rounded at the tip, while the hind wings 
 are rounded. The female is wingless, the head small and the 
 body is oval. The male of A. vernata Peck (Plate 8, fig. 9 ; 
 9 a, female ; 9&, larva), the moth of the Canker worm, is ash 
 colored, with a whitish costal spot near the tip of the fore 
 wings which are crossed by two jagged whitish bands dotted 
 with black on the outside ; they expand about one inch and a 
 quarter. In the early spring and late in autumn the male flies 
 about and couples with the wingless female, which lays a patch 
 of short, cylindrical eggs, from sixty to one hundred or more, 
 arranged in rows, and glued to the surface of the bark. The 
 larvae hatch from the first to the middle of May, or as Harris 
 states, about the time of the flowering of the red currant, and 
 the leaving out of the apple tree. Almost before the presence 
 of the larvae is known they often nearly strip an orchard of its 
 leaves. They also attack the cherry, plum, elm, and other 
 trees and shrubs. The canker worm (Plate 8, fig. 96) when 
 mature is about an inch long, ash colored on the back, black 
 on the sides, and beneath yellowish. It varies greatly in the 
 intensity of its markings. It ceases eating when four weeks 
 old, and late in June creeps down, or lets itself down by a 
 thread, and burrowing from two to six inches in the loose earth, 
 there forms a rude earthen cocoon, fastening the grains of earth 
 together with silk. Twenty-four hours after the cocoon is fin- 
 ished the worm becomes a chrysalid, which, in the male, is 
 slender, rather pointed in front and light brown in color. Com- 
 ing forth in the autumn and following spring, its progress up 
 the tree can be arrested by the application of coal oil or prin- 
 ter's ink, by the well known methods, around the trunk, while 
 the bunches of eggs should be picked off and burnt. The A. 
 pometaria Harris is as abundant as A. vernata ; it has thinner 
 wings, wanting the whitish bands and spot, and having an 
 
325 
 
 oblique, dusky, apical line. We are inclined to think that it is 
 simply a variety of A. vernata. Harris has detected an ich- 
 neumon parasite which preys upon the canker worm, and a 
 species of Tachina also attacks the caterpillars, and we have 
 noticed a minute species of Platygaster (Fig. 134), first dis- 
 covered by Herrick, ovipositing in its eggs. The Calosomas 
 also devour them, and probably other ground beetles ; and cer- 
 tain wasps (Eumenes) store their nests with them. (Harris.) 
 
 Allied to the canker worm is the Hybernia tiliaria Harris, the 
 male of which is much larger and has feathered antennae. The 
 female is larger and slenderer than that of the canker worm, 
 and along the back are two rows of black dots on a pale gray- 
 ish ground. The moth flies late in the autumn. The larva is 
 bright yellow, with ten crinkled black lines along the top of the 
 back, and is an inch and a quarter in length. It feeds on the 
 lime, apple and elm, and is sometimes very destructive. 
 
 Eupithecia is a diminutive form, with very small rounded 
 hind wings, while the fore wings are much elongated towards 
 the apex, and at rest both pairs are spread out and pressed 
 closely to the surface on which the moth rests. The larva is 
 rather short, stiff, often marked with dorsal lozenges, and the 
 head is small and rounded. It feeds on trees or low plants ; 
 sometimes on seeds of plants. The pupa is slender, conical and 
 pointed. E. miserulata Grote is clear silky grayish, with a 
 black interrupted outer line and a grayish fringe, interrupted 
 with black. 
 
 Cidaria numbers many species in which the antennae of the 
 male is simple or slightly pubescent, and the fore wings are 
 rather pointed at the tip, while the hind wings are rounded. 
 The larva is elongate and slender, with the head often notched. 
 It feeds on trees or shrubs, and the pupa is of variegated 
 colors. Cidaria diversilineata Hiibn. (Plate 8, fig. 10, 10a, 
 larva) is yellowish ochreous, with brownish angular lines, and 
 at rest the abdomen is curved over the back. Mr. Saimders 
 has found the larva feeding on the woodbine. According to 
 his notes "the body above is dark brown, with a slightly 
 reddish tint, and patches of a darker shade along the dorsal 
 region, being the color of the twigs of its food plant. It 
 remains in the pupa state about a week." We have also 
 
326 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 found both brown and green specimens feeding on the grape 
 vine in midsummer. The worms can be removed by hand-pick- 
 ing as they are rather conspicuous objects. A larva, probably 
 of Cidaria, has been found by Mr. W. C. Fish, stripping the cran- 
 berry plants in Harwich, Mass., late in August. Mr. Fish 
 writes, "I have never met them that I am aware of before, but 
 on one bog in this place they destroyed nearly two acres of 
 cranberry vines, eating off all the green leaves, the bog being 
 as black in spots as though a fire had been over it." They 
 were not numerous elsewhere in that town, but may prove at 
 times to be a great pest to cranberry growers. We failed to 
 rear the larvae sent by Mr. Fish. They are about the size of 
 the canker worm. The head, which is no wider than the rest 
 of the body, is deeply indented, on each side rising into a tu- 
 bercle ; the anal plate is long, acute, and beneath it are two 
 minute acute tubercles, tinged with reddish. It is dull reddish 
 brown, simulating the color of the twigs of the cranberry, and is 
 finely lineated with still darker lines. The head is speckled with 
 brown, with a conspicuous transverse band across the vertex, 
 and two rows of pale spots across the front. Just above the 
 spiracles is a broad dusky band. Beneath, the bod}^ is paler, 
 with a mesial clear line edged with brown. It is .80 of an inch 
 in length. Mr. Fish states that the owner of the bog flowed' it 
 with water so that it was completely covered and the worms 
 were killed. This is a rapid and the most effectual way to ex- 
 terminate insects ravaging cranberry lots. 
 
 PYRALID^E Latreille. The Snout-moths, so called from their 
 very long and slender compresse'd palpi, are very easily recog- 
 nized by this character alone. The more typical forms have 
 triangular fore wings, and a slender abdomen and long 
 slender legs, the front pair of which are often tufted. They 
 are usually dull ash gray, with a marked silken lustre. The 
 larger genera, Hypena and Herminia, etc., are called Deltoids, 
 as when at rest the wings form a triangle of the form of the 
 Greek letter Delta. Their antennae are sometimes pectinated 
 in the male. They are usually gregarious in their habits, and 
 often extremely local. They haunt moist grassy places, are 
 readily disturbed by day, and fly before dusk, while some are 
 
PYRALIDJ3. 327 
 
 true day-fliers. The larvae are generally known by their remark- 
 ably glassy appearance, and the few hairs on them have an un- 
 usually bristly look. Many spin a cocoon. The pupa is long, 
 slender, and conical. 
 
 The largest form is Hypena, in which the male antennae are 
 hairy, and the palpi are long, ascending, and the fore legs are 
 not tufted, and there are often slight tufts of raised scales on 
 the fore wings. The larva is elongate, cylindrical, with four- 
 teen legs, and feeds on low or climbing plants, making a slight 
 cocoon among leaves. 
 
 The Hop vine moth, H. humuli Harris (Fig. 250 ; a, larva 
 and pupa) is very destructive to the hop. It is marbled with 
 gray beyond the middle of the fore wings, with a distinct 
 oblique gray spot on the tip ; they are crossed by two wavy 
 blackish lines formed of elevated black tufts, and there are two 
 similar tufts in the middle of the wings ; it expands one inch 
 and a quarter. The ^^ ^ ^ , /^^ 
 larva is glassy pea- 
 green. The body is 
 long and slender, 
 with rather convex 
 rings, and with long 
 sparse hairs. The head is rather large and deeply divided inta 
 two lobes by the median suture ; it is a little more yellowish 
 green than the body, which tapers gradually towards the tail, 
 while the anal legs are long and slender, there being but two 
 pairs of abdominal legs, so that the caterpillar walks with a 
 looping gait. The body is striped with a narrow whitish line, 
 edged broadly below with dusky, and with two white lines on 
 the sides of the body, though specimens vary in the number of 
 lines, some having no lateral whitish stripes. It is .45 of an 
 inch in length. When half grown the larva is pale livid flesh 
 color, not greenish, with a broad dark dorsal line, bounded on 
 each side by a whitish line. It is double-brooded, the first lot 
 of caterpillars appearing in May and June, the moths coming 
 out late in June and early in July ; while the second brood of 
 larvae appear in July and August, the moth flying in Septem- 
 ber. It is very active, leaping off the leaf to the ground when 
 disturbed. When fully grown it forms a loose silken cocoon 
 
 icicue 01 tne wings ; it 
 
328 
 
 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 within a folded leaf or any crevice, the moth appearing in three 
 weeks. We have raised a species of Tachina from the pupa. 
 The vine ghould be showered with a solution of whale oil, and 
 soapsuds, and the plants shaken to rid them of these pests. 
 Herminia differs from Hypena in its tufted fore legs ; the 
 larva is short, slender towards each end, covered with small 
 spots ; it has sixteen legs, and feeds concealed among dry 
 leaves, making a narrow cocoon among them. H. jucchusi- 
 alis Guenee is one of our most common species. 
 
 Pyralis has narrow wings, the fore wings being oblong, with 
 distinct lines, and the palpi are short, ascending. The Meal 
 moth, P. farinalis Harris, is reddish gray at the base and hind 
 edge of the fore wings, becoming more reddish towards the tip, 
 
 with two whitish cross 
 lines, the space between 
 being ochreous. The 
 larva is dull whitish, with 
 a reddish brown head, 
 and having reddish pro- 
 thoracic and anal plates. 
 It feeds on straw and 
 corn, and Mr. Riley has 
 found it feeding on clover. 
 The Clover worm, 
 or Asopia costalis Fabr. 
 (Fig. 251 ; 1, 2, larva in 
 different positions; 3, 7, cocoon; 4, pupa; 5, 6, moth), ac- 
 cording to Riley, " attacks and spoils clover for feeding pur- 
 poses, both in the stack and mow, by interweaving and 
 covering it with abundant white silken webs and black excre- 
 ment that much resembles coarse gunpowder. The parent of 
 these clover worms is a pretty little lilac-colored moth, with 
 wide golden fringes," and has been introduced from Europe. 
 The moths fly late in June and in July, and they creep into all 
 parts of the stack, as the larvae have been found eight feet from 
 the ground, though they are mostly found at the bottom. The 
 larva is three-fourths of an inch long and is dull dark brown, 
 with an olivaceous hue. Mr. Riley thinks there are several 
 broods through the year, and suggests as a preventative to 
 
PYRALID^. 329 
 
 stack the clover on a good log or rail foundation so as to allow 
 the air to pass up through from beneath. 
 
 In Aglossa pinguinalis Harris, the Grease moth, the palpi are 
 rather long, the fore wings are grayish brown clouded with a 
 darker hue, and are crossed by two indented lines. The larva 
 is of an uniform dark brown, with a darker head and protho- 
 racic plate, and feeds on greasy horse clothes, etc. 
 
 Another species of Aglossa (perhaps A. cuprealis) has been 
 sent me by Prof. A. E. Verrill, who writes me that the larva does 
 great damage to the old leather -bound volumes in the library 
 of Yale College, by eating out great patches and galleries in 
 the leather covers, and also, in some cases, some of the glue 
 and pasteboard. It spins a silken cocoon. The moth (Plate 8, 
 fig. 20) differs from A. pinguinalis by the hind wings being 
 pale whitish gray, instead of grayish brown. The palpi have 
 the third joint one-third as long as the second. It is pale 
 brown, with a slight reddish 
 tinge, and the wings are 
 crossed by two pale bands, 
 with several pale costal 
 spots. The outer band is 
 heaviest on the costa and 
 inner angle, and faint in Fig. 252. 
 
 the middle of the wing. The hind wings are pale, shining 
 whitish, with no bands. It expands .90 of an inch. 
 
 In Europe, Mr. Curtis states, the Apliomia colonella Linn. 
 (Fig. 252) which also occurs with us, is a formidable foe of the 
 humble bee, feeding upon its honey. When fully fed it spins a 
 tough web of a close woolly texture, in which the caterpillar 
 turns to a chrysalis (a). "The female moth creeps into the 
 nest in June to deposit her eggs, and the caterpillars live in 
 families sometimes of five hundred, to the total destruction of 
 the progeny of the poor humble bees. The moths are of a dirty 
 white, the upper wings have a greenish and rosy tinge, with a 
 line of black dots round the margin, a whitish space near the 
 base, and two black lines near the costa in the male. The fe- 
 male has two distinct, indented, transverse bars, and two black 
 spots on the disc." 
 
 Hydrocampa and its allies are exceedingly interesting from 
 
330 LEPIDOPTEEA. 
 
 the aquatic habits of the larvae, which remind us of the Caddis 
 worms. Cataclysta is at once known by its slender body and 
 narrow wings, the hinder pair of which have a row of eye-like 
 spots along the hind margin. The larva is elongate, with a pale 
 head, and is aquatic, feeding beneath the leaves of the Duck 
 weed, living in a cylindrical silken case covered with leaves. 
 The pupa has a long ventral projection, and is enclosed in the 
 case of the larva. C. fulicalis Clemens has, on the outer mar- 
 gin of the hind wings, a row of five black lunules connected 
 by intermediate metallic violet blue spots, and behind them a 
 row of orange yellow dots. 
 
 The larva of Paraponyx is provided with branchiae and spira- 
 cles ; the pupa residing in a cocoon among leaves under water. 
 Hydrocampa has large white spots on the outer edge of the 
 fore wings. The larva is rather thick, attenuated at each end, 
 with a black head. It is aquatic, living in a flat case under 
 the leaves of water lilies. The pupa resem- 
 bles that of Cataclysta. 
 
 The genus Botys (Fig. 253) includes 
 many species, in which the conical abdomen 
 is longer than the wings, and the tip of 
 Fig. 253. the front pair is often prolonged. The larva 
 
 is said by Stainton to be lively, attenuated at each end and 
 semitransparent, with warty spots. It feeds in rolled up 
 leaves. The pupa is elongate, smooth, enclosed in a slight co- 
 coon among leaves. B. verticalis Albin is whitish, with the 
 outer edge of the fore wings dark grayish. The larva feeds on 
 the nettle. B. citrina G. and R. is a bright yellow species. 
 
 The genus Desmia is at once known by its resemblance to 
 Botys, and by its black body and wings, spotted with broad 
 white patches, while the male antennae are swollen in the middle. 
 D. maculalis Westwood, the Grape leaf folder, is shiny black, 
 with a white fringe on its wings, which are spotted in the mid- 
 dle with white patches, and with two white bands on the abdo- 
 men of the female. It is found chiefly in the Southern States, 
 where it attacks the grape. The larva, according to Riley, who 
 observed the moth in Southern Illinois, is "glass-green, and 
 folds a leaf, or attaches two, that may be close together, by aid 
 of a few silken threads. It is very active, jumping and jerk- 
 
PYRALID^. 331 
 
 ing at the least touch. It acquires a flesh-colored hue 
 prior to changing to a chrysalis, which it usually does just 
 within the leaf. Many which thus changed with me on the 
 21st of July, became moths on the 29th of the same month." 
 
 To the genus Pliycita belongs the Apple leaf crumpler, or 
 P. nebulo of Walsh, which in the West is known to strip the 
 trees of their early leaves. It draws the leaves together by a 
 web, and about the middle of June becomes fully grown, 
 when it closes up its horn-like case, and at the end of the 
 same month and early in July appears as a long, narrow-winged 
 moth, somewhat like Nephopteryx, but with broader fore wings. 
 
 Nepliopteryx is a genus with very narrow wings, with the 
 male antennae sinuous at the base. It feeds on various trees, 
 while the larva of N. Edmandsii Pack. (Plate 3, fig. 2; 2 a, 
 larva ; 2 6, pupa) , feeds on the cells of the humble bee. 
 
 The genus Myelois closely resembles Nephopteryx. Our 
 most injurious species is the Gooseberry worm, which is very 
 common. It may be called the M. 
 convolutella (Fig. 254 ; a, cocoon) 
 and is an importation from Europe 
 (Zeller) . Though familiar with the in- 
 sect, and having raised the moth, our a Fig. 254. 
 specimens were too much rubbed for identification, and we are 
 indebted to Mr. Saunders of London, Canada, for very perfect 
 specimens of the moth, and notes regarding its habits, confirma- 
 tory of our own observations. The moth is pale gray, with a 
 dark, transverse, diffuse band on the inner third of the wing, 
 enclosing a zig-zag white line not reaching the costa. There is 
 a discal discoloration, and beyond, a white zig-zag line with a 
 long, very acute angle on the internal margin, and a row of 
 marginal black dots, while the apex is white, and the veins and 
 their branches white ; it expands nearly an inch. As soon 
 as gooseberries and currants are well formed, many turn pre- 
 maturely red and dull whitish, which is due to the presence 
 of a pale green, smooth worm, which, after eating out the inside 
 of one berry, leaving a hole for the passage of the excrement, 
 enters another berry making a passage-way of silk until it 
 draws together a bunch of currants, or two or three gooseber- 
 ries. During the last of June it pupates, while the moth does 
 
332 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 not appear until the spring of the following year, Mr. Saun- 
 ders' specimens having left the chrysalis May 8th. 
 
 CrambuSj so abundant throughout the summer in grass, is at 
 once known by 1he long narrow wings being rolled around the 
 body in a tubular form. The larva has sixteen legs, is whit- 
 ish or dull colored, with large shining spots, and feeds on moss 
 in silken galleries. Mr. Saunders has hatched the larvae from 
 the eggs. "They feed readily on grass, the blades of which 
 they fasten together with silken threads, under which they live 
 concealed ; they will also feed on clover." Crambus mutabilis 
 Clemens is grayish fuscous, the palpi a little darker, while the 
 fore wings have a grayish median stripe, not extending bej T ond 
 the disk, and the discal dot is dark brown. It is a variable and 
 a common species. Other kinds are variously streaked with 
 silvery white. 
 
 The Bee moth, Galleria, has rather broad wings, which are 
 indented on the outer edge. G. cereana Fabr. (Plate 8, fig. 
 11) is dusky gray, streaked with purple brown on the outer 
 edge, with a few dark brown spots on the inner margin. The 
 larva is yellowish white, with brownish dots. It constructs 
 silken galleries running through the comb, in which it feeds. 
 It spins a thick white cocoon. Two broods of moths appear, 
 one in April and May, the other in August. They lay their 
 eggs at evening while the bees are resting. The caterpillars 
 mature in about three weeks. 
 
 TORTRICID^E Leach. The "Leaf-rollers" are best character- 
 ized by the shortness of the palpi, which project beak-like, and 
 are rarely long enough to be curved in front of the 
 head ; and by the oblong fore wings. They are of small 
 size, rarely expanding over an , inch, and are folded 
 roof-like (Fig. 255) over the body. The fore wings are 
 Fig. 255. b roa( j ? compared with those of the Tin ei dee , and 
 are much rounded on the costa. They are variegated with 
 bands and spots, often of brilliant metallic hues, while the hind 
 wings are dull colored like the body, the inner edge being folded 
 fan-like against the body. The antennae are filiform and the 
 legs are much shorter than in the Pyralids. They fly mostly by 
 night, resting during the day upon the plant on which the larva 
 
TOETRICID^E. 333 
 
 feeds. They most abound in summer, though a few species 
 are found in the spring and autumn. 
 
 The larvae are cylindrical, usually transversely wrinkled, and 
 nearly naked. The pupa is slender, and the rings of the 
 abdomen armed with transverse rows of teeth. Many of 
 the larger species roll up the leaves of trees, or gather them 
 into a rude tent, with silken threads ; others devour the inte- 
 rior of fruit buds and seeds, or live in the tender shoots, or 
 under the bark, or in the roots, while some live exposed on the 
 leaves of plants. 
 
 In Antithesia the palpi are longer than the head, and the 
 thorax is tufted behind ; the fore wings are more than twice as 
 long as broad, the costa being regularly arched, while the apex 
 is obtuse, and the apical third of the costa is white or ochreous. 
 A. bipartitana Clem, has white fore wings, with a dark brown 
 basal patch, and a central concolorous band, with two or three 
 dark brown spots on the outer third of the costa. The tip of 
 the wing is spotted with brown, and there 
 is a pale brownish spot in the middle of 
 the white apical third of the wing. It is <as ' 7a r "^ 9tt 
 not uncommon northwards. 
 
 Another species has been detected on 
 the rose by Mr. F. W. Putnam. The larva Fig. 256. 
 
 is yellowish green with a jet black head and prothoracic shield, 
 and pupates late in June, the moth appearing during July. It 
 is identical with the Antithesia pruniana of Hubner (Plate 8, 
 fig. 13, natural size) a destructive moth in Europe, where it 
 devours the plum, as its specific name indicates. The inner 
 two thirds of the fore wings are marbled with black and lilac 
 colored scales ; the apical third being white, with three costo- 
 apical dark spots, and the extreme apex black. 
 
 The genus Siderea has rather long fore wings, the costa be- 
 ing regularly arched, and the tip rather pointed, the outer edge 
 being concave below the tip. Clemens, doubtfully, refers his 
 S.? nubilana (Fig. 256, 7a, head) to this genus. The fore 
 wings are brown, with dark brown markings, and there is a 
 dark brown basal line and a central irregular dark brown band, 
 which becomes ochreous brown in the middle of the wing, and 
 seems to be separated from a conspicuous dark brown triangu- 
 
334 
 
 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 Fig. 257. 
 
 lar patch, which is edged narrowly with ochreous. Near the 
 inner angle are two dark brown oblique stripes. 
 
 The typical genus Tortrix has the palpi much longer than 
 the head, with the fore wings about twice as long as broad, and 
 the costa arched abruptly at the base, while the outer edge is 
 truncate and sometimes hollowed out below the tip. T. geli- 
 dana Moschler is a common arctic form, and occurs commonly 
 in northern Labrador, and has been detected 
 on the Alpine summit of Mount Washington 
 by Mr. F. G. Sanborn. He has also detected 
 a new species which feeds on the cranberry, 
 for which we suggest the name Tortrix oxycoc- 
 cana. Its body is dark brown, with lighter 
 hairs on each side of the abdominal segments, 
 and fuscous at the tip. The fore wings are 
 of a peculiar glistening gray, mottled with red- 
 dish brown scales, especially towards the outer edge. There 
 are no well defined spots or bands. The hind wings and body, 
 and under surface of the wings are slate colored. The wings 
 expand -.64 inch. 
 
 The Leptoris breviornatana of Clemens (Fig. 257 ; a, side 
 view of the head and labial palpi ; 6, fore wing ; c, hind wing), 
 which is referred to the genus Tortrix by Mr. C. T. Robinson, 
 has tawny yellow fore wings, with the veins brown. An oblique 
 
 brown band arises on the basal 
 third of the costa, and runs to 
 the middle of the inner margin, 
 but does not reach it. On the 
 costa is a brown patch. It lives 
 in Virginia. Mr. Robinson also 
 informs me that in a forthcom- 
 ing paper on this family he re- 
 fers the Ptycholoma? semifus- 
 cana of Clemens (Fig. 258 ; o, head ; 6, fore wing ; c, hind 
 wing) to the present genus. "The fore wings are white along 
 the costa and hinder margin, marked with pale brown, ochreous 
 and tarnished silvery stripes and spots." It ranges from 
 Maine to Virginia. 
 
 The genus Lozotcenia has palpi rather longer than the head. 
 
 Fig. 258. 
 
TOKTRICIM;. 335 
 
 It differs from Tortrix in the male having a fold or flap of scales 
 extending nearly to the tip of the fore wing, while the outer 
 edge is indented below the tip, which is rather produced up- 
 wards. The larvae of this genus feed in leaves, the edges of 
 which are drawn together by silken threads, or in the stems and 
 seeds of plants. L. rosaceana Harris (Plate 8, fig. 12; 12 a, 
 larva) is pale brown, with two oblique, darker reddish brown 
 bands, and a triangular spot of the same color on the costa near 
 the tip. The hind wings are ochreous yellow, and blackish 
 within. The larva, early in June, binds together the leaves of 
 the rose, apple and strawberry. It is plump and rather large, 
 and of a pale yellowish green. We found, on the 23d of June, 
 the fully grown larva on the leaves of the strawberry, doubling 
 them up and binding them together by a few silken threads. 
 The worm is pale livid, greenish above and paler beneath, with 
 a conspicuous black dot on each side of the hinder edge of the 
 prothorax. The head is very pale honey yellow, with two black 
 spots : one near the insertion of the mandibles, and the other 
 on the side near the base of the head. The posterior half of 
 each segment is transversely wrinkled a few times. The body 
 is scattered over with a few minute tubercles, each giving rise 
 to a fine hair. It is .80 of an inch long. One specimen spun 
 its slight cocoon on June 26th, the pupa appearing June 30th. 
 It is sometimes attacked by Ichneumons. The pupa is pointed 
 on the vertex of the head, and on the back of each abdominal 
 ring are two rows of spines. The moth usually appears the 
 last of June. There is a second brood in August. 
 
 We have reared another species from the wild strawberry. 
 It may be called the Lozotcenia fragariana. "It is a very pretty 
 moth expanding .80 of an inch, with red fore wings, darker on 
 the outer half and with a large triangular white spot near the 
 middle of the costa ; the outer edge of the spot is hollowed out. 
 The outer edge of the wing is pale, especially in the middle, 
 and concolorous with the head and palpi, and thorax. The 
 hind wings and abdomen are whitish buff. The hind wings 
 are whitish beneath. The larva may be found in Maine, early 
 in June, folding the leaves, and the moth appears in the mid- 
 dle of the same month. 
 
 The Lozotcenia gossypiana, or Cotton Leaf-roller, we describe 
 
 
336 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 from the very characteristic drawings of Mr. Glover. The 
 larva closely resembles that of L. rosaceana and is about the 
 same size. It rolls up the leaf of the cotton into a loose cir- 
 cular fold, and when fully grown spins a thin, loose, transpar- 
 ent cocoon between the leaves. On the abdominal tip of the 
 brown cocoon are three pairs of minute hooks, the two outer 
 pairs supported on a pedicel, by which the chrysalis is re- 
 tained in place in the cocoon. The moth is the size of the 
 L. rosaceana, being pale reddish brown, and with three darker 
 bars, the inner one crossing the costal two-thirds of the wing, 
 the middle and broadest crossing the wing obliquely, and ter- 
 minating near the outer angle, while the third bar cuts off the 
 apex of the wing. The hind wings are paler, but dusky along 
 the inner side. 
 
 The species of Penthina may be recognized by the oblong 
 fore wings, the apex being obtuse, sometimes a little falcate. 
 An interesting species, according to information received from 
 Mr. M. C. Reed of Hudson, Ohio, rolls up the leaves of the 
 grape, and when the fruit becomes formed, eats the pulp and 
 seeds, thus doing a two-fold injury to the vine. It may be 
 called the Penthina vitivomna* (Plate 8, fig. 22, enlarged). 
 The head, thorax, and palpi, and basal half of the antennae are 
 fulvous. The fore wings are dark slate brown. From the mid- 
 dle of the costa proceeds a blackish band which curves to the 
 middle of the outer third of the wing ; beyond is a linear curved 
 costal band succeeded by another broader but quite short costal 
 line ; the costa is tawny beyond, sending a tawny patch obliquely 
 inwards. Near the margin is an irregular blackish patch and 
 two dark spots on the costa, and a larger one at the apex. The 
 hind wings and body are dark slate color. It expands .40 of an 
 inch. The first brood of caterpillars feeds on the leaves, ap- 
 pearing in May (in Ohio), or as soon as the leaves are grown. 
 The second brood appears when the grapes are nearly filled 
 out, and then they feed on the pulp and seeds. Mr. Reed writes 
 me that "in every instance where a grape was opened contain- 
 ing a fully grown larva, the seeds were mere shells. They con- 
 tinue their work until the grapes are fully ripe, and at that 
 time on removing to a new berry, seem to make their home in 
 the old one, which is attached by a web." The larva turns 
 
 *It is the Lobesia botrana of Southern Europe according to Prof. Zeller. 
 
TORTRICID^. 337 
 
 over the edge of a leaf to form a rude cocoon for the chrysalis. 
 Mr. Eead suggests destroying the leaves thus affected before 
 they fall in autumn, as the larvae do not descend to the earth 
 to undergo their transformations. 
 
 Halonota differs from Tortrix in having the apex of the fore 
 wings rather obtuse, and there is a pale blotch usually present 
 on the middle of the inner margin. H. simulana Clemens is 
 brownish ochreous, with dull ochreous palpi, reddish at the 
 tip ; the fore wings are brown, with a slight brassy hue, and 
 with an ochreous dorsal blotch; the costa is streaked with 
 ochreous, and there are two violet streaks, one running be- 
 neath the tip and the other to a faint eye-like patch, behind 
 which, on the hinder margin, are three black spots. 
 
 The genus Grapholitha is characterized by Stainton as hav- 
 ing the palpi longer than the head, with the fore wings more 
 than twice as long as wide, the costa being 
 slightly arched, and the apex rather pointed, 
 while the outer edge is a little hollowed out 
 below the apex, and rounded at the inner an- 
 gle. The larvae live in the folded leaves of 
 shrubs, or in the tops of herbaceous plants, 
 or in their roots. Mr. Eobinson refers the 
 JSteganoptycha? oclireana of Clemens, to Gra- 
 pholitha (Fig. 259 ; a, head ; 6, fore wing ; c, 
 hind wing.*) The fore wings are pale yel- 
 lowish, and the outer half of the costa is Fig ' 259 ' 
 streaked with ochreous brown, and there is an eye-like patch 
 which is white, and contains two ochreous brown streaks and 
 two black dots. It was discovered in Virginia. Robinson also 
 refers Clemens' Euryptychia saligneana (Fig. 256 ; 8 a) to this 
 genus. It was bred by Mr. B. D. Walsh, in Illinois, from a 
 willow gall. The fore wings are white, tinted with yellowish, 
 with a dark brown basal patch, the wing beyond being nearly 
 white varied with lead colored speckles, and striped over the 
 venules with dull, leaden gray, transverse stripes, two of which 
 near the anal angle, form a white eye-like patch. (Clemens.) 
 
 Under the name of Callimosema scintillana (Fig. 256 ; 9 a), 
 
 *The artist has represented the last branch of the median vein forked at the 
 tip. It should have been the middle branch. ( Clemens.') 
 
 22 
 
338 
 
 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 Clemens describes a moth with narrow fore wings, and a large 
 eye-like spot across the inner angle, the venation being the 
 same as in loplocama. In this latter genus (Fig. 256; 10 a, 
 I. formosana Clemens) the wings are broader and have the 
 costa of the fore wings dilated at the base, while the labial 
 palpi are broad, and reach far beyond the front of the head. 
 
 In Anchylopera the palpi are 
 shorter than the head, with the 
 fore wings broader than usual, 
 and the costa somewhat obtusely 
 arched towards the base, while 
 the tip is often hook-like and 
 the outer edge concave. The 
 larva feeds between the united 
 leaves of plants. A. spirewfoli- 
 ana Clemens * s white on the fore 
 wings, with a large, reddish 
 brown dorsal patch extending 
 from the base to the middle of 
 the wing, and an oblique band 
 from the middle of the costa to 
 about the centre of the wing ; 
 the costa beyond is streaked 
 alternately with white and red- 
 dish brown to the apex. The 
 larva feeds on the leaves of 
 Spiraea opulifolia, or Nine-bark. 
 It is pale green with a yellowish 
 tinge. (Clemens.)* 
 *Fig. 260. Mr. Fish has discovered an un- 
 
 described species which feeds on the cranberry, and which we 
 may call the Cranberry Anchylopera, A. vacciniana (Plate 8, 
 fig. 21, enlarged). The moth is dark ash, the fore wings being 
 whitish, dusted with brown and reddish scales, with white nar- 
 row bands on the costa, alternating with broader yellowish 
 
 *FiG. 260; la, represents the head of A. nubeculana, described by Clemens in 
 the Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Philadelphia; 16, the vena- 
 tion of the fore wing; and 1 c, the hind wing; 2 a, the head of A. ocellana Clemens; 
 26, the fore wing; 2 c, the hind wing; 3 a, the head of A. mediofasciana Clemens; 
 36 the fore wing; and 3 c, the hind wing. 
 
TORTEICID^. 339 
 
 brown bands, five of which are several times larger than the 
 others, and from four of them irregular indistinct lines cross 
 the wing. The first line is situated just beyond the inner third 
 of the wing, and is often obsolete. The second line is the 
 largest and is slightly bent once in the middle of ti*8 
 wing. There is a large brown spot parallel to the costa, 
 being situated on the angle. The third line is oblique and 
 stops before reaching the inner angle and is forked on the 
 costa, while the fourth line is a short apical diffuse irregular 
 line. The apex of the wing is dark brown, and is a little more 
 acute than usual in the genus. The length of a fore wing is .20 
 of an inch. It lays its eggs on the leaves during the month 
 of August and a new brood of larvae appear in September, 
 though they hatch mostly in the following spring, or early in 
 June, and become fully grown in July. 
 
 The larva seen from above is much like that of Lozotaenia 
 rosaceana, but the head is a little larger in proportion to the 
 rest of the body, being as wide as the body in its thickest part. 
 The body is more hairy, while the prothorax is not dark. The 
 chrysalis is rather slender, the body being contracted at the 
 base of the abdomen, on the rings of which there are dorsal 
 rows of fine spines. 
 
 Mr. Fish writes me that " these larvae, called the Cranberry- 
 vine worms, hatch about the first of June from eggs that have 
 remained upon the leaves of the plant all winter. They com- 
 mence to feed upon the tender growing shoots of the plant, 
 drawing the leaves -together with their web for shelter, conceal- 
 ing themselves and feeding within. Before reaching their 
 full size they, if very numerous, almost wholly destroy the 
 leaves and tender shoots, giving the whole bog a dark dry ap- 
 pearance as though a fire had been over it. This is why they 
 are in some places known as 'fire-worms/ Having reached 
 their full size they spin up among the leaves or among the 
 dead leaves upon the ground. After remaining in the pupa 
 state about ten or thirteen days the moths come out and de- 
 posit their eggs upon the leaves. 
 
 "This year the moths were out the last of June and first of 
 July. In five or six days the eggs hatched and this second 
 brood, which is usually the most destructive, mostly changed 
 
340 LEPIDOPTEKA. 
 
 to pupae on the 20th of July. On the 26th of July the 
 first moth came out and most were out before the 4th of 
 August. I saw the moth at Sandwich as late as the 20th of 
 August. Most of the eggs laid in August do not hatch until 
 the following spring. I did succeed in finding two or three 
 larvae in September, but they were rare at that time. The 
 only sure means known of destroying them, is to let water upon 
 the bog for twenty -four hours." 
 
 Another Tortricid larva, which seems to differ generically 
 from the vine worm, in being thicker and having a larger, 
 squarer prothoracic ring, and a less hairy body is called the 
 " Fruit- worm." According to Mr. Fish, these worms appear the 
 first of August and work all through the month. The first signs 
 of their presence are seen in the berries that are attacked turn- 
 ing prematurely red. Most of them reach their full size before 
 the first of September. In some places where the vines have 
 
 been retarded by be- 
 i n g kept under water 
 
 until the first of June 
 
 previous (it is com- 
 mon to cover the bogs 
 with water when con- 
 venient), they do not 
 reach their full size until a few weeks later. When fully 
 grown they enter the ground and spin their cocoons within a 
 few inches of the surface. The cocoons are covered with grains 
 of sand and are hardly distinguishable from small lumps of 
 earth. They remain in the ground all winter. I do not know 
 positively the perfect insect, as I have never been able to rear 
 it in-doors. In the spring of 1867 I bred two species of Ich- 
 neumons from these cocoons that had remained in the house 
 over winter." 
 
 The Strawberry leaf-roller (A. fragarise Riley, Fig. 261 ; c, 
 lines showing the dimensions of the moth ; a, larva, natural 
 size ; 6, the head and four succeeding rings of the body ; d, 
 the terminal ring of the abdomen, showing the anal legs) has, 
 according to Riley, recently been doing much injury to straw- 
 berry plants in Illinois and Canada. "It crumples and folds 
 the leaves, feeding on their pulpy substance, and causing them 
 
TORTRICID^. 341 
 
 to appear dry and seared, and most usually lines the inside of 
 the fold with silk. There are two broods during the year, and 
 the worms of the first brood, which appear during the month 
 of June, change to the pupa state within the rolled up leaf, 
 and become minute reddish brown moths during the fore part 
 of July. After pairing in the usual manner, the females deposit 
 their eggs on the plants, from which eggs in due time hatches 
 a second brood of worms. These last come to their growth to- 
 wards the end of September, and changing to pupae, pass the 
 winter in that state. The moth expands from .40 to .45 of an 
 inch. The head and thorax are reddish brown, with pale palpi 
 and legs, and dusky antennae, while the tarsal joints are dusky 
 at the tips. The fore wings are reddish brown and streaked 
 and spotted with black and white, as in the figure, while the 
 hind wings and abdomen are dusky." (American Entomologist, 
 vol. i, p. 89.) 
 
 The Coddling moth, Carpocapsa, has palpi longer than the 
 head ; the apex of the fore wings is rather obtuse, and the 
 outer edge is suddenly hollowed out below the tip. The larvae 
 feed in the interior of fruits. C. pomonella Linn. (Fig. 256, 
 II a) is gray, with numerous darker, transverse lines, and with 
 a curved black line before the ocellated patch on the inner an- 
 gle, which line is edged with a coppery tint. The moth lays its 
 eggs on apple and pear trees early in summer in the blossom- 
 end of the fruit, and the larva hatches in a few days, burrowing 
 into the core. It matures in three weeks, when the apple drops 
 to the ground and the larva transforms in a thin cocoon in 
 crevices in bark, etc., and in a few days another brood of moths 
 appear, though most of them remain in their cocoons through 
 the winter as larvae, where we have found them under the loos- 
 ened bark early in May. 
 
 This formidable pest may be partially destroyed by gather- 
 ing "wind-falls," though the larva often deserts the worm-eaten 
 apple before it falls. The best remedy is that suggested by 
 Dr. Trimble, who binds bands of hay about the trees from 
 July until the middle of September. The larvae crawl under 
 these bands and there spin their silken cocoons, when every 
 few days the bands can be removed and the worms de- 
 stroyed. 
 
342 LEPIDOPTEEA. 
 
 TINEID^E Leach. The Tineids are a family of great extent, 
 and the species are very destructive to vegetation, having in- 
 numerable modes of attack. They may be distinguished 
 from the Tortricidceby their smaller size, while the narrow 
 wings which lie on the top of, or are rolled around the body 
 when at rest, are often falcate, or pointed acutely, and edged 
 with a long fringe of exceeding delicacy. The maxillary palpi 
 are greatly developed, while the labial palpi are of the usual 
 size, and usually recurved in front of the head. The antennae are 
 long and filiform. The larvae are cylindrical, variously 
 wrinkled transversely, and with from fourteen to sixteen feet. 
 They often construct cases in which they live, and usually spin 
 a slight silken cocoon. About 1,200 species are already known 
 in Europe alone. Those of this country have been mostly de- 
 scribed by Dr. Clemens. 
 
 In studying this interesting family, Stainton remarks that 
 "the elongated wings, the slender body and the long or very 
 long fringes to the wings, are characters by which the Tineidae 
 may generally be recognized at once ; and the development of 
 the palpi and their variety in form and structure, offer most 
 tangible grounds for separating the greater number of the gen- 
 era. Indeed, if the student will look at the head of a species 
 to see whether it is hairy or smooth, if he will then notice the 
 palpi, whether the maxillary palpi are developed and to what 
 extent, and whether the labial palpi are slender, ascending or 
 drooping, whether the second joint is densely clothed with 
 scales, or bears a long protruding tuft, and if he will farther 
 notice the form of the hind wings, which are either well rounded 
 or very pointed, or indented towards the tip, he will be per- 
 fectly surprised to see how easily he will arrange these insects 
 into genera by their structure." 
 
 The larvae vary excessively in the number of legs, sixteen 
 being the usual number, but in several genera (Gracilaria, Lith- 
 ocolletis, etc.), we only find fourteen; in Nepticula, though 
 the legs are but poorly developed, they number eighteen ; on the 
 other hand the larvae of a few of the smaller genera (Antispila, 
 Tinagma, etc.) are absolutely footless. 
 
 For collecting and preserving these minute and delicate 
 moths, which are called by collectors, micro-kpidoptera, especial 
 
TINEIM:. 343 
 
 instructions are necessary. When the moth is taken in the 
 net, it can be blown by the breath into the bottom. "Then 
 by elevating the hand through the ring, or on a level with it, a 
 common cupping glass of about two inches in diameter, or a 
 wine glass carried in the pocket, is placed on top of the left 
 hand over the constricted portion, the grasp relaxed, and the 
 insect permitted to escape through the opening into its interior. 
 The glass is then closed below by the left hand on the outside 
 of the net, and may be transferred to the top of the collecting 
 box, when it can be quieted by chloroform" (Clemens) ; or the 
 moths may be collected in pill boxes, and then carried home 
 and opened into a larger box filled with fumes of ether or ben- 
 zine or cyanide of potassium. In pinching any moths on the 
 thorax, as is sometimes done, the form of that region is inva- 
 riably distorted, and many of the scales removed. In search- 
 ing for "Micros" we must look carefully on the lee side of? 
 trees, fences, hedges, and undulations in the ground, for ; 
 they avoid the wind. Indeed, we can take advantage of 
 this habit of many Micros, and by blowing vigorously on the 
 trunks of trees start the moth off into the net so placed as to 
 intercept it. This method is most productive, C. G. Barrett 
 states, in the "Entomologist's Monthly Magazine," while a 
 steady wind is blowing. 
 
 In seeking for the larvae we must remember that most of 
 them are leaf miners, and their burrows are detected by the 
 waved brown withered lines on the surface of leaves, and their 
 tl frass" or excrement, thrown out at one end. Some are found 
 between united leaves, of which the upper is crumpled. Others 
 construct portable cases which they draw about the trunks of 
 trees, fences, etc. Others burrow in the stems of grass, or in 
 fungi, toadstools, and in the pith of currant or raspberry bushes. 
 Most are solitary, a few gregarious. A bush stripped of its 
 leaves and covered with webs, if not done by Clisiocampa (the 
 American Tent Caterpillar), will witness the work of a Tineid. 
 Buds of unfolded herbs suffer from their attacks, such as the 
 heads of composite flowers which are drawn together and con- 
 sumed by the larvae. 
 
 After some practice in rearing larvae it will be found easier 
 and more profitable to search for the leaf miners, and rear the 
 
344 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 perfect, fresh, and uninjured moths from them. In this way 
 many species never found in the perfect state can be secured.* 
 In raising "micro" larvae it is essential that the leaf in 
 which they mine be preserved fresh for a long time. Thus 
 a glass jar, tumbler or jam-pot, the top of which has been 
 ground to receive an air-tight glass cover, and the bottom 
 covered with moist white sand, will keep a leaf fresh for a 
 week, and thus a larva? in the summer will have to be fed but 
 two or three times before it changes ; and the moth can be 
 seen through the glass without taking off the cover ; or a glass 
 cylinder can be placed over a plant inserted in wet sand, hav- 
 ing the top covered with gauze. Dr. H. G. Knaggs in treat- 
 ing of the management of caterpillars in breeding boxes, 
 enumerates the diseases, beside muscardine and cholerine, to 
 which they are subject. Among direct injuries are wounds and 
 bruises, which may be productive of deformities in the future 
 imago ; the stings of ichneumon flies, whose eggs laid either 
 upon or in the body may be crushed with finely pointed scis- 
 sors or pliers ; frost bites, and suffocation chiefly from drown- 
 ing. If the caterpillar has not been more than ten or twelve 
 hours in the water it may be recovered by being dried on a 
 piece of blotting paper and exposed to the sun. Larvae may 
 also starve to death even when food is abundant, from loss of 
 appetite, or improper ventilation, light, etc. ; or they may eat 
 too much, become dropsical, and die. Caterpillars undoubt- 
 edly suffer from a contagious disease analogous to low fever. 
 Many die while moulting, especially the larvae of Butterflies, 
 Sphinges, and Bombycids ; others are carried off by diarrhoea, 
 which is generally caused by improper feeding on too juicy or 
 relaxing food, when oak leaves or dry stunted foliage should 
 be given them. To relieve constipation they should be fed 
 with lettuce and other natural purgatives, and lastly, they may 
 be attacked by fungi, especially, besides those previously men- 
 
 *"In general, it may be said, the mines of the leaf miners are characteristic of 
 the genus to which the larva may belong. A single mine once identified, enables 
 the collector to pronounce on the genus of all the species he may find thereafter. 
 This added to the ease with which the larvae are collected, and the little subsequent 
 care required to bring them to maturity, except to keep the leaves in a fresh and 
 healthy state, makes the study of this group, in every respect, pleasant and satis- 
 factory to the entomologist." (Clemens.) 
 
345 
 
 tioned, a species of Oidium. Such patients should be put in 
 direct sunlight or dry currents of air. (Entomologist's Monthly 
 Magazine, June, 1868.) The pupae easily dry up ; they should 
 be kept moist, in tubes of glass closed at either end, through 
 which the moth can be seen when disclosed. 
 
 In setting micro- lepidopt era : "If the insect is very small I 
 hold it by its legs between the thumb and finger of the left 
 hand, whilst I pierce it with the pin held between the thumb 
 and finger of the right hand ; if the insect is not very small I 
 use a rough surface, as a piece of blotting-paper, or piece of 
 cloth, for it to lie upon and prevent its slipping about, and 
 then cautiously insert the point of the pin in the middle of the 
 thorax, as nearly as possible in a vertical direction. As soon 
 as the pin is fairly through the insect, remove it to a piece of 
 soft cork, and by pressing it in, push the insect as far up the 
 pin as is required. 
 
 "For setting the insects I find nothing answers as well as a 
 piece of soft cork, papered with smooth paper, and with 
 grooves cut to admit the bodies. The wings are placed in the 
 required position by the setting needle, and are then retained 
 in their places by a wedge-shaped thin paper brace, placed over 
 them till a square brace of smooth card-board is placed over the 
 ends of the wings." (Stainton.) A small square of glass can 
 also be laid on the wings to keep them expanded, and thus 
 serve the same purpose as the paper braces. Linnaeus first set 
 the example of having the specific names of the Tortricids 
 end in ana and of the Tineids in ella, and at the present day 
 the rule is generally followed by entomologists, who have also 
 given the same terminations to the names of the, smaller spe- 
 cies of Pyralids, such as Pempelia, Crambus and allied genera. 
 
 In the group of Tineids proper, the head is roughly scaled, 
 with short and thick labial palpi, while the maxillary palpi are 
 generally extremely well developed, and the antennae some- 
 times (Adela) extremely long. The larvae live in a portable 
 case and feed on wool, hair, etc., and fungi, or decayed wood. 
 
 Solenobia has very short labial palpi, which are almost con- 
 cealed in the hairs of the mouth, and the case of the larva is 
 shorter than usual. The unimpregnated females of this genus 
 lay fertile eggs, so that one may breed a species for years with- 
 
346 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 out ever seeing a male. (Stainton.) Soknobiaf Walshella 
 Clemens is gray, varied with fuscous. The silken case is gran- 
 ulated with fine sand ; the larva is probably lichenivorous. 
 
 In Tinea the head is rough, the maxillary palpi are usually 
 folded and five jointed, while the labial palpi are cylindrical, 
 hairy and sometimes bristly. The fore wings are 
 oblong ovate, and the hind wings ovate and clothed 
 with scales. 
 
 Fig. 232. The common Clothes moth, Tinea flavifrontella 
 Linn. (Fig. 262 ; fig. 263, a, larva, with its case, b ; c, chrysa- 
 lis, enlarged) is of a light buff color, with a silky iridescent lus- 
 tre, the hind wings and abdomen being a little paler. The head 
 is thickly tufted with hairs and is a little tawny. The wings are 
 long and narrow, pointed acutely, with the most beautiful and 
 delicate long silken fringe, which increases in length towards 
 the base of the wing. The moth begins to fly about our apart- 
 c 6 nients in May, individuals 
 
 remaining through the sum- 
 mer. They lay their eggs 
 in woollens, though we have 
 a reared numerous specimens 
 which had attacked a mass 
 of cotton. Early in June 
 we found numbers of the 
 Fi s- 263 - caterpillars in their flattened 
 
 cylindrical cases which in this instance were white, the color 
 of the substance they fed upon. The larva is whitish with a 
 tolerably plump body, which tapers slightly towards the end 
 of the body, while the head is honey yellow. The segments 
 of the body are thickened above by two transverse folds. The 
 body of the chrysalis is considerably curved, with the head 
 smooth and rounded. The antennae, together with the hind legs, 
 which are laid on the breast, reach to the tip of the abdo- 
 men. On the upper surface of each ring is a short trans- 
 verse row of minute spines, which aid the chrysalis in moving 
 towards the mouth of its case, just before changing to a moth. 
 When about to transform, the skin splits open on the back, 
 and the perfect insect glides out. The skin is moulted with 
 great rapidity. To avoid the ravages of this destructive moth, 
 
TINEID^. 347 
 
 woollens and furs should be carefully shaken and examined 
 early in June. Dr. Harris states that "powdered black pep- 
 per strewed under the edge of carpets is said to repel moths. 
 Sheets of paper sprinkled with spirits of turpentine, camphor 
 in coarse powder, leaves of tobacco, or shavings of Russian 
 leather, should be placed among the clothes when they are laid 
 aside for the summer ; and furs and other small articles can be 
 kept by being sewed in bags with bits of camphor wood, red 
 cedar, or of Spanish cedar, while the cloth lining of carriages 
 can be secured forever from the attacks of moths by being 
 washed or sponged on both sides with a solution of the corro- 
 sive sublimate of mercury in alcohol, made just strong enough 
 not to leave a white stain on a black feather." The moths can 
 be most readily killed by pouring benzine among them, though 
 its use must be much restricted from the disagreeable odor 
 which remains, and c 
 
 its inflammable na- 
 ture. The use of a 
 weak solution of car- 
 bolic acid is also rec- 
 ommended. Tinea 
 tapetzella Linn., the 
 Carpet moth, is black- 
 ish at the base of the 
 fore wings, the re- 
 mainder being yellow- 
 ish white, while the b Fig. 204. 
 hind wings are dark gray, and the head white. The larva 
 feeds on carpets, etc. 
 
 Tinea granella Linn. (Fig. 264 natural size, and enlarged, 
 with the wings spread ; a, larva, natural size and enlarged ; 6, 
 pupa, natural size and enlarged ; c, grains of wheat held to- 
 gether with a firm web) the Grain moth, is found flying .in 
 granaries during the summer. The female lays thirty or more 
 minute eggs, one or two on each grain of wheat. The white 
 worm hatches in a few days, eats its way into the grain, clos- 
 ing the entrance with its castings, and after it has devoured 
 the interior of one grain, unites others in succession to it, until 
 it binds together by a fine web a number of them. When 
 
348 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 nearly full grown they cover the grains with a very thick web. 
 According to Curtis the larvae retire to cracks and crevices in 
 the floor and walls of the granary, and construct their cocoons 
 by gnawing the wood and working it up with their web until it 
 has the form and size of a grain of wheat, wherein it remains 
 through the winter, changing to a chrysalis early in the spring ; 
 while two or three weeks after the moth appears. It is creamy 
 white, with six brown spots on the costa, and with a long 
 brown fringe. To prevent its attacks empty granaries should 
 be thoroughly cleansed and whitewashed, or washed with coal 
 oil, and when the moths are flying numbers may be attracted 
 to the flames of a bright light ; also when the larvae are at work, 
 the grain should be shovelled over frequently to disturb them. 
 
 The beautiful genus Adela is at once known by its exces- 
 sively long antennae. The larva makes a flat case, and feeds 
 on the leaves of various low plants, such as the wood Anemone 
 and Veronica. The A. Ridingsella of Clemens has coppery 
 brown fore wings, with a pale grayish brown mesial patch 
 dusted with black, and four or five black spots at the inner 
 angle, while the hind wings are fuscous. 
 
 Hyponomeuta has a smooth head, with rather short, slender, 
 reflexed, subacute labial palpi ; the fore wings are white, dotted 
 in rows with black, and on the base of the hind wings is a 
 transparent patch. The larvae are gregarious, and the pupa is 
 enclosed in a cocoon. H. millepunctatella Clemens is white, 
 with the base of the costa blackish, and with longitudinal rows 
 of distinct black dots, two of which, one along the inner mar- 
 gin, and one along the fold, are plain. The hind wings are 
 blackish gray. 
 
 In Depressaria the fore wings are unusually oblong, being 
 rounded at the apex ; and the hind wings are broader than 
 usual, with the inner edge emarginate opposite the subme- 
 dian vein, and rounded opposite the internal vein. The abdo- 
 men is flattened above, with projecting scales at the sides. 
 The larvae of this genus are extremely active, and feed on a 
 variety of substances ; some in rolled up leaves of composite 
 plants, some in the leaves and others in the umbels of the 
 umbelliferous plants. Many of the worms descend from the 
 plant on the slightest agitation, so that considerable caution is 
 
TINEID^E. 349 
 
 necessary in attempts to collect them. The full-fed larvae de- 
 scend to the ground and change to pupae among the fallen 
 leaves. The perfect insects have the peculiarity of sliding 
 about when laid on their backs. D. atrodorsella Clem, is yel- 
 low ochreous, with six or eight black costal dots, with a red- 
 dish patch extending from the disc towards the tip of the wing. 
 The head is rufous above, with the face blackish brown above 
 and yellowish beneath. 
 
 During the last summer we observed a locust tree which had 
 some of the branches well nigh defoliated by an undescribed 
 species of this genus which we may call the Depressaria robin- 
 iella (Plate 8, fig. 14, natural size). The head, palpi and fore 
 wings are light brick red, spotted irregularly with yellow, and 
 the antennae are slate brown. The fore wings are a little 
 darker in the middle, especially towards the inner edge. There 
 is a submarginal darker brown band near the outer edge, which 
 does not reach the costa, and on the outer edge is a row of 
 minute black dots. The hind wings and abdomen are of a pale 
 slate gray, and of the same color beneath, while the legs are 
 of a very pale straw yellow. It differs from most of the spe- 
 cies of the genus in having the apex of the fore wing less 
 rounded than usual, and in this and other respects it is allied 
 to the European D. laterella. The larva is thick-bodied, with 
 a black head, and is green, the cervical shield being green. It 
 devours the leaves, drawing them together by threads, and 
 also eats the flower buds. It was most abundant in the last 
 week of June. It turned to a chrysalis July 8th, and in about 
 two weeks the moth appeared. 
 
 In Gelechia the fore wings are rather long and pointed, and 
 the hind wings are trapezoidal and more or less excavated below 
 the tip. The terminal joint of the labial palpi is slender, al- 
 most needle-like, smooth and pointed. This genus is of great 
 extent and comprises a considerable diversity of species. The 
 moth is extremely active. Clemens states that "the habits of 
 the larvae are extremely varied, feeding upon leaves, flower- 
 buds, young shoots, and in the interior of grain and seeds. The 
 species that feed in buds and shoots are mostly in the larva 
 state in spring and the beginning of summer ; those that feed 
 in and upon leaves are met with in summer and autumn, and 
 
350 
 
 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 those that feed on seeds do so in the autumn and winter." 
 The Angoumois Grain moth, G. cerealella Linn. (Fig. 265), is 
 ochreous, with a fuscous streak towards the base, and a few 
 fuscous dots towards the tip of the wing, while the hind wings 
 are grayish ochreous. The wings are sometimes unspotted. 
 It feeds in wheat granaries, where it secretes itself within 
 the grain, devouring the mealy substance. Reaumur, according 
 to Mr. Stainton, thus speaks of the econon^ of material in the 
 food of the larva of Gelechia cerealella. "A grain of wheat 
 or of barley contains the precise quan- 
 tity of food necessary to nourish the 
 larva from its birth till it is full fed. 
 For if we open a grain inhabited by 
 a younger and smaller larva, we find 
 that there is more or less of the sub- 
 stance of the grain still to be consumed, 
 according to the size of the larva. 
 
 But what is remarkable is, that in the latter case, we find 
 at least as much and probably more excrement, and in larger 
 pellets, than we find in a grain tenanted by an older larva." 
 It is thus driven to eat its excrement over once and perhaps 
 more than once ! We have received from Mr. F. G. Sanborn 
 the larva (Fig. 266, much enlarged) of this moth, which had 
 eaten out the kernel of grains of parching corn, leaving but a 
 thin shell. The body is unusually short, thick and white, the 
 tegument being very thin and transparent. Gelechia fungivo- 
 
 retta Clem, has roseate white 
 fore wings, dusted and banded 
 with brown. Walsh states that 
 "the larva mines a cabbage- 
 like gall (C. salicis-brassicoides) , 
 Fig 266. peculiar to Salix longifolia, and 
 
 a pine-cone-like gall on Salix cordata, named C. salicis-stro- 
 biloides by Osten Sacken." The larva of a similar species, 
 G. roseosuffusella , inhabits the fruit panicles of the sumach. 
 
 Coleophora is a beautiful form, with long fringes to the 
 wings, which are long and lanceolate, especially the hinder pair. 
 The head is smooth above and in front, and the slender, simple 
 antennae are sometimes thickened with scales as far as their 
 
TINEID^E. 351 
 
 middle. The labial palpi are slender, rather porrected, with a 
 slender prolonged tuft from the second joint, and the third 
 joint is pointed. The larva is a case-bearer, changing to a 
 pupa within the case. While these moths abound in the larva 
 state, the adult insects are rarely met with. The leaf-feeding 
 larvae are very easily found, as their presence may be detected 
 by the pale blotches they form on the leaf they feed upon, 
 while the seed-feeding larvae are much better concealed. 
 
 "Coleophora larvae do not well bear confinement in the hu- 
 mid air of the breeding jar. To be successful in rearing the 
 larvae, one must use a pot of moistened sand, in which the food 
 plant is placed, covered with a glass cylinder, with fine gauze 
 tied over the top ; or the plant may be kept in water and cov- 
 ered with a cylinder of glass. For this purpose old chimney 
 tops to lamps answer very well. The larvae of this genus, taken 
 in the fall of the year, hibernate in their cases until the fol- 
 lowing spring, and feed upon the first leaves that put forth. 
 They must not, therefore, be kept in a warm room during 
 the winter. The pupae of the fall brood of larvae thrive much 
 better, likewise, if not kept in a warm room during the cold 
 months. The spring, or early summer brood of larvae, produce 
 images in a few weeks after entering the pupa state, and hence 
 it is much more satisfactory to collect early in the year than 
 during the latter part." (Clemens.) 
 
 In C. roscefoliella Clem, the head and thorax are white, while 
 the fore wings are pale grayish towards the base, clouded with 
 dark brown from the middle to the tip, and the hind wings are 
 dark brown. The case is silken, covered with granulations, 
 cylindrical, slightly compressed, the mouth slightly deflexed 
 and the opposite hook-like end turned down slightly. Its color 
 is brown, varied with gray and reddish-brown granulations. 
 The larva feeds in the spring on the common garden rose, and 
 the case was found in winter attached to a thorn on one of the 
 stems. C. rosacella Clem, also feeds in the spring on the rose 
 and sweet briar. The case is made of the cuticle of the rose- 
 leaf on which the larva feeds. It is a compressed cylinder, and 
 dilated slightly in the middle of the under edge. Color dark 
 ochreous. (Clemens.) Coleophora coruscipennella Clemens is 
 a beautiful bronzed green species, with the terminal half of the 
 
352 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 antennae white, ringed with brown. The fore wings are reddish 
 violet on the apex, and the hind wings are dark brown. An 
 unknown species is represented on Plate 8, fig. 17. It was 
 found feeding on the pear the 5th of September, carrying about 
 a flattened case of the form indicated in the figure, which is 
 enlarged about five times. We have also found another Col- 
 eophora larva, with a long, flattened, cylindrical case, alike at 
 each end, constructed of the outer skin of the leaf. It was 
 found late in September feeding on the apple. 
 
 In the genus Batrachedra the wings arc narrow, especially 
 the hind ones which are sharply pointed, with a tuft near the 
 base of the costa. B. salidpomonelta Clemens (Fig. 267, vena- 
 tion and side view of the head, enlarged), in its larval state, 
 according to Mr. Walsh, inhabits the gall 
 made by a saw-fly on the willow. 
 
 Elachista is a very extensive genus charac- 
 terized by the long and slender, slightly re- 
 curved palpi. The fore wings are smooth, 
 elongate and rarely oblong, and the hind 
 wings are narrow and pointed. The larva 
 mines the leaves of grasses and allied plants. 
 Fig. 267. Over fifty species have been described in 
 
 Europe. Clemens refers doubtfully to this genus, a Virginian 
 species, Elachista ? orichalcella, which is of a beautiful metallic 
 coppery color, while the hind wings and fringe are rather pale 
 ochreous. 
 
 The genus Lithocolletis comprises very minute but most richly 
 colored moths. The head is rough, the labial palpi filiform 
 and drooping, while the fore wings are elongate, and the hind 
 wings are linear lanceolate, with long fringes. They are often 
 excessively abundant, are rather sluggish, but fly readily in the 
 early morning. In Europe they are double-brooded, and hiber- 
 nate in the pupa state (Clemens states that some hibernate as 
 moths), appearing in the perfect state in spring, while a second 
 brood of moths appear in August. The larvae have fourteen 
 feet, and mine the leaves of trees, shrubs or low plants, sepa- 
 rating either the upper or lower cuticle and feeding on the 
 inner substance of the leaf. When the mine is on the upper 
 surface, or at least most frequently when it is in this position, 
 
TINEID^E. 353 
 
 the leaf becomes folded and curved at the place mined, and the 
 separated cuticle is gathered into folds, or covers the curved 
 portion so as to make a capacious habitation. Some of the 
 miners of the upper surface of leaves make large blotches, or 
 tracts, and when the mines are fresh the separated cuticle is 
 whitish and very noticeable. The miners of the under surface, 
 cause the upper cuticle to become discolored in patches, and 
 this with the. fold of the side of the leaf is often sufficient to 
 indicate the presence of a mine. Usually the species are con- 
 fined to a single plant ; some, however, feed on several allied 
 plants. The larva seldom quits the mine and changes in it 
 to a pupa. Some species either make no cocoon or only a very 
 slight one, and others make one of grains of excrement woven 
 together with silk. L. Fitchella Clemens (Argyromiges querci- 
 foliella Fitch) is silvery white, with pale reddish saffron fore 
 wings, slightly tinged with a brassy hue. It feeds on the oak, 
 according to Dr. Fitch. 
 
 L. saUtifollella Clemens during the latter part of June or 
 early in July mines the under surface of the leaves of the yel- 
 low willow (Salix vitellina var. alba). L. juglandiella makes 
 an elongated, rather wide tract on the upper surface of the 
 leaves of the black walnut. 
 
 During the last summer the larva of an undescribed species, 
 which we may call Litliocolletis geminatella (Plate 8, fig. 15 ; a, 
 larva ; 6, pupa ; c, its mine, the first three figures enlarged six 
 diameters) was abundant on the apple and pear trees. The 
 moth is of a dark slate gray, without any prominent markings, 
 with ochreous hairs on the top of the head. There is a black 
 round spot on the middle of the inner edge of the wing (omit- 
 ted in the figure, which is drawn from a slightly rubbed speci- 
 men). On the outer edge is an eye-like spot, pupilled with 
 black, like the "eye" in a peacock's tail. The antennae are 
 dark, ringed with a pale slate color. It expands .30 of an inch. 
 The larva is pale livid reddish with a black head and cervical 
 shield, and .14 of an inch in length. It was first discovered 
 about the middle of August, hanging from a branch suspended 
 by a thread. From this time it became abundant, until the 
 leaves began to fall in the first week of October ; nearly every 
 leaf on some of the pear and apple trees having a mine like 
 23 
 
354 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 that represented in Plate 8, fig. 15 c. Usually the larva draws 
 two leaves together, or folds one up, and as it eats its way 
 along the surface of the leaf, leaves its excrement filling up the 
 space behind, thus making blotches and otherwise disfiguring 
 the leaves. In this mine it transforms into a long slender 
 pupa, which may be found surrounded with the castings of the 
 larva. The moths first appeared August 19th, and flew in-doors 
 at night attracted by the light. 
 
 Bucculatrix pomonella Clem. (Plate 8, fig. 16, enlarged) is a 
 pale whitish species with yellowish scales, with a black line, 
 which beginning on the middle of the costa, curves around to- 
 wards the apex, ending in the usual eye-like spot on the outer 
 edge, beyond which is a dark marginal line ; in the middle of 
 the wing near the inner side is a longitudinal black oval spot, 
 paler within. The hind wings are pale gray, and the body and 
 legs pale whitish yellow. The wings expand .30 of an inch. 
 We never met with the larva, but the cocoon is long and slen- 
 der, a little blunt at each end and white, with slight longitudinal 
 ridges. It may be found attached to the bark on the branches 
 of the apple tree in May and also in the autumn and winter. 
 Besides differing from L. geminatella in making a regular co- 
 coon, the pupa is a little stouter and the top of the head is 
 blunter. 
 
 Another species, which appears to be undescribed, we would 
 call the Lithocolletis nidificansella (Plate 8, fig. 19, moth; 19 a, 
 cocoon) from the singular way the cocoon is suspended in a 
 leaf like a hanging nest, by silken cords. The single speci- 
 men figured was found early in September, the moth appearing 
 on the llth. The larva feeds on the pear, and when about to 
 transform had evidently drawn the edges of the leaf together 
 by a few threads, and then suspended its thin cocoon in the 
 manner indicated in the figure, the position of the chrysalis 
 being represented by the black line in the centre of the cocoon. 
 The moth is silvery white, with gray hind wings. The fore 
 wings are white, with golden bronze streaks and spots. The 
 costa is white, with three oblique golden lines running out- 
 wards from the edge of the wing towards the outer margin, the 
 inner one being minute, and the outer one broad and less 
 oblique than the others. Beyond, are three apical straight 
 
TINEIM:. 355 
 
 thread-like lines next the eye-like black dot, near which arises 
 a slender pencil of long hairs. Below the costa the wing is 
 spotted with gold, and there is a broad oblique golden dark 
 band directed outwards and reaching to the middle of the 
 wing. The costa is golden on the outer third of its length. 
 The wings expand .36 of an inch. 
 
 Lyonetia is closely allied to the preceding genus, and may 
 be distinguished from it by the head being smooth, the scales 
 being broad and flattened down. Mr. F. G. Sanborn first 
 drew our attention to this moth, having reared it from cocoons 
 found on the apple. From the singular habit of the larva in 
 making a case instead of living in a mine in leaves, we would 
 call it the Lyonetia saccatella (Plate 8, fig. 18 ; 18 a, the larva ; 
 186, the larva with its case, all a little enlarged). The moth 
 is a perfect gem ; its head and short antennae are pale gray 
 and its fore wings are light slate gray on the basal half, and 
 beyond bright orange, enclosing two white bands, one costal 
 and the other arising from the inner edge, both nearly meeting 
 in the middle of the wing, and edged externally with black. 
 There is a square, black, very conspicuous spot near the fringe, 
 in which is a long pencil of black hairs, not shown in the 
 figure. The outer angle of the wing is dusky. It expands 
 .20 of an inch. The larva is a little flattened green worm, 
 and constructs a flattened oval case of the skin of the leaf 
 which it draws about. The case is open at each end, and 
 is roomy enough for the larva to turn around in. It be- 
 comes fully grown by the last of August, and in Octo- 
 ber we have found the cocoons attached to the bark of the 
 tree, where they may also be seen through the winter and in 
 the spring. 
 
 The last important genus, Nepticula, contains the smallest 
 known lepidopterous insects. "Many of them are excessively 
 beautiful, resplendent with burnished copper, gold and silver 
 scales. They may fre observed in May and June, sitting on 
 the trunks of trees or palings ; but to see these atoms requires 
 an experienced eye. Most of the species appear to be double- 
 brooded, and are easily collected in plenty in the larva state. 
 A nut-leaf, containing from twenty to thirty larvae of Nepticula 
 microtheriella, is no unusual sight. In Nepticula the antennae 
 
356 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 are not half as long as the fore wings, which are rather broad 
 while the hind pair are lanceolate. 
 
 "The larvae mine very narrow serpentine patfcs in the inte- 
 rior of leaves, the mine being always on the upper surface. 
 They vary much in form, being sometimes a slender galley or 
 line, either simple, or enlarged towards the end into a blotch. 
 When the larva is full-fed it quits the mine, cutting for this 
 purpose the separated cuticle, in order to weave a minute co- 
 coon." (Clemens.) JV. corylifoliella Clemens mines the hazel. 
 N. platanella Clemens mines the button- wood tree, or syca- 
 more, and N.. amelanchierella Clemens mines the leaves of the 
 June berry in June and July. 
 
 PTEROPHORID^E Latreille. The small group of Plume-moths 
 may be at once known by their fissured and plumed wings. 
 The body is long and slender, with long antennae and legs. 
 They are the lowest moths, the long slender abdomen and fis- 
 sured wings being marks of degradation. The larvae have six- 
 teen legs and are rather hairy. They form no cocoon, but, 
 fastening themselves by the tail to a leaf or stem, shed their 
 larva-skins and appear in the pupa state. Some of the pupae 
 are nearly as hairy as the larvae, others are quite naked. Most 
 of the larvae feed in the early summer months, and the perfect 
 insects appear rather later, though some may be seen in spring. 
 (Stainton, Manual of British Butterflies and Moths.) 
 
 In Pteropliorus the hind margin of the 'fore wing is more or 
 less deeply cleft, while the hind wings are almost divided into 
 three separate slender lobes or plumes. The larvae live in the 
 flowers and stems as well as on the leaves of plants. P. peri- 
 scelidactylus Fitch (Plate 8, fig. 23 ; a, larva ; 6, pupa, enlarged) 
 is tawny yellow, the fore wings having three large white spots 
 and two bands beyond ; the outer line is thread-like, the inner 
 line being much broader on the costal division of the wing, re- 
 appearing at the base of the split in the wing, and below 
 extending out to the lower half of the outer line. The hind 
 wings are darker brown than the rest of the moth, while the 
 third and shortest division of the wing is white, but brown at 
 the end, with the fringe on the outer fourth of the wing still 
 darker brown. The legs are white with tufts of brown scales 
 
PTEROPHORIDJE. 357 
 
 surrounding the hind legs. It expands .65 of an inch. The 
 larvae, received from Mr. M. C. Reed, of Hudson, Ohio, were 
 pale green, with a greenish yellow head. Along the body is a 
 double dorsal paler line, and whitish tubercles, from which pro- 
 ceed very long uneven hairs, and the body is also covered with 
 very short white hairs, giving a frosted appearance to the 
 worm. They are about half an inch long. About the middle 
 of June it changes to the singular chrysalis represented on the 
 plate, and in about a fortnight appears as one of the most deli- 
 cate and graceful of moths. It may be seen flying about our 
 graperies in midsummer, and is attracted to our apartments 
 after nightfall by the lights within. It feeds upon the young 
 leaves of the grape, hiding itself in a hollow ball made of 
 leaves drawn together by threads. The pupa is slender, coni- 
 cal, obliquely truncated at the head, with two long compressed 
 horns placed side by side, and jutting upwards from the mid- 
 dle of its back, and numerous smaller projecting points and 
 ridges. It reminds one of the chrysalids of the butterflies, 
 in its habit of remaining attached by its tail to the plant on 
 which it feeds. 
 
 In Alucita the wings are still farther subdivided, each wing 
 being divided from the base into six distinct feathers. The 
 larva of the European A. polydactyla feeds in the unopened 
 buds of the honey-suckle. It is not hairy, and spins a co- 
 coon. 
 
 Fig. 269. 
 Chrysophanus Thoe Westwood. 
 
358 DIPTERA. 
 
 DIPTERA, 
 
 FLIES may be easily recognized by their having but a single 
 pair of wings, the hinder pair being aborted, and existing in a 
 rudimentary state under the name of "halter." The more es- 
 sential character of the Diptera, however, consists in the greatly 
 centralized, more or less globular thorax. Both the prothorax 
 and metathorax are greatly aborted, and the legs are somewhat 
 weak. As the second pah- of wings are obsolete, the muscles 
 adapted for flying are not developed. 
 
 When the wings are entirely wanting, as in Chionea, the 
 Spider fly, and the Spider-like Bat-tick (Nycteribia), the tho- 
 rax becomes still more globular, and the head of .Nycteribia 
 shows a tendency to become immersed in the thorax, as in the 
 spiders. 
 
 The abdomen is either short, conical and broad at the base, 
 being rarely pedicellate ; or long and cylindrical, or flattened 
 either horizontally or laterally. The conical form of the abdo- 
 men accords with the quick jerky flight of the House fly, as 
 compared with the steady slow flight of Tipula, whose abdomen 
 is very long. The abdomen is composed of from five to nine 
 distinct segments. As Lacaze-Duthiers states, the Diptera as 
 a rule have no true ovipositor like that of bees, etc. , though the 
 three terminal rings are retracted within the abdominal cavity, 
 and are capable of being thrust out like the joints of a telescope. 
 When about to lay their eggs they simply place them in cracks 
 or upon the substances that are to form the future food of the 
 larva, having no organs for boring, though the female Tipulids 
 are able to work the hard tip of the abdomen into the ground 
 where they deposit their eggs. The terminal ring of the abdo- 
 men in the males is provided with clasping organs. 
 
 The head is very free from the thorax in the true flies, and 
 is spherical, hemispherical or conical. The eyes are large, with 
 very numerous facets, and often approach each other closely on 
 the front of the head, especially in the males. The ocelli, when 
 present, are placed on the vertex, and the antennae are in- 
 serted below, in the middle (antero-posteriorly) of the front. 
 
DIPTEEA. 359 
 
 They are either long and evenly jointed, as in the. Tipulidce, 
 often with long cilia, and sometimes verticillate, as in Ce- 
 cidomyia ; or, as in the House fly, the typical form is a 
 short and stout, two to three-jointed antenna, ending in a 
 bristle. 
 
 In the Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera only a portion of the 
 mouth parts are used for sucking in food, but in the present 
 group, the labruni, with the two pairs of appendages, i. e., the 
 maxillae and mandibles, are (when all are well developed, as 
 in the Mosquito) ensheathed partially within the labium, and 
 with the last form a channel for the passage of the fluid food 
 into the mouth. 
 
 The labium forms the under side of the sheath, while the 
 mandibles and maxillae are represented by simple setae, though 
 the one, two, or three-jointed maxillary palpi are present, and 
 in this last character the rostrum of the flies differs from the 
 beak of the Hemiptera. As in the Hymenoptera, the lingua 
 is well, though differently developed, terminating in a large 
 fleshy knob which is divided into two fleshy flaps called the 
 labellce. 
 
 The wings are naked, as in the Hymenoptera, though fine 
 hairs may be detected by the microscope on the veins, becom- 
 ing most apparent in the Psychodae, where the wings are very 
 hairy. In form they are long and narrow, the costal edge 
 being straight, the apex of the wing obtusely rounded, while 
 the oblique outer edge is very long and nearly parallel with 
 the costa, where in the Lepidoptera it is nearly at right an- 
 gles to. it. The veins are six in number, and in their direction 
 and branches (Fig. 270-271) correspond more closely with the 
 venation of the Lepidoptera than any other suborder. The 
 veins are straight, and with fewer branches than in the Lepi- 
 doptera, but with more cross venules, which in the wing of 
 the Tipulidce, remind us of the net-veined Neuroptera. 
 When, as in the Cecidomyiae, the veins become in part ob- 
 solete, only three veins remain, the costal, subcostal and 
 median. The form and size of the cells, especially the submar- 
 ginal ones, are of much use in distinguishing the species, while 
 the changes in the costal and basal .portion of the wing are 
 the most important in classifying the genera and families. 
 
360 DIPTERA. 
 
 The function of the halteres, or "poisers," is still problema- 
 tical. Hicks and Leydig consider them as organs of hearing, 
 while Goureau and Loew think they are concerned in the act 
 of respiration. 
 
 Besides the well known wingless genus Chionea, and the 
 Flea, Sheep-tick, and Braula, Loew, the eminent German ento- 
 mologist, enumerates several European species of Tipula, the 
 females of which have the wings rudimentary ; and also a spe- 
 cies of Limnobia (Idioptera). Epidapus is wingless in both 
 sexes. " Psyllomyia, Apterina and Elachiptera, and species 
 of Tachista, Chersodromia and Geomyza have rudimentary 
 wings in both sexes ; in other forms the wings are only abbre- 
 viated in both sexes (Sciomyza), or in those of the male or fe- 
 male are smaller than in the other sex (species of Empis, 
 Rhamphomyia, Idioptera and Tipula)." 
 
 FIG. 270. Diagram of a wing with two submarginal and five posterior cells (Cladura 
 indivisd). Cells: I, costal; 2, subcostal; 3, marginal; 3*, inner marginal; 4, sub- 
 marginal; 5, second submarginal; 6-10, first to fifth posterior; 11, discal; 12, first 
 basal; 13, second basal; 14, anal; 15, axillary; 16, spurious. Veins: b I, auxiliary; 
 cm, first longitudinal; h, n, o, second longitudinal; h i, praefurca; k n, anterior 
 branch of the second longitudinal vein; Jc o, posterior branch of the second longi- 
 tudinal vein; i k, petiole of the first submarginal cell; ip, third longitudinal; d q 
 rst, fourth longitudinal; q r, fork of its anterior branch; the posterior branch of 
 this fork, ending in r, is Mr. Loew's anterior intercalary vein ; s t, fork of the pos- 
 terior branch of the fourth vein ; the branch of this fork, ending in t., is Mr. Loew's 
 posterior intercalary vein ; e u, fifth longitudinal; / v, sixth longitudinal; g w, 
 seventh longitudinal. Cross-veins: x, humeral; a? a?, subcostal; xxx, marginal; 
 x*, small, or anterior cross-vein; #**, great cross-vein. From Osten Sacken. 
 
 Fig. 270. 
 
 FIG. 271 (1). Wing of Ortalis. , transverse shoulder- vein ; 6, auxiliary vein ; c, 
 d> e > /> 9 and &> first > second, third, fourth, fifth and sixth longitudinal veins; i, 
 small or middle transverse vein; k, hinder transverse vein; I, m, , o, costal vein; 
 p, anterior basal transverse vein ; q, posterior basal transverse vein ; r, rudiment 
 of the fourth trunk; s, axillary incision; A, S, and C, first, second and third costal 
 cells ; D, marginal cell ; E, submarginal cell ; F, G and H, first, second and third 
 posterior cells; 7, discal cell; K, first or large basal cell; L second basal cell, or 
 
DIPTERA. 
 
 361 
 
 M. Marey has determined that a common fly when held cap- 
 tive moves its wings 330 times a second ; a honey bee 190 
 times, and a cabbage butterfly (Pieris) nine times. The wings 
 describe a figure 8 in the air. (Cosmos.) Landois, calcu- 
 lating the rapidity of the vibrations by the sound produced 
 
 anterior of the small basal cells ; M, third basal cell, or posterior of the small 
 basal cells; JV, anal or axillary corner of the wing; O, alar appendage, (alula). 
 
 FIG. 271 (2). Wing of Empis. t, anterior branch of the third longitudinal vein; 
 u, anterior intercalary. 
 
 Fig. 271. 
 
 FIG. 271 (3). Wing of Dasypogon. t,. anterior branch of the third longitudinal 
 vein; u, anterior intercalary vein; v, posterior intercalary vein. From Loew. 
 
 Comparing the wing of Ortalis with that of tine bee and butterfly figured on 
 page 23, we should prefer to use the same terminology and call I, m, n, the margi- 
 nal vein ; A, 6, the costal ; c, d and e the three branches of the subcostal vein ; /, the 
 median vein ; h, the submedian ; and r, the internal vein. In Macquart's system, 
 modified slightly by Sacken (fig. 270), b, I, is the costal; cm, the subcostal; d and e, 
 the median ; /, the submedian, and g the internal vein. 
 
362 DIPTERA. 
 
 thereby, states that the fly, which produces the sound of F, vi- 
 brates its wings 352 times a second, and the bee, which makes 
 the sound of A', 440 times a second. " On the contrary a tired 
 bee hums on E', and therefore vibrates its wings only 330 times 
 in a second. This difference is probably involuntary, but the 
 change of 'tone' is evidently under the command of the will, 
 and thus offers another point of similarity to a true 'voice.' 
 A bee in the pursuit of honey hums continually and content- 
 edly on A', but if it is excited or angry it produces a very dif- 
 ferent note. Thus, then, the sounds of insects do not merely 
 serve to bring the sexes together ; they are not merely ' love 
 songs/ but also serve, like any true language, to express the 
 feelings. (Sir John Lubbock's Address before the London 
 Entomological Society, 1868.) 
 
 Landois describes the sound-producing organs in several 
 genera of flies. "He distinguishes three different tones as 
 emitted by these insects : during flight, a relatively low tone, 
 a higher one when the wings are held so as to prevent their 
 vibrating, and a higher still when the fly is held so that all mo- 
 tion of the external parts is prevented. The last mentioned 
 is the true voice of the insect ; it is produced by the stigmata 
 of the thorax, and may be heard when every other part of the 
 body is cut away. The first sound is caused by the rapid vi- 
 bration of the wings in the air ; the second is caused, or at all 
 events accompanied, by the vibration and friction of the abdo- 
 minal segments, and by a violent movement of the head 
 against the anterior wall of the thorax." The halteres also 
 assist in producing the sound. The vibration of the head in 
 the Diptera during the emission of sound is regarded by this 
 author as due to the transmission of movement from the tho- 
 rax. (Zoological Record, 1867.) Landois also states that 
 there are small species which give a deeper note than larger 
 ones, on account of the wing-vibrations not being of the same 
 number in a given time. (Lubbock.) 
 
 The legs are slender, unarmed, except with stout bristles, as 
 in Asilus ; the joints ar simple, cylindrical ; the tarsi are five- 
 jointed, the terminal joint ending in two claws (ungues), be- 
 tween which is the cushion, or pulvillus, consisting of two or 
 three fleshy vesicles, often armed with hairs, which are tubular. 
 
DIPTEKA. 363 
 
 and secrete an adhesive fluid, which is said to aid the fly in 
 walking up-side-down on polished surfaces. 
 
 The nervous system in the Diptera is characterized by a 
 grouping of the thoracic ganglia into a single mass, from which 
 proceed nerves to the abdomen ; the abdominal ganglia being 
 for the most part aborted. Thus in some Muscidm, GEstrus, 
 and Hippobosca, the nervous cord behind the cephalic portion, 
 consists of a single thoracic ganglion, which gives out nerves 
 in different directions. The higher Muscids, such as Syrphus 
 and Conops have in addition one or two ganglia situated at 
 the base of the abdomen. The higher groups, such as the 
 Tabanidce, Asilidce and Bombylidce have six ganglia, 
 and the Empidce, Tipulidce and Culicidce have more. 
 The larvae usually have one more pair than the adult, having 
 ten and sometimes eleven ganglia, with long commissures, 
 which are often double. 
 
 The digestive system is less complex than usual. As in the 
 two preceding suborders, on one side of the oesophagus is a 
 pedicellate sucking stomach which extends into the abdomen 
 near the true chyle-making stomach. The latter is of the 
 usual intestinoid form, enlarging a little anteriorly, with two 
 coecal appendages beneath on each side, near the cardiac ex- 
 tremity. 
 
 The four, rarely five, Malpighian vessels which correspond 
 to the kidneys of vertebrates, are united before they open into 
 the single or double common outlet. 
 
 There are two main tracheae, and two large air-sacs, one on 
 each side, at the base of the abdomen. The system of tracheae 
 is simplest in the aquatic Tipulid larvae, resembling in this 
 respect the Phryganeae, where the tracheae are subcutaneous 
 and designed to extract the air from the water. 
 
 The testes are generally colored, being provided with a pig- 
 ment layer. They are oval, curved or tortuous glands,, with 
 a short efferent vessel (vas differens). The ovaries consist of 
 three to four chambered tubes, and a short oviduct. The re- 
 ceptaculum seminis is generally triple. A true bursa copulatrix 
 is wanting in the Diptera, but in "many Muscidce the vagina 
 has, as a seminal receptacle or uterus, a spacious and sometimes 
 two-lobed reservoir in which the fecundated eggs are accumu- 
 
364 DIPTERA. 
 
 lated in great numbers, and remain until the larvas are suffi- 
 ciently developed to be hatched, so that these animals are 
 viviparous. In the pupiparous Hippoboscae, the female organs 
 are formed on an entirely special type, corresponding with the 
 remarkable mode of reproduction in these animals." (Siebold.) 
 Near the external opening of the oviduct is a pair of glands 
 designed to secrete the gummy matter coating the eggs. 
 
 The eggs of the Diptera are usually cylindrical, elon- 
 gated and slightly curved, and the surface is smooth, not being 
 ornamented as in the Lepidoptera. In the Tipulidce, the 
 eggs become mature as soon as the pupa skin is thrown off, 
 when they are immediately laid. 
 
 The larvae are footless, white, fleshy, thin skinned, cylindrical 
 and worm-like, spindled or linear in shape. They have, in the 
 higher families, as in the Tipulidce, a distinct head ; but they 
 are often headless, as in the Muscidce, and are then called 
 maggots. They live in mould, decaying organic substances, or 
 in the water. Many maggots are provided with two corneous 
 hooks, probably the mandibles, with which they seize their food. 
 The pupa is either naked (Pupa obtecta, Fig. 276), like the 
 chrysalids of , moths, with the limbs exposed, as in the Tipu- 
 lidce ; or they are coarctate (pupa coarctata, Fig. 
 272) as in the flies generally, the skin of the larva 
 serving to protect the soft pupa within, as during 
 the growth of the pupa the old larval skin separates 
 from the newly formed pupa skin, which contracts 
 slightly. It is then called the puparium, and is 
 usually cylindrical and regularly rounded at each end 
 like the cocoon of moths. Those which have the 
 Fig. 272. pupae obtected, when aquatic and active, are provided 
 with gill-like filaments permeated with tracheae. 
 
 The semipnpa stage of Diptera, corresponds generally with 
 that of the Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera. By an ingenious 
 device Dr. Fitch succeeded in observing in the living insect 
 the processes by which the larva of the willow Cecidomyia 
 (C. salicis) turns to a pupa, and which is usually accomplished 
 during the night. He states that "as the first step of this 
 change, at the anterior end of the larva the cutis or opake 
 inner skin becomes wholly broken up and dissolved into a 
 
DIPTERA. 365 
 
 watery fluid, whereby the thin transparent, outer skin or cuticle 
 is elevated like a vesicle or blister, which occupies about 
 a fourth of the length of the worm on its under side, but 
 is much shorter on its back. The insect is now in its em- 
 bryo-pupa state, having lost its larva form and having not 
 yet assumed its pupa form. In the fluid contained in this vesi- 
 cle, the wings, legs and antennae of the future fly now begin 
 to be developed, whereby the sheaths of the wings at length 
 come to be discerned immediately under the skin. This skin 
 is exceedingly thin, delicate and transparent, like the tunica 
 arachnoides of the human brain, a mere film, as thin as a spi- 
 der's web. Eventually the insect, by gently writhing, ruptures 
 this film at its anterior end, and gradually crowds it off down- 
 wards to the lower end of the vesicle, carrying the minute 
 black jaws of the larva with it. It there remains, becoming 
 dry and torn into shreds which flake and fall off by the con- 
 tinued motions of the insect. At the same time from the 
 remainder of the surface not occupied by this vesicle, a still 
 more slight and delicate film, appearing as though the worm 
 had been wet in milk which had dried upon it, forming an ex- 
 ceedingly thin pellicle or scurf, becomes separated by the same 
 motions of the insect and drops . off in minute scales scarcely 
 to be perceived with a magnifying glass. And now the insect 
 has acquired its perfect pupa form." 
 
 Frederic Brauer has proposed in his "Monographic der 
 CEstriden," a division of the Diptera into two large groups. 
 This division is much more natural than the old one into those 
 with coarctate and obtected pupae. The first group is the Dip- 
 tera orthorapJia, comprising the Nemocera, or flies with long an- 
 tennae, together with the fitratiomyidce, Xylophagidce, 
 Tabanidce, Acroceridce (?), Bombylidcz, Asilidce, 
 Leptidce, Therevidce, JEmpidce and Dolicliopidcc (pass- 
 ing over some small families whose metamorphoses are not 
 known). In these families the larva skin at the last moult 
 splits down along the middle of the back of the three thoracic 
 rings, while a transverse split on the first thoracic ring makes a 
 T-shaped fissure. Through this the mummy-like pupa with free 
 limbs escapes ; or it remains within the loose envelope formed 
 by the old larval skin, when this author calls it a "false pu- 
 parium." 
 
366 DIPTEBA. 
 
 In the second group, the Diptera cydorapha, the true coarc- 
 tate, cylindrical, smooth puparium is formed by the contraction 
 of the larva skin, but is very different in shape from the ma- 
 ture larva ; while this puparium remains in vital connection by 
 means of tracheae, with the enclosed pupa, which escapes from 
 the puparium through a curved seam or lid in the anterior 
 end, and not by a slit in the back. This group includes the 
 Pipunculidce, JSyrphidce, Conopidce^ CEstridce, Mus- 
 cidce and Pupipara. 
 
 Certain Diptera are injurious to crops, as gall producers, but 
 indirectly the Tachinidce are beneficial since they prey on cat- 
 erpillars ; while the greater number act as scavengers in the 
 water and on land, and thus as sanitary agents. Diptera enjoy 
 a wider geographical range than other insects. None of the 
 larger families are exclusively tropical; the Muscidce and 
 mosquitoes are found in the circumpolar regions in abundance, 
 as well as in the tropics. They are the earliest to appear in 
 spring and the latest to disappear in autumn. They are 
 active at all times, in rain or sunshine, day or night, though 
 the greater number prefer the sunshine. 
 
 From their habit of living in vegetables, flowers, and other 
 substances sometimes eaten by persons, physicians occasion- 
 ally are called to treat cases where dipterous larvae have been 
 swallowed and produced sickness. Among those most fre- 
 quently vomited are larvae of various Muscids, especially An- 
 thomyia. " C. Grerhardt records a case in which a patient, after 
 four days illness, vomited about fifty larvae of some dipterous 
 insect, probably a large species of Muscidae. A. Laboul- 
 bene describes and figures in the Annals of the Entomologi- 
 cal Society of France, a larva of Teichomyza fusca Macquart, 
 which is exceedingly abundant in the public urinals in France, 
 and which lives in human urine. He identifies it with the 
 larvae described and figured by Davaine in 1857, as having been 
 evacuated from the intestines of a woman after she had suffered 
 much pain. (Zoological Record for 1867.) Four other cases 
 are on record of larvae having been voided by the urinary pas- 
 sages, or found living in urine, though, as suggested to us by 
 Dr. Hagen, it is possible that in such cases, the worms were 
 not voided, but lived in the urine previous to the time they 
 were detected by the reporters of such cases. 
 
DIPTERA. 367 
 
 Dr. J. Leidy reports in the Proceedings of the Academy of 
 Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, for 1859, a case where a num- 
 ber of specimens which " appeared to be the larvae of the Blue- 
 bottle fly," were given him by a physician, having been vomi- 
 ited from the stomach by a child. Also, a second case where 
 numerous larvae of a species of Anthomyia, " were given to him 
 for examination by a physician who had obtained them from 
 his own person. He had been seized with all the symptoms 
 of cholera morbus, and in the discharges he had detected nu- 
 merous specimens of this, to him, unknown parasite. It was 
 in the latter part of summer, and the larvae, it is suspected, 
 had been swallowed with some cold boiled vegetables. Dr. 
 Leidy had observed the same kind of larva in another case, 
 accompanied with the ordinary phenomena of cholera mor- 
 bus." 
 
 Isidore Geoffroy Saint Hilaire records a case of a larva of 
 the common fly found living in the skin of an infant ; while 
 Dr. Livingston, according to Cobbold, detected a "solitary 
 larva of a species which had taken up its residence in his leg. 
 Dr. Kirk removed this parasite by incision ; and on a second 
 occasion he obtained a similar specimen . from the shoulder of 
 a negro." 
 
 There are about 2,500 species of North American flies de- 
 scribed, and it is probable that the number of living North 
 American species amounts to 10,000. In Europe there are also 
 about 10,000 known species, belonging to about 680 genera. 
 
 The flies of this country, compared with the other groups, 
 have been but little studied, though the habits of manj 7 are so 
 interesting and the species very numerous. The different parts 
 of the body vary much more than in the Hymenoptera and 
 Lepidoptera, and in such a degree as to often afford compara- 
 tively easy characters for discriminating the genera. 
 
 Their habits are very variable. Fresh water aquaria are 
 necessary for the maintenance of aquatic larvae. If quantities 
 of swamp mud and moss with decaying matter are kept in boxes 
 and jars, multitudes of small flies will be hatched out. Leaf- 
 mining and seed-inhabiting species can be treated as micro- 
 lepidoptera, and earth-inhabiting larvae like ordinary cater- 
 pillars. Dung, mould in hollow trees, stems of plants and 
 
368 DIPTERA. 
 
 toadstools contain numerous larvae or maggots, as the young 
 of flies are called, which must be kept in damp boxes. 
 
 Flies can be pinned alive, without killing them by pressure, 
 which destroys their form ; and numbers may be killed at once 
 by moistening the bottom of the collecting box with creosote, 
 benzine or ether, or putting them into a bottle with a wide 
 mouth, containing cyanide of potassium. Minute species can 
 be pinned with very slender pins, or pieces of fine silver wire, 
 and stuck into pieces of pith, which can be placed high up 
 on a large pin. In pinning long-legged, slender species, it is 
 advisable to run a piece of card or paper up under their bodies 
 upon which their legs may rest, and thus prevent their loss 
 by breakage. Of these insects, as with all others, duplicates 
 in all stages of growth should be preserved in alcohol, while 
 the minute species dry up unless put in spirits. 
 
 In the genuine flies the thorax is highly centralized; the 
 maxillae are covered by the labrum, and the labium is not pro- 
 vided with palpi. The females lay eggs from which the larvae 
 are hatched. They are also divided into the Nemocera, com- 
 prising those flies having long, thread-like, many-jointed an- 
 tennae, and embracing the higher families, i.e. the Culicidce, 
 Tipulidce, Bibionidce, and Rhyphidce ; while the remain- 
 ing families of this division are included in the Brachycera, or 
 flies with short antennae, such as the Muscidce, etc. But the 
 fossil genera, Electra and Chryothemis, discovered by Profes- 
 sor Loew in the amber of the Tertiary formation, and a North 
 American genus of Xylophagidce,and the genus Rachicerus, 
 have intermediate characters combining these distinctions, 
 which are thus shown to be somewhat arbitrary. 
 
 CULICIDJE Latreille. The family of Mosquitoes or Gnats 
 have the mouth-parts very long and slender; the maxillae and 
 mandibles are free and lancet-like. Figure 274 (A, larva ; c, 
 its respiratory tube ; B, pupa ; d, the respiratory tubes ; a, the 
 end of the abdomen, with the two oar-like swimming leaves, 
 seen in profile at B, from drawings made by Mr. E. Burgess,) 
 illustrates the transformations of a species inhabiting brackish 
 water in the vicinity of Boston. The larvae remain most of 
 the time at the bottom feeding upon decaying matter, thus act- 
 
CULICID^E. 
 
 369 
 
 Fig. 273. 
 
 ing as scavengers and doing great benefit in clearing swamps 
 of miasms. Occasionally they rise to the surface for air by a 
 jerking movement, inhaling it through the star-like respiratory 
 tube which connects with the tracheae. 
 
 The pupae have club-shaped bodies owing to the greatly en- 
 larged thorax, with two respiratory tubes like those of Corethra, 
 situated on the thorax. They 
 remain near the surface of 
 the water wriggling towards 
 the bottom when disturbed, 
 aided by the two broad 
 swimming caudal leaves. 
 Though active in their hab- 
 its they do not eat. The eggs 
 are laid in a boat-shaped 
 mass, which floats on the surface of the water. About four 
 weeks after hatching the imago appears, so that there are 
 several broods during the summer. The females alone bite, 
 the males not coming into our apartments but spending their 
 lives in the retirement of the swamps and woods. 
 
 This genus abounds in the high Arctic regions as well as in 
 the tropics. Culex pipiens 
 Linn, inhabits Europe, and 
 there are over thirty North 
 American species described in 
 various works. 
 
 Figure 274 represents a ver- 
 tical and side view of the head 
 (greatly magnified) of a com- 
 mon species of Culex found in 
 Labrador. The antennas (a) 
 do not reach as far as the tip 
 of the beak, and are supplied 
 at each joint with a thin ver- 
 ticil of hairs (by an oversight 
 partly omitted in the upper fig- 
 ure). The beak consists of a stout bristle-like labrum (not 
 shown in the figure), the bristle-like maxillae (ma;, with their 
 rather large three-jointed palpi mp) with the mandibles (m) 
 24 
 
 Fig. 274. 
 
370 DIPTEKA. 
 
 which are thicker than the maxillae and barbed at the tip, and 
 the single hair-like lingua, or tongue (/#). These six bristle- 
 like organs are folded together within the hollowed labium (7), 
 which is a little enlarged at the tip, and forms a gutter-like case 
 for the rest of the mouth-parts. The mosquito, without any 
 apparent effort, thrusts them, thus massed into a single awl-like 
 beak, into the flesh, and draws in the blood through the chan- 
 nel formed by the fine bristles, Westwood stating that the la- 
 bium does not penetrate the flesh, but becomes bent upon 
 the breast of the fly. He adds "it is supposed that, at 
 the same time it instils into the wound a venomous liquid, 
 which, while it enables the blood to flow faster, is the chief 
 cause of the subsequent irritation." So far as we are aware 
 no poison glands have been demonstrated to exist in the head of 
 flies, or other six-footed insects, and we are disposed to doubt 
 whether any poison is poured into the wound, and to question 
 whether the barbed mandibles are not sufficient to produce 
 the irritation ordinarily accompanying the punctured wound 
 made by the mosquito as well as other flies. 
 
 A large mosquito, with two light spots on each wing (Ano- 
 pheles quadrimaculatus Say), bites fiercely. It is abundant 
 very early in the spring before other mosquitoes appear. It 
 seems to hibernate in houses. The genus Corethra has the 
 male antennae very long and densely hairy. The wings are 
 finely ciliated as in Culex, and the inner edge has a short 
 fringe. The beautifully transparent and delicate whitish larvae 
 may be seen in early spring in quiet pools. Early in April 
 the pupa state is assumed, disclosing the flies late in the 
 month. 
 
 CHIROXOMID^E Westwood. Of this small family the genus 
 Chironomus includes some small species which are mosquito- 
 like, with feathered antennae, and abound in swarms in early 
 spring before the snow disappears. The larvae are long, slen- 
 der, worm-like ; sometimes of a blood-red color, and aquatic in 
 their habits. While most of the larvae of this genus live in 
 fresh water, we have observed multitudes of the young of C. 
 oceanicus Pack, living on floating eel-grass and in green sea- 
 weeds at low water mark in Salem harbor. There are two 
 
CECIDOMYIM:. 
 
 371 
 
 Fig. 275. 
 
 broods of the larvae, the first becoming fully grown the last of 
 April, the other the last of September, 6 
 
 the flies appearing about the middle of 
 October. The larva (Fig. 275, a, en- 
 larged about three times, with the head 
 greatly magnified ; 6, the labrurn ; c, 
 the mandibles ; d, the labium) is cy- 
 lindrical, whitish and about a quarter 
 of an inch long. The single pair of 
 fore legs (Fig. 276a) are provided with 
 about twenty-five longitudinal rows of hooks, while the anal 
 legs (Fig. 277 ; a, a portion of the dorsal vessel) terminate in 
 a single crown of hooks which can be drawn 
 in out of sight. The worms were found either 
 creeping over the surface of the weeds, or if 
 about to pupate, concealed in a rude thin case 
 or tube, formed of the debris collected on the 
 weeds. It feeds on sea-weeds and small 
 worms. It remains in the pupa state (Fig. 
 276) about two weeks, transforming into a fly 
 (Fig. 278 male, and head of the female) which 
 differs from the true Chironomi in having 
 shorter antennae and smaller palpi, and also in 
 the venation, and the longer thorax. Tanypus 
 resembles Culex in its larva and pupa state, 
 being of similar form. Lyonnet figures a 
 larva which spins a movable case of silk and 
 moss. The eggs of T. varius are laid on the a 
 leaves of aquatic plants, and fastened together Fi s- 277. 
 with gluten. Some species of Ceratopogon, like the mosquito, 
 are blood suckers. The larvae are, however, terrestrial, living 
 in mushrooms, or under the bark of decaying trees. 
 
 CECIDOMYID^E Westwood. The group of Gall-flies comprises 
 minute, delicate, slender-bodied species, whose bodies are 
 clothed with long hairs. The wings have usually three or 
 four longitudinal veins, and are folded over the back. 
 They are gall-flies, the female laying her eggs in the stalk of 
 cereals, and in the stems, leaves and buds of various plants 
 
 Fig. 276. 
 
372 
 
 DIPTEEA. 
 
 which produce gall-like excrescences inhabited by the larvae. 
 The Wheat-midge or Hessian-fly does not, however, produce 
 such an enlargement, while other larvae only produce a folding 
 of the leaf, swelling of a leaf-rib, or arrest the growth of a 
 bud or stalk. 
 
 Before giving a special account of the Wheat-midge, so de- 
 structive to wheat crops, let us, with the aid of Baron Osten 
 Sacken's resume in the Smithsonian Monographs of North 
 American Diptera, Part 1, take a glance at the habits of the 
 family. As a rule the species prefer living plants, though sev- 
 eral species of Epidosis and Diplosis live in decaying wood, and 
 
 C. fuscicollis Meigen 
 (?) has been reared 
 by Bouche from de- 
 caying bulbs of tulips 
 and hyacinths. 
 Others live under the 
 bark of trees, in the 
 cones of pines, or in 
 fungi. Each species 
 is, as a rule, confined 
 to a peculiar species 
 of plant. Some of 
 the larvae live as 
 guests or parasites 
 in galls formed by other Cecidomyiae. Thus C. acrophila and 
 C. pavida live socially in the deformed buds of Fraxinus ; and 
 Diplosis socialis inhabits the gall of Lasioptera rubi. The 
 larvae of some species of Diplosis are parasitic among the plant- 
 lice (Aphis) . Some of the larvae live on the surface of leaves, 
 C. glutinosa having been found by Osten Sacken living on the 
 surface of hickory leaves. 
 
 The rather long, cylindrical eggs laid on the surface of 
 leaves, etc., are generally hatched in a few days, though this 
 period may be hastened or retarded by heat or cold. The 
 young larvae are colorless and transparent, with age becoming 
 reddish or yellow, or white. They are fourteen-jointed. a 
 supposed supernumerary joint being placed between the head 
 and the first thoracic segment. The last abdominal ring is 
 
 278 - 
 
CECIDOMYID^E. 373 
 
 sometimes provided with bristles or horny splnules, frequently 
 curved, which aid the larvae in leaping, as they have been 
 observed by Dufour to do. The head and mouth-parts are 
 exceedingly rudimentary, consisting of a ring with two pro- 
 cesses extending backwards ; the soft fleshy labium protrudes 
 through this ring ; and from the upper part of the ring 
 arise a pair of two-jointed organs, supposed to be rudimental 
 antennae. On the under side of the body at the juncture of 
 the first or prothoracic segment with the supernumerary seg- 
 ment, is a horny piece called, provisionally, the breast-bone 
 (Fig. 284, a), and which is present in most of the larvae of this 
 group. The larvae having no jaws, must suck in the sap and 
 moisture through the mouth, or absorb it through the skin. 
 They make no excrement, like the larvae of the Hive bee and 
 Humble bee. Though their motions are ordinarily slow, just 
 before pupation they are very active. The larvae are not 
 known to moult, though probably the larva skin is shed by 
 gradually peeling off in shreds, in this respect resembling the 
 thin-skinned larvae of bees. 
 
 Some larvae of Cecidomyia before becoming pupae, leave 
 their galls and descend to the ground, while others remain in 
 them, where they spin a slight silken cocoon. Dr. Harris has 
 described the mode of pupation of the larva of C. solids Fitch, 
 stating that "the approaching change is marked by an altera- 
 tion of the color of the anterior segments of the larva, which 
 from orange become red and shining, as if distended by 
 blood. Soon afterwards, rudimentary legs, wings and antennae 
 begin, as it were, to bud and put forth, and rapidly grow to 
 their full pupal dimensions, and thus the transformation to the 
 pupa is completed." This process is undergone beneath the 
 larva skin, out of which the pupa does not draw its body, as in 
 the obtected diptera generally. The larva skin, dried and cy- 
 lindrical in shape, thus serves as a cocoon to preserve the soft 
 pupa from harm. The semipupa of C. destructor thus "takes 
 the form and color of a flax-seed. While this change is going 
 on externally, the body of the insect gradually cleaves from its 
 outer dry and brownish skin. When this is carefully opened, 
 the included insect will be seen to be still in the larva state.* 
 
 *This "larva" is probably the semipupa, or "beginning of the pupa state" 
 (Harris), and may be compared with the semipupa of the Bee. (Fig. 27.) 
 
374 
 
 DIPTERA. 
 
 It does not change its condition and become a true pupa until 
 a few days before it discloses the winged insect." 
 
 The pupa resembles that of the fungus-eating Tipulids, 
 such as Sciara. The bases of the antennae are often produced 
 into horn-like points, which aid the pupa in working its way 
 out from the gall before assuming the fly state, and for the 
 same purpose the back of the abdomen is spinose, and often 
 there are a few bristles at the tip. 
 
 According to Dr. Harris, the Cecidomyia destructor Saj^, or 
 Hessian-fly (Fig. 279), has two broods, as the flies appear in 
 the spring and autumn. At each of these periods the fly lays 
 
 twenty or thirty eggs in a 
 crease in the leaf of the young 
 plant. In about four da}'s, 
 in warm weather, they hatch 
 and the pale red larvae (a) 
 "crawl down the leaf, work- 
 ing their way in between it and 
 the main stalk, passing down- 
 w r ards till they come to a joint, 
 just above which they remain, 
 a little below the surface 
 of the ground, with the head towards the root of the plant" (c). 
 Here they imbibe the sap by suction alone, and by the simple 
 pressure of their bodies they become embedded in the side of 
 the stem. Two or three larvae thus embedded serve to weaken 
 the plant, and cause it to wither and die. The larvae become 
 full grown in five or six weeks, then measuring about three- 
 twentieths of an inch in length. About the first of December 
 their skin hardens, becomes brown and then turns to a 
 bright chestnut color. This is the so-called flax-seed state, or 
 puparium. In two or three weeks the "larva" (or more truly 
 speaking, the semipupa) becomes detached from the old case. 
 In this puparium the larva remains through the winter. To- 
 wards the end of April or the beginning of May the pupa (Fig. 
 279, b) becomes fully formed, and in the middle of May, in New 
 England, the pupa comes forth from the brown puparium, 
 "wrapped in a thin white skin," according to Herrick, "which 
 it soon breaks and is then at liberty." The flies appear just as 
 
 - ?79 - 
 
CECIDOMYnXE . 3 75 
 
 the wheat is coming up ; they lay their eggs for a period of 
 three weeks, and then entirely disappear. The maggots hatched 
 from these eggs take the flax-seed form in June and July, and 
 are thus found in the harvest time, most of them remaining on 
 the stubble. Most of the flies appear in the autumn, but others 
 remain in the puparium until the following spring. By burn- 
 ing the stubble in the fall, their attacks may best be prevented. 
 Among the parasites on this species, are the egg-parasites, 
 Platj^gaster, and Semiotellus (Ceraphron) destructor Say (Fig. 
 140), the latter of which pierces 
 the larva through the sheath of the 
 leaf. Two other Ichneumon para- 
 sites, according to Herrick, destroy 
 the fly while in the flax-seed or 
 semipnpa state. The ravages of the 
 Hessian-fly have been greatly 
 checked by these minute insects, so 
 that it is in many localities not so 
 destructive as it was formerly. Dr. 
 Fitch has suggested that the Euro- Fi s- 14 - 
 
 pean parasites of this insect and the C. tritici, could be im- 
 ported and bred in large quantities, so as to stop their ravages. 
 With proper pecuniary aid from the State this seems feasible, 
 while our native parasites might perhaps also be bred and 
 multiplied so as to effectually exterminate these pests. 
 
 The Wheat-midge, C. tritici Kirby, attacks the wheat in the 
 ear. When the wheat is in blossom the females lay their eggs 
 in the evening by means of the long retractile tube-like extrem- 
 ity of the body, within the chaffy scales of the flowers, in 
 clusters of from two to fifteen or more. In eight or ten days 
 the eggs disclose the transparent maggots, which with age be- 
 come orange colored, and when fully grown are one-eighth of an 
 inch long. They crowd around the germ of the wheat, which 
 by pressure becomes shrivelled and aborted. At the end of 
 July and in the beginning of August the maggots become 
 full fed, and in a few days moult their skins, leaving the old 
 larva skin entire, -except a little rent in one end of it. " Great 
 numbers of these skins are found in the wheat ears immediately 
 after the moulting process is completed." Sometimes the 
 
376 DIPTERA. 
 
 larva descends to the ground and moults there. Harris states 
 that "it is shorter, somewhat flattened, and more obtuse 
 than before, and is of a deeper yellow color, with an oblong 
 greenish spot in the middle of the body. In this state, which is 
 intermediate between the larva and pupa states, which has by 
 Dr. Fitch been termed the u embryo-pupa," and by us "semi- 
 pupa," the insect spins a minute earthen cocoon, which, ac- 
 cording to Dr. Fitch, is smaller than a mustard seed and 
 remains in the ground through the winter, burrowing to the 
 depth of an inch beneath the surface. In the next June 
 
 they are transformed to pupae, 
 with the limbs free. When about 
 to assume the adult state the 
 pupa works its way to the surface 
 in June and July. Its chief para- 
 site, the Platygaster error Fitch 
 (Fig. 135), is allied to P. tipulee, 
 which in Europe destroys great 
 numbers of the midge. 
 
 It is evident that deep plough- 
 ing in the fall or spring will destroy many of the insects, and 
 grain sown after the 15th or 20th of May, in New England, 
 will generally escape their attacks. 
 
 The wings of the Hessian-fly are blackish ; those of the C. 
 tritici are transparent. This last species is orange colored, with 
 long, slender, pale yellow legs, and the joints of the antennae 
 are twenty-four in number in the male, and twelve in the fe- 
 male. 
 
 The Cecidomyia rigidce Osten Sacken (C. salicis Fitch) forms 
 a gall surrounded by the dry and brittle terminal bud at the 
 end of the twigs of the willow. The single larva discloses the 
 fly early in the spring. The bright yellow larva of C. grossu- 
 larice, Fitch, causes the gooseberry to turn red prematurely and 
 become putrid. The pupa of C. pini-inopis is supposed by 
 Osten Sacken to be coarctate, the larva fastening itself to a 
 pine leaf and remaining motionless until the resinous exuda- 
 tion resulting from its attacks hardens, forming a cocoon-like 
 pupa case or puparium. 
 
 Mr. Walsh describes in the " American Entomologist," vo\, i> 
 
CECIDOMYID J3 . 
 
 377 
 
 p. 105, the gall formed by C. strobiloides O. Sacken (Fig. 280 ; 
 a, natural size ; 6, antenna ; 281, gall) which is simply an en- 
 larged and deformed bud of Salix cordata. 
 The fly appears in April, or early in May, 
 oviposits in a terminal bud, and the gall attains 
 its full size by the middle of July. The larva 
 hibernates in a thin cocoon, changing to a pupa 
 in the spring. (Walsh.) Another willow gall 
 made by C. salicis-brassicoides Walsh occurs 
 
 on the Salix longi- 
 folia, the galls 
 forming a mass 
 (Fig. 282) like 
 the sprouts on a Fig. 281. 
 cabbage stalk. Mr. Walsh also 
 describes the Grape-vine Apple 
 Gall (Fig. 283, gall of C.? vitis 
 pomum ; a, natural size ; 6, a 
 2so. section), the fly of which is 
 
 unknown. The gall is divided into numerous cells, each con- 
 taining a larva. It occurs on the wild Frost grape. The 
 Grape-vine filbert gall (C.? vitis-cory- 
 loides Walsh, fig. 284 ; a, head of larva, 
 showing the clove-shaped breast bone ; 
 6, a bunch of galls, natural size ; c, sec- 
 tion of a gall, showing the cell the 
 larva inhabits) is found on the wild 
 Frost grape in Illinois. 
 
 Walsh has described fourteen addi- 
 tional species of Cecidomyise inhabiting 
 eight different species of willow. The 
 specific character of the insects them- 
 selves, are in all their stages of the 
 slightest possible character, but the dif- 
 ferent galls can be readily distinguished. 
 These galls, according to Walsh and 
 other authors, also afford a shelter to so- 
 called "inquiline," or guest species, such as the larvae of other 
 species of Cecidomyia and species of Scatopse and Drosophila, 
 
 282t 
 
373 
 
 DIPTERA, 
 
 1 of the Smithsonian 
 Monographs of Dip- 
 
 Curculionidce and minute Lepidoptera, together with 
 Aphides and species of Thrips, which last are thought by 
 
 Mr. Walsh to prey 
 upon the cecidomyious 
 larvae. 
 
 The subdivisions of 
 the large genus Ceci- 
 domyia are noticed by 
 Osten Sacken in Part 
 6 
 
 Fig. 283. 
 
 tera. As the student can refer to that work, we simply intro- 
 duce the cuts showing the venation of the wing of each genus 
 without farther characterizing them. (Fig. 285, Cecidomyia 
 286, Diplosis ; 287, Colpodia ; 288, Epidosis ; 289, Asynapta 
 
 290, Spaniocera 
 
 291, Lasioptera). 
 Another group of 
 this family are 
 Anarete and its 
 allies (Fig. 292, 
 Zygoneura ; 293, 
 Anarete ; 294, Ca- 
 tocha ; 295, Cam- 
 py lomyza ; 296, 
 Lestremia) which 
 are also related to 
 the Mycetophi- 
 lids. 
 
 We have al- 
 ready referred, on 
 page 51, to cer- 
 tain c e c i d o - 
 myians, which in 
 the larval condi- 
 tion produce 
 Fig. 284. young. We figure 
 
 (297) a species whose metamorphosis has been traced by 
 Nicholas Wagner. The larva is cylindrical in form, like most 
 
CECIDOMYID.E. 
 
 379 
 
 cecidomyian larvae, with the division between the segments in- 
 dicated by rows of minute spines. From the germ-balls (a, 
 nearest the posterior end of the body) the embryo is gradually 
 formed (as at a in the eighth and ninth rings of the body), 
 when they assume a cylindrical form like the eggs of the adult 
 fly of this family. These eggs may be compared with the 
 
 Fig. 291. 
 
 Fig. 292. 
 
 Fig. 293. 
 
 Fig. 294. Fig. 205. Fig. 296. 
 
 "pseudova" of the Aphis, and are developed from the two 
 large fatty bodies (corpora adiposa) which are situated one on 
 each side of the body. These "false eggs" increase in num- 
 ber and develop until the entire cavity of the mother larva be- 
 comes distended with young worms like itself, and which are 
 finally born and may be compared with the wingless broods of 
 Plant-lice.* 
 
 * Grimm thinks that the term "pseudova" is objectionable, as in the paedo- 
 genetic Chironomus the Aviuter ova, as well as the summer, or false ova, develop 
 without previous fertilization by the male. 
 
880 DIPTERA. 
 
 Several species have been found in Europe under the bark 
 of apple trees, etc. Loew states "that the species on which 
 Wagner made his observations is nearly allied 
 to the genus Heteropeza, but still more closely 
 to the genus Monodicrana, from the amber of 
 the Tertiary formation on the shores of the 
 Baltic. (Zoological Record, 1865.) Meinert de- 
 scribes a similar species of worm and its imago, 
 under the name of Miastor metroloas, and charac- 
 terizes the fly as having very short two-jointed 
 palpi, and moniliform eleven-jointed antennae. 
 _ The wings have tlu-ee veins, the middle one of 
 which does not reach the apex of the wing. 
 
 PSYCHODID^E Zetterstedt. The principal genus 
 in this small family is Psychoda, comprising 
 small flies with broad, very short, oval whitish 
 Fig. 297. wings, which, like the body, are very hairy. 
 They may be seen flying and leaping on the banks of, or on the 
 surface of pools, and on windows. The larvae live in dung. 
 The larva of the European P. phalcenoides (so named from its 
 resemblance to a moth) is "long, subfusiform and depressed, 
 with a slender, straight cylindrical tail, longer than the pre- 
 ceding segment. The pupa has two short appendages, thick- 
 ened at the tips behind the head. The abdomen is tapering." 
 (Westwood.) 
 
 TIPULIDJE Latreille. The Daddy-long-legs or Crane-flies 
 are well known by their large size and long legs, and from their 
 close resemblance in form have probably given rise to the 
 humorous stories of giant mosquitoes, which sometimes appear 
 in newspapers. They are characterized by their slender an- 
 tennae and palpi, and their remarkably long legs, while the 
 abdomen is very slender and cylindrical in shape ; the group 
 chiefly differs, however, from other flies, according to Baron 
 Osten Sacken (Monograph of the Diptera of North America, 
 Part iv), in the presence of a transverse V-shaped suture 
 across the mesonotum ; by the completeness of the venation, 
 and the presence of a well developed ovipositor, "with its two 
 
TIPULIDJE. 381 
 
 pairs of long, horny, pointed valves." The larvae (Fig. 298, 
 natural size,. a larva of this family found living under stones 
 in a running brook at Burkesville Junction, Va. In the 
 American Naturalist, vol. ii, it was 
 referred to Tabanus) differ from 
 those of the neighboring families in 
 having but a single pair of spiracles Fig. 2cs. 
 
 at the anal end of the body. The head is rather large, and 
 " embedded nearly up to the mouth in the first thoracic seg- 
 ment ; the mandibles are horny and strong, and forked at the 
 end." The body is grub-like, of a uniform grayish, brownish, 
 or whitish color, and consists ^of twelve segments. 
 
 "The larvae of Ctenophora, living in wood, have a soft, 
 white, smooth skin, similar to that of the larvae of longicorn 
 beetles, or of the As Hi dee, living in similar conditions. 
 The larva of Tipula living in the soil, or the larvae of those 
 species of Ctenophora which are found in wood so far de- 
 composed as to be like soil or vegetable mould, have a much 
 tougher skin, and are covered with a microscopic, appressed 
 pubescence. This toughness, as well as some stiff bristles, 
 scattered over the surface of the skin, is probably useful in 
 burrowing. Thus the larva of Trichocera, digging in vegeta- 
 ble mould or in fungi, is covered, according to Ferris, with mi- 
 croscopic erect bristles. The larva of Ula, living in fungi, has, 
 according to the same author, still longer bristles. Those larvae 
 living in water (as some Limnobina) are soft and slimy, of a 
 dirty greenish color, and with a peculiar clothing of appressed 
 microscopic hairs, not unlike those of the larvae of Stratiomys. 
 The most anomalous of all the Tipulideous larvae are those of 
 the Cylindrotomina. That of Cylindrotoma distinctissima 
 lives upon the leaves of plants, as Anemone, Viola, Stellaria, 
 almost like a caterpillar. It is green, with a crest along the 
 back, consisting of a row of fleshy processes. The larva of 
 Cylindrotoma (Phalacrocera) replicata, according to Degeer, 
 lives in the water, on water plants, and is distinguished by nu- 
 merous filaments, which, although resembling spines, are flexi- 
 ble and hollow on the inside. Degeer took them for organs of 
 respiration." (Osten Sacken.) 
 
 The larvae move by means of minute stiff bristles arising 
 
382 DIPTERA. 
 
 from transverse swellings on the under side of the body. 
 "The end of the body is truncated, and the two spiracles are 
 placed upon the truncature," from the edge of which part arise 
 usually four retractile processes. 
 
 In the aquatic larva of Ptychoptera there is a long respira- 
 tory tube at the end of the body. The pupae (Fig. 299, under 
 side, enlarged twice, represents a pupa of this family) 
 have usually on the thorax two horn-like processes, 
 representing the thoracic spiracles, and in Ptychoptera 
 one of these processes acquires a great length, in order 
 to allow the pupa to breath under water. 
 
 The Tipulids, like other flies with soft bodies which 
 contract in drying, should, as Osteu Sacken suggests, 
 be studied from fresh specimens, especially when the 
 thorax and abdomen, with the ovipositor, are to be ex- 
 rig. 299. amined. The Tipulids of the United States, east of the 
 Mississippi river, closely represent those of Europe, while Os- 
 ten Sacken states that a few species are found to be common to 
 both countries ; and he farther states, with regard to the Tip- 
 uli dee, that "whenever the North American fauna differs from 
 the European in the occurrence of a peculiar generic form, or in 
 a marked prevalence of another, this difference is due, either to 
 an admixture of South American forms, or of forms peculiar 
 
 to the amber fauna." 
 
 The genus Tipula com- 
 prises the largest individuals 
 of the family, and the species 
 may be seen early in May fly- 
 ing over grassy fields. The 
 
 larvse live in garden mould and under moss in fields and woods. 
 T. trivtttata Say is one of our most common species. 
 
 In the genus Limnobia the body is very slender and delicate, 
 though stouter than in Dicranomyia, a closely allied genus, the 
 larvue of which are probably aquatic. "The larvae live in de- 
 caying vegetable matter, especially in wood and fungi." ' ' Van 
 Roser discovered the larvae of the European L. annulus (closely 
 allied to L. cinctipes Say) in decayed wood. They are like an 
 earth-worm in size, as well as in color, and line their burrows 
 with a kind of silken web." (Osten Sacken.) 
 
TIPULID^E. 
 
 383 
 
 Fig. 301. 
 
 The genus Styringomyia (Fig. 300, wing) is an anomalous ge- 
 nus found in gum copal brought from Zanzibar. Of three other 
 anomalous genera belonging here Osten Sacken 
 describes Bhcmphidia; of which the rostrum is 
 long, but shorter than the thorax, with species 
 common to Europe and America, and also found 
 in amber ; Toxorrhina which is found both in 
 North and South America, and Elepliantomyia 
 which occurs only in North America, and has a 
 very slender filiform rostrum, almost as long as 
 the body. E. Westwoodii O. Sacken is found in 
 the Northern States and Canada. 
 
 Erioptera and its allies have two submarginal cells and the 
 tibiae are without spurs at the tip. In Erioptera the wings are 
 pubescent along the veins only, giving the whole wing a hairy 
 appearance. E. venusta O. Sacken has yellowish wings, with 
 two brown bands, and is a common species in the 'Atlantic 
 States. According to Osten Sacken Chionea is 
 closely allied to Erioptera. It is wingless, with six- 
 jointed antennae of anomalous structure, and stout, 
 hairy feet, and a short abdomen, which, according to 
 Harris is provided with a "sword-shaped borer, 
 resembling that of a grasshopper." "These insects 
 occur on snow in winter, the larvae live underground, 
 apparently upon vegetable matter, and have been de- 
 scribed in detail by Brauer in the Transactions of 
 the Zoological and Botanical Society of Vienna for 
 1854." C. valga Harris (Fig. 301, enlarged; fig. 
 302, larva of the European C. araneoides Dalman) 
 is reddish brown, with paler legs. 
 
 Another section of this large family is represented 
 by the genus Limnopliila, in which there are two 
 submarginal cells, usually five posterior cells, and Fig - 302 - 
 the wings and eyes are smooth, and the antennae sixteen- 
 jointed. The larvae live in decayed wood. The larva of the 
 European L. dispar digs longitudinal burrows in the dry stems 
 of Anglica sylvestris. "It is cylindrical, glabrous, of a livid 
 gray, with a horny black head." (Osten Sacken.) 
 
 The anomalous genus Trichocera has pubescent eyes and 
 
384 DIPTERA. 
 
 distinct ocelli on the sides of the frontal tubercle. The species 
 appear in swarms, flying up and down in their mazy dances, 
 especially at twilight early in spring, though they may be seen 
 late in autumn and on warm days in winter. They live in de- 
 caying vegetable matter. Pedicia 
 is a gigantic crane-fly, embracing 
 the largest flies of the family, 
 -d and with Trichocera is the only 
 genus of this family having ocelli. 
 P. albivitta has hyaline wings, with the costa, the fifth longi- 
 tudinal vein and the central cross veins margined with brown. 
 The body is 1.4 of an inch in length. The larva of an Euro- 
 pean species lives in well water. 
 
 The genus Cylindrotoma and its allies, resemble Tipula in 
 the course of the veins lying in the vicinity of the stigma, and 
 Osten Sacken illustrates the re- a 
 
 semblances by the accompanying 
 drawings, of whieh Fig. 303 rep- ^- 
 resents the venation near the 
 stigma of Cylindrotoma; Fig. Fig. 304. 
 
 304 that of the European Phalacrocera replicata, closely allied 
 to the preceding genus, and Fig. 305 that of a genuine Tipula. 
 Ptychoptera is rather stout-bodied and has a singular mem- 
 branous spatulate organ, ciliated on the margin, which is 
 inserted at the base of the halteres. (Osten Sacken.) P. ru- 
 fodncta O. S. is black with reddish bands on the feet. 
 
 The larva of the European P. paludosa has a long respira- 
 tory tube at the end of the body, which it raises to the surface 
 a of the water, and in the pupa 
 
 "one of the horny processes 
 which distinguishes the thorax of 
 all the pupae of the Tipulidce, 
 is enormously prolonged, like- 
 Fig. 303. wise, for the purpose of breath- 
 
 ing under water. (Osten Sacken.) The very singular genus 
 Bittacomorpha is an aberrant form, resembling the neu- 
 ropterous Bittacus. The antennas consist of twenty joints, 
 and the first joint of the tarsi is very much thickened, while 
 the abdomen is very long and slender. J3. clavipes Fabr. is 
 
MYCETOPHILIDJE. 385 
 
 black with a white stripe on the mesonotum, the metanotum 
 and flanks being white, and the legs banded with white. It is 
 a widely diffused species, 
 and presents a most sin- 
 gular appearance when fly- 
 ing, as it moves slowly, 
 with its feet variegated Fi - 306< 
 
 with snow-white, and extending like the radii of a circle. (Os- 
 ten Sacken.) In the genus Protoplasma (Fig. 306, wing) there 
 are six posterior cells in the wing. P. Fitcliii O. Sacken is 
 brownish gray, with brown bands on the wings. 
 
 MYCETOPHILIDJS Macquart. This family comprises small 
 flies, capable of leaping to a considerable height, and provided 
 with two or three ocelli, but not having a proboscis. While 
 the antennae are usually simple, as in all other Diptera, those 
 of Platyroptilon Miersii West wood are forked, having a 
 branch one-half as long as the antenna itself. The thorax does 
 not have a transverse suture, and the wings are without a discal 
 cell, while the coxae are greatly elongated, and the tibiae are all 
 armed with spurs. The larvae are subcylindrical and smooth, 
 with locomotive bristles beneath, and eight pairs of stig- 
 mata ; they are in color white or yellowish. They are gregari- 
 ous, living in decaying vegetable matter, fungi, or in dung, one 
 species forming a gall. They shed their skin several times be- 
 fiore becoming fully grown. Osten Sacken states that the larva 
 of Sdophila which covers the surface of the fungus it feeds in 
 .with a web, is long and almost serpentiform, while those of 
 Bolitopliila and Mycetophila are shorter and stouter, and that 
 of Sciara is intermediate. The pupae of this family are 
 smooth, with rounded angles and edges, whereas those of 
 Tipula are sharp and pointed. They are enclosed in a silken 
 cocoon. Some species of Sciara do not, however, spin cocoons. 
 The larva of Mycetophila scatophora Ferris "carries on its 
 back a sheath formed of its own excrements and moulded by 
 means of a peculiar undulatory motion of the skin. The 
 pupae remain within the sheath, but before assuming this state 
 the larva extends the sheath anteriorly in a short neck, and 
 tapestries it on the inside with a pellicle, which renders it 
 25 
 
386 DIPTEKA. 
 
 more tough and resisting." The larvae of one genus sometimes 
 live gregariously with those of other genera. Thus Osten 
 Sacken found that the "larvae of Sciophila appeared in a de- 
 caying fungus only after the transformations of Mycetophila 
 were entirely completed. For two or three weeks the eggs of 
 the former remained apparently dormant among the bustle of 
 so many larvae of the other species." (Osten Sacken.) Leja 
 resembles Sciophila in its habits. The larvae of Sciara have 
 no bristles on the tubercles of the under side of the body, usu- 
 ally present in the family. They are more gregarious than 
 the other genera, and have the singular propensity of sticking 
 together in dense patches, generally under the bark of trees. 
 When fully grown they sometimes march in processions in a 
 dense mass, sometimes several feet long, and two to three 
 inches broad, and half an inch in thickness, whence the Ger- 
 mans call them " Army- worms." To the same genus belongs 
 the S. (Molobrus) mali of Fitch, the apple midge, whose larva 
 is glassy white and devours the interior of apples. 
 
 Professor E. D. Cope describes in the Proceedings of the 
 Philadelphia Academy, 1867, page 222, a procession of a spe- 
 cies of Sciara observed in September by William Kite, in Ches- 
 ter County, Penn., where he had observed this army- worm for 
 three consecutive years. " This company (consisting by rough 
 estimation of about 2,400) extended over a length of about 
 twenty-two inches, with a breadth of from three-fourths of an 
 inch in the thickest part, to about one-eighth of an inch at the 
 head, and one-tenth at tail ; five or six worms deep in thicker 
 parts. They advanced at the rate of four inches in five 
 minutes, the hinder ones working their way over the top of 
 the rest." These larvae were about one-half an inch long, 
 semitransparent, with black heads. Mr. Kite observed another 
 procession July 8th, which was six feet six inches long. These 
 trains were attacked by larvae of Staphylinids, ants, dipterous 
 larvae and other predaceous insects. Seven other persons in 
 this country have witnessed similar trains, one of which was 
 observed in Lee, Mass. 
 
 The larva of Mycetobia, which agrees closely with that of 
 Rhyphus, is found li\;ing in putrescent sap under the bark of 
 the elm tree. We have found, through the summer, great num- 
 
MYCETOPHILIDJE. 
 
 387 
 
 Fig. 30J. 
 
 bers of an undescribed species (Fig. 307 ; a, larva ; 6, pupa, 
 magnified three times. Fig. 308, head of the larva greatly en- 
 larged ; a, antenna ; Z, labruin ; m, mandible ; wee, maxillae ? 
 mp, maxillary palpi? #, gena?) which seems to differ from 
 Dnfour's figure of the European M. pallipes in the form of the 
 wings and their venation, as well as in the 
 form of the pupa. The larvae were first seen 
 in abundance on the 26th of June in the 
 crevices of the bark of the elm from which 
 flowed a sour sap mingled with dust, and in 
 this putrescent mass the slender white worms 
 glided swiftly about. The body is long and 
 slender, scarcely tapering towards either end, 
 and consists of twelve segments besides the 
 head. Like the larva of Scenopinus and 
 Thereva, each abdominal ring is subdivided 
 by a well defined false suture ; but the hinder 
 division in this larva is about one-fourth 
 shorter than the rest of the ring. It is .36 
 of an inch long. The head is pale honey yellow, and the body 
 pure white. The three thoracic rings are marked posteriorly 
 with honey yellow, with a pair of large round pale spots low 
 down on the side of each ring. It moves with great activity, 
 keeping its mouth-parts constantly moving, pushing them into 
 the dirt. The pupae were found sticking 
 straight out from the bark, being attached 
 by the spines on the tail. They were 
 straight, long, cylindrical, the thorax 
 being but little larger than the base of 
 the abdomen. The head is square in 
 front, ending in two lateral horns, and 
 the abdomen is covered with stout 
 spines, especially at the tip. It is .20 
 of an inch long, and is pale honey yel- 
 low and covered with dirt. The flies appeared June 27th, and 
 for six weeks after flew about the trees. The head is black, 
 the thorax and abdomen brown, with a leaden hue ; the abdo- 
 men is a little paler, being whitish beneath, but darker towards 
 the tip. The legs are pale, a little darker externally, especially 
 
 Fig. 308. 
 
388 DIPTERA. 
 
 towards the tips of the joint, and the hind tarsi are a little 
 dusky. Its length is .10 of an inch, not including the an- 
 tennae. It may be called the MycetoUa sordida. 
 
 PULICID.E Westwood. While this group has been considered 
 by many writers as forming a distinct " order," or suborder of 
 insects, equivalent to the Diptera, under the name of Aphanip- 
 tera, we prefer, with Straus Durckheim, to consider them 
 as wingless flies, and perhaps scarcely more abnormal than 
 Nycteribia or Braula. Instead of placing 
 them at the foot of the suborder, we prefer, 
 in accordance with a suggestion made by 
 Haliday (Westwood, Class. Insects, vol. 
 ii, p. 495, note), who places them near the 
 Mycetophilids, or "fungivorous Tipulids," 
 to consider them as allied to that group. 
 The body is much compressed; there are 
 two simple eyes which take the place of the 
 compound eyes, the epicranial portion of 
 the head being greatly prolonged, while the 
 labrum is wanting, and the labium is small and membranous ; 
 the four-jointed labial palpi, always absent in other diptera, 
 are long and slender. The form of the larva, including the 
 shape of the head and its habit of living in dirt, and its way 
 of moving about, as also its transformations, certainly ally the 
 flea with the Mycetophilids. 
 
 We have received from Dr. G. A. Perkins of Salem, the eggs 
 and larvae of the species infesting the cat, from which we have 
 also hatched the young larvae. The eggs (of which, according 
 to Westwood, eight or ten are laid by one female) were shaken 
 from the cat's fur, whence they are said to fall upon the floor 
 and there hatch, the larvae living in the dust and dirt on the 
 floor, and feeding on decaying vegetable substances. The 
 egg is oval cylindrical, and one forty-fifth of an inch long. 
 The larva when hatched is .06 of an inch long (Fig. 309, the 
 larva four days old ; a, antenna ; 6, end of the body) white, 
 cylindrical, the .sides of the body being a little expanded, 
 giving it a slightly flattened appearance when seen from above. 
 The segments are rather convex, the sutures being deeply in> 
 
PULICIDJ3. 
 
 389 
 
 pressed. There are four long hairs on the side of each ring, 
 becoming longer towards the end of the abdomen, where they 
 are longer than the body is thick. The terminal segment of 
 the body is considerably smaller than the one preceding it, and 
 has two long spines arising from the tergal part of the ring ; 
 these spines seem to assist the larva in moving through the. 
 hairs and dust in which it lives. The well developed head is 
 rounded, conical, narrower than the prothoracic ring, pale 
 honey yellow, and with long three-jointed antennae. 
 
 Mr. Emerton, who made the drawings here given, informs 
 me that the larvae, when fifteen days old, did not differ from 
 those freshly hatched. I have been unable to discover that it 
 moults. Westwood states that "when fully grown, which 
 occurs in summer in about twelve days, the larvae enclose 
 themselves in a 
 small cocoon of 
 silk. Bosel, how- 
 ever, observed 
 that some of the 
 larvae underwent 
 their transforma- 
 tions without 
 forming any co- 
 coon." "The pu- 
 pa is quite inac- 
 tive, with the legs 
 enclosed in separate cases. The period of the duration of 
 the pupa state varies from eleven to sixteen days." Our 
 specimens were hatched early in October, and they probably 
 pass the winter before changing, as Westwood states that 
 they pass the winter in the larva state. . The species here rep- 
 resented (Fig. 310, 6, maxillae, and their palpi, a; d, the man- 
 dibles, which are minutely serrated ; c, labial palpi, the labium 
 not being shown in the figure) was found on the person of a 
 man, though it seems to differ specifically from Westwood's 
 figure of P. irritans Linn., the human flea; other species live 
 on the dog, cat, squirrel, and other quadrupeds and various 
 birds. The antennae are concealed in a small cavity situated 
 behind the simple eyes and are four-jointed ; in P. musculi 
 
 Fig. 310. 
 
390 DIPTERA. 
 
 Duges, they are external. Kirby describes a gigantic species two 
 lines long, from British America. As a preventive measure in 
 ridding dogs of fleas we would suggest the frequent sweeping 
 and cleansing of the floors of their kennels, and renewing of 
 the straw or chips composing their beds chips being the best 
 material for them to sleep upon. Flea-afflicted dogs should be 
 washed every few days in strong soapsuds, or weak tobacco, or 
 petroleum water. A writer in the "Science-Gossip" recom- 
 mends the use of Persian v lnsect Powder, one package of 
 which suffices for a good sized dog. The powder should be 
 well rubbed in all over the skin ; or the dog, if small, can be 
 put into a bag previously dusted with the powder ; in either 
 case the dog should be washed soon after." 
 
 One of the most serious insect torments of the tropics of 
 America is the JSarcopsylla (Rynchoprion of Oken) penetrans 
 Linn., called by the natives, the Jigger, Chigoe, Bicho, Chique, 
 
 or Pique. (Fig. 311 much en- 
 ^ larged ; a, the gravid female, 
 |L j natural size) . The female during 
 the dry season, bores into the 
 feet of the natives (though it also 
 311 - lives in dogs and mice, which 
 
 accounts for its presence in houses), the operation requir- 
 ing but a quarter of an hour, usually penetrating under the 
 nails, and lives there until her body becomes distended with 
 eggs ; the abdomen swelling out to the size of a pea. The 
 presence of the insect often causes distressing sores. The 
 Chigoe lays about sixty eggs, according to Karsten, deposit- 
 ing them in a sort of sac on each side of the external opening 
 of the oviduct. The larvae do not live in the body of the 
 parent, or of its host, but, like those of Pulex, live free on 
 the ground. The best preventives against its attacks are 
 cleanliness and the constant wearing of shoes or slippers when 
 in the house, and of boots when out of doors. 
 
 SIMULID^E Loew. Simulium molestum (Fig. 312 ; a, larva 
 of this or an allied species, magnified), the Black-fly, represents 
 this family. Its antennae are eleven-jointed; the palpi are 
 four-jointed, with long, fine terminal joints, and the ocelli are 
 
BIBIONID^. 
 
 391 
 
 wanting, while the posterior tibiae, and first joint of the hind 
 tarsi are dilated. The body is short and thick. The labrum 
 is free, sharp as a dagger, and the proboscis is well 
 developed and draws blood profusely. The species 
 are numerous. The Black-fly, so well known as 
 the torment of travellers in the North, is black, 
 with a broad silvery ring on 
 the legs. We have received a 
 large species from Mr. E. T. 
 Cox, called in the West the 
 Buffalo fly. On the prairies [ 
 of Illinois it has been known 
 to plague horses to death by 
 Fig. 312. its bifce> The ^ (Rhagio) 
 
 Columbaschense Fabr. in Hungary abounds in im- 
 mense numbers, often killing cattle. Other species 
 abound in the American tropics where they are a 
 great scourge. The cylindrical larva of the Euro- Fi &- 312 " 
 pean species is furnished with short antennae and two flabelli- 
 form appendages. On the under side of -the prothorax is a 
 thick conical and retractile tubercle, and there are several 
 curved filaments at the end of the body. The pupa has eight 
 very long lateral filaments on the front of the thorax, and the 
 posterior end of the body is enclosed in a semioval membra- 
 nous cocoon, open in front, and posteriorly attached to some 
 plant. The fly leaves the pupa beneath the water. 
 
 BIBIONID^E Macquart. This group is characterized by hav- 
 ing three ocelli and the prothorax much developed ; the wings 
 have no discal cell. The coxae are not prolonged and the em- 
 podium (supplementary cushion) is proportionally long, while 
 the pulvilli are sometimes wanting. The typical genus, Bibio 
 of Geoffroy, has short, nine-jointed antennae, five-jointed palpi, 
 and the eyes of the male are large and contiguous, while those 
 of the females are small. The larvae are cylindrical, footless, 
 with ten spiracles, and furnished with transverse rows of short 
 hairs, being found in dung, but they mostly feed on the roots 
 of grass, whole patches of which appearing as if winter-killed. 
 Robins destroy immense numbers of them. Westwood has 
 
392 DIPTERA. 
 
 found the pupae enclosed in smooth oval cells ; they are naked, 
 the thorax gibbous, with the rudiment al wings and legs very 
 short. Bibio albipennis Say, a white-winged species, is double- 
 brooded, and flies in swarms in June and October, alighting 
 slowly on the passer-by. 
 
 RHYPHID^E Loew. This family is known by the wings hav- 
 ing a perfect discal cell, while the empodium resembles a 
 pulvillus ; the pulvilli being wanting. The single genus 
 Khyphus has short fourteen-jointed antennae, the second joint 
 of the palpi swollen, and the legs are not spiny. Rhyplms 
 alternatus Say, is common on windows. 
 
 The succeeding families belong to the Bracliycera, or short- 
 horned flies. 
 
 XYLOPHAGID^E (Macquart). This family is known by the 
 three basal cells of the wings being very prolonged, the an- 
 nulated third joint of the antennae always without a style or 
 terminal bristle, and by the spurred tibiae. Xylophagus has 
 ten-jointed antennae, with the ovipositor very long. The larva 
 is cylindrical, with an oblique scaly plate on the tail, while the 
 head ends in an acute horny point. Loew doubtfully refers 
 the genus Bolbomyia, found fossil in the Prussian Amber, to 
 this group. 
 
 STRATIOMYIDJE Latreille. The wings in this group have the 
 three basal cells much prolonged, and the costal vein reaching 
 only to the middle of the wing. The third joint of the an- 
 tennae is sometimes subdivided into several portions. The 
 tibiae are spurless and the pulvilliform empodium is much 
 developed. The coarctate pupa retains the larva skin nearly 
 in its original form. The genus Beris is easily distinguished 
 by having seven, instead of five (the usual number) abdominal 
 segments visible. In Sargus the eyes of the males approxi- 
 mate much closer than in the females. They are showy insects, 
 with bright metallic colors, and are widely distributed over the 
 earth. The larva lives in the earth, is oval oblong, narrowing 
 before ; the head is scaly, with two ocelli, and armed with two 
 hooks, while the body is hairy. Fig. 313 represents a pupa 
 
TABANIDJE. 393 
 
 belonging probably to this family. Stratiomys has a broad flat- 
 tened abdomen, and the scutellum spined. The larvae are 
 aquatic, being apodal and flattened, and slen- 
 der especially at the end of the body, which is 
 elongated and has a simple terminal spiracle 
 "surrounded by a great number of bearded 
 hairs, which form a coronet, and which are 
 capable of being closed up so as to retain a 
 bubble of air, and by the assistance of which 
 the insect suspends itself at the surface of the 
 water for respiration. On assuming the pupa 
 state, the insect floats at liberty in the water, 
 the enclosed pupa occupying only the anterior Fig. sis. 
 portion of its larva skin." 
 
 TABANID^E Latreille. In this important family the three 
 basal cells of the wings are much prolonged ; the third longitu- 
 dinal vein is furcate, and the tegulae are rather large. The pro- 
 boscis of the male has four, that of the female six bristles. The 
 third joint of the antennae is annulate and always without 
 style or bristle. The eyes are large, and the thorax oblong and 
 flattened above. The female Horse-flies are troublesome from 
 their formidable bite. The pupae are obtected, resembling the 
 adult flies. Pangonia has a proboscis often longer than the 
 body itself. Chrysops, the Golden-eyed fly, is very trouble- 
 some, unceasingly flying about one's head, striving to alight 
 and draw blood. The two basal joint's of the antennae are 
 prolonged, hairy, the third spindle-shaped. Clirysops niger 
 Macquart and C. vittatus Wiedemann are the two most abun- 
 dant species. 
 
 Tabanus, the Horse-fly, is known by its large size and 
 powerful biting and sucking apparatus. Like the mosquito, 
 the male horse-fly does not bite, but lives on the sweets of 
 flowers. The accompanying sketch shows the structure of the 
 proboscis of the female of the Green-head fly, Tabanus lineola 
 Fabr. (Fig. 314 ; a, five terminal joints of the antennae ; #>, 
 labrum ; m, mandibles ; m#, maxillae ; mp, the two-jointed, 
 large, stout, maxillary palpi ; ?, the tongue). Its bite is most 
 painful and poisonous to many. Mr. Walsh has shown, 
 
394 
 
 DIPTERA. 
 
 however, that in its larval state the horse-fly is useful to man, 
 as it feeds on snails and probably the larvae of other root- 
 eating insects. The larvae of other species are aquatic, living 
 under submerged objects. Walsh describes 
 a greenish transparent larva which is cylin- 
 drical, twelve-jointed, the body being most 
 slender towards the head, which is small, 
 truncate, conical, the anterior part capable 
 of extension, with short, fleshy, exarticulate 
 antennae and without ocelli. There are six 
 pairs of dorsal fleshy tubercles. On the un- 
 rig. 314. der side of the abdominal segments are six 
 retractile false legs, and a single anal retractile proleg. It 
 is, when disturbed, vigorous and restless, swimming quickly, 
 often elevating the anal slit, in which the stigmata are probable 
 placed, out of the water to take in the air. The pupa is cylin- 
 drical, obtuse at the head, tapering a little posteriorly, and is 
 of a pale yellowish brown. There are six 
 tubercles at the mouth, above which are 
 the trigonate three or four-jointed antennae. 
 The abdominal segments are furnished with 
 a ring of appressed bristles directed back- 
 Fig. 315. wards, and the anal spine is large, trun- 
 cated, and terminates in six small, stout spines. T. atratus 
 Fabr. is a common species ; it is black, covered with a whitish 
 bloom, and expands nearly two inches, while the Tabanus cinctus 
 Fabr., or Orange-belted horse-fly, is smaller and less abundant. 
 Of the smaller species -the Tabanus lineola Fabr. (Fig. 315) 
 is so named from the whitish line along the abdomen. This 
 fly is our most common species, thousands of them ap- 
 pearing during the hotter parts of the summer, when the sun 
 is shining on our marshes and Western prairies ; horses and 
 cattle are sometimes worried to death by their harassing bites. 
 In cloudy weather they do not fly and they perish on the cool 
 frosty nights of September. 
 
 LEPTID^E Meigen. This family is easily distinguished from 
 the preceding by the simple third joint of the antennae, which 
 are provided with a simple or thickened styliform bristle. 
 
ASILID.E. 395 
 
 The tibiae are spurred ; the larvae slender, cylindrical ; the 
 body widening posteriorly, terminates in two points, while 
 the pupa is naked, incomplete, with transverse rows of 
 spines on the abdomen, becoming largest at the tip. The 
 larva of Leptis vermileo Fabr. lives at the bottom of holes 
 which it makes in sand, and thus, like the ant-lion, entraps 
 other insects. 
 
 CYRTID^E Loew. Known by the greatly inflated thorax and 
 abdomen this family is of but small extent, comprising species 
 which have the proboscis rather obsolete, or long and bent be- 
 neath the body. Such are the genera Cyrtus, Acrocera and 
 Oncodes. The genus Hirmoneura represents the family HIR- 
 
 MONEURID^E of LO6W. 
 
 MYDASID^E Leach. This family, represented in this country 
 by the single genus Midas, is easily known by the large size of 
 the species, and by the long clavate antennae, the fleshy labium, 
 and the minute empodium. The larva and pupa are 
 said by Harris to almost exactly resemble those of 
 the rapacious Asilidae. The larva of Midas davatus 
 Drury is cylindrical, whitish, tapering before and 
 almost rounded behind, with two spiracles in the last 
 segment but one of the abdomen, and is two inches 
 long. It lives and undergoes its transformations in 
 decaying logs. (Harris.) The pupa (Fig. 316, drawn 
 from a specimen in the Harris collection) is about 
 an inch and a quarter long, brown, nearly cylindrical, Flg ' 316 ' 
 with a forked tail ; there are eight spines on the forepart of 
 the body. Midas fulvipes Walsh has similar habits and its 
 transformations are similar ; the larva is insectivorous. 
 
 (Asilici) Latreille. These large, stout, Robber-flies, 
 as the Germans style them, are covered with stiff hairs, and 
 have long abdomens. The third joint of the antennae is sim- 
 ple ; the labium forms a horny sheath, and the empodium is 
 like a horny bristle. They are rapacious, seizing other insects 
 and flying off with them, like the fossorial hymenoptera. Da- 
 sypogon (Fig. 271, 3, wing) has the second longitudinal vein 
 
396 DIPTERA. 
 
 running into the border of the wing, while the anterior tibiae 
 end in a hooked spine. 
 
 The genus Laphria is large, stout-bodied, very hirsute, the 
 second longitudinal vein runs into the first, and the style of 
 the antennas is either thick and stout, and generally wanting, or 
 entirely obsolete. In their loud buzz, swift, peculiar flight and 
 general appearance, the species strikingly resemble humble 
 bees. Laphria thoracica Fabr. is nearly an inch long, and is 
 black with yellow hairs on the thorax. Asilus is much longer, 
 with an acutely pointed prolonged abdomen, and the species are 
 often nearly naked, while the more essential characters lie in 
 the union of the second longitudinal vein with the first, and the 
 termination of the antennae in a distinct bristle. The larvae 
 of Asilus sericeus Say, which feed on roots of the rhubarb 
 plant, according to Dr. Harris, are yellowish white, about 
 three-quarters of an inch long, a little flattened and tapering 
 at each end, with a small brown, retractile head, which is pro- 
 vided with two little horny brown hooks. The brown pupa is 
 naked, with a pair of tubercles on the front of the head, three 
 spines on the side, a forked tail, and a transverse row of fine 
 teeth across each abdominal segment, by which they are en- 
 abled to work their way to the surface. The Trupanea apivora 
 Fitch, or Bee-killer, captures the honey bee on the wing, one 
 having been known to kill 141 bees in a day. (Riley.) 
 
 THERE VID^E Westwood. This small group is characterized 
 by the wings having the three basal cells much prolonged ; the 
 third longitudinal vein is furcate, and the antennae have a ter- 
 minal style of variable form, sometimes wanting. There is no 
 empodium, and the labium is fleshy. The larva is very long 
 and slender, the abdominal rings having a double segmented 
 appearance, with two respiratory tubes at the end of the body. 
 They are found in garden mould and rotten wood. The pupa is 
 oblong, with two spines on the front of the head, and three on 
 the side of the thorax. Westwood states that the larva of a 
 species of TJiereva, which is like a wire-worm in shape, feeds 
 on the pupae of some moths. 
 
 BOMBYLIID.E Latreille. These pretty flies are very hirsute, 
 
397 
 
 with an oval body and long proboscis ; the wings have the 
 three basal cells much prolonged, with the anterior intercal- 
 ary vein present almost without exception, the posterior always 
 wanting. The third joint of the antennae is simple, and the 
 empodium quite rudimentary. They are exceedingly swift on 
 the wing and are found in sunny paths and glades early in the 
 spring and throughout the summer. They can only be cap- 
 tured when alighted on the ground. The eggs are laid in the 
 nests of bees, and the half cylindrical, long, fleshy, smooth, 
 unarmed larvae devour the bee larvae, while the pupa is spiny, 
 armed on the head with horny lamellae. In the genus Bomby- 
 lius the body is ovate, with long dense hairs and a small head. 
 The eyes of the male are grown together, and the legs are very 
 slender. A species is known in England to lay its eggs at the 
 opening of. the holes of Andrena, whose larvae and pupae are 
 devoured by the larvae of the fly. Systropus is very long and 
 slender, and wasp-like, as in Conops, with the proboscis equal-, 
 ling the thorax in length. The genus Anthrax is more flattened 
 and oblong in shape than Bombylius, with a short proboscis ; 
 the eyes are not connected in the males. The species are 
 gaily colored, the wings often partially black ; they fly in paths 
 in the hottest days of summer. The larvae are parasitic on 
 bees, and in their transformations closely resemble those of 
 Bombylius. Audouin has found Anthrax morio in the nest of 
 Anthophora, and Westwood has found the pupa-skin in the 
 nest of Megachile, while the larva has, in England, more re- 
 cently been found to be parasitic in the nests of certain An- 
 drenidae. We have received from Mr. J. Angus the larva and 
 pupa (Plate 4, figs. 6, 7) of Anthrax sinuosa Wiedemann, 
 which is parasitic in the nest of Xylocopa Virginica. 
 
 SYRPHID^: Leach. These gaily colored flies, so useful to ag- 
 riculturists from their habit of feeding upon Plant-lice, closely 
 resemble the wasps in form and coloration, having hemis- 
 pherical heads, large broad eyes, and rather flattened bodies 
 ornamented with yellow bands and spots. The wings have the 
 three basal cells much prolonged, the third longitudinal vein 
 simple, a spurious longitudinal vein between the third and fourth 
 longitudinal veins ; while the fourth longitudinal vein is united 
 
398 
 
 DIPTERA. 
 
 Fig. 317. 
 
 at its end with the third, and there is no intercalary vein. The 
 genital armor of the male is unsymmetrical, and there is no 
 empodium. They hover in the hot sun 
 over and -about flowers, resting upon 
 them to feed on their sweets. The 
 larvae either live in the water, when the 
 body ends in a long extensile breathing 
 tube ; or are terrestrial, living in decay- 
 ing wood, or parasitically in nests of 
 bees, or, as in Syrphus, live among plant- 
 lice. The singular spherical larva of Mi- 
 crodon globosus (Fig. 317 ; a, puparium ; 
 s, spiracular tubercles ; v, vent ; 6, 
 anterior view of the same ; c, larva just 
 before pupation) is found, according to 
 Mr. Sanborn, under sticks in company 
 with shells. 
 
 Milesia strikingly resembles, in its style of coloration and 
 form, the common large yellow wasp. The antennae are short, 
 drooping, with a stout oval terminal joint, and a subterminal 
 bristle. M. excentrica Harris, with its yellow spots and bands 
 resembles a wasp. 
 
 Eristalis is well known by its aquatic "rat- tailed" larvae, the 
 abdomen terminating in a long respiratory tube equalling the 
 body in length, with two stigmata at the end, which they pro- 
 trude out of the water. There are seven pairs of prolegs, more 
 distinct than in any other genus in the entire suborder. The 
 pupa is found buried in the earth. The body of the larva shor- 
 tens and hardens, forming the puparium, which is provided 
 with four horns, serving as organs of respiration. 
 
 The species of Eristalis* are seen flying abundantly about 
 
 * Jules Kunckel has recently detected a true peritrachial circulation in Eristalis, 
 thus confirming the discoveries of Blanchard and Agassiz. He saw the blood 
 imprisoned between the inner air tube and the envelope of the trachea, and pene- 
 trating into the capillaiy termination of those tracheae, and saw the flow of the 
 blood globules in the peritracheal space. This peritracheal circulation thus seems 
 to correspond with the arterial circulation of the vertebrate animals, and the mi- 
 nute branches of the tracheae are capillaries, and the blood is arterial. "En 
 rtsum&, the tracheae of insects, air tubes in their central portion, blood vessels in 
 their peripheral portion [i. e., the space surrounding the air tube] become at their 
 extremities true arterial capillaries." "The blood in the peritracheal space re- 
 mains through all its course in contact with the oxygen; it arrives at the capilla- 
 
SYEPHID^E. 
 
 399 
 
 Fig. 318. 
 
 Fig. 319. 
 
 flowers in the spring, and are common throughout the spring. 
 They scoop up the pollen of the flowers with their maxillae. 
 We have received from Mr. E. T. Cox the 
 puparium (Fig. 318) of a species which in- 
 habits the salt vats of the Equality Salt 
 Works of Gallatin County, 111. The pupa- 
 rium of a species of Helophilus closely re- 
 sembling that figured by Westwood (Class. Insects, Fig. 131, 
 8), has been found living in the salt water canal of the 
 
 Naumkeag Factory leading 
 into Salem Harbor, and is in 
 the Museum of the Peabody 
 Academy. 
 
 Closely allied to Eristalis is 
 the genus Merodon, of which 
 M. bardus Say (Fig. 319 ; a, 
 puparium, natural size) is fre- 
 quently met with. Its thorax, 
 the first abdominal ring and the side of the second are cov- 
 ered with short yellow hairs ; it is .70 of an inch in length. 
 The puparium is of the same length, and 
 is cylindrical, ending suddenly in a re- 
 spiratory filament a little longer than the 
 body; it is quite stout, contracting be- 
 yond its middle into a slender filament. 
 On each abdominal ring is a pair of small, 
 low, flattened tubercles crowned by a 
 number of radiating spinules. Its larva 
 is undoubtedly aquatic, like that of Eris- 
 talis. Mr. Sanborn has also reared from the pupa state Jtf. 
 Narcissi, which probably lives in the soil about 
 decaying bulbs, as the puparium has no respira- 
 tory tube, but instead a very short sessile trun- 
 cated projection, scarcely as long as it is thick, 
 with a pair of stigmata in the end ; the body is 
 cylindrical and rounded alike at each end, with a slight con- 
 
 ries perfectly vivified; it is a true arterial blood. These capillaries are not in 
 communication with the venous capillaries ; the blood is taken up by the tissues, 
 it nourishes them and flows into the venous lacunae, and the lacunar currents 
 carry it to the dorsal vessel." Annales des Sciences tfaturelles, 1868. 
 
 Fig. 320. 
 
 Fig. 321. 
 
400 DIPTERA. 
 
 traction behind the middle of the head ; its surface is rough- 
 ened with transverse wrinkles, but no regularly marked sutures, 
 indicating the divisions between the segments, are apparent. 
 It has been introduced from Europe, according to Mr. Sanborn, 
 by the importers of Dutch bulbs. 
 
 The well known genus Syrplius (Fig 320, S. politus Say) so 
 useful in reducing the immense numbers of plant-lice, lays a 
 single egg in a group of plant-lice, which hatches out a footless, 
 eyeless, flattened, transversely wrinkled, gaily colored green and 
 purple maggot (Fig. 321) having a very extensile body, which 
 enables it to reach up and grasp the Aphis by the peculiar 
 sucking mouth-parts. When fully grown the larva adheres by 
 means of a glutinous secretion to a leaf, its body contracts and 
 hardens, forming a half cylindrical puparium. 
 
 The species of Volucella are parasitic in their habits, the 
 larvae feeding on those of Bombus. They are long, "narrowed 
 in front, transversely wrinkled, with fine lateral points, and the 
 tail is armed with six radiating points ; the mouth is armed 
 with two bifid mandibles, and three pairs of tentacula." 
 (Westwood.) The pupae are not known. The fly would be 
 easily mistaken for a bee, nearly attaining the size of the 
 worker Humble-bee, being remarkably plump and hirsute. J. 
 Kiinckel states that in Europe two species are known to live 
 in the nests of Vespa. 
 
 CONOPID^E Leach. The species of this family bear some 
 resemblance to the wasp, Eumenes, from their long, slen- 
 der, pedicelled abdomen. The three basal cells of the wings 
 are large, the third closed, more or less remote from the pos- 
 terior border, and all the longitudinal veins are simple. The 
 eyes in both sexes are smaller than in the preceding family, 
 being separated. The proboscis is, with a few exceptions, 
 much prolonged, and the third joint of the antennae has either 
 an apical style or a thick dorsal bristle. The male genital 
 armor is symmetrical and turned beneath the abdomen. The 
 flask-shaped larva of Conops is " soft, whitish, eleven-jointed, 
 with a long neck and a mouth armed with lips and hooks (man- 
 dibles), and two lateral elevated plates supporting the two 
 spiracles/' It was found by Lachat and Audouin living in the 
 
CONOPID^E. 
 
 401 
 
 abdomen of Bombus. It is also said by St. Fargeau to live in 
 the nest of Vespa, and Conops Jlavipes was bred, according to 
 Curtis, from the body of Osmia. 
 
 Mr. S. S. Saunders has observed in Epirus the habits of a 
 species which lives in the abdomen of Pompilus audax Smith. 
 The fly lays its eggs in June in the adult Pompilus, probably 
 ovipositing between the abdominal segments. During August 
 the larvae become fully grown, probably in ten or fifteen days. 
 The puparium is oval, of an uniform, deep, piceous hue, and the 
 fly works its way through the first and second abdominal rings 
 of the wasp, whose abdomen then breaks in two. Saunders 
 also found a similar Conops larva in Sphex flavipennis, cap- 
 tured at the same time and place as the Pompilus ; also a 
 smaller species of 
 Conops was bred 
 from the abdomen 
 of Odynerus. 
 We have also 
 bred a species 
 from one of two 
 species of Bom- 
 bus, either B. 
 vagans or B. fer- 
 vidus. 
 
 In Myopa the antennal bristle is subterminal, and the probos- 
 cis is twice elbowed. Westwood has observed Myopa atra fly- 
 ing about sand-banks in which were the burrows of various bees, 
 and by other authors the genus is said to be parasitic on bees. 
 
 The genus Pipunculus represents a small group in which 
 the head is almost entirely occupied by the eyes, the front and 
 face being exceedingly narrow, while the antennae have a basal 
 bristle. 
 
 Loew considers the genus JScenopinus as the type of a dis- 
 tinct family, hinting at its relationship with the Bombyliidae. 
 The genus is known by the short antennae, without style or bris- 
 tle ; and by the short proboscis with its broad fleshy end. The 
 larvae are long, very slender, much like those of Thereva, and 
 the pupa is much like that of Leptis. Mr. Sanborn has reared 
 S.pallipes Say (Fig. 322 ; a, larva). The larva is found under 
 26 
 
 Fig. 322. 
 
402 DIPTERA. 
 
 carpets, and is remarkable for the double segmented appearance 
 of all the abdominal segments, except the last one, so that the 
 body, exclusive of the head, seems as if twenty-jointed instead 
 of having but twelve joints. The head is conical, one-third 
 longer than broad, and of a reddish brown color, while the 
 body is white. It is .65 of an inch in length. The larva is 
 also said to live in rotten wood, and is too scarce to be destruc- 
 tive to carpets. The fly is black, with a metallic hue, and 
 with pale feet. 
 
 The genus Platypeza also represents the Platypezidce of 
 Meigen, the antennae of which have an apical bristle, with the 
 male genital armor (hypopygium) turned symmetrically under 
 the abdomen. The middle tibiae are provided with spurs, and 
 the empodium is wanting. The larva is flat, with rigid curved 
 bristles along the side. It lives in rotten mushrooms. 
 
 EMPID.E Leach. The species of this family closely resemble 
 the Asilidse in their long body, incumbent wings, and rapaci- 
 ous, carnivorous habits. The first joint of the antennae is not 
 much shortened, and the third joint has an apical or dorsal 
 bristle, while the empodium is usually membranaceous and of a 
 linear form. The head is small, spherical, the eyes united in 
 the male ; the proboscis is horny, without a distinct tongue, 
 and bent upon the breast. The slender larvae, whose segments 
 are much constricted, arc found in garden mould. The species 
 hover in swarms over standing water, flying backwards and for- 
 wards as if by a common impulse. They appear very early in 
 the spring, or in autumn. The genera Hybos and Tachydromia 
 represent small groups which are closely allied to Empis. 
 
 DOLICHOPODID^E Latreille. Loew has characterized this 
 well marked family as generally comprising metallic green, 
 brisk and restless Diptera of small or medium size, predatory 
 on other insects, and living principally in damp situations ; the 
 larvae living under ground or in decaying wood. The head is 
 hemispherical, the eyes large and hairy, the antennae are 
 stretched straight out, with a two-jointed bristle. The probos- 
 cis is short and stout, concealed above by the single jointed, 
 usually scale-shaped palpi, with a wide opening which can be 
 
CESTIUD2&. 403 
 
 shut by the protruding suctorial flaps. The wings do not have 
 the auxiliary vein running towards the anterior margin ; the an- 
 terior basal cell is very short ; and the discoidal cell coalescent 
 with the second basal cell, while the posterior basal cell is very 
 small. They are mostly "found on the leaves of aquatic plants, 
 on stones partly overflown with water, on dams and near water- 
 falls ; some of them are able to run rapidly over the water, even 
 when it is rippled by the wind (Hydophorus) ; others are fond 
 of salt or brackish waters (Aphrosylus, Thinophilus and some 
 Hydrophorus) ; the species of Medetervs prefer dry situations, 
 and are found on stumps of trees, fences, etc., even in very 
 dry and hot weather." 
 
 Leach. Bot-flies, Breeze-flies. In these flies, so 
 interesting in their habits, the body is stout, hairy, like the 
 Humble bees, and they are easily recognized by having the 
 opening of the mouth very small, with rudimentary oral or- 
 gans. The middle part of the face is exceedingly narrow, and 
 the minute antennae are inserted in rounded pits. The eggs 
 hatch very soon after laying, and Riley (First Annual Report 
 on the Noxious Insects of Missouri, p. 164) thinks, from the 
 testimony of three independent witnesses, that the sheep bot- 
 fly is viviparous, the larvae hatching within the body of the 
 parent, who deposits in the nostrils of the sheep the "perfectly 
 formed and living grub." 
 
 The larvae are, in general, thick, fleshy, footless grubs, con- 
 sisting of eleven segments exclusive of the head, which are 
 spined and tuberculated, the former in rows, which enable them 
 to move about readily when living under the skin or in the 
 frontal sinua and thus greatly irritate the animals on which they 
 live. The stigmata are placed in a scaly plate on the thick- 
 ened posterior end of the body. The mouth of the cutaneous 
 larvae consists simply of fleshy tubercles, while in those species 
 that live in the stomach and frontal sinuses of their hosts, it is 
 provided with horny hooks. While in this state they moult 
 twice, and then attain their full size. They feed on the puru- 
 lent matter originating from the irritation produced by the 
 movements of their bodies. Just before assuming the pupa 
 state, the larva leaves its peculiar habitat, descends into the 
 
404 
 
 DIPTEKA. 
 
 ground, and there becomes a coarctate pupa, enclosed within 
 the old larva skin, and remaining in connection with it by 
 means of four tracheae. 
 
 The genus Gastrophilus has very small 
 mouth-parts, the deep lying palpi being 
 somewhat spherical, and the 
 proboscis nearly obsolete, 
 while the abdomen is sessile. 
 Fig. 323. rpk e S p ec i es are o f medium 
 
 size, short and thick, and very hairy. The female 
 deposits her eggs on the horse's hips and legs, 
 whence the larvae are introduced into the stomach. 
 The body of the larva widens posteriorly ; the 
 mandibles are not visible, and the maxillae con- 
 stitute the so-called mouth-hooks, by which the 
 larva grapples and adheres to the walls of the 
 horse's stomach. The rudimentary antennae are 
 indicated by an ocellus-like point. The Horse Bot-fly, Gas- 
 trophilus equi Fabr. (Fig. 323 ; fig. 324, larva), in its perfect 
 state is pale yellowish, spotted with red, with a grayish yellow 
 hirsuties; the thorax is banded with black, or sometimes, 
 
 Fig. 324. 
 
 Fig. 325. a 
 
 though rarely, reddish hairs. The hinder trochanters are 
 hooked in the males, and tuberculated in the females, and the 
 wings are banded with reddish, with two spots at the apex. 
 The larvae live from May till October, and when fully grown v 
 hang by their mouth-hooks on the edge of the rectum, whence 
 
405 
 
 they are carried out in the excrement. The pupa state lasts 
 from thirty to forty days, and the perfect fly appears the next 
 season from June to October. 
 
 In Hypoderma the palpi are entirely wanting. The species are 
 either \QTJ large, or of medium size, and often quite small, cov- 
 ered with fine dense hairs. The legs are long and slender. The 
 Hypoderma bovis Degeer (Fig. 325, a, larva) or Bot-fly of the ox, 
 is black, densely pilose ; the front of the head is dirty ashen, 
 with whitish yellow hairs. The naked black thorax is twice 
 broadly banded with yellow and white ; the scutellum has 
 slight tubercles ; the abdomen is black, with a basal white or 
 yellowish band, a mesial black band, and at the end is a reddish 
 orange band of hairs. The larvae are found during the month 
 of May and in the summer in the tumors on the backs of cattle, 
 and when fully grown, which is generally in July, work their 
 way out and fall to the ground. 
 They exist in the puparium twen- 
 ty-six to thirty days, and the fly 
 appears from June to September. 
 This species is found over all the 
 civilized portions of the world. 
 Hypoderma tarandi Linn, infests, 
 in like manner, the Reindeer. 
 The genus (Estromyia is thought 
 to inhabit the Hare. CEstrus ovis 
 Linn., the Sheep Bot-fly, is of a 
 dirty ash color, with a fuscous ashen, banded, and obscurely 
 spotted thorax. The abdomen is marbled with yellowish and 
 white flecks, and is hairy at the end. The larva lives, during 
 April, May and June, in the frontal sinus of the sheep, and also 
 in the nasal cavity, whence it falls to the ground. It changes 
 to a pupa in twenty-four hours, and the fly appears during the 
 summer. Cuterebra has the third joint of the antennae oval or 
 elliptical and the bristle is dorsal and feathered ; the species 
 are short, very plump and hairy flies, with a proboscis elbowed 
 at the base, and with a metallic shining rounded abdomen. 
 The larvae live in subcutaneous bots beneath the skin of vari- 
 ous animals. One species (the C. emasculator of Fitch) lives 
 in the scrotum of the squirrel, which it is known to emasculate. 
 
406 
 
 DIPTERA. 
 
 Mr. S. S. Rathvon has reared C. buccata Fabr. (Fig. 326, and 
 side view) from the body of a striped squirrel, the larvae having 
 emerged from the region of the kidneys." (American Ento- 
 mologist, p. 116.) Other species live in the Opossum and 
 .different species of field-mice. Cuterebra Tiorripilum Clark is 
 found throughout the United States, and C. cuniculi Clark lives 
 in the hare and rabbit, in the Southern States, and is found, 
 according to Coquerel, in the bots of horses. 
 
 The genus Dermatobia includes the Ver macaque, of Cayenne 
 and Mexico, found beneath the skin of man in tropical America, 
 and it is disputed whether it be a true indigenous "CEstrus 
 hominis," or originally attacks the monkey, dog, or other mam- 
 mal, In Cayenne the species attacking man is called the Ver 
 Macaque ; in Brazil (Para) Ura ; in Costa 
 Rica, Torcel ; in New Grenada, Gusano 
 peludo, or Muche. The D. noxialis Goudot? 
 (Fig. 327) Ver moyocuil, lives on the dog, 
 and is found in Mexico and New Grenada. 
 The larvae are long, cylindrical, S- shaped, 
 differing greatly in form from others of this 
 family. The flies are closely allied to those 
 of the preceding genus. 
 
 Dr. Leidy states in the Proceedings of the 
 Philadelphia Academy (1859), that several 
 specimens of the larva of a bot-fly were ob- 
 rig. 327. tained by Dr. J. L. Leconte in Honduras, 
 
 from his travelling companions. They were "usually found be- 
 neath the skin of the shoulders, breasts, arms, buttocks and 
 thighs, and were suspected to have been introduced when the 
 persons were bathing." "Dr. Leconte informs us that his com- 
 panions were not aware of the time when the eggs of the larvae, 
 obtained by him, were deposited in their bodies. He also states 
 that the presence of the larva gave rise to comparatively little 
 uneasiness." 
 
 According to Krefft a species of Batrachomyia is parasitic 
 upon four species of Australian frogs. The larvae are found 
 between the skin and the flesh behind the tympanum ; they are 
 of a yellow color and may be squeezed through a small open- 
 ing that exists over them. When they quit the frog the latter 
 
MUSCIDJS. 407 
 
 dies. The change to the pupa state is usually effected on the 
 lower surface of a piece of rock in some damp locality. The 
 perfect insect emerges in thirty-two days. (Giinther's Zoologi- 
 cal Record, 1864.) 
 
 MUSCLDJE Latreille. The common House-fly, the Blue-bottle 
 fly, and the Flesh-fly, at once recall the appearance of this 
 family, which is one of great extent, and much subdivided by 
 entomologists. The antennae are three-jointed, the terminal 
 joint being flattened and with a plumose bristle in the typical 
 species. The proboscis ends in a fleshy lobe, with porrect 
 single-jointed maxillary palpi. The four longitudinal veins of 
 the wing are simple ; the first of the two vejns on the hinder 
 edge often approaching that on the apex of the wing ; the tarsi 
 have two pulvilli, and the abdomen is five-jointed. The larvae 
 are footless, cylindrico-conic, narrowing in front, with a head 
 variable in form, and with hook-like mandibles. There are often 
 two pairs of spiracles, one on the terminal ring of the body, 
 and the other pair on the prothoracic segment. The pupa is 
 enclosed in the puparium, generally cylindrical, but sometimes 
 preserving the original shape of the larva. The celebrated 
 "Tsetze" fly (Glossina morsitans Westwood) is a member of 
 this family. It kills cattle by its painful bite, though its in- 
 jurious nature is said to have been overrated. It is allied to 
 Stomoxys, the species of which bite very sharply. S. cattricans 
 has a well developed proboscis, enabling it to bite severely. 
 It is often found in houses. 
 
 The species of the genus Tachina, like the Ichneumonidae, are 
 parasitic in caterpillars, and others are found in the nests of 
 bees. They are stout flies, covered with bristles, with the eyes 
 much larger in the males than in the other sex. The bristle 
 of the antennae is bare or with a very short pubescence. The 
 thorax is short, and the first posterior cell is closed, or but 
 slightly opened, and the legs are short. The abdomen is oval 
 or cylindrical, and the first segment is much shortened. The 
 larvae are oval, with the segments much constricted ; they have 
 no head ; the last segment bears two spiracles. T. (Senomet- 
 opia) militant Walsh lays its eggs, from one to six in num- 
 ber, on the Army worm (Leucania unipuncta), "fastening 
 
408 
 
 DIPTEEA. 
 
 them' by an insoluble cement on the upper surface of the two 
 or three first rings of the body. The eggs hatch often after 
 the caterpillar has gone under ground to transform, and in 
 fifteen to nineteen days, or the last of September, the flies ap- 
 pear. T. (Lydella) doryphorce Biley (Fig. 328) preys on the 
 
 larvae of the Colorado potato 
 beetle. Other species of gen- 
 era allied to Tachina, accord- 
 ing to Dufour, are parasitic on 
 beetles, etc ; thus, Cassidomyia 
 preys on Cassida, Hyalomyia 
 on Brachyderes, and Ocyptera 
 attacks Pentatoma ; and he 
 thinks that Cliartophila floralis 
 feeds either on the food or the 
 
 Fig. 328. 
 
 young itself of Andrena. 
 
 Sarcophaga, the Flesh-fly, has a small head, with the aiitennal 
 bristle plumose or hairy, naked at the tip ; the first posterior 
 cell only slightly opened, or closed, with large tegulse and 
 stout legs. The flesh-fly, Sarcophaga carnaria Linn., is black, 
 the thorax streaked with gray, and the abdomen checkered 
 with whitish. The female is viviparous, that is, the 
 larvae hatch and live within the oviduct. The ova- 
 ries are large, arranged in a spiral manner and con- 
 tain sometimes 20,000 eggs. We have reared Sarco- 
 phaga nudipennis Loew from the cells of Pelopaeus 
 flavipes, the Mud-dauber, which had been stored with 
 spiders, the flies making their appearance on the first 
 of July, a few days before the wasps issued from the 
 cells. The parent flies had probably laid their eggs 
 in the spiders before the cells were closed by the 
 wasps. The nests .were brought from Texas. 
 Fig. 329. Musca has plumose antennae, while in Stomoxys 
 they are pectinated. Dufour states that the allied genera, 
 Echinomyia, Gonia, Dexia and JSiphonia are also viviparous. 
 Musca (Lucilia) Caesar Linn, the Blue-bottle fly, and Musca 
 (Calliphora) vomitoria Linn, the Meat-fly, deposit their eggs 
 (fly-blows) upon meat and decaying animal substances, and 
 during the late war were grievously tormenting to our soldiers, 
 
MUSCIDJE. 409 
 
 laying their eggs in the wounds, especially of those left on the 
 field over night. The larva of M. Caesar (Fig. 329) is of very 
 rapid growth. It is of an "elongated conical form, pointed 
 towards the head, which is furnished with two fleshy horns," 
 and horny mouth-parts, and a pair of rudiments of branchiae 
 on the prothoracic ring. The body is suddenly truncated, the 
 end being furnished with a pair of stigmata. The pupa trans- 
 forms in the ground, within a puparium of the usual long, cy- 
 lindrical form. 
 
 Dr. Chapman of Appalachicola, writes to Mr. Sanborn that 
 this fly, " attracted by the stench of a mass of decaying insects 
 which have perished in the leaf of Sarracenia, ventures in and 
 deposits its eggs, and the larvae devour the festering heap. 
 These in turn, on becoming flies, are 
 unable to get out of their prison, perish, 
 and are added to the putrefying mass 
 that had nourished them." 
 
 F. Smith notices in the Transactions 
 of the Entomological Society of Lon- 
 don, 1868, the " Warega" fly of Brazil, 
 which is said to be the "pest of both 
 man and animals ; it is a species of 
 Muse a, and is said to lay its eggs in the 
 skin; large and terrible swellings are 
 formed. The mode of extracting the 
 
 maggot is to cut an opening, and to press it out a most 
 painful operation. These wounds are very difficult to cure." 
 
 The House-fly, Musca domestica Linn., is common in the 
 warmer parts of the year, and hibernates through the winter. A 
 study of the proboscis of the fly reveals a wonderful adaptability 
 of the mouth-parts of this insect to their uses. We have already 
 noticed the most perfect condition of these parts as seen in the 
 horse-fly. In the proboscis of the house-fly the hard parts are 
 obsolete, and instead we have a fleshy tongue-like organ (Fig. 
 330), bent up underneath the head when at rest. The maxillae 
 are minute, and the palpi (mp) are single-jointed, and the man- 
 dibles (m) are comparatively useless, being very short and 
 small compared with the lancet-like jaws of the mosquito or 
 horse-fly. But the structure of the tongue itself (labium, I) is 
 
410 DIPTERA. 
 
 most curious. When the fly settles upon a lump of sugar or 
 other sweet object, it unbends its tongue, extends it, and the 
 broad knob-like end divides into two flat, muscular leaves (7), 
 which thus present a sucker-like surface, with which the fly laps 
 up liquid sweets. These two leaves are supported upon a 
 framework of trachea! 1 tubes, which act as a set of springs 
 to open and shut the muscular leaves. In the preceding figure, 
 Mr. Emerton has faithfully represented these modified tracheae, 
 which end in hairs projecting externally. Thus the inside of 
 this broad fleshy expansion is rough like a rasp, and as Newport 
 states, "is easily employed by the insect in scraping or tearing 
 delicate surfaces. It is by means of this curious structure that 
 the busy house-fly occasions much mischief to the covers of our 
 books, by scraping off the albuminous polish, and leaving tra- 
 A cings of its depredations in the soiled and spotted 
 
 M a appearance which it occasions on them. It is 
 by means of these also that it teases us in the heat 
 of summer, when it alights on the hand or face 
 to sip the perspiration as it exudes from, and is 
 condensed upon, the skin." 
 
 Every one notices that house-flies are most 
 abundant around barns in August and Septem- 
 ber, and it is in the ordure of stables that the 
 early stages of this insect are passed. No one 
 Fig. 331. has traced the transformations of this fly in this 
 country, but we copy from Bouche's work on the transforma- 
 tions of insects, the rather rude figures of the larva (Fig. 331), 
 and puparium (a) of the Musca domestica of Europe, w r hich is 
 supposed to be our species. Bouche states that the larva is 
 cylindrical, rounded posteriorly, smooth and shining, fleshy, 
 and yellowish white, and is four lines long. The puparium is 
 dark reddish brown, and three lines in length. It remains in 
 the pupa state from eight to fourteen days. In Europe it is 
 preyed upon by minute ichneumon flies (Chalcids). Idia 
 Bigoti, according to Coquerel and Mondiere, produces a disease 
 in the natives of Senegal, probably by ovipositing on the skin, 
 thus giving rise to hard red fluctuating tumors, in which the 
 larva of this fly resides. 
 
 The species of the genus Antliomyia, seen about flowers, in 
 
411 
 
 the larva state live in decaying vegetable matter and in privies. 
 They are smaller flies than the foregoing genera, with smaller 
 alulae, and the fourth longitudinal vein of the wing is straight, 
 thus leaving the first posterior cell fully open. The larvae are 
 generally much like those of the meat-fly, but are thicker, 
 while others, described as belonging to this genus, are said to 
 be flattened and hairy. 
 
 The Radish-fly, Anthomyia raphani Harris, abounds in the 
 roots of the radish, the fly appearing towards the end of June. 
 Another species, the Onion-fly, Anthomyia ceparum (Fig. 332), 
 causes the leaves of the onion to turn yellow and die from 
 the attacks of the larvae in the roots. The larvae mature in 
 two weeks, transform in the root, and two weeks later disclose 
 the flies. Mr. Walsh 
 suggests that the 
 larvae may be de- 
 stroyed by pouring 
 boiling hot water 
 over the young 
 plants, which, with- 
 out injuring the on- 
 ions, destroys the 
 
 maggots. The Fig. 332. 
 
 Seed-corn Maggot, the larva of Antliomyia zece Riley (Fig. 344, 
 p. 419, a, larva; 6, puparium ; c, kernels eaten), destroys, 
 in New Jersey, the kernels of sprouted corn before it comes up. 
 The Cabbage maggot, the larva of A. brassicce Bouche, a com- 
 mon fly in Europe, has been found in Michigan to be injurious 
 to the cabbage. (Riley.) The hairy maggots of A. cunicularis 
 or an allied species, live in rotten turnips. (Harris.) The pu- 
 parium (Plate 3, fig. 5, 5 a) of another species has been found 
 by Mr. F. W. Putnam in 'the nests of the humble bee. 
 
 In Ortalis the front is quite prominent, the clypeus is greatly 
 developed, the opening of the mouth wide, and the proboscis 
 much thickened. This genus comprises variously banded and 
 spotted flies, which may be seen walking along leaves vibrating 
 their wings. They feed on the leaves, and afterwards the 
 pulpy fruit of the cherry, olive and orange. Another Onion- 
 fly, discovered by Dr. Shinier in Illinois, is the Ortalis flexa 
 
412 
 
 DIPTEKA. 
 
 of Wiedemann (Fig. 333 ; a, larva). The fly differs from the 
 Anthomyia ceparum, besides more important respects, in hav- 
 ing black wings with three broad curved bands. The maggot 
 feeds in the root thus killing the top of the plant. 
 
 A species of Trypeta, according to F. Smith, which in Brazil 
 is called the "Berna" fly, deposits its eggs in wounds, both 
 on man and beast. "It is remarkable from having the apical 
 
 segment of the ab- 
 domen elongated 
 into a long oviposi- 
 tor. Mr. Peckolt 
 says the negroes 
 suffer much from 
 the attacks of this 
 fly, which frequent- 
 a Fig. 333. ty deposits its eggs 
 
 in their nostrils whilst they are sleeping, and such are the 
 effects of its attacks, that, in some cases, death ensues." 
 (Transactions of the Entomological Society, London, 1868, 
 p. 135.) 
 
 To the genus Lonchcea, Osten Sacken refers, with consider- 
 able doubt, a fly, which I have found in abundance, raising 
 blister-like swellings on the twigs of the willow. They were 
 
 fully grown in April. 
 The larva (Fig. 334, 
 fly ; a, the larva ; 6, 
 the pupa) is curved, 
 cylindrical, tapering 
 nearly alike towards 
 each extremity, 
 Fig. 334. though the thoracic 
 
 region is the thickest. The rings are thickened upon their pos- 
 terior edges, so that they appear contracted in the middle. It 
 is glassy green, with two little elongated tubercles placed near 
 each other at a little distance from the end, where in the pupa 
 they are terminal. It is .15 of an inch long when fully ex- 
 tended. The pupa-case, found late in May, is oval, long, cy- 
 lindrical and obtuse at both ends ; the anterior end is more 
 blunt ; the first segment of the body is minute and forms the 
 
MUSCIM3. 413 
 
 lid, which opens when the fly makes its exit, and bears two 
 small slender tubercles which project upwards. The posterior 
 end bears two terminal spine-like tubercles similar to those on 
 the head, but projecting horizontally. The puparium is glassy 
 green, and the limbs of the enclosed pupa can be partially seen 
 through the skin. The rings are (especially on the thorax) 
 spinose, being the remnants of the rows of spines around the 
 hind edge of the larval segments. It is .15 of an inch long. 
 The pupa lies a short distance from the opening of its burrow, 
 which is about half an inch long, and is situated between the 
 wood and the bark. 
 The larva before pupa- 
 ting eats away the bark, 
 leaving a thin outer 
 scale, or roundish black 
 space which can be 
 folded back like a lid, 
 which the fly pushes 
 open when it emerges. 
 Several swellings occur 
 on the twig in the space Fig - 335- 
 
 of six inches. The fly appeared the 25th of June. Dufour 
 states that in Europe Lonchcea nigra lives in the outer bark of 
 the oak, and another under the bark of the poplar, while still 
 another species makes a sort of gall in the dogsgrass. 
 
 The genus Spliyracepliala is remarkable for its stalked eyes, 
 which are placed on long stems going out from the sides of 
 the head. Some species are found fossil in the Prussian 
 amber. S. brevicornis Say is rather rare. 
 
 The Cheese maggot is the larva of Piopliila casei (Fig. 335) 
 a shining black fly, three-twentieths of an inch long, with the 
 four posterior legs yellowish, and with transparent wings. 
 The whitish larva is cylindrical, and .22 of an inch in length, 
 and is acutely pointed towards the head and truncated behind, 
 with two long horny stigmata in the middle of the truncature, 
 and two longer fleshy filaments on the lower edge. When 
 moving it extends its mouth-hooks, and pulls itself along by 
 them. Mr. F. W. Putnam has called my attention to the 
 power of leaping possessed by the maggot. When about to 
 
414 
 
 DIPTEKA. 
 
 leap the larva brings the under side of the abdomen towards 
 the head, while laying on its side, and reaching forward with 
 \ f===y s ^s head, and at the same time extending its mouth- 
 /.- ^ hooks, grapples by means of them with the hinder edge 
 of the truncature and pulling hard, suddenly with- 
 draws them, jerking itself to a distance of four or 
 five inches. The Wine-fly (Fig. 336, puparium) also 
 belongs to the same genus, and with its puparium 
 may be found floating in old wine and cider. 
 
 Several species of the genus Ephydra have been 
 Fig. 336. found living in salt water. Mr. E. T. Cox has sent 
 us specimens of Ephydra halophila Pack. (Fig. 337 ; a, wing ; 
 &, puparium), which in the pupa state lives in great numbers 
 in the first graduation house of the Equality Salt Works of 
 Gallatin County, Illinois. The larva itself we have not seen, 
 but the puparium is cylindrical, half an inch long, the body 
 ending in a long respiratory tube forked at the end. The fly 
 a itself is coppery green, 
 
 with pale honey yellow 
 legs, and is .15 of an inch 
 in length. Another spe- 
 cies has been found by 
 Professor B. Silliman liv- 
 ing in great abundance in 
 Mono Lake, Cal., and in 
 the Museum of the Pea- 
 body Academy are pu- 
 paria of this genus from 
 Labrador, and from under 
 sea-weed on Narragansett 
 r, and a pool of brack- 
 
 ish water at Marblehead ; 
 Fig. 337. they are noticed by the 
 
 author in the "Proceedings of the Essex Institute," vol. vi. 
 
 The Apple Fly, or Drosophila, has habits like the apple 
 midge. Mr. W. C. Fish has described in the "American 
 Naturalist," the habits of an unknown species (Fig. 338 ; a, 
 larva) , which he writes me has been very common this year in 
 Barnstable County, Mass. He says that "it attacks mostly 
 
MUSCID^E. 415 
 
 the earlier varieties, seeming to have a particular fondness for 
 the old fashioned Summer, or High-top Sweet. The larvae en- 
 ter the apple usually where it has been bored by the Apple- 
 worm (Carpocapsa) , not uncommonly through the crescent-like 
 puncture of the curculio, and sometimes through the calyx, 
 when it has not been troubled by other insects. Many of 
 them arrive at maturity in August, and the fly soon appears, 
 and successive generations of the maggots follow until cold 
 weather. I have frequently found the pupae in the bottom of 
 barrels in a cellar in the winter, and the flies appear in the 
 spring. In the early apples, the larvae work about in every 
 direction. If there are ^y> 
 several in an apple, they 
 make it unfit for use. 
 Apples that appear per- 
 fectly sound when taken 
 from the tree, will some- 
 times, if kept, be all alive 
 with them in a few Fig. 338. 
 
 weeks." Other species are known to inhabit putrescent 
 vegetable matter, especially fruits. Mr. B. D. Walsh also des- 
 cribes in his "First Annual Report on the Noxious Insects of 
 Illinois," another apple fly, Trypeta pomonella Walsh, which 
 destroys stored apples, and has been found troublesome in va- 
 rious parts of the country. 
 
 In England Oscinis granarius Curtis* lives in the stems of 
 wheat. The Oscinis vastator Curtis does serious damage to 
 wheat and barley crops in England, by eating the base of the 
 stalk. The larvae are fulty grown late in June, and a month 
 later, the fly appears. Their attacks are restrained by numer- 
 ous Pteromali, and a minute Proctotrupid (Sigalphus caudatus) 
 oviposits in the egg of the Oscinis. Other allied species in the 
 larva state cause the stems of wheat and barley to swell twice 
 their usual size, which disease is termed in England the gout. 
 
 The larvae of Chlorops lineata Fabr. in Europe, destroy the 
 central leaves and plant itself, the female laying her eggs on 
 the stems when the wheat begins to show the ear. In a fort- 
 night the eggs hatch, and the fly appears in September. Curtis 
 also states that Chlorops Herpinii Guerin, attacks the ears of 
 
416 DIPTEKA. 
 
 barley, from six to ten larvae being found in each, and by de- 
 stroying the flowers render the ear sterile. Oscinis frit Linn, 
 in Europe inhabits the husks of the barley, and destroys one- 
 tenth of the grain. Linnaeus calculated the annual loss from 
 the attacks of this single species at half a million dollars. 
 Ploughing and harrowing are of no use in guarding against 
 these insects, as they do not transform in the earth ; the best 
 remedy lies in the rotation of crops. Many of these small 
 flies, like the micro-lepidoptera, are leaf-miners, and are not 
 
 readily distinguished from 
 them when in the larva state. 
 Of the genus Phora, a 
 European species (P. incras- 
 sata Fig. 339 ; a, larva ; 6, 
 puparium) frequents bee 
 hives, and is thought by some 
 to produce the disease 
 which is known among apiarians as "foulbrood." 
 
 In the pupiparous Diptera, namely, those flies which are born 
 as pupae from the body of the parent, the larva state having 
 been passed within the oviduct, the thorax is more closely 
 agglutinated than before ; the head is small and sunken in 
 the thorax, and in the wingless species this consolidation of 
 the head and thorax is so marked as to cause them to bear a 
 remarkable resemblance to the spiders. Spider-like in their 
 looks, they are spider-like in their habits, as the names Spider- 
 flies, Bat-ticks and Bird-ticks, imply a likeness to the lower 
 spiders or ticks. The antennae are very deeply inserted and 
 partially obsolete ; the labrum is ensheathed by the maxillae, 
 and the thoracic nervous ganglia are, as in the Arachnida, 
 concentrated into a single mass. 
 
 HIPPOBOSCID^E Westwood. The Forest-flies and Sheep 
 Ticks are characterized by the horny and flattened body, the 
 horizontal flattened head received into the front edge of the 
 thorax, the large eyes, the rudimentary papilla-like antennae 
 placed very near together, and the proboscis is formed by the 
 labrum and maxillae, whose palpi are wanting ; the labium is 
 very short ; wings with the veins present only on the costal 
 
HIPPOBOSCID^. 
 
 417 
 
 edge, the others either aborted or only partially developed. 
 They resemble the lice in their parasitic habits, living beneath 
 the hairs of vertebrates, ^opcoially of bats, and are abundant 
 beneath the feathers 
 of birds. 
 
 These flies differ 
 from all other insects 
 in their peculiar mode 
 of development, which 
 reminds us of the 
 intra-uterine life of 
 the vertebrate foetus. 
 According to Dufour 
 and Leu ckart they 
 
 Fjg. 340. 
 
 have an irregular uterus-like enlargement of the oviduct, which 
 furnishes a milk-like secretion for the nourishment of the 
 larvae. The body of the larvae, for each female produces but^ 
 one^ orjbwo y oung^ when first hatched is not divided into rings, 
 but is smooth, ovate, egg-like, forming a puparium-like case in 
 which the larvae transform to pupae immediately after birth. 
 
 The Forest-fly or Horse-tick, Hippobosca, Latreille, has no 
 ocelli, with five stout veins on the costal edge of the wing ; 
 thorax broad, and the proboscis short and 
 thick. We figure a species* of this genus 
 (Fig. 340) which was found on the Great 
 Horned Owl. Its body is much flattened, 
 adapted for its life under the feathers, where 
 it gorges itself with the blood of its host. 
 The genus Lipoptena, which has ocelli, with 
 only three costal veins, a long slender probos- rig. 341. 
 cis, and a small thorax, is remarkable for living in its wing- 
 less state on the Deer, but when the wings are developed it is 
 found on the Grouse (Tetrao). The Bird-tick, Ornitlwmyia, 
 has ocelli, a short proboscis and six costal veins, and there 
 are numerous species, all bird parasites. 
 
 * Hippobosca bubonis n. sp. female. Uniform horn color, with a reddish tinge, 
 and blackish hairs; legs paler, with dark tarsi, body beneath paler; tip of abdo- 
 men black, with long bristles. Length of body .30 inch; of a wing .34 inch. Dif- 
 fers from H. equinte in being larger, and in its uniform reddish color. Taken Oct. 
 5; Museum of the Peabody Academy of Science. 
 
 27 
 
 t 
 
418 
 
 DIPTERA. 
 
 In the wingless Sheep-tick, Melophagus ovinus Linn, which 
 is often very troublesome (Fig. 341, and puparium), the head 
 is wider than the thorax, the proboscis is as long as the head 
 itself, the limbs are short and thick, and the bristly abdomen 
 is broad and not divided into joints. 
 
 The genus Carnus, which was placed in the Conopidce by 
 Nitzsch, seems rather to belong here. C. hemapterus Nitzsch, 
 is "of the size of a flea, with minute rudi- 
 ments of wings, and is parasitic on birds 
 of the genus Sturnus." 
 
 NYCTERIBID^: Leach. The Bat-ticks are 
 remarkably spider-like, with a beaker-like 
 head, without eyes, having four ocelli, 
 or else entirely blind. The finger-like, 
 two-jointed antennae are situated on the 
 under side of the head. The proboscis is 
 feather-like, the palpi very large and por- 
 rect ; the legs are of great size, with the 
 basal joint of the tarsi of remarkable length, and the hairy 
 abdomen is composed of six segments. They are very small 
 parasites, one or two lines in length. Westwood has extracted 
 the puparium from the body, showing the close relationship 
 of these strange forms to Hippobosca. Nycteribia Westwoodii 
 Guerin (Fig. 342) is an East Indian species. 
 
 BRAULINA Gerstaecker. The Bee-lice are wingless, minute, 
 blind insects, with large heads ; the thorax is transverse, ring- 
 shaped, half as long as 
 a the head ; the abdomen 
 
 is round, five-jointed, 
 and the legs are thick, 
 with long claws ena- 
 bling them to cling to 
 the hairs of bees. 
 
 The genus Braula 
 may be compared with 
 3*3. the flea, its body being 
 
 flattened vertically, while that of the flea is flattened lat- 
 
BKATJLINA. 419 
 
 erally. While the transformations of Braula show it to be 
 undoubtedly a degraded Muscid, with a true puparium ; those 
 of the flea, with its worm-like, more highly organized larva, 
 and the free obtected pupa show that, though wingless, it 
 occupies a much higher grade in the dipterous series. Braula 
 coeca Nitzsch (Fig. 343, and larva) is found living parasitically 
 on the honey bee in Europe, and has not been detected in this 
 country. 
 
 The antennae are short, two-jointed and sunken in deep 
 pits. It is from one-half to two- thirds of a line long. The 
 larva is headless, oval, eleven-jointed and white in color. On 
 the day it hatches from the egg it sheds its skin and changes 
 to an oval puparium of a dark brown color. It is a body para- 
 site, one or two of them occurring on the body of the bee, 
 though sometimes they greatly multiply and are very trouble- 
 some to the bee. 
 
 Fig. 344. 
 
 We now take up the second series of suborders of the hexa- 
 podous insects, in which the different segments of the body 
 show a strong tendency to remain equal in size, as in the larva 
 state ; in other words there is less concentration of the parts 
 towards the head. In all these groups the prothorax is greatly 
 developed, generally free, while the wings tend to conceal the 
 two posterior thoracic segments, and the body generally is 
 elongated, flattened or angulated, not cylindrical as is usually 
 the case in the preceding and higher series. The degraded 
 wingless forms resemble the worm-like Myriapods, while, as we 
 have seen above, the wingless flies resemble the Arachnida. 
 The imago (especially in the Hemiptera, Orthoptera and cer- 
 tain Neuroptera) resembles the larva ; that is, the metamor- 
 phosis is less complete than in the preceding groups. 
 
420 
 
 COLEOPTEKA. 
 
 COLEOPTEKA. 
 
 IN the highest suborder of this series, the Coleoptera, we 
 find the most complete metamorphosis and the greatest speci- 
 alization of parts, with 
 a more complete con- 
 centration of them to- 
 wards the head than in 
 the lower suborders. 
 They are at once rec- 
 ognized by the elytra, 
 or thickened horny fore 
 wings, Which are not 
 actively used in flight 
 (the hind wings being 
 especially adapted for 
 that purpose) , while 
 they Cover and encase 
 the two posterior seg- 
 ments of the thorax 
 and the abdomen. The 
 prothoracic ring is 
 greatly enlarged, often 
 excavated in front to re- 
 ceive the head. These 
 characters are very per- 
 sistent ; there are few 
 aberrant forms and the 
 suborder is remarkably 
 homogeneous and easily 
 limited. 
 
 The head is free from 
 Fig. 345. the thorax, but less so 
 
 than in the preceding suborders ; it is scarcely narrowed behind, 
 and its position is usually horizontal. The eyes are usually 
 
 FIG. 345, under surface of Harpalus caliginosus. (After Leconte.) a, ligula; 
 &, paraglossae ; c, supports of labial palpi; d, labial palpus; e, mentum;/, inner 
 lobe of maxilla; g, outer lobe of maxilla; h, maxillary palpus; i, mandible; &, 
 
COLEOPTEEA. 
 
 421 
 
 quite large, and there is but a pair of ocelli, when present, or 
 there may be but a single ocellus. The antennae are generally 
 inserted just in front of the eyes, and rarely between them as 
 
 Fig. 346. 
 
 in the previous suborders. They are either filiform where the 
 joints are cylindrical, as in the Carabidce, not enlarging 
 towards the end, or serrate, as in the Elateridce, where the 
 
 buccal opening; Z, gula or throat; m, m, buccal sutures; n, gular suture; o, pro- 
 sternum; p, episternum of prothorax; p', epimeron of prothorax; q, q 1 , q", coxae; 
 r, r', r", trochanters; s,s',s", femora or thighs; tf, t',t", tibiae; v,v a ,?', etc., ventral 
 abdominal segments ; w, episterna of mesothorax (the epimeron is just behind it) ; 
 x, mesoternum; y, episterna of rnetathorax; y', epimeron of metathorax; z, meta- 
 sternum. 
 
 FIG. 346, upper surface of Necrophorus Americanus. (After Leconte.) a, man- 
 dible; 6, maxillary palpus ^c, labrum; d, epistoma; e, antennae; /, front; g, vertex; 
 ft, occiput; i, neck; k, eye; I, pronotum (usually called prothorax); m, elytron; n t 
 hind wing; o, scutellum (of mesothorax); />, metanotum (or dorsal surface of meta- 
 thorax); q, femur or thigh; r, r, r, tergites of the abdomen; s, s 3 , s 3 , spiracles or 
 stigmata; t, t', t", tibiae; v, tibial spurs; w, tarsi. 
 
422 
 
 COLEOPTERA. 
 
 joints are triangular and compressed, giving thereby a serrate 
 outline to the inner edge; or clavate, as in the Silphidce, 
 
 Fig. 347. 
 
 where the enlarged terminal joints give a rounded club-shaped 
 termination ; lamellate, when the terminal joints are prolonged 
 
 Fig. 348. 
 
 internally, forming broad leaf-like expansions, as in the Sca- 
 rabeidce, while the geniculate antenna is produced when 
 
 FIG. 347. Different forms of antennae : 1, serrate ; 2, pectinate; 3, capitate (and 
 also geniculate); 4, 5, 6, 7, clavate; 8, 9, lamellate; 10, serrate (Dorcatoma); 11, ir- 
 regular (Gyrinus) ; 12, two-jointed antenna of Adranes caecus. 
 
 FIG. 348. 1, bipectinate; 2, flabellate antennae; 3, maxillae of Bembidium; 4, of 
 Hydrophilus; 5, of Pselaphus; 6, maxillary palpus of Ctenistes; 7, of Tmesipho- 
 rusj 8, of Tychus. From Leconte. 
 
COLEOPTERA. 423 
 
 the second and succeeding joints make an angle with the first. 
 The mandibles are always well developed as chewing organs, 
 becoming abnormally enlarged in Lucanus, while in certain 
 Scarabeidse they are small and membranous. 
 
 The maxillae (Fig. 348) are supposed to prepare the food to 
 be crushed by the mandibles. The body of the maxilla con- 
 sists of the cardo; a second joint, stipes, to which last are 
 attached two lobes and a palpus. In certain Cicindelidcv 
 and Carabidce, the outer lobe is slender and two-jointed like 
 a palpus. The maxillary palpi are usually four-jointed, some- 
 times with one joint less, and in but a single instance is there 
 any additional joint, as in Aleochara. 
 
 The mentum is generally square or trapezoidal, varying in 
 size. The labium bears the ligula, and supports the labial 
 palpi, and varying much in form, is thus important in classifi- 
 cation. The labial palpi are usually three-jointed, sometimes 
 two-jointed, or with no joints apparent, as in certain Stapliy- 
 linidce, according to Leconte. 
 
 The greatly enlarged prothorax is free and very movable, 
 the pronotum or dorsal piece, considered to be formed origi- 
 nally of four pieces, is usually very distinct from the pieces 
 composing the flanks, though sometime they are continuous. 
 The two hinder rings .of the thorax are covered up by the 
 wings and do not vary in form so as to be of much use in 
 classification. They are respectively composed of a praescutum, 
 scutum and scutellum, and postscutellum, the first and fourth 
 pieces being more or less aborted. The pieces composing the 
 flanks are partly concealed by the great enlargement of the 
 dorsal parts of the segment, much more so than in the prece- 
 ding suborders, the side pieces being much smaller and more 
 difficult to trace ; and these flank-pieces (pleurites) help form 
 the under surface of the body, where in the Hymenoptera, 
 Lepidoptera and Diptera, they are greatly enlarged, forming 
 the bulging sides of the body. 
 
 The epimera and episterna of both the meso- and metatho- 
 rax, Leconte states, are of much value in classification, especi- 
 ally those of the mesothorax, " according as they reach the 
 middle coxae, or are cut off from them by the junction of the 
 episterna with the metasternum." The thickened horny an- 
 
424 COLEOPTERA. 
 
 terior pair of wings (elytra) , often retain traces of the original 
 veins, consisting of three or four longitudinal lines. Their 
 office in flight seems to be to assist the hind wings in sustain- 
 ing the body, as but rarely when the insect is on the wing do 
 the elytra remain quiet on the back. The membranous hind 
 wings are provided with the usual number of principal veins, 
 but these are not subdivided into veinlets. The wing is long, 
 naiTOW and pointed, with the costal edge strong, being evi- 
 dently adapted for a swift and powerful flight. 
 
 In the running species, such as many Carabidce, the 
 hind wings being useless, are aborted, and very rarely in some 
 tropical Lampyridce and Scarabceidce are both pairs of 
 wings wanting in both sexes, though, as in the Glow-worm 
 and some of its allies the females are apterous. The legs 
 are well developed, as the beetles are among the most power- 
 ful running insects. The coxae are large and of much use in 
 distinguishing the families. The trochantine is usually present 
 in the forelegs, but often absent in the middle pair ; the tro- 
 chanters, or second joint of the leg, is small, circular, ob- 
 liquely cut off, and the femur and tibia lying next beyond 
 are of varying form, correlated with the habits of thQ insect, 
 the hinder pair becoming oar-like in the swimming Dytiscidce 
 and some Hydrophilidce , while in m the Gyrinidce both 
 pairs of hind legs become broad and flat. The number of 
 tarsal joints varies from the normal number, five, to four and 
 three joints, the terminal joint as usual being two-clawed. 
 These claws are only known to be wanting in Phanaeus, a 
 Scarabseid, and the aberrant family Styl op idee. According 
 to the number of the tarsal joints the families of Coleoptera 
 have been grouped into the Pentamera (five-jointed), the Tet- 
 ramera (four-jointed), the Trimera (three-jointed), and Hete- 
 romera, which are four-jointed in the hind pair, while the first 
 and second pairs are five-jointed. 
 
 The abdomen, usually partly concealed by the wings, is ses- 
 sile, its base broad ; in form it is usually somewhat flattened. 
 The tergal and sternal portion of each ring is connected 
 usually by the membranous pleura! piece, which represents 
 the epimera and episterna of the thorax, and on which the stig- 
 mata are situated. While in the other suborders the typical 
 
COLEOPTEKA. 425 
 
 number of abdominal segments is ten, no more than nine have 
 been traced in the Coleoptera. 
 
 A few genera are capable of producing sounds by rubbing 
 the limbs or elytra over finely wrinkled surfaces, which in 
 Trox are situated on the side of the basal segments of the ab- 
 domen, and in Strategus on the tergum of the penultimate seg- 
 ment of the abdomen, while such a surface is found in Ligyrus 
 on the surface of. the elytra. 
 
 The nervous system is subject to great variation in the Cole- 
 optera. The ganglia may be fused into three principal mas- 
 ses, as in the Lamellicorns, Curculionidce and Scolytidm, 
 where the first mass corresponds to the prothoracic ganglia, 
 the second and larger to the second and third thoracic ganglia, 
 usually separated in the other suborders, while the third oblong 
 mass represents the whole number of abdominal ganglia, from 
 which radiate the nerves which are distributed to the muscles 
 of the abdomen and the reproductive system. In the Cistel- 
 idce, (Edemeridce and Cerambycidce, the abdominal por- 
 tion of the nervous cord occupies the whole body, and there 
 are five ganglia in the abdomen. These two types of the ner- 
 vous cord sometimes run into each, but are always distinct in 
 the larva state. 
 
 The alimentary canal is very simple in the flesh-eating spe- 
 cies, going directly, without many convolutions to the anus, 
 but in the vegetable feeders it is very long and greatly con- 
 voluted. The gizzard is oval in shape, its internal folds being 
 armed with hooks. There are two salivary glands. The urin- 
 ary tubes are either four or six in number. 
 
 "The phosphorescent organs of the Lampyridce and cer- 
 tain Elateridce consist of a mass of spherical cells, filled 
 with a finely granular substance and surrounded by numer- 
 ous trachean branches. This substance which, by daylight, 
 appears of a yellow, sulphur-like aspect, fills in the Lam- 
 pyridce, a portion of the abdominal cavity, and shines on the 
 ventral surface through the last abdominal segments, which are 
 covered with a very thin skin ; while with the Elateridce, the 
 illumination occurs through two transparent spots, situated on 
 the dorsal surface of the prothorax. The light produced by 
 these organs, so remarkably rich in tracheae, is undoubtedly the 
 
426 COLEOPTESA. 
 
 result of a combustion kept up by the air of these Tessels. 
 This combustion explains the remission of this phosphores- 
 cence observed with the brilliant fire-flies, and which coin- 
 cides, not with the movements of the heart, but with those of 
 inspiration and expiration." (Siebold.) 
 
 The tracheae of the Coleoptera are always highly developed. 
 In the larva state they arise from two principal trunks. In the 
 adult, however, they branch out directly near each stigma and 
 distribute branches which communicate with other main trunks. 
 In those species which fly most, both the fine and larger 
 tracheae end in vesicles, which are distributed in great abun- 
 dance all over the body. In the Lucanidce they are especi- 
 ally numerous, thus lightening the bulk of the enormously 
 developed head. 
 
 The ovaries are arranged in the form of branches of few or 
 numerous tri- or multilocular tubes ; the receptaculum seminis 
 is wedge-shaped and often arcuate, communicating with the 
 copulatory pouch by a long flexuous spiral seminal duct, and 
 there is a bursa copulatrix usually present. The testes vaiy in 
 consisting of two long coeca, or two round or oblong folli- 
 cles, or pyriform and placed like a bunch of grapes on the 
 extremity of the vasa deferentia, or as in the Lamellicorns, 
 Cerambycidce , Curculionidce and Crioceridce , they are 
 round, flattened, disc-like, and are situated, two to twelve in 
 number, on each side of the body. The organ of intromission 
 is very extensible, composed of the terminal segments of the 
 body, which form a broad flattened, hairy canaliculated piece. 
 
 The larvae when active and not permanently enclosed (like 
 the Curculio) in the substances that form their food, are elon- 
 gated, flattened, wormlike, myriapodous-looking, with a large 
 head, well developed mouth-parts, and with three pairs of tho- 
 racic feet, either horny, or fleshy and retractile, while there is 
 often a single terminal prop-leg on the terminal segment of the 
 body and a lateral horny spine. The larvae of the Ceram- 
 bycidce, are white, soft and more or less cylindrical, while 
 those of the Curculionidce are footless or nearly so, and 
 resemble those of the Gall-flies, both hymenopterous and dip- 
 terous. 
 
 The pupae have free limbs, and are either enclosed in cocoons 
 
COLEOPTEEA. 427 
 
 of earth, or if wood-borers in rude cocoons of fine chips and 
 dust, united by threads, or a viscid matter supplied by the in- 
 sect. None are known to be coarctate, though some Coccin- 
 ellae transform within the old larva skin, not rejecting it, as 
 usual in the group, while other pupae are enclosed in the cases 
 in which the larvae lived. In some Staphylinidce, the pupa 
 shows a tendency to become obtected, the limbs being soldered 
 to the body as if it were enclosed in a common sheath. Gen- 
 erally, however, the antennae are folded on each side of the 
 clypeus, and the mandibles, maxillae and labial palpi appear as 
 elongated papillae. The wing-pads being small, are shaped 
 like those of the adult Meloe, and are laid upon the posterior 
 femora, thus exposing the meso- and metathorax to view. 
 The tarsal joints lie parallel on each side of the middle line 
 of the body, the hinder pair not reaching to the tips of the 
 abdomen, which ends in a pair of acute prolonged forked in- 
 curved horny hooks, which must aid the pupa in working its 
 way to the surface when about to transform into the beetle. 
 
 The number of living species is between 60,000 and 80,000, 
 and over 8,000 species are known to inhabit the United States. 
 There are about 1,000 fossil species known. They are found 
 as low down as the Coal Formation, though more abundant in 
 the Tertiary deposits and especially the Amber of Prussia. 
 
 Coleoptera have always been the favorites of entomologists. 
 They have been studied, when in their perfect state, more than 
 any other insects, but owing to the difficulty of finding their 
 larvae, and carrying them through their successive stages of 
 growth, the early stages of comparatively few species are 
 known. 
 
 The most productive places for the occurrence of beetles are 
 alluvial loams covered with woods, or with rank vegetation, 
 where at the roots of plants or upon their flowers, under leaves, 
 logs and stones, under the bark of decaying trees, and in 
 ditches and by the banks of streams, the species occur in the 
 greatest numbers. Grass lands, mosses and fungi, the surfaces 
 of trees and dead animals, bones, chips, pieces of board and 
 excrement, should be searched diligently. Many are thrown 
 ashore in sea-wrack, or occur under the debris of freshets on 
 river banks. Many Carabidce run on sandy shores. Very 
 
428 COLEOPTERA. 
 
 early in spring stones can be upturned, ants' nests searched, 
 and the muddy waters sifted for species not met with at other 
 times of the year. 
 
 For beating bushes a large strong ring-net should be made, 
 with a stout bag of cotton cloth fifteen inches deep. This is a 
 very serviceable net for many purposes. Vials of 
 alcohol, a few quills stopped with cork, and close 
 tin boxes for larvae and the fungi, etc., in which 
 they live, should be provided ; indeed, the collector 
 should never be without a vial and box. Beetles 
 should be collected largely in alcohol, and the 
 rig. 349. colors do not change if pinned soon after being 
 taken. Coleoptera should be placed high up on the pin, as in- 
 deed all insects should. The pin should be stuck through the 
 right elytron (Fig. 349) so that it shall come out beneath or 
 between the middle and hind pair of legs. Small species 
 should be pinned with minute pins, which can be afterwards 
 mounted on higher ones. 
 
 CICINDELID^E Leach. The Tiger Beetles have very large 
 heads, much broader than the prothorax, very long curved jaws 
 and long, slender legs. The outer lobe of the maxillae is biar- 
 ticulate, the inner usually terminated by an articulated hook. 
 The eleven-jointed antennae are inserted on the front above 
 the base of the mandibles. They are brownish or 
 greenish with metallic and purplish reflections, marked 
 with light dots and stripes. They abound in sunny 
 paths and sandy shores of rivers, ponds and the 
 ocean, flying and running swiftly, and are thus very 
 Fig. 350. Difficult to capture. The larvae (Fig. 350) are hideous 
 in aspect ; the head is very large with long jaws ; the thoracic 
 rings large and broad, and the ninth ring has two large tuber- 
 cles each ending in two hooks, by which the hunch-backed 
 grub can climb up its hole, near the entrance of which it lies 
 in wait for weaker insects. These holes may always be found 
 in sandy banks frequented by the beetles. 
 
 While all the species living in the United States are ground 
 beetles, in the tropics there are some which live on trees. H. 
 W. Bates states that dtenostoma and its" allies have a greater 
 
CICINDELIDJ3. 
 
 429 
 
 resemblance to ants than to the Cicindelse proper, so much so 
 that when the insects are seen prowling in search of prey along 
 
 Fig. 351. Fig. 352. Fig. 353. 
 
 the slender branches of trees, they can scarcely be distinguished 
 from large ants of the Ponera group. 
 
 The genus Ambtychila has the third joint of the maxillary 
 
 Fig. 354. Fig. 355. Fig. 356. Fig. 357. 
 
 palpi longer than the fourth, and the first joint of the labial 
 palpi very short, while the epipleurse are wide. Omus differs 
 in the wider epipleurse ; both genera inhabit the Pacific States, 
 
 Fig. 358. 
 
 and the former is found as far east as Kansas. Tetracha (Fig. 
 351, T. Virginica Hope) has the first joint of the labial palpi 
 elongated. In Cicindela and allies, the third joint of the max- 
 
430 
 
 COLEOPTERA. 
 
 illary palpi is shorter than the fourth. This country is very 
 rich in species, among the most common of which are C. gen- 
 erosa Dejean (Fig. 352) ; C. vulgaris Say (Fig. 353) ; C. pur- 
 purea Olivier (Fig. 354) ; C. Jiirticollis Say (Fig. 355) ; C. 
 sexguttcda Fabr. (Fig. 356), a bright green active species with 
 six golden dots ; and C. punctulata Olivier* (Fig. 357). 
 
 CARABID^E Leach. This is a family of very great extent, 
 and one very difficult to limit. In form the species vary 
 greatly ; the antennae are inserted behind the base of the man- 
 dibles under a frontal ridge ; maxillae with the outer lobe pal- 
 piform, usually biarticulate, while the inner lobe is usually 
 
 Fig. 359. 
 
 curved, acute and ciliate, with spines. The epimera and epi- 
 sterna of the prothorax are usually distinct ; the three anterior 
 segments of the abdomen, usually six, rarely seven or eight in 
 number, are connate. The legs are slender, formed for run- 
 ning ; anterior and middle coxae globular, posterior ones dilated 
 internally, and the tarsi are five-jointed, t 
 
 TIG. 358 illustrates the external anatomy of this family : 1, head of Cicindela; 
 2, maxilla of Cicindela; 3, mentum of Omus; 4, mentum of Tetracha; 5, mentum 
 of Cicindela; 6, antennae of the same; 7, abdomen of the male of the same; 8, pos- 
 terior coxa of the same; 9, anterior tarsus of Omus (male); 10, anterior tarsus of 
 Cicindela. From Leconte. 
 
 fFiG. 359 illustrates the external anatomy of the Car abides : 1, extremity of 
 the anterior tibia of Carabus, inner face ; 2, maxilla? of Cychrus ; 3, head of Cychrus ; 
 4, head of Carabus ; 5, antenna and part of head of Loricera ; 6, mentum of Carabus ; 
 7, maxilla of Carabus; 8, under surface of Pasimachus; 9, under surface of meso- 
 and metathorax of Metrius; 10, anterior tibia of Metrius; 11, under surface of 
 meso- and metathorax of Physea; 12, antennae of Pasimachus; 13, mentum of 
 Pasimachus; 14, maxilla of Pasimachus; 15, anterior tibia of Pasimachus; 16, 
 head of Promecognathus ; 17, mentum of Pseudomorphus, showing the indistinct 
 gular suture. From Leconte. 
 
CAKABID.E. 
 
 431 
 
 They are, with few exceptions, predaceous beetles ; they are 
 runners, the hind wings being often absent. Their colors are 
 dull metallic or black. They run in grass, 
 
 or lurk under stones and sticks, or 
 
 under the bark of trees, whence 
 
 they go out to hunt in the night- 
 time. They may be found also 
 
 in great numbers under the debris 
 
 of freshets and under stones in 
 
 the spring. 
 Fig. 36i. The i arvae are found in much 
 
 the same situations as the beetles, and are 
 
 generally oblong, broad, with the terminal 
 
 ring armed with two horny hooks 
 or longer filaments, and with a 
 single false leg beneath. 
 
 The genus Omophron, remark- 
 able for its rounded convex 
 form, and wanting the scutellum, 
 is found on the wet sands by 
 rivers and pools, where also Ela- 
 plirus occurs, which somewhat 
 resembles Cicindela. It has 
 slightly emarginate anterior 
 i- tibiae, with large prominent eyes, 
 and rows of large shallow ocel- 
 
 late holes on the elytra. The 
 
 genus Calosoma is well known, 
 
 being common in fields, where it lies 
 
 in little holes in the sod, in wait for its 
 
 prey. I have seen C. calidum Fabr. 
 
 (Fig. 360) attacking the June bug 
 
 (Lachnosterna fusca) tearing open 
 
 its sides. Its larva (Fig. 361) is 
 
 black. C. scrutator Fabr. (Fig. 362) 
 
 is a still larger species with bright 
 
 green elytra. It is known, accord- a Fi s- 363t 
 
 ing to Harris, to ascend trees in search of canker-worms. 
 Carabus has similar habits, but differs in having the third 
 
432 
 
 COLEOPTEKA. 
 
 joint of the antennae cylindrical, while that of Calosoma is 
 
 greatly compressed. C. serratus Say (Fig. 363 ; , pupa of the 
 European C. auronitens) is black bordered with 
 purple. The closely allied species of Cychrus, of 
 rich purple and blue tints, differ in the longer head, 
 the deeply bilobate labrum, and in having four of 
 the antennal joints smooth, with thickly striated 
 elytra. (We figure some unknown larvae of this 
 family' which are allied to 
 Carabus ; Fig. 364, natural ^ 
 size ; Fig. 365, a little en- Jl\ 
 larged; a, mouth parts; 6, 
 end of the body, and Fig. 
 366, a larva apparently of the 
 Fig. 364. same genus.) Pasimachus 
 
 elongatus Lee. (Fig. 367) has been 
 
 found, according to Walsh, to prey on 
 
 the Doryphora, or Potato beetle. 
 The genus Scarites and its allies have Fig .335. 
 
 the anterior toothed palmate tibiae more 
 
 Fig. 367. 
 
 illae are hooked 
 
 or less produced at the apex, 
 pedunculate abdomen. In Scar- 
 ites and Pasimachus the basal 
 joint of the antenna is very long ; 
 the former having the maxillae 
 rounded at the tip, and the tho- 
 rax rounded behind, while in 
 Pasimachus, the thorax is dis- 
 tinctly angulated, and the max- 
 
 with a 
 
 In Clivina the basal joint of the an- Fi #- m - 
 tennae is short, the mandibles flat and acute, and the clypeus 
 is not emarginate. 
 
 In Harpalus and allies the epimera of the mesotho- 
 rax do not extend to the coxae, and the mesosternum 
 is large, widely separating the middle coxae. Of this 
 group Brachinus (B. fumans Fabr. Fig. 368), the 
 Bombardier beetle, with its narrow head and cordate 
 Fig. 368. prothorax, is remarkable for discharging with quite 
 an explosion from its anal glands a pungent fluid, probably 
 
CARABID^. 
 
 433 
 
 of use as a protection against its enemies. They are yellow- 
 ish red, with bluish and greenish elytra. Helluomorpha 
 (H. ,prseusta Lap. Fig. 369 ; a, mentum) has a 
 large mentum and much compressed antennae. 
 Galerita is similar but 
 much larger, with a red 
 thorax, and blue or black 
 elytra. Fig. 370 represents 
 the larva ; Fig. 371 the pupa Fi s- 
 of G. Lecontei Dejean, a Southern species. 
 Casnonia has a rhomboidal head, with 
 a long narrow neck and a cylindrical tho- 
 rax. C. Pensylvanica De- 
 jean (Fig. 372) is not un- 
 common, being found 
 under stones. The species 
 of Lebia are found upon^ 
 flowers, especially the 
 golden rod, in August and 
 September. They are gaily 
 colored, with the head con- 
 stricted behind and the Fig. 371. 
 thorax pedunculate. The species of 
 Platynus (P. cupripenne Say, Fig. 373) 
 are often of brilliant metallic green and red colors. In Cymin- 
 dis, which is hairy, the head is not constricted behind, and the 
 last joint of the labial palpi is dilated. In Pterosti- 
 chus, which is a genus of great extent, the three basal 
 joints of the antennae are smooth, the 
 J anterior tibiae are thickened at the ex- 
 J tremity, and the dilated tarsal joints are 
 triangular or cordate. The species are Fig. 372. 
 black and of common occurrence. Amara differs 
 in the head not being narrowed behind, the slightly 
 Fig. 373. emarginate labrum and the elytra being without 
 the usual punctures. Zimmerman states that the species are 
 annual, or double brooded annually ; the eggs, which are laid 
 beneath the surface of the soil, do not mature for several 
 days after coupling ; the larvae moult once, live six to eight 
 28 
 
434 
 
 COLEOPTEKA. 
 
 weeks, and the pupa lives half that time ; the beetles often 
 hibernate. The larva has the general form of that of Poecilus. 
 
 The species of Harpalus are large, 
 _ with a very square prothorax. H. 
 caliginosus Say (Fig. 374) is bene- 
 ficial in eating cut-worms and other 
 injurious larvae. Fig. 375 represents 
 a larva supposed to belong to this or JJ 
 an allied genus. The blind Anoph- f 
 thalmus Tellkampfii Erichs. from the ~% 
 Mammoth Cave, has no eyes, while 2 
 the legs are very long, especially 
 the narrow fore tibiae ; but in Tre- / 
 chus, which is closely allied to the blind Cave Beetle, 
 the eyes are as large as usual, and the legs stouter. Fig. 375. 
 
 Bembidium com- 
 
 c^/?t\^ , e , prises species of 
 
 very small size 
 and variable in 
 form, in which the 
 anterior tibiae are 
 not dilated at the 
 
 base. They are found abundantly under the refuse of 
 freshets and tides, preying upon dead animal matter 
 and other insects, and a species of Cillenum, 
 closely allied to Bembidium, is known to seize 
 the beach-flea, Gammarus, and devour it. 
 Pig. 376 (A, a little enlarged; B, head; c, 
 mandible ; e, antenna ; /, labium and its two- 
 jointed palpi ; g, maxillae ; ft, *, j, under side 
 of different abdominal rings) represents the 
 larva of a Ground beetle, which, according to 
 Fig. 377. Walsh, preys upon the larva of the Plum cur- 
 culio while under ground. Fig. 377 represents the Fig. 373. 
 supposed larva of a European species of Chlcenius, and Fig. 
 378 what we suppose is the larva of a beetle allied to Cillenum. 
 
 AMPHIZOID^E Leconte. The genus Amphizoa (Fig. 379, A. 
 insolens ; a, antenna ; &, labrum ; c, mandibles ; cZ, maxillae ; e, 
 
 Fig. 376. 
 
DYTISCID^E. 
 
 435 
 
 ligula ; /, mentum ; g, prosternum, front, and 7i, side view ; *, 
 under side of the rest of the body, showing the six ventral seg- 
 ments of the abdomen ; J, anterior tarsus : from Horn) found 
 in Northern California, is the sole representative of this family 
 and differs from the preceding family in the metasternum be- 
 
 Fig. 379. 
 
 ing truncate behind, and not reaching the abdomen. A. inso- 
 lens Lee. is an anomalous form, being subaquatic, and in its 
 structure and habits connecting the Car abides with the suc- 
 ceeding family. 
 
 DYTISCID.E McLeay. The Diving Beetles, or Water Tigers, 
 are oval flattened elliptical beetles, which differ from the Car- 
 ab idee in the form of the hinder coxae, which are very large, 
 touching each other on the inner edge, and externally reaching 
 the side of the body, entirely cutting off the abdominal seg- 
 ments from the metathorax, while the oar-like swimming legs 
 are covered with long hairs, and the hinder pair are much flat- 
 tened. The larvae are called "water tigers," being long, cy- 
 lindrical, with large flattened heads, armed with scissor-like 
 jaws with which they seize other insects, or snip off the tails 
 of tadpoles, while they are even known to attack young fishes, 
 sucking their blood. They are known to moult several times, 
 four or five days intervening between the first two periods of 
 moulting, and ten days between the latter. The body ends in 
 a pair of long respiratory tubes, which they protrude into the 
 air, though eight pairs of rudimentary spiracles exist. When 
 about to transform the larva creeps on to the land, constructs 
 a round cell, and in about five days assumes the pupa state, 
 and in two or three weeks the beetle appears, if in summer, or 
 
436 COLEOPTEKA. 
 
 if in autumn hibernates as a pupa, to transform to a beetle in 
 the spring. 
 
 In Haliplus the antennae are ten-jointed, bristle-shaped, and 
 the legs are scarcely adapted for swimming, being narrow. 
 The body is very convex, spotted with black or gray, while 
 the elytra are covered with rows of punctures. In the remain- 
 ing genera, the types of the family, the antennae are eleven- 
 jointed and the hind legs oar-like. "The larvae differ not only 
 by their dorsal segments being armed with spines, which gives 
 them a very grotesque appearance, but by their possessing only 
 one claw, and by their anal segment (which is rudimentary 
 in all other Dytiscidae) being enormously elongated and forked, 
 so that the anus is placed on the under side of this pe- 
 culiar tail, and the spiracles of the eighth pair, which are ter- 
 minal and tube-like in other Dytiscidce here become lateral 
 and quite plain." (Schiodte.) In Colymbetes and Agabus the 
 anterior tarsi of the males are broad, oblong, and covered be- 
 neath with cups of equal, or nearly equal, size. Agabus differs 
 in having the thorax as wide at the base as at the middle, or 
 still wider. In Dytiscus the ovate, not very convex body is 
 usually broader behind the middle, and the last joint of the 
 palpi is not elongated, while in Adlius which is usually 
 banded, the intermediate tarsi of the male are not dilated. 
 The males of these two genera often have the elytra deeply 
 furrowed, while those of the females are smooth. Dytiscus 
 fasdventris Say and Adlius mediatus Say are common in all 
 our ponds northward. 
 
 GTKINID^E Latreille. Whirligigs. These oval bluish black 
 beetles are easily distinguished by their peculiar form and 
 habits. They are always seen in groups, gyrating and circling 
 about on the surface of pools, and when caught, give out a 
 disagreeable milky fluid. Like the previous family, upon being 
 disturbed, they suddenly dive to the bottom, holding on by 
 their claws to submerged objects. They carry down a bubble 
 of air on the tip of the abdomen, and when the supply is ex- 
 hausted rise for more. 
 
 The cylindrical eggs are placed by the female, end to end, 
 in parallel rows on the leaves of aquatic plants, and the larvae 
 
^ 
 
 HYDROPIJILID^E. 437 
 
 are hatched in about eight days. They are myriapodous in 
 form, with a pair of large, long, lateral respiratory filaments 
 on each segment, much as in the larva of 
 Corydalus. They become fully grown in Au- 
 gust, crawl out of the water and spin an ovai 
 cocoon, within which the pupa remains a 
 month, and then appears as a beetle. In Gy- 
 rinus (Fig. 380, G. borealis Aube ; Fig. 381, 
 larva of a European species) the scutellum is llg ' 3S 
 distinct ; the species of Dineutus, of which D. Ameri- 
 canus is a type, are larger, and lack the scutellum. 
 Schiodte states that the larvae of Carabidce, 
 Dytiscidce, and Gyrinidce differ from those of other Coleop- 
 tera in having double claws, while in the others the tarsus is 
 undivided and claw-like. 
 
 HYDROPHILID^E Leach. Carnivorous as larvae, but when 
 beetles, vegetable eaters, and living on refuse and decaying 
 matter, this family unites the habits of the foregoing families 
 with those of the scavenger Silphids. They are aquatic, small, 
 convex, oval, or hemispherical beetles, in which the middle and 
 posterior feet are sometimes adapted for 
 swimming ; the antennae are short, and the 
 palpi very long and slender. The females 
 spin a silken, turnip- shaped nidus for their 
 eggs, fifty to sixty in number, which ends 
 in a horny projection, serving as a respira- 
 tory tube to supply the young larvae with 
 air as they are hatched. Others carry the 
 cocoon about with them on the under side 
 of the body. To spin this large amount of 
 silk, they are provided with two large silk 
 glands, with external spinnerets. The larvae 
 hatch in from two to six weeks, and moult 
 three times ; when mature they are long, cy- 
 lindrical, tapering rapidly towards the pos- 
 terior end, with short legs, while the head is m s- 382 - 
 flattened above and very convex beneath, with the mandibles 
 elevated much as in the larva of Cicindela, enabling them to 
 
438 COLEOPTERA. 
 
 seize their food by throwing their heads back and extending 
 the jaws. The larva of the European H. piceus Linn. (Fig. 
 382) matures in two months, then ascends to the bank, forms 
 an oval cocoon, and transforms to a beetle in about forty days. 
 In the genus Spercheus (S. tessellatus Mels.) the middle and 
 hind tarsal joints are equal in length. Hydropliilus is large, 
 oval, olive-black and with smooth elytra. In the larva the 
 lateral appendages of the abdomen are soft, flexible, ciliated, 
 and assist in buoying up the heavy, fleshy body (for which 
 purpose the antennae are ciliated) but they do not serve for 
 respiration as in Berosus, another extensive genus of this 
 family. (Schiodte.) H. triangularis Say is a large, pitch} r 
 black species. In Hydrobiu* the last joint of the maxillary 
 palpi is longer than the preceding. Spliceridium and its allies 
 are characterized by an ovate, convex or hemispherical form, 
 with ten rows of punctures or striae, though in Cyclonotum 
 there are no striae. In Cercyon the mesosternum is not pro- 
 duced, and the prosternum is keeled over. "In the larvae of 
 Cercyon and Sphceridium, which represent the Hydrophiline 
 type modified for life on dry land (though in humid places), 
 we find neither lateral abdominal appen- 
 dages, nor even true feet, the animal wrig- 
 gling its Way through the debris amongst 
 which it lives, whilst the last abdominal 
 segment is the largest of all and is often 
 armed with hooks." (Schiodte.) 
 
 PLATTPSYLLID^: Leconte. The only spe- 
 cies of this family known is a small brown 
 insect, *16 inch long (Platypsytta castoris 
 Ritsema, Fig. 382 1 , enlarged), found on 
 the American beaver. The body is broad, Fi s- 3821 - 
 
 flattened, eyeless, with short elytra, and spiny on the legs and 
 salient parts of the body, as in the flea. Leconte remarks that 
 its affinities are "very composite, but all in the direction of the 
 Adephagous and Clavicorn series, though chiefly with the latter.' 
 
 SILPHID^E Leach. The Carrion or Sexton beetles are useful 
 in burying decaying bodies, in which they lay their eggs. 
 
SCYDM^NHXE. 439 
 
 The laryse are crustaceous, flattened, with the sides of the 
 body often serrated, black, and of a fetid odor. They undergo 
 their transformations in an oval cocoon. In Necroplwrus (Fig. 
 346, N. Americanus Oliv.) the antennae have ten apparent 
 joints, and the rounded club is 
 four-jointed. The genus Silpha, of 
 which S. Lapponica Herbst (Fig. 
 383, larva fully grown ; 384, young, 
 from Labrador) is a common spe- 
 cies, differs in the third joint of 
 the antenna being no longer than 
 the second, but shorter than the 
 first. In NecropMlus the third joint 
 is as long as the first. N. Surina- 
 mensis Fabr. has a yellow thorax 
 with a central irregular black spot. 
 Catops and its allies live in fungi, 
 carrion and ants' nests, and are 
 small, black, oval insects. The Fig. 383, 
 rig. 384. eyeless Adelops liirtus Tellk. is blind, wanting the 
 eyes, and is found in Mammoth Cave. Anisotoma and allies, 
 with eleven-jointed antennae, are oval and sometimes hemis- 
 pherical, and capable of being rolled up into a ball. 
 They are of small size and found in fungi, or under 
 ' the bark of dead trees. Agathidium (Fig. 385, larva 
 of the European A. seminulum) has the club of the 
 antennae three-jointed. Clambus and allies comprise 
 exceedingly minute species, found in decaying vege- 
 table matter. 
 
 An aberrant form is Brathinus, two species of which, 
 B. nitidus Lee. and B. varicornis Lee., have been M 
 found from Lake Superior to Nova Scotia, about the Fig - 385< 
 roots of grass in damp places. According to Leconte, they are 
 small shiny insects of graceful form, and distinguished by the 
 prominent middle coxae. 
 
 Leach. The species of this small group differ 
 from the Pselaphidce to which they are closely allied by their 
 long elytra and distant conical posterior coxae. They are mi- 
 
440 COLEOPTEEA. 
 
 nute, oval, brown, shiny insects found under stones nef r water, 
 under bark and in ants' nests. Scydmcenus is the typical genus. 
 
 PSELAPHID^E MacLeay. In this group the labial palpi are 
 very small, while the four-jointed maxillary palpi are of re- 
 markable length ; the eyes are composed of large lenses, and 
 are sometimes wanting ; the elytra are short, truncated, beneath 
 which the wings, when present, are folded and the legs are 
 long and the femora are stout, while beyond the leg is usually 
 slender. "The species are very small, not exceeding one- 
 eighth of an inch in length, and are of a chestnut-brown color, 
 usually slightly pubescent ; the head and thorax are most fre- 
 quently narrower than the elytra and abdomen, which is con- 
 vex and usually obtuse at tip. Many are found flying in 
 twilight ; their habits at other times are various, some being 
 found in ants' nests, while others occur under stones and bark. 
 North America seems to be rich in this family ; more than fifty 
 species are known to me, and several of the genera have not 
 occurred in other countries. This family closely approaches 
 the Staphylinidce, but the ventral segments are fewer in 
 number, and not freely moving, and the eyes are composed of 
 large lenses." (Leconte.) The genus Claviger and its allies 
 Adranes ccecus Leconte, which is found in ants' nests in North- 
 ern Georgia, have antennae with less than six joints ; it is 
 blind, and the antennae have only two joints. Pselaplius and 
 its allies have eleven-jointed, rarely ten-jointed antennae. 
 
 STAPHYLINID^E Leach. The Rove-beetles are easily recog- 
 nized by their long linear black bodies, with remarkably short 
 elytra, and seven to eight visible horny abdominal segments. 
 The maxillae are bilobate, usually ciliated, with four-jointed 
 palpi, except in Aleochara, when there is an additional joint ; 
 the antennae, variable in form and insertion, are usually eleven- 
 jointed, and while the legs are variable in length and form, 
 the anterior coxae are usually large, conical, prominent and 
 contiguous. Though sometimes an inch in length, they are 
 more commonly minute, inhabiting wet places under stones, 
 manure heaps, fungi, moss, under the bark or leaves of trees. 
 Many species inhabit ants' nests, and should be carefully 
 
STAPHYLINID^ . 44 1 
 
 sought for on dewy mornings under stones and pieces of wood, 
 which should be taken up and shaken over a white cloth or 
 paper ; or the whole nest should be sifted through a rather 
 coarse sieve, when the small beetles will fall through the 
 meshes. The eggs are very large. The larvae (Fig. 386, un- 
 der side of a larva probably belonging to this family, from 
 Maine, enlarged twice) closely resemble the beetles, being 
 narrow, the segments of very equal size, the terminal ring 
 forming a long prop-leg, on each side of which there 
 is a long ciliate seta. In. the pupae the hind wings 
 are not folded beneath the elytra, but extend below, 
 meeting upon the breast. 
 
 In the true Staphylini the anterior coxae are promi- 
 nent and their coxal cavities are open behind. Aleo- 
 chara and its allies are difficult to distinguish, as the 
 characters separating them are but slightly marked; 
 they have the maxillary palpi moderate in length, with 
 the second and third joints also of moderate length, 
 the fourth small, subulate, distinct, and in Aleochara rig> 
 itself there is an additional very small fifth joint. In Homa- 
 lota, numerous in species, the ligula is short and bifid, and the 
 first to the fourth joints of the hind tarsi decrease in length. 
 In Tacliyporus and allies the prothoracic spiracles are visible ; 
 the anterior coxae are large, conical and prominent, with the 
 trochanters very distinct, while the antennae are inserted under 
 the lateral margin of the front. The species are 
 usually convex above, with the thorax always ample, 
 arched and highly polished, and the abdomen conical, 
 sometimes* very short. They are found partly in 
 fungi, partly under bark. Dr. Leconte, whom we 
 have been quoting, states that the species of Bolito- 
 bius usually have the head much elongatecl; when, 
 however, the head is oval, they approach closely to 
 the genus Quedius of the next tribe, but are recog- 
 nized by the antennae being inserted at the lateral ri s- 387 - 
 margin of the front, near the eyes, and not at the anterior 
 angle of the frontal margin, as in Quedius. 
 
 In Stapliylinus the antennae are inserted on the anterior mar- 
 gin of the front, inside of the base of the mandibles, but dis- 
 
442 
 
 COLEOPTERA. 
 
 tant from each other ; the thorax is punctured and pubescent, 
 the middle coxae slightly separate, while the abdomen is nar- 
 rowed at the tips. Fig. 387 represents the larva of this or a 
 closely allied genus found in a humble bee's nest. Pliilontlius 
 differs in having the femora unarmed. The species 
 live in decaying matters and excrement. The spe- 
 cies of Pcederus (Fig. 388, the larva of the European 
 P. tempestivus Erichs.) are found under stones, etc., 
 near water. 
 
 In Stenus, of which S. stygicus Say and 8. Juno 
 Fabr. are types, the eyes are large and prominent, so 
 that the head resembles that of Cicindela and the 
 Fig. 388. antennae are inserted upon the front between the 
 eyes ; the labrum is entire and rounded anteriorly, the para- 
 glossae are dilated, rounded, and the body is coarsely punctured, 
 while that of its nearest ally Dianous is finely punctured and 
 ^ the paraglossse are connate and indistinct. 
 J Another small group of genera is repre- 
 sented by Oxyporus, which is found in fungi, 
 and which has a large head, with 
 large long mandibles crossing each 
 
 A'y. :-.;:k JH//S other, and five-jointed tarsi ; and 
 
 /ISsfl ?' l Oxytelus which is found in wet 
 
 places and in dung, and has three- 
 jointed tarsi, with a row of spines 
 front tibiae, and the middle coxae 
 separated. 
 
 Anthophagus ccesus?, Harris Correspond- 
 ed, maxilla), is found in wet ground where 
 spearmint grows, of which it diffuses a strong odor. 
 
 In Omalium the antennae are inserted under the lateral mar- 
 gin of the front, the elytra are long, and the tibiae finely spi- 
 nous. Micralymma is closely allied, but differs in the elytra 
 being very short. The genus Micropeplus is squarish in form 
 and connects the present family with the one following. 
 
 HISTERIDJE Leach. As stated by Leconte, "this is a very 
 well defined family of insects, moderately numerous, nearly all 
 of a shining black color, with the elytra variously sculptured 
 
 Fig. 389. 
 
 ence (Fig. 389 
 
TRICHOPTERYGIDJE. 443 
 
 with striae ; some few species of Hister and Saprinus have the 
 elytra marked with red, and a few of the latter genus are 
 metallic in color. The form of the body is variable ; those of 
 the first group are oblong and flat, with prominent mandibles ; 
 the others are round, oblong oval, globose, some depressed 
 and some convex. The species live under the bark of trees, in 
 excrement and in carcasses. When disturbed the insects 
 retract the antennae and feet, appearing as if dead. The an- 
 tennae are geniculate, the eighth and following joints forming 
 a compact annulated, rounded or (rarely) triangular club. 
 The elytra are truncate behind, leaving two segments of the 
 abdomen uncovered. The linear flattened larvae have the ter- 
 minal ring ending in two biarticulated appendages, and a 
 single anal prop-leg. The larva of the European Hister 
 merdarius (Fig. 390) lives in cow dung, forming a cell in 
 which it transforms, and like Anthrenus, the pale brown 
 pupa retains the larva skin about it. In Hister the head 
 is retracted and bent downwards, and the club of the 
 antenna is round and annulated. Hister interruptus Jj\? 
 Beauv. and A. marginicollis Lee. are common northward. Fig. 390 
 The genus Hetcerius differs in the antennal club being 
 obconical, truncate and solid. The species are found only in 
 ants' nests early in the spring. In Saprinus the antennae are 
 inserted under the margin of the front ; the antennal cavities 
 being at the sides of the prosternum proper. The species are 
 mostly found in carrion. 
 
 SCAPHIDIID^E MacLeay. "This family," according to Dr. 
 Leconte, "contains small oval or rounded oval, convex, very 
 shining insects, living in fungi. The sides of the thorax are 
 oblique, and the head small, so as to make the body somewhat 
 pointed in front; the thorax is very closely applied to the 
 front, and the elytra are broadly truncate, permitting the tip 
 of the conical abdomen to appear." In Scaphidium the an- 
 tennae are clavate, the eyes emarginate, the posterior tibiae are 
 not spinous, and the first joint of the posterior tarsi longest. 
 
 TRICHOPTERYGIDJE (Trichopterygia Erichson). This incon- 
 siderable family comprises the smallest beetles known. The 
 
444 COLEOPTERA. 
 
 eleven-jointed antennae, which are verticillate, with long hairs, 
 
 are inserted at the margin of the front, and the club is long 
 and loosely articulated. The beetles live under the bark 
 of trees and in ants' nests. The larvae are carnivorous, 
 being very active, without ocelli, and with cylindrical 
 bodies, with four-jointed antennae and long four-jointed 
 legs. Trichopteryx is known by its pubescent body, 
 and laminate posterior coxae. One species is one-third 
 of a line long; others are still smaller. The larva 
 
 Fig. 391 ot - the European jf m intermedia Gillmeister (Fig. 391, 
 
 enlarged) feeds on Podurae. 
 
 PHALACRIDJE Erichson. "A small number of oval or 
 rounded oval, convex, shining insects, constitute this family. 
 They are found on flowers, and sometimes under bark. The 
 elytra have sometimes approximate rows of small punctures, 
 but more usually only a sutural stria. The scutellum is larger 
 than usual, triangular. One of the four genera (Tolyphus) 
 of this family is wanting in our fauna. The other three are 
 separated by the form of the posterior tarsi." (Leconte.) In 
 Phalacrus the anterior and posterior tarsi are of the same 
 length. The larvae are vegetable feeders, living in the flowers 
 of composite plants. 
 
 NITIDULARI^E Latreille. This family includes small oval or 
 elliptical, flattened beetles, which are sometimes almost globu- 
 lar. The head is suddenly narrowed before the insertion of 
 the antennae, thus forming a short beak, and the antennae may 
 be partially retracted into a groove under 
 the eyes. The larvae are both carnivorous 
 and vegetable-feeders ; they are elongated, 
 with two to four-jointed antennae, three ocelli 
 on each side, with a flattened hairy body, 
 ending in four small, horny, recurved tuber- 
 cles. The pupae may be found under the 
 surface of the ground in earth and sawdust. 
 Carpophilus has the second and third abdominal segments 
 short, while the first, fourth and fifth are longer, and the claws 
 are simple. Carpophilus antiquus Mels. is a well known spe- 
 
COLYDIID^E. 445 
 
 cies. Nitidula and its allies are elliptical depressed, often 
 with a broad margin ; the elytra covers the whole abdomen, or 
 leaves merely the tips exposed. In Nitidula the last joint of 
 the labial palpi is not thicker than the preceding, and the 
 species often have two red spots on the elytra, as in Nitidula, 
 bipustulata Fabr. In Epurcea, which is found under stones and 
 bark, the last joint of the palpi is large and thick. Omosita 
 colon Fabr. is also spotted twice with red ; the genus may be 
 recognized by the antennal grooves diverging behind, following 
 the outline of the eyes, while in the males the sixth abdominal 
 segment is wanting. Ips is much longer and larger, with trun- 
 cate elytra, and the head is immersed in the thorax to the 
 eyes. Ips sanguinolentus Say has a broad red band on the 
 elytra, with two large round dots. Ips fasciatus Say (Fig. 
 391, and larva ; found in the roots of the squash by Mr. M. C. 
 Read) has two broad interrupted yellow bands on the elytra ; 
 both species occur about flowing sap in spring. Ips ferruginea 
 of Europe lives on the young of Hylesinus ligniperda. Rliizo- 
 pliagus depresses is known in Europe to attack the larvae of 
 Hylurgus piniperda, according to Dufour. 
 
 MONOTOMIDJE Chaudoir. The species of this inconsiderable 
 group are much like the preceding family in form, but as Le- 
 conte states, differ from them in the anterior coxa3 being small, 
 rounded and separated. They occur under the bark of trees. 
 
 ~~~ ! 
 
 TROGOSITID^E Kirby. This group, usually united with the 
 preceding family, is distinguished by the bilobate maxillae, with 
 the short, four-jointed maxillae and the short undilated tarsi. 
 They generally live under bark, but some have been trans- 
 ported over the whole world in grain. In Trogosita, which 
 comprises long insects, with the thorax narrowed behind, the 
 ligula is entire, the tibiae are not spinous, and the thorax is 
 prominently angulated in front. 
 
 COLYDIIDJE Erichson. The small globular anterior and 
 middle coxae, and the four-jointed simple tarsi will enable them, 
 Leconte states, to be readily distinguished from any of the 
 neighboring families. The species are of small size, usually 
 
446 COLEOPTERA. 
 
 rather long and cylindrical, and occur in fungi, in the earth, or 
 under the bark of trees. Colydium is slender, with finely 
 striate elytra, and the anterior tibiae have one spur enlarged 
 and hooked ; while the first joint of the tarsi is elongated. 
 C. elongatum is stated by European authors to attack the larvae 
 of Platypus, a genus allied to Scolytus. 
 
 RHYSSODID^E Erichson. This group, by some authors united 
 with the preceding family, simulates the form of the Carabids. 
 The antennae are, however, composed of equal globular joints, 
 and the head is strongly constricted behind into a neck. They 
 are found under bark. In Rhyssodes the ej^es are placed upon 
 the side, and in the other genus, Clinidium, upon the upper 
 surface of the head. 
 
 CUCUJID.E Latreille. The species of this family are very 
 much flattened long insects, with flat, strongly emarginated 
 elytra, and the abdomen has five full segments, equal in length. 
 They are found under bark. The larvae are quite transparent, 
 with the terminal joint ending in two horny curved hooks. 
 The antennae are four-jointed, the limbs provided with a single 
 claw, and there are five ocelli on each side of the head. In Syl- 
 vanus, which is of small size, the nine to eleven-jointed an- 
 tennae do not have the first joint elongated as usual, while the 
 terminal ones are enlarged. Sylvanus /Surinamensis Linn, is 
 one-ninth of an inch long, of a rusty brown color, and covered 
 with short yellowish hairs. The larva is a flattened yellowish 
 white grub, with the terminal joint somewhat conical. It breeds 
 in bran, rice and wheat. Cucujus is a bright scarlet flattened 
 insect, with punctured elytra, and three faintly marked smooth 
 lines. The larvae differ from those of Sylvanus by having two 
 horny tubercles at the end of the abdomen; they are often 
 found in granaries. 
 
 CRTPTOPHAGIDJE Kirby. This family differs from the pre- 
 ceding group in the greater length of the first abdominal ring, 
 the thickened body, and in the thorax being as wide as the 
 elytra. Antherophagus is readily known by its resemblance to 
 Epuraea among the Nitidulidw, as its head and body is flat, 
 
MYCETOPHAGID^E. 447 
 
 the front not prolonged, and in the male is deeply excised at 
 
 the tip. The antennae of the female are clubbed as usual, and 
 
 the mandibles are prominent and suddenly incurved at 
 
 the tips. It is often found on flowers in the perfect 
 
 state. We have found the larvae (Fig. 393 ; a, end 
 
 of abdomen) of Antherophagus ochraceus Say (Plate 
 
 3, fig. 4) in the nests of humble bees during July and 
 
 August. They are whitish, and .32 of an inch in 
 
 length. The beetles are of a pale honey yellow, with 
 
 little darker antennae, legs and elytra, while the ends 
 
 of the antennal joints, the base of the coxae and tibiae, Fig. 393. 
 
 and tip of the terminal joint of the tarsi are black. 
 
 The larva of the European Cryptophagus hirtus Gyll. 
 
 (Fig. 394) is found in cellars. 
 
 DERODONTIDJE Leconte. In these insects the 
 transverse form of the anterior and posterior coxae 
 Fig. 394. (which latter are slightly separated), dilated inter- 
 nally, forming a small plate to protect the insertion of the 
 thigh, distinguishes this group from all the preceding 
 families, and approximates it somewhat to the families 
 following the Elateridce. 
 
 LATHRIDIID^E Redtenbacher. Leconte states that 
 the insects of this small family are of very small size, 
 found flying in twilight, and also under bark and 
 stones ; they are of graceful form, the elytra being 
 usually wider than the thorax ; the species of Bonvou- vV 
 loiria and most of the species of Lathridius (Fig. = 
 395, larva of L. minutus Linn., enlarged) are very Fig> 395 - 
 remarkably sculptured, with elevated lines on the thorax. 
 
 OTHNIID^E Leconte. OtJmius umbrosus Lee. is the type of 
 this family. It occurred in Nebraska, near the Rocky Moun- 
 tains. 
 
 MYCETOPHAGHXE Leach. The genus Mycetophagus is finely 
 punctured with closely appressed hairs ; the anterior coxal 
 cavities are open ; the tarsi are four-jointed and filiform, the 
 
448 COLEOPTERA. 
 
 anterior pair in the males having but three joints ; the frontal 
 suture is always distinct and usually deep ; the eyes are trans- 
 verse and the antennae gradually enlarged externally. 
 
 DERMESTIDJE Leach. These well known insects have the 
 head small and deflexed, with short mandibles, rounded eyes, 
 with a single ocellus ; the prothorax is short, sometimes exca- 
 vated for the reception of the antennae, which are in- 
 serted in front of the eyes and are usually eleven-jointed, 
 and the legs are short, somewhat contractile, the tarsi 
 being five-jointed. In Byturus the mandibles have sev- 
 eral teeth, and the claws are armed with a large basal 
 rig. 396- tooth. They are small oval brown beetles found eating 
 flowers. Mr. J. L. Russell of Salem, has called my attention 
 to the ravages committed by B. unicolor Say on the raspberry ; 
 it eats the flowers, being most abundant during June, and for 
 two or three summers has been very abundant. Hand picking 
 was found to be the best remedy. Every entomologist dreads 
 the presence of Dermestes and Anthrenus in his cabinet. 
 The ugly, bristly, insidious larva, which so skilfully hides 
 in the body whose interior it consumes, leaving only 
 the shell ready to fall to pieces at the slightest jar, can 
 be kept out only with the greatest precautions. Der- 
 mestes lardarius Linn., the larger of the two, is oblong 
 oval, with short legs, black, with the base of the elytra 
 gray buff, covered by two broad lines. It is timid and 
 F;g. 397. slow in its movements, and when disturbed seeks a 
 shelter, or mimics death. We have found the larva (Fig. 
 396) of probably another species of Dermestes, crawling up 
 the side of an out-house. It was nearly twice the size of 
 D. lardarius. Attagenus pellio Stephens is another insect 
 which infests museums. It is shorter than Dermestes, black, 
 with two dots on the wing covers. The larva (Fig. 397, en- 
 larged three times) is long and slender, cylindrical, with red- 
 dish brown hairs closely appressed to the body, giving it a 
 silky, shining appearance. The abdomen ends in a long pen- 
 cil of hairs. It has been known to eat holes in carpets. 
 
 Anthrenus varius Fabr. (Fig. 398 ; a, larva; 5, pupa) is 
 rounded oval, with transverse waved lines. Its larva is thick, 
 
GEORYSSID^. 
 
 449 
 
 Fig. 398. 
 
 with long bristles, which are largest on the end of the body. 
 They are generally destructive in museums, and prey on stuffed 
 specimens of all sorts. The beetles fly about early in spring 
 and then lay their eggs. The insect is found in all its stages 
 through the year. They may be killed like the Clothes-moth, 
 also found in museums, by saturating the specimen infested 
 by them with benzine. To pre- 
 vent their attacks, they should 
 be kept out of collections by 
 keeping benzine in constant 
 evaporation in open vessels. 
 Camphor and turpentine and 
 creosote are also very useful. 
 Insects recently prepared should 
 be placed in quarantine, so we may be sure none of the mu- 
 seum pests will be introduced into the drawers or cases of the 
 cabinet while either in the egg or larva state. Their presence 
 in cabinets may be detected by. the dust they make falling on 
 the white surface beneath. Specimens thoroughly impregnated 
 with carbolic acid, or arsenic, or corrosive sublimate, will not 
 be attacked by them. 
 
 BYRRHIDJE Leach. Pill Beetles. This group has the head 
 retracted under the thorax, with the parts of the mouth more 
 or less protected by the prosternum ; the legs are short, stout 
 and retractile, and the antennae are clavate. The typi- 
 cal species are "oval or rounded, very convex, dull 
 black or bronzed insects, covered with a fine, easily 
 removed pubescence, forming varied patterns." In 
 Byrrhus all the tarsi are retractile. We have taken 
 Byrrlms Americanus Lee. in Labrador, on the stems 
 of the "Labrador tea." They are found in cold 
 mountainous districts. The larvae (Fig. 399, larva Fig< m 
 of B. pillula Illiger, a European species found in moss) are 
 fleshy, cylindrical, with the last two rings of the body larger 
 than the others. 
 
 GEORYSSID.E Heer. This family consists of but a single 
 genus, characterized by Leconte as comprising small, rounded, 
 29 
 
450 COLEOPTERA. 
 
 convex, roughly sculptured, black insects, found at the mar- 
 gins of streams, on wet sand ; they cover themselves with a 
 mass of mud, so that no part of the insect is visible. Georys- 
 sus pusillus Lee. is our only species. 
 
 MacLeay. These are aquatic beetles, having a 
 retractile head, and are often found clinging to submerged 
 stones, both in the larval and pupal states. The body of 
 the beetle is "clothed with a fine pu- 
 bescence, enabling a film of air to be 
 preserved beneath the water." The 
 larvae are hemispherical like a basin. 
 "The larva of Pseplienus Lecontei 
 Hald. (Fig. 400, under side, enlarged 
 three times) is an elliptical object, 
 Fig. 400. w ith the margins widely extended be- Elg ' 
 yond the body, and is seen on stones under the water of rapid 
 streams ; it is especially abundant in the rapids of Niagara, 
 and differs in no important particular from the larva of Heli- 
 chus of the next subfamily. It respires by branchial fila- 
 ments." (Leconte.) Elmis (Fig. 401, larva of a European 
 species) is known by the narrow, elongate scutellum. 
 
 HETEROCERIDJE MacLeay. "This family consists of but a 
 single genus, Heterocerus; it is represented in every portion 
 of our territory. The species are numerous, but very similar 
 in form and color, so that care is necessary in distinguishing 
 them. They are oblong or subelongate, oval, densely clothed 
 with short, silky pubescence, very finely punctuate, and of a 
 brown color, with the elytra usually variegated with undulating 
 bands or spots of a yellow color. They live in galleries 
 which they excavate in sand or mud at the margin of bodies 
 of water, and, when disturbed, run from their galleries and take 
 flight, after the manner of certain species of Bembidium." 
 (Leconte.) 
 
 LUCANID^E Latreille. This family is closely allied to the 
 next, and is often united with it, as it differs chiefly from 
 the outer lamellate joints of the antennae not being so closely 
 
451 
 
 Fig. 402. 
 
 united into a compact club, as in the Scarabeidce, and the 
 
 mentum is usually large. The genus Lucanus, called the Stag- 
 
 horn beetle, is of large size, with enormously developed jaws 
 
 in the male, as in Lucanus 
 
 dama Fabr. (Fig. 402, 
 
 $). The larva of Lu- 
 
 canus dama (Fig. 403, and 
 
 cocoon, natural size) is 
 
 long, thick, nearly cylin- 
 
 drical, and the corneous 
 
 rust-colored head is armed 
 
 with two large jaws. Liv- 
 
 ing in rotten wood, like 
 
 the Cerambycidce, it 
 
 constructs a cocoon of the 
 
 chips it makes. The larva 
 
 of the European L. cervus 
 
 is stated by Roesel to live 
 
 six years. Harris states that they lay their eggs in crevices of 
 
 the bark of trees, especially near the roots. The larvae resem- 
 
 ble the grubs of the Scarabaeans in color and form, but are 
 
 smoother, being less 
 wrinkled. Dorcas bre- 
 vis Say (Fig. 404) is 
 an exceedingly rare in- 
 sect whose habits are 
 unknown. In Passalus 
 cornutus Fabr., belong- 
 ing to a more aberrant 
 genus, the body is long 
 Fig. 403. and flattened with a 
 
 short bent hook on the head, and the elytra deeply striate. 
 
 Madam Merian describes the larva of Passalus as being a 
 
 thick fleshy worm, with a small scaly head, six legs, and 
 
 slender posteriorly ; it lives in decaying wood. 
 
 Erichson. This family, the LamelUcornia of 
 Latreille, is one of immense extent, being divided into more 
 than 700 genera, comprising some 6,000 species, or three- 
 
452 
 
 COLEOPTERA. 
 
 fourths as many Coleoptera as are known to live in this 
 country. They comprise the mammoths among insects, and it 
 is in the tropics that we meet with the most numerous and 
 bizarre, as well as gigantic forms. Always 
 readily recognized by their clubbed lamel- 
 late antennae, the terminal joints being 
 expanded into broad flat leaves, which, at 
 the will of the insect, can be closely shut 
 into a compact club, or loosely expanded 
 faivlike, and laid under the projecting cly- 
 peus, so overhanging the mouth-parts as 
 to give rise to the terms beetle-horned, 
 and "beetling;" these insects, by their 
 Fig. 404. robust, thick, often square body, short fos- 
 
 sorial legs, with large hooked claws for seizing leaves and 
 stems, have been well known to all observing persons, however 
 slight their entomological knowledge. The larvae are thick 
 and fleshy cylindrical grubs, with a corneous head, and rather 
 long four-jointed antennae ; the ocelli are generally wanting ; 
 the legs are stout and long, without claws, and the last ab- 
 dominal segment is soft and baggy. The body 
 is often very transparent, the tracheae appear- 
 ing through. Fig. 405 represents a singular 
 larva (magnified twice) of this family from 
 Mr. Sanborn's collection. 
 
 The genus Copris and allies are known by 
 their rounded form, and the broadly expanded 
 clypeus, which covers in the mouth-parts. In 
 some species (those of Deltochilum) the anterior 
 tarsi arc wanting either in the females or both 
 sexes ; and in some species a stridulating ap- 
 paratus is found on the upper surface of the 
 abdomen. In Copris the labial palpi are dilated, 
 the first joint of the autennal club does not receive the others, 
 and the claws are distinct. The larva of C. Carolina Fabr., 
 while, according to Osten Sacken, having the general appear- 
 ance of the larvae of the Lamellicorns, is much thicker and 
 curved up, the back being much swollen and " distended into 
 a hump-like expansion. It is about two inches long and of a 
 
 Fig. 405. 
 
SCAEABJEID^EJ. 453 
 
 dirty yellowish white. Each larva was found enclosed in 
 a globular case of dung or earthy matter, about an inch and a 
 quarter in diameter." (Proceedings of the Entomological 
 Society of Philadelphia, vol. i, pi. 1, fig. 1.) 
 
 The closely allied Phaneus carnifex MacLeay is common 
 southward, and easily known by its brilliant copper colored 
 thorax and bright green elytra, and by the large horn on the 
 head of the male. These insects are called "Tumble-bugs," as 
 they enclose their eggs in pellets of manure, holding them be- 
 tween their hind legs, and rolling them away to a place of safety. 
 The species of Aplwdius live also in manure ; they are quite 
 small, nearly cylindrical, with the mouth-parts concealed by 
 the clypeus ; the antennae are nine-jointed, the club consisting 
 of three joints, and the lobes of the maxillae are membrana- 
 ceous, unarmed, while the upper parts of the eyes are visible in 
 repose. Aphodius fimetarius Linn., which is black with bright 
 red elytra, has been introduced from Europe, and is abundant 
 in woods, flying over dung ; it is now common in the carriage 
 road of Mount Washington. Fig. 406 represents the larva of 
 the European A. fossor Linn. Chapuis and Candeze 
 found it in manure in spring. Geotrupes has eleven- 
 jointed antennae, with the club three-jointed, the mid- 
 dle coxae are contiguous, and while the club of its 
 nearest ally, Bolbocerus, a shorter insect, is large 
 and lenticular in form, that of the present genus 
 is lamellate, as usual. Geotrupes splendidus Fabr. is Flg * 406> 
 a common beetle, with a bright shining green body, flying in 
 paths and wood roads late in the summer. The species of 
 Trox differ in having slightly fossorial legs ; they are oblong 
 convex, the surface being very rough and covered with dirt 
 which is scraped off with difficulty. They live in dried decay- 
 ing animal matter, and, according to Leconte, "possess a dis- 
 tinct stridulating organ ; it is an elliptical plate, with pearly 
 reflections, occupying the upper part of the external face of 
 the ascending portion of the first ventral segment, and is cov- 
 ered by the elytra ; on the inner surface of the elytra, near the 
 margin, about opposite the thorax, is an oval, smooth, polished 
 space, which has, probably, some connection with the stridu- 
 lating organ." The larva of " Trox Carolina Dej." (T. scabro- 
 
454 
 
 COLEOPTERA, 
 
 sus Beauv. Fig. 407), is described by Chapuis and Candeze as 
 coming from New Orleans. 
 
 Melolontha and its allies come next in the series. They feed 
 exclusively on living plants. The genus Acratus was estab- 
 lished by Dr. Horn for A. Jlavipennis Horn (Fig. 
 408 ; a, antenna ; 6, maxilla ; c, mentum ; d, mandi- 
 ble ; 6, anterior leg and tarsal claw) found in Ari- 
 zona. The genus Dichelonycha is distinguished by 
 the front margin of the thorax being narrow and 
 rig. 107. membranous, with equal claws, cleft at the tip. Di- 
 chelonycha elongatula Schonh. Is a long green beetle, 'with long 
 legs, and of a metallic green color ; it is found in June on the 
 
 e leaves of the birch. 
 /^- ? Macrodactylus sub- 
 *f\ ^^ spinosus Fabricius, the 
 2^i well known Rose-bug 
 
 ^=^ or Rose- chafer, is 
 
 brown, covered with 
 ochreous scales ; the 
 legs, tarsi and claws 
 are very long and slender. It overruns garden plants, especi- 
 ally injuring the rose leaves. Dr. Harris has observed the 
 transformations of this insect. The nearly globular whitish 
 eggs, about thirty in number, are deposited by the female 
 from one to four inches beneath the surface of the soil, and are 
 hatched in about twenty days. The whitish 
 larva becomes fully grown in the autumn, and 
 is then three- quarters of an inch long and an 
 eighth of an inch wide. In October it descends 
 below the reach of frost, and in the next 
 May is transformed to a pupa in an oval 
 earthen cell. The pupa is yellowish white, 
 somewhat of the form of the beetle, with short wings'; its 
 antennae and legs folded on its breast, with its white body 
 surrounded by a thin film. The beetles may be often seen in 
 clusters on low bushes in partially cleared fields having just 
 appeared from their cocoons. Dr. Horn has described the 
 genus Plectrodes for a Californian species, P. pubescens Horn 
 (Fig. 409 ; a, maxilla and palpus ; 6, tarsal claw). The well 
 
 Fig. 408. 
 
SCARAB^EID^E. 
 
 455 
 
 known June-bug or Dor-bug, Lachnosterna fusca Frohl.(Fig. 
 410, 411, larva; 412, side view of pupa), lives as a larva on 
 the roots of grass and is often turned up by the spade or 
 plough. It is then a large fleshy grub, very com- 
 monly met with, and is injurious to growing corn 
 and wheat. The pupa is found in its rude earth- 
 
 en cocoon in May. The beetles are very injuri- \ 
 ous to the leaves of fruit trees. They are chest- : 
 nut brown, with yellowish hairs beneath, and 
 nearly an inch in length. There are several 
 smaller, closely allied species. Melolontha (Poly- Fi - 41 - 
 phylla) variolosa Harris differs in its enormously developed 
 six-jointed lamellate antennal club, that of the female being 
 much smaller. 
 
 In Anomala the body is small, the an- 
 tennae nine-jointed, and the mandibles when 
 at rest do not project beyond the clypeus. 
 Such is Anomala varians Fabr., which is 
 very injurious to the vine in June and 
 July. Pelidnota punctata Linn, has similar 
 habits. It is oblong oval, very convex 
 Fig. 411. above, with dull brownish yellow elytra, 
 
 with three large black dots on each side. It is often abun- 
 dant on grape-vines in July and August, and proves very 
 injurious. 
 
 The Cotalpa lanigera Linn. (Fig. 413 ; a, larva) or the Gold- 
 smith beetle, is nearly an inch long, bright yellow, with long 
 white, woolly hairs beneath, where it is metallic 
 green. It often injures fruit and shade trees, and 
 Mr. S. Lockwood states that in the larva state it 
 destroys the roots of the strawberry plant. He 
 remarks that on the 16th of June a pair of Cotal- 
 pas coupled, and in the evening the female bur- 
 rowed beneath the dirt, reappearing the next 
 morning, having meanwhile laid at different 
 depths, and singly, fourteen white, long, oval eggs ; 
 on the 13th of July the larvae hatched, being five-sixteenths 
 of an inch long. (American Naturalist, vol. ii, p. 441.) 
 In Dynastes the labial palpi are inserted on the sides of the 
 
 Fig. 412. 
 
456 
 
 COLEOPTERA. 
 
 mentum, which is acuminate in front ; the head and thorax are 
 armed with large horns in the males ; the first joint of the pos- 
 terior tarsi is not elevated, and there are no stridulating or- 
 gans. Our only species is Dynastes Tltyus Linn., found in 
 the Southern States. It is over two inches long, of a greenish 
 gray color, with black spots scattered irregularly over the ely- 
 tra. Dynastes Hercules Linn. , one of the giants of the family, 
 is about six inches long. 
 
 The genus Cetonia and its allies are flower beetles ; their 
 mandibles are feebly develope'd and in part membranous and 
 concealed with the other oral organs beneath the clypeus ; and 
 in flying they "do not raise or expand the elytra, as most Cole- 
 optera do, but pass the wings from the side, under the elytra, 
 
 which do not at all 
 embrace the sides of 
 the body." (Leconte.) 
 The immense Go- 
 liath beetles of the 
 western coast of 
 Africa belong to the 
 genus Goliathus, in 
 which the clypeus of 
 the males is generally 
 Fig - 413 ' forked or armed with 
 
 horns. Dr. Harris has proposed the name of Hegemon "for 
 the subgenus, including the princely Scarabceus Goliathus of 
 Linnaeus, together with the still more magnificent Goliathus 
 Drurii of Westwood, and the G. Cacicus of Gory and Per- 
 cheron." Of Hope's subgenus Mecynorhina, the Scarabaeus 
 Polyphemus of Fabricius is the type ; it is velvet green above, 
 with a pale buff head and markings, and is two and a half 
 inches long, exclusive of the horns. Dr. Harris has also 
 described as new to science M. Savagii which has a velvet 
 green thorax, and velvet black elytra, with tawny bands and 
 spots ; it is about two inches long. The G. Goliathus is per- 
 haps the largest of all the Coleoptera ; specimens measuring 
 nearly four inches. Dr. G. A. Perkins of Salem, Mass., who 
 collected a large part of the fine series of specimens of these 
 Goliath beetles in the Museum of the Peabody Academy of 
 
SCAKAB^ID^B. 457 
 
 Science, informs me that they are found in the tops of trees 
 where they feed on flowers and on sap exuding from wounds 
 in the bark, like the Cetonise, and that the natives obtain 
 them by jarring the trees. Harris states that "it appears, 
 from the observations of Dr. Savage, that the food of the 
 Goliath beetles is fluid, like that of the Trichii and Cetoniae, 
 insects belonging to the same natural family, but the latter live 
 chiefly on the nectar of flowers, and the former on the sap of 
 plants. The long brushes on their jaws, and the diverging 
 rows of hairs that line their lower lips, are admirably fitted for 
 absorbing liquid food ; while their horny teeth afford these 
 beetles additional means for obtaining it from the leaves and 
 juicy stems of plants, when the blossoms have disappeared." 
 From Cetonia, Lacordaire has separated the genus Euryomia, 
 distinguished by the untoothed maxillae, by the clypeus being 
 usually parabolic, sometimes parallel and rarely emarginate in 
 front. Euryomia Inda Linn, attacks 
 ripe peaches, spoiling them for the 
 market. They are found about run- 
 ning sap in April and flying in fields in 
 May, and a new brood appears in Sep- 
 tember. In Osmoderma the elytra are 
 not sinuate on the sides, the prothorax 
 
 is narrower than the elytra and usually rounded on the sides. 
 Osmoderma scabra Dej. is a large long-legged beetle of a cop- 
 pery purplish black color. The larva lives in decaying cherry 
 and apple trees. According to Harris it is a whitish fleshy 
 grub, with a reddish corneous head, and closely resembles the 
 grub of the common dor-beetle. In autumn it forms an oval 
 cocoon by gluing together the chips it makes, and the beetle 
 appears in July. 
 
 BUPRESTIDJE Leach. This very extensive family is known 
 by the serrated antennae, the outer joints of which are usually 
 furnished with pores, which are either diffused on the sides, 
 or concentrated in a cavity (fovea) on the under side or at the 
 tip. The head is deeply sunken up to the elliptical eyes, and 
 the labrum is small and prominent, while the mandibles are 
 short and stout. The legs are short, the tibiae are usually 
 
458 
 
 COLEOPTERA. 
 
 slender, and the species are generally long, flattened beetles 
 of very tough thick consistence, and are found on flowers, or 
 sunning themselves on the bark of trees in midsummer. The 
 larvae are flattened footless grubs, with the 
 prothoracic ring greatly enlarged. 
 
 In Chalcophora the antennal pores are dif- 
 fused on the sides of the joints, or only on 
 the lower margin ; the mesosternal 
 suture is indistinct ; the antennae are 
 inserted in small foveae, and the pos- 
 terior tarsi have the first joint elon- 
 gated. C. Virginiensis Drury is one 
 of our most common species, and 
 may be seen flying about pine trees 
 in hot days in May and June. Its 
 larva bores into pines, often proving 
 very injurious. rig. 415. 
 
 Dicerca is noted for having the tips of 
 the elytra lengthened out and diverging 
 from each other. Dicerca divaricata Say is 
 frequently met with ; it is smoother than 
 usual and highly polished with a 
 bronzed hue. The elytra are 
 marked with numerous fine irregu- 
 lar impressed lines and small ob- 
 long square elevated black spots. 
 The larvae attack the wild cherry 
 and the garden cherry and peach. 
 Dicerca lurida Fabr. is found on 
 the trunks and limbs of the 
 Fig. 416. hickory. 
 
 The genus Chrysobothris differs in having the 
 antennae inserted at the inner extremity of two short 
 oblique grooves, by which the front is narrowed ; 
 the anterior femora are strongly toothed, the third 
 joint of the tarsi is truncate, while in the hind tarsi the first 
 joint is elongated. The species are rather broad and flattened, 
 with impressed bands and spots on the elytra. Chrysobothris 
 femorata Fabr. (Fig. 414 ; a, larva ; Fig. 415, larva of the 
 
 Fig. 417. 
 
BUPKESTIM}. 459 
 
 same genus, found under bark of oaks) is greenish black above, 
 with a brassy polish ; it infests the apple and oak, in which it 
 lives one year. C. Harrisii Hentz inhabits the small limbs of 
 the white pine. It is also very injurious to apple trees and red 
 maples. To prevent its attacks Fitch recommends placing a 
 piece of soap in a fork in the tree so that it will be washed 
 down by the rains over the bark, while young trees may be 
 rubbed with soap ; this is an excellent remedy against the 
 attacks of all kinds of borers. 
 
 The genuine species of Buprestis occur in Europe. The 
 largest species of this family known to us is the JEuchroma 
 Columbica Mann, which occurs in Central and 
 South America. It is two and a half inches 
 long and metallic green. Mr. McNiel has sent 
 to the Museum of the Peabody Academy sev- J 
 eral immense white larvae (Fig. 416, natural 
 size) , from Nicaragua, which are, without much 
 doubt, the young of this gigantic beetle. 
 
 The small, flattened, ovate, angular Brachys Fig. 418. 
 is probably a leaf miner, as such are the habits of the closely 
 allied genus Trachys (T. pygmaea, Fig. 417, larva; 418, pupa), 
 as observed in Europe where it mines the leaves of the Malva 
 and Alcaea, according to M. Leprieur. 
 
 THROSCIDJE Laporte. This small group has been separated 
 from the succeeding family ; the species differ in not having 
 the power of leaping, owing to the immovable thorax. In 
 Throscus the antennae are terminated by a three-jointed club. 
 
 ELATERID^E Leach. A very large and easily limited family, 
 in which the serrate, eleven-jointed antennae, are inserted upon 
 or under the margin of the front, in grooves, while the head is 
 retracted, though sometimes free as usual from the prothorax, 
 between which and the mesothorax is a loose articulation, 
 enabling the species to leap in the air by a sudden jerking 
 movement, which Dr. Leconte thus describes: "a few of the 
 species of the first subfamily (Eucnemidae) and a majority of 
 those of the third (Elateridae) , possess the singular power 
 of springing in the air when placed on the back. This is 
 
460 COLEOPTERA. 
 
 effected by extending the prothorax so as to bring the proster- 
 nal spine to the anterior part of the inesosternal cavity, then 
 suddenly relaxing the muscles so that the spine descends 
 violently into the cavity, the force given by this sudden move- 
 ment causes the base of the elytra to strike the supporting 
 surface, and by their elasticity the whole body is propelled 
 upward." 
 
 The larvae, known by the name of Wire-worms, are vegetable 
 feeders, living on the roots of grass, wheat, corn, potatoes, 
 turnips and other garden vegetables. Fig. 419 (enlarged 
 4$ four times) represents a larva of this family found by 
 Mr. Sanborn in the roots of the squash vine. The eggs 
 are laid probably in pastures and fallen ground where 
 the surface is undisturbed, or in the vicinity of rotten 
 wood. The larvae moult three times, and some species 
 are known to live in this state five years. When fully 
 grown they transform in an earthen cocoon, and may 
 be seen rising out of the ground during the summer, 
 Fig. 419. especially in June. The larvae are very long cylin- 
 drical (whence their name wire-worm), hard -bodied and diffi- 
 cult to kill, and are generally pale testaceous, or yellowish red 
 in color. They have only six thoracic legs, and a slight anal 
 prop-leg ; the body is flattened towards the head and tail. 
 
 Eucnemis differs from the true Elaters in the serrate an- 
 tennae being inserted in approximate grooves at the margin of 
 the thorax beneath, which makes the clypeus narrow. The 
 
 ^ _^..^ ^ species do not leap so vigorously as those of 
 
 other leaping genera. Fornax differs from 
 Eucnemis in the antennae being filiform. 
 In Adelocera (Fig. 420, A. obtecta Say) the 
 third joint of the antennae is equal to, or 
 larger than the fourth. In Elater and its 
 allies, the antennae are widely separated, 
 being inserted in small cavities (foveae) 
 under the margin of the front, and before 
 rig. 420. the eyes. Alaus oculatus Esch. is the largest 
 
 Elater we have, the scutellum is oval, and the elytra have a 
 broad margin. The genus Elater has the front of the head 
 convex and margined quite broadly, and the thorax is alwaj's 
 
M 
 
 ELATERIDJE. 461 
 
 narrowed in' front, with the tarsi ciliate beneath, and entirely 
 simple. Elater obliquus Say is a small species about a quarter 
 of an inch long, of a leathery brown color, and yellowish red 
 on the prothorax and base of the elytra. In 
 Agriotes and allies the front is very convex, 
 the edge of which is higher than the labrum ; the 
 antennse are slender, scarcely serrate, the first / 
 joint being a little longer than usual. / ; 
 
 In Ludius the front is convex, but not mar- 
 gined behind the labrum, the angle of the hind 
 coxae are acute and prominent, while the meso- Fi - 42L 
 sternum is not prominent. Mr. Walsh has found the larva of 
 L. attenuatus Say (Fig. 421 ; fig. 422, larva) which lived in 
 decaying wood for two years in his breeding jar. The 
 genus Agriotes has the margin of the prothorax bent 
 down in front, while in Dolopius it is straight. Agriotes 
 mancus Say is a pale reddish brown species, while A. 
 stabilis, much more abundant northward, is slenderer, 
 of a darker hue, with a dark shade along the inner 
 edge of each elytron. D. pauper Lee. is a 
 small species found northward. 
 
 Melanotus includes some of our most com- 
 mon species, such as M. communis Gyll., which 
 is of the usual dull brown color. The genus 
 may be known by the front being moderately 
 Fig. 422. conveX) margined anteriorly, and the antennse 
 are serrate, with the first joint of the usual size, while 
 the prothorax is lobed in front, and the claws are 
 strongly pectinate. . Fig. 423 represents a larva prob- 
 ably of this genus. 
 
 In Limonlus and Athous the front is margined, the 
 mouth placed farther forward from the prosternum, 
 the coxal plates are narrow, gradually dilated inwards, 
 and the first joint is only moderate in length. In Fi s- 423 ' 
 Limonius the first tarsal joint is scarcely longer than the 
 second, while in Athous the first tarsal joint is elongated, and 
 the prosternal lobe is long. Limonius plebeius Lee. and L. 
 ectypus Say are obscure reddish brown insects, with a slight 
 fine pubescence. 
 
462 
 
 COLEOPTERA. 
 
 Fig. 424. 
 
 In Corymbites the front is more or less flattened, and the 
 coxal plates are narrow externally. C. ceripennis Lee. is a 
 shiny dark greenish species and is found northward. C. viri- 
 dis Say is dull mahogany brown, mottled with a fine 
 grayish bloom. C. cylindriformis Germ, is more com- 
 mon, and of the usual dull reddish brown. C. triun- 
 dulatus Lee. is frequently found in New England, and 
 kas three transverse waved bands on the pale elytra ; 
 it is found on the blossoms of the rhubarb plant. C. hierogty- 
 pliicus Harris (Fig. 424, elytra) is a similar form. 
 
 To the genus Pyrophorus belong the different species of Fire- 
 flies of Central and South America. P. noctilucus (Fig. 425, 
 natural size) is dark' rusty brown, and has two large eye- like 
 luminous spots on the sides of the 
 thorax, and another at the base of 
 the abdomen. Dr. G. A. Perkins in 
 the "American Naturalist," vol. ii, 
 p. 428, states that "by placing the 
 luminous parts of one insect quite 
 near the paper, very fine print can be 
 |V easily read by its aid, though I can- 
 not imagine the light, even of a large 
 number, to be sufficient for any practi- 
 \ cal illuminating purposes as has been 
 
 affirmed by some writers. The Cuban 
 ladies make a singular use of these 
 rig. 425. living gems, sewing them in lace 
 bags, which are disposed as ornaments upon their dresses, 
 or arranged as a fillet for their hair." 
 
 The species of Melanactes are large shining black insects 
 found under stones, and are known by having the coxal plates 
 gradually dilated inwards. The larvae (Fig. 426, a luminous 
 larva of this genus discovered by Mr. Sanborn in Roxbury, 
 Mass.) are luminous and differ from others of this family, ac- 
 cording to Osten Sacken, by their small sunken head, and the 
 presence of a pair of ocelli. The abdomen ends in a prop-leg. 
 
 Fig. 426. 
 
 CEBRIONID^E Westwood. This family differs from the pre- 
 ceding group in the greater number (six) of abdominal seg- 
 
SCHIZOPODIDJE. 
 
 463 
 
 ments, the well developed tibial spurs, the expansion of the 
 anterior tibiae at the apex, and in the close connection between 
 the front and the labrum. The females are found at the en- 
 trance of holes which they excavate in the ground. (Leconte.) 
 In Cebrio the labrum is separated by suture from the front, and 
 the anterior tibiae are entire. Cebrio bicolor Fabr. is found in 
 the Southern States. 
 
 RHIPICERIDJS Latreille. In this small group the head is 
 prominent and the maxillae have usually but a single lobe ; the 
 eleven- jointed antennae are inserted before and in front of 
 the eyes, under ridges, and are serrate in the females and 
 frequently flabellate in the males. The larvae, in their general 
 appearance, resemble those of the 
 Elateridce or Tenebrionidce, be- 
 ing cylindrical, the head almost of the 
 same breadth as the body, which is 
 hard and horny, more or less dark 
 brown, and in Zenoa picea Beauv. is a 
 little more than an inch in length. 
 "The eighth segment is punctate all 
 around, and more densely than the Fig. 427. 
 
 others. The posterior part of this segment is obliquely 
 truncate, and is closed posteriorly by a round, flat, horny 
 piece, punctate on the outside and which can, to a certain ex- 
 tent, be opened and closed like a lid, being connected by a 
 hinge superiorly, and an expanding membrane inferiorly. This 
 lid is to be considered as the ninth segment of the abdomen." 
 (Osten Sacken.) The larva, with the adult Zenoa picea, was 
 found under bark in Southern Illinois by Mr. Walsh. JSan- 
 dalus (S. petrophya Enoch, and tarsus, Fig. 427), with short 
 antennae, flabellate in the males, is found in various species 
 of cedars. 
 
 SCHIZOPODIDJE Leconte. This small group is represented 
 by only a single species, Schizopodus Icetus Leconte. 'It resem- 
 bles in form a Galleruca ; it is of a metallic green color, 
 coarsely punctured, with red elytra, and is nearly six-tenths 
 of an inch long. The head is bent down, closely affixed to 
 
464 , COLEOPTERA. 
 
 the prothorax, and the eleven-jointed antennae are inserted 
 immediately in front of the eyes, under a slight promi- 
 nence. 
 
 DASCYLLID^: Guerin. This group embraces genera differ- 
 ing much from each other ; the head is usually bent down, 
 sometimes prominent ; the antennae are eleven-jointed, distant 
 at their insertion immediately in front of the eyes, being 
 placed under a slight ridge, and the mandibles are not promi- 
 nent. They all live on aquatic plants, and the larvae are 
 either like those of the Scarabceidce, being provided with 
 short four-jointed antennae, and without ocelli, as in Atopa; or 
 they are long, ovate, with distinct ocelli, long bristle-like an- 
 tennae and very well developed limbs, as in Cyplion. The genus 
 Prionocyplion has the first joint of the antennae much dilated, 
 and the joint of the labial palpi is inserted on the side of the 
 second ; in Cyplion the palpi are normal. Baron Osten Sacken 
 describes the larva of Prionocyplion discoideus Say as being 
 long, flattened ovate, like a sow-bug (Oniscus) with sharp 
 lateral edges, the body slightly attenuated before and behind, 
 of a leathery consistence, dull pale yellowish, and four-tenths 
 of an inch in length. It was found by Mr. Walsh in the hol- 
 low of an oak stump filled with water, in which it "vibrated 
 vigorously up and down a pencil of hairs proceeding from a 
 horizontal slit in the tail ; this pencil is composed of three 
 pairs of filaments, each beautifully bipectinate. When at the 
 surface this larva generally, but not always, swims on its back, 
 keeping its body slightly below the surface, and striking with 
 its feet, so as to jerk from point to point, in a curved line. The 
 pencil of hairs touches the surface all the time. "Occasion- 
 ally, says Mr. Walsh, "a bubble of air is discharged from the 
 tail. Generally, when it is beneath the surface, the anal pencil 
 is retracted entirely. It has the power of jerking its body sud- 
 denly round, and darting up and down with great vigor. Its 
 remarkably long antennae are constantly vibrating, like those 
 of terrestrial insects. The pupa is white, with large black 
 eyes which are very conspicuous beneath, and two short black 
 setae on the occiput. The body is covered with a short, white, 
 erect down or pubescence. The antennae are about two-thirds 
 
LAMPYEID^. 
 
 465 
 
 the length of the body, placed lengthwise beneath, side by 
 side. The body is scarcely two-tenths of an inch long. 
 
 LAMPYRID^E Leach. The species of the family of Fire-flies 
 resemble the Elaters, but they are shorter and broader, and 
 of softer consistence. The head is usually immersed in the 
 thorax ; the usually eleven-jointed, serrate, rarely pectinate or 
 flabellate antennae are inserted on the front rather closely 
 together in the typical genera. The elytra never strongly 
 embrace the sides of the abdomen, are sometimes short, and 
 in some foreign genera entirely wanting in the females. The 
 anterior coxae are contiguous, conical, with a large trochantine ; 
 the middle coxae are oblique, and the hinder ones transverse ; 
 while the legs are 
 slender or com- 
 pressed and of mod- 
 erate length. The 
 larvae are rather 
 long, flattened, 
 blackish, with pale 
 spots on the angles 
 of each segment. 
 
 In Lycus the an- 
 tennae are inserted 
 in fro\it of the eyes, 
 at the base of the 
 long beak into Fi s- 432 - rig. m Fig. 428. 
 
 which the head is prolonged, and the sides of the thorax are 
 somewhat foliaceous. The female of the Glow-worm, Lam" 
 pyris, of Europe is wingless. She lays her eggs, which are of 
 large size, in the earth or upon moss and plants ; the larva 
 (Fig. 428, female of a species of this genus from Zanzibar), 
 which feeds on snails, is said to become fully grown in April, 
 and in fifteen days assumes the imago state. An anonymous 
 French author states, according to Westwood, that when the 
 larva is ready to assume the pupa state, instead of slitting 
 the skin in a line down the back, a slit on each side of the 
 three thoracic segments is made, separating the upper from 
 the lower surfaces." While the female is large and larva- 
 30 
 
466 
 
 COLEOPTERA. 
 
 d 
 
 Fig. 429. 
 
 like, the much smaller male has broad elytra and a rather nar- 
 row slender body. 
 
 In the genus Photinus, of which there are numerous species 
 in this country, the antennae are compressed, or nearly filiform, 
 
 and the species differ 
 from those of Lampy- 
 ris, by the females 
 having wings. Nearly 
 all have phosphor- 
 escent glands in the 
 last abdominal seg- 
 ments. < . 
 
 The editors of the "American Entomologist," p. 19, give 
 the history of P. pyralis Linn. (Fig. 429 ; a, larva ; e, under- 
 side of a segment ; /, head ; d, a leg ; 6, pupa in its cocoon of 
 earth ; c, the adult) . The larva lives in the 
 ground, feeding on earthworms and soft bodied 
 insects. When fully grown, or during the latter 
 part of June, it forms an oval cavity in the earth 
 and pupates, and in ten days becomes a beetle. 
 In Plioturis the wings and elytra are complete 
 in both sexes, while the head is narrowed behind, 
 and the labrum is distinct. P. Pensylvanica De- 
 Geer (Fig. 430, and 431, larva) is our most com- 
 mon species, and the larva figured I regard as 
 belonging to this species. It is not uncommonly met with in 
 the evening shining brightly as it crawls along, and is blackish 
 and crustaceous like a pill bug. Another Photuris 
 larva (Fig. 432) I have fbund under a stone in 
 May. It is represented as in the act of walking, 
 the feet on one side of the body moving alter- 
 nately with those on the other. This is 'the mode 
 in which insects usually walk. 
 
 Fig. 433 (enlarged three times) represents a 
 very singular larva, evidently belonging to this 
 family, and related to the genus Drilus. It was 
 found by Rev. E. C. Bolles, at Westbrooke, Maine, under 
 leaves, and it probably, like other larvae of this family, is 
 carnivorous. Its body is very flat, with the sides of the head 
 
 Fig. 433. 
 
MALACHID^. 467 
 
 and each ring of the body produced into a remarkably long, 
 soft, fleshy tubercle, while there are two rows of black spots 
 along the back. 
 
 In the genus Phengodes, the females of which are not yet 
 known in this country, the third and following joints of the 
 antennae emit two very long, slender and flexible pubescent 
 branches from near the base ; the second and third joints are 
 very short. The elytra are one-third the length of the abdo- 
 men, and are strongly divergent and subulate. Dr. Leconte 
 describes Phengodes plumosa Oliv. as being testaceous, with the 
 antennae, excepting the base, and the narrow tips of the elytra 
 fuscous, and the sides of the thorax broadly depressed ; it oc- 
 curs from New York to Texas. In ChauUognathus the antennae 
 are filiform ; the etytra are as long or nearly as long as the 
 abdomen and rounded at tip, while 
 the anterior margin of the thorax is s? A 
 rounded. C. Pensylvanicus DeGeer ^( ( u 
 (Fig. 434 ; a, larva ; &, head en- 
 larged ; c, labium ; d, labrum ; e, a 
 leg ; /, maxilla ; g, antenna ; 7i, man- 
 dible), in the larva state devours Fig - 434< 
 the grubs of the plum curculio. (American Entomologist, i, 
 p. 35.) In TelepJwrus the head is never concealed by the tho- 
 rax, and the latter is rounded from the sides along the front 
 margin, the front of the head is emarginate at tip ; the claws 
 are toothed, being rarely cleft. The species are found on the 
 leaves of trees in June. Walsh states that the larva of T. 
 Carolina Fabr. preys on wood-feeding larvae. Mr. P. S. 
 Sprague has reared the larva of T. bilineatus Say. He found 
 it near Boston under stones in spring, when it pupates, and 
 early in May becomes a beetle. It is found on the leaves of 
 the birch as soon as they are expanded. 
 
 MALACHID.E Redtenbacher. This small group, often united 
 with the preceding family, is chiefly distinguished by the an- 
 tennae being inserted on the sides of the front, and by the body 
 in some genera being furnished with 'soft extensible vesicles, 
 while the abdominal segments are in part membranous. Mala- 
 chius and its allies are of small size. Some of them resemble 
 
468 
 
 COLEOPTERA. 
 
 Fig. 435. 
 
 at first sight some Staphylinidae ; they frequent flowers and 
 the banks of ponds and streams. The females of Microlipus 
 are apterous. 
 
 CLERID^E Kirby. These beautiful flower beetles are known 
 by the prominent head, the usually emarginate eyes, and 
 the usually eleven-jointed antennae inserted at the sides of 
 the front, and either serrate or pectinate, with the outer joints 
 enlarged, forming a serrate, or rarely a compact club. Their 
 bodies are slender, with slender legs. 
 They are rapid in their movements, 
 and run like ants (which they much 
 resemble when in motion) over flowers 
 and trees to feed on the sweets and 
 sap. The larvae are carnivorous and infest the nests of bees. 
 They are flattened, hairy grubs, the tip of the abdomen end- 
 ing in two horny points. Those of the genera 
 Corynetes and Necrobia live on dead animal 
 matter. 
 
 In Priocera (Fig. 435, P. undulata Say) the eyes 
 are coarsely granulated ; the antennae are serrate, 
 and the maxillary palpi are cylindrical. In 
 Elasmocerus (E. terminatus Say, $ , Fig. 436) the antennae are 
 ten-jointed, the last joint being very long and flat. 
 
 The genus Trichodes is known by the maxillary palpi being 
 somewhat dilated, otherwise it agrees with the succeeding 
 
 genus. T. Nuttallii Kirby is 
 abundant in August on the 
 flowers of Spiraea alba ; its larva 
 is to be looked for in the nests 
 of bees. In Europe T. apiarius 
 Linn. (Fig. 437 ; a, larva ; &, 
 pupa) has long been known to 
 devour the young bees. In its 
 perfect state it is found on 
 flowers. 
 
 In Clerus the head is large, the eyes not very prominent, 
 finely granulated, the antennal club is somewhat triangular; 
 the maxillary palpi are not dilated, and the posterior tarsi are 
 
 
 
 Fig. 437. 
 
CUPESID.E. 469 
 
 moderate in length and broadly dilated. TJianasimus differs 
 in the body being hairy, while the posterior tarsi are longer 
 and scarcely dilated. The long narrow slender pink larvae can 
 be found under the bark of dead pine trees where they probably 
 prey upon the larvae of Hylurgus and Hylobius. The larvae 
 of Clerus are of a beautiful red color. The European Clerus 
 alvearius infests the nests of the Mason-bees, Osmia and Meg- 
 achile. "The larva when hatched, first devours the grub of 
 the bee in the cell in which it is born and then proceeds from 
 cell to cell, preying upon the inhabitant of each until arrived 
 at maturity. It is in this situation, also, that it undergoes its 
 changes in a small cocoon, which it has previously constructed, 
 making its escape from the nest in the beetle state, where the 
 hardness of its covering sufficiently defends it from the stings 
 of the bees." (Westwood.) 
 
 LYMEXYLID^E Leach. This small group, chiefly interesting 
 as containing a genus which has proved of great mischief to 
 the ship timber of Europe, from its boring habits, is distin- 
 guished by the head being bent down and 
 narrowed behind ; by the usually very large 
 eyes, the two ciliate lobes of the maxillae, 
 the palpi of which are stout, four-jointed, 
 and in the male very large and flabellate, 
 while the mandibles are short and obtusely 
 bidentate. The body is long and narrow, F] s- 438 - 
 
 with slender legs. The genus Lymexylon has five abdominal 
 segments. The larva is very long and slender, Vith the first 
 thoracic segment dilated into a large hood, while the terminal 
 ring is produced into a large obtuse lobe. In Europe it 
 greatly injures oak trees and ship timber, but our species 
 (Lymexylon sericeum Harris, Fig. 438, and antennae, legs and 
 palpi) is too rare to be of any harm at present. 
 
 CUPESID.E Lacordaire. Leconte states that "the affinities 
 of this family are very obscure ; in the form and insertion of 
 the antennae it is similar to the first genera of the next family, 
 but other characters, such as the form of the coxae and the re- 
 tractility of the legs, are at variance. The body is covered 
 
470 
 
 COLEOPTERA. 
 
 Fig. 439. 
 
 with small scales as in the genera alluded to." Cupes capitata 
 Fabr. is black with the head red ; while Cupes cinerea Say is 
 pale gray, with darker lines. They are found under the bark 
 of decaying trees, and also occasionally in houses. (Leconte.) 
 
 PTINID^E Leach. These are small beetles, often of an ob- 
 scure brown color, somewhat oval in shape, and truncated 
 behind ; the nine-jointed filiform antennae are inserted on the 
 front, or sides of the front ; the head is retractile, frequently 
 
 protected by the prothorax ; the 
 labrum is distinct ; the maxillae 
 have two ciliate lobes, and the 
 maxillary palpi are short and 
 four-jointed. The legs are slen- 
 der, contractile, and the insect 
 when disturbed draws them up 
 and feigns death. In Ptinus 
 the antennae are inserted on the 
 front very close together, the 
 legs are long, not contractile, with large trochanters ; the teeth 
 of the mentum are acute, and the labrum is rounded. The 
 males differ from the short and thickened females in being long 
 and narrow. The beetles are found about out-houses, the wood 
 of which they perforate in various directions. Ptinus fur Linn. 
 (Fig. 439, ; a, larva), the most commonly diffused 
 species, is known to attac^: museums and collec- 
 tions of insects. It is .15 of an inch in length, 
 <ind uniformly chestnut brown in color. The larva 
 here figured was found eating the dried contents 
 of a shell in the Museum of the Peabody 
 Academy of Science. 
 
 Sitodrepa panicea Fabr. (Fig. 440, pupa) is a 
 Fig. 440. sma ii insect like Anobium, of a pale reddish 
 brown color, with much paler dense hairs. It is .13 of an inch 
 long. The larva resembles in its form that of Ptinus, but the 
 body is much thicker, not growing smaller towards the head 
 as in that genus ; the end of the body is smooth, obtusely 
 rounded, with fine hairs ; it is .08 of an inch long and un- 
 doubtedly grows larger. It occurred in all its stages and in 
 
PTINID^E. 471 
 
 great abundance in several nests of Vespa in the Museum 
 of the Peabody Academy, where it undoubtedly eat the dried 
 remains of the wasps ; it was extensively preyed upon by a 
 Pteromalus-like Chalcid. 
 
 The genus Anobium is cylindrical, the eleven-jointed an- 
 tennae are distant from each other at base and inserted immedi- 
 ately in front of the eyes, the mesosternum is flat, and 
 the anterior coxae are nearly contiguous. The larva 
 is thick and fleshy, resembling some Scarabaeid larvae 
 in the fleshy baggy tip of the abdomen, except that 
 they do not lay on their side when walking. They 
 construct a silken cocoon interweaving the particles 
 of dust they make. A. notatum Say is blackish Flg ' 
 above, varied with ashen, and the posterior angles of the pro- 
 thorax are rather acute. In Europe they are called Death- 
 ticks, as the ticking made by them in the walls of houses, a 
 familiar sound in this country, was supposed by the supersti- 
 tious to announce the death of persons, though it is but a 
 sexual call. Doubt having been thrown on the statement that 
 Anobium causes the ticking noise, Mr. H. Doubleday states 
 in the "Entomologist," vol. iii, p. 66, "I can speak positively 
 with regard to the Anobium, and I assure you that this little 
 beetle produces the loud ticking sound by raising itself upon 
 its legs as high as it can, and then striking the head and under 
 part of the thorax against the substance upon which 
 it is standing, generally five or six times in succes- 
 sion, and it always chooses a substance which pro- 
 duces the most sound. It is evidently a call note 
 from one individual to another, as you very rarely 
 hear one rap without its being immediately answered 
 by another." Mr. Sanborn has reared the larva (Fig. 441, en- 
 larged) of Ernobius mollis Fabr., which is a near ally of Ano- 
 bium. 
 
 Bostriclius and its allies are distinguished by their long 
 bodies, the head being usually bent down and covered by the 
 hood -like thorax ; the antennae are distant and the anterior 
 coxae are contiguous. They are found in fungi or under bark. 
 In Bostriclius the front is margined on the sides. In Amplii- 
 cerus the front is not so margined. The apple twig borer, A. 
 
472 COLEOPTERA. 
 
 bicaudatus Say (Fig. 442) in the valley of the Mississippi, is 
 very injurious to apple trees, boring under the bark of small 
 twigs "just above one of the buds, and on cutting into them 
 it will be noticed that a cylindrical hole, about the size of a 
 common knitting needle, extends downwards from the perfora- 
 tion above the bud, through the very heart of the twig, for the 
 length of an inch and a half." (Walsh.) The larva which I 
 have received from Dr. Shimer, has much the same form as 
 that of Lyctus, but the head is more prominent and also the 
 sides of the body. The anterior half of the body is consider- 
 ately thicker than behind and the legs are provided with long 
 hairs ; the end of the body is smooth and much rounded. It 
 is .30 of an inch long. 
 
 Specimens of RMzopertha pusilla have been introduced, Le- 
 conte states, into wheat distributed from the Patent Office. 
 In this last genus the eighth and ninth joints of the antennae 
 are triangular. 
 
 In the genus Lyctus the head is prominent, the body long 
 and narrow, and the club of the antenna is two-jointed, while 
 the outer apical angle of the anterior 
 tibiae is prolonged. We have received 
 from Dr. H. Shimer, L. opaculus Lee., 
 in all its stages (Fig. 443; a, larva; 
 &, pupa). The beetle is chestnut 
 brown, with short yellowish hairs and 
 Fig. 443. puiicto-striate elytra ; it is .20 of an 
 
 inch in length. The larva is white, its body is cylindrical, 
 thick and fleshy, with a small head and strong black mandibles ; 
 the thoracic rings are thickest. It is .17 of inch long. Ac- 
 cording to Dr. Shimer it eats - the wood of dead grape vines. 
 
 CIOID^E Leach. This small group is known by the maxillae 
 being exposed at the base, the two ciliate lobes of which are 
 flattened, and the eight to ten-jointed clavate antennae are in- 
 serted at the anterior margin of the eyes ; the head is protected 
 by the prothorax, which is cylindrical, rounded in front, with 
 the lateral margin distinct. The species of the genus (7is, 
 which have ten-jointed antennae, are very small, cylindrical, 
 dark colored, gregarious beetles, which live under the bark of 
 
TENEBRIONnXE. 473 
 
 trees, and in dry, woody species of fungi. Some males have 
 the head and anterior margin of the thorax horned. 
 
 TENEBRIONID^E Latreille. This is not a very easily limited 
 family ; the most trenchant characters, however, are stated by 
 Leconte to be these : the two-lobed maxillae have the smaller 
 lobe sometimes armed with a terminal corneous hook ; the 
 palpi four-jointed ; the mandibles are usually short, robust and 
 furnished with a basal tooth ; the eyes are usually transverse, 
 and the antennae are generally inserted under the sides of the 
 head, or at least under a small frontal ridge, and are usually 
 eleven-jointed, clavate, subserrate 'or very rarely pectinate, as 
 in Rliipidandrus. The elytra are rounded at tip, covering the 
 abdomen, and frequently embracing its sides very far down, 
 while the hind wings are frequently wanting. The legs vary 
 in length ; the anterior coxae are globose, without any Q 
 trochantine ; the hind tarsi are four-jointed, and the ab- 
 domen has five free segments, the first three appearing 
 more closely united than the others. The larvae are 
 slender, flattened, horny, resembling the wire-worms ; 
 from two to five ocelli on each side, or wanting entirely, 
 and the last ring of the body often has two spines. The 
 larvae (Fig. 444, larva of an unknown species) moult 
 several times, and when about to transform make no co- Fig> *** 
 coon, the beetles appearing in about six weeks. Dr. Leconte 
 says that the distribution of the genera of this family is very 
 remarkable. Of those without wings scarcely any are common 
 to the two continents. With the exception of three, they are 
 not represented in North America, east of the longitude of 
 the mouth of the Platte or Nebraska River ; from that point 
 they increase in number of genera, species and individuals, 
 until in California they form the characteristic feature of the 
 insect fauna." 
 
 We can only notice a few genera, interesting to the general 
 reader, and refer the special student, as heretofore, to Dr. Le- 
 conte's able treatment of the Coleoptera previously cited. - 
 
 The genus Blaps, in which the hind wings are obsolete, does 
 not occur in this country, being represented by numerous spe- 
 cies of Elodes and Promus. The European Slaps mortisaga is 
 
474 
 
 COLEOPTERA. 
 
 the Church-yard beetle. Dr. Pickells states, according to West- 
 wood, that "one of these beetles was immersed repeatedly 
 in spirits of wine, but revived after remaining therein all 
 night, and afterwards lived three years." The larvae are eaten 
 by the women in Egypt, after being roasted. 
 
 In Upis the legs are long, with small tibial spurs, while the 
 tarsi are clothed beneath with a silky, golden pubescence, the 
 
 hind tarsi being long, and 
 the epipleurse are gradually 
 narrowed towards the base 
 of the elytra. Upis ceram- 
 boides Linn, is a fine large, 
 deep purple black beetle, 
 with roughly shagreened 
 elytra, and is found under 
 the bark of trees. In Tene- 
 brio the body is long ovate 
 Fi s- 445 - and winged, the legs are 
 
 slender, the femora swollen less than usual, with larger tibial 
 spurs ; the tarsi are clothed with a rigid pubescence, and the 
 epipleurse extend to the tip of the elytra. Tenebrio molitor 
 Linn., the Meal worm, is found in all its stages about corn 
 and rye meal; it is frequently swallowed with food. "It is 
 also very destructive to ship-biscuits packed in casks, which 
 when opened are found eaten through in holes \>y these insects 
 and their larvae." (Westwood.) The larva is about an inch 
 long, cylindrical, smooth and glossy, with the terminal seg- 
 ment semicircular, slightly serrated on the edges, and termi- 
 nated in a single point. An allied beetle in Brazil is known 
 to eject a caustic fluid, and in Europe some are known to cover 
 themselves with this fluid. In Boletophagus the antennae are 
 eleven-jointed and the eyes are entirely divided. B. cornutus 
 Panzer (Fig. 445, ?, a, larva ; 6, pupa, <?), as its name im- 
 plies, lives in those fungi, which, according to Dr. Leconte, 
 either grow upon trees or under bark, and may be known by the 
 front of the head being prolonged and margined anteriorly and 
 on the sides, covering the mouth above, often thus dividing 
 the eyes, while the dull black body is covered with stout tuber- 
 cles, it is found in all its stages in fungi, in August. The 
 
MELANDKYIM:. 475 
 
 larva is long and narrow, cylindrical, the head free from the 
 body, rounded, with stout, broad, triangular mandibles ; the 
 tip of the abdomen is square, with a sharp spine on each 
 side. It is .80 of an inch in length, and of a dark chestnut 
 brown color. 
 
 Leconte. This family is represented by a sin- 
 gle species, ^gialites debilis Lee., from Eussian America. 
 
 CISTELID^E Latreille. This group, as Leconte states, "ap- 
 proaches very nearly to the more degraded forms of the Tene- 
 brionidce, and the degradation of structure is carried still 
 farther by the anterior coxae becoming conical, prominent, and 
 contiguous in certain genera. The only characters to be relied 
 on for isolation in this family are, first, the pectinate claws ; 
 and second, the anterior coxal cavities being closed behind. 
 They are found on leaves and flowers, or under bark." Alle- 
 cula at first sight somewhat resembles an Elater. Cistela dif- 
 fers from its allies in having the last joint of the maxillary 
 palpi longer than wide. 
 
 Westwood. This inconsiderable family differs 
 from the Tenebrionidce, in the greater prominence of the 
 anterior coxae, and the dilated penultimate joint of the tarsi, 
 though the larvae differ in being rather long, almost as wide as 
 long, convex above, and with the exception of the large head 
 are thickly covered with hairs. There are two genera, Artliro- 
 macra and Statyra, which are found on leaves and under bark. 
 
 MONOMMID^E Lacordaire. This little group is a very distinct 
 one, composed of small, black, oval, flattened beetles. Mbn- 
 omma is confined to the Eastern Continent, and a species of 
 Hyporliagus is found, one on the eastern, the other on the 
 Pacific side of this country. 
 
 MELANDRYIDJE Leach. This group comprises a few species 
 of elongate form, with two basal impressions on the prothorax, 
 and the first joint of the hind tarsi is always much elongated. 
 They are found under bark and in fungi. In Melandrya the 
 
476 COLEOPTERA. 
 
 head is bent forward, the base of the prothorax is sinuous, 
 but not distinctly lobed, and the elytra are striate. M. striata 
 Say is found in the Atlantic States. 
 
 PYTHIDJE Lacordaire. This is a small group of mostly 
 northern species found living under bark and stones. Pytho 
 and its allies resemble some Tenebrionidce. 
 
 CEDEMERID.E Latreille. This group comprises insects of 
 moderate size, and, according to Leconte, generally found on 
 plants, though some species of Asclera live on the ground near 
 water, and Microtonus sericans is a very small brown sericeous 
 insect, found on leaves in the Atlantic States. 
 
 CEPHALOID^:. Leconte places in a distinct family, the single 
 species, Cephaloon lepturides Newman, which is found on 
 plants northward. 
 
 MORDELLIDJS Leach. These are curious small, wedge- 
 shaped, glistening, pubescent, black beetles, which occur in 
 abundance on the flowers of Golden-rods and asters, and when 
 disturbed leap off like fleas, or slip suddenly to the ground. 
 Anaspis has the fourth joint of the anterior and middle tarsi 
 very small, and the body is fusiform, with oval eyes. In Mor- 
 della the body is wedge-shaped, the eyes are finely granulated, 
 the scutellum is triangular, and the last joint of the maxil- 
 lary palpi triangular or securiform. The larvae are said to live 
 in the pith of plants during autumn, and are long, subcylin- 
 drical, and the sides of the rings are furnished with fleshy 
 tubercles. Mordellistena differs in the hind tibiae having sub- 
 apical and oblique ridges. 
 
 Latreille. Of this small group, Notoxus anchora 
 Hentz is noted for having the head prolonged over the 
 mouth into a horn ; it is found in marshy places. Leconte 
 states that Tanarthrus salinus Lee. flies and runs on salt mud 
 like a Cicindela ; it occurs in the Colorado desert. The nu- 
 merous species of Anthicus live in sandy places near water. 
 Formicomus is ant-like, being wingless. 
 
MELOID^E. 477 
 
 PYROCHROID^ Latreille. A small group of beetles which 
 are found under the bark of trees ; they generally have a red- 
 dish thorax contrasting with the black head and elytra. "The 
 branches of the pectinate male antennae are rigid in Pyrochroa, 
 and very slender and flexible in Dendroides; in Schizotus they 
 are of an intermediate form,, and somewhat flexible." (Le- 
 conte.) The larva of Dendroides is a very flat whitish grub, 
 with two large curved spines on the tail; it lives 
 under the bark of pines and other trees. Two species 
 of this genus, D. concolor Newman and D. Canadensis 
 Latr., are equally common in New England. Fig. 
 446, enlarged, represents the larva of a species of 
 Pyrochroa, of which P. flabellata Fabr. is a type. 
 
 MELOID^E Gyllenhal. This is a family of great in- 
 terest from the parasitic habits of the larvae, which dif- 
 fer remarkably from the adult forms. The head is 
 much bent forwards, and is suddenly constricted far Fi &- 446< 
 behind the eyes into a small neck ; the eleven-jointed antennae 
 are inserted at the sides of the front, before the eyes ; the 
 elytra are variable in form, but when abnormally shortened, 
 are ovate, rather than square at the tip, and the hind wings are 
 often absent. The legs are long, the hind tarsi are four- 
 jointed, the penultimate joint usually cylindrical. They are 
 soft-bodied, cylindrical, slender beetles, and are always found 
 on flowers. The larvae are ovate, flattened, often very minute 
 and then somewhat resembling the Pediculi in habits. Meloe 
 is a large dark blue beetle found about buttercups and crawl- 
 ing on grass in May and again late in August. The elytra are 
 small and short, overlapping each other on the large ovate 
 full abdomen ; the claws are cleft, the male antennae are 
 twisted and knotted. The eggs are laid in the ground, prob- 
 ably near the nests of bees, for in the early spring, the young 
 larvae recently hatched are found on the bodies of various 
 bees, such as Bombus, Halictus and Andrena, and also various 
 Syrphi and Muscae frequenting the flowers of the willow in 
 April, whence they are conveyed by the agency of the bees. 
 On these flowers we have found them in abundance. They are 
 very active in their habits, and difficult to rear in confinement, 
 
478 
 
 COLEOPTERA. 
 
 which can only be done by confining the bees on which they 
 are found, and supplying them with flowers. When the bee 
 becomes exhausted by the loss of fluids drawn out by its para- 
 site, it is quickly deserted by these minute torments for a 
 newly introduced and more lively bee. The 
 length of the larva at this period (Fig. 447) 
 is .06 of an inch. It differs very remarkably 
 from those of the neighboring families, which 
 are generally oval, being long and linear- 
 oblong, flattened. The three thoracic rings 
 are of equal size, transversely oblong, the 
 head being of nearly the same size with one 
 of the thoracic segments, and provided with 
 short antennae. The legs have long claws 
 with an intermediate long pad. From the tip 
 of the abdomen proceed two pair of setae, the 
 rig. 447. inner one much longer than the other pair. 
 It is shorter than that of M. violaceus, figured by Newport, who 
 has, with great sagacity, cleared up the remarkable history of 
 this genus. It is undoubtedly the young of our common Meloe 
 angusticottis Say (Fig. 448). The larvae are conveyed by the 
 bees themselves into their nests where they prey on the larvae 
 and bee bread. When full-fed and ready to pass through their 
 transformations, instead of at once as- 
 suming the . pupa state, they pass 
 through what has been called by Fabre 
 a u hypermetamorphosis." In other 
 words the changes in form preparatory 
 to assuming the pupa state are here 
 more marked than usual, and are al- 
 most coequal with the larva and pupa 
 states, so that the Meloe instead of 
 Fig. 448. passing through only three states (the 
 
 egg, larva and pupa) in reality passes through these and two 
 others in addition which are intermediate. Fabre states that 
 the larva, soon after entering the nest of its host, changes its 
 skin and assumes a second larval form (Fig. 449) resembling 
 a lamellicorn larva. Newport, however, who with Siebold has 
 carefully described the metamorphosis of Meloe, does not men- 
 
MELOID^E. 
 
 479 
 
 tion this stage in its development. In this stage the larva is 
 said to be motionless ; the head is mask-like, without movable 
 appendages, and the feet are represented by six tubercles. 
 This is, properly speaking, the "semipupa." This 
 form, however, according to Fabre, changes its skin 
 and turns into a third larval form (Fig. 450) . After 
 some time it assumes its true pupa form (Fig. 451) 
 and finally moults this skin to appear as a beetle. 
 
 In Horia and allies the head is large, square behind, Flg ' M9 ' 
 and the front is not prolonged beyond the base of the antennae . 
 Horia sanguinipennis Say is now placed by Leconte in the 
 genus Tricrania, which differs in the last joint of 
 the maxillary palpi being longer than the third, and 
 by the triangular head. It is found in the nest of 
 the humble bee, and in the West Indies a species 
 of Horia is found in the nests of Xylocopa teredo, a 
 species of carpenter bee. 
 
 SitariSj an European genus, has much the same 
 Fig. 450. jjgjjftg as jf e . Its eggs are laid near the entrance 
 of bees' nests, and at the very moment, according 
 to Fabre, that the bee lays her egg in the honey- 
 cell, the flattened, oval, Sitaris larva drops from 
 >the body of the bee upon the egg and feasts upon 
 its contents. It then feeds on the honey in the 
 cell of the bee and changes into a white, cylindri- 
 cal, nearly footless grub, and after it becomes full- 
 fed, and has assumed the supposed "pupa'' 
 state, the skin, without bursting, encloses a kind 
 of hard "pupa" skin which is very 
 similar in outline to the former larva, Fig. 451. ~ 
 and within this skin is found a whitish larva, which 
 directly changes into the true pupa. These 
 changes M. Fabre calls a " hypermetamorphosis," 
 but it will probably be found that the two so- 
 called "pupa" states, immediately preceding the 
 final genuine pupa state he describes, are but 
 changes of the semipupa, and can be paralleled in some de- 
 gree by the remarkable changes of the bee and moth noted 
 by us previously. 
 
 Fig. 452. 
 
480 
 
 COLEOPTERA. 
 
 The Blister beetles, of which Lytta (Cantharis) affords many 
 species, secrete the substance known as "Cantharadine." The 
 
 Spanish-fly is 
 used in commerce, 
 and is a bright 
 shining green spe- 
 cies. Our native 
 forms, which as 
 "well as Meloe, 
 when dried, can 
 Fig. 453. "be used for pro- 
 
 ducing blisters, are dark colored. Their larvae have the same 
 form as that of Meloe ; it remains yet to ascertain their 
 true habits, though Latreille states that they live beneath the 
 ground feeding on the roots of vegetables. Among 
 the species of Blister beetles which are especially 
 injurious to the potato are Lylta vittata Fabr. (Fig. 
 452), L. cinerea Fabr. (Fig. 453, a), L. murina Lee. 
 (Fig. 453, 6), and L. marginata Fabr. (Fig. 454). 
 Phodaga alticeps Lee. (Fig. 455 ; 1 , front of male ; 
 2, profile of male ; 3, anterior tibia and tarsus ; 4, 
 Fig. 454. middle tibia ; 5, claw ; from Horn) is a Californian 
 species, remarkable for the great differences between the 1 
 sexes, in the form of the legs and tarsi. 
 
 RHIPIPHORID^E Gerstaecker. This family is characterized 
 by Leconte as having a vertical head, with perfect mouth- 
 parts, affixed to the prothorax by a very slender neck, which 
 is entirely contained within the prothorax, while the vertex is 
 5 3 usually elevated. The eleven-jointed 
 antennae (ten-jointed in the female of 
 certain species) are pectinate or flabel- 
 late in the males, and frequently serrate 
 in the females. The prothorax is as 
 large as the elytra at base, much narrowed in front, and the 
 elytra, rarely covering the abdomen, are usually narrowed be- 
 hind, diverging on the back. The legs are long and slender, 
 with filiform tarsi, and the claws are pectinate or toothed, be- 
 ing rarely simple. They are found on flowers. The larval 
 
 Fig. 455. 
 
STYLOPIDJE. 481 
 
 forms are not yet known. Rliipiphorus is a wedge-shaped 
 genus, not found in America. R. Finnicus Paykull is said to 
 be a parasite on Chrysis, the cuckoo wasp. It is here repre- 
 sented by two genera, Macrosiagon and Emmenadia which are 
 wedge-shaped, with coarsely punctured and sparsely pubescent 
 bodies, with the vertex of the head much elevated. In Myo~ 
 dites the elytra are very small. The species are found on Soli- 
 dago or Golden-rod in August. The genus Metoecus is allied 
 to Myodites. Metoecus paradoxus Linn, is in Europe a para- 
 site in the nests of wasps (Vespa) eating the larvae. 
 
 In the genus Rliipidius the males have short pointed de- 
 hiscent elytra, while the females are entirely wingless and 
 worm-like. It is a parasite on Blatta Germanica. They are 
 to be looked for in this country, where they have not yet 
 occurred. 
 
 STYLOPID^E Kirby. This most anomalous family, both as 
 regards the structure and the habits of the few species compos- 
 ing it, were for a long time excluded from the Coleoptera by 
 systematists generally, and by Gerstaecker they are even now 
 placed in the old "order" Strepsiptera. They are minute 
 forms, and have been characterized thus by Dr. Leconte. 
 ' ' Oral organs atrophied except the mandibles and one pair of 
 palpi. Head large, transverse, vertical, prolonged at the sides, 
 forming a stout peduncle, at the end of which are situated the 
 eyes, which are convex and very coarsely granulated. Antennae 
 inserted on the front, at the base of the lateral processes of 
 the head ; forked in one genus. Prothorax exceedingly short. 
 Mesothorax short, bearing at each side a slender, coriaceous 
 club-shaped appendage, with the inner margin membranous : 
 this appendage represents the elytra. Metathorax very large, 
 greater in bulk than the rest of the body, with the sutures of 
 the dorsal pieces all distinct. The postscutellum is conical and 
 prolonged far over the base of the abdomen ; wings very large, 
 fan-shaped, with a few diverging nervures ; the epimera are 
 very large, and project behind almost as far as the postscutel- 
 lum. Abdomen small, with from seven to nine segments. 
 Legs short ; anterior and middle coxae cylindrical, prominent ; 
 hind coxae very small, contiguous, quadrate ; tibiae without 
 31 
 
482 
 
 COLEOPTERA. 
 
 spurs ; tarsi without claws, joints each with a membranous 
 lobe beneath." The females are sac-like. They live enclosed 
 in the body of the bee. 
 
 In Stylops the antennae are six-jointed, and in Xenos they 
 are four-jointed. From the middle of May until late in June 
 both sexes of Stylops may be found in "stylopized" individu- 
 als of Andrena and Polistes. The flattened triangular head 
 of the female may be seen projecting from between the abdomi- 
 nal segments of the bee, and sometimes there are two or three 
 of them. On carefully drawing out the whole body of a female 
 
 Stylops Children! (Fig. 456 ; a, ab- 
 domen of bee enclosing the female 
 Stylops ; 6, top view), which is very 
 extensible, baggy and full of a thin 
 fluid, and examining it under a high 
 power we found multitudes, at 
 least three hundred, of very minute 
 Stylops larvae, like particles of dust 
 issuing in every direction from the 
 body of the parent. Most of them 
 escaped from near the head, over 
 which they ran, as they must do, 
 when the parent is in its natural 
 position, in order to get out upon 
 the surface of the bee. It thus ap- 
 pears that the young (Plate 3, fig. 6, 6 a) are hatched within 
 the body of the parent, and are therefore viviparous. The 
 head of the female is flattened, triangular, nearly equilaterally 
 so, with the apex or region of the mouth obtuse, and the two 
 hinder angles each containing a minute simple eye ; the larger 
 part of the head above consists of the epicranium, which is 
 narrow in front, with the edge convex ; the mandibles are 
 obsolete, being two flattened portions lying in front of the 
 gena and separated from that region by a very distinct 
 suture ; no clypeus or labrum can be distinguished. The 
 mouth is transverse and opens on the upper side of the head, 
 while in front, owing to the position of the mouth, lies the 
 rather large labium and the rounded papilliform maxillae. 
 The larva is elliptical in form, the head semioval, while the 
 
 Fig. 456. 
 
STYLOPID^. 483 
 
 tip of the abdomen is truncate ; the sides of the body are 
 straight, there being no well denned sutures between the seg- 
 ments ; seen laterally the larva is thickest at the metathoracic 
 ring. Two simple eyes are situated near the base of the head. 
 The body is so transparent that the intestine can be traced 
 easily to just before the tip, where it ends in a cul de sac. The 
 two anterior pairs of legs 
 are much alike ; coxae 
 short ; femora and tibiae 
 small, cylindrical ; a slen- 
 der tibial spur ; the tarsi 
 consisting of a single 
 clavate joint equalling 
 the tibia in length, being 
 much swollen at the tip, 
 and without claws. The 
 hind tarsi are longer, Fi &- 457 - 
 
 very slender, two-jointed, the terminal one being bulbous. The 
 terminal styles, inserted in the tenth abdominal ring, are a little 
 more than one-half the length of the body, which is covered 
 with long setose scales. In their movements these infinitesi- 
 mal larvae were very active, as they scrambled over the body 
 of the parent, holding their caudal setae nearly erect. 
 
 On the last of April we caught a male Stylops Cliildreni West- 
 wood (Fig. 457, and 458) in the same net with a stylopized 
 Andrena placida, and as the abdo- 
 men of the male was long and very 
 extensile, its tip being provided with 
 a capacious forceps for seizing the 
 body of the female, it is most proba- 
 ble that the female described belonged to the same species, and 
 that at this time the short-lived male, for this one lived but for 
 a day in* confinement after capture, unites sexually with the 
 female. It appears then that the larvae are hatched during 
 the middle or last of June, from the eggs fertilized in April, 
 and which are retained within the body of the parent. The 
 larvoa then crawl on to the body of bees and penetrate within 
 the abdomen of those that are to hibernate, and live there 
 through the winter. The entire body of the male is, with the 
 
484 COLEOPTERA. 
 
 head and antennae, of a velvety black, the abdomen slightly 
 brownish, while the legs and anal forceps are pale resinous 
 brown, and the tips of the tibiae and the tarsal joints pale 
 testaceous. It is about one-fourth of an inch in length. 
 
 The succeeding families comprise the divisions Tetramera 
 and Trimera of early authors, in which the penultimate joint 
 of the tarsi is but slightly developed, forming an enlargement 
 at the base of the last joint, with which it is closely 
 
 united. 
 
 i 
 
 BRUCHID^E Leach. This small family comprises Curculio-like 
 beetles of short rounded form which are noted for their activity 
 and readiness to take flight when disturbed. They differ from 
 the Curculionidcem the proboscis being folded on the chest, 
 the antennae being short and straight and inserted in a cavity 
 next to the eyes. There are 300 species of Bruchus known. 
 Bruchus pisi Linn., the Pea weevil (Fig. 515), is found in seed 
 peas in the spring. It appears soon after the pea is in flower, 
 ovipositing on the young pods (Glover). The young larva 
 feeds in the growing pod, on the pulp of the pea. Peas infested 
 with them should be soaked in boiling hot water before sowing. 
 Bruchus varicornis Lee., in like manner infests the bean. 
 
 CURCULIONID^E Latreille. The weevil family may be at once 
 recognized by the head being lengthened into a long snout or 
 proboscis (used for boring into objects when about to oviposit), 
 near the middle of which are situated the long, slender, elbowed 
 antennae. At the extremity of the snout are situated the 
 mouth-parts, which are much reduced in size, the palpi having 
 small rounded joints. Their bodies are hard and generally 
 round and often very minute. They are very timid and 
 quickly feign death. The larvae are white, thick, fleshy, foot- 
 less grubs, with fleshy tubercles instead of legs, and are armed 
 with thick curved jaws. They feed on nuts, seeds, the roots, 
 pith and bark of plants, leaves or flowers, and especially 
 the fruits, while some are leaf-miners and others are said to 
 make galls. Preparatory to transforming they spin silken 
 cocoons. The number of species already known is immense, 
 being not less than from 8,000 to 10,000, and upwards of 630 
 
CURCULIONID^. 
 
 485 
 
 genera have been already described by Schonherr and others, 
 of which we can notice but a few of the most important. 
 
 Brentlms and its allies differ from the following genera in 
 their remarkably long and slender bodies, the snout being 
 stretched straight out, not bent down as usual; while the 
 slightly clavate antennae are not elbowed. Dr. Har- 
 ris gives the history of B. septemtrionalis Herbst 
 (Fig. 459). The female in midsummer punctures 
 with her long snout the bark of the white oak. 
 The grub, when hatched, bores into the solid wood ; 
 it is nearly cylindrical, whitish, except the last seg- 
 ment, which is dark brown and horny, and is Fi s- 
 obliquely hollowed at the end, which is dentate, forming a 
 scoop by which the larva clears its gallery of chips. There 
 are three pairs of legs and an anal prop-leg. The pupa is 
 
 described as being white, with the 
 head bent on the chest between the 
 wings and legs. On the back are 
 rows of sharp teeth, with two larger 
 thorns at the anal tip. 
 
 Harris states that "the different 
 kinds of Attelabus are said to roll 
 Fig. 460. Fig. 461. U p the edges of leaves, thereby 
 
 forming little nests of the shape and size of thimbles to con- 
 tain their eggs and to shelter their young, which 
 afterwards devour the leaves." A. analis Illiger 
 (Fig. 460) is dull red, with dark blue antennae 
 and legs. In Rhyncliites the head is not con- 
 tracted behind into a neck. R. Ucolor Fabr. 
 injures various roses, wild and cultivated. It 
 is red above, with the antennae, legs and sides 
 of the body black. 
 
 The little seed weevils, Apion, are pear-shaped 
 and generally black. Apion Sayi Schonh. 
 (Fig. 461) lives in the pods of the wild Indigo, 
 and one-tenth of an inch in length. Balaninus, the nut- 
 weevil, is oval in shape, with a very slender snout, nearly as 
 long as the bo$y. B. nasicus Say (Fig. 462) is found on 
 hazel bushes, and probably infests the nuts. Harris describes 
 
 Fig. 462. 
 
 It is black 
 
486 
 
 COLEOPTERA. 
 
 it as being dark brown, and clothed with very short, rust- 
 yellow, flattened hairs, which are disposed in spots on its 
 
 wing covers. It is nearly 
 three-tenths of an inch long, 
 exclusive of the snout. 
 
 The genus Hylobius has 
 the antennae inserted before 
 the middle of the snout, not 
 far from the sides of the 
 mouth. The Pine weevil, 
 Hylobius pales Herbst, is 
 very destructive to pines, the pitch-pine especially. This 
 deep chestnut colored weevil is very abundant in May and 
 June. It has a line on the thortix, and yellowish white dots 
 scattered over the body, while the thighs are toothed beneath, 
 and the slender cylindrical snout is nearly as long as the tho- 
 rax. The larvae are found under the bark. In old trees it 
 burrows under the bark, its galleries extending irregularly over 
 the inner surface of the bark and in the sap wood. 
 
 The White-pine weevil, Pissodes strobi 
 Peck (Fig. 463; a, larva; 6, pupa), 
 equally destructive w r ith the former, is a 
 smaller beetle, more slender, and oblong 
 oval in form. It is rust-colored brown, 
 with two white dots on the thorax", a 
 white scutellum, and behind the middle 
 of the elytra, which are punctured in 
 rig. 464. rows, is a transverse white line. . Harris 
 
 states that its eggs are deposited on the leading shoots of 
 the pine, probably on the outer bark, and the larva when 
 hatched bores into the shoot, and thus distorts the tree for life. 
 The pupa is found just under the bark, the beetles appearing 
 in the autumn, though in much greater numbers in May. 
 
 We have found this insect, in all its stages of growth, 
 under the bark of the white pine the last of April, the 
 larvae being the most numerous. T^e larva is white, foot- 
 less, cylindrical, with a pale reddish head. It is .32 of an 
 inch long, and transforms in a cell. The pupa is white, ihe 
 tip of the abdomen being, square, with a sharp spine on each 
 
CURCULIONID^. 487 
 
 side. It is .30 of an inch long. An insect that would be 
 readily mistaken for the Hylobius pales is the Otiorhynchus sul- 
 catus of Fabricius (Fig. 464), which is of much the same color, 
 but with a thicker body. 
 
 The Plum Gouger, Anthonomus pi^unicida Walsh, resembles 
 the Plum curculio in its habits, and, according to Walsh, is 
 equally as common in Northern and Central Illinois. It makes 
 a round puncture in the plum, sometimes five or six, from 
 which the gum copiously exudes. Instead of living, however, 
 in the pulp, it devours the kernel and usually transforms inside 
 the stone of the fruit. "The thorax of the plum gouger is 
 ochre-yellow ; the head and hinder parts slate-color, the latter 
 with irregular white and black spots. In common with the 
 other species of the genus to which it belongs its snout usually 
 projects forward, whereas that of the Curculio usually hangs 
 perpendicularly downwards." (Walsh.) A. sycophanta Walsh 
 is brown-black and was bred by Mr. Walsh from the galls of 
 various saw- flies found on the willow, and he supposes that this 
 species, "while in the larva state, must destroy the egg or the 
 very young larva of the gall-making Nematus, just as A. cra- 
 tcegi Walsh evidently does ; which was found in an undescribed 
 Cecidomyian gall on the thorn bush, and just as the larva of 
 A. scutellatus Schonh. gradually destroys the young plant-lice 
 among which, it lives ; otherwise the two larvae would exist in 
 the same gall." Walsh has also bred A. tessellatus Walsh from 
 the Cecidomyian gall, C. s. brassicoides. It is "a very con- 
 stant species and easily recognizable by the tessellate appear- 
 ance of the elytra." A. quadrigibbus Say punctures the apple, 
 making from one to twenty holes in the fruit. 
 
 The Cranberry weevil, as we may call it, or the Anthonomus 
 suturalis Lee., is a minute reddish brown beetle, with the beak 
 one-half as long as the body, just beyond the middle of which 
 the antennae are inserted. The head is darker than the rest 
 of the bodjr, being brown black. The thorax is a little darker 
 than the elytra .and covered very sparsely with short whitish 
 hairs ; the 'scutellum is whitish, and the elytra are shining red- 
 dish brown, with the striae deeply punctured, the interstices 
 . being smooth. It is .13 of an inch long including the beak. 
 Mr. *W. C. Fish writes me that in the middle of July he 
 
488 
 
 COLEOPTERA. 
 
 Fig. 465. 
 
 detected this little weevil laying its eggs in the buds of the 
 cranberry. "It selects a bud not quite ready to open, and 
 clinging to it, works its snout deep into the centre of the bud. 
 An egg is then deposited in the hole made, when the beetle 
 climbs to the stem and cuts it off near where it joins the bud, 
 which drops to the ground and there decays ; the egg hatching 
 and the grub going through its transformations within." The 
 
 larva is long and rather 
 slender, cylindrical, the 
 body being of uniform 
 thickness and curved ; the 
 head is pale honey yel- 
 low ; the jaws tipped with 
 black ; the rings are very 
 convex, especially the pro- 
 thoracic one ; it is white, 
 with a few fine pale hairs, and is .08 of an inch in length. 
 
 The Magdalinus olyra Herbst (Fig. 465 ; a, larva ; fr, pupa ; 
 the thorax of the larva is enlarged by the pupa growing be- 
 neath ; the pupa from which the drawing was made is not fully 
 developed, since the tip of the fully grown pupa ends in two 
 spines) may be found in all its stages early in May under the 
 
 bark of the oak. The larva is 
 white, with the head freer from 
 the body than in Pissodes strobi 
 (though it is not so represented 
 in the figure) . The body of the 
 beetle is black, punctured, and 
 
 .^gte^ I -4{j8Bfc' the thorax has a lateral tubercle 
 ulMB on the front edge, while the tarsi 
 "^ "CTl* crfiSn are brown with whitish hairs. It 
 
 is a quarter of an inch long. 
 
 Conotrachelus nenuphar Herbst, 
 a, larva ; 6, pupa ; c, beetle ; d, 
 plum stung by the weevil) is a short, stout, thick weevil, 
 and the snout is curved, rather longer than the thorax, 
 and bent on the chest when at rest. It is dark brown, 
 spotted with white, ochre^ellow and black, and the surface is 
 rough, from which the beetle, as Harris says, looks like a 
 
 Fig. 466. 
 
 the Plum -weevil (Fig. 466 
 
CURCULIONID^E . 
 
 489 
 
 dried bud when shaken from the trees. When the fruit is set, 
 the beetles sting the plums, and sometimes apples and peaches, 
 with their snouts, making a curved incision, in which a single 
 egg is deposited. Mr. F. C. Hill shows that the curculio 
 makes the crescent-shaped cut after the egg is pushed in "so 
 as to undermine the egg, and leave it in a kind of flap formed 
 by the little piece of the flesh of the fruit which she has under- 
 mined. Can her object be to wilt the piece around the egg 
 and prevent the growing fruit from crushing it?" (Practical 
 Entomologist, ii, p. 115.) The grub hatched therefrom is a 
 little footless, fleshy white grub, with a distinct round light 
 brown head. The irritation set up by these larvae causes 
 the fruit to drop before it is of full size, with the larva still 
 within. Now full-fed, it 
 burrows directly into the 
 ground and there trans- 
 forms during the last of 
 the summer. In three 
 weeks it becomes a beetle 
 It also attacks many other 
 garden fruits, such as the 
 cherry, peach and quince. 
 Drs. Harris, Burnett and 
 others, think the larva is 
 but a temporary occupant 
 of the wart on plumb and cherry trees, and not a cause of 
 the disease. The best remedy is jarring the trees, and catch- 
 ing the larvae in sheets and burning them. Dr. Hull's "cur- 
 culio catcher" is an excellent invention for destroying these 
 insects ; it consists of a large inverted white umbrella, fixed 
 upon a large wheelbarrow split in front to receive the trunk 
 of the tree, against which it is driven with force sufficient 
 to jar the curculios from the tree into the umbrella. 
 
 The genus Ceutorhynchus is a small, short, thick curculio, 
 which attacks the seeds of the radish and allied plants. We 
 have noticed a pale gray species on the radish, which probably 
 inhabits the seeds. 
 
 The genus Calandra has a slender snout slightly bent down- 
 wards, a coarsely punctured thorax nearly half as long as the 
 
490 
 
 COLEOPTERA, 
 
 whole body, while the elytra are furrowed and do not quite 
 cover the tip of the abdomen. O. palmarum Linn, is a large 
 black weevil, which lives in the trunks of palms. The Grain 
 Weevil, Sitophilus granarius Linn. (Fig. 467 ; e, and natural 
 size; 5, pupa, enlarged), is pitchy red in color 
 and about an eighth of an inch long, and is im- 
 mensely prolific. This great pest, both as a 
 larva and beetle, consumes wheat after it is stored 
 up, being very abundant in granaries. The larva 
 devours the inside of the hull, leaving the shell 
 whole, so that its presence is not readily de- 
 tected. To prevent its attacks Harris recommends that the 
 wheat be kept cool, well ventilated, and frequently stirred. 
 
 A similar weevil, /Sitophilus oryzce Linn. (Fig. 467 ; e, and 
 natural size), attacks the grains of rice and also of wheat; it 
 differs in having two large red spots on each elytron, and it is 
 abundant in the South, where it is called the * ' black weevil." 
 The European turnip weevil, Ceutorhynchus assimilis Payk., 
 a broad, pale gray insect, has occurred in Maine on the radish. 
 The Grape Curculio, Codiodes incequalis Say (Fig. 468 ; 469 ; 
 a, grape disfigured by the larva ; 5, larva), has lately, according 
 to Walsh, been very destructive to 
 grapes, stinging the fruit and thus 
 destroying whole bunches of them. 
 The presence of the larva in the 
 grape may be known by a discolora- 
 tion on one side of the berry as if 
 prematurely ripening, though it be 
 the last of June or early in July. Late 
 in July or early in August the grub may be found fully grown, 
 when it drops to the ground and descending a little beneath 
 the surface transforms, and the beetle appears early in Sep- 
 tember. It is grayish black, the elytra black freckled with 
 gray spots, and striated, with large punctures. The legs are 
 dull brick red ; the femora are unarmed, while the four anterior 
 tibiae have a large rectangular tooth near the base. It is from 
 .09 to .11 of an inch in length. As a preventative against 
 their attacks, the vines should be thoroughly shaken each day 
 in June. 
 
 Fig. 469. 
 
SCOLYTID.E. 
 
 491 
 
 The genus Ptiytobius is closely allied to the preceding ; the 
 European P. velatus Beck has the habit, as we learn from 
 Gerstaecker (Handbuch der Zoologie) of living under water. 
 
 The Potato-stalk Weevil, Baridius trinotatus Say (Fig. 470 ; 
 larva and pupa ; 471, adult), is a common species in the Mid- 
 dle and Western States, where it causes the stalk to wilt and 
 die, hence all stalks so affected should be burnt. " The beetle 
 is of a bluish or ash gray color, distinguished as its name im- 
 plies, by having three shiny black impressed spots at the lower 
 edge of the thorax. The female deposits a single egg in an 
 oblong slit about one-eighth of an inch long, which she has pre- 
 viously formed with her beak in the stalk of the potato. The 
 larva subsequently hatches out and bores into the heart of the 
 stalk, always proceeding downward towards the root. When 
 fully grown it is a little over one-fourth of an inch long, and is 
 a soft, whitish, legless grub, with a scaly head." (Riley.) The 
 larva of B. vestitus Sch. (Fig. 
 472), infests the steins of 
 the tobacco plant in Mexico. 
 
 Mr. Huntington has ob- 
 served the Grape Cane gall 
 curculio, Baridius Sesostris 
 Lee. (Fig. 473) in the larval 
 state in large bunches near the joints of the Clinton grape on 
 Kelly's Island, near Sandusky, Ohio, and has also found the 
 beetle in considerable numbers. The larva closely resembles 
 that of the Potato Baridius. Riley states that the gall 
 is formed during the previous autumn while the tender 
 cane is growing. "It has almost invariably a longitu- 
 dinal slit or depression on one side, dividing that side 
 into two cheeks, which generally have a rosy tint." 
 It pupates late in June, and early in July the adult Fig. 472. 
 appears. It may be known by its polished elytra and punc- 
 tured thorax. It is pale reddish, with a stout beak, equalling 
 the body in length, and each elytron has a swelling on the 
 outer edge near the base, and another near the tip. It is a 
 tenth of an inch long. It is the Madams vitis of Riley. 
 
 Westwood. These cylindrical bark borers are 
 
492 
 
 COLEOPTERA. 
 
 rounded beetles of an elongate cylindrical form, truncated be- 
 fore and behind. They mine under the bark of trees, running 
 their winding galleries in every direction. They rarely attack 
 > living healthy trees. They are usually brown 
 or black in color. The rounded head does not 
 end in a snout and is deeply sunken in the 
 thorax ; the clavate antennae are somewhat el- 
 bowed, while the palpi are very short ; the 
 elytra are often hollowed at the end, and 
 the short stout legs are toothed on the under 
 side of the femora, and the tarsi are slender and 
 narrow. The eggs are laid in the bark, whence the larvae on 
 being hatched bore straight into the sap wood, or mine between 
 the bark and sap wood. They are like those of the preceding 
 family, fleshy, cylindrical, footless larvae, wrinkled on the back. 
 When fully grown in the autumn they gnaw 
 an exit .for the beetle, taking care to leave a 
 little space closed in front of their burrow to 
 conceal the pupa. The bark of trees infested 
 by them should be scraped and whitewashed. 
 Hylurgus terebrans Oliv. (Fig. 474) is a rather 
 large red species, very abundant in spring. Fig. 474. 
 It is found under the bark of pines associated with Pissodes, 
 though the larva is smaller and more cylindrical. It mines the 
 inner surface of the bark, slightly grooving the sap wood, and 
 pupates in April, appearing as a beetle in great numbers on 
 warm days early in May. Hylurgus dentatus Say 
 infests the cedar. 
 
 The Scolytus destructor of Olivier often does much 
 injury to old and decaying elm trees in Europe. 
 Capt. Cox exhibited to the Entomological Society of 
 London a piece of elm three feet long, which was 
 scored by the lateral tubes of this insect, which he 
 Fig. 475. est i mate( j must h ave given birth to 280,000 larvae. 
 The various species of Scolytus, Tomicus and Xyloterus give 
 rise to a disease similar to fireblight, by their ravages beneath 
 the twigs of fruit trees, causing the bark to shrivel and peal 
 off as if a fire had run through the orchard. The best method 
 of restraining their attacks is to peal off the affected bark, ex- 
 
CERAMBYCID^J. 493 
 
 posing the eggs and larvae to the air, when the birds will soon 
 destroy them. T. monographus does great damage by drilling 
 holes in malt-liquor casks in India. It was calculated that 
 sometimes 134,000 holes were drilled in the staves forming a 
 single cask. Immersion in boiling water has been found an 
 effectual remedy. (Morse.) 
 
 Also associated with Pissodes, we have found in April the 
 galleries of Tomicus pini Say branching out from a common 
 centre. They are filled up with fine chips, and, according to 
 Fitch, are notched in the sides "in which the eggs have been 
 placed, where they would remain undisturbed by the 
 beetle as it crawled backwards and forth through the 1 
 gallery." These little beetles have not the long snout 
 of the weevils, hence they cannot bore through the 
 outer bark, but enter into the burrows made the pre- / 
 ceding year, and distribute their eggs along the sides. 
 (Fitch.) T. xylographus Say (Fig. 475) is often a Fig. 476. 
 most formidable enemy to the white pine in the North, and the 
 yellow pine in the South. The genus Cryphalus is a slenderer 
 form. A species, probably the C. materarius of Fitch (Fig. 
 476), has been found by Mr. Huntington of Kelly's Island, to 
 bore into empty wine casks and spoil them for use. 
 
 CERAMBYCID^: Leach. (Longicornia Latreille). This im- 
 mense family, numbering already nearly 4,000 known species, 
 comprises some of the largest, most showy, as well as the most 
 destructive insects of the suborder. They are readily recog- 
 nized by their oblong, often cylindrical bodies, the remarkably 
 long, filiform, recurved antennae, and the powerful incurved 
 mandibles. Their eggs are introduced into the cracks in the 
 bark of plants by the long fleshy extensile tip of the abdo- 
 men. The larvae are long, flattened, cylindrical, fleshy, often 
 footless whitish grubs^ with very convex rings, the prothoracic 
 segment being much larger and broader than the succeeding, 
 while the head is small and armed with strong sharp mandi- 
 bles adapted for boring like an auger in the hardest woods. 
 
 These borers live from one to three years before transform- 
 ing, at the end of which time they construct a cocoon of chips 
 at the end of their burrows, the head of the pupa lying next 
 
494 COLEOPTEKA. 
 
 to the thin portion of bark left to conceal the hole. As quoted 
 by Baron Osten Sacken in an interesting article on the larval 
 forms of some of our native beetles, Erichson states that "not- 
 withstanding the great similitude between the larvae of Longi- 
 corns, some important differences in the structure of those 
 belonging to the four subdivisions of this family may be no- 
 ticed. The larvae of the Lamiidse differ more than the others, 
 on account of the total absence of feet, and the position of the 
 first pair of stigmata which is placed in the fold between 
 the pro- and mesothoracic segments, less abruptly separated 
 than the others. The other larvae have this first pair on the 
 sides of the mesothorax, and have feet, 
 which, however, are sometimes so small 
 as to be perceptible only when magni- 
 fied, even in large sized larvae. The 
 Cerambycidae (Cerambyx, Callidium and 
 allies) have, on the posterior side of the 
 prothorax, above and below, a fleshy, 
 transverse fold, separated by a furrow 
 from the horny disc of this segment. 
 In the Prionidae and Lepturidae, the 
 same fold is visible only on the under 
 side. The Lepturce have a large flattened 
 head, as broad as the prothorax, whereas 
 Fig. 477. in the other Longicorn larvae the head is 
 
 small and much narrower than the thorax. The larvae of the 
 Prionidae show the least differences from those of the Lep- 
 turidae ; and that of Spondylis is remarkably allied to the lat- 
 ter." " The pupa is at first soft and whitish, and it exhibits 
 all the par-ts of the future beetle under a filmy veil which in- 
 wraps every limb. The wings and legs are folded upon the 
 breast ; the long antennae are turned back against the sides of 
 the body, and then bent forwards between the legs." (Har- 
 ris.) The beetles mostly hide by day and fly by night. 
 
 Parandra brunnea Fabr. is much unlike the remaining genera, 
 being Tenebrio-like in form, with abroad head and short an- 
 tennae, and shining red in color. The larva is described by 
 Osten Sacken as having a yellowish cordate head, with a large 
 prothorax and fleshy tubercles on the upper and under side of 
 
CERAMBYCIDJE. 
 
 495 
 
 (8 
 
 the segments, with the first pair of stigmata placed on the 
 sides of the mesothorax. It is found in dead beach trees. 
 
 The Orthosoma unicolor Drury (Fig. 477) is a light bay col- 
 ored beetle found flying from the middle of July until Septem- 
 ber. We have found the larva (Fig. 478) in the rot- 
 ten stumps of the pine, and in the Western States 
 Riley states that a larva (Fig. 479, head and tho- 
 rax seen from beneath), probably of this species, 
 eats the roots of the grape-vine, hollowing out and 
 sometimes severing the root and killing the vine. 
 
 Prionus brevicornis Fabr. is a very large, not un- 
 common beetle, of an ovate shape and pitchy black 
 color, with short, thick jaws, and 
 antennae about half as long as 
 the body. The larvae, Harris 
 states, are as thick as a man's 
 thumb, and are found in the 
 trunks and roots of the Balm of 
 Gilead and Lombardy poplar. Fig - 478 - 
 
 Crossidius pulclirior Bland (Fig. 480), 
 from Nebraska, is a pale reddish beetle, with the antennas, 
 head, base and the large mark on the disk of the elytra and 
 legs black. An allied form is Eburia? Ulkei Bland 
 (Fig. 481, showing the sculpturing of the head) which is 
 described as coming from Cape St. Lucas, Lower Cali- 
 fornia. 
 
 The larva of Stenocorus putator Peck (Fig. 482 ; a, 
 larva, just about transforming; 6, pupa) nearly ampu- Flgl480 * 
 tates the branches of the black and white oaks. After becoming 
 mature in the trunk, and just before undergo- 
 ing its transformations, it gnaws off a branch 
 which falls to the ground, containing the larva, 
 which changes to a beetle in midsummer, and 
 lays its egg near the axilla of a leaf stalk or 
 The beetle is a very slender one, with antennae 
 longer than the body in the males, the third and fourth joints 
 of which are tipped with a small spine or thorn. It is dull 
 brown, with gray spots. The Banded hickory borer, Chion 
 (Cerasphorus) tinctus Drury, makes long galleries in the 
 
 Fig. 479. 
 
 Fig. 481. 
 
 small stem 
 
496 
 
 COLEOPTERA. 
 
 trunks of hickory trees, the worm often working its way out of 
 the wood after it has been made into articles of furniture or 
 
 carriages. The Ase- 
 mum moestum Halde- 
 man (Fig. 483 ; a, a, 
 larva; 6, pupa), we 
 have found in all its 
 stages under the bark 
 of oaks, early in May. 
 The larva is footless, 
 white ; the head is 
 rather large, white, 
 with strong black jaws* 
 
 convex on the outer side; the body is uniform, gradually 
 diminishing in width posteriorly ; it is .60 of an inch long. 
 The pupa is .44 of an inch long. The beetle is about half an 
 inch long and is dark brown, with very thick femora, na 
 It flies the last of May. I have received a larva of this g 
 species from Dr. Shimer, Which was found by him boring H 
 in the grape-vine. The genus Callidium has antennae Fig. 484 
 of moderate length, a broad rounded prothorax, and a flattened 
 body behind. The larvae are unusually flattened, with a broad 
 
 horny head, small stout man- 
 dibles, and six small legs, and 
 they are said to live in this 
 state two years. Callidium 
 antennatum Newman is en- 
 tirely blue ; it bores in pine 
 wood and in red cedar, min- 
 ing under the bark. C. semi- 
 circularis Bland (Fig. 484) is 
 reddish brown, with a white 
 band on each elytron, enclosing a rather large, semicircular, 
 black spot. It was discovered in Pennsylvania. 
 
 Clytus has a more cylindrical body, and spherical prothorax, 
 besides being beautifully banded with golden, on a dark 
 ground. Clytus speciosus Say injures the maple. We have 
 taken the beetle on the summit of Mount Katahdin in Maine. 
 The beetle lays its eggs in July and August, and the larvae 
 
 Fig. 483. 
 
CEKAMBYCID.E, 
 
 497 
 
 Fig. 485. 
 
 bore in all directions through the tree. Osten Sacken de- 
 scribes the larva of C. pictus Drury, the Hickory-tree borer 
 (Fig. 485; a, larva; 6, pupa), as being u six to seven-tenths 
 of an inch in length, being rather long, somewhat flattened 
 club-shaped, the thoracic segments being considerably broader 
 than the abdominal ones, but at 
 the same time distinctly flattened 
 above and below." The pupa has a 
 numerous pointed granulations 
 on the prothorax, and similar 
 sharp spines on the abdominal 
 segments. " On the penultimate 
 segments, these projections are larger and recurved anteriorly 
 at the tip ; there are six in a row near the posterior margin,, 
 and two others more anteriorly. The last segment has four 
 similar projections in a row." The male of the 
 Locust tree borer, C. robinice Forster (Fig. 486, 
 <), according to Walsh, differs from that of C. 
 pictus "in having much longer and stouter an- 
 tennae and in having its body tapered behind to 
 a blunt point," while the females "are not dis- 
 tinguishable at all." It does great injury to the 
 Locust tree, and appears in the beetle state in September, 
 while C. pictus, the Hickory tree borer, appears in June. 0. 
 araneiformis Oliv. (Fig. 487) has been detected on a wharf in 
 Philadelphia ; it was first described as coming from 
 St. Domingo. 
 
 The Long- handed Acrocinus, A. longimanus Fabr. 
 (Fig. 488, larva, natural size), is a gigantic insect, 
 allied to Prionus, but with enormously developed fore 
 legs, the whole body, including the fore legs, when out- 
 stretched measuring ten inches ; it is brown, beautifully 
 banded with red and buff. M. Salle has found the larva Fig- 
 at Cordova, Mexico, under the bark of a Ficus. It grows 
 larger in Brazil. Leiopus is a diminutive ally of Lamia. Dr. 
 Shimer has detected the larva of L. xanthoxyli Shimer, under- 
 mining the bark of the prickly-ash, when the wood has recently 
 died. It is a footless borer, "of whitish and pink orange 
 colors, about one-fourth of an inch long." In the burrows 
 32 
 
 Fig. 486. 
 
498 
 
 COLEOPTERA. 
 
 formed by the larvae he found May 25th, several pink-orange 
 pupae, "invariably lying with their heads outwards ; their long 
 antennae folded over the wing-cases obliquely down on the 
 sides, passing beneath the posterior pair 
 of legs, a little beyond them and then 
 curving up over the breast, reach the 
 head." The beetle is related to L. alpha 
 Say, and is gray, with bands and spots of 
 blackish pubescence ; it is .25 of an inch 
 long. Two species of ichneumons were 
 found by Shimer to prey upon the beetle. 
 In Monohammus the antennae are of 
 great length. M. titillator Fabr. is brown 
 mottled with gray ; while a slenderer spe- 
 cies, M. scutettatus Say, of a peculiar dark 
 olive green, with a whitish scutellum, bores 
 in the white pine. 
 
 The singular habits of the Girdler, Onci- 
 deres cingulatus Say (Fig. 489), have thus 
 been described by Professor Haldeman 
 in the Pennsylvania Farm Journal, vol. i, 
 p. 34. "This insect was first described 
 by Say in the Journal of the Academy of 
 Natural Sciences, vol. v, p. 272, 1825, and its 
 habits were discovered by us and published in 
 our 'Materials towards a History of the Col- 
 eoptera longicornia of the United States ;' Am. 
 Phil. Trans., vol. x. p. 52, 1837. 
 
 "In our walks through the forest our atten- 
 tion was frequently drawn to the branches and 
 main shoots of young hickory trees (Carya 
 alba), which were girdled with a deep notch in 
 such a manner as to induce an observer to be- 
 lieve that the object in view was to kill the 
 branch beyond the notch, and extraordinary as 
 it may appear, this is actually the fact, and the rig. 489. 
 operator is an insect whose instinct was implanted by the 
 Almighty power who created it, and under such circumstances 
 that it could never have been acquired as a habit. The effect 
 
 Fig. 488. 
 
CEKAMBYCID^. 499 
 
 of girdling is unknown to the insect, whose life is too short 
 to foresee the necessities of its progeny during the succeeding 
 season. 
 
 " This insect may be seen in Pennsylvania during the two 
 last weeks in August and the first week in September feeding 
 upon the bark of the tender branches of the young hickories. 
 Both sexes are rather rare, particularly the male, which is rather 
 smaller than the female, but with longer antennae. The female 
 makes perforations in the branches of the tree upon which she 
 lives (which are from half an inch to less than a quarter of an 
 inch thick) , in which she deposits her eggs ; she then proceeds 
 to gnaw a groove of about a tenth of an inch wide and deep 
 around the branch, and below the place where the eggs are 
 deposited, so that the exterior portion dies and the larva feeds 
 upon the dead wood and food which is essential to many 
 insects, although but few have the means of providing it for 
 themselves or their progeny by an instinct so remarkable. 
 
 "Where this insect is abundant, it must cause much damage 
 to young forests of hop-poles by the destruction of the prin- 
 cipal shoot. We have known insects which, from 
 their rarity, could hardly be regarded as ' noxious,' 
 increase to such an extent as to be very destructive, 
 and the locust trees (Robinia pseudacacia) have had 
 their foliage withered during the few last summers 
 from such a cause (Cecidomyia robinise Hald.) which 
 has caused these trees to wither since that period, 
 particularly in August, 1868." The Tridentate 
 Compsidea, C. tridentata Oliv. (Fig. 490, larva, en- 
 larged three times), is a dark brown beetle, with a 
 rusty red curved line behind the eyes, two stripes on Fi &- 49 - 
 the thorax, and a three-toothed stripe on the outer edge of 
 each wing-cover, and is about half an inch long. It lives under 
 the bark of elms, occasionally doing much damage. (Harris.) 
 
 The larva ofPsenocerus supernotatus (described by Say) which 
 burrows in the stem of a climbing plant, supposed to be 
 the grape, Osten Sacken describes as being three-tenths of an 
 inch long, subcylindrical or prismatical, the pro- and meso- 
 thorax being a little broader than the other segments, and the 
 whole body sparsely beset with fine golden hairs. 
 
^ 
 
 500 COLEOP1ERA. 
 
 This insect, according to Fitch, also does much injury to the 
 currant, eating the pith "through the whole length of the 
 stalk and leaving it filled with a fine powder. It is about 
 the first of June that the parent insect deposits her eggs upon 
 the currant stalks, and the worms get their growth by the 
 close of the season. They repose in their cells through the 
 winter, changing to pupae with the warmth of the following 
 spring, and begin to appear abroad in their perfect 
 state as early as the middle of May, the sexes pairing 
 immediately after they come out." (Fitch.) In August, 
 1868, I received from Dr. P. A. Chadbourne, President 
 of Madison University, several branches of the apple 
 containing larvae, which in the next spring changed to 
 this beetle. They were very injurious to orchards in 
 Fig. 491. hjg vicinity, and this seems to be 'the first instance 
 of its occurrence in the apple. The larva (Fig. 491, en- 
 larged thrice) is nearly half an inch long; it is footless, 
 white, with the head scarcely half as wide as the body and con- 
 siderably flattened ; the segments are rather convex, each hav- 
 ing two rows of minute warts, and the tip is rather blunt, with 
 a few fine golden hairs. It devoured the sap wood and under 
 side of the bark and also the pith, thus locally killing the 
 terminal twigs, and causing the bark to 
 shrivel and peel off, leaving a distinct line 
 of demarcation between the dead and living 
 portions of the twig. Each larva seemed to 
 live in a space one and one-half inches long, 
 there being five holes through the bark within 
 the space of as many inches. On the 16th 
 of August the grubs seemed to have accom- 
 plished their work of destruction, as they 
 rigt 492 ' were fully grown. The beetle is from .13 to 
 
 .20 of an inch long, and may be known by- its dark, reddish 
 brown, cylindrical body, with a high tubercle at the base 
 of the elytron, an oblique yellowish white line on the basal 
 third, and a broad curved white line on the outer third of the 
 elytron, or wing-cover. 
 
 Saperda Candida Fabr. (bivittata Say, Fig. 492) the well 
 known Apple tree borer, flies about orchards in July in New 
 
501 
 
 England, in May and June in the Western States, usually at 
 night, but we once observed it flying in the hottest part of the 
 day. At this time the female lays her eggs in the bark near 
 the roots. The nearly cylindrical larvae are whitish fleshy 
 grubs, with a small horny head, while the prothoracic ring, 
 as usual, is much larger than the others, the two preceding 
 ones being very short, and from thence the body narrows to 
 the tip. It bores upward into the wood, where it lives two or 
 three years, finally making a cocoon eight or ten inches from 
 its starting point, in a burrow next to the bark, whence it 
 leaves the pupa state (which begins early in June) in midsum- 
 mer. It also infests the wild apple, quince, pear, June-berry, 
 mountain-ash and hawthorn. Riley advises soaping the trunk 
 of the tree to prevent the beetle from laying its eggs, and 
 when the tree is infested with them to cut through the bark at 
 the upper end of thejr borings and pour in hot water, while in 
 the autumn the bark should be examined and the young worms 
 that had been hatched through the summer may be dug out 
 and destroyed. 
 
 We have found what we supposed to be the young larvae of 
 Desmocerus cyaneus Fabr. in. the stems of the elder ; the beetle 
 is a handsome purple and white Longicorn. We have found 
 Rliagium lineatum Olivier living in old trunks of pine trees. 
 The antennae are no longer than the breadth of the body. It 
 makes a cocoon of chips, and the beetle appears in the autumn, 
 not, however, leaving the tree until the spring. 
 
 CHRYSOMELID^E Latreille. The Leaf-beetles are oval or 
 oblong, often very thick and convex above, with short an- 
 tennae, round prominent eyes, with a narrow cylindrical 
 thorax, and the hinder thighs often much thickened in the 
 middle, while the abdomen has five free segments. The larvae 
 are short, rounded, cylindrical or flattened, generally of soft 
 consistence, usually gaily colored, and beset with thick flat- 
 tened tubercles or branching spines, and well developed tho- 
 racic feet. There are estimated to be from 8,000 to 10,000 
 species. They are found feeding, both in the larva and adult 
 stages, on leaves, either on the surface, or, as in Hispa and 
 several species of Haltica, their larvae are leaf-miners. 
 
502 
 
 COLEOPTERA. 
 
 Fig. 493. 
 
 The genus Donacia connects this family with the preceding. 
 It has a rather long body and unusually long antennae. D. 
 proximo, Kirby is dark blue, and Donacia Kirbyi Lacordaire 
 is of a shining coppery hue. The larvae live in the stems of 
 water plants, and make a leathery cocoon in the earth before 
 transforming. 
 
 The Grape-vine Fidia (F. viticida Walsh, Fig. 493) is very 
 injurious to the grape in the Western States, from its habit of 
 "cutting straight elongated holes of about an eighth of an 
 inch in diameter in the leaves, and when numer- 
 ous so riddling the leaves as to reduce them to 
 mere shreds." It is chestnut brown, and cov- 
 ered with short whitish hairs, giving it a hoary 
 appearance. Riley states that it is very abun- 
 dant in the vineyards in Missouri, where it pre- 
 fers Concord and Norton's Virginia grapes, 
 while it occurs on the wild grape-vine and 011 the leaves of 
 the Cercis Canadensis. "It makes its appearance during the 
 month of June, and by the end of July has generally disap- 
 peared, from which fact we may infer that there is but one 
 brood each year." The vines should be often shaken and 
 chickens turned in to feed upon them when it is possible. 
 
 Crioceris is 
 known by its 
 rather long 
 body, and the 
 prothorax be- 
 ing narrower 
 than the ely- 
 tra. The an- 
 tennae are 
 Fig. 494. rather long, 
 
 the fore coxae are swollen, pressed together, and the claws 
 are either free or united at the base. We have no native 
 species, but Crioceris asparagi Linn, has been introduced 
 into gardens about New York, doing much injury to the 
 asparagus. Fitch describes it as being about a quarter of an 
 inch long, with a tawny red prothorax and three bright lemon 
 yellow spots on each elytron. The larva is soft-bodied, twice 
 
CHRYSOMELIMJ. 503 
 
 as long as thick, the body thickening posteriorly, and of a 
 dull ash gray or obscure olive, with a black head and legs. 
 
 Lema trilineata Olivier (Fig. 494 ; a, larva ; 6, terminal joints 
 of abdomen; c, pupa; d, eggs) occurs in great abundance 
 on the leaves of the potato. The dirty yellowish larvae are 
 found on it abundantly, and hide themselves by covering their 
 bodies with their own excrement. They mature in about two 
 weeks, transform in earthen cells cemented with a gummy 
 exudation discharged from the mouth, and in a fortnight, 
 being about the first of August, the beautiful yellow and black 
 striped beetle, with a reddish head and prothorax, appears. 
 
 Hispa is also a miner in the larva state. Hispa (Uroplata) 
 rosea Harris (Fig. 495) is supposed by Harris to mine the 
 leaves of the apple tree. Harris describes it as being "of a 
 deep or a tawny reddish yellow color above, 
 marked with little deep red lines and spots. 
 There are three smooth, longitudinal ribs on each 
 elytron, spotted with blood-red, and the space 
 between these lines are deeply punctured in 
 double rows ; the under side of the body is black, 
 and the legs are short and reddish. They meas- Fi s- 495. 
 ure about one-fifth of an inch in length." "The larvaa burrow 
 under the skin of the leaves of plants, and eat the pulpy 
 substance within, so that the skin over and under the place 
 of their operations, turns brown and dies, having somewhat 
 of a blistered appearance, and within these blistered spots 
 the larvae or grubs, the pupse or the beetles, may often be 
 found. The eggs of these insects are little rough, blackish 
 grains, and are glued to the surface of the leaves, sometimes 
 singly, and sometimes in clusters of four or five together. The 
 grubs of our common species are about one-fifth of an inch in 
 length, when fully grown. The body is oblong, flattened, rather 
 broader before than behind, soft, and of a whitish color, ex- 
 cept the head and the top of the first ring, which are brown, 
 or blackish, and of a horny consistence. It has a pair of legs 
 to each of the first three rings ; the other rings are provided 
 with small fleshy warts at the sides, and transverse rows of 
 little rasp-like points above and beneath. The pupa state lasts 
 only about one week, soon after which the beetles come out of 
 
504 COLEOPTERA. 
 
 their burrows." Hispa (Uroplata) suturalis Fabr. mines the 
 Locust tree, and often proves very destructive in the Middle 
 and Western States. They are flat, the body behind being 
 broad and square, and the elytra are generally ridged and 
 furrowed. 
 
 Cassida aurichalcea Fabr., the yellow Helmet beetle, is hem- 
 ispherical, flattened, so that the edges of the wings are very 
 thin ; and the larva is broad, oval, 
 flattened, and by means of two spines 
 terminating its upturned abdomen, 
 holds its old cast larva skin over its 
 body as a means of protection. Dur- 
 ing the last week in July we have 
 found the larvae in all stages of 
 growth very abundant on the Morn- 
 ing-glory in our garden, eating holes in the leaves. In the 
 young the head and legs are more prominent than in the old. 
 It pupates the last of July and early in August. 
 
 The Chetymorpha cribraria Fabr. (Fig. 496 ; a, pupa) we 
 have found in all its stages on the leaves of the silk-weed late 
 in July and early in August, and in one instance in Salem it 
 occurred in abundance on the leaves of the raspbeny. The 
 larva differs from that of Cassida aurichalcea, not only in its 
 greater size, but the body is thicker and narrower ; the head is 
 freer from the thorax, and the spines are simple, not spinula- 
 ted. The body is yellow and less protected by the cast skin. 
 When about to transform, the larva attaches itself to the leaf 
 by a silken thread, a few segments from the end where the 
 end of the body of the future pupa is situated. 
 It is .45 of an inch long. The pupa is broad 
 and rather flattened, dark and spotted with 
 Fig. 497. yellow and covered with a whitish powder, 
 
 causing the yellow portions to appear more prominently ; along 
 each side of the abdomen is a row of five spines, and there are 
 four spines on the anterior edge of the prothorax ; it is .40 of 
 an inch in length. 
 
 Fig. 497 represents, according to Harris, "the larva, nearly 
 full size, of Galeruca gelatinarice Fabr. or an allied species, 
 found abundantly on Ambrosia elatior, July 30th. They 
 
CHRYSOMELID2E . 
 
 505 
 
 Fi s- 498 - 
 
 live on the upper surface of the leaves and devour the cuticle 
 
 and parenchyma above, leaving the lower cuticle untouched. 
 
 It is of a dirty yellowish white color, with black tubercles 
 
 bearing white bristles. Length one-fourth of an inch." (Har- 
 
 ris Correspondence, p. 267.) 
 
 We have found Galeruca marginella Kirby (Fig. 498 ; a, 
 
 larva ; 5, pupa) in all its stages of growth on Myrica gale, 
 
 during the middle of August, 
 
 in Northern Maine. The 
 
 larva is shining black, coria- 
 
 ceous above, and the body 
 
 is elongated, flattened, with 
 
 a small orbicular black head. 
 
 The upper side of the body 
 
 is hard, from the close prox- 
 
 imity of the black flattened 
 
 tubercles. Beneath, whitish ; on the side is a row of small 
 
 black brown tubercles, and along the middle of the body is a 
 row f transversely linear brown tu- 
 bercles, on each side of which is a 
 minute dot-like tubercle. It is not 
 hairy, and measures .25 of an inch in 
 length. When about to transform it 
 fastens itself by its tail to the surface 
 of a leaf. The pupa is brown-black. 
 The beetle is umber brown, testaceous 
 
 on the edges of the elytra, the legs being also testaceous, 
 
 while the prothorax is pale, with three dark brown spots, 
 
 of which the central one is T-shaped. 
 The Striped Squash beetle, Diabrotica 
 
 mttata Fabr. (Fig. 499, a, larva ; &, pupa , ., 
 
 seen from underneath; Fig. 500, adult) ap- / < 
 
 pears on squash vines as soon a's they are 
 
 up, and at once devours them unless their attacks are pre- 
 
 vented. Covering the vines with cotton or a box covered with 
 
 muslin or millinet is the only sure remedy, while on a large 
 
 scale powdered charcoal, or lime is used, to be sprinkled on the 
 
 leaves. Mr. Gregory, says the "American Agriculturist," re- 
 
 lies upon plaster, or oyster- shell lime, which may be shaken 
 
 Fig. 499. 
 
 soi. 
 
 Fig. 500. 
 
506 COLEOPTERA. 
 
 from a small sieve while the leaves are wet with dew or rain ; 
 to be applied as soon as the plants are up. He objects to the 
 use of air-slacked stove lime, as it is apt to be too caustic and 
 injure the plant. Dr. H. Shimer has given an account of the 
 habits of this insect in the "Prairie Farmer," and has sent me 
 specimens of the insect in its different stages. He states that 
 the grub in June and July " eats the bark and often perforates 
 and hollows out the lower part of the stem which is beneath the 
 ground, and the upper portion of the root, and occasionally 
 when the supply below fails, we find them in the vine just 
 above the ground." It hibernates in the pupa state. u The 
 larva arrives at maturity in about a month after the egg is laid ; 
 it remains in the pupa state about two weeks, and the beetle 
 probably lives several days before depositing her eggs, 
 so that one generation is in existence about two months, 
 and we can only have two, never more than three 
 broods in one season." He has found them boring in 
 5021 the squash and muskmelon vines as late as October 1st. 
 The larva is a long, slender, white, cylindrical grub, with a small 
 brownish head. The prothorax is a little corneous. The tho- 
 racic legs are very slender, pale brown ; the end of the body is 
 suddenly truncated, with a small prop-leg beneath. Above is 
 an orbicular brown space, growing black posteriorly and ending 
 in a pair of upcurved, vertical, slender black spines. It is .40 
 of an inch long. It will be seen that both in its boring habits 
 and its corresponding, remarkable, elongated, C3 T lindrical, soft 
 white body, that this larva varies widely from that of Galleruca, 
 to which the beetle is closely allied. The pupa is .17 of an 
 inch long, white, with the tip of the abdomen ending in two 
 long acute spines arising from a common base. The Twelve- 
 spotted Diabrothica (Fig. 501, D. duodecim-punctata Fabr.) 
 is injurious to the leaves of the Dahlia. 
 
 The genus Haltica, to which the little blackish Flea-beetles 
 belong, is well known. The larvae mine the leaves of the 
 plants on which they afterwards feed. Haltica (Crepidodera) 
 cucumeris Harris (Fig. 502) infests the cucumber. Harris de- 
 scribes it as being "only one-sixteenth of an inch long, of a 
 black color, with clay-yellow antennae and legs, except the 
 hindmost thighs, which are brown. The upper side of the body 
 
CHRYSOMELIDJ2, 
 
 507 
 
 is covered with punctures, which are arranged in rows on the 
 wing-cases, and there is a deep transverse furrow across the 
 hinder part of the thorax." It not only kills young cucumber- 
 vines, eating the seed leaves, but is found 
 all through the summer eating holes in the 
 leaves of various garden vegetables. 
 
 The Grape-leaf Flea Beetle, H. (Grapto- 
 dera) chalybea Illiger, eats the buds and 
 leaves of the grape. It is a steel blue in- 
 sect, often varying in its shades of color- 
 ing, sometimes becoming greenish. It is Fi s- 503< 
 a little over three-twentieths of an inch in length. In Ohio, 
 Mr. M. C. Reed noticed the sexes of this species, which Dr. 
 Leconte considers as probably the Graptodera exapta of Say 
 (Fig. 503), pairing May 6th. The larvse appeared the last of 
 the month, and by the first week in June, and on the 30th of the 
 same month, the beetles appeared. I have received specimens 
 of the larva from Mr. Read. It is a yellowish white, cylindrical 
 worm, with a jet black head and black tubercles, from each of 
 which proceed several fine hairs. The prothorax is brown black 
 above ; on each succeeding ring of the 
 body are ten tergal black tubercles, the 
 two inner ones being long and narrow, 
 and transverse, the others forming 
 round dots. On each ring is a single 
 black dot just between the two lower a b Fig 504 ' 
 larger tubercles. On the sides are two rows of black tubercles, 
 and along the middle of the under side a row of transverse 
 tubercles, on each side of which is a row of dot-like tubercles. 
 It is .35 of an inch in length. 
 
 The Striped Turnip Flea beetle, H. (Phyllotreta) striolata 
 Fabr. (Fig. 504 ; a, larva ; 6, pupa), is black, with a waved yel- 
 lowish stripe on each wing-cover, and is less than a tenth of an 
 inch long. Dr. Shinier describes the larva as being white ; the 
 head is of a pale brown color, and near the end of the body is a 
 brown spot equal to the head in size ; besides the thoracic legs 
 there is a single anal prop-leg. It is .35 of an inch long. It 
 feeds upon roots beneath the ground. The pupa is naked, 
 white, and transforms in an earthen cocoon. In seventeen 
 
508 
 
 COLEOPTEKA. 
 
 days from the time the larva ceases eating the beetle appeared. 
 It then feeds on the seed leaves of cabbages and turnips and 
 other garden vegetables, when it proves very injurious, 
 while afterwards in June, when the plants have at- 
 tained their growth, they sicken and die from the 
 attacks of the larva in their roots. (American 
 rig. 505. -^aturalist, V ol. ii, p. 514.) 
 
 The Silk-weed Labidomera, L. trimaculata Fabr. (Fig. 505, 
 larva) is found in its larval stage on the Silk-weed about the 
 first of August. It is a thick hemispherical beetle, with a dark 
 blue head and prothorax, and orange elytra, with three large 
 blue spots on each wing-cover. It is one-half of an inch long. 
 
 Fig. 506. 
 
 The Colorado potato beetle, Doryphora decem-Hneata Say 
 (Fig. 506 ; a, eggs ; &, the larvae in different stages of growth ; 
 c, the pupa ; d, beetle ; e, elytron, magnified ; /, leg, magnified) 
 has gradually spread eastward as far as Indiana, from its 
 original habitat in Colorado, having become very destructive 
 to the potato-vine. It becomes a beetle within a month after 
 hatching from the yellowish eggs ; the larva is pale yellow 
 with a reddish tinge and a lateral row of black dots. Messrs. 
 "Walsh and Riley state that "there are three broods of larvae 
 every year in North Illinois and Central Missouri, each of 
 which goes under ground to pass into the pupa state, the first 
 two broods coming out of the ground in the beetle state about 
 
CHRYSOMELID^. 
 
 509 
 
 ten or twelve days afterwards, while the last one stays under 
 ground all winter, and only emerges in the beetle state in the 
 following spring, just 
 in time to lay its eggs 
 upon the young po- 
 tato leaves," which it 
 devours to such an ex- 
 tent as to sometimes 
 almost cut off the en. 
 tire crop in certain lo- 
 calities. The Editors 
 
 d 
 
 of the ' ' American En- 
 
 Fig. 5061. 
 
 tomologist," from whom we have quoted, enumerate and 
 figure various beetles, hemiptera, and a species of Tachina fly 
 (Lydella doryphorse Riley) which mostly prey upon the larvae. 
 Dr. H. Shimer shows, in the "American Naturalist," vol. iii, 
 p. 91, that a dry and hot summer is very unfavorable to the 
 development of this insect, the pupse dying for want of suffi- 
 cient moisture in the soil. The best remedy against its attacks 
 is hand picking. 
 
 A very closely allied species or variety, the D. juncta Ger- 
 mar (Fig. 506 1 ), may be easily confounded with the other spe- 
 cies, but differs, according to Walsh, in the head 
 of the larva being paler, while in the beetle the third 
 and fourth stripe from the outside are united, where 
 they are distinct in the D. 10-lineata, and the legs 
 are entirely pale yellow, with a dark spot on the 
 femora. It feeds on the wild potato, not eating Fi s- 506 2 . 
 the cultivated species, and has always been an inhabitant of the 
 Western and Southern States. 
 
 Ohrysomela is an oval oblong genus, and its ally, Calligrapha, 
 is very convex, hemispherical ; the species are gaily spotted and 
 banded ; Cattigrapha scalaris Lee. is abundant on the alder. 
 The larvae (Fig. 506 2 , larva of C. Philadelphia Linn.) are 
 thick and fleshy, with a row of black spiracles along the side 
 of the body, and a dark prothoracic shield. 
 
 Eumolpus auratus Fabr. is a shining, rich golden green bee- 
 tle, found on the dog's-bane. 
 
 Chlamys is a little oblong, cubical, roughly shagreened, 
 
510 COLEOPTEKA. 
 
 metallic greenish beetle, found in abundance on leaves south- 
 ward. The larva of Chlamys plicata Olivier, according to 
 Mr. S. H. Scudder, who has reared it from the sweet-fern, is a 
 sac bearer, drawing after it a rounded, flask-shaped, blackish 
 sac, within which it withdraws when disturbed. Larvae appar- 
 ently belonging to this species were found by Mr. Emerton on 
 grass in pastures in July. They are interesting as being true 
 sac-bearers, recalling Psyche helix and other sac-bearing moths, 
 and the Phryganeids. Fig. 507 represents the larva in the act 
 of walking, the head and thoracic segments protruding from 
 the case. The case is a quarter of an inch long and one-half 
 as thick, being oval cylindrical. It is 
 black and appears to be formed of 
 little pellets of vegetable matter 
 chewed by the larva and applied to the 
 Fig. 507. edge, with a seam along the middle of 
 
 the under side, which readily spreads open when the sac is 
 pressed. The case is a little contracted before the mouth, 
 where the pellets are a little larger than elsewhere. The larva 
 is of the form of those of others of the family, but the body is 
 slenderer in front of the abdomen, and the legs are longer 
 than usual. The abdomen is suddenly thickened and curved 
 at right angles, the tip being rather pointed. The body is 
 white, with a brown-black head and dark brown legs, and a 
 prothoracic corneous piece, with a corneous piece at the inser- 
 tion of each leg. It is, in its natural curved posture, .25 of 
 an inch long. In the Museum of the Peabody Academy are 
 several minute chalcid parasites reared from C. plicata. 
 
 Cryptocephalus is a short, cylindrical genus, numbering nearly 
 800 species. 
 
 EROTYLID^E Westwood. This family is very largely devel- 
 oped in tropical America, and is known by the large, flattened 
 antennal club, which consists of three joints. Most of them 
 are supposed to be leaf insects, while the more northern spe- 
 cies live in fungi. 
 
 ENDOMYCHID^: Leach. In this small group are genera whose 
 bodies are oval, with antennae longer than the head, which with 
 
COCCINELLIDJE. 511 
 
 the -trapeziform prothorax, distinguish them from the allied 
 families. An interesting form from New Hampshire, the Phy- 
 maphora pulcliella of Newman (Fig. 508), is described by 
 Harris (Correspondence, p. 256) as being rust-red, with paler 
 feet and antennae, the head being black ; there is a broad 
 
 black band across the middle of the elytra, and 
 
 the tips are black. 
 
 COCCINELLID^: Latreille. The characteristic form 
 Fig. SOB. of the " Lady-birds" is well known. They are 
 hemispherical, generally red or yellow, with round or 
 lunate black spots. The species are difficult to dis- 
 criminate, and number upwards of 1,000. Some in- 
 dividuals belonging to different species have been 
 known to unite sexually, but producing sterile eggs. Fi s- 509 - 
 The yellow long oval eggs are laid in patches, often in a group 
 of plant-lice, which the larvae greedily devour. They are rather 
 long, oval, soft-bodied, pointed behind, with the prothorax 
 larger than the other rings, often gaily colored and beset with 
 tubercles or spines, and when about to turn to a pupa, the larva 
 attaches itself by the end of the body to a 
 leaf, and either throws off the larva skin, 
 which remains around its tail, or the old 
 dried skin is retained, loosely folded about 
 the pupa as a protection, thus simulating the 
 coarctate pupa of the flies. The Spotted Fi s- 51 - 
 
 Hippodamia, H. maculata DeGeer (Fig. 509) is pale red, with 
 thirteen black spots on the body, and is quite common, while 
 the H. convergens Guerin (Fig. 510, with larva and pupa) is 
 common southwards. In Coccinella the body is smooth, hemi- 
 spherical, with the hind angle of the prothorax acute. 
 
 The eggs of the common Two- spotted Coccinella, C. bipunc- 
 tata Linn., are laid in May on the bark of trees, and those 
 of another brood are laid in June and hatched July 1st. They 
 are oval, cylindrical, orange yellow, and are attached in a bunch 
 of about twenty-five, by one end to the bark. They hatch 
 out when the leaves and their natural article of diet, the Aphis, 
 appear, a*nd may be found running about over the leaves of 
 various garden shrubs and trees. The body is black with flat- 
 
512 COLEOPTERA. 
 
 tened tubercles spinulated above ; on each side of the first 
 abdominal segment is a yellowish spot, and there is a broad 
 yellowish spot in the middle of the fourth segment, and one 
 on each side. On June 28th we found several fully grown 
 larvae a quarter of an inch long, transforming into pupae, 
 with a freshly transformed beetle. The larva begins the opera- 
 tion by attaching very firmly, with a sort of silky gum, its tail 
 to the leaf, the point of attachment not being the extreme tip, 
 but just before it, where the tip of the abdomen of the pupa is 
 situated. Meanwhile the body contracts in length and widens, 
 the head is bent upon the breast, and in about twenty-four 
 hours the skin splits open and discloses the pupa. The body 
 
 Vof the pupa is black ; the head is also black, and 
 the prothorax is black and yellowish pink, with 
 a black dot on each side, and a smaller black 
 dot on each edge ; the mesothorax, wing-covers, 
 scutellum and legs, are shining black. The ab- 
 dominal rings are pale flesh-colored, with two 
 rig. 511. rows O f i ar ge black spots on each side, the spots 
 being transverse ; the terga of the fourth to the seventh seg- 
 ments are separated, the body being arched and leaving 
 a deep furrow between. The beetle is orange yellow, 
 with a black head and prothorax ; the side of the pro- 
 thorax is whitish, with a central diamond-shaped white Fig - 512t 
 spot, and behind it a much longer whitish spot. The beetle 
 derives its specific name from the two black dots on the elytra. 
 It hibernates, and might be used to clear house-plants of plant- 
 lice. The Nine-spotted Coccinella, (7. novemnotata Herbst 
 (Fig. 511, and pupa), and the Three-banded Coccinella, <7. tri~ 
 fasdata Linn. (Fig. 512), are also not uncommon species. 
 
 The Fifteen-spotted Lady-bird, Mysia 15-punctata Olivier, 
 is black on the head and prothorax, with seven black spots on 
 the brownish red elytra, and a black spot on the scutellum ; it 
 is seven-twentieths of an inch in length. The larva closely re- 
 sembles that of Coccinella, but along the body are six rows of 
 stout spinulated spines ; the upper surface of the body is black, 
 with a pale spot on the hinder edge of the prothoracic ring ; 
 the body is pale beneath. It is half an inch long. The pupa 
 is pale, not black like that of the Coccinellse known to us, and 
 
COCCINELLID^E. 513 
 
 is sixteen-spotted, with three additional rows of dark spots 
 on the abdomen. The body is broad and flat, with a row of 
 three spines on each side of the abdomen, and is .40 of an 
 inch long. 
 
 In Chilocorus the margin of the elytra is dilated, and the 
 lunate prothorax is rounded behind. C. bivulnerulus Mulsant 
 (Fig. 513) is black, with two yellow spots. 
 
 The genus Scymnus is hemispherical, pubescent, with short, 
 abruptly clavate antennae. I have received from 
 Dr. H. Shimer the larva and adult of Scymnus cer- 
 vicalis Muls. which he found in the holes of insects 
 boring in the Prickly-ash. The body is subcylin- 
 drical, pale whitish, much longer and slenderer and Fi - 513t 
 narrower than in Coccinella, with a small black round head ; the 
 legs are long and slender, more so than in Coccinella. The 
 rings are rather convex, not tuberculated above, 
 though provided with a few hairs. It is .12 of an inch 
 long. The beetle is reddish brown, with very dark 
 Fig. 514. p russ ian blue elytra, and is .10 of an inch long. 
 
 Epilaclma borealis Thunberg (Fig. 514) is yellowish, with 
 seven large black patches on each elytron. "The larvae, 
 according to Osten Sacken, are common on the leaves of the 
 pumpkin. -It is yellow, with long, brown, branched spines, 
 arranged in rows of six on each segment, except the first tho- 
 racic segment, which has only four. The pupa instead of 
 spines has short bristles, especially on the thorax." 
 
 Fig. 515. 
 The Pea Weevil (enlarged), 
 
 83 
 
514 HEMIPTERA. 
 
 In the remaining suborders, the metamorphosis is, with the 
 exception of most of the Neuroptera, generally "incomplete," 
 the active larva and pupa closely resembling the adult, and 
 often scarcely distinguishable from it except in being wingless. 
 This similarity of the adult condition to the larval and pupal 
 forms, as well as the equality in size of the different segments 
 of the body, the aquatic habits of many of the species, and 
 the numerous genuine parasites found among them, are indica- 
 tive of their low rank. 
 
 HEMIPTERA. 
 
 THIS suborder, including the true "bugs," plant-lice, bed- 
 bug and body-lice, may be briefly characterized by the beak- x 
 like sucking jnouth-ff art s , composed of the mandibles and 
 maxillae, which are ensheathed by the large expanded labium, 
 while the labrum is small and short ; by the free, large protho- 
 rax, the usually angular short body, and the iiTegUlarly~Temed 
 wings, the veins being but few in number, while the fore wings 
 are often half cor4aceous and opake. The metamorphosis is 
 incomplete. There are many wingless parasitic forms, and 
 many aquatic species. 
 
 The triangular head is nearly always sunken into the pro- 
 thorax, and is small in proportion to the rest of the body ; the 
 eyes are small, nearly globular and very prominent, and 
 the three ocelli are set far back, while the short, bristle-like, or 
 filiform antennae, composed of from five to nine joints, are in- 
 serted below and far in advance of the eyes, so that the front 
 is broad and flat. The parts of the mouth form a four-jointed 
 solid hard beak. The mandibles and maxillae are long and 
 style-like, the latter without palpi; they are ensheathed at 
 their base by the canaliculate labium, which has obsolete 
 palpi, while the lingua is short, but slightly developed, its 
 function of tasting the food, owing to the peculiar habits of 
 the suborder, being thrown into disuse. The labrum is well 
 developed, being generally acutely triangular. The thorax is 
 constructed on the coleopterous type, the prothorax being 
 broad above, and the wings, when folded, concealing the rest 
 
HEMIPTEKA. 515 
 
 of the body, while the side pieces (the epimera and episterna) 
 are large and of much the same form as in the Coleoptera, and 
 the legs are situated close together, with coxae and trochanters 
 very similar to those of the Coleoptera. The body is usually 
 very flat above, or, in the more or less cylindrical species, 
 somewhat broad and flat. The body is less concentrated 
 headwards than in the Coleoptera, though much more so than 
 in the Orthoptera, and in this respect, as well as in other 
 essential characters, the group is intermediate between these 
 two suborders. Both pairs of wings are very equal in size 
 and alike in shape, except in the higher families where they 
 are very unequal, the hinder pair being very small. They are 
 generally very regularly ovate in shape, the costal edge being 
 much curved and rounded towards the obtusely rounded apex ; 
 the outer edge is long and very oblique, and the inner edge 
 short, though often longer than the outer edge in the lower 
 families. The type of venation is rather peculiar in this sub- 
 order, as the costal veins are large and stout, while, as seen in 
 the wings of Aphis, the median veins are sent out from the 
 costa ; indeed there is no central powerful vein in the middle 
 of the wing ; in other words the wing is scarcely differentiated 
 into its three special regions, so well seen in the Hymenoptera 
 and Lepidoptera, and especially the Orthoptera. The surface 
 is net-veined rather than parallel-veined, but there are few 
 veinlets, and the interspaces are large and few in number, 
 and in this respect most Hemiptera show their superiority 
 to the Orthoptera and Neuroptera. In the lower section of 
 the suborder, the Heteropterous Hemiptera, the thickening of 
 the basal half of the wing tends to obliterate all traces of the 
 veins, and especially the veinlets. 
 
 The legs are slender, and often very long, owing to the great 
 length of the femora and tibiae, while the tarsi, like those of 
 the lowest Coleoptera, are two or three-jointed. 
 
 The abdomen has six to nine segments apparent, though 
 the typical number is eleven, according to Lacaze-Duthiers. 
 The stigmata are very distinct, being often raised on a tubercle. 
 On the basal ring of the abdomen are two cavities in which 
 are sometimes seated vocal organs, as in the male Cicada, and 
 in the metathorax of some species are glands for secreting a 
 
516 HEMIPTERA. 
 
 foul odorous fluid. Lacaze-Duthiers has given a sectional view 
 of Ranatra (Fig. 516 ; v, dorsal vessel ; i, intestine ; N, ner- 
 vous cord) which shows the relation of the elements of an 
 abdominal segment. T, is the tergum ; EM, the epimerum ; 
 ES, the episternum, and s, the sternum. 
 
 The ovipositor and the genital armature are generally con- 
 cealed within the tip of the abdomen, being rarely exserted so 
 as to form a prominent part of the body. It differs greatly in 
 its development, and is difficult to reduce to a common, type. 
 Lacaze-Duthiers states that we may consider the abdomen of 
 the Hemiptera as consisting of ten or eleven segments, accord- 
 ing as we consider the horny ring, lying between the abdomen 
 and thorax as the basal ring of the abdomen, or not. He re- 
 gards the former view as the true one. This author contends 
 that in Ploa the tergum of the first and second abdominal 
 v segments (proto and dentotergites) are coal- 
 < esced, and that the original sutures are marked 
 by simple striae, while at the opposite end of 
 the abdomen the genital and anal outlets are 
 separated by three rings, i.e., the eighth, 
 ninth and tenth. 
 
 In the Cicadidce and Phytocoris the ovipositor is per- 
 fect and much as described in the Hymenoptera. In the 
 Fulgoridce, Naucoris, Ploa and Notonecta, the eighth 
 segment is complete, while the ovipositor is more or less in- 
 complete, and it often happens that a reunion of secondary 
 pieces represents a principal piece, and that the elements of 
 the two postgenital rings are articulated together by overlap- 
 ping each other. 
 
 In Ranatra, Nepa and Gerris is a third modification of the 
 ovipositor, where the postgenital segment is incomplete, and 
 the sternal appendages and sternum of the segment bearing 
 the ovipositor only remain, the other parts being aborted. In 
 the Pentatomids and Cimex there is no ovipositor, but the 
 aborted elements are more or less developed, so as to be 
 identifiable. 
 
 The nervous system consists, besides those of the head, of 
 two thoracic ganglia, of which the anterior is the smaller, which 
 send off two main trunks to the abdomen. 
 
HEMIPTEKA. 517 
 
 The oesophagus is usjaally small and short, while the much 
 convoluted stomach is very long and subdivided, first into a 
 large, straight, glandular portion ; second, into the convoluted 
 smaller part, and third, in some Pentatomids and Coreidce 
 there is a third stomach "consisting of a very narrow, slightly 
 flexuous canal, on which are inserted two or four rows of 
 closely aggregated glandular tubes." (Siebold.) The Cicad- 
 idce, and most Heteropterous Hemiptera, have very large lobu- 
 lated salivary glands, divided into two unequal portions, and 
 often with long digitiform processes. 
 
 In the aquatic species of the Naucoridce and Nepidce 
 there are only two stigmata at the end of the abdomen. In 
 Nepa and Ranatra the stigmata are situated at the base of a 
 long tube. There are four long urinary tubes. The ovaries 
 are formed of from four to eight tubes arranged in a verti- 
 cillate manner about the end of the short oviduct. In the 
 Psyllidce and Cicadidce, however, they are composed, in 
 the first family, of from ten to thirty unilocular tubes, and in 
 the second, of from twenty to seventy bilocular tubes. The 
 receptaculum seminis consists of one or two small caeca, and the 
 Cicadidce are the only Hemiptera which have a copulatory 
 pouch, this consisting of a pyriform vesicle. "The viviparous 
 Aphidce differ from those which are oviparous, in that their 
 eight ovarian tubes are multilocular and their oviducts entirely 
 without appendages, while with the second, or oviparous, these 
 eight tubes are unilocular, and there is a seminal receptacle 
 and two sebaceous glands." (Siebold.) The testes vary 
 greatly in number and form, consisting of from one to five 
 tubuliform or rounded glands. 
 
 The active larvae of the Hemiptera, like those of the Orthop. 
 tera, resemble closely the imago, differing mainly in possessing 
 the rudiments of wings, which are acquired after the first 
 moulting. After two or more changes of skin they pass into 
 the pupa state, which differs mainly from that of the larva in 
 having larger wing-pads. While the development of the imago 
 ordinarily occupies the summer months, in the Aphides it 
 takes but a comparatively few days, but in the Seventeen-year 
 Locust as many years as its name indicates. An exception 
 to this mode of development is seen in the larva of the male 
 
518 HEMIPTERA. 
 
 Coccus, which, as in the higher suborders, spins a silken co- 
 coon, and changes into an inactive pupa. 
 
 Apterous individuals, especially females, sometimes occur, 
 especially in the aquatic Hydrometra, Yelia and Limnobates, 
 and in many other genera the hind pair of wings are often 
 absent. 
 
 The embryological development of such Hemiptera as have 
 been observed (Hydrometra, Corixa, Aphidce, Cocci dm, 
 Pediculina and Ma llopliaga) corresponds very closely with 
 that of certain Neuroptera (Libellulidce and Hemerobidce. 
 
 There are about 12,000 species living and fossil. Some 
 species are of great size, especially the Hydrocores, a division 
 containing the aquatic genera, Yelia, Nepa, Belostoma and 
 Notonecta, and which first appeared in the Jurassic formation. 
 
 Latreille divided the Hemiptera into the Heteroptera and 
 Homoptera. The latter are the higher in rank, as the body is 
 more cephalized, the parts of the body more specialized, and 
 in the Aphid ce, which top the series, we have a greater sex- 
 ual differentiation, the females being both sexual and asexual, 
 the latter by a budding process, and without the interposition 
 of the male producing immense numbers of young, which feed 
 in colonies. The species are smaller than in the Heteroptera, 
 and are all terrestrial. The Heteropterous Hemiptera, on the 
 other hand, are larger, the body is less compactly put together, 
 the abdomen and thorax are elongated, the head is small com- 
 pared with the rest of the body, and the species are large, 
 some of great size (a sign of degradation among insects) , and 
 several families are aquatic, indicating a lower grade of devel- 
 opment, while representatives of these were the first of the 
 suborder to appear in geological times. Their affinities are 
 with the Orthoptera and Neuroptera, while the Aphid OB and 
 Homoptera generally, on the other hand, whose bodies are 
 more cylindrical, ally themselves with the first and higher se- 
 ries of suborders. 
 
 In the Homopterous Hemiptera the fore pair of wings are 
 generally transparent and usually net-veined, lying with the 
 hind pair, which are considerably smaller, roof-like upon the 
 body, and the head is held vertically, where in most Heterop- 
 tera it is horizontal and flattened. 
 
APHID^E. 519 
 
 APHID^E Latreille. The Plant-lice have antennae with from 
 five to seven joints, and generally longer than the body. The 
 ocelli are wanting, and the beak is three-jointed and developed 
 in both sexes. The legs are long and slender, with two-jointed 
 tarsi. The males and females are winged, and also the last 
 brood of asexual individuals, but the early summer broods 
 are wingless. Their bodies are flask-shaped, being cylind- 
 rical, the abdomen thick and rounded, and in Aphis and 
 Lachnus is provided with two tubes on the sixth segment for 
 the passage of a sweet fluid secreted from the stomach. The 
 wings are not net-veined, having few veins, which pass out- 
 wards from the costa. They are usually green in color, with 
 a soft powdery bloom which exudes from their bodies. 
 
 Bonnet first discovered that the summer brood of wingless 
 individuals were born of virgin parents, hatched from eggs 
 laid in the autumn, and that the true winged sexes composed 
 the last generation, which united sexually, and that the female 
 laid eggs in the autumn which produced the spring brood of 
 asexual wingless individuals. 
 
 Dr. W. I. Burnett gives the following brief summary of the 
 mode of development in this group. In the early autumn 
 the colonies of plant-lice are composed of both male and 
 female individuals ; these pair, the males then die, and the 
 females begin to deposit their eggs, after which they die also. 
 Early in the spring, as soon as the sap begins to flow, these 
 eggs are hatched, and the young lice immediately begin to 
 pump up sap from the tender leaves and shoots, increase rap- 
 idly in size, and in a short time come to maturity. In this 
 state it is found that the whole brood, without a single excep- 
 tion, consists solely of females, or rather, and more properly, 
 of individuals which are capable of reproducing their kind. 
 This reproduction takes place by a viviparous generation, there 
 being found in the individuals in question, young lice, which, 
 when capable of entering upon individual life, escape from 
 their progenitors, and form a new and greatly increased col- 
 ony. This second generation pursues the same course as the 
 first, the individuals of which it is composed being, like those 
 of the first, sexless, or at least without any trace of the male 
 sex throughout. These same conditions are then repeated, and 
 
520 
 
 HEMIPTERA. 
 
 so on almost indefinitely, experiments having shown that the 
 power of reproduction under such circumstances may be exer- 
 cised, according to Bonnet, at least through nine generations, 
 while Duval obtained thus eleven generations in seven months, 
 his generations being curtailed at this stage not by a failure 
 of the reproductive power but by the approach of winter, 
 which killed his specimens ; and Kyber even observed that a 
 colony of Aphis dianthi, which had been brought into a con- 
 stantly heated room, continued to propagate for four years in 
 this manner, without the intervention of males, and even in this 
 instance it remains to be proved how much longer these phe- 
 nomena might have 
 been continued." Dr. 
 Burnett, from whom 
 we quote, considers 
 this anomalous mode 
 of increase of indi- 
 viduals as a process 
 of budding, and that 
 the whole series, like 
 the leaves of a tree, 
 constitutes but a sin- 
 gle generation, which 
 results from the union 
 of the sexes in the 
 previous fall. It has 
 517 - always been sup- 
 
 posed that the final autumnal set of individuals were males 
 and females alone. But Dr. Burnett states: "The terminal 
 brood has hitherto been considered, as far as I am aware, to be 
 composed exclusively of males and females, or, in other words, 
 of perfect insects of both sexes. I was surprised, therefore, on 
 examining the internal organs of the non-winged individuals, 
 to find that many of these last were not females proper, but 
 simply the ordinary gemmiparous form. Moreover so great 
 was the similarity of appearance between these two forms 
 true females and gemmiparous individuals that they could 
 be distinguished only by an examination of their internal 
 genitalia." 
 
APHIDES. 521 
 
 MM. Balbiani and Signoret have discovered that the com- 
 mon European Aphis aceris produces, besides young of the 
 normal form, a singular dimorphous form (Fig. 517), first de- 
 scribed in 1852 by Mr. J. Thornton, under the name of Phyl- 
 lophorus testudinatus, and afterwards called Peripliyllus testudo 
 by M. Van der Hoeven. The chief characteristic of this re- 
 markable form, which is flattened, scale-like, is the series of 
 leaf-like scales surrounding the body and bordering the appen- 
 dages, while the upper side of the abdomen is covered with 
 hexagonal figures. The generative apparatus is also very ru- 
 dimentary. It does not produce young, and the insects them- 
 selves do not increase in size after birth, being scarcely one 
 millimetre in length. "They undergo no change of skin, 
 never acquire wings like the reproductive individuals, and their 
 antennae always retain the 
 five joints which they pre- 
 sent in all young Aphides 
 before the first moult." 
 (Science Gossip, 1867, p. 
 204.) 
 
 Aphides are found upon 
 every part of plants. 
 Some species which are Fig. 518. 
 
 wingless, are found on the roots of plants, others on the stems 
 of twigs, others roll up leaves, or form gall-like swellings on 
 leaves ; the grain Aphis sucks the sap of the kernel. Ants are 
 fond of the sweet excretions from the abdominal tubes, and 
 often keep them captive in their nests like herds of cattle. 
 Syrphus flies, Coccinellse, etc., keep them within proper limits 
 in nature. Various species of Aphidius kill larger numbers 
 than we imagine. "When an Aphis has received an egg from 
 one of these parasites it quits its companions and fastens itself 
 by its ungues to the under side of a leaf, when it swells into a 
 globular form, its skin stretched out and dried up, and in a 
 short time the perfect parasite escapes by a circular hole, the 
 mouth of which sometimes remains like a trap door." In 
 the Museum of the Peabody Academy is an apple twig almost 
 covered with dead Aphides, each perforated by a hole from 
 which an Aphidius had escaped. 
 
522 HEMIPTERA. 
 
 In Aphis the seven-jointed antennae are longer than the body, 
 the two basal joints short and thick, the seventh the longest, 
 and near the end of the abdomen there are two long honey 
 tubes. Aphis avence Fabr. is abundant and very injurious to 
 the ears of wheat, sucking out the sap and greatly reducing the 
 bulk of the corn. In certain years it has spread over the 
 country in immense numbers. Aphis mail Fabr. (Fig. 518, 
 winged female; Fig. 519, asexual female), and A. malifolice 
 Fitch are found on the apple ; A. cerasi Fabr. on the cherry ; 
 A. persicce Sulzer on the peach, and A. brassicce Linn, on the 
 cabbage. There are about thirty species known in this 
 country. 
 
 In Laclinus the sixth joint of the antennae is shorter than 
 the seventh, and the honey tubes are very short. Laclinus 
 strobi is found on the white pine bushes often in great numbers. 
 Jjachnus caryce Harris is a very large species 
 which lives on the Hickory. Mr. Walsh states 
 that he has "noticed in the autumn, numerous 
 apterous females on the same tree, which lived 
 Fig. 519. many daj r s and laid their eggs in confinement, 
 but died without assuming wings." The genus Eriosoma differs 
 in having no honey tubes, and in having only two median (dis- 
 coidal) cells. The species are covered with a woolly flocculent 
 substance, secreted from the abdomen, though no special 
 glands for this purpose have yet been discovered, while but lit- 
 tle "honey" is exuded from the orifices of the aborted honey- 
 tubes. Eriosoma lanigera Hausmann, the Apple -blight, is 
 black, with the abdomen honey yellow. The eggs are laid in 
 the axils of the branches, especially near the roots of the tree, 
 if there are any suckers present, and are enveloped in the pow- 
 dery substance of the abdomen of the female. By their stings 
 in the bark numerous warts and excresences are produced, 
 the leaves turn yellow and drop off, and the tree often dies. 
 Professor Verrill has found, about the middle of October, 
 among the wingless individuals, " a large number of both males 
 and females having well formed and rather large wings, but in 
 other respects closely resembling the rest." 
 
 The genus Adelges was proposed by Vallot for certain broad, 
 flattened plant-lice, which attack coniferous trees > often raising 
 
APHID^E. 523 
 
 swellings on twigs like pine and spruce cones. The antennae 
 are short, five-jointed and slender; there are three straight 
 veinlets arising from the main subcostal vein and directed out- 
 wards, and there are no honey tubes ; otherwise these insects 
 closely resemble the Aphides. A species (Fig. 520 ; a, pupa 
 seen from beneath) closely related to the European Adelges 
 (Chermes) cocdneus of Ratzburg, and the A. strobilobius of 
 Kaltenbach, which have similar habits, we have found in abun- 
 dance on the spruce in Maine, where it produces swellings at 
 the end of the twigs, 
 resembling in size 
 and form the cones 
 of the same tree. 
 
 Under the name 
 of Hormaphis Osten 
 Sacken describes 
 Horm. hamamelidis a Fi s- 52 - 
 
 (Fig. 521, wings), which inhabits " obliquely conical or horn- 
 like galls on the upper side of the leaf of Hamamelis Virgin- 
 ica, the Witch Hazel, opening on the under side of the leaf." 
 In this genus the "wings are laid flat on the back in repose, 
 extending much beyond the body," while the honey tubes are 
 either small or obsolete, and the antennae are short, being from 
 three to five-jointed. (Shinier) 
 
 The genus Thelaxes differs in the wings being folded flat 
 on the back, and there are but two veins in the hind wings, 
 one subcostal, the other median. Thelaxes ulmicola Walsh 
 inhabits galls on the leaves of the elm. Mr. 
 Walsh states that the winged females are black 
 and more or less pruinose. In Byrsocrypta the 
 wings are steeply roofed, according to Walsh, 
 and in the six-jointed antennae "the sixth Fig. 521. 
 joint is nearly as long as the fourth and fifth together." This 
 genus also consists of several gall-inhabiting species. In the 
 species of Pemphigus, which produce gall-like excresences on 
 plants, the fourth to the sixth antennal joints are nearly equal 
 in length, and, as in Byrsocrypta, there are two median veins, 
 the third vein of the wing being simple, while in Eriosoma it is 
 forked. Mr. Walsh has "ascertained from repeated observa- 
 
524 
 
 HEMIPTERA, 
 
 tions the very curious fact, that the ants fetch the larvae of 
 Pemphigus formicetorum Walsh home to their nests from the 
 roots on which they feed, and place them in little clusters of 
 fifty or sixty individuals, where they soon elaborate such a 
 dense mass of white cottony matter as to entirely conceal 
 them." (Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Phila- 
 delphia, i, p. 307.) 
 
 Pemphigus formicarius is attended by Formica aphidicola. 
 Mr. Walsh, who describes it, states that u two kinds of larvae 
 
 occurred in company ; the 
 first, when recent, scarcely 
 twice as long as wide and 
 whitish ; the second, when 
 
 , j-^- recent, three times as long 
 
 Fig. 522. as wide and cinereous. From 
 
 the latter I bred five winged individuals." 
 
 Another species, the Vagabond Pemphigus, P. vagabundus 
 Walsh (Fig. 522), so-called from its habit of wandering to 
 very great distances in its native forests, raises large galls 
 (Fig. 523) on the tops of the cotton-wood and balsam pop- 
 lars ; and the "old blackened galls hang on to the twigs for 
 several seasons, giving the tree a singular appearance when 
 
 the leaves are 
 off in the winter 
 time." A sin- 
 gle female be- 
 gins the gall, 
 whose young 
 soon multiply, 
 leaving the gall 
 in September. 
 Mr. Walsh has 
 also described 
 Fig. 523. the Sumac gall 
 
 (Fig. 524) caused by a smaller species, the Pemphigus rhois of 
 Fitch, and also the Cockscomb-elm gall (Fig. 525) made by 
 the P. ulmicola of Fitch, which infests young white elm trees, 
 often densely covering the leaves. "By the end of June or 
 the beginning of July, the gall becomes full of winged plant- 
 
525 
 
 lice, when the slit on the upper side of the leaf, through which 
 the mother plant-louse built up the gall early in the spring, 
 gapes open and allows 
 the insects to escape 
 into the open air." 
 (American Entomolo- 
 gist, p. 108.) 
 
 The Editors of the 
 "American Entomolo- 
 gist" describe and fig- 
 ure the Apple root 
 plant-louse, Eriosoma 
 (Pemphigus) pyri of 
 Fitch (Fig. 526 ; a, the 
 gall ; 5, larva ; c, fe- 
 male ; d, leg ; e, beak ; 
 
 /, antenna of female ; Fig. 52 1. 
 
 #, of larva), which occurs sometimes in great abundance, form- 
 ing, in October, galls like potatoes, and two to three inches in 
 diameter, on the roots of apple trees, just beneath the surface 
 of the ground. 
 
 The European 
 Chermes (Pemphi- 
 gus) abietis has two 
 sorts of females, 
 and is parthenogen- 
 ous, according to 
 Leuckart. 
 
 Fig. 525. 
 
 Fallen. 
 The Bark-lice have 
 six or. more joints 
 to the antennae ; the 
 
 tarsi are two-jointed, the beak wanting in the males, in which 
 the hind wings are usually wanting, while the scales made by 
 the females are usually flattened, scale-like, or rounded hemi- 
 spherical. The wingless, scale-like, adult females, by a retro- 
 grade development, in which the legs and rings of the body 
 become aborted, remind us of the Barnacles and allies among 
 
526 
 
 HEMIPTERA. 
 
 Oustacea, and like them, they can scarcely be referred to the 
 type of Articulates at all, while other forms, such as C. cacti 
 in its larval state, resemble Glomeris, or the Isopods, among 
 Crustacea. On the other hand the males have been mistaken 
 for some Neuroptera, and the male Coccus, with its long anal 
 stylets and the single pair of fore wings, may be likened to 
 an Ephemera. The genera Aspidiotus and Lecanium are par- 
 thenogenous, as in the Aphid ce . 
 
 In Aleurodes both sexes are winged and of similar form, the 
 antennae are six-jointed, with the second joint lengthened, and 
 
 in the fore wings, 
 which are spread out 
 as in Lepidoptera, 
 there is but a single 
 vein, the median. We 
 have received from 
 Mr. J. L: Russell 
 specimens of A. va- 
 c ^^ porarium which oc- 
 
 X\\ curred in great num- 
 j, X^- bers on his house- 
 
 plants and especially 
 Fig. 526. on the tomato leaves. 
 
 The winged forms appeared early in September. The larvae 
 are green and scale-like, rounded oval, and the pupae retain the 
 same form and are smooth beneath, but with minute hairs 
 above and on the edges. The adult is yellowish white, with 
 snow-white wings, and is about .04 of an inch in length. 
 The body of the imago nearly formed, 
 with black eyes, can be seen through the 
 thin pupa skin. In Dorthesia the males 
 only are provided with wings ; the an- 
 tennae are long, nine-jointed, and the 
 abdomen is oval, ending in a bushy mass 
 of threads. The genus Coccus differs in 
 that the two-winged males have ten- 
 Fig. 527. jointed antennae and two anal bristles. 
 The females have nine-jointed antennae, and are covered with a 
 flattened, hemispherical scale. The Cochineal insect, Coccus 
 
COCCID^E. 
 
 527 
 
 (Pseudococcus) cacti (Fig. 527, male, with wingless female, 
 natural size and enlarged) secretes masses of Cochineal from 
 its body. The males are carmine red, with light brown wings, 
 and the anal setae, or bristles, are two and one-half times 
 longer than the body, which is three-fourths of a line long, 
 while the female is one line in length, rounded in form, 
 and covered with a heavy bloom. It lives in Mexico on the 
 Cactus coccinellifer, and has been introduced into Spain and 
 Algiers and the Madeira islands. Coccus manniparus of 
 Ehrenberg is found at Sanai 
 growing on the Tamarix, and pro- 
 duces by its attacks the gum-like 
 secretion called "manna." Coc- 
 cus lacca Kerr lives in the East 
 Indies on the Ficus religiosa, and 
 produces the lac of commerce. 
 When found on the twigs it is 
 called stick lac, but after it has been pounded, and the 
 greater part of the coloring matter extracted by water, it is 
 called seed lac ; when melted clown into cakes after it has 
 been strained and formed into thin scales, lump lac and shell 
 lac. 
 
 Mr. Glover has figured three species of Aspidiotus found by 
 him living on the orange in Florida, and all seem to be new to 
 science. The first we may call Aspidiotus Gloverii (Fig. 528, a, 
 male ; 5, female ; d, linear scale, enlarged) which differs from 
 the others by not having, according to Glover's drawing, the 
 usual pair of caudal filaments. It occurs on the bark and 
 leaves, especially on the outer edge, and 
 along the midrib. Another species is 
 represented at Fig. 528, c. The third 
 species may be called the Aspidiotus 
 citricola, which has been very injurious 
 to the orange in the Maritime Alps in 
 Northern Italy. It has, besides a linear 
 scale like that represented in Fig. 528, 
 529, a, male; 6, female, enlarged; c, oval scale), and the 
 female has two long caudal filaments. The hymenopterous 
 parasite, Coccophagus, preys on this genus. 
 
 Pig. 529. 
 an oval scale 
 
 (Fig. 
 
528 
 
 HEMIPTERA. 
 
 Other bark- lice belonging to another genus, Lecanium, are 
 found in hot-houses ; they differ from the preceding in being 
 flat, scale-like, without any traces of rings, and have eight- 
 jointed antennae, while the males have nine joints to the an- 
 tennae, and are two-winged. L. hesperidum Linn, is found on 
 the orange. 
 
 The Editors of the American Entomologist (p. 14) describe 
 the Lecanium Maclurce (Fig. 530, b) which lives on the twigs 
 and leaves of the Osage orange. ' ' The dark part is the scale 
 covering the insect, and this scale, as usual in the genus to 
 which the insect belongs, is of a blood brown color. The pale 
 part is snowy white, and is composed of a fine cottony down 
 enveloping the eggs and young larvae." A similar species, L. 
 
 acericola (Fig. 
 530, a) "infests 
 the bark as well 
 as leaves of the 
 common maple." 
 The common 
 bark-louse of the 
 Apple tree be- 
 longs to the genus 
 Aspidiotus (A. 
 conchiformis) and 
 does more injury 
 to that tree than 
 any other insect 
 known. It is also 
 found on the cur- 
 rant, plum and 
 pear. (R i 1 e y . ) 
 The female is 
 shaped like an 
 
 Fi *- 530 - 
 
 oyster shell. There are from ten to one hundred eggs laid 
 by the female. Westwood states that the males of this genus 
 are very broad, with broad wings, and a central anal appen- 
 dage, but without the usual caudal filaments. The puparium 
 has a double shield. 
 Mr. Kiley has studied the habits of the A. conchiformis 
 
COCCIDJ3. 
 
 529 
 
 Gmelin (Figs. 531, 532) in Illinois, and states that June 6th 
 most of the eggs were hatched, though the young had not left 
 the scales ; on the 9th the weather being " exceedingly warm," 
 the young (Fig. 532, 2) were found running all over the twigs ; 
 on the llth they all became fixed, and the day after a white 
 waxy secretion began to issue from the body in the shape of 
 very fine, delicate threads (3). On the 22d they had increased 
 materially in size, the waxy secretion vanished soon 
 after tue last date, leaving what appeared to be the 
 body of a yellowish brown color, though in reality 
 the body is underneath and separate, and has lost all 
 trace of members. On the 6th of July the secretion 
 rapidly increased and assumed an oval form, and 
 the insect was of the form indicated at 5. On the 
 10th the scale presented the appearance indicated at 
 4. Two days after a third plate began to be secreted 
 from the posterior end of the insect, and enlarged \ 
 rapidly, becoming of the same color as the back. By I 
 the first of August their growth was to all appearance 
 completed, the scale measuring .12, while the insect 
 is only .05 of an inch long, thus occupying about 
 half the space within (7). On the 12th of August Fig. 531. 
 they began to lay eggs, and by the 28th all had ceased egg-lay- 
 ing, while the body shrivelled up. There is but a single brood, 
 
 Fig. 632. 
 
 the eggs laid late in summer, hatching in the following spring. 
 Thus it appears, according to Riley's observations, and as Har- 
 ris supposed, that the shell-like scale is secreted from the sur- 
 34 
 
530 HEMIPTERA. 
 
 face of the body, and is identical with the flocculent matter, or 
 down, that exudes from certain Aphides and the shell lac insect 
 and related forms. On the other hand, Dr. Shimer, who has 
 given the fullest history of this insect, and was the first to 
 make observations for the most part similar to those recorded 
 above, considers that the scale consists of the several (three) 
 cast skins of the larva, "cemented by some kind of an exuda- 
 tion to the bark." This insect can be best exterminated by 
 scraping the bark, and then washing the trees with soapsuds a 
 few days after the trees blossom, just as the young are about 
 hatching. Dr. Shimer has discovered a mite 
 (Acarus? malus Shimer) which sucks the 
 eggs in autumn. 
 
 Another species, which is native, the As- 
 pidiotus Harrisii of Walsh (Figs. 533, 534, 
 A, B, showing the two kinds of scales) dif- 
 fers in the scale being oval, "almost entirely 
 flat, and of a pure milk white color," with 
 red eggs, while those of the Oyster shell 
 bark-louse are milk white, and the larvae 
 are at first blood red. It occurs on the apple 
 and pear, and is far less injurious than the 
 other species. 
 
 Fig. 533. PSYLLID^E Latreille. These small Leaf- 
 
 hoppers are found hopping over the surface of leaves and often 
 raising galls. They are flattened and provided with short legs 
 and a broad head, and covered with a white cottony mass in 
 the larva state. In the mature insect the forked antennae are 
 eight to ten-jointed, with two slender terminal bristles forming 
 the fork. There are three remote ocelli; the beak is three- 
 jointed, reaching to the 
 middle of the chest, and 
 the epimera of the meta- 
 thorax terminate behind in 
 an acute spine on each 
 side. The limbs are short, 
 
 with thickened shanks, and two-jointed tarsi. The wings are 
 thickened and folded roof-like over the body, and the three 
 
CICADELLINA. 531 
 
 veins, costal, median and submedian, are usually each di- 
 vided but once. 
 
 The genus Psylla has the bristle-shaped antennae as long as 
 the body, and a distinct pterostigma. The species are very 
 numerous, each species of tree having its peculiar leaf-hopper, 
 but scarcely any have been yet described. Psylla pyri is 
 brownish orange, with a greenish abdomen. It is very injuri- 
 ous to the pear tree. 
 
 In Lima the antennae are shorter than the body, with a very 
 large and thick basal joint, and flattened eyes. Lima vernalis 
 Fitch is bright ferruginous ; the breast and tips of the antennae 
 are black, while the legs are pale rust-red. It is .15 of an inch 
 in length, and is found in vessels of sap of the sugar maple, 
 according to Dr. Fitch. 
 
 CICADELLINA Burmeister. The true Leaf-hoppers have a 
 broad, triangular head obtusely pointed in front, with a large 
 triangular scutellum not concealed by the wings when at rest, 
 and the ocelli are either two in number or entirely wanting. 
 The short, two-jointed antennas end in a bristle, being inserted 
 on the upper edge of the front, just before the eyes. The large 
 prothorax is broad and flattened and transversely oblong. The 
 fore wings are thickened, and the hind legs are long, being 
 fitted for leaping. 
 
 Many species inhabiting grasses, such as Helochara and 
 Aphrophora, while in the larva state suck the sap of grasses 
 and emit a great quantity of froth, or in some cases a clear 
 liquid, which in the former case envelops the body, and thus 
 conceals it from sight. It is then vulgarly called "toad's 
 spittle." In Typhlocyba, which comprises many small species, 
 there are no ocelli ; the scutellum is rounded, and the front is 
 slightly concave. The species of this and the following genera 
 by their attacks on various vines and fruit trees often kill 
 them. They are among the greatest pests of gardeners. The 
 injury is produced by their beaks in feeding, and by the ovi- 
 positor in puncturing the leaves, in which they lay their eggs. 
 
 In Erythroneura the head is crescentiform, about as broad 
 as the thorax, with the vertex rounded down to the front, with- 
 out an angular edge ; the ocelli. are situated between the vertex 
 
532 HEMIPTEKA. 
 
 and the front, and almost as near each other as the eyes, while 
 the fore wings are without closed cells in the disk. The spe- 
 cies most injurious to the grape-vine is the Erythroneura vitis 
 Harris (Fig. 535). It is pale yellow, with two red lines on 
 the head, while the hinder edge of the thorax, including the 
 scutellum, the base of the fore wings, with a broad band across 
 their middle, are scarlet, and the wings are tipped with black. 
 In Jassus the species are larger than the foregoing, with 
 stouter bodies. The head is very broad and short, concave at 
 base, and the ocelli are placed between the e} T es on the front, 
 which is broader than long, and the ovipositor is recurved. 
 Jassus irroratus Say is not uncommonly seen on herbage. 
 
 The common Heleochara communis Fitch, a grass green spe- 
 cies, is found in great abundance in damp, grassy places, in 
 company with the yellow-legged, closely allied, Auladzes mol- 
 lipes Say and the Proconia quadrivittata Say, which has the 
 vertex flattened and four scarlet stripes on the wings. In Tet- 
 tigoma the antennae are half as long as the body. T. bifida, 
 
 Say is common in 
 grass. In Cercopis the 
 prothorax is large and 
 hexagonal. 
 
 The Clastoptera pro- 
 
 ras of Fitch is a 
 
 common insect in blue- 
 berry fields and cran- 
 berry pastures. It is 
 
 short and thick, with a bright yellow head, with a black band 
 on the front margin of the vertex, and a broader one on the 
 front, and a black dot near the apex of the elytra, while the 
 legs are yellowish white, and the tarsi are black. It varies 
 greatly in its colors. In Aphrophora the head is of moderate 
 size, with two ocelli approximate on the crown of the head ; 
 the prothorax is trapezoidal and the posterior tibiaB have two 
 teeth. A. quadrinotata Say is found, on grape-vines. 
 
 FULGORID^: Leach. This family, as stated by Westwopd, is 
 at once known by having only three distinct joints in the an- 
 tennae, and the two ocelli are placed beneath the eyes. The 
 
head is very large ; the body is high and convex, often com- 
 pressed laterally. The hind legs are thickened and enlarged, 
 adapted for leaping purposes. Some of the strangest shapes 
 among insects are found in this group. This is due to the great 
 development of the forehead, or vertex of the head, which is pro- 
 longed either angularly, or into a long snout-like process, as in 
 Fulgora, while in other species it is as long as the entire body. 
 
 "The species of some genera, such as Plata Mmbata, Phenax 
 variegata, Lystra auricoma and L. lanata, emit a waxy white 
 secretion, made into a fine white wax, which is much esteemed 
 in China and the East Indies." (Westwood.) 
 
 The Lantern-fly, Fulgora, attains an immense size when 
 compared with other Hemiptera, being between two and three 
 inches long. The head is large with a prolongation much 
 longer than the head, which is said by novices and some nat- 
 uralists, though doubted by others, to be luminous at night, 
 whence its name. The Fulgora lanternaria Linn, occurs in 
 Surinam, and F. (Hotinus) candelaria Linn, is found in China. 
 Mr. Caleb Cooke of Salem, who resided several years in Zan- 
 zibar, Africa, informs me that the Lantern-fly is said by the 
 natives to be luminous. They state that the long snout lights 
 up in the night, and in describing it, say "its head is like a 
 lamp." (Keetchua Jcana-tah.) 
 
 In Flata the base of the head is concealed by the front edge 
 of the prothorax, the front of the head is long and* slender, 
 without any middle keel ; the wings are very broad and rounded. 
 
 Anotia Bonnetii Kirby is found, according to Fitch, on wil- 
 lows about the middle of September. Otiocerus Coquebertii 
 Kirby is found on beech and oak trees, and sometimes on the 
 grape-vine, according to Fitch. 
 
 The genus Delphax has a very broad front, with sharp edges 
 and a forked keel along the middle ; the antennae are two- 
 jointed, the articulations long and thickened at the end. Del- 
 phax arvensis Fitch is pale yellow, unspotted, with the elytra 
 and wings nearly pellucid. It is common in fields of wheat 
 early in June. 
 
 CICADARI^E Latreille. These interesting insects, commonly 
 called "locusts," are large and wedge-shaped, with a large 
 
534 
 
 HEMIPTERA. 
 
 broad head and prominent eyes. The males have a musical 
 apparatus beneath the wings on the basal ring of the abdomen, 
 
 which acts like a ket- 
 tle drum, producing 
 a loud, penetrating, 
 shrill sound. Cicada 
 rimosa of Say, our 
 smallest species, be- 
 gins to be heard a 
 little before the mid- 
 dle of June. The 
 C. pruinosa Say is 
 larger and appears 
 later, being an au- 
 
 ci -A ^f^ ' tumnal species. Pro- 
 
 Fig. 536. fessor A. E. Verrill 
 
 has observed this species in Norway, Me., laying its eggs in 
 the stems of Solidago or Golden-rod. It made a longitudinal 
 incision with ragged edges into the pith of the plant, then with 
 
 its oviposi- 
 tor forced its 
 eggs a little 
 distance 
 down in the 
 pith below 
 the external 
 opening ; 
 there were 
 two rows of 
 eggs suc- 
 ceeding the 
 first single 
 one, each 
 pair diverg- 
 ing o u t - 
 wards, the 
 Fig. 537. lower ends 
 
 of each pair nearly touching each other, and all placed very 
 near together. The habits of the Seventeen year locust, Cicada 
 
535 
 
 septendedm Linn. (Fig. 536, A ; #, drum ; c, d, male genital 
 hooks ; B, C. Cassinii Fisher ; #, drum ; e, /, genital hooks. 
 Fig. 537, c, with expanded wings) which does not in- 
 habit Northern New England, are well described by 
 Harris and Fitch. The young larvae feed on the roots 
 of the oak and apple, clustering upon the roots and suck- 
 ing the sap with their beak-like mouths. They live 
 seventeen years. Different broods appear in different 
 localities, so that each year they are seen in some part 
 of the country. 
 
 The Editors of the American Entomologist, p. 63, give 
 additional information regarding its habits. It appears 
 during the last half of May, and disappears about the 
 fourth of July, and the eggs hatch between the twentieth 
 of July and the first of August. The eggs (Fig. 
 537 ; d, e, enlarged) are deposited in pairs in 
 the terminal twigs of different species of decidu- 
 ous trees, especially the oak (Fig. 538, punc- 
 tured twig ; Fig. 539, a twig which has been Fi - 538 - 
 punctured and then healed over). The larvae hatch 
 out in about six weeks after they are laid, and (Fig. 
 540, newly hatched larva) drop to the ground in 
 which they live feeding on roots of trees for nearly 
 seventeen years, the pupa state (Fig. 537 ; a, 6, cast 
 pupa and skin ; c, adult) lasting but a few days. 
 When about to transform into the winged state they 
 ascend to the surface, making cylindrical burrows, 
 "firmly cemented and varnished so as to be water- 
 Fig. 539. proof." Mr. S. S. Rathvon has observed that in low 
 and wet localities the pupae extend these "galleries from four 
 to six inches above ground (Fig. 541 ; a, full view ; 6, section) 
 leaving an orifice of egress even 
 with the surface (e). In the 
 upper end of these chambers 
 (c) the pupae would be found 
 awaiting their approaching 
 time of change. They would 
 then back down to below the level of the earth, as at d, and 
 issuing forth from the orifice would attach themselves to 
 
536 
 
 HEMIPTERA. 
 
 the first object at hand, and undergo their transformations 
 in the usual manner." (American Entomologist, p. 64.) 
 
 The ovipositor of Cicada, as we have observed it in a rudi- 
 mentary state in the pupa, closely resembles that of ^Eschna 
 (Fig. 21), and essentially agrees with that of Bombus, the 
 basal pair of blades arising from the eighth segment of the ab- 
 domen, as in the humble bee, and the two succeeding pairs 
 forming the ovipositor itself (the outer pair forming a sheath) 
 arising from the ninth segment. 
 
 NOTONECTID^: Latreille. The Water Boatmen somewhat 
 resemble the Tettigonise, but their habits are aquatic ; their 
 
 hind legs are very long, 
 ciliated, and formed for 
 swimming. The body 
 is convex above, but flat 
 beneath ; the head is 
 large and nearly as wide 
 as the rest of the body, 
 with a broad and round- 
 ed front ; the antennae 
 are four-jointed, c o 11 - 
 cealed beneath the eyes, 
 and the ocelli are want- 
 ing. The different spe- 
 cies of Corixa 'are com- 
 mon in every pool. Their 
 
 motions are rapid, diving when disturbed rapidly to the bot- 
 tom and seizing hold of submerged objects. They fly well, but 
 walk with difficulty. The genus is characterized by the 
 single-jointed fore tarsi, which are flattened and strongly 
 ciliated ; the prothorax is large, covering the mesotho- 
 rax. C. interrupta Say is not uncommon in pools, a 
 In Notonecta the body is somewhat prismatic in form, 
 and hairy beneath, where in Corixa it is smooth. The 
 fore tarsi are three-jointed, and the hind legs are very 
 Fig.542. | ong> R oese i states that "the eggs (which are attached 
 to the stems and leaves of aquatic plants, and are of an oval 
 form) are hatched in fifteen days ; the young make their ap- 
 
NEPIDJE. 537 
 
 pearance at the beginning of the spring, and the parent sur- 
 vives until they have arrived at maturity." (Westwood.) The 
 recently hatched young are broad, oval and flattened. Noto- 
 necta undulata Say (Fig. 542) and N. irrorata Say are our more 
 common forms. The genus Ploa differs from the preceding, 
 in the fore wings being coriaceous, and "united together by 
 a straight suture." 
 
 Leach. These insects have very flat bodies which 
 are either oval or very long and linear. The head is sunken 
 into the thorax, with large eyes, but no ocelli. The antennae 
 are short, three or four-jointed, and concealed in a cavity under 
 the eyes ; the beak is three-jointed. The fore wings are mem- 
 branous, and the fore feet are raptorial, while the hind limbs 
 are formed for swimming. In Nepa and Ranatra the body 
 terminates in a long breathing tube, and the tracheary system 
 in these two genera is very peculiar, being very largely devel- 
 oped on the under side of the body. There is a large air- 
 bladder within the metathorax, leading from the spiracle, which 
 evidently lightens the insect during its flight. In the abdomen 
 the spiracles are only present on the third to the fifth rings ; 
 they are not, however, simple clefts in the walls of the body 
 but are closed by a sieve-like membrane, so that they perform 
 the function of tracheal gills. (Gerstaecker.) 
 
 The genus Belostoma comprises the most gigantic forms of 
 the suborder, some species being from three to four and a half 
 inches long. The body is oval, elliptical, flattened ; the eyes 
 are large and the second to the fourth antennal joints provided 
 with hook-like expansions. The fore tarsi are two-jointed, with 
 a single claw, and the hinder limbs are broad, flat, and well 
 fringed. The larvae are provided with two claws on the fore 
 tarsi. "The females of some species of Belostomse carry their 
 eggs upon their backs, arranging them in a single layer with 
 great symmetry." (Westwood.) Belostoma Haldimanum Leidy 
 is not uncommon in our waters. It is three inches and a half 
 in length, and has black patches on the under side of the body, 
 while in B. grisea Say, which is of the same size, the under 
 side is unspotted. Professor A. E. Verrill has sent me the 
 eggs and freshly hatched young of one of our New England 
 
538 
 
 HEMIPTERA. 
 
 species of Belostoma, the former of which he found in the 
 spring "under an old log just at, but above, the edge of the 
 water. On the 18th of June they hatched out a most amusing 
 flock of young bugs, nearly as large as squash bugs, and light 
 yellowish green in color, which soon changed to dark gray." 
 The young, two days old and previous to moulting, were .35 
 of an inch long. The eggs are smooth, cylindrical, .16 of an 
 inch long, and are deposited in a mass of about ninety eggs, 
 attached by the posterior end to a mass of silk-gum. They 
 partially overlap each other, and the young escape by a round 
 lid, indicated by a semicircular white line. 
 
 The genus Eanatra is remarkable for its long linear body, 
 terminating in the long respiratory tube. The prothorax is 
 
 greatly elongated, while the 
 mesoscutellum is short. "The 
 eggs of the genus Ranatra are 
 more elongated than in Nepa, 
 and are furnished above with 
 two slender setae. According to 
 Rosel, they are deposited at 
 random in tne water, but Geoffrey 
 states that they are introduced 
 into the stems of aquatic plants, 
 the elongated filaments being 
 alone exposed. Our most com- 
 mon form is Ranatra fusca Beau- 
 vois (Fig. 543). 
 
 The genus Nepa has very short 
 three-jointed antennae, the two 
 last joints being expanded later- 
 ally. The body is flat, oval, 
 with two long respiratory tubes, 
 while the thorax is trapezoidal, 
 and the mesoscutellum is very 
 large ; the thighs are dilated, 
 with a notch to receive the tibia, 
 which is curved and soldered to the tarsus. The genus is very 
 predaceous, feeding like Ranatra and others on the larvae of 
 Ephemerae. "The eggs are deposited in the water ; they are 
 
 Fig. 543. 
 
PLOTEKES. 539 
 
 oval, and surmounted by seven elongated filaments, which 
 serve, while the egg is in the oviduct, to form a kind of cup 
 for the reception of the succeeding egg, but which are recurved 
 when the egg is discharged." (Westwood. ) 
 
 GALGULID^: (Galgudini) Burmeister. This small group con- 
 sists of a few species which have the hind legs formed for 
 running. The body is short, broad, flattened, and the head is 
 broad with pedunculated eyes, and the four-jointed antennae 
 are concealed beneath the eyes, while the ocelli are present. 
 These insects are said to live on the edge of the water, "bury- 
 ing themselves in the sand, especially in the larva state." 
 The group is interesting as forming a connecting link between 
 the aquatic and terrestrial plant-eating species. 
 
 In Oalgulus the third antennal joint is small, the fourth 
 minute and rounded. G. oculatus Fabr. is uniformly brown, 
 the upper surface granulated, and beneath blackish. 
 
 PLOTERES Latreille. These insects are long, narrowing 
 alike towards both ends, being shaped like a wherry, and with 
 their long legs they course over the surface of ponds and 
 streams, moving backwards and forwards with great facility. 
 They are among the earliest spring insects. The body beneath 
 is furnished with a coating of plush, to repel the water. The 
 four-jointed antennae are long and slen- 
 der, and the fore legs are partially rap- 
 torial for seizing their prey. Wingless 
 insects (evidently mature as they are 
 found coupling) occur in this family, as 
 among the Cimicidce. Thus, there 
 are apterous forms in the genera Gerris, 
 Hydrometra and Velia, while in Pyrrlio- 
 coris apterus and Prostemma guttula 
 there are individuals partially winged, 
 
 "which no one regards otherwise than as specifically identical 
 with the full- winged specimens of the same species, . . . but 
 must be compelled to regard them as imagines with peculiar 
 characters of their own, somewhat analogous to the neuters, 
 or undeveloped females of the bee ; but yet more perfect than 
 
540 HEMIPTEKA. 
 
 that kind of imago, being capable of reproduction." (West- 
 wood.) 
 
 In Velia the triangular head is sunken in the thorax up to 
 the eyes ; the ocelli are wanting ; the thorax is large, and the 
 wings are present. 
 
 The well known genus Gerris has the ocelli present, the ab- 
 domen long and slender, while the prothorax is very large, cov- 
 ering the mesothorax. The eggs of a European species are 
 preyed upon by a species of Teleas, according to Mecznikow. 
 Gerris paludum Fabr. (Fig. 544) and G. rufoscutellattis Fabr. 
 a reddish species, are abundant on our streams. The larvae 
 are much shorter and with broader bodies than the adults. 
 1 The genus Hylobates has the first antennal joint as long as 
 the two following ones together; both ocelli and wings are 
 wanting ; the mesothorax is very large, and elongated posteri- 
 orly, and the fore legs are short, outstretched, with thickened 
 femora, while the middle pair of limbs is the longest. The 
 species are found swimming on the surface of the ocean in the 
 tropics far from.land. 
 
 REDUVIIDJE (Reduvini) Latreille. The characters of this 
 family are these : head free from the thorax, elongated, nearly 
 cylindrical, with prominent eyes and two ocelli ; the antennae 
 are of moderate length, slender towards the end, and the beak 
 is stout and incurved ; the tarsi are three-jointed and the legs 
 are long and fitted for running. These insects are among the 
 most predaceous of the Hemiptera. 
 
 The group begins with an aquatic genus Limnobates, which 
 connects this family with the preceding one ; it runs over the 
 surface of pools like Gerris. The body is linear ; the protho- 
 rax is as long as the rest of the thorax, and the hind wings 
 are wanting. 
 
 Ploiaria is a remarkably slender, thread-like insect, with long 
 hair-like posterior legs, reminding us of Tipula. The species 
 are raptorial and are frequent in gardens. P. brevipennis 
 Say is reddish, with wings, and the feet are ringed near the 
 knees. Its ally, Emesa, resembles "the thinnest bits of sticks 
 fastened together," according to Westwood. The body is long 
 and thin, hair-like, and the antennae are long and delicate ; the 
 
REDUVIID^. 
 
 541 
 
 fore legs are raptorial, with long and thin coxae. The wings 
 are either wanting, or they reach only to the middle of the ab- 
 domen. Emesa longipes DeGeer has a white head, 
 with a brown band under the eyes ; the femora are 
 annulated with brown, and tipped with white. 
 
 In Soldo, the body is small, elliptical and flat ; the 
 antennae are long and thread-like, half as long ks 
 the body. The beak reaches to the end of the breast, 
 the second joint being at least six times as long as Fig. 545. 
 the first, and the legs are short and slender. The species are 
 found mostly in Europe along the shores of the ocean and 
 inland waters. 
 
 The genus Nabis is known by the anterior tibiae having an 
 apical cushion ; the beak is slender, extending to the hind legs. 
 Nabis ferus Linn, is abundant in gardens, feeding on insects. 
 An allied and common form is the Pirates picipes of Herrich 
 Schaeffer (Fig. 545). The P. Ugnttatus Say has been found 
 between the mattrasses of a bug-infested bed in south Illinois, 
 and probably feeds on the bed-bug. (American Entomolgist, 
 p. 37.) 
 
 The allied genera Prostemma (P. 
 guttata), and Coranus (C. subap- 
 terus) "are interesting on account 
 of their being generally found in an 
 undeveloped imago state ; the latter 
 being either entirely apterous or with 
 the fore wings rudimental, although 
 occasionally met with having the four 
 wings completely developed." Mr. 
 Westwood thinks that, especially in hot seasons, these apterous 
 insects acquire full sized wings, in accordance with the same 
 opinion of Spinola, whom he quotes. 
 
 The type of the family is the genus Reduvius of Fabricius, 
 which may be recognized by its second and third antennal 
 joints being much longer than the first, while the fourth is 
 hair-like. The limbs are densely hirsute, and the beak is short 
 and stout. Reduvius personatus Linn., a black species, is said 
 to feed upon the bed-bug. "The larva and pupa have the in- 
 stinct to envelope themselves in a thick coating of particles of 
 
542 HEMIPTEKA. 
 
 dust (DeGeer) and so completely do they exercise this habit 
 that a specimen shut up by M. Brulle, and which had under- 
 gone one of its moultings during its imprisonment, divested, 
 its old skin of its coat of dust, in order to recover itself there- 
 with." (Westwood.) The Evagoras viridis Uhler MS. is said, 
 by the Editors of the "American Entomologist," to devour the 
 plum curculio. 
 
 In Harpactor the head is convex behind the e}^es ; the ocelli 
 are distant, knobbed, and the first antennal joint is as long 
 as, and stouter than, the two succeeding ones together. Har- 
 pactor cinctus Fabr. (Fig. 546 ; &, beak) attacks the larva of 
 the Colorado Potato-beetle. Another member of this family, 
 the Conorhinus sanguisuga of Leconte, is said to occur in 
 beds, its bite being very painful. (American Entomologist, 
 p. 87.) 
 
 CORISI^E Latreille. In this very extensive family, which is 
 especially rich in species in the tropics, where they are gaily 
 colored, the head is flat, extended horizontally, and sunken up 
 to the eyes within the prothorax. The antennae are long, fili- 
 form, often clavate at the tip, and from three to five-jointed. 
 The two ocelli are almost always present, while the beak- sheath 
 (labium) is four-jointed. The tarsi are generally three-jointed, 
 and the claws are provided with two suctorial pads. The 
 membranous wing-covers have distinct, often forked, longitu- 
 dinal veins. 
 
 "We follow Gerstaecker in retaining Latreille's family Cor- 
 isiae, which includes the "Lygaeidse," "Coreidae" and "Penta- 
 tomidae" of recent authors, as they all agree in the general 
 form of the body, and, as stated by Gerstaecker, in the struc- 
 ture of the antennae, the uniform presence of two ocelli, the 
 longitudinal veins of the fore wings, and the hardness of 
 the crust of the body ; these characters separate them from 
 the preceding groups. 
 
 In Lygaaus and allies (Lygaeidse) the scutellum is of the 
 normal size ; the antennae are four-jointed, and are attached to 
 the under side of the head, and the beak is tolerably long. In 
 Lygceus the head is elongated acutely, the eyes globular, the 
 ocelli distinct, and the antennae are slender, scarcely half as 
 
543 
 
 long as the body, and slightly clavate. Lygceus turcicus Fabr. 
 is a typical form. Pyrrhocoris apterus Linn, is usually apter- 
 ous ; occasionally specimens are found with wings. It inhabits 
 Europe. 
 
 The Chinch bug, Rliyparocliromus leucopterus Say (Fig. 547) 
 is a great enemy of our wheat crops, and, as its specific name 
 indicates, it may be known by the white fore wings, contrasting 
 well with a black spot on the middle of the edge of the wing. 
 It is about three-twentieths of an inch in length. Harris also 
 states that "the young and wingless individuals are at first 
 bright red, changing with age to brown and black, and are 
 always marked with a white band across the back." Shinier 
 says the female is ' ' occupied about twenty days in laying her 
 eggs, about 500 in number. The larva hatches in fifteen days 
 and there are two broods in a season, the first brood maturing, 
 in Illinois, from the middle of July to the middle of August, 
 and the second late in autumn." According to Harris, the 
 "eggs of the chinch bug are laid in the ground, in which 
 the young have been found, in great abundance, at the depth 
 of an inch or more. 
 They make their 
 appearance on 
 wheat about the 
 middle of June, 
 and may be seen 
 in their various 
 stages of growth 
 on all kinds of 
 grain, on corn, 
 and on herds- 1 
 
 grass, during the rig. 547. Fig. 548. 
 
 whole summer. Some of them continue alive through the win- 
 ter in their places of concealment." They also attack every 
 description of garden vegetables, attacking principally "the 
 buds, terminal shoots, and most succulent growing parts of 
 these and other herbaceous plants, puncturing them with their 
 beaks, drawing off the sap, and from the effects subsequently 
 visible, apparently poisoning the part attacked." This species 
 is widely diffused. I hav taken it frequently in Maine, and 
 
544 HEMIPTERA. 
 
 even on the extreme summit of Mount Washington, in 
 August. 
 
 Dr. Shimer in his "Notes" on the chinch bug, says that it 
 "attained the maximum of its development in the summer of 
 1864, in the extensive wheat and corn fields of the valley of the 
 Mississippi ; and in that single year three-fourths of the wheat 
 and one-half of the corn crop were destroyed throughout many 
 extensive districts, comprising almost the entire North-west, 
 with an estimated loss of more than one hundred millions of 
 dollars in the currency that then prevailed," while Mr. Walsh 
 estimates the loss, from the ravages of this insect in Illinois 
 alone, in 1850, to have been four millions of dollars. 
 
 In the summer of 1865, the progeny of the broods of the 
 preceding year were almost entirely swept off by an epidemic 
 disease, so few being left that on the 22d of August, Dr. 
 Shimer found it "almost impossible to find even a few cabinet 
 specimens of chinch bugs alive " where they were so abundant 
 the year before. " During the summer of 1866 the chinch bugs 
 were very scarce in all the early spring, and up to near the 
 harvest I was not able, with the most diligent search, to find 
 one. At harvest I did succeed in finding a few in some locali- 
 ties." "This disease among the chinch bugs was associated 
 with the long-continued wet, cloudy, cool weather that pre- 
 vailed during a greater portion of the period of their develop- 
 ment, and doubtless was in a measure produced by deficient 
 light, heat and electricity, combined with an excessive humidity 
 of the atmosphere." In 1868 it again, according to the Edi- 
 tors of the "American Entomologist," "did considerable dam- 
 age in certain counties in Southern Illinois and especially 
 in South-west Missouri." Fig. 548 represents the Anthocoris 
 insidiosus Say, called the False Chinch bug ; it is often mis- 
 taken for the chinch bug, with which it is sometimes found 
 associated. 
 
 In the "Coreidse" the scutellum is still of the usual size; 
 the antennae are four-jointed ; while the basal joint of the beak 
 is generally the longest. 
 
 Westwood states that the Coreus marginatus of Europe "in 
 flight makes a humming noise as loud as the hive bee," and 
 the eggs of this species have been observed by Audouin to be 
 
CORISI^. 545 
 
 "of a splendid golden appearance." The larvae and pupae of 
 several species of Coreus have been observed by Westwood 
 to "differ from the imago in wanting ocelli, possessing only 
 two joints in the tarsi (although there is a slight indication 
 of an articulation in the middle of the terminal joint) ; their 
 antennae also are much thicker, especially the intermediate 
 joint. The pupa of C. scapha differs also from the imago in 
 having the margins of the abdomen notched." Several adult 
 forms of this group are known to be partially wingless. 
 
 The Squash-bug, Coreus (Gonocerus) tristis DeGeer (Fig. 
 549) is very destructive to squash-vines, collecting in great 
 numbers around the stem near the ground, and sucking the 
 sap with its stout beak. It is a large, blackish brown insect, 
 six-tenths of an inch long, and dirty yellowish beneath. It 
 hibernates, leaving the plant in October. About 
 the last of June the sexes meet, and the females 
 "lay their eggs in little patches, fastening them 
 with a gummy substance to the under side of the 
 leaves. The eggs are round, and flattened on 
 two sides, and are soon hatched. The young 
 bugs are proportionally shorter and more rounded 
 than the perfect insects, are of a pale ash color, Figl 549> 
 and have quite large antennae, the joints of which are some- 
 what flattened. As they grow older and increase in size, after 
 moulting their skins a few times, they become more oval in 
 form, and the under side of their bodies gradually acquires a 
 dull ochre-yellow color." (Harris.) The young attack the 
 leaves, causing them to wither up. Successive broods are 
 said to appear through the summer. Professor Verrill has 
 found, with the assistance of Professor S. W. Johnson, of Yale 
 College, that the odor of this and other hemipterous insects 
 bears the most resemblance to that of the formate of oxide of 
 amyl, or the formate of amylic ether. It is probable that this 
 substance is its most essential and active ingredient. (Pro- 
 ceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, xi, p. 
 160.) 
 
 In Neides the body is remarkably thin and slender, repeat- 
 ing the form of Ploiaria, or of Spectrum among the Orthoptera. 
 
 In Alydus the body is small, slender, the head prolonged, 
 35 
 
546 HEMIPTERA. 
 
 while the ocelli are very near together, and the last antennal 
 joint is often twice as long as the two preceding ones together. 
 Alydus eurinus Say is a widely diffused species. An allied 
 genus is Rlwpalus. Another species of this group is the 
 Metapodius nasalus of Say, which, in the Western States, 
 injures cherries by sucking them. 
 
 In the last group (Pentatomidae, which we place next to the 
 Membranacei, because they are less allied to the Homoptera, 
 and are more nearly related to Cimex) the scutellum is very 
 large, often covering more than one-half the abdomen, and in 
 this respect they at least remind us of those Orthopterous 
 genera in which the same character prevails. 
 
 This is a group of great extent, with bright colors and often 
 of large size. The head is received into the large broad, short 
 prothorax, and the body is generally ovate. The second joint 
 of the beak is the longest. 
 
 The various species are found on shrubs, sucking the leaves 
 or often transfixing caterpillars on their beaks and carry- 
 ing them off to suck their blood at leisure. DeGeer describes 
 the eggs as being generally of an oval form, attached to leaves 
 at one end by a glutinous secretion, the other being furnished 
 with a cap, which the larva bursts off when it hatches out. 
 The larvae are iribre convex and less flattened than the adults. 
 " DeGeer has made an interesting observation relative to the 
 care with which the females of a species of this family (Acan- 
 thosoma grisea) , found on the birch, defend their young. In 
 the month of July he observed many females accompanied by 
 their respective broods, each consisting of from twenty to forty 
 young, which they attended with as much care as a hen does 
 her brood of chickens." (Westwood.) 
 
 In Pentatoma the antennae are five-jointed ; the beak is slen- 
 der, reaching to the end of the breast, with its first joint lying 
 in the furrow on the throat. The scutellum is two-thirds the 
 length of the abdomen. Pentatoma tristigma Harris has a 
 series of three or four black dots on the under side of the 
 abdomen, of which the posterior one is largest. It is seven- 
 twentieths of an inch long. Pentatoma ligata Harris is a large 
 green species, widely edged all around, except the head, with 
 pale red. 
 
THRIPIMJ. 547 
 
 In Pliloea the body is much flattened, and expanded laterally 
 into leaf-like flaps. The antennae are three-jointed, the first 
 joint of which is longest. P. corticata Drury is a peculiar 
 form, which occurs in Brazil. 
 
 Arma spinosa Dallas (Fig. 550, b ; a, beak, seen from be- 
 neath ; c, beak of Euschistus punctipes Say) is useful since it 
 preys on the larva of the Doryphora. 
 Another bug of this group, the Stiretrus 
 jimbriatus Say (Fig. 551) has similar 
 habits. 
 
 In Tliyreocoris the wing-covers are 
 nearly covered by the scutellum, which 
 is wider behind than before. The body 
 is short and transverse, being broader than long, and scale-like 
 or semicircular in shape. Tliyreocoris Jiisteroides Harris re- 
 sembles a Hister beetle, and is greenish black, with dull honey 
 yellow antennae. The species of Corimelcena are of much the 
 same form, and usually shining black. (7. pulicaria Germar, 
 according to Riley, injures strawberry- vines and grape-vines in 
 Illinois. In the genus Tetyra the scutellum covers nearly the 
 whole abdomen, but leaves the side of the wing-covers exposed. 
 The antennas are slender ; the first joint is longer than the 
 second, the third being the shortest, and the fifth is twice 
 as long as the fourth. Tetyra marmorata Say is a variegated 
 species, the costal margin of the wing being 
 provided with transverse fuscous lines. 
 
 The genus Scutellera is remarkable for the 
 great size of the scutellum, whence its name is 
 derived. This piece, which is elongated trian- ; 
 gular, covers not only the entire abdomen, but 
 also the wings ; the antennas are five-jointed, * 
 the two first joints small, the three last ones 
 long, quite large. The species are adorned with gay metallic 
 colors, and are especially abundant in the Island of Sunda. 
 (Gerstaecker.) Scutellera viridipunctata Say is piceous, with 
 green impressed punctures. It is seven-twentieths of an inch 
 long, and is found in Florida. 
 
 (Thripsides) Fallen. This interesting group 
 
548 
 
 HEMIPTERA. 
 
 bears much the same relation to the C or i sice as the lice do to 
 the Membranacei (Cimex), or Podura and Lepisma to the 
 Keuropterous families above them. A comparison with the 
 Mallopliaga is still better, for in Thrips (Fig. 552) we find, 
 as in the last named group, free, biting mouth-parts, accom- 
 panied by a general degradation of the body. Though the spe- 
 cies are winged, yet the wings are partially aborted ; they are 
 long, narrow, linear, both pairs of equal size, as in the typical 
 Neuroptera, and by the frequent absence of any veins, either 
 longitudinal or transverse, and the long delicate silky fringe, 
 remind us strikingly of some minute degraded hymenopterous 
 Proctrotrypidce, Pteratomus (Plate 3, fig. 8), for example. 
 The mandibles are bristle-like ; the maxillae are flat, triangular, 
 bearing two to three-jointed palpi, and the labial palpi are 
 
 present, but very short, 
 and composed of but two 
 or three joints. 
 
 Chiefly on account of 
 these characters these in- 
 sects were placed in a dis- 
 tinct order, termed Thy- 
 sanoptera by Haliday, and 
 by many recent authors 
 they have been widely 
 separated from what seem to us their nearest allies. Latreille, 
 however, recognized their affinities to the Homoptera, while 
 stating that in their free biting mouth-parts they resembled 
 the Orthoptera, to which Geoffrey referred them. To us they 
 appear to be, as it were, degraded Lygaeids, and to preserve 
 the general form of that group, in the long head, the stout, 
 thickened fore limbs, and the large, square prothorax. They 
 have both compound and simple eyes, the latter three in 
 number. 
 
 The antennae are long and slender, with from five to nine 
 joints. In some species the fore wings are comparatively 
 well developed, or, as Haliday states, they are "transformed 
 into broadish elytra, ciliated only behind, and with longitudinal 
 and transverse nerves. In some species the wings are want- 
 ing, at least in the males." (Westwood.) "The abdomen is 
 
 Fig. 552. 
 
THRIPID^. 549 
 
 terminated in the male by a long attenuated joint, by a four- 
 valved borer in the female." 
 
 The eggs of Phlaeothrips have been compared to those of 
 Culex, by Haliday, "being cylindric, rounded at one end, and 
 crowned with a knob at the other." Both the larva 
 (Fig. 554) and pupa are active, being found in the 
 same situations as the adult. The larvae are of softer 
 consistence, pale, or reddish, and the thoracic rings are 
 similar to each other, while in the pupa "the articula- 
 tions of the limbs are obscured by a film, and the wings 
 enclosed in short fixed sheaths. The antennae are Flg<554> 
 turned back on the head, and the insect, though it moves 
 about, is much more sluggish than in the other states." (Hali- 
 day in Westwood's "Introduction," etc.) 
 
 The different species occur under the bark of trees, and are 
 very injurious to grain and flowers, eating holes in the leaves 
 or corollas, and sucking the sap from the flowers of wheat, in 
 the bottom of which they hide. 
 
 In Phlceothrips and allies (Fig. 552, P. coriacea Halida}^?) 
 both sexes have the abdomen terminating in an acute point, 
 being either the ovipositor of the female, or the slender termi- 
 nal tube-like joint of the male. The wings are almost with- 
 out veins, with long ciliae, and at rest folded one upon the other. 
 The antennae are eight-jointed. Three ocelli are present in the 
 winged species, but in the wingless forms they are absent. 
 
 The Phlceothrips mail of Fitch appears "in a roundish cavity 
 near the tip end of the young fruit." Dr. Fitch describes 
 another species (P. caryae) which is found in singularly shaped 
 galls on the hickory, "which resemble a long, slender pod 
 thrust half-way through the leaf." This author doubts, how- 
 ever, whether these galls are made by these insects. He also 
 states that "the insect within, when disturbed, turns its tail 
 upward over its back in a menacing manner, the same as the 
 rove beetles (Staphylinidse) do, and when the point of a needle, 
 which had been pressed upon one of these insects, is touched 
 to the tip of the tongue, unless my imagination greatly de- 
 ceives me, it will frequently be found to impart a peculiar acid 
 biting sensation." 
 
 A second group (Terebrantia Haliday) includes the genus 
 
550 HEMIPTERA. 
 
 Thrips, in which the females are provided with a four-valved 
 compressed ovipositor which lies in a furrow in the two last 
 abdominal segments. The fore wings are thickened, elytri- 
 form, with two longitudinal continuous veins. The antennae 
 are, for the most part, nine-jointed. Tlirips cerealium Haliday 
 is dark reddish brown, and very injurious to wheat. 
 
 CAPSINI Burmeister. The species of this family are very 
 numerous and very active in their habits, running swiftly 
 and easily rising on the wing. They are fond of fruits, and it 
 is the little Capsi which give such a nauseous taste to the rasp- 
 berry, which they feed upon. The females are distinguished 
 from the males "by having the ovipositor nearly half the 
 length of the body, somewhat sabre-shaped, and received into 
 a slit on the under side of the abdomen." The bod} 7 in this 
 group is convex, oval, and of a soft consistence, and "distin- 
 guished by the elongated antennae having the second joint 
 often thickened at the tip, and the terminal joints very slen- 
 der, the rostrum long and four-jointed, while the ocelli are 
 wanting. The pupa of Capsus Danicus is clothed with short 
 and somewhat clavate hairs." (Westwood.) 
 
 In Capsus the bod}' is elliptical or oval ; the head is triangu- 
 lar, convex. Capsus quadrivittatus Harris is yellow, with four 
 black bands. Phytocoris differs from Capsus, according to Har- 
 ris, in having a smaller head, while the thorax is wider behind 
 and narrower in front. P. linearis Beauv. is a fifth of an inch 
 long ; the head is yellowish with three narrow, longitudinal, 
 reddish stripes ; the thorax has a yellow margin, with five longi- 
 tudinal yellow lines upon it. The male is much darker colored. 
 It is excessively common on all kinds of plants. It appears 
 early in April, but is most abundant in summer. In the genus 
 Miris the head is elongated triangular ; the basal joint of the 
 antennae is thickest, whereas in the preceding genus the second 
 joint is the stoutest. Miris dorsalis Say is pale yellowish 
 rufous, immaculate, and the antennae are rather stout, tapering, 
 and rufous. 
 
 MEMBRANACEI Latreille. This family includes the Bed-bug, 
 and it is from this insect that the name "bug" has been ex- 
 
MEMBRANACEI. 551 
 
 tended to the entire suborder. The antennae are four-jointed, 
 with the tip clavate or knobbed. The ocelli are, for the most 
 part, wanting; the beak is gutter-like, with a three-jointed 
 sheath (labium). The tarsi are three-jointed, without any 
 foot-pads. In Cimex the beak reaches, when laid upon the 
 breast, as far as the fore coxae ; the legs and antennae are cov- 
 ered with fine hairs ; the second antennal joint is longest. 
 The prothorax is elliptical, and the metathorax is nearly as 
 broad as the circular abdomen ; the wings are wanting. 
 
 The habits of Cimex lectularius Linn., the bed-bug (Fig. 
 555), are too well known to require any farther mention here. 
 It is exceedingly tenacious of life, and ordi- 
 nary bug-powders and other applications are 
 useless unless the most scrupulous cleanliness is 
 exercised besides. The eggs are oval, white, i 
 and the young bugs escape by pushing off a lid 
 at one end of the shell. They are white trans- 
 parent, differing from the perfect insect in hav- Fig. 555. 
 ing a broad triangular head, and short and thick antennae. 
 Indeed, this is the general form of the louse, to which the larva 
 of Cimex has a very close affinity. Some Cimices are para- 
 sites, infesting pigeons, swallows, etc., in this way also show- 
 ing their near relation to the lice. 
 
 The bed-bug is rust-red, with brown hairs, and is two 
 and a half lines in length. It lives as a parasite on the do- 
 mestic birds, such as the dove. Mr. James McDonald writes 
 me that he has found a nest of swallows on a court house in 
 Iowa, swarming with bed-bugs. In Europe the Cimex Mrun- 
 dinis Herr. Schaeff. lives on the swallow ; Cimex pipistrelli 
 Jenyns lives on the bat ; and Cimex columbarius is found in 
 pigeon houses. 
 
 Westwood states that the bed-bug is eleven weeks in attain- 
 ing its full size. DeGeer has kept full sized individuals in a 
 sealed bottle for more than a year without food. The Cock- 
 roach is the natural enenry of the bed-bug, and destroys large 
 numbers. Houses have been cleaned of them after being 
 thoroughly fumigated with brimstone. 
 
 Bed-bugs, as well as other bugs, plant-lice, etc., may be de- 
 stroyed by a preparation consisting of thirty parts of unpuri- 
 
552 
 
 HEMIPTERA, 
 
 fied cheap petroleum, mixed with 1,000 parts of water. It 
 can be introduced into holes and cracks in houses, and sprin- 
 kled on plants. The cracks of bedsteads may be 
 filled with mercury ; and benzine will also effectually 
 dislodge them, as well as boiling water. The benzine 
 may be applied by means of a surgical instrument 
 Fig. 556. called the Atomizer. 
 
 In Syrtis the head is small, compressed laterally, and the 
 fore legs are raptorial, thus allying the genus with Reduvius. 
 Syrtis (Phymata) erosa Fabr. (Fig. 556) has swollen fore legs, 
 and a deep groove on the head ; it is useful in devouring 
 Aphides. 
 
 
 Fig. 557. 
 
 In Tingis the beak reaches to the end of the breast, and the 
 fore legs are simple, the thorax and wing-covers are spread 
 out leaf-like, and the species are of small size. T. liyalina 
 Herrich-Schaefier is abundant on the willow. T. liystricellus 
 Richter (Fig. 557, upper and under side, magnified twenty 
 diameters) is a Ceylonese species. It "sticks close to the 
 under side of the Bringall leaf, and there undergoes all its 
 changes, from the larval to the perfect state. The larvae are 
 black." (Science-Gossip, p. 84, 1869.) 
 
PEDICULINA. 553 
 
 In Aradus the beak is longer than the head, the prothorax 
 is widely expanded, while the wing-covers are rounded at the 
 base. A. crenatus of Say has the cylindrical edge of the abdo- 
 men obtusely crenated. The species are found under the bark 
 of trees. 
 
 PEDICULINA Burmeister. Lice. In these low degraded Hem- 
 iptera, which stand in the same relation to the rest of the 
 Hemiptera as the Flea does to the more perfectly organized 
 Diptera, the body is wingless, with a small indistinctly jointed 
 thorax, while the abdomen is large, oval, with nine segments. 
 The antennae are filiform, five-jointed, and the eyes are minute, 
 not faceted. The tarsi are two-jointed, with a large hook-like 
 terminal joint, which is bent back towards the basal joint. 
 The mouth-parts still preserve the form of a beak-like sucker, 
 but it is fleshy and retractile, and the body is white, and of 
 minute size. The species of Pediculus are blood-suckers, and 
 parasitic on man and various species of Mammalia ; different 
 species being found on different regions of the 
 body. Different varieties, according to Dr. W. I. 
 Burnett, are found living on the bodies of different 
 races of men. 
 
 Two species live on man ; Pediculus humanus 
 capitis DeGeer (Fig. 558) inhabits the head, while 
 the Body Louse, P. corporis of DeGeer (P. vesti- 
 menti Nitzsch) is found elsewhere. These two 
 species are difficult to distinguish, they are so Fig.'" sss. 
 closely allied. Professor J. C. Schiodte, a Scandinavian 
 naturalist, has recently published an elaborate treatise on this 
 genus, and describes the mode of attack used by these disgust- 
 ing creatures. It thrusts its minute beak into the skin, and 
 sucks in the blood by means of its large sucking stomach or 
 "pumping ventricle." Schiodte placed one of these insects 
 on his hand, and observed its movements through a glass. 
 After the creature had fixed its beak or haustellum into his 
 hand this naturalist noticed that " at the top of the head, under 
 the transparent skin, between and a little in advance of the 
 eyes, a triangular blood-red point appears, which is in contin- 
 ual movement, expansion and contraction alternating with 
 
554 HEMIPTERA. 
 
 increased rapidity. Soon this pulsation becomes so rapid that 
 several contractions may be counted in a second. However, 
 we must turn our attention elsewhere, for the whole digestive 
 tube is now in the most lively peristaltic movement, filling it- 
 self rapidly with blood, as is easily observed ; the long oesopha- 
 gus is particularly agitating, throwing itself from one side to 
 another inside the neck, bending itself so violently as to re- 
 mind one of the coiling of a rope when being shipped on deck." 
 Schiodte states that the sucking organ or beak is a "dark 
 brown protruding haustellum, provided with hooks at each ex- 
 tremity, out of which an excessively delicate membranaceous 
 tube, of varying length, is hanging. This pumping "ventri- 
 cle" (which is undoubtedly homologous with the pumping 
 stomach of most sucking insects, such as the Diptera, Lepiclop- 
 tera and Hymenoptera) Schiodte has discovered in "those 
 Coleopterous larvae which have powerful organs for biting, 
 placed at a distance round a very minute 
 mouth-opening, such as the larvae of Carabi, 
 Hydrophili, and Hister, as well as in the 
 larvae of Dytisci, which suck through the 
 mandibles." 
 
 The same author also shows that the mouth 
 Fig. 559. of Pediculus differs from that of Hemiptera 
 
 generally in the circumstance that the labium is capable of 
 being retracted into the upper part of the head, which there- 
 fore presents a little fold, which is extended when the labium 
 is protruded. He also shows that those parts which were, by 
 mistake, thought to be palpi and mandibles by Erichson, 
 Jurine and Landois, are simply lobes on the under side of a 
 chitinous band. 
 
 In Pediculus the thorax is a little smaller than the elongated 
 abdomen, and all the tarsi are two-jointed. The genus PJitJii- 
 rius has a very small thorax, with the abdomen much wider 
 than the head, and the fore tarsi have but a single joint. 
 Plitliirius pubis Linn. (Fig. 559), the Crab louse, is found on 
 the pubic region of man and also on the head. 
 
 MALLOPHAGA Nitzsch. The Bird-lice live on the hair of 
 Mammalia and feathers of birds. In this group there are dis- 
 
MALLOPHAGA. 555 
 
 tinct jaws. The flattened body is corneous, hard above, and 
 the head is horizontal, with three to five-jointed antennae ; the 
 eyes are small and simple ; the mandibles are small, like a 
 hook, and the maxillary palpi, when present, for they are some- 
 times wanting, are four-jointed, while the labial palpi are two- 
 jointed. The thorax is small and but two-jointed apparently, 
 as the meso- and metathorax are united together. The abdo- 
 men is from nine to ten-jointed, while the short thick limbs 
 have two-jointed tarsi and one or two claws. 
 
 These insects are considered by Burmeister as forming a 
 passage from the Hemiptera into the Orthoptera, as they pos- 
 sess free biting mouth-parts, especially free mandibles, which 
 are not as in the rest of the suborder fused together with the 
 other parts to form a sucking tube. DocopJiorus buteonis Pack, 
 (pi. 9,* fig. 3) lives on the Red Shouldered Hawk; and D. 
 hamatus Pack. (PI. 9, fig. 7) is found on the Snow Bunting. 
 
 Goniocotes Burnettii Pack. (Fig. 560) infests the domestic 
 fowl. Lipeurus corvi Pack. (PL 9, fig. 2) is a parasite of the 
 crow ; L. elongatus Pack. (PI. 9, fig. 
 4), and L. gracilis Pack. (PL 9, fig. 
 6) are long and slender forms. . In 
 the genus Philopterus of Nitzsch the 
 antennae are filiform, five-jointed, and 
 the labial palpi are wanting. Nir- 
 mus is an allied genus ; both live on 
 birds. JV. thoracicus Pack. (PL 9, 
 fig. 5) lives on the Snow Bunting. 
 
 Trichodectes canis DeGeer lives on 
 the dog, and has three-jointed an- 
 tennae. The females have two mov- 
 able hooks on the penultimate ring of 
 
 Fig. 560. 
 
 the abdomen. T. subrostratus is a 
 
 parasite of the cat. T. caprce Pack., lives on the goat. The 
 Saddle-back Gull is inhabited by Colpocephalum lari Pack. (PL 
 9, fig. 1). Gyropus has no labial palpi. G. porcelli Schrank is 
 a third of an inch long and lives on the Porpoise. Mr. C. 
 Cooke has found G. ovalis on the Guinea pig in this country. 
 
 * EXPLANATION OF PLATE 9. Fig. 1, Colpocephalum lari Pack.; 1, antenna; 
 Fig. 2, Lipeurus corvi P.ack. ; 2a, antenna; Fig. 3, Docophorus buteonis Pack.; 3a, 
 autenna; Fig. 4, Lipeurus elongatus Pack. ; 4a, antennae; Fig. 5, Nirmus thoracicus 
 Pack. ; Fig. 6, Lipeurus gracilis Pack. ; Fig. 7, Docophorus hamatus Pack. 
 
556 ORTHOPTEKA. 
 
 ORTHOPTERA. 
 
 i 
 
 THIS suborder may be briefly characterized as having free 
 biting mouth-parts, with highly developed organs of nutrition 
 and digestion. The first pair of wings are somewhat thickened 
 to protect the broad net-veined hinder pair, which fold up like 
 a fan upon the abdomen, and the hind legs are large and 
 adapted for leaping. The transformations are less complete 
 than in the previous groups, the larvae and pupae being both 
 active and closely resembling the imago. All the species are 
 terrestrial, the more typical forms having remarkable powers 
 of flight, besides leaping powerfully. 
 
 The grasshopper is the type of the group, the other families 
 bearing more or less resemblance to the allied suborders, 
 especially the Neuroptera. The head is very large, and much 
 more bulky than in the Coleoptera or Hemiptera, the mouth- 
 parts being so large, requiring large and broad pieces to sup- 
 port the muscles of the head ; its position is vertical, rarely 
 becoming horizontal. The ocelli are two or three in number, 
 while often obsolete. The eyes are small, very convex, and 
 placed far apart. The antennae are filiform, often of great 
 length, and exceeding the length of the body several times, the 
 joints being very numerous and much alike in size and shape. 
 The clypeus is large, the suture very distinctly separating the 
 base, and the labrum is large, with the edge rounded, slightly 
 bilobate, and partially concealing the mandibles, which are 
 strong and large, and toothed within. They are more perfect 
 than in other insects, presenting both cutting and grinding 
 surfaces. The maxillae are very distinctly lobed, the outer lobe 
 (galea) somewhat dilated and (in the Blattariae) ensheathing 
 the long, sharp-toothed inner lobe, and the palpi are five- 
 jointed. The mentum is large and transverse, while the labium 
 is divided into four lobes like the maxillae, the outer pair (para- 
 glossse) resembling those of the maxillae, and in the true grass- 
 hoppers (Acrydium), being expanded into a broad, flattened, 
 smooth, concave plate. The labial palpi are from three to four- 
 jointed. The lingua is large, fleshy and channelled above. 
 
PI. 9. 
 
OKTHOPTERA. 557 
 
 As in the Coleoptera, the prothorax is greatly developed 
 over the other segments, and the mesothorax is rather smaller 
 than the metathoracic ring. The pronotum is very large, 
 broad and flattened above, while the other two segments are 
 concealed by the wings when at rest, and the parts are soft 
 and membranous. The sternum of each ring is very large, 
 broad and flat, resembling that of Libellula, while the two 
 fore pairs of legs are normal in size, though the fore legs are 
 often raptorial, as in Mantis ; or fossorial, as in Gryllotalpa. 
 The hinder pair are enormously developed for leaping purposes. 
 
 The fore wings are generally long and narrow, somewhat 
 thickened, like parchment, or thin, transparent, and more or 
 less rounded, while the hind pair are broad and large, 
 folding in longitudinal plaits on the back. Both wings are 
 net- veined, but not so much so as in the Neuroptera, as the 
 longitudinal veins are larger and more regular, while innumer- 
 able cross veins, still more regular than in the Neuroptera, 
 though more numerous, give a characteristic facies peculiar to 
 the Orthopterous wing. There are also numerous wingless, 
 degraded genera, which resemble the young of other genera. 
 The body is usually much compressed, or greatly flattened 
 (Blattarias), or long and cylindrical, as in the Walking Stick. 
 The abdomen consists of eight or nine distinct segments, while 
 the tenth forms part of the ovipositor, being somewhat abor- 
 ted, the tergite only in some cases remaining, and there is in 
 addition in the Locustarice, according to the views of La- 
 caze-Duthiers, the tergite of an eleventh abdominal ring. We 
 will notice more fully than usual the structure of the ovipositor, 
 as it is of great systematic value. The genital armature is 
 more complex than in the Hymenoptera, and is generally very 
 large and exserted, so as to form- a conspicuous part of the 
 body. In its simplest form, in Forficula, it is represented 
 only by a single tergite, all the other appendages being absent. 
 In the Locus tar ice, however, the typical form is seen, consist- 
 ing of a tergite and the epimera supporting the tergo-rhabdite, 
 while the episternum supports the sterno-rhabdites, and the 
 oviduct opens out under the sternite. There are thus four 
 pieces attached to the single ninth ring ; the oviduct opening 
 between the eighth and ninth segments, while the anal opening 
 
558 ORTHOPTERA. 
 
 is under the eleventh ring in all the Orthoptera, according to 
 Lacaze-Duthiers' researches. The female genital armature is 
 farther complicated, in the Locustarice especially. The 
 eleventh segment is composed of five parts, which surround 
 the anus. 
 
 Two of these are lateral filaments which are, in one case, as 
 in Mantis tessellata (Fig. 23), multi-articulate, and are proper, 
 sensory organs, like the antennae, and must be regarded, in our 
 view, as homologous with the anal prop-legs of Lepidoptera and 
 other insects, and as true-jointed appendages like the thoracic 
 legs, and jointed appendages of the head, such as the palpi 
 and antennae. They also form the anal stylets of the Gryl- 
 liclce, etc. These anal stylets are articulated to the posterior 
 edge of the tenth tergite, as Lacaze-Duthiers states, and thus 
 seem to us to be properly appendages of that ring, which, as 
 this author affirms, "presents two articulating teeth for this 
 purpose." The two other elements are "triangular, surround- 
 ing the anus with three valves, which, by their union, form a 
 sort of pyramidal body," which he calls the " subgenital or pre- 
 genital plate." There are then, two systems of appendages, 
 as we have before stated ; i. e., the genital armature, consist- 
 ing of two pairs of non-articulated stylets, and the single pair 
 of anal articulated stylets, which are the homologues of the 
 thoracic legs, together with the pre-anal plate. 
 
 The same parts are present in the male, being converted into 
 large, clasping, hook-shaped stylets, for retaining a firm hold 
 of the female during sexual union. 
 
 The eggs as they pass from the oviduct between the valves 
 are deposited in a hole in the ground, made by the powerful 
 ovipositor. Certain Locustarice imitate the Cicada in laying 
 them methodically in the stems of plants, which are drilled out 
 by the valves of the ovipositor, which are slightly toothed on 
 the outer sides and easily move on one another, somewhat as 
 in the Saw-fly and Cicada. "The eggs of the Gryllidce are 
 laid either singly in the ground, in irregular clusters in subter- 
 ranean passages, or uniformly in a single row, in the pith 
 of twigs; those of the Locustarice are never laid singly, 
 but either in the pith of plants, in regular clusters in the 
 ground, or in regular rows on stems of plants ; those of the 
 
ORTHOPTEEA. 559 
 
 Acrydii are always laid in rudely regular clusters, in the 
 ground." (Scudder.) 
 
 The nervous system closely resembles that of the Neurop- 
 tera ; it is in all three stages composed of three thoracic, and 
 six or seven abdominal ganglia, extending the whole length of 
 the body, and united by double commissures. The splanchnic 
 system, or analogue of the great sympathetic nerve in verte- 
 brates, is highly developed in the Acridii and in Gryllotalpa, 
 having in front two pairs of ganglia, and posteriorly one or 
 two, while in the Blattarice and Phasmida the single 
 nerve is most developed. 
 
 Organs of hearing are stated by Siebold to occur in the 
 Acridii, consisting of two fossae or conchs, surrounded by a 
 projecting horny ring, and at the base of which is stretched 
 a membrane resembling a tympanum. On the internal surface 
 of this membrane are two horny processes, to which is attached 
 an extremely delicate vesicle filled with a transparent fluid, 
 and representing a membranous labyrinth. This vesicle is in 
 connection with an auditory nerve, which arises from the third 
 thoracic ganglion, forms a ganglion upon the tympanum, and 
 terminates in the immediate neighborhood of the labyrinth by 
 a collection of cuneiform, staff-like bodies, with very finely 
 pointed extremities (primitive nerve-fibres?), which are sur- 
 rounded by loosely aggregated, ganglionic globules. The 
 Locustarice and Gryllidce have a similar organ, situated 
 in the fore legs directly below the coxo-femoral articulation. 
 M. Hensen confirms the accuracy of this description in 
 the " Zeitschrift fur Wissenschaftliche Zoologie," vol. xvi, 
 1867. 
 
 The highly developed alimentary canal has the crop (pro- 
 ventriculus) separated by a deep constriction from the oesoph- 
 agus, and the gizzard is provided internally with from six to 
 eight rows of horny denticulated plates situated on ridges, 
 with numerous smaller teeth between, so that the whole num 
 ber of teeth amount to 270. The stomach is of even width, 
 not usually making more than one-half of a turn, or one turn ; 
 its cardiac extremity is provided with from two to eight caeca. 
 The salivary glands are highly developed, "consisting of two, 
 four, or six botryoidal masses, situated in the thorax, and hav- 
 
560 OKTHOPTERA. 
 
 ing long excretory ducts, besides, also, often having long 
 pedunculated reservoirs. 
 
 The number of chambers in the dorsal vessel is usually 
 eight. The respiratory system does not differ essentially from 
 that of other insects, though in the Acridii most of the trans- 
 verse anastomosing tracheae have large air-reservoirs, greatly 
 assisting in lightening the body for their long-sustained 
 flight. 
 
 The urinary tubules are short and very numerous, from 
 twenty to one hundred and fifty and over, surrounding the 
 pylorus. The ovaries, two in number, consist of numerous 
 inultilocular tubes, while the seminal receptacle consists of a 
 pedunculated vesicle, whose closed extremity is dilated into 
 a pea-shaped vesicle, forming the capsula seminis. In most 
 Orthoptera the testes consist of long fasciculated follicles sur- 
 rounded by a common envelope, and many have in addition 
 highly developed accessory glands, surrounding a short ductus 
 ejaculatorius. 
 
 The larvae of the Orthpptera materially differ only in size 
 from the adult, and the pupae are distinguished from them by 
 having the rudiments of wings. They attain the adult state 
 by simple moultings. Several cases are on record of pupae 
 of grasshoppers being found sexually united. In 1867 Mr. 
 Trimen exhibited to the Entomological Society of London " a 
 grasshopper of the genus Poecilocerus, of which he had found 
 the pupae in copula ; it was not an isolated case, for he had 
 seen hundreds of pairs of the nymphs at Natal." 
 
 Some of the largest insects are included in this suborder, in 
 fact the majority are larger than those of other suborders, and 
 it will probably be found that many large grasshoifpers and 
 Mantidce will weigh nearly as much as any Goliath or Her- 
 cules beetle, the largest of insects. 
 
 The Orthoptera range, in time, from the Carboniferous for- 
 mation ; and among the earliest forms are certain species of 
 Blattarice, which are next to the group of the Neuroptera^ 
 the earliest known forms of insect life. In the Carboniferous 
 rocks they have rarely occurred, but the forma are most nu- 
 merous and best preserved in the Tertiary formation, espe- 
 cially in the Amber of Prussia. 
 
ORTHOPTEEA. 561 
 
 There are about 5,000 species known, which attain their 
 greatest development in size and numbers in tropical countries. 
 
 In studying these insects, the proportions of the head, of 
 the prothorax, of the wings, of the hind legs, and the external 
 genital parts, should especially be taken into account. The 
 ornamentation varies greatly even in the same species, and 
 therefore large numbers of individuals are necessary to ensure 
 a proper knowledge of any species. 
 
 The different sounds produced by Orthoptera should be care- 
 fully studied ; every species can be distinguished by its pecu- 
 liar note, and as in different families the musical apparatus 
 varies, so each family has a characteristic chirrup, or shrilling, 
 consisting of a harsh, grating, rasping noise. 
 
 Mr. Scudder has contributed to the "American Naturalist," 
 ii, p. 113, an interesting article on the sounds produced by 
 some of our native species of Grasshoppers, and has even 
 reduced their notes to a written music. He states that grass- 
 hoppers stridulate in four different ways: " first, by rubbing 
 the base of one wing-cover upon the other, using, for that pur- 
 pose, the veins running through the middle portion of the 
 wing ; second, by a similar method, but using the veins of the 
 inner part of the wing ; third, by rubbing the inner surface of 
 the hind legs against the outer surface of the wing-covers ; and 
 fourth, by rubbing together the upper surface of the front edge 
 of the wings and the under surface of the wing-covers. The 
 insects which employ the fourth method stridulate during flight, 
 the others while at rest. To the first group belong the 
 Crickets (Gryllidae) ; to the second the Green or Long-horned 
 Grasshoppers (Locustarise) ; to the third and fourth, certain 
 kinds of Short-horned or Jumping Grasshoppers (Acrydii)." 
 
 The transformations of grasshoppers need careful study. 
 For this purpose their eggs should be sought for, and the de- 
 velopment of the embryo in the egg be noted ; also the follow- 
 ing facts should be ascertained : the date of deposition of the 
 eggs ; the manner of laying them ; how long before the embryo 
 is hatched ; the date of hatching ; how many days the pupa 
 lives ; so also of the pupa and of the imago, while the inter- 
 vening changes should be carefully observed. Crows and 
 blackbirds feed on their eggs and larvae, and hens and turkeys 
 36 
 
562 ORTHOPTEKA. 
 
 feed greedily upon young and old. Ichneumon parasites prey 
 upon them, and also the lower worms, such as Filaria, Grega- 
 rina and Gordius, and the red mites attack them. Mud wasps 
 provision their nests with the young. 
 
 Orthoptera can be easily preserved in strong alcohol, and 
 may afterwards be taken out and pinned and set at leisure. 
 They can be killed with cyanide of potassium, or ether, with- 
 out losing their colors, as they would do after remaining long 
 in alcohol. They should be pinned through a little triangu- 
 lar spot between the bases of the elytra, or fore wings, when 
 the wings can be spread to advantage. They are also often 
 pinned through the prothorax, or through the right elytron, as 
 in Coleoptera. In pinning these insects for transportation care 
 should be taken to put in additional pins crossing each other 
 on each side of the abdomen, and in like manner to steady the 
 hind legs, which are very apt to fall off if too much jarred. 
 
 GRYLLID^E Latreille. The Crickets have a somewhat cylin- 
 drical body, a large vertical head, with elliptical eyes ; the 
 ocelli are often wanting, and the long filiform antennae arise 
 from in front of and between the eyes. The wings are of mod- 
 erate size, net-veined, lying flat on the back ; the fore pair are 
 ovate, the costal edge of the fore wings being bent abruptly 
 down on the sides of the body, while the hinder pair are trian- 
 gular. They, like the succeeding families, leap actively, the 
 hind femora being enlarged. The genital armature is largely 
 developed, forming long and slender stylets, often nearly as 
 long as the body. "The subgenital plate is formed by the 
 seventh sternite. The eighth abdominal segment is rudimen- 
 tary and concealed beneath the seventh segment. The ninth 
 segment, situated beyond the outlet of the ovipositor is incom- 
 plete. Its elements, appearing to be four in number, are devel- 
 oped into a large solid borer. The ninth sternite is bifid, its 
 episternite not being developed." (L. Duthiers.) A second 
 type is observed in Gryllotalpa, where the subgenital plate is 
 formed by the eighth sternite, instead of the seventh, and the 
 incomplete sternite and tergite of the ninth segment are pres- 
 ent, much like those of the other abdominal rings. The oviposi- 
 tor is very short, while the hairy stylets arise from the eleventh 
 
GKYLLIM;. 563 
 
 abdominal ring and are very long. In the male the long anal 
 hairy stylets are retained, while the parts representing the ovi- 
 positor are aborted. The shrilling of the male is a sexual call, 
 made by raising the fore wings and rubbing them on the hind 
 wings. The noise is due to the peculiar structure of the fore 
 wings, the middle portion of which forms, by its transparent 
 elastic surface, on which there are but few veinlets, a resonant 
 drum, increasing the volume of sound emitted by the rubbing 
 of the file on the upper surface of the hind pair of wings. 
 This file is the modified internal vein, the surface of which is 
 greatly thickened, rounded and covered closely with fine teeth. 
 In the females the wings are not thus modified, and they are 
 silent. They have been known to lay 300 eggs, glued together 
 in a common mass. In July the larvae appear, and by the last 
 of August the grass is alive with fully grown crickets, their 
 loud chirruping resounding through the warm days and nights 
 of autumn. The species are generally dull black or brownish, 
 and in the tropics attain to a large size. 
 
 In the genus Tridactylus the males have the anterior tibiae 
 three-fingered, i. e., the tibia has a lateral hooked appendage 
 to which the tarsus is attached, while a long hooked projec- 
 tion takes the place of the feet. The species are minute, 
 the largest known, T. apicalis Say, being one-fifth of an inch 
 long. It is found in the Southern States, while Tridactylus 
 terminalis Uhler is found northward. The Mole-cricket, Gryl- 
 lotalpa, so-called from the enlarged fossorial fore feet, lives in 
 wet, swampy soil, by ponds and streams, where it raises ridges 
 while constructing its subterranean galleries in search of 
 insects. Its fore legs are adapted like those of the mole 
 for digging, and are remarkably short and stout, much flat- 
 tened and armed with solid tooth-like projections. Their eggs, 
 from 300 to 400 in number, are laid in the spring in tough 
 sacks, in galleries. Very rare northward, they are more com- 
 mon in the Middle and Southern States. 
 
 Gryllotalpa borealis Burmeister is found in New England, 
 burrowing in moist earth near ponds. The Southern species is 
 Gryllotalpa longipennis Scudder, and in the West Indies an- 
 other species ravages the Sugar-cane. The genus Gryllus in- 
 cludes the common crickets. The European House- cricket, 
 
564 ORTHOPTERA. 
 
 G. domesticus Linn., has been introduced into the vicinity of 
 New York, as stated by Mr. James Angus. Our two largest 
 species are the Gryllus luctuosus Serville, known by the great 
 length of the fore wings, which project beyond the abdomen ; 
 and Gryllus abbreviatus Serville, which is found in the Middle 
 States. The most common New England species is the Gryllus 
 neglectus of Scudder, from which Gryllus niger Harris differs 
 in its much shorter ovipositor. The small 
 cricket so abundant in our fields is Nemobius 
 vittatus Harris, a brownish striped species ; 
 the genus differs from Gryllus in the last joint 
 of the maxillary palpi being double the length 
 of the penultimate, while in Gryllus, it is of 
 the same length. In (Ecanthus niveus Serville 
 (Fig. 561, male ; fig. 562, female ; fig. 30,hind 
 Fig. 561. wings of male and female, showing the broad 
 thin portion between b and c, used in producing the shrilling 
 noise) the wings are broad and very transparent, narrower in 
 the female, the hind legs very long and slender, and the male 
 is ivory white. The males make a loud shrilling noise, and 
 both sexes are found on plants, especially' the grape-vine. 
 
 Mr. W. Saunders states that the 
 female does considerable injury 
 to the raspberry and plum twigs 
 Fi s- 562 - by boring into the branches for 
 
 the purpose of laying its eggs, and the Editors of the "Ameri- 
 can Entomologist" state that it severs grapes from the 
 branches. This genus leads to the next family. 
 
 Mr. Scudder has described in the "Proceedings of the Bos- 
 ton Society of Natural History," Archegogryllus priscus, a fossil 
 cricket from the coal formation of Ohio. "One broken hind 
 leg and a fragment of a wing were found ; the leg was notice- 
 able in having the tibia furnished with several large promi- 
 nences, while the femur was smooth." 
 
 LOCUSTARIVE Latreille. The large green Locusts are easily 
 distinguished by their large heads, and their compressed 
 bodies. The front from being vertical often inclines inwards, 
 owing to the greatly enlarged vertex, which is often produced 
 
LOCUSTARDE. 565 
 
 into a horn. The ocelli are either present or obsolete, and the 
 eyes are globular in shape. The antennae are of great length, 
 as are the legs, which are long and slender. The prothorax is 
 saddle- shaped, and the wings are thin, the anterior pair slightly 
 thickened, while the hinder pair are broad, these insects taking 
 long flights. The base of the upper wings is transparent, form- 
 ing a drum by which the males produce a loud shrill noise ; 
 they do not rub the hind legs against the wings as do the 
 Acrydii. Scudder states that "the day song of some Locus- 
 tarians differs from that of the night." The abdomen is not 
 of great length, while the ovipositor and male claspers are 
 greatly developed, and are of much importance in classifica- 
 tion. Lacaze-Duthiers describes the typical form as having 
 the subgenital plate formed by the eighth sternite, while the 
 ninth ring is complete. Its elements form the ovipositor, 
 composed of six pieces, which are large and long, for boring 
 into the earth and twigs in laying the eggs. The ninth ster- 
 nite is bifid. Similar parts in the males are formed for clasp- 
 ing the body of the female, and are large and long. The eggs 
 are laid in the autumn, and the young hatch in the spring. 
 The wingless genera have curved, cylindrical bodies, with 
 long antennae, and are very active, leaping very vigorously ; 
 they are brown in color, and inhabit caves or live under stones. 
 Ceutliopliilus is a wingless genus, in which the pronotum does 
 not extend over the mesonotum. C.maculatus Say has the pos- 
 terior tibiae of the male waved. It is common under 'stones. 
 C. stygius Scudder is found in the caves of Kentucky, and Ha- 
 denoecus subterraneus Scudder is found in Mammoth Cave. It 
 is a slender form, the antennae exceeding the length of the 
 body several times. Udeopsylla differs from the following 
 genus, Daihinia, according to Scudder, "in the longer, more 
 slender, less robust, and less spiny legs, in the somewhat more 
 slender body and smaller head, in the shorter maxillary palpi, 
 and in the structure of the tarsal joints," the first and fourth 
 being equal in length, while the two middle ones are small, 
 the second joint overlapping the third above. U. robusta 
 Haldeman is found in Nebraska. In the interesting genus 
 Daihinia, the "tarsal joints of the anterior and posterior pair 
 are only three in number, the first and last being of nearly 
 
566 ORTHOPTEKA. 
 
 equal length, with a single small joint between them, a very 
 interesting exception to the almost universal rule among the 
 Locustarice." The Katydid, Cyrtopliyllus concavus Say 
 (Fig. 563), has the fore wings concave, much produced in the 
 middle. The eggs, according to Harris, are "slate colored, and 
 are rather more than one-eighth of an inch in length. They 
 resemble tiny, oval, bivalve shells in shape. The insect lays 
 them in two contiguous rows along the surface of a twig, the 
 bark of which is previously shaved off, or made rough with her 
 piercer. Each row consists of eight or nine eggs, placed some- 
 what obliquely, and overlapping each other a little, and they 
 
 are fastened to the twig with a 
 gummy substance. In hatching 
 the egg splits open at one end, 
 and the young insect creeps 
 through the cleft." In Phyllop- 
 tera the wings are narrower, but 
 still concave, and the ovipositor 
 is of moderate size, while in 
 Microcentrum it is very small. 
 P. oblongifolia Burmeister is 
 abundant in September, in New 
 England, being found farther 
 northward than the Katydid, and 
 when it flies it makes a whizzing 
 noise, compared by Harris to 
 Fig. 563. that of a weaver's shuttle. He 
 
 also states that "the females lay their eggs in the autumn 
 on the twigs of trees and shrubs, in double rows, of seven or 
 eight eggs in each row." These eggs in form, size and color, 
 and in their arrangement on the twig, are very different from 
 those of the Katydid. Phaneroptera has still narrower wings 
 than the genera hitherto noticed, and the ovipositor is more 
 sharply turned upwards. The P. curvicauda of DeGeer (P. 
 angustifolia Harris) is very abundant, being the most common 
 species in Northern New England. 
 
 In Conocephalus the front of the head is produced into a 
 cone. The species, generally pea green, often present brown 
 individuals. C. ensiger Harris is a commonly distributed spe- 
 
ACRYDII. 567 
 
 cies. Mr. S. I. Smith has observed a female of this species 
 "with the ovipositor forced down between the root-leaves and 
 the stalk of a species of Andropogon, where the eggs are 
 probably deposited." 
 
 Xiphidium is a genus of smaller size, with the ovipositor 
 nearly straight. X. fasciatum Serville is g|reen, with a brown 
 stripe on the head and thorax. It is common in gardens. 
 According to Hagen and Scudder an undescribed species of 
 Xiphidium makes longitudinal punctures in the pith of the 
 Cotton plant. 
 
 In Orchelimum the ovipositor is large, ensiform, and up- 
 curved. 0. vulgare Harris is very common northward ; it is 
 pale green, with two brown stripes on the head and thorax. It 
 has a large transparent shrilling organ, and is a more robust 
 form than the preceding species. Locusta viridissima Linn, is 
 a common form in Europe. Westwood states that "Hyperho- 
 mala virescens Boisd. from New Guinea, is distinguished by the 
 prothorax extending completely over the abdomen like a pair 
 of elytra," and that Condylodera tricondyloides from Java, in 
 the elongated, constricted prothorax and fine blue colors, ex- 
 actly imitates the Cicindelous genus Tricondyla. 
 
 ACRYDII Latreille. Grasshoppers have the body much com- 
 pressed, the head large, the front vertical, the ocelli generally 
 present, while the antennae are short, the greatest number of 
 joints being twenty-four. The prothorax is very large, some- 
 times reaching beyond the abdomen, and the wings are 
 deflexed ; the hind legs are enlarged for leaping, and the tarsi 
 are three-jointed. The stridulating noise is produced by rub- 
 bing the thighs against the fore wings, which are long and 
 narrow, while the hind wings are broadly triangular. The ovi- 
 positor, with its accessory pieces, consists of a subgenital 
 plate formed by the seventh sternite ; the ninth segment is 
 complete, and the blades (tergo-rhabdites) composing the ovi- 
 positor consist of three secondary pieces united together be- 
 tween them. These rhabdites are short, thick, somewhat 
 conical, and corneous. The eggs are laid in a cocoon-shaped 
 mass covered with a tough glutinous secretion, and containing 
 from fifty to one hundred eggs. The pupae are distinguished 
 
568 ORTHOPTEEA. 
 
 from the larvae in having large wing-pads. On the basal joints 
 of the abdomen are two cavities covered each with a mem- 
 brane, and containing a vesicle filled with liquid, which is sup- 
 plied by a nerve sent from the third thoracic ganglion. They 
 were considered by Latreille and Burmeister to be vocal or- 
 gans, but more correctly it would seem, by J. Miiller and von 
 Siebold as organs of hearing. 
 
 This family embraces insects of gigantic proportions. The 
 migratory locust (Acrydium migratorium) is a most destructive 
 insect from its voracity and immense numbers. Swarms of 
 grasshoppers are common in the far West where they commit 
 great havoc in crops. Our Caloptenus femur-rubrum has at 
 times, though not of late years, gone in immense swarms. 
 The larvae of many species live through the winter, and appear 
 often in March on unusually warm days. 
 
 In the genus Opomala the acute antennae are broad and 
 flattened at base. In 0. brachyptera Scudder the fore wings 
 are but little more than one-half the length of the body. In 
 Chloedltis the hinder edge of the pronotum is square or 
 rounded; there are no foveolae on the vertex, and the lateral 
 carinae of the pronotum is parallel, or quite nearly so. 
 
 Chloedltis conspersa Harris is light bay, sprinkled with black 
 spots, with a black line on the head behind each eye, and ex- 
 tending upon the thorax. The front wings are pale yellowish 
 brown, and the hind shanks are pale red, with the spines tipped 
 with black. Mr. S. I. Smith states that the structure of the 
 ovipositor of this species is "beautifully adapted to a remark- 
 able habit in the manner of depositing the eggs, which seems 
 not to have been noticed before among Orthoptera. The eggs 
 are deposited in old logs, in the under sides of boards, or in 
 any soft wood lying among the grass which these insects 
 inhabit. By means of the anal appendages the female exca- 
 vates in the wood a smooth round hole about an eighth of an 
 inch in diameter. This hole is at first almost perpendicular 
 but is turned rapidly off in the direction of the grain of the 
 wood, and runs nearly parallel with, and about three-eighths 
 of an inch from the surface ; the whole length of the hole 
 being an inch or an inch and a fourth. A single hole noticed 
 in the end of a log was straight. The eggs, which are about 
 
ACRYDII. 569 
 
 a fourth of an inch in length, quite slender and light brownish 
 yellow, are placed in two rows, one on each side, and inclined 
 so that, beginning at the end of the hole, each egg overlies the 
 next in the same row by about half its length. The aperture 
 is closed by a little disk of a hard gummy substance. I have 
 seen many of the females engaged in excavating the holes, 
 and they always stood with the body in the direction of the 
 grain of the wood, and apparently did not change their posi- 
 tion during the operation. When one was just beginning a 
 hole it was very easy to see the upper appendages rise and 
 open, and each time scrape away a little of the wood. During 
 this operation a frothy fluid is emitted from some part of the 
 abdomen, but whether it serves to soften the wood or to 
 lubricate the appendages and the sides of the hole I did not 
 determine." The genus Stenobothrus differs in having foveolse 
 on the vertex. S. curtipennis Harris is a very common species, 
 and at once recognized by its very short wings. 
 
 In the genus Tragocephala the vertex of the head is promi- 
 nent, the front rather oblique, sloping inwards, and the pro- 
 thorax is acutely angulated posteriorly. T. infuscata Harris 
 and T. viridifasdata Harris are common species ; the former 
 is dusky brown, the hind wings transparent, pale greenish 
 yellow next to the body, with a large dusky cloud near the 
 middle of the hind margin, and a black line on the front 
 margin ; while the latter is green, with dusky fore wings 
 broadly banded with green. 
 
 Pezzotettix closely resembles Caloptenus, except that in 
 some of the species it is wingless. P. borealis Scudder is 
 found in British America, and also on the tops of the moun- 
 tains of New Hampshire and Maine. In the P. alpinus Kollar 
 of Europe there are short wings. The genus Caloptenus has 
 but a slight mesial ridge on the prothorax ; the lateral ridges 
 vary in size, and the sternal tubercle is very large, while the 
 tip of the male abdomen is much swollen. Caloptenus femur- 
 rubrum Harris (Fig. 564, b) is the common Red-legged grass- 
 hopper. It varies greatly and has been so abundant in New 
 England and Canada, though not of late years, as to become a 
 public calamity. It has been seen very rarely on the Labrador 
 coast, and it is a very widely distributed species, ranging from 
 
570 ORTHOPTEKA. 
 
 Labrador to the Mississippi. The Caloptenus spretus Uhler 
 (Fig. 564, a), appears in immense numbers in the country be- 
 tween the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains, and extending 
 from the Saskatchewan river on the north to Texas. Mr. Scud- 
 der states that "a third, whether belonging to the same species 
 or not is still uncertain, has invaded at different times, nearly 
 all the country lying within the boundaries of the United 
 States, between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Ocean." 
 Dr. Lincecum thus describes the ravages of C. spretus in 
 Texas: "Last spring the young were hatched from the egg 
 in the early days of March ; by the middle of the month they 
 had destroyed half the vegetation, although the insects were 
 wingless and not larger than a house-fly. The first winged 
 
 specimens were seen high in 
 the air at about three in the 
 afternoon ; as a light northerly 
 breeze sprang up, millions 
 dropped to the earth, cover- 
 ing the ground in an hour, 
 and destroying every green 
 thing with avidity. During 
 the night they were quiet, but 
 Fig. 564. at daybreak commenced to 
 
 eat, and continued until ten in the morning, when they all flew 
 southward. At about three o'clock in the afternoon of the 
 same day another swarm arrived, ten times as numerous as 
 the first ; these again took flight the following day ; and thus 
 they continued, coming and going, day after day, devouring 
 the foliage and depositing their eggs. At first they selected 
 bare spots for this purpose, but finally the whole surface of 
 the earth was so broken up by their borings that every inch 
 of ground contained several patches of eggs. This visitation 
 was spread over many hundreds of miles." 0. bivittatus Say 
 is a large dull green, or olive colored species, with red legs, 
 and is very abundant in gardens. 
 
 Romalea microptem, called the "Lubber grasshopper" in 
 Florida, feeds on the leaves of the orange. (Glover.) It is 
 nearly three inches long; the prothorax is keeled, and the 
 wings only cover half of the abdomen. The larva is reddish, 
 
ACRYDII. 
 
 571 
 
 while the adult is yellowish brown with dark patches and 
 spots. 
 
 In Acrydium the spine on the chest is very prominent, and 
 the mesial crest above is well marked, while the tip of the 
 male abdomen is not swollen. Acrydium alutaceum Harris is 
 nearly two inches long, and expands over three inches. It is 
 brownish yellow, with a paler yellow stripe on the top of the 
 head and thorax. 
 
 To the genus Tropidacris, separated from Acrydium by Mr. 
 Scudder, belongs certain gigantic grasshoppers nearly four 
 inches in length and expanding some eight inches, with gaily 
 colored hind wings. T. cristata Linn, has pale, greenish blue 
 hind wings ; it is 
 reported from Asia 
 and Africa, and is 
 widely distributed 
 through tropical 
 South America. T. 
 dux Drury has brick 
 red hind wings and 
 expands nearly sev- 
 en inches ; its range 
 is from Texas to 
 Panama. 
 
 (Edipoda is a large 
 and well known ge- 
 nus, in which there is no spine between the fore legs, and the 
 front of the head is vertical and swollen. (Edipoda Carolina 
 Linn, is pale yellowish brown, the wings black with a broad yel- 
 low hind margin, and it expands over three and a half inches. 
 It is abundant everywhere. (E. sulphur ea Fabr. has deep yel- 
 low wings, with a broad dusky band beyond the middle, while 
 (E. corallina Harris has hind wings of a rich coral red. (E. 
 xanthoptera Germar (Fig. 565) ranges from New England to 
 the Mississippi. It is reddish brown ; the prothorax has a high 
 rounded unbroken ridge ; the fore wings are necked with small 
 dusky spots ; the hind wings are yellow at the base, fuscous 
 beyond and clouded at the tip ; the hind shanks are dusky, 
 with a pale band below the knee. The wings of the male ex- 
 
572 ORTHOPTERA. 
 
 pand two and a quarter inches ; those of the female three 
 inches. Mr. Scudder has discovered a chalcid parasite in the 
 eggs of (Edipoda Carolina. 
 
 In Tettix the pronotum is prolonged beyond the abdomen, 
 and the antennae are thirteen to fourteen-jointed, while Tetti- 
 gidea differs from it by having twenty-two-jointed antennae, and 
 a thicker, shorter body. Tettix granulata Kirby has a very 
 prominent vertex, with the front border angulated. 
 
 Tettigidea lateralis Say is a common species, and may be 
 found, like all the other allied species, in the spring and au- 
 tumn. It is pale brown, with the sides of the body blackish ; 
 the prothorax is yellowish clay colored, and the fore wings 
 have a small white spot at the tips. 
 
 Batrachidea has but twelve joints to the antennae, and other- 
 wise differs from Tettix in its more compact shorter body, and 
 more distant eyes, while the mesial crest on the prothorax is 
 very high. In B. cristata Harris the crest is high, regularly 
 arched, and on each side of the prothorax are two shallow 
 grooves ; the surface is rough, with a dark squarish spot on 
 each side above the terminal half of the fore wings. Saussure 
 describes an aquatic Tettix from Ceylon. 
 
 The genus Proscopia is wingless, with the front produced 
 into a long slender cone, while the whole body is long and 
 cylindrical, somewhat as in Diapheromera. The antennae are 
 very minute, six to eight-jointed, and the legs are long and 
 slender. P. gigantea Klug is six inches long, and occurs in 
 Brazil *at Para. 
 
 PHASMIDA Leach. The Walking-sticks, or Spectres, are slug- 
 gish insects found on twigs and leaves, to which they bear a 
 strong resemblance, and are neither raptorial as regards their 
 fore legs, nor leapers, like the grasshoppers. Their bodies are 
 remarkably long and linear, and the wings either aborted and 
 very small, or strikingly leaf-like. The head is horizontal, 
 long, while the antennae are rather short, and the abdomen is 
 nearly twice as long as the rest of the body. 
 
 The subgenital plate is formed by the largely developed 
 eighth sternite, while the ninth segment is incomplete, the 
 sternum consisting of a membranous fold. According to L. 
 
PHASMIDA. 573 
 
 Duthiers there are eleven abdominal segments, and the anal 
 stylets are not articulated as in the Mantidce, but are long 
 corneous claspers, and in some cases, very much like those of 
 Libellula, as in Acropliylla, while the eleventh ring is a little 
 triangular tergite, situated between the anal claspers. The 
 egg- sac in Diapheromera femorata Say (Fig. 566, J), our com- 
 monly diffused species, is flattened elliptical, with a lid in 
 front which can be pushed open by the embryo when about to 
 hatch, and is deposited in the autumn. 
 The young when hatched are linear, and 
 much like the adults except that they 
 are wingless. The male is considerably, 
 smaller than the female, and much more 
 slender. In PJiasma, a tropical genus, 
 the two sexes are winged, the antennse 
 are about as long as the body, and the 
 limbs are slender. P. 4:-guttatum Bur- 
 meister is between two and three inches 
 in length, and green on the costal border 
 of the hind wing, and rose colored be- 
 hind. It lives in Borneo. The genus 
 Prisopus differs from the other two 
 genera in the shortened mesothorax; 
 the legs are much flattened and leaf- 
 like ; the abdomen is longer than the 
 thorax, flattened beneath, and widened 
 on the sides posteriorly. P. spiniceps 
 Burmeister is a Brazilian species, and is Fig. 563. 
 
 two and a half inches long. P. flabellicornis Stoll, according to 
 A. Murray, spends the whole of the day under water adhering 
 to stones in the mountain streams of Brazil, and towards dusk 
 flies about ; it is the only truly aquatic Orthopteran known. 
 
 The genus Phyllium, found only in the East Indies, most re- 
 markably imitates various leaves, one species having its fore 
 wings so veined and colored as to resemble most strikingly a 
 dried and withered leaf. The wings are often very large and 
 broad, and as if to aid in carrying out the analogy the legs 
 have broad leaf-like expansions. The antennae of the males are 
 twenty-four-jointed, while in the females they are much shorter, 
 
574 ORTHOPTERA. 
 
 consisting of but nine joints. The P. siccifolium Linn, is green, 
 and about three inches long. It lives in the East Indies. 
 
 MANTID^E Latreille. These raptorial Orthoptera are easily 
 recognized by their large size, the enormous spinous fore legs, 
 
 Fig. 567. 
 
 adapted for seizing other insects like the raptorial Hemiptera, 
 and which has given them the name of Soothsa3 T ers and 
 Prophets, from their devotional attitude when 
 watching for their prey. They are worshipped 
 by the Hottentots as tutelary divinities. The 
 head is horizontal, triangular in front, with 
 long filiform antennae ; the prothorax is very 
 long, and the broad wings are thin, net-veined, 
 with long parallel veins, more strongly resem- 
 bling the Neuroptera in this respect than any 
 other family. The abdomen is long, linear 
 oval. "The subgenital plate is formed by the 
 eighth sternite, the oviduct opening between 
 the seventh and eighth segments. The ninth 
 segment is complete. The elements of this 
 ring are but little developed, scarcely surpass- 
 ing the subgenital plate ; the two episternites 
 are distinct, and between them is the small 
 ninth sternite." The stylets are concealed by 
 the broad expanded sternum of the seventh 
 segment, while the antenna-like appendage (or 
 anal style, Fig. 23) is sometimes many jointed, 
 and is said by Lacaze-Duthiers to be appended 
 rig. 568. to the eleventh segment of the abdomen. The 
 mass of eggs laid by the female is attached to twigs, and 
 enclosed in a flattened subovate case (ootheca) of hardened 
 silk. The eggs are infested to some extent by chalcid para- 
 
BLATTARI^E. . 575 
 
 sites. The young are long and linear. The Race-horse, Man- 
 tis Carolina Linn. (Fig. 567; fig. 568, eggs, natural size), 
 occurs in the Southern and Western States, and in the tropics 
 occur the allied genera Vates, Empusa, Harpax and Schizoce- 
 phala. According to Mr. T. Glover the eggs of Mantis 
 Carolina are laid in a packet about an inch long attached to 
 leaf-stalks and twigs. The body of the recently hatched young 
 is linear and turned up at each end, and it devours caterpillars 
 and insects, holding them in the fore legs with a firm grasp 
 by applying the spined tibiae and tarsi against the more stoutly 
 spined femora, and then sucking their blood at its leisure. Pro- 
 fessor Sanborn Tenney tells me he has observed the female 
 after sexual union devour the male. Burmeister says that 
 Mantis argentina Burm., of Buenos Ayres, seizes and eats 
 small birds. The genus Eremophila (E. Ehrenbergi of Burm- 
 eister) inhabits the deserts of Northern Africa, where it re- 
 sembles the sand in color. 
 
 BLATTARI^E Latreille. The Cockroaches are flattened ovate, 
 with the head rounded and partially concealed by the expanded 
 pro thorax. The fore wings are large, ovate, not much smaller 
 than the hind wings ; the antennae are long and filiform, many 
 jointed. The bilobate subgenital plate is formed by the eighth 
 sternite ; the ninth abdominal ring is complete, the sternite 
 being small and lodged between the two episternites which are 
 soldered into a single annular piece. The anal stylets are 
 short. The species, which are almost invariably reddish 
 brown, or paler, are nocturnal, hiding by day, and are found 
 under stones. They are fond of heat, the house cockroaches 
 frequenting heated rooms. While the common species are 
 troublesome from eating garments, etc., they do great service 
 in clearing houses and ships of bed-bugs, which they greedily 
 devour. The eggs are laid in a bean-shaped capsule (ootheca) 
 which is divided into two apartments, each containing a row 
 of separate chambers, about thirty in number, each of which 
 encloses an egg. Many days are required for oviposition, and 
 the female may be seen running about with the capsule par- 
 tially protruding from her body. During this period embryos 
 are forming within the capsule, and very soon after it is 
 
576 . ORTHOPTERA. 
 
 dropped the larvae are hatched. The common cockroach, 
 Blatta (Stylopyga) orientalis Linn, has rudimentary wings in 
 the female, while in the male they are shorter than the body. 
 In Periplaneta the wings are longer than the body, and the 
 supraanal plate is deeply fissured and the abdomen much 
 swollen. Periplaneta Americana Linn, is a commonly dis- 
 tributed species. The genus Platymodes differs from the pre- 
 'ceding one in its narrower and longer body, and the supraanal 
 plate is not fissured ; the anal stylets are much shorter and 
 turned down, while the wings extend beyond the abdomen, the 
 anterior pair being well rounded at the tips. Platamodes Pen- 
 sylvanica DeGeer is pale, shining, reddish brown, and the an- 
 tennae reach back to the tips of the fore wings. It is found in 
 
 woods under stones, entering 
 houses by night. 
 
 In EctoUa the wings are well 
 developed, and the basal joints of 
 the tarsi are shorter than the 
 others. The Ectobia Gennanica 
 Stephens (Fig. 569, male and fe- 
 male) is a pale species, and is 
 very abundant in houses in and 
 about Boston, where it is called 
 the u Croton bug." Ectobia lithophila Harris is very common 
 in woods under stones in New England. The third joint of 
 its antennae is as long as the next five, collectively. 
 
 In Cryptocercus both sexes are wingless ; the antennae are 
 half as long as the whole body, and the abdominal appendages 
 are not exserted, being veiy short. C. punctulatus Scudder is 
 known by its thickly punctured body and dark mahogany 
 brown color, with reddish beneath. It is found southwards. 
 In Pycnoscelus the males are wingless ; no females have yet 
 been found. It differs from Cryptocercus in having a larger 
 head ; the eyes are placed closer together, and the stylets are 
 slender, cylindrical, of about the same length as the cerci and 
 inserted just within them. Plate 1, fig. 2 represents the wing 
 of an extinct species of cockroach (Blattina?) discovered by 
 Mr. Barnes in the coal formation of Nova Scotia. While most 
 of the remains of cockroaches found in the Carboniferous rocks 
 
FORFICULARI^E. 
 
 577 
 
 of this country and Europe have been referred to the genus 
 Blattina, Mr. Scudder describes, in the "Palaeontology of Illi- 
 nois," a form under the name of Mylacris anthracophila (Fig. 
 570, upper wing; Fig. 571, 
 prothorax) which was found in 
 the lower part of the true coal 
 measures at Morris, Illinois. 
 
 FORFICULARI^E Latreille. 
 The Earwigs are very unlike 
 other Orthoptera, and are 
 readily distinguished by their narrow flattened bodies, with 
 short wing-covers, like the Staphylinidaz among beetles, on 
 which account Linnaeus placed them among the Coleoptera. 
 The head is free, flat, horizontal ; the ocelli are wanting, and 
 the eyes round ; the antennae arise from under the eyes, and are 
 filiform and twelve to forty-jointed. The elytra are short and 
 thick, while the rounded, broad, hind wings are folded under- 
 neath so as to be almost entirely concealed by the anterior pair. 
 The female genital armature is described by Lacaze-Duthiers 
 as composed of a subgenital plate formed by the eighth ster- 
 nite, while the eighth and ninth abdominal rings 
 are partly aborted, and only represented by two 
 horny arcs closely soldered to the tergite of the 
 tenth ring. The rhabdites of the eleventh ring are 
 greatly developed, forming the immense forceps, 
 which are often as long as the whole body. This family was 
 ranked as a separate order by Leach and Kirby, under the name 
 of Dermaptem, and were called Euplexoptera by Westwood. 
 
 They are nocturnal insects, hiding in the day time between 
 leaves and in flowers, flying about at dark. They feed on the 
 corollas of flowers and on fruit, and will eat bread and meat. 
 They are rare insects in this country, though troublesome in 
 Europe from their great numbers. An Alpine species lives 
 under stones in Europe. In Forficula the antennae are fifteen- 
 jointed. Spongophora bipunctata Scudder has two pale spots 
 on the elytra. In Labia the antennae are less than twelve- 
 jointed. Labia minuta Scudder is yellowish brown, with the 
 sides of the abdomen and the head reddish brown. 
 37 
 
 Fig. 571. 
 
578 NEUROPTEKA. 
 
 NEUROPTERA. 
 
 THESE insects have the body, as a whole, more elongated 
 than in other insects, with large broad, net-veined, thin, mem- 
 branous wings, both pairs being very equal in size, the anterior 
 pair being sometimes smaller than the hind wings, while in 
 some genera the hind ones are either diminished in size or 
 obsolete. The mouth-parts are free, the mandibles being well 
 developed, and the abdomen is long and slender, with the 
 genital armor always present, but made on the simplest plan, 
 not forming a sting. The metamorphosis is either incomplete 
 or complete ; accordingly the pupa is either active or inactive 
 and when inactive resides in a cocoon. The greater number 
 of species are aquatic ; and several degraded forms (Lepisma, 
 etc.) bear a strong resemblance to the Myriapods. 
 
 The description of the head and mouth-parts of the Orthop- 
 tera applies well to the Neuroptera, but the head is horizontal, 
 flatter, and the mouth-parts are less symmetrical, certain parts 
 being greatly developed over others. As a general rule that 
 part of the head situated behind the mouth is larger, in propor- 
 tion to the rest of the head, than usual in the Iarva3 of the 
 higher insects, and also the mouth-parts are much larger and 
 less compact. Thus the head of a Neuropterous larva may be 
 actually larger than the entire thorax of the same insect ; in 
 the Hymenopterous and Lepidopterous larvsa it is the reverse, 
 the head is often smaller than even the prothoracic ring. 
 
 The mouth-parts are inclined to become very large, and in 
 the larva of Libellula the labium is enormously developed, 
 masking the jaws and other parts when at rest, and capable 
 of great extension, while it is armed with powerful hooks, 
 being modified palpi, for seizing other insects. 
 
 The thorax is large, the segments being well developed, and 
 the prgthorax is usually large and square, but in what in many 
 respects are the most typical insects of the group, the Ephe- 
 meridce and Libellulidce, the prothorax is very small, as in 
 the highest insects, and in the latter group the greatly enlarged 
 flanks of the mesothorax seem to take its place. 
 
NEUROPTERA; 579 
 
 The wings are large, and in the Libellulidce they are in 
 constant use. The legs are generally of simple structure, 
 these insects neither walking nor leaping much. Rarely, -as in 
 Mantispa, are they adapted for seizing their prey, as they are 
 in many Hemiptera and Orthoptera. 
 
 The abdomen of the Neuroptera is composed, according to 
 Lacaze-Duthiers, of eleven segments (arthromeres) , and the 
 ovipositor is constructed on the same plan as in the Hymen- 
 optera, Hemiptera and Orthoptera, though in the different 
 families the characters vary much more than in the higher sub- 
 orders, in this respect perfectly according with the anatomy 
 of the other parts of the body in the different groups. He 
 states, however, as observation has taught us, that in its 
 structure the ovipositer is simpler than in other insects, and 
 the farthest removed from that of the Hymenoptera. 
 
 Lacaze-Duthiers, whose work is necessarily incomplete from 
 treating of the female ovipositor alone, not regarding the 
 analogous parts in the other sex, considers the Neuropterous 
 ovipositor (tariere) as having three types of structure. The 
 simplest is found in Libellula, in the abdomen of which there 
 are ten segments much alike; "the eleventh is more complex 
 than the others ; it has the same structure as in ^Eschna. It 
 is especially in the division of [the family containing] Libellula 
 and its allies that the two appendages take the form and the 
 function of pincers, and that the special word forcipate,' has 
 been used. These forceps serve, as is well known, for clasping 
 organs, and to enable them to perform the very long prelimi- 
 naries to fecundation." The outlet of the oviduct lies between 
 the eighth and ninth segments. 
 
 The nervous system of the Neuroptera consists of the cere- 
 brellum, with its lateral productions, the optic nerves, forming 
 a cylinder extending between the eyes and presenting four 
 swellings. (Leidy.) There are three thoracic and eight ab- 
 dominal ganglia which are of very uniform size, and connected 
 by double commissures. (See Fig. 43.) The nervous cord is 
 very equably developed and the brain portion is relatively 
 smaller than in the higher suborders. 
 
 Professor Leidy has described the digestive organs of Cory- 
 dalus cornutus, which may serve as a type for the rest of the 
 
580 KEUROPTERA. 
 
 suborder. It agrees with most other genera of the group in 
 having a long oesophagus, which is dilated posteriorly into a 
 spacious proventriculus, which extends as far back as the fifth 
 abdominal segment. The large intestine presents a large con- 
 volution, and abruptly dilates into an oval or fusiform ccecum 
 in its lower third, which latter opens into the rectum. In 
 some genera there is a long sucking stomach inserted on one 
 of the sides. In Corydalus this is only present in the pupa, 
 and is aborted in the imago ; so also in the larva the "proven 
 triculus, with its apparatus of stomachal teeth," is adapted to 
 the carnivorous habits of the insect, but in the pupa the teeth 
 disappear, u while in the imago we find the oesophagus again 
 lengthened, still contracted at its commencement, but gradu- 
 ally dilating until it forms a capacious Florence flask-shaped 
 proventriculus, or gizzard." (See Fig. 45.) 
 
 "With the Perli doe the gizzard is wanting, but the upper 
 extremity of the stomach has from four to eight coeca point- 
 ing forwards. With the Libellulidce the oesophagus is long 
 and large, and protrudes somewhat into the straight, oblong, 
 constricted stomach, which is without coeca, and is succeeded 
 by a very short ileum and colon. The digestive tube of the 
 EphemeridoR, which in their perfect state take no food, is 
 feebly developed. Its walls are very thin throughout, and the 
 oesophagus is directly continuous with the stomach, which is a 
 bladder-like dilation, and succeeded by a short, straight intes- 
 tine. The predatory Panorpidce, which are rapacious, differ 
 notably from the other Neuroptera, and resemble rather the 
 preceding order (Orthoptera) . The oesophagus is short and 
 straight, and in the thorax is succeeded by a spherical muscu- 
 lar gizzard which is lined internally witli a brown chitinous 
 membrane covered with stiff hairs. The stomach is tubular 
 and straight ; the ileum makes two convolutions before pass- 
 ing into the long colon." (Siebold.) In Lepisma the oesoph- 
 agus terminates in a "kind of crop, which is succeeded by a 
 globular gizzard provided with six teeth." 
 
 There are two simple, short, salivary glands in the Sialidce, 
 while in the Phryganeidce and Hemerobidce "they'are 
 ramified and highly developed. It is quite remarkable that 
 there is, in this respect, a sexual difference with the Pan or- 
 
NEUROPTERA. 581 
 
 pi dce^ the males have three pairs of very long, tortuous tubes, 
 while with the females the only vestiges of this apparatus are 
 two indistinct vesicles." (Siebold.) 
 
 In their larval state the aquatic Neuroptera breathe by 
 false gills, or branchial tracheae ; these generally consist of 
 slender filaments situated on the sides of the abdominal seg- 
 ments. These filaments are fleshy, and penetrated by tracheae, 
 which take up the oxygen from the water. In the larvae of the 
 Phryganeidce these false gills are simple, "rarely ramified, 
 and united in groups of from two to five, which stand out to- 
 wards the back." Siebold also states that "with those of the 
 EpJiemeridce each of the anterior abdominal segments has 
 a pair of these branchiae which are sometimes ramified in the 
 most varied manner, and sometimes consist of two kinds, 
 some being lamelliform and alternating with the others which 
 are fasciculate. With all the Ep Jiemeridce these organs have 
 movements which are sometimes slow and rhythmical, and 
 sometimes rapid and oscillatory. . . . The trachean branchiae 
 of JEschna, Libellula and the other Libellulidce are formed 
 upon a wholly different plan. They are situated in the very 
 large rectum, and consist of numerous epithelial folds which 
 are traversed by a great number of very fine branches of many 
 large trachean trunks. (Fig. 62, x.) The rectum is, moreover, 
 invested by a very highly developed muscular tunic, and its 
 orifice has three pyramidal valves which regulate the entrance 
 and the escape of the water required for respiration." 
 
 In the larval and adult insect there are four main trunks to 
 the tracheary system, two on each side, and much less com- 
 plicated than in other insects. 
 
 There are generally six or eight long, flexuous urinary or 
 Malpighian vessels. In the Neuroptera the ovaries "consist 
 always of multilocular tubes," and the two testes are, in the 
 Perlidce, EpJiemeridce and Libellulidce, composed of " a 
 multitude of round follicles, disposed botryoidally around 
 a long dilated portion of each of the deferent canals. . . 
 With Panorpa the two testicles are very simple and ovoid ; 
 but with the other species they consist of two tufts of long or 
 round follicles. With Myrmeleon and Hemerobius they are 
 oval and surrounded by a distinct envelope. The two deferent 
 
582 NEUKOPTEKA. 
 
 canals are short, and always have on their lower extremity two 
 long or ovoid accessory follicles." (Siebold.) 
 
 The classification of the Neuroptera is difficult from the 
 lowness of the type, which presents an unusual number of deg- 
 radational forms, such as are indicated beyond, and because 
 the different families vary so much among themselves, and 
 contain forms which mimic the higher groups of insects. 
 Though the type is the lowest among hexapodous insects, yet 
 there constantly recur characters which are found only in the 
 highest insects. For example the Phryganeidce are Neu- 
 ropterous throughout, yet there are many of the less impor- 
 tant characters which ally them most intimately with the 
 Lepidoptera, especially the Tin ei dee. 
 
 However all Neuroptera agree in the lax composition of 
 the body, inducing a worm-like, elongated form. The meta- 
 morphoses are, in the more typical families, less complete than 
 in other insects, except the Hemiptera and Orthoptera, and 
 upon the whole the organs of vegetative life are largely devel- 
 oped over those of animal life, making them generally very 
 sluggish in their motions (though the adult Libellulidae are an 
 exception) , and inducing an abnormal size of the body, as this 
 suborder contains many of the largest and most monstrous of 
 insects. The researches of Professor Dana and Messrs. Hartt 
 and Scudder show that the Neuroptera shared with the Orthop- 
 tera the possession of the low marshy lands of Devonian and 
 Carboniferous times, and the forms discovered in the rocks of 
 those periods indicate that they were often of gigantic propor- 
 tions, and among the most degraded of their type. 
 
 Dr. Anton Dohrn has described, under the name of Euge- 
 reon Bockingi (Fig. 572), perhaps the most remarkable fossil 
 insect yet discovered. It occurred in the Permian formation 
 in Germany. He considered it as combining Hemipterous and 
 Neuropterous characters, though more closely allied to the 
 Neuroptera. Dr. Hagen writes me that "Eugereon belongs to 
 Dictyoneura, Goldenberg, and is perhaps identical with one of 
 the species described and figured by Goldenberg." Dictyo- 
 neura is said by Goldenberg to resemble the Neuropterous 
 genus Semblis. Dr. Hagen also informs me that Gerstaecker, 
 after an examination of Booking's specimen, "thinks Eugereon 
 
NEUROPTEKA. 
 
 583 
 
 is next related to the Ephemerina. The parts of the mouth 
 have nothing of the Hemiptera about them and they are even 
 more related to 
 the Diptera." 
 While we would 
 defer to the 
 judgment of 
 these distin- 
 guished ento- 
 mologists who 
 have actually 
 studied the fos- 
 sil itself, yet 
 judging from 
 Dohrn' s draw- 
 ing we would 
 refer the insect 
 to the Neurop- 
 tera, and would 
 suggest that in 
 certain charac- 
 
 Fig. 572. 
 
 ters we are strongly reminded of certain more abnormal genera 
 of Hemerobidce and the Panorpidce. The wings while 
 closely resembling the Ephemerids, as Dr. Hagen has sug- 
 gested to us, also, in our opinion, recall those of an African 
 species of Palpares, and of the fore wings of Nemoptera, and 
 the antennae and beak-like mouth-parts seem analogous to 
 those of Panorpa and Boreus.* 
 
 FIG. 572. Eugereon Bockingi Dohrn, enlarged three diameters; A, a, lab- 
 rum; &, first pair of jaws (mandibles); c, second pair (maxillae) ; e, labial palpi; 
 /, fragments of antennae; m, portion of legs; n, middle tibiae. C, a, 6, antennas; D, 
 a, head ; b, fore femora ; c, prothorax ; d, prosternum ( ?) ; E, tarsus and end of the 
 tibia of the left fore leg. After Dohrn. 
 
 *Erichsonand Siebold have grouped the Termitidce, P$ocidce, Embidce, 
 Ephemeridcs and Lib ellulidce under the name'of "false ""Neuroptera, and con- 
 sidered them as Orthoptera, restricting the Neuroptera to the Sialidce, Hemer o- 
 bidce,Panorpidce and Phryganeidce,ar\A this classification has been adopted 
 by most continental entomologists. Now while believing in the unity of the Neu- 
 ropterous type, and that the so called " false Neuroptera (especially the May-flies 
 and the dragon-flies) are really the most typical of the suborder, being the most 
 unlike other insects, do not we have many characters in these palaeozoic net- 
 veined insects, which unite more intimately the so called false and true Neurop- 
 ters ? We would not forget the analogies shown in these fossil net-veined insects 
 
584 NEUKOPTEKA. 
 
 It is a rather large insect, the head and mouth- parts measur- 
 ing thirty-nine millimetres, the three thoracic rings twenty- 
 eight millimetres, and the part preserved of the right upper 
 wing forty-four millimetres, and of the right under w T ing fifty- 
 one millimetres. The antennae are long and thread-like, as in 
 Panorpa, and the venation of the wings are of the Neuropter- 
 ous type, while the elongated mouth-parts are Hemipterous in 
 appearance, though the labial palpi (Ae) are well developed, 
 being usually absent in the Hemiptera. It is the most puz- 
 zling form yet brought to light, and has been compared by 
 Dr. I)ohrn to the fossil Archseopteryx of the Solenhofen slates, 
 referred by some naturalists to the birds, and by others to the 
 reptiles. 
 
 We have shown elsewhere* that the Neuropterous families, 
 except the most typical, i.e., the Ephemeridce and Libellu- 
 lidce, mimic every other suborder of insects. They are in 
 fact comprehensive or synthetic types, combining, as do all 
 decephalized, embryonic forms, the structures of the other sub- 
 orders of insects, and thus presenting, in advance, features 
 which remind us of characters more fully wrought out in higher 
 and more compactly finished groups of insects. 
 
 As regards the preservation of the dragon-flies, Mr. Uhler 
 states that "the large, brilliant green dragon-flies (Cordu- 
 lina), as well as the yellow, brown-striped Gomphina, having 
 the eyes wide apart, will furnish new species in almost all parts 
 of the country. In order to preserve specimens in the neatest 
 manner it is well to slip them immediately, when caught, into 
 paper bags of suitable size ; first taking care to lay back the 
 wings so that they will be applied together, to prevent mutila- 
 tion. These paper bags may be placed loosely in a box carried 
 for the purpose. They can thus be taken out at leisure, killed 
 by applying a camel's hair pencil, dipped in sulphuric ether, 
 chloroform, or benzine, to the under side of the body, and then 
 have the wings spread by placing them upon the setting 
 
 to the Orthoptera, and which serve to unite the two suborders more intimately 
 than ever. Indeed entomologists in the future may unite the Orthoptera and 
 Neuroptera (in the Linnaean sense) into a single suborder equivalent to the Coleop- 
 tera or Hymenoptera, and these two groups may stand as two subordinate divi- 
 sions just as the "Homoptera" and "Hemiptera" are subdivisions of the Lin- 
 naean group of Hemiptera. 
 
 * Journal of the Boston Society of Natural History, viii, p. 590. 
 
TERMITIDJE. 585 
 
 boards. In most species the colors change after death, hence 
 it is important to make short descriptions of the colors before 
 killing the specimens." The smaller, more slender and deli- 
 cate Neuroptera should be pinned directly in the collecting 
 box. Many species are caught by a light in the night time, 
 such as Polystoechotes nebulosus and the Phryganeidce; 
 and a bright light placed in damp situations by streams, etc., 
 will attract large numbers, the smaller species, like moths, be- 
 ing attracted a great distance by light. For the proper study 
 of the genera of these insects, and often of the species, they 
 should be collected in alcohol, so as to be studied in a flexible 
 state. Dr. J. L. Leconte has published in the "American 
 Naturalist," iii, p. 307, some new directions for the preserva- 
 tion of insects which will apply to these as well as other 
 insects. " Surgical art has given to us an instrument by which 
 a poisonous liquid can be rapidly and most effectively applied 
 to the entire surface of large numbers of specimens as they 
 stand in the cabinet boxes, without the trouble of moving 
 them. I refer to the ' Atomizer.' 
 
 "Opinions may vary as to the nature of the liquid poison to 
 be used, but after several trials I have found the following 
 formula to be quite satisfactory ; it produces no efflorescence, 
 even on the most highly polished species, while the odor is 
 quite strong, and persistent enough to destroy any larvae or 
 eggs that may be already in the box : Saturated alcoholic 
 solution of arsenious acid, eight fluid ounces ; Strychnine, 
 twelve grains ; Crystallized carbolic acid, one drachm ; Mineral 
 naphtha (or heavy benzine) and strong alcohol, enough to 
 make one quart. I have not stated the quantity of naphtha, 
 since there are some varieties of light petroleum in commerce 
 which dissolve in alcohol only to a slight extent. These should 
 not be used. The heavier oils which mix indefinitely with alco- 
 hol are the proper ones, and for the two pints of mixture ten 
 to twelve fluid ounces of the naphtha will be sufficient. Care 
 should be taken to test the naphtha on a piece of paper. If it 
 leaves a greasy stain which does not disappear after a few 
 hours it is not suitable for this purpose. 
 
 "The best form of atomizer is the long, plated, reversible 
 tube ; it should be worked with a gum elastic pipe, having two 
 
586 NBUEOPTEKA. 
 
 bulbs to secure uniformity in the current. The atomizing glass 
 tubes and the bottle which usually accompany the apparatus 
 are unnecessary: a common narrow-necked two ounce bottle 
 will serve perfectly to hold the fluid." 
 
 The aquatic larvae and pupae can easily be reared in aquaria 
 in jars and tumblers, taking care that the weaker species are 
 separated from those more powerful and bloodthirsty. The 
 little Entomostraca, or water-fleas, serve as food for many of 
 the smaller species. With very little care many species can be 
 raised in this way, and so little is known of their transforma- 
 tions that figures and descriptions would be of great value. 
 The interesting and varied habits of the different families can 
 be also easily noted. They can be called summer insects, since 
 few are found late in the fall or early in the spring, though 
 several Per li dee, Hemerobius, Boreus and several species of 
 Phryganeids are found ere the snow has gone in the spring, 
 and a few species of the latter family are found in November. 
 
 TERMITID^E Leach. The White Ants in the different grades 
 of individuals, and their complex economy, foreshadow the for- 
 micaries of the ant and the hive of the bee. The bodies of the 
 winged individuals are shaped somewhat like that of the ant, 
 but they differ in the long, narrow, straight, finely net-veined 
 wings, the costa of which is remarkably straight, while both 
 wings are equal in shape and size, with the veins arranged in 
 the same manner in both. The head is of moderate size, hori- 
 zontal ; the eyes are rather small, globose, and between them 
 are two ocelli, the third and more anterior one being nearly 
 obsolete. The antennae are short, with about twenty joints, 
 and the mandibles are small triangular, with fine teeth on the 
 cutting, or inner edge. The abdomen is ovate and shorter 
 than in the Neuroptera generally. In all these points, as well 
 as in their habits, the white ants are the most perfectly organ- 
 ized of the Neuroptera. They are more cephalized, their 
 bodies are developed more headwards, and their intelligence 
 and remarkable instincts ally them also, intellectually, with the 
 most perfect of insects, the Bees, Wasps and Ants. Thus in 
 the lowest suborder of insects we find features which strikingly 
 remind us of the highest insects. Nature constantly repeat- 
 
TERMITIM:. 587 
 
 ing the same idea in different groups, here leaps over as it 
 were whole groups of insects, as if by prophecy pointing out 
 the advent of still more perfect forms and higher intelligences. 
 Geology teaches us that the white ant and other Neuroptera 
 preceded in time, as they do in structure, their higher ana- 
 logues. 
 
 The genus Calotermes differs from Termes in its small head, 
 the large, transverse, oblong prothorax, the veined costal area, 
 and in the tarsi being furnished with an apical plantula (or 
 foot-pad situated between the claws). C. castaneus Burmeis- 
 ter is almost cosmopolitan, occurring in Western and tropical 
 America. In. Termopsis the head is large, the ocelli are ab- 
 sent, and the prothorax is small, otherwise it agrees with Calo- 
 termes. T. angusticollis Linn, is found in the Pacific States. 
 The type of the family, Termes, has a large rounded head, 
 with two ocelli, and a small heart-shaped prothorax ; the costal 
 area is free, while the foot-pad (plantula) is absent. Our com- 
 mon white ant, Termes flavipes Kollar is found from Massachu- 
 setts southward, under stones, sticks and in stumps. It is of 
 a chestnut color, head and prothorax black brown, with brown- 
 ish antennae ringed with a paler hue, with white, very delicate 
 wings, and the mouth, tibiaB and tarsi are yellow. The work- 
 ers are white, with honey yellow heads. The white ants of 
 Africa live together like ants in colonies of vast extent. 
 The males and females are winged and closely resemble 
 each other as usual. There are two wingless forms ; the 
 soldiers, which have large square heads, and long powerful 
 mandibles, with a large prothorax, and the workers which 
 have small rounded heads and minute, nearly obsolete mandi- 
 bles. There also occur among the workers certain individuals 
 (Nasuti) which have the front of the head prolonged into a 
 horn. All these wingless individuals are asexual, the organs 
 of reproduction being undeveloped. They have been consid- 
 ered to be larvae by eminent authorities, but they are found in 
 the nest in abundance when the males and females have arrived 
 at maturity. They must, therefore, be considered like the 
 workers among bees and ants, as individuals specialized, or set 
 apart for the performance of certain duties involving the in- 
 crease and preservation of the entire colony. Thus the sol- 
 
588 NEUROPTERA. 
 
 diers, as they are termed by Srneathman, with their warlike 
 aspect, act as "sentinels and soldiers, making their appearance 
 when the nest is invaded, attacking the intruders and inciting 
 the laborers to work. The more peaceful and laborious 
 workers are estimated to be one hundred times more numerous 
 than the soldiers." "They collect food, form covered wa} T s, 
 guard the males and females and take care of the eggs and 
 young." (Westwood.) While most of the species burrow in 
 wood, or under ground, others, as in the Termes fatale Linn. 
 (T. bellicosus Smeathman) , raise conical hillocks of remarkable 
 strength and firmness, often ten or twelve feet high. After 
 impregnation the females, as in the case of the ants, lose their 
 wings. They are then conducted into the interior of the nest 
 by the workers. Here the body of the female gradually be- 
 comes enormously distended with eggs, being over two inches 
 in length, and it is known to lay 80,000 in the course of a day. 
 The pupa of Termes lucifugus, a French species, was found 
 by Latreille in the spring, with four white tubercles, or wing 
 pads. Other pupae are described and figured by Westwood, 
 which by their long wing-pads, prolonged beyond the abdomen, 
 closely resemble the Homopterous adult Cercopidce. Fossil 
 Termites occur in the coal formation of Germany. 
 
 EMBIDJE Burmeister. These are small insects, forming a 
 connecting link between the white ants and Psocus ; they are 
 characterized by the linear depressed body, with the head free 
 from the thorax, the wings equal in size, with few veins, and 
 triarticulate tarsi. The larvae are found under stones and are 
 protected by a cocoon which they renew at each moulting of 
 the skin. (Gerstaecker.) EmUa Savigni Westwood is found 
 in Egypt. 
 
 A species of Olyntlm? the only genus of this family found 
 in North America, is stated by Hagen to occur in Cuba. 
 
 Leach. These minute insects would be easily mis- 
 taken for Aphides, both the wingless as well as the winged 
 individuals. Their bodies are oval, the head free from the 
 prothorax, which is small and partially concealed by the wings. 
 The wings are unequal in size, and with few veins, thus depart- 
 
PSOCID^E . 
 
 589 
 
 ing widely from the usual Neuropterous type of venation, and 
 closely resembling that of the plant-lice. Mr. R. McLachlan 
 states (Entomologist's Monthly Magazine) that "the eggs are 
 laid in patches on leaves, bark, or other objects, and the fe- 
 males cover them with a 
 web. The larvae and pupae 
 greatly resemble the per- 
 fect insects." The larvae 
 closely resemble the pupae ; 
 the ocelli in these states 
 are absent, and the tarsi are 
 two or three-jointed, accord- 
 ing to the species. He has 
 observed individuals with 
 but partially developed 
 wings. " In all their states 
 they probably feed on dry 
 vegetable substances and 
 lichens. They are univer- 
 sally common, living more 
 or less in societies on tree trunks and palings, and amongst 
 the herbage of trees, especially firs, larches and yews, and 
 some species in houses and warehouses. I believe that both 
 sexes possess the power of spinning a web, not distinguishable 
 from that of spiders. They are exceedingly active and diffi- 
 cult of capture." (McLachlan.) 
 
 In the nearly wingless genus Clothilla, from California, there 
 are no ocelli, the wings are incomplete, and the tarsi three- 
 jointed. Clotliilla picea Motschulsky is but .04 of an inch long 
 and pitchy black in color, with a brassy reflection. In the 
 nearly wingless Atropos the ocelli are wanting and the tarsi 
 are three-jointed, while the rudimentary wings form minute 
 square pads. The A. divinatorius of Otho Fabricius is a little 
 pale, louse-like insect, seen running over books and in insect 
 cases, where it does considerable injury to specimens. The 
 Atropos is in England called the "death-watch," and is sup- 
 posed to make the ticking sound heard in spring. Mr. E. 
 Newman (Entomologist, iii, p. 66) has bred " Psocus pulicarius, 
 or some allied species, from Clothilla pulsatoria" (Fig. 573.) 
 
 Pisr. 573. 
 
590 NEUROPTERA. 
 
 The genus Psocws, which closely resembles in its appear- 
 ance and habits the Aphides, though the species are not suck- 
 ing insects, has three ocelli, two or three-jointed tarsi, and well 
 developed wings. The species are very numerous, and abound 
 during the close of summer. Psocus venosus Burm. is said by 
 Fitch to live on the maple, while P. salicis he describes as 
 being found on the willow. 
 
 PERLID^E Leach. This group comprises those Neuroptera 
 with long flattened bodies, the sides of which are parallel, while 
 the prothorax is large ; the antennae are long and thread-like, 
 and the wings are unequal in -size, the posterior ones being 
 broad, triangular. The labial palpi are present, while the 
 mandibles exist ordinarily in a rudimentary state. The wings 
 are usually charged with many irregular transverse veins, and 
 when folded flat on the back, extend beyond the abdomen. 
 The tarsi are three-jointed, and there are, in the typical genera, 
 two terminal setae on the abdomen. The pupae are active, with 
 prominent wing-pads. They are found in rivers under stones, 
 while the adults are found resting on leaves and in low damp 
 places. The larvae resemble the adult, except in being wing- 
 less, and bear a general resemblance to the larvae of certain 
 Ephemerids, showing the near relationship of the two families. 
 
 The genus Pteronarcys is remarkable for retaining in the 
 adult state external gill-like filaments attached to the under 
 side of the prothorax. It consequently lives in exceedingly 
 moist places, much nearer the water than Perla. P. regalis 
 Newman is fuscous, the head is no broader than the thorax, 
 while in P. proteus Newman the head is broader than the pro- 
 thorax and the abdomen is yellowish beneath. 
 
 In Perla the wings are veiny, the transverse veins few and 
 very regular, while the hind wings have a large, plicated anal 
 space. The palpi are thread-like, and there are two abdominal 
 setae. Westwood remarks that " there is a very great diversity 
 in the sexes of the typical genus Perla, the males being much 
 smaller than the females, with very short wings." Perla ab- 
 normis Newman is yellowish fuscous, and the wings are sub- 
 hyaline with the veins clay-yellow. 
 
 The genus Isopteryx is characterized by the wings having 
 
PERLID^E. 591 
 
 the transverse veins few in number, almost absent, and there 
 is no basal space in the posterior wings. The palpi are seta- 
 ceous, the last joint being shortest. Isopteryx Cydippe New- 
 man is pale yellow and immaculate. 
 
 Capnia is known by the wings being veiny, with the trans- 
 verse veins very few and regular ; the anal area of the posterior . 
 wings is large, plicate, and the palpi are filiform, with the last 
 joint ovate, longer than the preceding one, and there are two 
 setae. Capnia pygmcea Burm. is shining black, with gray hairs. 
 It is common in New York in February, according to Dr. Fitch. 
 The species of Tceniopteryx have the wings inrolled and veined, 
 with the transverse veins very scarce, rather regular ; the anal 
 area of the posterior wings is large and plicated ; the palpi are 
 filiform, with the last joint ovate. There are no abdominal 
 setae, and the tarsi are divided into three long equal joints. 
 They fly early in spring and late in the autumn, and south- 
 wards, during the winter. T. frigida Hagen is black, with 
 grayish hairs, with a gray band on the middle and another at 
 the apex of the nearly transparent wings. In Nemoura the 
 wings are veiny, flat, and the transverse veins are few, very 
 regular, the veins of the pterostigma forming an X. The anal 
 area of the posterior wings is large and plicate, and there are 
 no caudal setae. The males are smaller than the females, with 
 shorter wings. N. alUdipennis Walker is piceous, shining, 
 with whitish wings. The genus Leuctra differs from Nernoura 
 in the wings being rolled in when at rest. L. tennis Pictet is 
 fuscous, with three elevated lines on the disk of the thorax. 
 
 Under the name Palceopterlna, Scudder has described a 
 group considered by him as a distinct family which comprises 
 but three fossil species discovered in the Carboniferous forma- 
 tion at Morris, Illinois. The fragments of the first species 
 found were described by Professor J. D. Dana in 1864, under 
 the name of Miamia Bronsoni (Plate 1, fig. 1, the dotted lines 
 represent the parts restored by Mr. Scudder). He states 
 that this insect "while Neuropterous in wings, closely ap- 
 proaching the Semblids, has broad costate femurs, and even a 
 large spinous joint to the anterior legs, peculiarities which 
 seem to be almost inconsistent with the Neuropterous type, 
 
592 
 
 NEUROPTERA. 
 
 although in part characterizing the Mantispids, and which are 
 in complete harmony with the Orthopterous type." (American 
 Journal of Science and Arts, 1864, p. 33.) 
 
 Professor Dana farther states "that in the 
 broad costate femurs of the second pair of 
 legs and the form of the prothorax, it ap- 
 proaches the Orthopters of the Phyllium 
 family, and is very unlike any known Neu- 
 ropters. The anterior legs are peculiar in 
 having a large and broad femur armed above 
 with very slender spines as long as the joint, 
 three of which, though mutilated, are seen in 
 the specimen. But something of this kind 
 is observed under Neuropters in the Mantis- 
 pids. It is quite probable that these anterior 
 Fig. 574. legs were prehensile, as in Mantispa, and the 
 fact that the tibia and tarsus are not in sight in the specimen, 
 favors this conclusion. . . . There appears to have been a pair 
 of short obtuse appendages at the extremity of the abdomen, 
 
 much as in Phyllium. The 
 head is mostly obliterated." 
 Mr. S. H. Scudder in the 
 "Memoirs of the Boston So- 
 ciety of Natural History" for 
 1867, shows that the vena- 
 tion of this genus recalls fea- 
 tures of several other Keu- 
 ropterous families, such as the 
 Termitidce, the Hemero- 
 bidce and Sialidce. 
 
 Mr. Scudder, w r ho has given 
 a restoration of this remark- 
 able insect, states that the 
 head is somewhat like that of 
 Perla, being oval, depressed, with long oval lateral eyes. 
 These two authors disagree as to the "fore legs" (Dana), Mr. 
 Scudder calling the parts so designated by Professor Dana, 
 the head. Gerstaecker states his opinion that Miamia is 
 "without doubt a Perlarian." 
 
 - 575 - 
 
EPHEMERIDJE. 593 
 
 Mr. Scudder has more recently described in the "Palaeon- 
 tology of the Illinois Geological Survey," iii, p. 566, two other 
 forms of this group. He remarks, "the two specimens before 
 me, with wings better preserved than in the individual of Mia- 
 mia Bronsoni, prove that my delineation of the conjectural 
 parts of the wing structure of the Palcvopterina was in part 
 erroneous, and give evidence of a closer relationship of the 
 Palaeopterina to the ancient Termitina than I had supposed 
 possible." A second species of Miamia from Morris, Illinois, 
 he calls M. Dance (Fig. 574 ; all the specimens occurred in 
 balls of iron stone). It is four- fifths smaller than M. Bron- 
 soni. He also remarks, "the other fossil which I would refer 
 to the Palceopterina is Chrestotes lapidea (Fig. 575). The 
 genus differs from Miamia in the shortness and rotundity of 
 the wings," and in the venation, some points of which remind 
 him of the Blattarice. 
 
 EPHEMERID.E Leach. The May-flies, or Ephemerids, as 
 their name implies, are, when fully grown, very short-lived 
 insects, the adult living but a few hours. The body is slender 
 and weak, being very long ; the prothorax is of moderate size ; 
 the antennae are subulate, or awl-like, being very small, as in 
 the Libellulidce, while the parts of the mouth are rudimen- 
 tary, the insect taking no food in the adult or imago state. 
 The wings are very unequal in size, the hinder pair being much 
 smaller, or in some instances (Cloe and Caenis) entirely 
 aborted ; the transverse veins are either few or numerous ; the 
 tarsi are four or five-jointed, and appended to the long, slender 
 abdomen are two or three long caudal filaments. 
 
 The sexes unite while on the upper surface of the water, and 
 after a short union the female drops in the water her eggs "in 
 two long, cylindrical yellow masses, each consisting of numer- 
 ous minute eggs." Walsh states that he possesses a "sub- 
 imago of Palingenia bilineata, which oviposited in that 
 state." The larvae live in running water and prey on small 
 aquatic insects, the body being long and flat, with long hair- 
 like antennae, and small eyes situated on the side of the head, 
 the ocelli not usually being present, and long sickle-shaped 
 jaws, while along each side of the abdomen are leaf-like or 
 38 
 
594 NEUROPTERA. 
 
 bushy false gills, and the body ends in long feathered anal 
 hairs. They live, it is stated, two or three years, and reside 
 in burrows in the mud, under stones, or among grass and 
 weeds, where they may be taken with the water-net in great 
 abundance, and are beautiful objects for the aquarium. Lub- 
 bock states that Chloeon passes through twenty-one moultings 
 of the skin before it assumes the imago state ; the pupae are 
 active and have, as a general rule, the rudiments of wings. 
 After leaving the pupa skin the insect (subimago), when its 
 wings are expanded, takes a short flight, and then casts an- 
 other skin before reaching the final imago state. They often 
 fly in immense numbers, and become stranded in winrows 
 along the borders of lakes. The perfect insects should be 
 preserved in alcohol for study, as they shrivel up when pinned. 
 They should be described when alive if possible. 
 
 The genus Ephemera of Linnaeus has three long and equal 
 caudal setae ; the fore wings are present, with very numerous 
 transverse veins, while the eyes are remote, and in the males 
 simple. Ephemera decora Walker is luteous, with the end of 
 the antennae black and a reddish band on the side of the body. 
 
 The remains of a gigantic form described by Mr. Scudder 
 under the name of Platephemera antiqua (Plate 1, fig. 3) has 
 been discovered by Mr. C. F. Hartt in the Devonian formation 
 of New Brunswick. Another fossil wing, Haplophlebium 
 Barnesii (Plate 1, fig. 8), accompanying the preceding, has 
 been doubtfully referred to the May-flies by Mr. Scudder. It 
 indicates a very large species. Mr. Scudder also figures, in 
 the Palaeontology of the Illinois Geological Survey, certain fos- 
 sils from lower Carboniferous strata, which "appear to be the 
 wings of insects, and, being probably more nearly allied (p. 
 571) to the Ephemeridce than to other Neuroptera, should 
 be grouped under the generic name Ephemerites." 
 
 In Palingenia there are three caudal setae, the middle one 
 being short, and sometimes almost absent in the males. There 
 are four wings with very numerous transverse veins, and the 
 eyes are remote and simple. P. bilineata Say is a common 
 species and one of the largest of the family ; it is found floating 
 on the surface of lakes. It is greenish yellow, with a reddish 
 stripe on the side of the prothorax. The genus Baetis has but 
 
EPHEMERID^E. 
 
 595 
 
 two abdominal setae, while the four wings are provided with 
 numerous cross-veins. The eyes are simple, and in the males 
 of large size and placed very near each other. Baetis inter- 
 punctata Say is a yellowish white species tinged with green, 
 with an arcuate black line on the front, and a lateral black 
 point, while the prothorax has one black stripe on the side. 
 
 The singular genus Bcetisca is very thick-bodied, and differs 
 from the other Ephemerids in the fifth abdominal joints being 
 twice as long as any of the others. 
 The pupa (Fig. 576, i ; a, lateral 
 tooth ; u, antenna ; in, section of 
 the abdomen, the numerals indicat- 
 ing the segments ; a, branchiae, 
 above which is a flap, b) "differs," 
 according to Wtflsh, * * from all de- 
 scribed Ephemerinous pupae in the 
 antennae being eight-jointed or there- 
 abouts, not multiarticulate, and also 
 in the branchiae being internal and 
 not used for locomotive purposes, 
 and from all larvae and pupae, and indeed from all known 
 hexapbd insects in any of their states, in the pro-, meso- and 
 metanotum being connate and confluent, and extending over 
 one-half of the abdomen in the form of a large, dilated, convex 
 carapace, or shield, thus giving the in- 
 sect a very Crustacean appearance." 
 The larva, early in its life, has rudi- 
 mentary wings, as in many grasshoppers, 
 but in the pupa state they are not 
 present. 
 
 Near Baetis comes Potamanthus, which 
 has three caudal setae and four wings 
 provided with numerous cross- veins ; the 
 eyes in the males are double, large and Fi s- 577 - 
 
 approximate. The Potamanthus cupidus of Say is black, with 
 a broad dorsal stripe and a lateral impressed line on each side 
 Of the thorax. P. marginatus Zetterstedt (Fig. 577), a boreal 
 European species, we have found in abundance in Labrador fly- 
 ing over pools in July. 
 
 Fig. 576. 
 
596 NEUROPTERA. 
 
 In CloZ there are but two caudal setae, and though there are 
 usually four wings, yet the hinder pair are sometimes wanting, 
 and there are few transverse veins. The eyes in the males 
 are double, large and approximate. Cloe pygmcea Hagen is 
 
 brownish gray, with the feet and 
 setae white, and the wings hya- 
 line. It is a Canadian species. 
 Ccenis differs in having three 
 caudal setae, with no hind wings 
 developed, and few cross-veins, 
 and the eyes in the males are 
 very simple and remote. Ccenis 
 hilaris Say is small and whitish, 
 with black eyes, and the thorax is 
 pale fulvous, with short obscure 
 Fig. 578. lines beneath and on the sides. 
 Hagen states that the most abnormal Ephemerid is Oligoneu- 
 na, distinguished by the abortive condition of the legs, the 
 large size of the longitudinal veins of the wings, the rarity of 
 the transverse veinlets, and by a long bristle-like appendage 
 at the base of the fore wing. A closely allied genus has been 
 described by Dr. Hagen under the name Lachlania. It has 
 two caudal filaments, where Oligoneuria has three, and there 
 are three strong transverse veins in the fore wings. L. abnor- 
 mis Hagen (Fig. 578, enlarged) is a Cuban species. 
 
 Mr. Scudder regards as the type of a distinct family, which 
 he calls the Hemeristina, a single form, the Hemeristia 
 occidentalis of Dana, which occurred with Miarnia Bronsoni in 
 the Lower Carboniferous rocks of Illinois. Mr. Scudder de- 
 fines this family as consisting of "Neuroptera of large size. 
 The prothorax is quadrangular, narrower than the meso- and 
 metathorax, though not proportionally so much so as in the 
 Palceopterina; the femora (probably the front pair) are as 
 in the Palceopterina, but proportionally broader. Wings 
 large, long, about twice as broad beyond the middle as near 
 the base, the costal border convex in its outer half, with nu- 
 merous and prominent cross-veins but no reticulations ; when 
 at rest, overlapping quite completely, even close to the base, 
 
LIBELLULHXE. 597 
 
 much as in the Perlarice, and probably with the sides pro- 
 tected near the base by the deflected marginal and scapular 
 (subcostal) areas." Scudder shows that while the venation is 
 much the same as in Hemerobius, as stated by Professor Dana, 
 it also resembles that of the Sialidm and Ephemertdce and 
 Libellulidce. Gerstaecker thinks that Hemeristia "at least 
 stands nearer to the Epliemeridce than to any other family." 
 (Bronn's Klassen und Ordnungen des Thier-Reichs, vol. v.) 
 
 LIBELLULIDCE Latreille. Dragon-flies, Devil' s-darning-nee- 
 dles, or Mosquito Hawks, are readily known by the enormous 
 head and thorax, with the remarkably long, slender, cylindrical 
 abdomen. The head is large and globular, with immense eyes 
 often encircling the head. The large square thorax is remark- 
 
 able for the small size of the tergal parts, while the pieces 
 composing the flanks are greatly enlarged, rising up especially 
 in front, taking the place of the prothorax, which is usually 
 very large in the Neuroptera generally, but is in this family 
 greatly aborted, as these insects scarcely ever walk. As in 
 the Ephemeridce the antennae are short and setiform, and 
 the mouth is not furnished with palpi. The wings * are large, 
 
 * FIG. 579. Venation of a fore wing of Gomphus. Veins. a, a, costal vein; b, 
 subcostal vein ; c, c, median vein ; d, submedian vein ; e, postcostal vein. Sectors 
 (branches springing from areas, veins, cross-veins, or other sectors). Jf/, princi- 
 pal sector; g, nodal sector; h, subnodal sector; k, median sector; mm, short sec- 
 tor; n, upper sector of the triangle (normally a prolongation of d); o, lower 
 sector of the triangle (normally a prolongation of e); o', o", its branches. (The 
 figure gives an angle where o' bifurcates from o, which should have been a flow- 
 ing curve. Both n and o should have been engraved as springing from the lower 
 angle of the triangle, t.") Cross-reins. p, nodus; q, arc or arculus; rrr, - - - ant^- 
 cubitals. (The basal antecubital is wrongly engraved as dislocated with that of 
 
598 NEUROPTERA. 
 
 densely reticulated, very equal in size, and in some cases the 
 hind wings are a little larger than the fore wings. The tarsi 
 are three-jointed, and the second abdominal segment of the 
 males is furnished with accessory genital organs. 
 
 4 ' Landois notices a peculiar sound-producing organ in this 
 family, and figures that of .ZEschna juncea. It is situated in 
 the prothoracic stigmata, which are placed quite at the front 
 of the thorax, and concealed by the head. These stigmata are 
 large elongated slits, one margin of which is simple, whilst 
 the other bears a sort of chitinous comb of about twenty teeth, 
 between which an exceedingly delicate membrane is extended. 
 The metathoracic stigmata, which in general are the chief or- 
 gans of sound in this part of the body, are smaller, and bear 
 on one side a semilunar valve with stiff hairs." (Giinther's 
 Zoological Record for 1867.) 
 
 "During the pairing of the sexes, which takes place during 
 flight, the male seizes the neck of the female with his anal 
 claspers ; the female then curves the end of its abdomen to 
 the second abdominal ring of the male, which has a swollen 
 expansion of the under surface, containing in a longitudinal 
 cleft the intromittent organ, which conveys the seminal fluid 
 from the bladder-like cavity into the body of the female. But 
 since the outlet of the testicle opens on the ninth segment 
 of the abdomen, the males previous to union with the other 
 sex, must fill the copulating sac with the seminal fluid, by 
 curving its abdomen upon itself. After the union has been 
 effected the females generally let go of the males. In many 
 
 the second or subcostal series); sss, postcubitals. Areas and Angles. t, the 
 
 triangle (discoidal) ; u, internal triangle ; V, anal triangle ; W, basal area (or space) ; 
 xx, median area (or space); y, membranule ; z, anal angle in the male, the dotted 
 line z' showing the form of the anal corner of the wing in the female Gomphu;. 
 (The angle z ought to have been engi-aved as much more acute and salient.) A A, 
 discoidal areolets (in the figure two ranges of them commencing with three). 
 B, pterostigma; C, its basal (or internal) side prolonged in the normal manner; D, 
 " quadrangle," " quadrilateral," or " area above the triangle," bounded above by 
 m, below by d, basally by g, and terminally by an unnamed cross-vein; EEE, 
 postcostal area (or space). 
 
 Of the above pterological parts, q and its sectors, r, s, t, W, y, B, and in the 
 Calopterygina and Agrionina "the quadrilateral" (D), and " the postcostal area" 
 (E), are the most important in classification. From Hagen with modifications by 
 Walsh. Following the nomenclature adopted in this work, aa would indicate 
 the marginal vein; b, the costal; c, the subcostal; d, probably the median, and e, 
 the submedian vein. 
 
LIBELLULIM:. 599 
 
 species of Libellula, however, during oviposition, the male 
 retains his hold on the neck of the female, and both fly over 
 the surface of standing water, the female touching the surface 
 of the pool with the tip of her abdomen, and letting the eggs 
 fall into the water. 
 
 "In some genera (Libellula, Agrion) the two sexes of a spe- 
 cies differ greatly in color, the males having bright variegated 
 colors, while the females are dusky, being more of one color. 
 The males of many species have, on the abdomen, several days 
 after exclusion from the pupa case, a bluish powdery exuda- 
 tion. The genus Calopteryx and allies differ sexually in the 
 color of the wings." (Gerstaecker.) 
 
 "Brauer indicates the occurrence of dimorphism in the fe- 
 males of some species of the genus Neurothemis, some of 
 them having the wings very richly veined, as in the males, 
 whilst others have widely netted veins like those of the ordi- 
 nary Libellulae." (Gimther's Zoological Record for 1867.) 
 
 During July and August the various species of Libellula and 
 its allies most abound. The eggs are attached loosely in 
 bunches to the stems of rushes and other water-plants. In 
 laying them, the dragon-fly, according to Mr. P. R. Uhler's 
 observations, "alights upon water-plants, and, pushing the 
 end of her body below the surface of the water, glues a bunch 
 of eggs to the submerged stern or leaf. Libellula auripennis 
 I have often seen laying eggs, and I think I was not deceived 
 in my observation that she dropped a bunch of eggs into the 
 open ditch while balancing herself just a little way above the 
 surface of the water. I have also seen her settled upon 
 the reeds in brackish water with her abdomen submerged in 
 part, and there attaching a cluster of eggs. I feel pretty sure 
 that L. auripennis does not always deposit the whole of her 
 eggs at one time, as I have seen her attach a cluster of not 
 more than a dozen small yellow eggs. There must be more 
 than one hundred eggs in one of the large bunches. The eggs 
 of some of the Agrions are bright apple-green, but I cannot 
 be sure that I have ever seen them in the very act of oviposi- 
 tion. They have curious habits of settling upon leaves and 
 grass growing in the water, and often allow their abdomens to 
 fall below the surface of the water. Sometimes they fly against 
 
600 
 
 NEUROPTERA. 
 
 the surface, but I never saw what I could assert to be the pro- 
 jecting of the eggs from the body upon plants or into the 
 water. The English entomologists assert that the female 
 Agrion goes below the surface to a depth of several inches to 
 deposit eggs upon the submerged stems of plants." The 
 Agrions, however, according to Lacaze-Duthiers, a 
 French anatomist, make with the ovipositor a little 
 notch in the plant upon which they lay their eggs. 
 
 These eggs hatch during the middle of the sum- 
 mer, and the young larva (Fig. 62) when first hatched 
 differs from the more mature larva (Fig. 580), in not 
 Fig. 580. Caving the rudiments of wings, and in the long, 
 spider-like legs. The larva is very active in its habits, being 
 provided with six legs attached to the thorax, on the back of 
 which, after the first one or two moults, are the little wing- 
 pads, or rudimentary wings. The large head is provided 
 
 with enormous eyes, while a pair of 
 simple, minute eyelets (ocelli) are 
 placed near the origin of the small 
 bristle-like feelers, or antennae. 
 Seen from beneath, instead of the 
 formidable array of jaws and ac- 
 cessory organs commonly observed 
 in most carnivorous larvae, we see 
 nothing but a broad, smooth mask 
 covering the lower part of the face, 
 but when some unwary insect comes 
 within striking distance the battery 
 of jaws is unmasked, and opens 
 upon the victim. This mask (Fig. 
 581, under side of head of a dragon- 
 fly larva, with the labium fully ex- 
 tended ; a?, a?', a", the three subdivi- 
 sions ; y\ maxillae. For other details 
 of the head of the larva of Diplax, 
 see p. 60) is peculiar to the young, 
 or larva and pupa, of the dragon-fly. It is the labium, or under 
 lip greatly enlarged, and armed at the broad spoon-shaped 
 extremity (x) with two sharp hooks, adapted for seizing and 
 
 581. 
 
LIBELLULUXE. 
 
 601 
 
 retaining its prey. At rest, the terminal half is so bent up 
 as to conceal the face, and thus the creature crawls about, to 
 all appearance, the most innocent and harmless of insects. 
 
 Not only does the immature dragon-fly walk over the bottom 
 of the pool or stream it inhabits but it can also leap for a con- 
 siderable distance, and by a most curious con- 
 trivance. By a syringe- like apparatus lodged 
 in the end of the body, it discharges a stream 
 of water for a distance of two or three inches 
 behind it, thus propelling the insect forwards. 
 This apparatus combines the functions of loco- 
 motion and respiration. There are, as usual, 
 two breathing pores (stigmata) on each side of Fi s- 582 - 
 the thorax. But the process of breathing seems to be mostly 
 carried on in the tail. The tracheae are here 
 collected in a large mass, sending their 
 branches into folds of membrane lining the 
 end of the alimentary canal, and which act like 
 a piston to force out the water. The entrance 
 to the canal is protected by three to five tri- 
 angular horny valves (Fig. 582, 9, 10 ; Fig. 
 583, side view), which open and shut at will. When open 
 the water flows in, bathing the internal gill-like organs which 
 extract the air from the water. This is then 
 suddenly expelled by a strong muscular effort. 
 
 In the smaller genera, Agrion (Fig. 584, side 
 view of false-gill, showing but one leaf), Lestes 
 and Ccdopteryx, the respiratory leaves, called the 
 tracheary, or false-gills, are not enclosed within 
 the body, but form three broad leaves, permeated 
 by tracheae, or air-vessels. They are not true 
 gills, however, as the blood is not aerated in 
 them. They only absorb air to supply the tra- 
 cheae, which aerate the blood only within the 
 general cavity of the body. These false gills also 
 act as rudders to aid the insect in swimming. 
 
 It is easy to watch the dragon-flies through their 
 transformations, as they can easily be kept in Fi s- 584 - 
 aquaria. Little, almost nothing, is known regarding their 
 
 Fig. 583. 
 
602 
 
 NEUROPTERA. 
 
 habits, and any one who can spend the necessary time and 
 patience in rearing them, so as to trace up the different stages 
 from the larva to the adult fly, and describe and figure them 
 accurately, will do good service to science. Mr. Uhler states 
 that we know but little of the young stages of our species, 
 but "the larva and pupa of the Libellulce may be always known 
 from those of the ^Eschnce by their shorter, deeper, and more 
 robust form, and generally by their thick clothing of hair." 
 The pupa (Fig. 585, pupa probably either of ^Eschna con- 
 stricta or JE. clepsydra) scarcely differs from the larva, except 
 in having larger wing-pads. It is still active, and preys on 
 other insects. When the insect is about to assume the pupa 
 state the body, having outgrown the larva 
 skin, by a strong muscular effort opens a 
 rent along the back of the thorax, and 
 the insect having fastened its claws into 
 some object at the bottom of the pool, 
 the pupa gradually works its way out of 
 the larva skin. It is now considerably 
 larger than before. Immediately after 
 this tedious operation its body is soft, 
 but the crust soon hardens. This change, 
 with most species, probably occurs early 
 in summer. 
 
 When about to change into the adult 
 fly the pupa climbs up some plant near 
 Fig. 585. t^ sur f ace o f the water. Again its back 
 
 yawns' wide open, and from the rent our dragon-fly slowly 
 emerges. For an hour or more it remains torpid and listless, 
 with its flabby, soft wings remaining motionless. The fluids 
 leave the surface, the crust hardens and dries, rich and varied 
 tints appear, and the dragon-fly rises into its new world of 
 light and sunshine. 
 
 In Agrion and its allies (Agrionina) the antennae are four- 
 jointed, the eyes are small compared with those of Libellula, 
 and distinct ; the wings are equal, while the abdomen is cylin- 
 drical and long and slender. In Calopteryx the wings are 
 very broad and densely reticulated ; the pterostigma is absent 
 in the males, that of the females irregular and areolate ; the 
 
, LIBELLULID^E. 603 
 
 basal space has no transverse veins, and the male appendages 
 are forcipate. (Hagen.) Calopteryx apicalis Burm. is shining 
 brassy green, with long black feet. 
 
 In Lestes there are two antecubital transverse venules ; the 
 fourth apical sector is broken ; the postcostal space is simple ; 
 and the quadrangular space is trapezoidal, 
 with the exterior inferior angle acute ; 
 the pterostigma is large, oblong, and the 
 appendages in the male are forcipated. 
 Lestes eurina Say is blue, varied with 
 green and violet. The beautiful genus 
 Agrion has the apical sector straight, the 
 postcostal space simple, the quadrangular 
 space trapezoidal, with the exterior inferior angle acute ; the 
 pterostigma small, rhomboidal, while the male abdominal ap- 
 pendages are short. Agrion civile Hagen is brassy-black, 
 varied with blue or green, with a hairy head and thorax. A. 
 saucium Burm. (Fig. 586) is red, variegated with black, and is 
 a common species. 
 
 In the group ^Eschnina the wings are unequal, and all the 
 triangles of the wing are of the same form. In Gomphus and 
 its allies the 
 wings are un- 
 equal, the 
 hinder ones be- 
 ing broader, 
 and the trian- 
 gles of both 
 pairs of wings 
 have no trans- 
 verse veins. 
 Gomphus fra- 
 ternus Say is 
 yellow spotted Fi s- 587 - 
 
 with black, with black feet. The genus Anax differs in the 
 anal angle of the posterior wings being rounded in the male, 
 and the abdomen has a lateral interrupted ridge. Anax Junius 
 Drury is a large and widely spread species ; it is green, spot- 
 ted with blue and fuscous, with a yellow head. ^Eschna differs 
 
604 
 
 NEUROPTERA. 
 
 in having the anal angle of the posterior wings of the male 
 acute. ^Eschna heros Fabr. is one of our largest and most 
 abundant dragon-flies. It is fuscous, marked with yellowish 
 green, and with two oblique green stripes on the side of the 
 thorax. 
 
 In the third group of this. immense family, the Libellulina, 
 the wings are unequal, and the triangle of the anterior wings 
 
 Fig. 588. 
 
 is dissimilar, while the anterior genital hamule of the male is 
 free. In Cordulia the anal angle of the posterior wings of the 
 male is acute, and the body is brassy green. C. tenebrosa Say 
 
 is found in the Western 
 States. 
 
 The genus Libellula is 
 characterized by the short, 
 rather flattened abdomen, 
 narrowing rapidly towards 
 the tip, and the male clasp- 
 ing organs are scarcely visi- 
 ble. Libellula trimaculata 
 DeGeer (Fig. 587, male) is 
 so called from the three 
 
 dark clouds on the wings of the female. The male differs in 
 having a dark patch at the front edge of the wings, and a sin- 
 gle broad cloud just beyond the middle of the wing. Libel- 
 
SIALID^E. 
 
 605 
 
 Fi s- 
 
 lula quadrimaculata Linn. (Fig. 588) is reddish yellow, with 
 four dark clouds on the wings which are yellow anteriorly on 
 the base. In Diplax the abdomen is a little shorter than the 
 wings, and is slender, 
 flattened, compressed at 
 the base, while the feet 
 are long and slender. 
 Diplax rubicundula Fabr. 
 is a very abundant spe- 
 cies, being yellowish red. 
 Diplax Berenice Drury 
 (Fig. 589, male; fig. 590, 
 female) is black, with the 
 head blue in front, spotted with yellow, while the thorax and 
 abdomen are striped with yellow. There are fewer stripes on 
 the body of the male. D. Elisa Hagen (Fig. 591) is black, 
 
 with the head yellowish and 
 with greenish yellow spots 
 on the sides of the thorax 
 and base of the abdomen. 
 The Nannopliya bella of 
 Uhler (Fig. 592) is a smaller 
 form, with an unusually 
 short abdomen, and the 
 reticulations of the wings 
 are large and simple. It is 
 black, while the male is frosted over with a whitish powder. 
 
 SIALID^E Leach. This family is not a numerous one, but the 
 species are interesting as comprising some of the largest of in- 
 sects. Hagen defines the group briefly 
 as having the body short and thick, 
 while the prothorax is large and square. 
 The antennae are long and setaceous ; 
 the wings are large, reticulated, the pos- 
 terior ones with the anal .space plicated, 
 and the tarsi are five-jointed. Fi s- 592 - 
 
 "The female of Sialis," according to "Westwood, "deposits 
 an immense quantity of eggs, which she attaches one by one 
 
606 KEUROPTERA. 
 
 to rushes or other aquatic plants. They are of a cylindrical 
 form, terminating at the top in a sudden point ; they are at- 
 tached side by side with the greatest regularity." The larvae, 
 as in those of Corydaltis, are broad and flattened, with a pair 
 of long, thick, respiratory filaments attached to the side of 
 each ring of the abdomen. The body of the pupa is curved, 
 with the wings laid along the breast, much as in the Phry- 
 ganeid pupae. The larva is active and predaceous, being 
 armed with strong jaws. When full-fed it leaves the pools or 
 streams in which it has been living and makes an earthern cell 
 in the bank, in which the inactive pupa undergoes its remain- 
 ing transformations. 
 
 In Sialis the prothorax is large and square, almost equal in 
 size to the head ; there are no ocelli ; the antennae are filiform, 
 and the wings irregularly net-veined, the veins being stout. 
 
 The fourth joint of the tarsi is 
 
 T^\ lifc KM jfaydt dilated and twice lobed. The 
 W ^ ^JP^^r a * arva i mucn like that of Cory- 
 /*-- d, p- d dalus, but differs in having the 
 abdomen terminating in a 
 Fig - 593 ' ."long and slender setose tail." 
 
 Sialis infumata Newman (Fig. 593, caudal appendages of the 
 male, from Walsh) is black, with the head not narrower be- 
 hind, while S. Americana Rambur is rust-red, and the head is 
 narrower behind. The wings expand about an inch. 
 
 Chauliodes is a much larger insect, with a quadrangular pro- 
 thorax nearly as large as the head. There are three ocelli 
 placed close together, and the antennae are either pectinated or 
 serrated. The wings are veiny, the transverse veins slender. 
 The joints of the tarsi are cylindrical, and the caudal appen- 
 dages of the male are conical and simple. Walsh describes the 
 larva of C. rastricornis Rambur as resembling that of Cory- 
 dalus, but being much smaller, measuring 1.60 of an inch, and 
 the abdomen has one segment less, with no caudal setae, "so 
 that Chauliodes forms a connecting link in this respect between 
 Corydalus and Sialis, the larva of which is said to have 'one 
 long, slender, setose tail/" and the under side of the abdomen 
 is "entirely destitute of the remarkable paddle-like branchiae 
 found in Corydalus." The pupa resembles that of Corydalus. 
 
SIALID2E. 
 
 607 
 
 Chauliodes pectinicornis Linn., our most common species., is 
 yellowish ashen, with reddish pectinated antennae. In C. ser- 
 ricornis Say the antennae are serrate. In Corydalus, the largest 
 form known, the pro- 
 thorax is square but 
 narrower than the head 
 and the antennae are 
 stout but filiform. The 
 male of C. cornutus 
 Linn. (Fig. 594, fe- 
 male ; fig. 595, male ; 
 fig. 596, pupa; fig. 597, 
 larva), has very long 
 mandibles, about twice 
 as long as the head, 
 whence its specific 
 name. According to 
 the Editors of the 
 " American Entomol- 
 ogist," the eggs of 
 this insect (Fig. 598) 
 are "oval, about the 
 size of a radish seed, 
 and of a pale color, 
 with some dark mark- 
 ings. They are usu- 
 ally deposited in a 
 squarish mass upon 
 reeds or other aquatic 
 plants overhanging the 
 water." Hagen does 
 not " think that the 
 lateral filamentous ap- 
 pendages are connect- 
 ed with respiration ; 
 the little sponges at rig. 594. 
 
 the base of the filaments and a little behind them are the true 
 branchiae." "The reason that the larva of Corydalus has both 
 branchiae and spiracles is, that it lives, like Sialis, some weeks 
 out of the water before its transformation." (Hagen.) 
 
608 
 
 NEUROPTERA. 
 
 The genus Raphidia is not aquatic in its habits as it is found 
 under the bark of trees pursuing small insects. The adult has 
 a long neck (prothorax), which is much narrower than the head, 
 and the antennae are short and filiform, while the ovipositor of 
 the female is long and ensiform, probably enabling it to deposit 
 its eggs in the chinks in the bark. The larva is long and 
 
 slender; before 
 transforming it 
 makes no cocoon. 
 At first the pupa 
 is inactive, but 
 according to Mr. 
 Waterhouse 
 (Westwood's In- 
 troduction), it be- 
 comes active 
 while the imago 
 skin is develop- 
 ing, and walks 
 about, as the pu- 
 pa skin is exceed- 
 ingly thin. The 
 genus is only 
 found on the Pa- 
 cific coast of this 
 continent, anoth- 
 er proof of the 
 analogy of the in- 
 sect fauna of the 
 "Western shores 
 of this country 
 to that of Europe, 
 where this genus 
 also abounds. 
 
 Fig. 595. 
 
 In their form and habits, including both those of the larva, 
 and of the partially active pupa, which wiggles violently and 
 even leaps, as the larva does, as stated by Percheron, whom 
 Mr. Westwood quotes ( jouit de la meme faculte de contorsion et 
 de sauts, que la larve execute a un si haut degre), have we not 
 brought forcibly before us the Thysanura? 
 
HEMEROBID^:. 
 
 609 
 
 HEMEKOBID^: Leach. The Aphis Lions and Lace-winged 
 flies, which are included in this family, have long, slender, cy- 
 lindrical bodies. The wings are large, with numerous veins, 
 the posterior ones with no anal space ; the ocelli are usually 
 absent, and the tarsi are five-jointed. 
 
 The larvae vary considerably in form, but are usually flat- 
 tened or short, thick, ovate and fleshy, with large sickle-like 
 mandibles ; "the under side of these organs is deeply grooved, 
 and the maxillae, which are nearly equal to 
 them in size, and of a similar form, play in 
 this groove." (Westwood.) With these they 
 pierce the bodies of their victims and suck 
 out their juices. The sides of the abdominal 
 segments are fringed and have lateral tuber- 
 cles bearing a thin tuft of radiating hairs. 
 
 The body of the pupa is more cylindrical, 
 being curved, and with the limbs and wings 
 folded to the breast. The larva spins a silken 
 cocoon, and the pupa is inactive. 
 
 In Aleuronia the body is covered 1 with a 
 whitish powder ; the eyes are reniform, and 
 the antennae are moniliform. The wings are 
 ciliated ; the longitudinal veins are few in 
 number, while the transverse ones are almost 
 absent. Aleuronia Westwoodii of Fitch is a Fi - 596 - 
 very small insect, being black, covered with a whitish pow- 
 der, with a pale abdomen and feet. The singular genus 
 Coniopteryx, whose larva somewhat resembles a Smynthurus, 
 one of the Thysanura, showing the close relationship of 
 these aberrant forms, is characterized by Hagen as being 
 powdered with whitish scales, having globose eyes and monili- 
 form antennae. The wings are not ciliated, the longitudinal 
 veins are few, and there are some transverse veins. The pos- 
 terior wings of the males are small. Coniopteryx vicina Hagen 
 is black, covered with grayish powder, and the wings have 
 eight longitudinal veins, all joined together by a single trans- 
 verse vein. It is about one-seventh of an inch in length. 
 Haliday (in Westwood' s Introduction) thinks that the larva of 
 the European C. tineiformis preys on plant-lice. When about 
 
610 
 
 ISTEUKOPTERA. 
 
 to transform it spins an "orbicular pouch of fine white silk 
 of close texture, generally on the trunk of a tree, in chinks of 
 the bark, or among moss. The pupa is quiescent." 
 
 The singular genus Nemoptera is at once recognized by the 
 remarkably long, narrow, linear hind wings which reach far 
 beyond the abdomen. The larva has a remarkably long, 
 
 almost filiform thorax, and was de- 
 scribed under the name of Necro- 
 philus. The species are found in 
 Western Asia and in Northern 
 Africa. 
 
 The genus Hemerobius has mo- 
 niliform antennae, the wings having 
 the subcostal and median veins 
 joined together at the apex, and the 
 costal space of the anterior wings 
 is broader at the base, with a re- 
 current forked vein ; the transverse 
 series of venules are gradate (like 
 a pair of steps) . We have found in 
 Maine a larva (Fig. 599, tergal and 
 side view) of this genus on the bark 
 of a birch tree in October, where it 
 was seen preying on Aphides, and 
 had covered its abdomen with the 
 empty skins of its victims, forming 
 a thkk mantle as seen in the figure. 
 Hemerobius alternatus Fitch is white 
 or yellowish, varied with fuscous, 
 with tawny hairs. According to 
 Fig. 597. Fitch it is found upon pine and 
 
 hemlock bushes. H. occidentalis Fitch has hyaline wings, not 
 mottled as usual with smoky dots or clouds, but adorned with 
 two faint parallel lines ; it expands .38 of an inch. I have 
 raised specimens, referred -to this species by Dr. Hagen, 
 which occurred in the pupa state (Fig. 600), in considerable 
 numbers under a cloth wrapped around a pear tree in a 
 garden in Salem. The cocoon is oval, cylindrical, dense, and 
 surrounded by a much thinner mass of silk more globular 
 
HEMEROBID^. 
 
 611 
 
 598 - 
 
 in form. The partially active pupae crawled out of the co- 
 coons, and were found scattered about in the paper containing 
 them. 
 
 The genus Polystoechotes is of much larger size than Heme- 
 robius or Chrysopa, and Hagen suggests that the larva is 
 aquatic. P. punctatus Fabr. is widely distributed, 
 flying lazily at night-fall. The aberrant genus Man- 
 tispa is a most interesting form, from the great length 
 of the prothorax, which with other characters remind 
 us strikingly of the Orthopterous genus Mantis. The 
 fore legs are, like those of Mantis, adapted for seizing 
 other insects. Mantispa brunnea Say is our most 
 common species, occurring in the Middle and Western 
 States and southwards to Central America. 
 
 Chrysopa (Fig. 601, eggs, larva, and adult of C. 
 perla of Europe), the Lace-winged 
 Fly, is abundant and of great use, as 
 in the larva state it preys on plant- 
 lice. Its body is slender, with deli- 
 cate gauze -like wings, and is generally green, 
 with golden eyes. When disturbed it often 
 emits a foetid odor. Their eggs, supported by 
 long pedicels, are often laid in a group of 
 Aphides or in plants infested by them. When 
 hatched the voracious larva finds its food 
 ready at hand, and destroys immense numbers 
 of plant-lice, whence its name, Aphis-lion. It 
 turns to a pupa late in summer, and thus passes the winter 
 within a very dense, round, whitish cocoon situated 
 in the crevices of bark, etc. 
 
 In Europe gardeners search for these Aphis-lions 
 and place them on fruit trees overrun with lice, 
 which they soon depopulate. The Chrysopa ocu- 
 lata of Say (Fig. 602, and eggs) is our most abun- 
 dant form. It gives out a foul smell when handled. 
 By this genus we are led to the Ant-lion, or Myrme- 
 leon. It is a larger insect than any of the fore- Fig. GOO. 
 going genera, and reminds us in many respects of the dragon- 
 flies. The antennae are short and stout, clavate, while the body 
 
 Fig. 599. 
 
612 
 
 NEUKOPTEKA. 
 
 is very long and slender, and the wings are long, narrow and 
 densely veined. The larva (Fig. 603) bears a close resemblance 
 to that of Chrysopa. It makes a pitfall in fine sand at the bot- 
 tom of which it hides, leaving only the tips of its mandibles in 
 
 sight, which are extended 
 and ready to seize any 
 insect which may fall 
 into them. The pupa re- 
 tains the large mandibles 
 and uses them in cutting 
 601 - its way out of its cocoon. 
 
 Myrmeleon obsoletus Say (Fig. 604) is not rare in the warmer 
 parts of the country, and has been found at Salem, Mass., by 
 Dr. E. P. Colby. M. abdominalis Say has also been found as 
 
 far north as Milton, Mass., by 
 Mr. J. Schoneld. Mr. R. Tri- 
 men, speaking of the Entomo- 
 Fig. 602. logy of Natal, South Africa 
 
 (Entomological Monthly Magazine) , notes the habits 
 of a "huge Myrmeleon, of the genus Palpares, the 
 spotted and variegated aspect of whose wings will 
 cause you to mistake them for moths. . . . These 
 great insects are very unlike Libellulidce in their 
 flight, flapping wildly and irregularly about, as if their Fi - 
 muscular apparatus were too weak to wield their stretch of 
 wings. In repose the wings are folded above each other so as 
 to form an acute-angled roof above the abdomen. They differ 
 in this respect from the long-horned Ascalaplii, which deflect 
 
 the wings on either side, 
 and hold the abdomen 
 erect or nearly so." 
 
 Ascalaphus with its 
 long filiform ^nobbed 
 antennae, and broad 
 wings and gay colors is 
 Fi s- 604. the butterfly among Neu- 
 
 roptera. It flies in the heat of the day, seeking the hottest 
 places and is abundant in the deserts of the East. The body 
 and feet are short and the large wings are less densely veined 
 
PANORPIDJE. 613 
 
 than in Myrmeleon. The eggs when laid are hedged around 
 by^little pales like a fence "and are so placed that nothing can 
 approach the brood ; nor can the young ramble abroad till they 
 have acquired strength to resist the ants and other insect ene- 
 mies. The abdomen of the larva is depressed and oval, with 
 ten pectinations on each side." (Westwood.) It closely re- 
 sembles that of Myrmeleon. McLachlan states that the eggs 
 of Ascalaphus macaronius were observed by Kollar deposited 
 on a grass stem. Ascalaphus hyalinus Latr. is found in the 
 Southern States and Mexico. 
 
 PANORPID^E Leach. This family is interesting as affording 
 a passage from the winged Neuroptera to the degraded wing- 
 less forms which are often excluded from the suborder by 
 writers, and placed apart by themselves under the title of 
 Thysanura. Hagen thus defines the group: "body cylindri- 
 cal or conical ; head exserted ; antennae shorter than the wings ; 
 mouth rostrated ; lateral palpi biarticulated ; prothorax small ; 
 wings either almost absent or narrow, equal, longer than the 
 body, narrowed at base ; the posterior wings with no anal 
 space ; tarsi of five joints." 
 
 In Panorpa, the Scorpion Fly, so called from the long for- 
 ceps-like tip of the male abdomen, there are three ocelli and 
 the wings are narrow. The genital organs of the male are 
 greatly lengthened out, and are forcipated, with the last seg- 
 ment inflated ; the two tarsal Hooks are serrated, and the an- 
 tennae are bristle-like. 
 
 Lacaze-Duthiers selects the ovipositor of Panorpa as being 
 an intermediate type, as regards complexity, between Libellula 
 and J^schna. "When disturbed, the female of Panorpa Ger- 
 manica or communis, darts out a long slender tube towards 
 the disturbing object. Soon a little drop of a whitish liquid 
 appears at its extremity ; it is a means of defence. While at 
 rest the conical abdomen, terminating in a point, appears to 
 be composed of a less number of segments." At first sight 
 there seems to be but two, though in reality there are three 
 segments between the oviduct and the anal outlet, since the 
 ninth ring is very small and partly aborted, being concealed 
 beneath the others. The eleventh segment consists of five 
 
614 NEUROPTEKA. 
 
 pieces, a tergite, two sternal scales, and two appendages articu- 
 lated to the tergal piece. * . 
 
 M. Lacaze-Duthiers does not extend the comparison of the 
 ovipositor of Panorpa to those of Podura and Smynthnrus, but 
 we can see how easy the transition is. Only let the long flexi- 
 ble ovipositor of Panorpa be permanently extended, which in 
 insects usually involves its being bent and appressed to the 
 under side of the abdomen, and with a few other slight modifi- 
 cations we have the leaping ovipositor of the Podura and its 
 allies ! 
 
 The larva is terrestrial, as Stein has found the pupa buried an 
 inch deep in moist earth, at the foot of an alder stump. (West- 
 wood.) Brauer states that the larva is long, cylindrical, with 
 long filaments arising from tubercles 
 on the body. In its general appear- 
 ance it resembles certain caterpillars, 
 and also Ph^ganeid larvae. P. ru- 
 fescens Rambur (Fig. 605, enlarged) 
 is the most common form in New 
 England. It is of a yellowish red 
 color, with the antennae black, except the three or four basal 
 joints which are reddish. It is about half an inch long and 
 the wings expand an inch. 
 
 The Tipula-like genus Bittacus, though it has four wings, is, 
 in its remarkably slender body and long legs, much like the 
 Crane-flies. There are seven species in this country, one of 
 which, B. pilicornis Westwood, has been found in Canada and 
 New York. The winter insect, Boreus, is wingless in the fe- 
 male sex, and in its habits and form as well as its minute size, 
 reminds us strikingly of Podura and Lepisma, though the re- 
 semblance has not to our knowledge been specially noticed by 
 entomologists. In this genus the ocelli are absent, and the 
 males have very imperfect style-like wings, while the females 
 are entirely wingless. "The abdomen of the female is termi- 
 nated by a three-jointed ovipositor, the under side of which is 
 defended by a produced valve-like bilobed plate arising from 
 the under side of the seventh segment. The male has the 
 abdomen terminated by two short, recurved, attenuated, pilose 
 styles." (Westwood.) In this description we are reminded of 
 
PHRYGANEIDJE. 615 
 
 the Spring-tails (Podura) , which leap by means of the long ovi- 
 positor, and corresponding male organs, bent beneath the body. 
 
 Dr. Fitch has described two forms of these winter insects 
 which, like Podura, occur in moss and are found leaping on the 
 snow, Boreus nivoriundus. is about one-seventh of an inch 
 long, and is reddish, with a bronze tinge, while B. brumalis is 
 entirely brassy-black, and is a still smaller species. 
 
 We must not pass over the singular genus Merope, which is 
 interesting in this connection. It has no ocelli, while the 
 compound eyes are large, reniform and united on the top of 
 the head. The antennae are short and thick, narrowed at the 
 apex, while the wings are broad, with numerous transverse 
 veins, and the male abdomen has large forceps. The Merope 
 tuber of Newman is very rare. It is clay yellow (luteous), and 
 expands nearly an inch. Hagen remarks that "the genus and 
 species are very singular and abnormal ; perhaps the most re- 
 markable of all hitherto known Neuroptera. It certainly be- 
 longs to the Panorpina." 
 
 PHRYGANEID^E Latreille. Some of the members of this 
 family bear a striking resemblance to the smaller moths, such 
 as the Tineidce. As characterized briefly by Dr. Hagen, 
 their bodies are compressed, cylindrical ; the head is free, an- 
 tennae long, thread-like, the mouth is imperfectly developed, 
 and the labial palpi are triarticulate. The prothorax is small ; 
 the wings longer than the body, with few transverse veins, 
 while the posterior wings have the anal space large, plicated 
 (rarely absent), and the tarsi are five-jointed. In all these 
 characteristics, together with the cylindrical form of the larva, 
 the quiescent pupa which is very much like that of a moth with 
 its wings and limbs free, instead of being soldered together, 
 and in the habits of the larva, which in some genera resemble 
 those of the Sialidce, this family stands above the Neurop- 
 tera to be hereafter mentioned, and in a serial arrangement, 
 such as we are forced -to make in our books, this seems to us 
 to be their proper place, while in nature they appear to us to 
 stand off by themselves parallel with the Si all dee and 
 HemerobidcB, certain genera of which, in the imago state 
 (such as Coniopteryx) , they closely resemble, while they seem 
 
616 NEUROPTERA. 
 
 to rank higher than the Panorpidce, which next to the 
 Thysanura are in our view the lowest family among the Neu- 
 roptera. 
 
 The larvae are more or less cylindrical, with well developed 
 thoracic feet, and a pair of feet on the end of the abdomen, 
 varying in length. The head is small, and like that of a Tor- 
 tricid larva, which the Caddis or Case-worm, as the larva is 
 called, greatly resembles, not only in form, but in its habit of 
 rolling up submerged leaves. They also construct cases of bits 
 of sticks, sawdust, or grains of sand, which they drag over the 
 bottom of quiet pools, retreating within when disturbed. They 
 live on vegetable matter, and on water-fleas (Entomostraca) 
 and small aquatic larvae. When about to pupate they close 
 up the mouth of the case with a grating, or as in the case of 
 Helicopsyche by a dense silken lid with a single slit, and in 
 some instances spin a slight, thin, silken cocoon, within which 
 the pupa state is passed. The pupa is much like that of the 
 smaller moths, except that the wings and limbs are free from 
 the body. Dr. Hagen informs me that after leaving its case 
 it makes its way over the surface of the water to the shore, 
 sometimes going a long distance. "Westwood states that 
 "the females deposit their eggs in a double gelatinous mass, 
 which is of a green color, and is retained for a considerable 
 time at the extremity of the body ; the mass is subsequently 
 attached to the surface of some aquatic plant, and Mr. Hyde- 
 man has observed the female of Phryganea grandis creep down 
 the stems of aquatic plants under the water, very nearly a foqt 
 deep, for the purpose of oviposition." A. Meyer mentions 
 .several instances of the union of the sexes of different species 
 of this family, with the production of fertile eggs. (Giinther's 
 Zoological Record for 1867.) 
 
 Only one exception to the aquatic habits of this famity is 
 the Enoicyla pusilla Burmeister which, according to Mc- 
 Lachlan, in Europe u lives out of the water amongst moss at 
 the roots of trees. The larva is destitute of the external 
 respiratory filaments common to almost all caddis- worms, but 
 the spiracles are not very evident. E. pusilla is also remark- 
 able, inasmuch as the female is wingless, and little resembling 
 the male." Von Siebold discovered that an Ichneumon (Agrio- 
 
PHEYGANEID^. 
 
 617 
 
 typus armatus) attacks the fully grown larva of a Phryganea 
 ( Aspatherium) , which inhabits a smooth 'cylindrical case, 
 which the Ichneumon converts into a pupa case by spinning 
 a long broad band of silk around the anterior opening. (Ger- 
 staecker.) 
 
 In Neuronia and Phryganea the maxillary palpi differ in the 
 two sexes, and there are two spurs on each of the fore legs, 
 and four on the middle and hind legs. The maxil- 
 lary palpi in the males are four-jointed, in the females 
 five-jointed, and there "are three ocelli. Neuroma 
 differs from Phryganea in having its 
 antennae a little shorter than the wings, 
 whereas in the latter they are longer, 
 jnd the fore wings are hairy. Neu- 
 ronia semffasciata Say is fulvous, with 
 the fore wings transversely flecked with 
 brownish-black, a small basal spot, and an abrupt, 
 median streak at the hinder margin of the wing, while 
 the disk has two yellowish spots, and there is a short 
 fuscous subapical band on the hind wings. Fig. 606 Fig. 606. 
 represents the case of the European Phryganea grandis Linn. 
 In the group Limnopliilides the maxillary palpi of the males 
 are three, those of the fe- 
 males five-jointed ; ocelli 
 three ; anterior wings rather 
 narrow, the apex obliquely 
 truncated or rounded. In 
 Limnopliilus the tibial spurs of the three pairs 
 of legs are arranged thus, 1, 3, 4 (i. e., one 
 spur on the front pair of tibiae ; 
 three on the middle, and four 
 on the hinder pair), and the 
 apex of the anterior wings is 
 truncated. L. perpusittus 
 Walker is a boreal species, oc- "'WiMiiffllir 
 curring at Hudson's Bay. Limnopliilus rhom- 
 bicus Linn. (Fig. 607, case made of bits of moss) Fig ' 610< 
 is an ochreous species, with luteous hairs. Fig. 608, a, case, 
 represents a case-worm which we have found in great abund- 
 
 Fig. 
 
 Fig. 608. 
 
618 
 
 NEUROPTERA. 
 
 ance in Labrador. Though we have not reared the imago we 
 suppose it to be the Limnopliilus subpunctulatus of Zetterstedt, 
 the most abundant species we met in Labrador. The case 
 is straight, cylindrical, and built of coarse gravel, and the 
 larva is a thick, cylindrical, whitish worm. Fig. 609 repre- 
 sents the case of L. flavicornis Fabr., a European species, 
 which is often constructed of small shells. Fig. 
 610 illustrates the case of the European L.pellu- 
 cidus Olivier, which is formed of large pieces of 
 Fig. en. leaves laid flat over each other. 
 
 In Sericostoma the ocelli are wanting, and the palpi are 
 pilose, the maxillary palpi of the males are four-jointed, cover- 
 ing the face like a mask. S. Americanum Walker is black 
 with black hairs ; the antennae are twice the length of the 
 body, while the anterior wings are much longer than the hind 
 ones. Fig. 611 represents the tube of a European species of 
 this genus. 
 
 In Helicopsyclie the spurs are arranged thus : 2, 2, 4, and 
 the maxillary palpi of the males mask the face, being recurved. 
 We have found the larvae of Helicopsyclie glabra Hagen (Fig. 
 
 6 Fig. 612. 
 
 612, a, lunate patch on the basal abdominal ring; a, front 
 view of the head, enlarged ; m, mandible ; e, eye ; 6, vertical 
 view of the end of the abdomen, enlarged), about changing 
 to pupae, the middle of July, in Wenham Lake, Mass. One 
 had spun its operculum and lay with its head just behind 
 
PHRYGANEID^. 
 
 619 
 
 it. The body of the larva is curved, though not spirally, and 
 when out of the case it is cylindrical, thickest on the basal 
 ring of the abdomen, and is pale greenish, while the head, 
 thorax and legs are brownish ; it is .25 of an inch in length/ 
 The head is hairy and is smaller than usual, a little narrower 
 than the thorax, with black, acute unidentate mandibles. 
 The thoracic rings are horny above, somewhat hairy, and 
 the legs are slender and hairy. The abdomen 
 ends rather abruptly, with two short tubercles 
 ending in a hook; both sides being alike, the 
 body throughout as symmetrical as other larvae Fig. 613. 
 of this family, though living in a helicoid case. On each side 
 of the basal segment of the abdomen is a lunate, corneous, 
 hairy spot, by which the larva probably retains its hold in the 
 case when the head and thorax are protruded. The case is 
 usually very regularly helix-like in form, though the umbilicus 
 varies in size. It is composed of fine grains of sand so 
 arranged that the outer 
 surface is smooth. It is 
 closed during the pupa 
 state by a dense, silken 
 concave, suborbicular 
 operculum, with concen- 
 tric lines, rounded on the 
 side, and but slightly con- 
 vex on the other, with a 
 slightly curved slit for the 
 passage of water situated 
 on the less convex side, 
 each side of the slit be- 
 ing provided with slender 
 straight teeth which near- 
 ly touch each other, thus 
 forming an imperfect 
 grate. The larva does 
 not spin a cocoon. Fig. Fi s- 614. 
 
 613 represents the case of H. arenifera Lea, from Indiana. 
 Mr. J. A. McNiel has brought from Pulvon, west coast of 
 Nicaragua, similar larvae, belonging to a species very closely 
 
620 NEUROPTERA. 
 
 allied to that described above. They differ in being a little 
 larger and more hairy. The case is similar, though with a 
 rough exterior. The pupa (Fig. 614, a, antennae, curved back 
 behind the eyes ; Z, labrum ; m, mandibles ; mp, maxillary palpi ; 
 to, wings) of this Nicaraguan larva is curved in a slightly 
 spiral manner, the antennae are curved over and behind the 
 eyes, reaching to the seventh abdominal ring ; the maxillary 
 palpi are laid backwards on the side of the thorax, and the 
 labial palpi lie between them, though diverging from each 
 other. The wings are pressed to the body under the legs, 
 the latter being fringed with long hairs. On the end of the 
 abdomen are two slender tubercles ending in fine hairs, and 
 alike on both sides, the pupa, like the larva, being symmetri- 
 cal throughout. The larvae seem to live in clear water on a 
 sandy bottom, often attached to submerged sticks, 
 unio shells, etc. 
 
 In Leptocerus the antennae of the males are ex- 
 tremely long ; tibial spurs thus : 2, 2, 2. L. niger 
 Linn, is black, shining, with black hair ; the antennae 
 are black, the basal half annulated with snow-white, 
 while the basal joint is reddish ; the feet are luteous, 
 the intermediate ones being snow-white, while the 
 Fig. 615. anterior wings are steel-blue black, and the hind 
 wings blackish. It is found in Europe and the United States. 
 Fig. 615 represents, Dr. Hagen informs me, a case of either 
 this species or L. sepulchralis Walker, or else a similar species. 
 The larva builds a thin, long, conical, sandy tube supported 
 between two needles of the pine. The specimens figured were 
 found by Rev. E. C. Bolles at Westbrook, Maine. 
 
 In Setodes the species are snow-white ; the spurs are ar- 
 ranged thus : 0, 2, 2. S. Candida Hagen is pale j^ellow, with 
 the anterior wings snowy white. It occurs in the Southern 
 States. McLachlan states that "some species 
 of Setodes make delicate little tubes, entirely 
 formed of a silky secretion, without any mix- 
 Fig. GIG. ture of extraneous matters." Fig. 616 repre- 
 sents a tube of a European species of Setodes formed of sand. 
 In Hydropsyche and allies the ocelli are three in number, or 
 entirely wanting, while the last division of the maxillary palpi 
 
PHRYGANEID^E. 
 
 621 
 
 is very long, filiform and multiarticulate. In Hydropsyclie the 
 spurs are arranged thus : 2, 4, 4. The antennae are rather 
 long and slender, the ocelli are absent, and the intermediate 
 feet of the female are dilated. H. scalaris Hagen is black 
 gray, with white hairs, and the antennae are yellowish, and 
 obliquely striated with black at the base ; the first joint is 
 covered with snow-white hairs. Philopotamus has three ocelli, 
 and the tibial spurs are arranged thus : 2, 4, 4. 
 
 In Rliyacopliila the maxillary palpi have the last joint entire, 
 straight, shorter than the rest ; while there are three ocelli, and 
 the tibial spurs are arranged thus : 3, 4, 4. R. fuscula Walker 
 is rust-red, with some black hairs and a subfuscous spot on 
 each side of the thorax. It comes from Hudson's Bay. 
 
 Another curious Neuropterous insect found in the iron-stone 
 concretions of Morris, 111., is the Megathentomum pustulatum 
 of Scudder (Fig. 617, natural size), described and figured by 
 him in the "Palaeon- 
 tology of the Illinois 
 State Geological Sur- 
 vey." "The fragment 
 represents a wing (ap- 
 parently an upper one) 
 of a Neuropterous in~ 
 sect. It is gigantic in 
 size, very broad, with 
 distant nervures, sim- 
 ple infrequent divarica- 
 tions, and in the outer 
 half of the wing, which 
 alone is presented, a 
 
 cross neuration, composed solely of most delicate and irregu- 
 lar veinlets. The wing is also furnished with a great number 
 of larger and smaller discolored spots, the surfaces of the 
 larger ones irregularly elevated." Mr. Scudder thinks the 
 wing is allied to that of Coniopteryx, adding "it appears to 
 belong to a family hitherto undescribed. I do not know of a 
 single insect, living or fossil, which approaches it in the struc- 
 ture of the wings." 
 
622 NETJROPTERA. 
 
 The two succeeding families were by Latreille placed in a 
 group by themselves (Thysanura), which was considered 
 equivalent to the Neuroptera, or Diptera, for example. More 
 recently they have been placed among the Neuroptera, though 
 Burmeister considered them as Orthopterous, by the close re- 
 semblance of the mouth-parts of Lepisma, especially the la- 
 bium, to those of the Blattarice. But in descending through 
 the last three families thysanurous characters have constantly 
 revealed themselves, as we have shown above, and the tran- 
 sition from some Sialidan, Hemerobid and Panorpid forms is 
 not so abrupt as it might seem. Indeed these low, apterous 
 insects stand hi the same relation to the rest of the Neurop- 
 tera as the Flea does to the rest of the Diptera, or the Lice 
 and Thrips to the* higher Hemiptera. In all these degraded 
 forms the metamorphosis is but slightly marked. The pupa 
 is active and closely resembles the larva, where in the higher 
 insects, such as the butterfly or bee, the pupa bears a close 
 resemblance to the adult, winged form. 
 
 These interesting, minute, wingless forms, also afford a pas- 
 sage from the true winged insects to the Myriapods, by the uni- 
 form size of the rings of the bod}^, which form a continuous 
 series from the head to the opposite extremity, as in the genus 
 Lepisma and allies, without showing the usual well marked 
 division into head, thorax and abdomen. Even the place of 
 abdominal legs is supplied in Lepisma by the rows of small 
 stylets which prop up the long slender abdomen. 
 
 LEPISMATID^ Burmeister. Bristle-tails. These agile crea- 
 tures, which are revealed by turning over stones and sticks in 
 damp situations, and are often seen about houses, have a long 
 flattened body, with metallic scales, in form somewhat like 
 those of butterflies. The antennae are very long, setiform, 
 many-jointed ; the mouth-parts are free, with long palpi ; the 
 maxillary palpi being seven-jointed and the labial palpi four- 
 jointed. The mandibles are stout, sunken in the head, and 
 armed with teeth for gnawing. The prothorax is very large, 
 and all the rings of the body are of much the same size, so 
 that the insect bears a general resemblance to the Myriapods. 
 The anal stylets are long and large, which with the smaller 
 
CAMPODEuE. 623 
 
 ones inserted on the subterminal rings of the abdomen aid 
 greatly in locomotion, though these insects run with great ra- 
 pidity and do not leap like the Poduridce, and thus remind 
 us, as well as in their general appearance, of cer- 
 tain wingless cockroaches. 
 
 In Lepisma (Fig. 618) the eyes are minute, con- 
 sisting of twelve simple eyes, with short bristles 
 on the tip of the abdomen, of which three are 
 longest, while Machilis differs in having compound 
 eyes, and longer abdominal bristles. Lepisma 
 saccharina Linn., or an allied species, is often very 
 common in houses, where it eats holes, in silks and 
 silken tapestry, devours the paste and mutilates 
 the leaves of books. L. domestica Pack., is a beau- 
 tiful white hairy species, spotted with black, and is Fig - 618> 
 common about fire places in Salem. Machilis variabilis Say 
 (PL 10, figs. 8, 9), is dark brown, with long caudal stylets. It 
 is common all over the middle and southern states, and occurs 
 as far north as Salem, Mass. 
 
 CAMPODE^E Meinert. Under this name Dr. Meinert has 
 established a family consisting of two but little known genera, 
 which haf e flat and elongated bodies and no springing appara- 
 tus, nor eyes, and though the author excludes the Lepismae from 
 the Thysanura, we would suggest that the Campodese seem 
 intermediate between the running Lepismse and the springing 
 Podurae. The antennae are setaceous or filiform, and the feet 
 are adapted for running, with distinct, elongated, two-clawed 
 tarsi. There are two anal cerci arising from the tenth and last 
 abdominal segment. There are six thoracic spiracles, the 
 Podurse having none (Meinert). The genus Japyx of Haliday 
 has short, inarticulate, horny anal cerci. J. solifugus Haliday 
 lays few eggs, but those very large. It lives under stones and 
 when disturbed resembles "a Lithobius in the character of its 
 movements," and bears a remarkable resemblance to a young 
 Forficula. J. Saussurii Humbert lives in Mexico. The other 
 genus, Campodea, has many- jointed anal cerci. C. staphylinus 
 Westw. of Europe lives under stones. C. Americana Pack, 
 has similar habits. C. Codkei Pack, lives in Mammoth Cave. 
 
624 NEUROPTERA. 
 
 PODURID^E Burmeister. The Spring-tails are the typical 
 Thysanura, as they differ more than Lepisma and allies from 
 all other insects. The anal bristles, which are free in Lepisma, 
 are here united and bent beneath the body, forming the 
 "spring" by which they leap to a prodigious height for such 
 minute insects. The body is cylindrical, not flattened, and is 
 covered either with hairs or scales. The four or six-jointed 
 antennae are short and thick, and the eyes are simple, usually 
 four to eight on each side. The mouth-parts are not well de- 
 veloped, though mostly present, the mandibles being small, 
 with minute teeth, and the maxillary palpi entirely wanting 
 (Gerstaecker), though Lubbock states that the "second pair 
 of maxillae [labium] are membranous and delicate." The pro- 
 thorax is small, convex, while the two hinder thoracic rings 
 are large and similar to each other. The legs are stout, with 
 tarsi consisting of but a single joint. The abdomen consists 
 of six, sometimes only three segments, with a long anal stylet 
 forming the forked tail, or "spring," beneath. (Gerstaecker.) 
 They are found in gardens, or hot-beds, on manure heaps in 
 winter, and on the snow ; they may also be seen leaping on the 
 surface of the water in quiet pools. According to Nicolet 
 these insects are very prolific, as he found 1360 eggs in a sin- 
 gle individual. The embryo is developed in twelve days. 
 They moult often, and at periods of fourteen days each. 
 
 The intestinal canal consists in great part of a long and 
 voluminous chyle-making stomach, into the lower end of which 
 six free Malpighian tubes pour their contents. (Nicolet.) In 
 Papirius Saundersii, as in many other apterous Articulata, the 
 testis is formed on the same type as the ovary. On each side 
 of the body is a simple tube opening into a triangular reser- 
 voir with its base in front. The nervous system of Smynthurus 
 consists, according to Nicolet, of four ganglia, with a double 
 connecting cord. Two of these ganglia occupy the head and 
 form the cesophageal collar. The two others consist of a tho- 
 racic and one abdominal ganglion. There are in Podura four 
 pairs of stigmata in the four basal rings of the abdomen. Next 
 to the two main tracheae are six pairs of rather long vesicles 
 united with them by loops. (Gerstaecker.) 
 
 Lubbock states that in Smynthurus there are but two spira- 
 
PODLTRID^. 
 
 625 
 
 cles, adding that "it is very unusual for an articulate animal 
 
 to have only two spiracles, and their position is still more ex- 
 
 traordinary, for they open on the under side of the head, 
 
 immediately below the antennae, ... on the* 
 
 inner side of the basis of the mandibles." 
 
 "In the manner of subdivisions the tracheae 
 
 of Smynthurus differ from those of the true in- 
 
 sects, and agree more closely with the Myrio- 
 
 poda and tracheal Arachnida, in the fact that 
 
 they do not often give off branches nor form 
 
 tufts, but generally divide dichotomously, and 
 
 run considerable distances without a separa- 
 
 tion." (Mr. Lubbock, whom we have just 
 
 quoted, states that Papirius has no tracheae.) 
 
 In Smynthurus the ovaries consist, according 
 
 to Lubbock, of a single egg-tube. On the un- 
 
 derside of the abdomen is a sucking tube, slen- Fig. 619. 
 
 der and forked in Smynthurus, but 
 short in Podura, etc., by which the 
 animal adheres to smooth surfaces. 
 In the genus Podura the body is 
 long, with four-jointed antennae, and 
 the flexible spring-tail is short, while 
 in Desoria, which is found in the 
 Alps, the tail is long. The. genus 
 Degeeria is known v by the ovate body, 
 and basal half of the spring equal- 
 ling the fork in 
 length. A species 
 (Fig. 619) closely 
 
 resembling the European D. nivalis Nicolet, 
 
 we have found in summer resting on the 
 
 leaves of the Clematis. The Lepidocyrtus al- 
 
 binos Nic. (Fig. 620) is a minute pearly white 
 
 species found in Europe ; its scales (Fig. 
 
 621) are thin and with distinct markings. 
 Smynthurus is short, differing greatly in 
 
 form from Podura, and bears a striking resemblance to the 
 
 larva of Coniopteryx. The body is short, nearly spherical, and 
 40 
 
 620- 
 
626 AEACHNIDA. 
 
 in its form approaches the spiders, as noticed by Latreille. 
 The four-jointed antennae are long and elbowed, while there 
 are eight simple eyes on each side of the head. The species 
 are found on tlte leaves of garden plants. In Papirius of 
 Lubbock, the antennae are said to be " four-jointed, but with- 
 out a well marked elbow, and with a short terminal segment, 
 offering the appearance of being many-jointed. * 
 
 ORDER II. ARACHNIDA. 
 
 THE typical forms of this order have the body divided into 
 two regions, the head-thorax (cephalothorax) and abdomen. 
 The head is sometimes quite distinct, but is generally sunken 
 into the thorax, which bears four pairs of legs, while the abdo- 
 men has no organs of locomotion, though the abdomen is pro- 
 vided with three pairs of jointed appendages (the spinnerets) , 
 which are, however, homologous with the legs. The metamor- 
 phosis is very incomplete in the lower forms, while in the 
 spiders there is none at all after the animal leaves the egg. 
 The head is without antennae, pr compound eyes. The order 
 shows its close relationship with the Dipterous insects, especi- 
 ally when compared with the wingless Chionea and Nycteribia, 
 and its lowest forms (certain mites) bear a close resemblance 
 to some of the lower Crustacea, as the young stages and em- 
 bryonic development are remarkably similar. The typical 
 forms of the order homologize too closely with the apterous 
 insects to allow them to be separated as a distinct class. We 
 shall see below that the rank here assigned to the group ac- 
 cords well with their anatomical characters and habits. 
 
 In some genera there is a decided line of demarcation 
 between the head and the thorax, which is, however, very 
 distinct during embryonic life, and we do not perceive that 
 gradual transition from mouth-parts to swimming legs which 
 obtains in the Crustacea. The order, however, has much 
 lower, more degraded forms than the Myriopods even, as 
 the genus Demodex testifies, which may recall readily certain 
 intestinal worms. This we would consider as but an example 
 
 * EXPLANATION OF PLATE 10. Fig. 1, Lepisma saccharina Linn?; Fig. 2, 3 
 Degeeria flavocincta Pack.; Fig. 4, 5, D, purpurascens Pack.; Fig. 6, 7, Isotomi 
 plumbea Pack.; Fig. 8, 9, Machilis variabilis Say. 
 
PI. 10. 
 
 THYSANURA. 
 
ARACHNIDA. 627 
 
 of what often occurs among all degraded forms, of a recur- 
 rence to the archetypal form of the articulate type, and not for 
 this reason, as some authors have done, would we place the 
 Arachnids of Latreille in a class by themselves, below the 
 Myriapods ; nor on recurring to the spiders alone, with their 
 high organization and wonderful instincts, would we follow 
 Professor Owen and others in placing them even above the 
 true insects. 
 
 We must look upon the Spider as a hexapodous insect, de- 
 graded, wingless, and partially decephalized. A part of the 
 elements, constituting the head in insects, have been, as it 
 were, withheld from the head and detained in the thorax, which 
 has thus an increase in one pair of limbs. On the other hand, 
 the sensorial, or pre-oral, region of the head, is wanting in two 
 most important members, i. e., the compound eyes and the an- 
 tennae. Both Zaddach and Claparede state that there are no 
 organs in the spiders homologous with the antennae of insects. 
 The simple fact that the homology of the organs generally is 
 so close between the two groups shows that they must fall into 
 the same class. The same can be said of the Myriapods. 
 
 The circulatory system is very perfect in the spiders and 
 scorpions, but in most of the lower mites there is no dorsal 
 vessel, or vascular system at all, the fluids being supposed to 
 circulate in the general cavity of the body, "and by the aid 
 of the muscular movements and the contractions of the intesti- 
 nal canal, transferred in an irregular manner hither and thither 
 in the visceral cavity and in the extremities." (Siebold.) In 
 the Phalangidce there is a distinct, three-chambered dorsal 
 vessel, or heart. In the spiders and scorpions, however, the 
 vascular system is highly organized, as shown by Newport (in 
 the Scorpions), and Claparede (in Lycosa). Here then, is, as 
 in Sphinx, a dorsal and ventral vessel with lateral veins, or ve- 
 nous sinuses, performing the functions of true veins. The main 
 dorsal vessel is mostly situate in the abdomen, as the lungs 
 have their seat in that region, where the most important respi- 
 ratory function, that of supplying the blood with fresh oxygen, 
 is performed. Claparede has shown that in Lycosa the blood 
 flows through the dorsal vessel from the head, instead of towards 
 the head, as in the six-footed insects. 
 
628 
 
 ARACHNID A. 
 
 The nervous system consists of a small brain, a group of 
 thoracic ganglia and a few abdominal ganglia, which, however, 
 are aborted in the spiders. The cerebral ganglia, or brain, lie 
 just above the oesophagus, and send down two cords embrac- 
 ing the throat, and also distribute nerves to the ocelli and 
 mouth-parts. 
 
 In the mites (Acarina), where 'the body is oval, and not 
 divided into the two distinct regions, there is no brain, and 
 but a single ganglion lodged in the abdomen, from which are 
 distributed the nerves supplying the head and the peripheral 
 parts. In the spiders the brain is of considerable size, and the 
 thoracic ganglia or u suboesophageal ganglia," are large, send- 
 ing off on each side four large 
 processes from which proceed 
 the nerves supplying the feet. 
 
 In the scorpion (Pedipalpi) 
 the nervous system is still more 
 highly organized. The brain is 
 not large ; it is composed of 
 the two spherical superoesopha- 
 geal ganglia fused together, 
 sending off the usual nerves to 
 the mouth-parts. This brain- 
 like organ is connected by two 
 filaments with the ventral gan- 
 glionic mass, formed by the 
 probable union of several gan- 
 glia, and situated in the middle 
 of the false cephalothorax. The 
 continuation of the nervous cord consists of seven abdominal 
 ganglia, with the commissures united into a single cord. 
 
 The maxillary palpi, functionally, take the place of antennae, 
 showing how one organ may perform the office of another in a 
 different group of animals. It is also evident that the spider 
 combines in the same organ the senses of taste, smell and feel- 
 ing, which are supposed in insects to reside in the two pairs of 
 palpi and the antennae. 
 
 The alimentary canal is formed, according to Siebold, on two 
 types. In the mites and spiders, the stomach is produced lat- 
 
 Pig. 622. 
 
ARACHNIDA. 629 
 
 erally into large ccecal appendages (Fig. 622, alimentary canal 
 of Tegenaria civilis ; a, stomach, with coeca ; c, liver ; d, renal 
 organ ; e, fat body) , and then passes into a short, small intes- 
 tine, going straight to the end of the body. In the Pedipalpes 
 (Phrynidae and Scorpions) the intestinal canal is more simple, 
 not having any coecal dilatations to the very small stomach. 
 
 The salivary glands are often of large size, especially in 
 Ixodes, and are thus adapted to their blood-sucking habits, 
 much saliva being needed to mix with their food. In the 
 spiders and scorpions the liver is well developed and distinct 
 from the intestinal tube, being in the spiders a brown or dirty 
 yellow mass filling a large part of the abdominal cavity and 
 enveloping most of the other viscera. 
 
 As during the growth of the young spider the head is thrown 
 back on top of the thorax to which it is thus most closely uni- 
 ted, it follows that the simple eyes, from two to twelve in 
 number, are situated on the upper surface of the cephalo- 
 thorax, while no other sensory organs, i. 'e.,the compound eyes 
 and antennae, are ever developed. Thus in the adult spider 
 the mandibles seem to be pushed far in front of the ocelli, and 
 to occupy what is originally the proper or normal site of the 
 ocelli, and in insects of the antennae, which no doubt has led 
 most authors to homologize them with the antennae of hexa- 
 podous insects. Claparede says "all the appendages are post- 
 oral, hence there are no organs homologous with the antennae." 
 Thus the mouth-opening is brought far forward ; it is flanked on 
 each side by a mandible (Plate 10, fig. 3, c, a, movable claw, or 
 fang), a large, powerful limb, which does not move horizontally 
 but vertically; behind are the large, well developed maxillae 
 (Plate 10, fig. 2, b ; 7, maxillary palpus ; 8, male palpus), with 
 their long, leg-like palpus. Thus the function of the insectean 
 antennae must, in the spiders, reside in the maxillary palpi. 
 Claparede's researches on the embryology of the spiders and 
 mites have demonstrated that the front pair of legs of Arach- 
 nids are homologous with the labial palpi of insects, which, 
 as we have previously stated (p. 59), in the latter, are late in 
 embryonic life thrown forwards, and associated with the max- 
 illae and other mouth-parts, while in the Arachnids they retain 
 their embryonic position and are grouped with the legs (see 
 
630 AKACHNIDA. 
 
 fig. 59, 4) and are usually of the same form. Thus one cepha- 
 lic segment of insects is permanently retained in the thorax 
 among the Arachnids, whereas we have seen in the embryo of 
 the dragon-fly (Figs. 59, 61, 4) it assumes an intermediate 
 position between the head and thorax, the remaining anterior 
 part of the head being clearly separated by a deep suture. In 
 Fig. 59, we see the labial palpi (4) grouped with the three pairs 
 of legs ; a position permanent in the Arachnida. The dragon- 
 fly, at the period represented by Fig. 59, p. 57, may be legiti- 
 mately compared with the scorpion, especially Cyclopthalrnus, 
 from the coal measures. 
 
 While, as Black wall states, nothing is known with certainty 
 concerning the organs of smell and hearing in spiders, Mr. 
 R. Beck " suggests that spiders are capable of distinguishing 
 sounds to some extent by means of very delicate waving hairs 
 which are found on the upper surfaces of their legs. During 
 life they move at their peculiarly cup-shaped bases, with the 
 least motion of the atmosphere, but are immovable after 
 death. It is well known that sound is due to vibrations which 
 are generally conveyed by undulations of the air ; now I am 
 perfectly satisfied that if these undulations are of a certain 
 character the hairs I am alluding to, upon the spider's leg, will 
 move, and I wish you particularly to notice that they are of 
 different lengths, so that some might move whilst others would 
 not, and also that the longest is at the extremity of the leg, 
 and therefore can receive an undulation which might die away 
 higher up. I may just mention that there is a group of these 
 peculiar hairs on the flea. The legs of a spider are most sen- 
 sitive organs of feeling, if they do not also embrace those of 
 hearing." (Entomologist, London, 1866, iii, p. 246.) 
 
 The four thoracic feet have seven joints, and it is probable 
 that the two basal joints homologize with the coxa and tro- 
 chantine of insects, in which the two joints are retracted, side 
 by side, and closely fused together. The tergal part of the 
 thoracic segments is large, overlapping the pleural, while the 
 sternum is a rather large, broad breast-plate. The abdomen 
 is generally somewhat spherical, and in but few instances is it 
 drawn out and the rings well developed, as in the scorpion. 
 In the mites it is fused closely with the cephalothorax. 
 
ARACHNIDA. 631 
 
 In the genus Hersilla we see clearly that the three pairs of 
 spinnerets are but modified legs. The second and inner pair 
 are generally the smallest, while the third and largest pair are 
 the most posterior. Their office is to reel out the silk from the 
 silk-glands. The tip of the articulated spinnerets ends in a 
 cone, perforated by myriads of little tubes (over 1,000 in 
 Epeiira, about 300 in Lycosa, and a less number in the smaller 
 species) through which the silk escapes in excessively delicate 
 threads, which unite to form the common thread visible to the 
 naked eye. (Plate 10, fig. 4, spinnerets of Epe'ira vulgaris en- 
 larged twenty-five diameters ; fig. 5, a spinning tube.) 
 
 The Acarina are supposed to have glands analogous to the 
 silk glands, whose product, like silk, hardens on exposure to 
 the air, and by which certain parasitic genera, such as Uro- 
 poda, fix themselves solidly to their host. Siebold states also, 
 that "many species of Hydrachna fix, by a kind of glue, the 
 anterior portion of their body on aquatic plants, and in this 
 position await the completion of their moulting. The organs 
 secreting this substance have not yet been discovered. It is 
 well known that the European Tetraiiychus telarius spins 
 large webs on the leaves of trees and on house-plants. 
 
 The reproductive system is much as described in insects, ex- 
 cept that the external appendages are rarely developed in 
 either sex. The genital armor is situated at the base of the 
 abdomen ; it is concealed when present under the skin. 
 
 In the Acarina the two ovaries open on the middle of the 
 abdomen, or on the under side of the thorax, either between 
 or behind the last pair of legs. In Hydrachna the oviduct 
 opens into an ovipositor by which the insect is enabled to lay 
 its eggs under the skin of the fresh-water mussel on which it is 
 parasitic, and other mites oviposit in a similar way under the 
 epidermis of plants. 
 
 In most spiders the two ovaries have their outlet in an ori- 
 fice situated between the two lung-sacs. They have a distinct 
 receptaculum seminis, especially marked in Epeira. "The 
 Scorpionidce have three ovaries, consisting of as many lon- 
 gitudinal ones, united by four pairs of transverse one's." The 
 outer two of the former are oviducts, leading out at the base 
 of the abdomen. 
 
632 AKACHNIDA. 
 
 The testes of Ixodes consist of four or five pairs of unequal 
 follicles, opening out near the base of the abdomen." The 
 males are distinguished from the females by their larger "cheli- 
 ceres " (maxillary palpi) and larger pair of clasping legs. In 
 the spiders the testes are "two long, simple, interlaced caeca, 
 concealed beneath the hepatic lobes," which lead by two def- 
 erent canals to the base of the abdomen, through a simple 
 fissure, which, however, is not applied to the vulva. The com- 
 plicated hollow spoon- shaped palpi are supposed to be the in- 
 tromittent organs. u They are filled with sperm and applied to 
 the entrance of .the vulva. For this purpose the last joint of 
 the palpi, which is always hollow and much enlarged, contains 
 a soft spiral body, terminated by a curved, gutter-like, horny 
 process. Beside this there is an arched, horny filament, and 
 several hooks and other appendages of the most varied forms. 
 These appendages are protractile and serve, some to seize the 
 female, and others as conductors of the sperm." (Siebold.) 
 While the majority of the Arachnida are developed as usual 
 after the laying of the eggs, a few, such as the scorpions and 
 Oribatidce and other mites, are known to be viviparous, 
 and it is probable that an alternation of generations occurs in 
 some of the lower mites. The Tardigrades are hermaphro- 
 dites. 
 
 The Arachnida breathe both by tracheae and lung-like organs. 
 The mites, the false scorpions, the harvest-men and Solpu- 
 gidce are provided with tracheae, communicating externally 
 by means of spiracles, generally two in number, and concealed 
 between the anterior feet. In Hydrachna, which lives con- 
 stantly beneath the water, the tracheae "possess probably, the 
 power to extract from the water, the air necessary for respira- 
 tion." (Siebold.) In the false scorpions a pair of lateral stig- 
 mata are situated on each of the two basal rings of the 
 abdomen. From these spring "four short, but large trachean 
 trunks from which arise numerous unbranched tracheae spread- 
 ing through the entire body." In the Solpugidce there are 
 three pairs of stigmata and the tracheae ramify and are distrib- 
 buted much as in insects, and in the Phalangidoe, the tra- 
 cheary S3 7 stem is well developed, arising from two stigmata 
 opening between the insertion of the posterior legs. 
 
AKACHNIDA. 633 
 
 In most of the spiders (such as Segestria, Dysdera and Ar- 
 gyroneta) there are both a tracheary system and lungs. The 
 two stigmata, from which these tracheae lead, open near the 
 pulmonary opening. In two other genera, Salticus and Micro- 
 phantes, there are two stigmata situated at the posterior end of 
 the abdomen. Siebold calls attention to a tracheary system 
 in many Aranese opening by a transverse fissure placed near 
 the spinnerets. From this opening a main trunk leads in, 
 soon dividing into four simple tracheae, which are not round as 
 usual, "but are flattened, riband-like, and without the trace 
 of a spiral filament ; these extend, with a gradual attenuation, 
 to the base of the abdomen. . . . The air received into these 
 organs is separated into as fine portions as that of the lungs.* 
 
 The so called lungs of the spiders are little round sacs open- 
 ing by transverse fissures on the under side of the base of the 
 abdomen. The inner surface is divided into thin lamellae, 
 connected together like the leaves of a book. Each of these 
 is formed by a membranous fold, between the two leaves of 
 which the air enters from the general cavity of the lung, and 
 is divided into very minute portions. No traces of blood ves- 
 sels have been found in these pulmonary lamellae." (Siebold.) 
 
 Among the organs of special secretion the poison and silk 
 glands require description. There are two poison glands 
 emptying into the throat, and thence opening out through hol- 
 lows in the jaws. (Plate 10, fig. 3, a, b.) In the scorpion the 
 poison gland is lodged in the last abdominal segment at the 
 base of the sting. 
 
 The silk, as contained in the glands, is a viscid transparent 
 fluid, which on exposure to the air hardens into silk ; it is drawn 
 out by the legs through three, rarely two pairs of spinnerets. 
 There are usually five of these glands lodged in the abdomen, 
 and the "threads probably have different qualities, according 
 to the glands from which they are secreted." (Siebold.) 
 
 " To form the thread this liquid is drawn through the tubes, 
 
 * According to Dr. Burnett, Blanchard regards these anomalous tracheae as 
 only elongated pulmonary sacs. Leuckart, however, considers that these organs 
 are only a sort of trachese deprived of the usual spiral filament to keep their walls 
 from collapsing, and he considers that the pulmonary sacs of the spider afe sim- 
 ply modifier! tracheae. Dr. W. L Burnett's Translation of Siebolds's Anatomy of 
 the Invertebrata. 
 
634 ARACHNIDA. 
 
 which divide it into such small fibres that it dries almost im- 
 mediately on coming in contact with the air. The spicier has 
 the power of uniting these fibres into one or several threads, 
 according to the purpose for which they are to be used. The 
 thread commonly used for the web is composed of hundreds 
 of simple fibres, each spun through a separate tube. As the 
 thread runs from the body it is guided by the hind feet, which 
 hold it off from contact with surrounding objects, until the 
 desired point is reached, when a touch of the spinners fastens 
 it securely." (Emerton, American Naturalist, ii, p. 478.) 
 
 The eggs are laid but once a year in June. The evolution 
 of the embryo begins immediately, and goes on with a rapidity 
 according with the temperature. The egg consists, as Herold 
 observed, simply of a vitelline membrane, but no chorion ; it 
 is perfectly homogeneous, and has no micropyle. The contents 
 are an emulsion of fatty globules suspended in a scant}'' 
 amount of liquid, which should not be confounded with the al- 
 bumen (or white) of the eggs of vertebrates. No trace of the 
 " germinative vesicle" has as yet been traced in the eggs of 
 insects, though perhaps it has been overlooked from its trans- 
 parency. 
 
 The first stages in the egg after they are laid, are the follow- 
 ing : at the surface of the vitellus appear, here and there, 
 small, very clear and perfectly circular spots ; they are the 
 nucleus of the future blastoderm (primitive skin, from which 
 the organs of the embryo successively originate or "bud" 
 out). These nuclei act as centres of attraction on the mole- 
 cules of the vitellus for the formation of the cellules. The 
 unmodified vitellus diminishes in the same proportion as the 
 peripheric layer of granules increases. The granules multiply 
 rapidly, and soon the surface of the egg appears to be divided 
 into a certain number of areas, each of which is occupied in 
 the centre by a circular and transparent space surrounded with 
 small opake granules, which become less and less dense as we 
 go to the outer surface. These hexagonal cellules form an uni- 
 form layer over the entire surface of the egg ; it is the blasto- 
 derm. Up to this time the changes precisely accord with those 
 observed in the hexapodous insects. 
 
 The next stage is the formation of ventral tubercles, the ru- 
 
ARACHN1DA. 
 
 635 
 
 diments of the limbs of the embryo. The first change is the 
 formation of the "primitive streak," or the splitting of the 
 blastoderm, which is due to a local multiplication of the cel- 
 lules along the median line of the egg. 
 
 These tubercles result from a simple thickening of the blas- 
 toderm, and what is ultimately destined to be the back (tergum) 
 of the animal, arises from a similar thickening of the blasto- 
 derm, which he calls the "primitive cumulus." This mass, 
 easily distinguished by its whiteness, always floats on the top 
 of the yolk of the egg, keeping its position next the eye of 
 the observer. The "cumulus," at first almost hemispherical, 
 elongates over the surface of the blastoderm, becoming pyri- 
 form. This region is the posterior, or anal, pole of the egg. 
 
 Tig. 624. 
 
 Fig. 623. 
 
 Fig. 625. 
 
 We see the "cumulus" spreading from the anal pole over the 
 surface like a veil, but it is less white than the polar region. 
 This veil continues to spread over the entire surface to a pole 
 opposing the anal, which Claparede terms the cephalic pole. 
 Each pole forms a very prominent projection. At this stage 
 the body of the embryo becomes well marked and subdivided, 
 worm-like, into rings. (Fig. 623.) The extent of the dorsal 
 region is greatly limited, while that of the ventral side is 
 greatly increased. 
 
 The entire ventral region, occupying most of the whole egg, 
 is homologous with the primitive ventral streak. It is at this 
 time that the formation of the protozoonites (elemental rings, 
 
636 ARACKNTDA. 
 
 or primordial segments) takes place. Six of these zones or 
 segments arise between the cephalic and anal poles ; these 
 zones represent the ventral arcs. The two anterior rings bear 
 the mouth-parts, the mandibles and maxillae ; while the others 
 form rings corresponding to the four pair of feet. These pro- 
 tozoonites are very transitory, only existing for a short period ; 
 they gradually retreat towards the ventral side, enlarge and 
 nearly touch each other. 
 
 The embryo (Fig. 624) now grows much longer, and new em- 
 bryonal segments are formed in the abdomen just as they grow 
 out in the worms, and Myriapods, and also in the Crustacea, ac- 
 cording to Rathke's researches. Thus while the cephalothora- 
 cic rings appear simultaneously the abdominal segments appear 
 one after the other. The first one appears between the last tho- 
 racic ring and the anal " hood," or pole. Meanwhile the lateral 
 extremities of the protozoonites have become enlarged ; these 
 enlargements form the appendages. These tubercles, or rudi- 
 mentary limbs, appear on the abdominal as well as on the tho- 
 racic rings (Fig. 625). This fact is one of great interest, as 
 showing a resemblance to the Crustacean with its abdominal 
 legs, and more especially to the abdominal footed Myriapods, 
 and the larvae of many true six-footed insects. Thus the 
 young spider is at first like a caterpillar, having "false," de- 
 ciduous, abdominal legs. Five abdominal rings are present in 
 Pholcus. 
 
 Next follows the development of the "post-abdomen," or 
 tail, which being differentiated from the anal pole or "hood," 
 becomes detached from the yolk mass, and is folded back upon 
 the embiyo, just as the abdomen of a crab is folded in an op- 
 posite way to the ventral side of the body.* 
 
 This "post-abdomen," after dividing into three segments, 
 disappears completely during the growth of the embryo. This 
 is the more interesting, as the "post-abdomen" of the scor- 
 pion is retained permanent^. Meanwhile the two cephalic 
 
 * And in like manner the cephalic lobes, containing the ocelli, are seen in the 
 author's figures folded back upon the base of the head, so that the antennae are 
 never developed, and the mandibles of the spider take their place, in advance of 
 the eyes. The structure and succession of the rings of the insectean head are 
 most readily explained, and some clue is given to their number and succession 
 by comparison with the embiyo of spiders. 
 
ARACHNIDA. 637 
 
 lobes have developed, and the blastoderm has divided into a 
 dermal, or outer layer, and a muscular, or inner layer of 
 cells. The outer layer forms the chitinous body-wall, or crust, 
 while from the inner layer are developed the digestive, vascu- 
 lar and other organs besides the muscles. 
 
 After the rudiments of the appendages are formed the epi- 
 mera appear. At this period we are struck with the perfect 
 identity between all the appendages of the body at their first 
 origin. In the Arachnida the formation of the primitive seg- 
 ments takes place much sooner than in most other articulates, 
 where they often do not appear until after the rudiments of the 
 limbs are developed. 
 
 Another characteristic of the evolution of the spiders is 
 the tardy appearance of the rudiments of the .legs. The ven- 
 tral arcs, or protozoonites, subdivide into ventral and pleural 
 parts, which signalize the formation of the permanent rings 
 of the body. The author's figures 
 and statement show, though he 
 does not state the fact clearly, 
 that development progresses from 
 each end of the body towards the 
 centre, as we have shown* to be 
 the case in insects. Thus the 
 posterior half of the body repeats 
 the mode of development and 
 general form of the anterior, or 
 cephalic pole. 
 
 The third period in the life of 
 the embryo dates from the forma- Fig. 626. 
 
 tion of the ventral rudiments to the exclusion of the spider. 
 The first change consists in the lengthening and meeting 
 of the rudimentary legs. The mouth-parts develop first. 
 At this period the limb-bearing (pleural) region of the 
 body separates and the sternal piece or breast-plate appears 
 as a "slower, later formation." Now the thoracic legs grow 
 much more rapidly than the mouth-parts and lie interlocked 
 upon the breast. (Fig. 626. f) When the first pair of legs are 
 
 * Proceedings Boston Society of Natural History, Feb. 7, 1866. 
 . 626, m, mandibles; mx, maxillae; I, fourth pair of legs; p, postabdomen. 
 
638 ARACHNIDA. 
 
 long enough to cross each other the jointed structure of the 
 limbs disappears, and they soon become divided into their 
 usual number of joints, though the tarsal joints are the last to 
 be perfected. At this time the maxillae become differentiated, 
 or split up, into the basal lobe and its appendage, or palpus. 
 Claparede compares the basal lobe to the coxa of the legs, 
 though it is formed long before the coxae of the feet them- 
 selves. The anterior pair of appendages form the mandibles. 
 
 The formation of the head is next in order. The "cephalic 
 lobe" is divided into what the author calls two "procephalic 
 lobes," separated by a deep incision, and at this period the 
 head appears very distinct from the thorax. Afterwards the 
 anterior or ante-oral part of the head is, as in the case of the 
 "post- abdomen," folded back on the top, and then closely sol- 
 dered to the thorax, thus forming the so called "cephalo- 
 thorax." These procephalic lobes are separated by a third 
 lobe or "triangular plate" which grows up between them, 
 forming the epicliile. The mouth first appears as a longitu- 
 dinal furrow in this triangle, the posterior border of which 
 becomes the so called labium ("glossoide" of Latreille). The 
 labium thus originates in the spiders in an entirely different 
 way from the appendages, and is not formed, as Brulle sup- 
 posed, by the soldering of the maxillae, hence we shall adopt 
 Latreille's term "glossoide" for this piece. 
 
 The two procephalic lobes afterwards unite, and are soldered 
 together on the median line, to form the anterior face of the 
 head. This approach takes place from above, over the buccal 
 frame (epichile). The mandibles are thus in advance of the 
 mouth, though primitively behind it. "The head is then in 
 the embryo of the spider very distinct from the thorax. Only 
 towards the end of embryonic life does the soldering of the 
 ; cranium ' and of the prothorax become so intimate that their 
 limits become indistinct. It is only from this moment that 
 there exists a true cephalothorax." (Claparede.) 
 
 Towards the end of embryonic life the simple eyes appear, 
 arising from four little furrows, called the "ophthalmic fur- 
 rows." They are colored by the deposition of a small quantity 
 of pigment. They appear at an earlier period in the Acarina. 
 
 Formation of the heart and viscera. After the walls of the 
 
AEACHNIDA. 639 
 
 body and its appendages have been formed the dorsal vessel 
 appears. It is formed thus : when the division of the blasto- 
 derm into its muscular and outer layers takes place the cells 
 multiply and are heaped up along the median line of the body, 
 so as to form a sort of cordon (cord), not only in the abdomi- 
 nal, but in the thoracic region of the body. The vessel prob- 
 ably originates in the spaces between the cells, but the author 
 has been unable to trace either its origin or that of the blood- 
 corpuscles. But the rudimentary heart soon presents rhyth- 
 mic pulsations, and in the limbs we see the arteries filled 
 with a homogeneous fluid, in which can be detected the pres- 
 ence of small corpuscles, moving by impulses synchronous with 
 the sj^stole of the dorsal vessel, showing that this fluid is the 
 blood. The heart already presents several dilatations (cham- 
 bers) corresponding to the abdominal segments. 
 
 ,The nervous system does not appear to be formed when the 
 embryo assumes the ventral instead of the dorsal position. 
 The digestive system is very rudimentary when the embryo 
 quits the egg. The alimentary canal is probably hollowed out 
 of the middle of the vitelline mass, being a membranous tube 
 formed around the remaining yolk mass. The lungs and spin- 
 nerets are well formed when the embryo is hatched, while the 
 e} f es appear later. 
 
 The same processes of development go on in the scorpions, 
 the " post-abdomen " of the Araneina (which we have- seen 
 folded back on the base of the abdomen and finally to disap- 
 pear) in them being retained, forming the long, articulated 
 "tail;" thus the distinction into abdomen and post- abdomen 
 is very artificial as the two parts merge into each other, especi- 
 ally in Solpuga, Chelifer and Phrynus. 
 
 In the mites the arrest of development is still more marked, 
 as the three regions of the body are in the adult not differen- 
 tiated, and the entire body assumes an oval form, the abdomi- 
 nal parts being short, thus strikingly resembling the embryo 
 of Pholcus, and the spiders generally, as seen in Claparede's 
 figures. 
 
 In the Acarina there is a true metamorphosis, the larvae 
 of some forms when first hatched being worm-like ; then there 
 is an oval stage when the young mite has but three pairs of 
 
640 ARACHNIDA. 
 
 feet (though in others at this stage there are four pairs), and 
 after another moulting the fourth pair of limbs appear. The 
 young mite is analogous to the "Nauplius" stage of many 
 low Crustacea. 
 
 Claparede* has observed in Atax Bonzi, which is a parasite 
 on the gills of fresh-water mussels, that out of the originally 
 laid egg (Plate 11 fig. 3, embryo of Atax Bonzi ; ?c, head-plate ; 
 ag, infolding of the belly ; dm, intermediate skin ; mo, outer 
 shell of the egg ; md, mandibles ; mo;, maxillae ; p l -p 3 , legs ; 
 vt, yolk. Fig. 4, front view of the same) ; not a larva, but 
 an egg-shaped form hatches, which he calls a "deutovum." 
 (PL 11 fig. 1, bursting of the egg-shell into two halves, mo, on 
 the day that the deutovum, dm, hatches out ; md, mandibles ; 
 ma;, maxillae ; jt? 3 , third pair of legs ; Z/i, body cavity ; sp, com- 
 mon beginning of the alimentary canal and nervous system ; 
 am&, haemaboeba, amoeba-like bodies, which represent the blo^d 
 corpuscles ; there being no circulation of the blood, the move- 
 ments of the haemaboeba constitute a vicarious circulation. 
 Fig. 2, the deutovum free from the first egg-shell ; lettering 
 same as in Fig. 1, oc, rudiments of the simple eyes ; R, beak; 
 h, 7i', rudimentary stomach and liver). From this deutovum 
 (which is not the "amnion" of insects) is developed a six- 
 footed larva. This larva passes into an eight-footed form, the 
 "second larva," (the "nymph" or pupa, of Dnjardin and 
 Robin) which transforms into the adult mite. The pupa dif- 
 fers from the adult in having longer feet, and four instead of 
 ten genital cups, the latter being the usual number in the adult. 
 
 The larvae are elongated oval, with six long legs and four 
 ocelli. They swarm for a short time over the gills of the mus- 
 sel they are living on and then bore into the substance of 
 the gill to undergo their next transformation. Here the young 
 mite increases in size and becomes round. The tissues soften, 
 those of the different organs not being so well marked as in 
 the first larval stage. The limbs are short and much larger 
 
 *The development of spiders and of the Arachnids generally, has been traced 
 by Rathke, Herold, and more especially by Claparede, in a -work of great ability, 
 from which we have drawn the preceding account, often using the aiTthor's own 
 words. His observations were made on various genera of spiders (Pholcus, etc.) 
 His "Studies on Mites," from which Plate 11 is copied, appeared in Siebold's and 
 Kolliker's Journal of Scientific Zoology, 1868, part iv. 
 
METAMORPHOSIS OF TSCITES 1 . 
 
':"'' ; "*; ''/I- * 
 
ARACHNIDA. 641 
 
 than before, the whole animal assuming an embryo-like appear- 
 ance, and moving about like a rounded mass in its enclosure. 
 Indeed is this process not (though Claparede does not say so) 
 a histolysis of the former larval tissues, and the formation of a 
 new body, as in the change of the six-footed insect beneath the 
 larva skin, where the pupa is formed ? A new set of limbs 
 grow out, this time there being four instead of three pairs of 
 legs, while the old larval skin is still embraced within the 
 membrane containing the second larval rounded mass. Soon 
 the body is perfected, and the pupa, as we may properly call it, 
 slips out of the larval membrane. 
 
 The "second larva" after some time undergoes another 
 change ; the limbs grow much shorter and are folded beneath 
 the body, the animal being immovable, while the whole body 
 assumes a broadly ovate form, and looks like an embryo just 
 before hatching, but still lying within the egg. This may also 
 be comparable with the formation of the adult fly within the 
 puparium. (Compare Weismann's account of this process in 
 Musca, pp. 63, 64.) This period seems to be an exact repeti- 
 tion of the histolysis, and the formation of new tissues for the 
 building up of a new body which preceded the pupal stage, 
 while the adult mite slips out of its pupal membrane just as 
 the pupa threw off its larval membrane. This process, again, 
 may be compared to an adult butterfly, or fly, emerging from 
 its pupal membrane. 
 
 Thus the mites, at least several species, pass through a series 
 of metamorphoses similar to those of such insects as have a 
 complete metamorphosis (except that the Acarian pupa is 
 active), while the absence of such a metamorphosis in the 
 spiders is paralleled by the incomplete metamorphosis of the 
 Orthoptera and many Neuroptera, which reach adult life by 
 simple moultings of the skin. 
 
 In the genus Myobia there is not only a deutovum, besides 
 the original egg, but also a tritovum-stage. The eggs of this 
 mite are long, oval and conical at the posterior end. The em- 
 bryo, with the rudiments of limbs, is represented by Fig. 5 of 
 Plate 11. The little tubercles md and m#, represent the man- 
 dibles and maxillae, while the three pair of legs, p l -p s , bud 
 out from the middle of the body ; Ic represents the head-plate. 
 41 
 
642 ARACHNIDA. 
 
 The maxillae and mandibles finally unite to form a beak (R 
 Fig. 6) and the three pairs of feet (p l -p 3 ) are folded along 
 the median line of the body. The farther development of the 
 embryo is now for a time arrested, and a peculiar tooth-like 
 process (Fig. 7, d) is developed. Claparede thinks that by 
 means of this the anterior end of the egg-shell is cut off, and 
 the embryo protrudes through, when, as in Fig. 7, it is seen 
 to be surrounded by a new membrane, the deutovum (eft), 
 equivalent to that of Atax. The front pair of legs (p 1 ) have 
 grown larger and stand out in front and on each side of the 
 beak (R). The growing embryo again forces off the anterior 
 end of its deutovum, and the oval end of the egg protrudes 
 through, and is surrounded by another membrane. This is the 
 tritovum. The embryo is now surrounded by the membrane 
 of the tritovum, and also by the deutovular membrane and the 
 original egg-shell, the last two having lost a small portion of 
 their anterior ends. During the tritovum-stage the fore pair 
 of feet become curved in like claws, and the beak sinks down 
 into the body. 
 
 Now the six-footed larva (Fig. 8) breaks through the shell 
 and closely resembles the adult (Plate 11. fig. 9). The first 
 pair of feet, modified for grasping the hairs of the field-mouse, 
 on which it is a parasite, take the place of the maxillne, which 
 have been arrested in their development, and the mandibles 
 (pr) assume a style-like form. After one or more moultings of 
 the skin a fourth pair of feet (p 4 ) are acquired, and the adult 
 form results, which the author considers as the type of a new 
 family of Acarina. Claparede also suggests the affinity of 
 Myobia to the Tardigrades (Echiniscus and Lydella), especially 
 from the study of the structure of the style-like mandibles and 
 their supports. We feel convinced, after examining Clapa- 
 rede's figures and descriptions that this comparison is very 
 significant, and this has led us to consider the Tardigrades 
 as a family of true mites, related to Myobia and Demodex. 
 
 A French naturalist, C. Robin, has recently observed in cer- 
 tain bird sarcoptids, to which the parasite of the Downy 
 Woodpecker noticed above is allied, "that the males pass 
 through four, and the females through five stages, indicated as 
 follows : (1) the egg, on issuing from which the animal has the 
 
ARACHNIDA. 643 
 
 form of (2) a hexapod larva, followed by the stage of (3) octo- 
 pod nymphse [four-footed pupae], without sexual organs. (4) 
 From some of these nymphse issue : a, sexual males, after a 
 moult which is final for them; 6, from others issue females 
 without external sexual organs, resembling the nymphse, but 
 larger, and in some species furnished with special copulatory 
 organs. Finally, after a last moult following copulation, these 
 females produce (5) the sexual and fecundated females, which 
 do not copulate, and in the ovary of which eggs are to be seen. 
 No moult follows that which produces males or females fur- 
 nished with sexual organs ; but previously to this the moults 
 are more numerous than the changes of condition." " The larvse 
 undergo from two to three moults before passing to the state 
 of nymphse." These latter also undergo two or three moults. 
 (Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 1868, p. 78.) 
 
 In some other species of mites no males have been found, 
 and the females have been isolated after being hatched, and 
 yet have been known to lay eggs, which produced young with- 
 out the interposition of the males. This parthenogenesis has 
 been noticed in several species. But few fossil Arachnids 
 have been yet discovered. Roemer has described a spider 
 from the coal formation of Germany under the name of Proto- 
 lycosa, while two species of scorpions, and a Phalangium-like 
 spider have been detected in the same formation in this 
 country. 
 
 In studying spiders, of which we have several hundred spe- 
 cies, the number and relative situation of the eyes, and the 
 relative length of the different pairs of legs, should be noticed ; 
 their webs and the manner of constructing them ; their habi- 
 tats, whether spreading their webs upon or in the ground, or 
 in trees, or on herbage, or whether the species are aquatic, or 
 erratic, and pursue their prey without building webs to entrap 
 them, should be observed. So, also, how they deposit their 
 eggs, and the form and appearance of the silken nidus, and 
 whether the female bears her eggs about her, and how this is 
 done, whether holding on to the egg-sac by her fore or hind 
 legs, should all be carefully noticed. Care must be taken not 
 to mistake the young for full-grown, mature species, and de- 
 scribe them as such. Spiders can be reared in boxes as 
 
644 AEACHNIDA. 
 
 insects. The only way to preserve them is to throw them into 
 alcohol; when pinned they shrivel up and lose their colors, 
 which keep well in spirits. 
 
 The colors of spiders vary much at different seasons of the 
 year, especially during the frosts of autumn, when the changes 
 produced are greatest. All spiders are directly beneficial 
 to agriculture by their carnivorous habits, as they all prey 
 upon insects, and do no harm to vegetation. Their instincts 
 are wonderful, and their habits and organization worthy of 
 more study than has yet been paid them in this country. We 
 have no species poisonous to man, except when the state of 
 health renders the constitution open to receive injury from 
 their bite, just as mosquitoes and black flies often cause 
 serious harm to some persons. 
 
 The Arachnids are divided into three groups, or suborders, 
 the Araneina, the Pedipalpi, and the Acarina. 
 
 ARANEINA. 
 
 THE Spiders are distinguished from other Arachnids by hav- 
 ing mandibles used exclusively for biting, a spherical, sac-like 
 abdomen, not divided into segments, and attached to the head- 
 thorax by a slender pedicel. The maxillae resemble the tho- 
 racic feet. They breathe both by lungs and tracheae, and do 
 not undergo a metamorphosis, the young on being hatched hav- 
 ing four pairs of legs. 
 
 The mandibles (Plate 12, fig. 3, front view, with the eight 
 ocelli above) are vertical and end in a powerful hook, in the 
 end of which opens a duct (Plate 12, 3 a, b) connected with the 
 poison gland situated in the head. The maxillae, represented 
 by the so called palpi, though in reality the maxillae themselves, 
 with a flattened coxal lobe at the base (Plate 12, fig. 2, 6, palpi 
 of female ; fig. 8, do. of male) are simple in the female, but in 
 the male the terminal joint is enlarged and modified greatly as 
 an accessory genital organ. The cephalothorax is not jointed, 
 and there are usually eight, rarely six, simple eyes (ocelli). 
 In the genus Nops from Cuba there are, however, only two, 
 while in certain cave-inhabiting species, according to Menge, 
 
ARANEINA. 645 
 
 such as the Anthrobia Mammothia of Tellkampf from Mam- 
 moth Cave, and other spiders inhabiting European caves, there 
 are none. 
 
 We quote an interesting account of the habits of spiders, 
 especially the mode of spinning their webs, published by Mr. 
 J. H. Emerton in the "American Naturalist" (ii, p. 478), who 
 has studied our native species with much care. 
 
 " The feet of spiders are wonderfully adapted for walking on 
 the web. Each foot 'is furnished with three claws (Plate 12, 
 Fig. 6, a, 6, 6), the middle one of which (a) is bent over at the 
 end, forming a long finger for clinging to the web, or for guid- 
 ing the thread in spinning. The outer claws (e, e) are curved 
 and toothed like a comb. Opposite the claws are several stiff 
 hairs (c) which are toothed like the claws, and serve as a 
 thumb for the latter to shut against." 
 
 " When a spider wishes to build a web she usually selects a 
 corner, so that the structure may be attached on several sides. 
 She then runs a few threads along the objects to which the web 
 is fastened, to facilitate her passage from point to point. The 
 web is commenced by a line or two across the point where the 
 centre is to be, which is not usually the geometric centre, but 
 nearer the top than the bottom. Radiating lines (Plate 12, fig. 
 1, 6, &, 6) are then spun from the centre in all directions. In 
 doing this the spider often crosses from one side of the web 
 to the opposite, so that the finished portion is always tightly 
 drawn, and the tension of the completed web is the same in 
 every part." 
 
 " Having finished the framework, the spider begins near the 
 centre and spins a thread (Fig. 1, c, c, c) spirally, around 
 the web to the circumference, fastening it to each radius as it 
 crosses. The distance between the spirals varies with the size 
 of the spiders, being about as far as they can reach. This 
 spiral thread serves to keep the parts of the web in place dur- 
 ing the rest of the process, and is removed as fast as the web 
 is finished. It also furnishes a ready means of crossing from 
 one radius to another where they are farthest apart. All the 
 thread spun up to this stage of the process is smooth when 
 dry, and will not adhere if touched with a smooth object/' 
 
 "The spider, having thus formed the web, begins to put in 
 
646 ARANEINA. 
 
 the final circles at the outside, walking around on the scaffold- 
 ing previously prepared, which she gradually destroys as she 
 proceeds, until in the finished web only a few turns in the cen- 
 tre are left. The thread of the circles last spun is covered with 
 viscid globules, strung upon it like beads at short distances. 
 If an insect comes in contact with the thread, it immediately 
 adheres, and its struggles only bring a larger part of its body 
 into contact with the web. Dust and seeds also stick to the 
 web, so that in a single day it is often so clogged as to be of 
 no farther use. The web also becomes torn by the struggles 
 of the prey, and by wind and rain, so that it requires repair 
 or renewal every night. In mending a web the spider usually 
 removes all except the outside threads, biting them off and 
 rolling them into a hard ball between her jaws, so that when 
 released it will drop quickly to the ground. This probably 
 gave rise to the opinion, sometimes advanced, that the old web 
 is eaten by the spider. 
 
 "When the web is finished she stations herself in the centre, 
 where a small circle is left free of the adhesive threads. Her 
 usual position is head downward, with each foot on one of the 
 radii of the web, and the spinners ready to fasten themselves 
 by a thread at the least alarm. She often remains in her hole 
 with one foot out, and resting on a tight thread connected with 
 the centre of the web, so that any vibration is quickly detected. 
 If the web be gently touched the spider will rush into the cen- 
 tre, and face towards the^disturbed part. She will then jerk 
 smartly several of the radii leading in that direction, to see if 
 the intruder is a living animal. If this test is followed by the 
 expected struggle she runs out towards the victim, stepping as 
 little as possible on the adhesive threads, seizes it in her jaws, 
 and as soon as it begins to feel the effects of the bite, envelops 
 it in a silken covering, and hangs it up to suck at her leisure. 
 In spinning this envelope the insect is held and turned around 
 mainly by the short third pair of feet, while a flat band of 
 threads is drawn from the spinners by the hind pair working 
 alternately like the hands in pulling a rope, and wound over it 
 in every direction, so that in a few seconds it is so covered as 
 to be unable to move a limb. When a web is shaken by the 
 wind the spider will sometimes draw in all her feet towards her 
 
Plate 12, 
 
 THE COMMON GARDEN SPIDER. 
 
. 
 TETRAPNEUMONES. 647 
 
 body, thereby tightening the web in every direction so that the 
 vibration is prevented. 
 
 " The construction of nets for catching food is not the only 
 use of the thread made by these spiders. They seldom move 
 from place to place without spinning a line after them as they 
 go. They are able by its use to drop safely from any height, 
 and when suspended by it are carried by the wind across wide 
 spaces without any exertion on their part, except to let out the 
 thread. The crevices in which they pass the winter and the 
 leisure hours of summer, are partly lined and enclosed by a 
 coating of silk resembling that used for confining captured in- 
 sects. The eggs are enclosed in a cocoon of the same mate- 
 rial, and there the young remain until they are strong enough 
 to shift for themselves, growing to nearly double their size 
 without apparent nourishment. 
 
 "Several hundred young are produced by a single female, 
 but probably it is seldom that one-tenth of this number ever 
 reach adult size. Nearly all the spiders which we see in webs 
 are females or young. They spend most of their time in the 
 vicinity of their webs, and many doubtless pass their lives 
 within a few yards of the place of their birfh. The adult males 
 are seldom seen building or occupying webs : they remain con- 
 cealed during the day, and at night wander about from web to 
 web. When young there is no obvious difference between the 
 sexes, but as the time for the last moult approaches, the ends 
 of the palpi of the male swell to several times their former 
 size. When the time for the final moult arrives, both sexes 
 retire to their holes and cast off the skins of their entire bodies, 
 even to the claws. This process obliges them to remain con- 
 cealed until the new skin has acquired sufficient strength and 
 firmness, when they again return to their webs. The females 
 still resemble the young, except in size, but the males are 
 distinguished from them by the greater length of their limbs, 
 the diminished size of the posterior half of the body, and the 
 large and complicated joints of the palpi (Plate 12, fig. 8)." 
 
 TETRAPNEUMONES Latreille. The large hairy species of 
 Mygale differ from other spiders in having four lung-sacs and 
 as many stigmata, and only two pairs of spinnerets, of which 
 
648 
 
 , 
 ARANEINA. 
 
 one pair is very small, while there are eight ocelli. The differ- 
 ent species make cylindrical holes in the earth ; that of M. 
 nidulans of the West Indies is closed by a lid of earth covered 
 beneath with silk. My gale avicularia Linn., the Bird spider, 
 seizes small birds and sucks their blood. M. Hentzii (Fig. 
 627, natural size) ranges from Missouri southward. 
 
 DIPNETJMONES Latreille. In the remaining genera of spiders 
 there are two lung-sacs, two or four stigmata, and three pairs 
 
 Fig. 627. 
 
 of spinnerets. They are divided into two groups, the "Sed- 
 entary" and "Wandering" spiders. The sedentary species 
 have the ocelli usually arranged in two transverse rows ; they 
 spin webs in which they remain and seize their prey. In the 
 
DIPNEUMONES. 649 
 
 genus Dysdera there are six ocelli, of which four lie in the front 
 row ; the cephalothorax is small, long, oval, and the first pair 
 of legs are the longest. The species dwell in silken tubes, 
 under stones or in crevices. D. interrita Hentz is a New 
 England species. In Drassus there are eight ocelli, and the 
 hindermost pair of feet are the longest. 
 
 Clubione includes those species which have eight ocelli, the 
 four hinder ones, with the two outer ones on the front row, 
 forming almost a ^semicircle ; the fore legs are the longest. 
 They construct under the bark of trees, under leaves or be- 
 neath stones, tubes of very white silk, from which they make 
 nocturnal expeditions for food. C. tranquilla Hentz is com- 
 mon in the United States. C. medicinalis Walkenaer has been 
 used as a vesicant. The 
 Water spider of Europe, 
 Argyroneta aquatica Linn., 
 lives beneath the water, 
 where it makes its nest and 
 cocoon, which is filled with 
 air. 
 
 The genus Tegenaria has 
 the ocelli arranged in two 
 slightly curved rows, the 
 third pair of feet are shorter 
 than the others, and the ab- 
 domen is oval. The species 
 are " sedentary, making in Mg. 628. 
 
 obscure corners a horizontal web, at the upper part of which 
 is a tubular habitation, where the spider remains motionless 
 till some insect be entangled in the threads." (Hentz.) 
 T. medicinalis Hentz is "pale brown, turning to bluish black ; 
 cephalothorax with a blackish band on each side ; abdomen 
 varied with black, or plumbeous and brown ; feet varied with 
 blackish." It "is found in every cellar or dark place in the 
 country. For some time the use of its web as a narcotic, in 
 cases of fever, was recommended by many physicians." 
 (Hentz.) Fig. 628 (enlarged) represents T. atrica, a European 
 species. 
 
 Filistata is a closely allied genus. F. hibernalis Hentz 
 
650 ARANEINA. 
 
 "makes a tubular habitation of silk in crevices on old walls or 
 rocks, throwing out an irregular web which is spread on the 
 wall or stone around the aperture. ... In walking it uses 
 the palpi like feet, and these organs are very long, particularly 
 in the male." According to Hentz it is found in South Caro- 
 lina and Alabama. 
 
 The two genera Pholcus and Theridion belong to Latreille's 
 group, " Inaequitelae," comprising those forms in which the 
 first pair of limbs are usually the longest. % In Pholcus the legs 
 are very long and slender. According to Hentz the species 
 are " sedentary, making in dark corners a very loose web of 
 slender threads, crossed in all directions. The eggs are col- 
 lected together without a silk covering, which the mother car- 
 ries with her cheliceres" (maxillary palpi). This genus "by 
 the extreme length of its legs resembles Phalangium. The 
 species belonging to it may be found in apartments seldom 
 visited, particularly churches and caves. They shake their 
 body when threatened by an enemy, but seem to have very 
 weak means of offence, and to feed on the very smallest prey." 
 P. Ailanticus Hentz inhabits the Southern States. 
 
 In Theridion the four inner ocelli are larger than the four 
 outer ones, and the first and last pair of limbs are the longest. 
 Hentz states that the species are sedentary, forming a web 
 made of threads crossed in all directions, while the cocoons 
 are of various shapes. A majority of the species are very 
 small, and their webs made on the tops of weeds, in bushes, 
 or in retired corners, are familiar to every one. T. vulgar e 
 Hentz varies "from a cream white to a livid brown, or plum- 
 beous color. The cephalothorax is dull rufous, the abdomen 
 with various undulating lines, and the feet have more or less 
 distinct, dark or plumbeous rings." Hentz says that "there 
 is probably no spider so abundant in the United States. It 
 makes an irregular web in somewhat retired corners, and usu- 
 ally in dark situations, but occasionally also in the open air." 
 It catches large insects and hangs them up to its nest. Hentz 
 says of the T. studiosum which he has described, that ".when 
 its web is destroyed it does not abandon its cocoon, which is 
 orbicular and whitish, and is placed in the central part of the 
 web. The mother then grasps it with her cheliceres, and de- 
 
DIPNEUMONES. 
 
 651 
 
 fends her progeny while life endures. She also takes care of 
 her young, making a tent like that of social caterpillars for 
 their shelter, and remaining near them till they can protect 
 themselves." It occurs in South Carolina and Alabama. 
 Hentz says of T. verecundum Hentz, a jet black species found 
 in the Southern States, that "it is very common under stones, 
 logs, or clods of earth, where it makes a web, the threads of 
 which are so powerful as to arrest the largest Hymenopterous 
 insects, such as humble bees. Its bite, if I can rely on the 
 vague description of 
 physicians unac- 
 quainted with ento- 
 mology, is somewhat 
 dangerous, producing 
 alarming nervous dis- 
 orders. "Fig. 629 rep- 
 resents TJieridion ri- 
 parium (lower figure, 
 male ; upper, female, 
 enlarged), of Europe. 
 JEpeira is readily 
 known by the large 
 globular abdomen. 
 The species are "sed- 
 entary, forming a web 
 composed of spiral 
 threads crossed by 
 other threads depart- 
 ing from the centre ; they often dwell in a tent constructed 
 above the web ; the cocoons are of various forms. E. vulgaris 
 Hentz (Plate 12, fig. .,.12) is pale gray, with a pitchy black ab- 
 domen, with various winding white marks, and a middle one in 
 the form of a cross. It spins a regular geometrical web, and 
 is almost domesticated, being found about the outside of 
 houses and in gardens.. E. domiciliorum Hentz is a gray or 
 brownish species, and is found in dark rooms. 
 
 The genus Nepliila comprises large spiders, with long cylin- 
 drical abdomens. N.plumipes (Fig. 630, natural size) is found 
 in the Southern States. Dr. B. G. Wilder has given an ac- 
 
652 ARANEINA. 
 
 count of its habits, and considers its silk, if the spider could be 
 reared in sufficient quantities, as of commercial value. The 
 males (upper figure) are minute in size, compared with the 
 females. 
 
 The genus Thomisus is characterized by the small size of the 
 cheliceres, and the first and second pair of feet are either the 
 longest, or the second alone are longest. The species " wander 
 
 Fig. 630. 
 
 after their prey, making no web, but casting irregular threads, 
 with a flattened cocoon, usually placed under leaves, and 
 watched by the mother till the young are hatched." (Hentz.) 
 T. vulgaris Hentz is u pale gray, with four impressed dots on 
 the abdomen ; the body is flat, and the legs are covered with 
 indistinct darker rings. This spider, commonly seen on fenc- 
 
DIPNEUMONES. 653 
 
 ing or prostrate timber, like those of the same genus, moves 
 side wise and backwards, but it is much more active than T. 
 celer. When pursued by an enemy, like Attus and Epei'ra, it 
 leaps and hangs by a thread, which supports it in the air." 
 It is a widely diffused species. T. celer Hentz is also a widely 
 distributed species, and is "found usually on blossoms, where 
 it remains patiently waiting for Diptera, other small insects, 
 and even butterflies, which it secures with amazing muscular 
 power." 
 
 The three remaining genera belong to Latreille's group of 
 "Wanderers," as they spin no web. The species of Dolomedes 
 
 Fig. 631. 
 
 (Fig. 631, from Harris' Correspondence) wander after their 
 prey, making no web, except while rearing their young, and 
 hiding under stones, sometimes diving under water ; the cocoon 
 is usually orbicular, and is carried by the mother. D. lanceo- 
 latus Hentz "is always found near or on water, running on it 
 with surprising agility, preying often on large aquatic insects. 
 A female of Dolomedes was twice found on high bushes by my 
 friend, T. W. Harris, in Milton, Mass., 'on a large, irregular 
 
654 AKANEINA. 
 
 loose, horizontal web, at one extremity of which was situated 
 her follicle, or egg-bag, covered with young. The parent ap- 
 peared watching them at some distance.' This spider can 
 dive and stay a considerable time under water, to avoid its 
 enemies. It was found in March, in Alabama, under stones 
 near a stream of water." It ranges northwards to Massachu- 
 setts. 
 
 The Tarantula belongs to the genus Lycosa , which comprises 
 large stout hairy spiders, with large cheliceres and moderately 
 sized fangs, with the fourth pair 6f feet the longest and the 
 third pair shortest. The species make no web, wandering for 
 their prey, and hiding under stones. They frequently make 
 holes in the ground in which they dwell, spinning at the orifice 
 a ring of silk which forms a consolidated entrance like a trap 
 door. The cocoon is usually orbicular, and is often carried 
 about by the mother, while the young are borne about on the 
 back of her abdomen. (Hentz.) L. : tarantula Linn, is the cele- 
 brated Tarantula of Italy and Spain. Its bite is commonly 
 supposed to produce the effects termed "tarantism," but Dr. 
 Bergsoe has proved that tarantism is rarely due to the bite of 
 the tarantula, which is comparatively harmless. 
 
 The Lycosa fatifera of Hentz is said by him to be bluish 
 black, with the cephalothorax deeper in color at the sides ; the 
 cheliceres are covered with rufous hairs, and have a red eleva- 
 tion on their outer side near their base. It is one of the largest 
 species of the genus. "This formidable species dwells in 
 holes, ten or twelve inches in depth, in light soil, which it digs 
 itself; for the cavity is always proportionate to the size of the 
 spider. The orifice of the hole has a ring made chiefly of silk, 
 which prevents the soil from falling in when it rains. This 
 Lycosa, probably as large as the Tarantula of the south of 
 Europe, is common in Massachusetts, but we have not heard 
 of serious accidents produced by its bite. Its poison, how- 
 ever, must be of the same nature and as virulent." (Hentz.) 
 
 In the leaping spiders, Salticus, the cephalothorax is usually 
 large, square, and the abdomen is oval cylindrical. Hentz 
 says that they wander after their prey, making no web, but 
 concealing themselves in a silken valve, for the purpose of 
 casting their skin, or for hibernation. The Salticus (Attus) 
 
PEDIPALPI. 655 
 
 familiaris of Hentz is a common species throughout the United 
 States. It is pale gray, hairy, and the abdomen is blackish, 
 with a grayish angular band edged with whitish. Hentz says 
 that it is almost domesticated in our houses, and dwells in 
 cracks around sashes, between clapboards, etc., and may be 
 seen on the sunny side of the house, and in the hottest places, 
 wandering in search of prey. It moves with agility and ease, 
 but usually with a certain leaping gait. . . . Before leaping 
 this Attus always fixes a thread on the point from which it 
 departs ; by this it is suspended in the air, if it miss its aim, 
 and it is secure against falling far from its hunting grounds. 
 These spiders, and probably all other species, a day or two 
 before they change their skin, make a tube of white silk, open 
 at both ends ; there they remain motionless till the moulting 
 time arrives, and even some days after are seen there still, 
 probably remaining in a secure place, for the purpose of re- 
 gaining strength and activity." 
 
 PEDIPALPI. 
 
 UNDER the term Pedipalpi we would embrace besides the 
 Pedipalps of Latreille, the Solpugids and Phalangids. They 
 all agree in having the maxillary palpi greatly enlarged and 
 usually ending in a forceps, and the abdomen distinctly 
 jointed, with the end, sometimes, as in the scorpions, pro- 
 longed into a tail. In the retention of the tail in some of the 
 forms, the abnormally enlarged maxillae, the jointed cephalo- 
 thorax and abdomen, which in the scorpions reminds us of the 
 Myriopods, we have characters which place the Pedipalps be- 
 low the true spiders. 
 
 SOLPUGIDS Gervais. In this group, the species of which 
 are large, hairy, spider-like animals, the cephalothorax is 
 clearly jointed, and the abdomen is elongated ; respiration 
 is carried on by tracheae. Solpuga may at once be known by 
 the enormous, though not very long, maxillary palpi. S. 
 araneoides Pallas inhabits Southern Russia. $. (Galeodes) 
 Americana Say inhabits the Southern States. 
 
656 
 
 PEDIPALPI. 
 
 PHALANGID^E Gervais. In the group of Harvest-men the 
 cephalothorax is not jointed ; the abdomen is short and thick, 
 and the maxillary palpi end in a simple claw ; the mandibles 
 are well developed and end in a forceps. The legs are 
 extremely long. They breathe through tracheae. They occur 
 about houses, especially in shady places and in woods and 
 
 Fig. 632. 
 
 fields. "They are carnivorous, feeding on small insects, and 
 are said to be especially addicted to Aphis-eating." (Wood.) 
 The genus Phalangium has no spines on the palpi, and has 
 two simple eyes. The species have been well described by 
 Dr. H. C. Wood, jr. (Proceedings of the Essex Institute, vol. 
 vi), some of whose illustrations appear here, so that the spe- 
 cies here mentioned can be easily identified. P. dorsatum Say 
 
PHRYNID^. 
 
 657 
 
 (Fig. 632, a, female, natural size ; 6, male, natural size ; c, 
 penis, anterior and lateral view, enlarged) has been found from 
 northern New York to Washington. 
 When handled it emits a drop of 
 an odorous clear fluid. We have 
 found it frequently in Salem. 
 
 P. ventricosum Wood (Fig. 633, 
 a, trochanter ; 6, femora ; c, mandi- 
 bles ; d, maxillary palpus, male? 
 natural size) is widely distributed 
 in the United States. Acanthocheir 
 is an eyeless genus with spiny palpi. 
 A. armata Tellkampf is found in 
 Mammoth Cave. In Gonyleptes the 
 cephalothorax is much enlarged, 
 and overhangs the abdomen. #. 
 ornatum Say (Fig. 634, male, a, 
 under surface ; 6, upper surface, 
 natural size ; c, penis) is found in 
 
 the Southern States ; the species are quite numerous in South 
 America. 
 
 Under the name of Archetarbus rotundatus (Fig. 635) Mr. 
 
 Scudder describes a fossil Pedipalp, which seems to be "allied 
 a to the Phalangidce and to the 
 Phrynidce. In its fragmentary 
 state one can scarcely judge with 
 certainty of its exact relationship. 
 The arrangement of the legs ac- 
 cords well with both families. The 
 broad attachment of the thorax to 
 the abdomen is a Phalangidan char- 
 acteristic, while the size and shape 
 of the abdomen, the number of the 
 abdominal segments and the crowd- 
 ed state of the central portions of 
 
 the basal ones, indicate closer affinities to the Phrynidce." 
 
 PHKTNID^E Sundeval. Whip- scorpions. In this group the 
 42 
 
 Fig. 634. 
 
658 
 
 PEDIPALPI. 
 
 anterior pair of legs are very long and slender, being much 
 smaller than the others, while the maxillary palpi are very 
 large ; there are eight simple eyes, and the abdomen is eleven 
 to twelve-jointed, while there are two pairs of 
 stigmata, and they also breathe by lungs. PJiry- 
 nus is at once known by the excessively long, 
 whip-like, multiarticulate fore legs, which ap- 
 parently perform the office of antennae ; the body 
 is short and broad, and has no appendage to the 
 abdomen. P. reniformis Fabr. is fourteen lines 
 long, and is found in Brazil. P. asperatipes Wood 
 Fig. 635. occurs in Lower California. No species occur 
 in the United States. The genus Thetyphonus is known by 
 the oblong body, ending usually in a slender many-jointed 
 filament. T. caudatus Fabr. is fifteen lines long, and inhabits 
 Java. T. giganteus Lucas occurs in the South-western States 
 and in Mexico. 
 
 CHERNETID.E Menge. (Pseudo-scorpiones Latreille.) The 
 False-scorpions are at once known by their large maxillary 
 palpi like the scorpion's claw. The abdomen is eleven-jointed, 
 flattened, without any appendage, and 
 the living forms are minute ; they 
 breathe by tracheae. They are found 
 running about dusty books and in dark 
 places and feed on mites and Psoci. 
 They are often found attached to the 
 leg of some fly or other insect by which 
 they are transported about. "The fe- 
 male chelifer bears the eggs, seventeen 
 in number, in a little bunch under her 
 Fig. 636. abdomen near the opening of her sex- 
 
 ual organs. Menge has observed the Pseudo-scorpions cast 
 their skin in a light web made for that purpose. The little 
 animal remained five days in the web after its metamorphosis, 
 and did not assume its dark colors for four weeks. Three 
 months after it returned to the same web for hibernation. 
 Menge describes eight species from the Prussian Amber, be- 
 longing to genera still living, and Corda one (Microlabris 
 
SCORPIONID.E. 
 
 659 
 
 Sternbergi) from the coal formation in Bohemia, one inch long. 
 Schioclte has found a curious blind species in the caves of 
 Adelsburg, and it is very probable that a closer examination 
 of the Kentucky caves will give a similar American species." 
 (Hagen.) In Chernes there are no eyes. C. Sanborni Hagen 
 is found in Massachusetts. 
 
 In Chelifer there are two eyes. C. cancroides Linn. (Fig. 
 636, enlarged) is dark brown, with many short spines on the 
 thorax. It occurs in Massachusetts and Illinois. 
 
 SCORPIONID.E Latreille. The Scorpions are well known by 
 the immense forceps-like maxillae, and the long tail continu- 
 ous with the thorax, and end- 
 ing in a powerful sting, in which 
 is lodged a poison sac. The body 
 is more distinctly divided into seg- 
 ments than any other Arachnids, 
 and hence the scorpions bear, as 
 Gerstaecker suggests, a strong 
 analogy to the Myriapods. The 
 genus Scorpio is restricted to those 
 species which have six ocelli. JS. 
 Allenii Wood is our only North 
 American species and is found in 
 Lower California. Our other spe- 
 cies are mostly comprised in the 
 genus Butlius, which has eight 
 ocelli. B. Carolinianus Beauvois 
 (Fig. 637) ranges from the South- 
 ern Atlantic States through Texas Fi s- 637 - 
 northward into Southern Kansas. " Scorpions are dangerous 
 in proportion to their size, their age, the state of irritation they 
 may be in, and the temperature of the climate in which they 
 reside. The wounds, however, even of the largest species are 
 rarely fatal." (Moquin Tandon.) 
 
 Messrs. Meek and Worthen have described (Palaeontology 
 of the Illinois Geological Survey, iii, p. 560) two fossil scor- 
 pions from the lower part of the coal measures of Illinois, 
 which are as highly developed, and bear a very close resem- 
 
660 ACARINA. 
 
 blance to the living species. The Eoscorpion carbonarius of 
 Meek and "Worthen is said by them to resemble closely Buthus 
 - hirsutus from California. The other fossil scorpion is the Ma- 
 zonia Wbodiana M. and W., which differs from any known 
 living forms in not having any lateral eyes. Very different 
 and belonging to a much more degraded and embryonic type 
 is the Cydophthalmus Bucklandi from the Coal Measures of 
 Bohemia, in which the tail is continuous with the body, being 
 unusually thick. 
 
 ACARINA. 
 
 THE Mites differ from other Arachnids by their oval or 
 rounded bodies, which are not articulated, the cephalothorax 
 being merged with the abdomen ; the mouth-parts are adapted 
 either for biting or sucking, and they breathe by tracheae. 
 They are usually minute in size ; the ticks, which are some- 
 times half an inch in length, comprising the largest forms. 
 They appear first in geological history in the Prussian Amber, 
 where species of Trombidium and Hydrachna occur. 
 
 BDELLID^E Duges. This inconsiderable family is represented 
 by small mites with long, five-jointed maxillary palpi, and from 
 two to six ocelli, which are sometimes wanting. The limbs 
 are long and thick. The young closely resemble the adults. 
 The genus Bdella has legs of nearly equal length. B. longi- 
 cornis Linn., an European species, is scarlet red, and half a 
 line in length. B. marina Pack, lives between tide marks. 
 
 TROMBIDID.E Leach. The species of this family are red 
 mites, with either claw-like or style-like maxillary palpi, and 
 short mandibles, with the terminal joints scissor-like and op- 
 posed to each other. The genus Tetranychus has slender style- 
 like maxillae, and two ocelli. The two fore pair of legs arise 
 at a long distance from the hind ones, the first pair being the 
 longest. T. telarius Linn, the little red mites of our hot- 
 houses spin webs on rose leaves. It is yellowish, with two red- 
 dish yellow spots on the sides, and is one-half a line long. 
 
IXODIDJE. 661 
 
 It may be killed by showering sulphur over the leaves. In 
 Europe it is found on the linden tree. The young of this spe- 
 cies, according to Claparede, passes through an Ixodes-like 
 stage, as regards the niouth-parts, for this reason we place the 
 Ixodidce below them. 
 
 HYDRACHNID/E Sundeval. The Water-mites are known by 
 ! laving the maxillary palpi five-jointed, with terminal hooks, or 
 bristles, at the end. The legs gradually increase in length, the 
 hindermost pair being longest ; they are ciliated, with two 
 claws. There are two ocelli. These mites swim in fresh and 
 sometimes salt water, and are seen running over water-plants. 
 The young differ so much from the adults that they were de- 
 scribed by Audouin under the name of Achlysia. In Hy- 
 drachna the mandibles are needle-shaped, and the third joint 
 of the maxillae is the longest. The body is oval, with the 
 limbs adapted for swimming, and there are two eyes. Hy- 
 drachna concharum is parasitic throughout life on the gills of 
 fresh water mussels. Others are parasitic during early life on 
 fresh water Hemiptera and Coleoptera. 
 
 In Atax the body is oval, sqlid and corneous. The mandi- 
 bles end in a stout curved claw, and the five-jointed maxillary 
 palpi end in an acute point. The species are red in color and 
 live in flowing streams ; when in their early, and in some cases 
 their adult stages, they are parasitic in the gills of mussels. 
 
 Leach. The Ticks are mites of gigantic size, with 
 bodies of a leathery consistence. The three to four-jointed 
 maxillae are small, not reaching beyond the beak. The man- 
 dibles are saw-like, being covered towards the end with teeth, 
 with from two to four terminal hooks, and, with the large 
 spatulate, dentate "glossoide" of the maxillae, form a beak 
 which the tick pushes into the skin of its host. The ocelli are 
 often wanting, and the legs are slender, with two claws, 
 and in the young a distinct membranous foot-pad. The 
 recently hatched young (Fig. 638, a, glossoide ; 6, mandibles ; 
 c, maxillary palpi ; e, adult gorged with blood) is six-footed, 
 the legs being very long, and the head and mouth -parts are 
 much larger in proportion to the rest of the body than in the 
 
662 
 
 ACARINA, 
 
 adult, while the tripartite division of the body is very distinct, 
 the thorax being distinct from the head and abdomen. 
 
 The genus Argas closely resembles Ixodes. Gerstaecker 
 states that the Argas Persicus Fisher is very annoying to trav- 
 ellers in Persia. Travellers in the tropics speak of the in- 
 tolerable torment occasioned by wood ticks, Ixodes, which, 
 occurring ordinarily on shrubs and trees, attach themselves to 
 all sorts of reptiles, beasts and cattle, and even man himself 
 as he passes by within their reach. Sometimes cases fall 
 within the practice of the physician who is called to remove 
 the tick, which is found sometimes literally buried under the 
 skin. Mr. J. Stauffer writes me, that "on June 23d the daugh- 
 ter of Abraham Jackson (colored) , pla3 7 ing among the leaves 
 
 in a wood, near Springville, 
 Lancaster County, Penn., on 
 her return home complained 
 of pain in the arm. No at- 
 tention was paid to it till the 
 next day, when a raised tu- 
 mor was noticed, a small 
 portion protruding through 
 the skin, apparently like a 
 splinter of wood. The child 
 was taken to a physician 
 who applied the forceps, and 
 after considerable pain to the 
 child, and labor to himself, extracted a species of Ixodes, 
 nearly one-quarter of an inch long, of an oval form, and brown 
 mahogany color, with a metallic spot, like silver bronze, cen- 
 trally situated on the dorsal region." This tick proved, from 
 Mr. Stauffer's figures, to be without doubt, Ixodes unipunctata 
 Pack. (Plate 13, fig. 11, enlarged). It has also been found in 
 Massachusetts by Mr. F. G. Sanborn. The Ixodes albipictus 
 Pack. (Fig. 638, adult gorged with blood, and the six-footed 
 young, with the mouth-parts of the young enlarged, and 5, a 
 foot showing the claws and sucking disc), was discovered by 
 Mr. W. J. Hays in great numbers on a moose which had been 
 partially domesticated. The females lay their eggs from the 
 first of May until the 25th of June, the "eggs being forced 6ut 
 
 Fig. 638. 
 
ORIBATID^E. 663 
 
 in large masses." "On the 3d of July the entire mass of eggs 
 seemed to hatch out at once, the shell opening like a clam and 
 releasing a six-legged insect." (Hays.) The opening of the 
 oviduct is just behind the head, between the anterior pair of 
 feet, so that the eggs appear as if ejected from the mouth. 
 
 Another species is the Ixodes bovis (Plate 13, fig. 10), the 
 common cattle tick of the Western States and Central America, 
 which is allied to the European /. ricinus. It is very annoying 
 to horned cattle, gorging itself with their blood, though by no 
 means confined to them alone, as it lives indifferently upon the 
 rattlesnake, the iguana, small mammals, and undoubtedly any 
 sort of animal that brushes by its lurking-place in the forest. 
 It is a reddish, coriaceous, flattened, seed-like creature, with 
 the body oblong oval, and contracted just behind the middle. 
 When fully grown it measures from a quarter to half an inch 
 in length. We have received it from Missouri, at the hands 
 of Mr. Riley ; and Mr. J. A. McNiel has found it very abun- 
 dantly on horned cattle, on the western coast of Nicaragua. 
 
 GAMASID^E Leach. These mites have scissor-like mandibles, 
 free maxillae, with joints of equal length, and hairy legs of 
 similar size and form, while the ocelli are obsolete. They live 
 parasitically on the bodies of other animals. The genus Gam- 
 asus has long mandibles, with curved, five-jointed, acutely 
 pointed maxillary palpi ; the body is oval, flattened, the skin 
 dense, and the first and last pair of legs are somewhat longer 
 than the middle ones. G. coleoptratorum Linn, is clear, red- 
 dish yellow, and about a third of a line long. It occurs in 
 Europe on beetles, especially species of Geotrupes and Necro- 
 phorus. The same, or a closely allied species, is found in this 
 country. Uropoda vegetans DeGeer, a similar form, also lives 
 on beetles. The genus Dermanyssus has shorter jointed max- 
 illary palpi than in Gamasus. D. avium Duges lives on birds, 
 and D. pipistrellce Qervais on bats. In Pteroptus the terminal 
 joint of the maxillae is very long. Pt. vespertilionis Dufour is 
 a parasite of the bat. 
 
 ORIBATID^E Nicolet. In these mites the body is very hard 
 and horny. The four-jointed maxillary palpi are short, with 
 
664 
 
 ACAKINA. 
 
 the first joint very large, forming a toothed eating surface. 
 The ocelli are nearly obsolete, and the legs have from one to 
 three claws. The cephalothorax has generally two wing-like 
 projections, and two or three cup-shaped 
 pedicellated stigmata on the edge. They 
 generally live on vegetable matter. In 
 Oribates the side of the cephalothorax is 
 produced often into wing-like processes, 
 with the abdomen orbicular, flattened, 
 sometimes emarginate. The European 
 O. alatus Hermann is smooth, blackish 
 Fig. 639. brown, and lives under moss. In Notlirus 
 
 the body is elongated, somewhat quadrangular, and has no 
 lateral expansions, while the legs are stout, with tripartite 
 claws. We have observed an undescribed species of this genus 
 sucking the eggs of the canker-worm in Salem. It may be 
 called Notlirus ovivorus (Fig. 639). It is reddish brown, with 
 a dense hard body, with the edge of the abdomen expanded 
 
 evenly, and with three 
 slender capitate processes 
 on the cephalothorax. 
 
 This family 
 
 comprises the true mites, 
 which have soft, thin- 
 skinned bodies, with 
 either scissor or style-like 
 mandibles, the latter form- 
 ing a retractile horny 
 tube. The maxillae are 
 obsolete, as well as the 
 ocelli. The claws are 
 sometimes provided with 
 
 a sucker. The members of this, and the. following groups, 
 are among the most lowly organized of articulates, and are 
 found living parasitically on the skin of other animals, or 
 buried within their integuments, while certain acari have 
 been detected within the lungs and air passages, the bloodves- 
 sels and the intestinal canals of vertebrate animals. The 
 
ACARIDJB. 665 
 
 genus Cheyletus is remarkable for having the maxillae very large, 
 and like a pair of legs, with the ends tripartite, the outer 
 division being curved and clawlike, while the two innermost 
 are slender lobes pectinated on the inner side ; the mandibles 
 are style-like. A European species (Fig. 640) feeds on Cheese- 
 mites. It is thought by Mr. R. Beck that another species of 
 Cheyletus is parthenogenous, as "he obtained several genera- 
 tions from the first individual, without the intervention of a 
 male." (Science-Gossip, 1869, p. 7.) Mr. J. H. Gregory, of 
 Marblehead, Mass., has found a species of this genus, which we 
 may call Cheyletus seminivorus (Plate 13, fig. 6). It injured the 
 seeds of the cabbage stored up during the winter by sucking 
 them dry. The genus Tyroglyplms is known l>y the body being 
 elongated oval, with scissor-like mandibles, and outstretched 
 four-jointed feet, with a long stalked sucking disc at the end. 
 T. domesticus DeGeer is in Europe common in houses. 
 
 Many people have been startled by statements in newspapers 
 and more authoritative sources, as to the immense numbers of 
 sugar mites, T. sacchari (Fig. 641), found 
 in unrefined or raw sugar. According to 
 Professor Cameron, of Dublin, as quoted 
 in the "Journal of the Franklin Insti- 
 tute," for November, 1868, "Dr. Hassel 
 (who was the first to notice their general 
 occurrence in the raw sugar sold in Lon- 
 don) found them in a living state in no 
 fewer than sixty-nine out of seventy-two 
 samples. He did not detect them in a 
 single specimen of refined sugar. In an Flg> 641> 
 
 inferior sample of raw sugar, examined in Dublin by Mr. 
 Cameron, he reports finding five hundred mites in ten grains 
 of sugar, so that in a pound's weight occurred one hundred 
 thousand. They appear as white specks in the sugar. The 
 disease known as grocer's itch is, undoubtedly, due to the 
 presence of this mite, which, like its ally the Sarcoptes, works 
 its way under the skin of the hand, in this case, however, of 
 cleanly persons. 
 
 Closely allied to the preceding is the Cheese-mite, T. siro 
 Linn., which often abounds in newly made cheese. Lyonnet 
 
666 ACARINA. 
 
 states that during summer this mite is viviparous. T. farince 
 DeGeer, as its name indicates, is found in flour. Other species 
 have been known to occur in ulcers. 
 
 We figure the larva of the European Typhlodromus pyri 
 (Plate 13, fig. 4) the adult of which, according to A. Scheuten, 
 is allied to Tyroglyphus, and lives under the epidermis of the 
 leaves of the pear. There are but two pairs of legs present, 
 and the body is long, cylindrical and worm-like. Fig. 5, plate 
 13, represents the four -legged larva of another species of 
 Typhloclromus. 
 
 The Itch mite belongs to the genus Sarcoptes, in which the 
 body is rounded ovate, with needle-like mandibles, and with 
 short three-jointed legs. The female differs from the male in 
 having the two hinder pairs of legs only partially developed, 
 and ending in a long bristle. S. scabiei Linn. (Plate 13, fig. 
 7, female) was first recognized by an Arabian author of the 
 twelfth century as the cause of the disease which results from 
 its attacks. It buries itself in the skin on the more protected 
 parts of the body, forming minute galleries, by which its pres- 
 ence is detected, and by its punctures maintains a constant 
 irritation. 
 
 Other species are known to infest the cat, dog and swine. 
 They are best destroyed b}^ the faithful use of sulphur oint- 
 ment. Various species of an allied genus, Dermatodectes, live 
 in galleries on different species of domestic animals ; thus D. 
 equi lives in the skin of the horse, D. bovis in cattle, and D. 
 ovis in sheep. Various Sarcoptids occur on birds ; among 
 them are species of Dermaleichus. On March 6th, Mr. G. 
 Cooke called my attention to certain female mites (Plate 13, 
 fig. 1) which were situated on the narrow groove between the 
 main stem of the barb and the outer edge of the barbules of 
 the feathers of the Downy Woodpecker, and subsequently we 
 found the other forms indicated in Plate 13, figs. 2 and 3, in 
 the down under the feathers. These long worm-like mites are 
 probably the females of the singular male Sarcoptes-like mite, 
 represented by Figs. 2 and 3 of the plate, as they were found 
 on the same specimen of woodpecker at about the same date. 
 
 The female (though there is probably a still earlier hexapo- 
 dous stage) of this Sarcoptid, which we may call Dermaleichus 
 
ACAEID^. 667 
 
 pici-pubescentis, has an elongated, oblong, flattened body, with 
 four short legs, provided with a few bristle-like hairs, and end- 
 ing in a stalked sucker, by aid of which the mite is enabled to 
 walk over smooth, hard surfaces. The body is square at the 
 end, with a slight median indentation, and four long bristles of 
 equal length. They remained motionless in the groove on the 
 barb of the feather, and when removed seemed very inert and 
 sluggish. The male (Plate 13, fig. 3) is a most singular form, 
 its body being rudely ovate, with the head sunken between the 
 fore legs, which are considerably smaller than the second pair, 
 while the third pair are twice as large as the second pair, and 
 directed backwards, and the fourth pair are very small, not 
 reaching the extremity of the body, which is deeply cleft, and 
 supports four long bristles on each side of the cleft, while other 
 bristles are attached to the legs and body, giving the creature 
 a haggard, unkempt appearance. The genital armature is 
 situated between the largest or third pair of legs. A preced- 
 ing stage of this mite, which may be called the pupa, is repre- 
 sented on Plate 13, fig. 2. It (all the figures of this sarcoptid 
 being drawn to one scale by Prof. A. M. Edwards, 
 and magnified one hundred and fifteen diameters) 
 looks somewhat like the adult, the body being shorter 
 and broader, but without any genital armature. 
 
 We figure on Plate 13, figs. 8 and 9, greatly en- 
 larged, a most remarkable mite, discovered by New- 
 port on the body of a larva of a wild bee, and 
 described by him under the name of Heteropus ven- 
 tricosus. Fig. 8, in the plate, represents the body 
 of the fully formed female. In this stage it reminds us F te- 642. 
 of Demodex and the Tardigrades. After attaining this form 
 its small abdomen begins to enlarge until it assumes a globu- 
 lar form (Plate 13, fig. 9) and the mass of mites look like little 
 beads. Mr. Newport was unable to discover the male, and 
 thought that this mite was parthenogenous. Another singular 
 mite is the Demodex folliculorum (Fig. 642), which was dis- 
 covered by Dr. Simon, of Berlin, buried in the diseased folli- 
 cles of the wings of the nose in man. It is a long, slender, 
 worm-like form, with eight short legs, and in the larval state 
 has six legs. This singular form is among the lowest and 
 
668 
 
 ACARINA. 
 
 most degraded of the order of Arachnids. It will be seen that 
 the adult Demodex retains the elongated, worm-like appear- 
 ance of the larvae of the higher mites, such as Typhlodromus. 
 This is an indication of its low rank, and hints of a close rela- 
 tionship to the Tardigrades. 
 
 TARDIGRADA Doyere. (Arctisca). The Tardigrades, or 
 Bear animalcules, referred by some to the worms, were consid- 
 ered as mites by O. F. Muller in 1785, and a species was de- 
 scribed by him under the name of 
 Acarus ursellus. They have also been 
 referred to the Rotatoria by Dujardin, 
 and were, by Schultze, considered as 
 parasitic Entomostraca allied to Ler- 
 nsea. With Muller we would consider 
 them as insects belonging to the Aca- 
 
 r * na ' an( * venture ' after studying Clapa- 
 rede's admirable work, "Studien an 
 Acariden," containing an account of 
 the genus Myobia, to consider the Tar- 
 digrades as a family of mites. In 
 form, as indicated by the accompanying 
 figures, copied from Doyere's valuable 
 memoir, they are essentially mites, and 
 allied in form to Demodex and He- 
 teropus, though in their internal organi- 
 zation differing from all other insects 
 in being true hermaphrodites. Muller observed that they 
 moulted their skins. The mouth is adapted for sucking, 
 with style-like mandibles like those of Myobia. There are two 
 ocelli, and the worm-like body is cylindrical, consisting of four 
 thoracic segments behind the head, bearing four pairs of short, 
 thick legs, ending in three or four claws (in these characters 
 reminding us of the Peripatus, a worni with a large, fleshy 
 
 EXPLANATION OF PLATE 13. FIG. 1, Z>ermaZeic7ms pici-pubescentis Pack., fe- 
 male. FIG. 2, young male. FIG. 3, adult male. FIG. 4, larva of Typhlodromus 
 pyri Scheuten (after Scheuten). FIG. 5, larva of another species of Typhlodromus 
 (after Scheuten). FIG. 6, Cheyletus seminivorus Pack. FIG. 7, Sarcoptes scabiei 
 DeGeer (after Gervais). FIG. 8, Hetqropus ventricosus Ne\vport, tally formed fe- 
 male. FIG. 9, gravid female of the same (after Newport). FIG. 10, Ixodes bovis 
 Kiley. FIG. 11, Ixodes unipunctata Pack. All the figures are enlarged. 
 
 Fig. 643. 
 
MITES AND TICKS. 
 
LINGUATULINA. 
 
 Fig. 644 
 
 leg- like process attached to the sides of each ring of the body 
 and ending in a pair of claws) . In size they are microscopic 
 and live in standing water among 
 plants and like the Rotatoria revive 
 after being apparently dead and dried 
 up. They were called Tardigrades 
 from their excessively slow motions. 
 The eggs are very large and are laid 
 by the parent after the last moult ; the 
 young is born with its full comple- 
 ment of legs, and moults several 
 times before arriving at maturity. 
 The eggs of some genera are smooth, 
 while those of Macrobiotus are spher- 
 ical and covered with little knob-like 
 projections. 
 
 Milnesium tardigradum Schrank 
 (Fig. 643, 7, mouth-parts ; 6, alimen- 
 tary canal ; ov, ovary) is a fifth of a 
 line long ; while Emydium testudo Doyere (Fig. 644, magnified 
 one hundred and twenty times) is another European species. 
 
 None have yet been noticed as occurring in this 
 
 country. 
 
 LINGUATULINA. V. Ben. These remarkably worm- 
 like mites in the adult state inhabit the nostrils and 
 frontal sinuses of dogs and wolves, and more rarely 
 of horses and sheep. The larvae, which are like 
 low mites in form, are provided with boring horny 
 jaws and two pairs of small feet armed with sharp, 
 retractile claws. They live in the liver of various 
 animals, where they become encysted, passing 
 through a sort of pupa state. The most common 
 species is here represented (Fig. 644a, Pentastoma 
 tcenioides Rudolphi, from Verrill). The male is 
 .08 inch, and the female, which is oviparous, three 
 or four inches long. It sometimes infests man, 
 living in the early stages encysted in the liver and lungs. In 
 Egypt P. constrictum Siebold is occasionally fatal. 
 
670 MYRIOPODA. 
 
 ORDER III. MYRIOPODA. 
 
 THE Myriopods are readily known by their long, cylindrical 
 or somewhat flattened bodies, which are composed of from ten 
 (counting the head as one) to over two hundred rings. The 
 head is free from the rest of the body, and is much like that 
 of insects, while the thoracic rings are scarcely distinguishable, 
 either in form or the character of their appendages, from the 
 numerous abdominal rings, so that the head, instead of being 
 soldered to the thorax as in the spiders, is here free, while 
 the thorax is merged in the abdomen. 
 
 The head of Cermatia shows how closely the highest Myrio- 
 pod agrees with the insects. The few (sixteen) segments 
 composing the body (counting the head as one) ; the large 
 compound eyes, the long filiform antennae, and well developed 
 palpi, farther show the close relationship of this form to the 
 insects. The habits of this genus also remind us of the spi- 
 ders, as they are predaceous and are said to leap after their 
 prey. 
 
 In the Myriopods generally the mouth-parts are of the same 
 number, and follow each other in the same order as in the 
 insects. Thus in advance of the mouth there are first the 
 ocelli, and immediately behind them the antennae ; behind 
 the mouth are the mandibles, the maxillae with their palpi, and 
 the labial palpi. As each of these jointed organs is repre- 
 sented by an elemental ring we have four segments in the head. 
 
 In the embryo of Julus the rudiments of the first pair of 
 legs are soon aborted, and thus the first thoracic ring bears 
 no legs in adult life. The legs are composed of a coxa, a 
 femur, a tibia and a tarsus, as in the higher insects. 
 
 As shown by Newport the nervous, digestive, respiratory 
 and reproductive systems very closely resemble those of the 
 larvae of insects, as does the external form of these animals. 
 
 Newport states that the nervous system of Myriopods ap- 
 proaches nearer, in the simplicity of its formation, to that of 
 the Annelids than that of the larvae of insects. "In the 
 Chilopoda it has the form of a double cord connected by large 
 
MYRIAPODA. 671 
 
 ganglia in each segment, as in most of the Annelida, Crusta- 
 cea and Insecta; but in the vermiform Chilognatha, which 
 former researches have proved to me are most nearly con- 
 nected to the Annelida, the two parts of this double cord, are 
 so closely united laterally as to appear like a single cord that 
 gives off a multitude of small nervous trunks at its sides 
 throughout its whole length, but without distinct ganglionic 
 enlargements at their origin." The brain is " composed of at 
 least four pairs of ganglia." 
 
 The digestive system comprises the long, tubular salivary 
 glands, of which two are found on each side of the oesophagus 
 and stomach, opening by a long excretory duct into the mouth ; 
 and Professor Leidy has described two others which are 
 placed on each side of the oesophagus, and are pyriform, con- 
 glomerate, and cellular in structure. Also the long intestinal 
 canal which is much as described in the higher insects ; while, 
 as in Julus, according to Leidy, "at the termination of the 
 proventriculus, there open two biliary tubes, and from it, sur- 
 rounding the commencement of the ventriculus, is suspended 
 a broad, white, opaque, reticulated band, apparently composed 
 like the reta adiposa of insects." 
 
 The circulatory system is of a much lower type than in 
 insects, and in Julus it approaches, according to Newport, by 
 its rudimentary development that of the worms. The vascular 
 system consists of a dorsal vessel, or heart, with very numerous 
 separate chambers, almost equal to the segments of the body, 
 which connects with another system of vessels lying on the 
 under side of the body between the alimentary canal and the 
 nervous cord. This plexus of vessels thus forms " a vascular 
 collar around the anterior part of the alimentary canal." "At 
 each constriction of the heart in the Julidce, between two 
 chambers, there are two transverse lateral orifices, as in In- 
 sects," which Newport supposes to be either the terminations 
 of delicate veins, or simple apertures admitting the blood from 
 the venous sinuses in the body. 
 
 The tracheary system is much as in the six-footed insects, 
 and the stigmata have the same relative position, but are 
 placed on the alternate segments of the body. 
 
 In the Chilopoda the sexual system is much as in the six- 
 
672 CHILOPODA. 
 
 footed insects, and the orifices are placed at the end of the 
 body. The ovary is a long single tube, which opens in the last 
 ring of the body ; while in the lower suborder, Chilognatha, 
 there is only a single long ovarian tube, provided with two 
 short oviducts which open on the third segment of the body 
 from the head. The male organs in the Chilopods are much 
 more complicated than in the other Myriopods, and the two or 
 three, or even the single testicular tube, open on the end of 
 the body, while in the Chilognaths, such as Julus, there are 
 two testes which lead out by a vas deferens to the orifice situ- 
 ated on the third thoracic ring. The order is divided into two 
 suborders, i. e. , the Chilopoda and Chilognatha of Latreille. 
 
 CHILOPODA. 
 
 THIS group is characterized by each ring being simple and 
 not divided into subsegments, and bearing but a single pair of 
 feet, while the head is divided into two regions, one placed 
 before the mouth, the other behind the mouth. The sexual 
 outlet is situated at the end of the body. 
 
 This suborder is the highest, as it contains those Myriopods 
 which have the fewest segments to the body*, thus approaching 
 the six-footed insects and spiders. They are active, rapacious 
 in their habits, and by the division of the head into the two 
 regions, movable on each other, they can almost emulate the 
 insects in their powers of seizing their prej T . As stated by 
 Professor Wood , their highly organized muscular and nervous 
 system, the compactness of their intestinal apparatus, and the 
 length and power of their legs, all betoken habits of great 
 activity ; whilst the formidable nature of their mandibles, and 
 the sharp spines, both lateral and terminal, with which their 
 feet are armed, fit them for predatory warfare. Thus it will 
 be seen that the Chilopods are the more animal, while the 
 Chilognaths are the more vegetative ; this is due to the greater 
 concentration of the body head wards, and the more compact 
 build of the body behind the head. 
 
 * The larvae of this group may have as many as six or eight pairs of legs when 
 they leave the egg, while the young Chilognaths have only three. (Rolleston.) 
 
LITHOBIID^E. 673 
 
 It is probable that the Centipedes and their allies appeared 
 at a much later period in the earth's history than the Chilog- 
 naths, as the earliest form of the present suborder known to us 
 is the Geophilus proavus * of Germar, from the Jurassic rocks, 
 whilst the oldest Myriopod, one of the Julidce, is, according 
 to Dawson, found in the lower Carboniferous rocks of Nova 
 Scotia, and Dr. Anton Dohrn has recently described a Julus 
 from the coal formation of Germany. 
 
 CERMATID^E Leach. This group is characterized by having 
 only sixteen rings to the body, while the legs and antennae have 
 more numerous joints than usual. The head is large, very free 
 from the body, with compound eyes, as in the six-footed in- 
 sects, and long spiny palpi, while the tergites, or scuta, are 
 but eight in number, and there are nine pairs of spiracles. 
 The female ovipositor is forceps-like, while the corresponding 
 male appendages are style-like. The species are the 
 most gaily colored of the order, being striped along 
 the body and banded on the legs. Cermatia for- 
 ceps Rafinesque is greenish-brown, with three longi- 
 tudinal stripes of deep green. 
 
 LITHOBIID^E Newport. In this and the remain- 
 ing families of this suborder the antennae are short, 
 and the eyes simple and sometimes wanting. In 
 the present family there are fifteen tergites, and the 
 antennae are longer than in the succeeding group. 
 In Lithobius the antennae are forty- jointed, and Fig. 645. 
 the head is broad and flat. The species of this genus attack 
 earth-worms, grappling with them for several hours, and after 
 killing them, suck their blood. They will, in confinement, de- 
 stroy each other. Their bite is poisonous to small articulates. 
 The European L. forficatus, according to Newman ("Ento- 
 mologist" 1866, iii, p. 342) is preyed upon by Proctotrupes 
 calcar of Haliday. Lithobius Americanus Newport (Fig. 645) 
 is a widely diffused species, and erroneously passes by the 
 name of Ear-wig. It is found everywhere, under sticks and 
 about manure-heaps, where it feeds upon insects and worms. 
 
 * Since shown by Prof. Marsh to be an Annelid (Ischyracanthus). 
 43 
 
674 
 
 CHTLOPODA. 
 
 The genus Bothropotys of Wood, differs in having small, 
 almost round punctiform excoriations arranged in three or 
 four series on the coxa. The B. multidentatus of Newport is 
 found in the Eastern United States, and is recognized by 
 having from thirty-two to thirty-seven ocelli on each side of 
 the head. 
 
 SCOLOPENDRID^E Leach. The Centipede is the type of this 
 family. There are from twenty-one to twenty-three feet-bear- 
 ing segments, with few or no ocelli, while the last pair of feet 
 are thickened and generally spinous. This genus comprises 
 the most gigantic of all Myriapods, Scolopendra 
 giga.ntea Linn, from the East Indies, being nine 
 inches long. S. heros Girard is our largest 
 species, and is found in the Southern States. 
 The bite of the Centipede is dangerous ; the 
 poison is conveyed from two glands in the 
 throat, along a canal in the jaws. 
 
 The genus Scolopocryptops differs in having 
 .no ocelli, and twenty- three feet-bearing seg- 
 ments, while the antennae are seventeen-jointed. 
 S. sexspinosa Say (Fig. 646) is common about 
 Philadelphia, and is found in Iowa ; it is deep 
 orange, with yellow, somewhat compressed feet, 
 with three spines on each of the last pair of 
 feet. Wood describes the manner of moulting 
 in this species. The skin had been crowded back 
 so as to cover only the last two or three rings. The cast skin 
 contains the skin of the head and all its appendages, even to 
 the maxillae and maxillary palpi. The anterior portion of the 
 skin was so torn as to show that the process of shedding proba- 
 bly began by the creature's withdrawing its head from its case, 
 and then thrusting it out between some of the anterior sterna, 
 completing the process by pushing the skin back with its legs, 
 jj; and aiding them by a peculiar wriggling motion. The exuvia 
 had most of the posterior segments entire, showing that the 
 occupant had been withdrawn from it like a hand from a glove." 
 Wood also states that the female guards her young by laying 
 on her side, and then coiling her body passes them along by a 
 
 Fig. 646. 
 
PAUROPODIDJE. 
 
 675 
 
 " rapid cilia- like action of her feet ; " thus arranging them sat- 
 isfactorily to herself. 
 
 GEOPHILID^E Leach. These Myriapods are very long and 
 slender, with from thirty to two hundred segments, each 
 formed of two complete, but unequal subsegments, and bearing 
 but a single pair of feet. There are no ocelli ; the antennae 
 are fourteen-jointed, and the anal feet are short and style-like. 
 
 In Mecistocephalus the "cephalic segment," or anterior part 
 of the head is more than twice as long as broad, while in 
 GeopJiilus the same region of the head is square. 
 M. fulvus Wood is fulvous, polished, with a light 
 orange head ; according to Wood it is most often 
 found under the inner bark of decaying logs of 
 the locust tree. * GeopJiilus cepJialicus is an unu- 
 sually broad species found near Philadelphia. G. 
 bipuncticeps Wood (Fig. 647) is found in the 
 Western States and Sonora. 
 
 In Strigamia the cephalic segment is small, 
 short, and generally somewhat triangular. S. 
 botJiriopus Wood is a bright red robust species, and 
 inhabits Philadelphia. S. cJiionopJiila Wood is a 
 diminutive species, being only three-fourths of an 
 inch' long ; it is found far north, at Fort Simpson, 
 on the Red River of the North. The largest spe- 
 cies known is S. epileptica Wood from Oregon, 
 which is five and a half inches long. The last pair of male 
 feet are represented by Wood to be antenniform, those of the 
 female being small, short, and preserving the usual shape of 
 the leg. This is an interesting instance of the antero- 
 posterior symmetry of these animals, here more strongly 
 marked than usual. 
 
 PAUROPODID^E Lubbock. The sole member of this family is 
 the Pauropus, which Sir John Lubbock discovered in England 
 living among decaying leaves. "The body is composed often 
 segments, including the head, and is convex, with scattered 
 hairs ; there are nine pairs of legs, and the antennae are five- 
 jointed, bifid at the extremity and bearing three long jointed 
 
 Fig. 647. 
 
676 CHILOGNATHA. 
 
 appendages." The two species, P. Huxleyi and P. peduncula- 
 tus of Lubbock are white, and about one-twentieth of an inch 
 in length. Lubbock regards this remarkable form as a "con- 
 necting link between the Chilopods and Chilog- 
 naths, and also as bridging over to a certain 
 extent the great chasm which separates them 
 from other articulata." No tracheae could be 
 detected. The six-footed young (Fig. 648) had 
 the first pair of legs attached to the first seg- 
 ment behind the head, the two other pairs to 
 the following one. The resemblance of Pain-o- 
 pus to those Podurae, such as Achorutes, in 
 which the "spring" is very short, is certainly 
 Fig. 648. remarkable. We may, therefore, consider the 
 Pauropus as a connecting link between the Myriopods and 
 the Neuroptera. P. LMbbockii Pack., was found at Salem, Mass. 
 
 CHILOGNATHA. 
 
 IN this division of the Myriopods the body is divided into 
 numerous segments, each furnished with two pairs of short 
 legs, and the antennae are short, with but few joints. 
 
 They are the lowest insects, and in Julus, with its large 
 number of rings of the same form, we have a good illustration 
 of the vegetative repetition of the zoological elements, or 
 segments, composing the body, which is the reverse of what 
 obtains in the cephalized honey bee, for instance, and reminds 
 us strikingly of the Worms. In the genus Brachycybe, a remote 
 ally of Polydesmus, we are strongly reminded of some crus- 
 taceans, such as the Isopods, and the posterior end of the 
 body of this Myriopod, in the broad lateral expansions of 
 the segments, even recalls the tail of a trilobite. 
 
 Wood states that the eyes are frequently absent, and when 
 present they are generally numerous and collected in patches 
 near the base of the antennae. The long, cylindrical-bodied 
 Julus is the typical form of the suborder, while the flattened 
 dilated Polydesmus is a more aberrant form. 
 
 The mouth-parts are either, as in Julus, formed for feeding 
 
POLYDESMID^E. 677 
 
 on decaying vegetable matter, or tube-like, as in Brachycybe 
 and allies, the parts being converted into a tube or beak. 
 
 Leach. *In this group the eyes are arranged in 
 a linear series, and the antennae are placed on the front of the 
 head. The body is half-cylindrical, short and plump, with from 
 twelve to thirteen segments. The head is large and free, with 
 the first thoracic ring small, while the last abdominal ring is 
 large and shield-shaped. The genital openings in both sexes 
 are situated just behind the insertion of the second pair of 
 limbs. In Glomeris the body consists of twelve rings and 
 seventeen pairs of limbs, while in /Sphcerotherium the body is 
 made up of thirteen rings and twenty-one pairs of feet. The 
 species are exotic, Glomeris marginata Latreille being found 
 in Europe, and the Sphaerotheria in the tropics. 
 
 POLYDESMID^; Leach. In this group the body is much flat- 
 tened, the sterna overarching the scuta, to which they are 
 closely cemented, and the scuta are furnished with lateral 
 laminae. "The head is large and massive, the absence of eyes 
 and the small antennae point to a state of low development of 
 the special senses. The female genitalia are placed in the 
 third segment, just posterior to the second pair of legs. They 
 are generally more or less hidden within the body ; 
 the male organs are situated in the seventh segment, 
 replacing the eighth pair of legs. They generally 
 project very prominently from the body/' Tne young 
 have three pairs of legs, on the 2d, 4th and 5th rings. 
 
 In Polydesmus the body is much flattened, with broad 
 lateral expansions to the rings. Polydesmus Cana- 
 densis Newport is deep brown, with pubescent scarcely 
 clavate antennae ; each of the scuta has eight scales, 
 arranged in a double series. The male appendages Fig. 649. 
 are hairy, with a curved terminal spine of moderate length. 
 The female appendages "consist of a pair of bodies shaped 
 somewhat like the crest of a helmet. Along their free margin 
 is an opening surmounted by a double series of teeth-like pro- 
 cesses. It is found in the Northern and Middle States. P. 
 erythropygus Brandt (Fig. 649) inhabits the Middle and 
 
678 CHILOGNATHA. 
 
 Western States. In Polyxenus the body is short, clothed with 
 short penicillate scales, and there are thirteen pairs of feet. 
 (These scales, or hairs, as has been remarked to us by Mr. 
 Sanborn, are remarkably like the hairs "of Dermestes, and this 
 homology is another proof that the Myriapods are an order of 
 the class Insecta.) P. fasciculatus Say is about a tenth of an 
 inch in length. It has been detected by Mr. Sanborn under 
 the bark of trees near Boston, and I have found it in Salem in 
 the same situations, and also at Nantucket. 
 
 JULIDJS Leach. Thousand Legs. Millepedes. This group 
 embraces the typical species of this suborder. The body is 
 almost perfectly cylindrical, with the sternum greatly reduced 
 in size, those of the posterior subsegments being almost 
 absent, while the tergurn is greatly in excess. The head is 
 large, with often rather long and filiform antennae, and simple 
 eyes arranged in variously shaped patches near the base of 
 the antennae. , 
 
 In Julus the bod}^ is slender and seldom more than three 
 inches long ; the sides of the first scutum are produced in 
 the female, while the antennas are long and filiform. Wood 
 says the males are "farther distinguished by a peculiar altera- 
 tion of the first pair of feet, which are transformed into a pair 
 of very large, thick organs," which probably serve as clasping 
 appendages. Julus is found commonty under sticks, etc. It 
 is long, cjdindrical, hard, with numerous feet, short and weak, 
 attached to the under surface of the body nearly in the middle 
 of the abdomen. The antennas are short and filiform. They 
 crawl rather slowly, and at rest curve the body into a ring. 
 They live on vegetable substances, or eat dead earth-worms or 
 snails. "In the spring the female deposits her eggs in masses 
 of sixty or seventy, in a hole excavated for the purpose under 
 the ground ; after three weeks or more the young make their 
 appearance." (Van der Hoeven.) Newport states that when 
 hatched the young Julus consists of eight rings, including the 
 head. The body of the embryo, seen from above, is com- 
 pressed and wedge-shaped, being broadest at the second and 
 third segments. For many days (seventeen) after hatching, 
 the embryo is surrounded by a membrane which Newport re- 
 
JULID^E. 
 
 679 
 
 gards as the analogue of the amnion, or vitelline membrane, 
 of the vertebrates. This membrane is at the end of the body 
 connected with another, which in the unburst shell is external 
 to the "amnion," and lines the interior of the shell. New- 
 port compares this with the chorion of vertebrates. Before the 
 amnion is thrown off the embryo moults, 
 and six new segments appear (Fig. 650, 6), 
 and minute tubercles bud put on the under 
 surface of the six and seventh rings, as at a. 
 The new segments are always developed be- 
 tween the last and penultimate ones,* as has 
 been observed in the worms, the Crustacea, 
 the spiders, and as I have observed in the em- 
 bryo of the Dragon-fly. In the young Julus 
 no legs grow out on the third segment from 
 the head, but the outlet of the oviduct of 
 the female is placed on this segment. The Fig - 65 - 
 male organs find their outlet on the sixth ring from the head. 
 
 Julus Canadensis Newp. is brownish chestnut, ornamented 
 with a black dorsal line, and a lateral row of black dots. The 
 body consists of fifty-three segments. It is found 
 in the Northern States and Canada. 
 
 J. multistriatus Walsh (Fig. 651) inhabits the 
 Western States. The genus Spirobolus has a much 
 larger, thicker body, and a rather small head, with 
 short antennae, often lying partially hidden in a 
 groove in the side of the head. Spirobolus margi- 
 natus Say is deep brown, annulated with red, and 
 consists of from fifty-three to fifty-seven segments. 
 The male appendages are described by Wood as 
 formed of two outer parts, and a connecting yoke-like 
 piece. 
 
 To this family without much doubt, as Dr. Dawson 
 states, belongs the Xylobius sigillarice of Dawson 
 (Plate 1, fig. 4) from the Lower Carboniferous rocks Fi - G5L 
 of Nova Scotia. This, in 'its short, thick antennae, and small 
 head, rather approaches Spirobolus than Julus, though the 
 antennae are shorter, while the twelve ocelli represented in Dr. 
 Dawson's figure (Air-Breathers of the Coal Period. Montreal, 
 
 *In the Chilopoda the new segments are intercalated between the old ones. 
 
680 CHILOGNATHA. 
 
 1863. Plate vi, fig. 58-61) are arranged much as in S. margi- 
 natus. It differs remarkably, however, in the raised posterior 
 margin of the segments, giving a serrate outline to the body, 
 while the body tapers more rapidly towards each end than 
 any recent form known to us. In this respect it seems to 
 combine the characters of the present family and that of 
 Spirosbrephon, a genus in many respects intermediate between 
 the Polydesmidce and the Siphonantia, or sucking Myri- 
 opods. Four spiracles are represented on the tenth to the 
 thirteenth segments from the head. 
 
 The genus Spirostreplion is in many respects intermediate 
 between this and the succeeding family. The head is free, as 
 in Polydesmus, but the sterna are soft, as in the Siplionantia. 
 S. Gopei Pack., was found by Mr. C. Cooke in Mammoth Cave. 
 
 SIPHONANTIA Brandt. In the sucking Myriopods (Sugantia 
 of Brandt) we meet with the lowest, most vegetative, worm- 
 like forms of the order. According to Wood the head is very 
 mall and concealed beneath the prothoracic ring. The parts 
 of the mouth are fused and united into a sucking tube for the 
 imbibition of fluids. The eyes are either present or absent, 
 and the scuta, or tergites, may be prolonged laterally into 
 laminae which afford protection only to the back and flanks, 
 the central part of the abdomen being soft. The feet are 
 small and hidden beneath the broad body, while the male ap- 
 pendages are placed on the seventh segment. 
 
 In the genus Octoglena the eyes are eight in number, 
 arranged in two converging rows. 0. bivirgata Wood is 
 brown, with a reddish stripe on each side, with about forty- 
 five segments to the body. 
 
 In Brachycybe the rostrum is acute, much shorter than the 
 antennae, while the body is broad and flattened. The male 
 appendages, or clasping organs, are, as sho\vn in Dr. Wood's 
 figures, simply modified feet adapted for clasping purposes, 
 as they are in Polydesmus, and are, therefore, not homologous 
 with the male appendages of insects, which are differently de- 
 veloped and grow out from a different portion of the segment. 
 The Brachycybe Lecontei of Wood is from Georgia, and has 
 long lateral expansions to the tergites. 
 
ENTOMOLOGICAL CALENDAR. 
 
 THIS calendar applies mostly to the New England states, where the appearances 
 of the insects here enumerated have been recorded. It should be borne in mind that 
 the season of New York city is about two weeks in advance of that of Boston, 
 and that of Virginia and Illinois about a month or six weeks earlier. It is designed 
 to be of special use to farmers and gardeners as indicating the times of appear- 
 ance of injurious insects. When only the generic name is given several species 
 appear simultaneously. The reader in noticing an insect mentioned here can turn 
 to the index and find in the body of the work an account of its habits. 
 
 Bombtis, queens; a few Ichneumons and Chalcids; Vanessa; Grapta; a few 
 specimens of Noctuidse, Tortricidse and Tineidae; Ephippophora caryana; Canker 
 worm, females and males; Anthomyia; Tachina; Chironomus; Anophiles; Bibio; 
 Chionea; Valga, on the snow; Trichocera hiemalis; Cicindelsa and Carabidae; 
 Dytiscidae, and other water beetles; Aquatic Hemiptera; Capnia and Taeniopteryx ; 
 Boreus. 
 
 lst-15th. Formica; Brephos; Adela, on willows; Aphodius; Ptinus fur; Der- 
 mestes; Anthrenus; Attagenus; Epuraea; Ips; Ellychnia; Larva and female of 
 Meloe on bodies of wild bees and wasps ; Ceuthophilus. 
 
 16th-30th. Polyommatus; Lycaena; Thecla; Coddling moth (Carpocapsa) ; mos- 
 quitoes and larvae ; Bombylius; Burying beetles; Euryomia Inda; Buprestids; 
 Chalcophora Virginica; Castings of Saperda Candida; Cylindrical bark borers 
 (Tomicus, Xylographa); Hylurgus; Pissodes strobi; Hylobius pales; Phytocoris. 
 
 lst-15th. Xylocopa, Ceratina, Osmia, Andrena and Halictus nesting; Colias; 
 Argynnis Bellone; Melitaea Myrina; Chrysophanus Phlseas; Clisiocampa larva 
 hatching out; Scolioptery x ; Drasteria; Coremia; Gooseberry Pempelia ; Tipulidae; 
 Hessian-fly and Wheat-midge; Cecidomyia; Syrphus; Eristalis; Squash beetle; 
 Plum weevil; Hister; Clerus; Elater; Limonius; Cratonychus; Meloe; Calli- 
 grapha; CEdipoda corallina; Tragocephala infuscata, viridifasciata ; Libellula; 
 Hemerobius. 
 
 18th-31st. Cynips; Selandria rosse and cerasi, laying eggs; Strawberry Emphy- 
 tus larva; Papilio Tumus; Pontia oleracea; Melitaea Phaeton, larva; Argynnis; 
 Thanaos; Hesperia; Alypia octomaculata; Sphinx; Ceratomia 4-cornis; Sesia; 
 Hyphantria textor; Arctia; Leucarctia; Agrotis and cut- worms; Hypena humuli, 
 hop-vine worm ; Grapholitha and other leaf- rolling larvse on apple and pear; Vine 
 Penthina larva; Carpet moth; Chrysops; Geotrupes; Haltica on turnip, toma^ 
 cucumbers, etc ; Apion ; Asemum moestum ; Gastrophysa coeruleipennls ; Galleruca 
 
 (681) 
 
682 ENTOMOLOGICAL CALENDAR. 
 
 JUNE. 
 
 lst-15th. Pristophora identidem, cranberry fly larva; Nematus ventricosus, 
 larva; Cynips; Eurytoma hordei in straw; Pteromalus; Abia, larva; Papilio As- 
 terias; Eudamus Tityrus; Smerinthus; Abraxas ribearia; Scotosia undulata; 
 Antithesia pruniana, larva; larvae of LithocoUetis salieifoliella, juglandiella; Nep- 
 ticula villosella; Cranberry Anchylopera larva; Strawberry Anchylopera larva; 
 Grape Pterophorus larva; Anisota pellucida; Icthyura; Tabanus; Tephritis; 
 Oscinis; Laphria; Asilus; Bot-flies; June beetle, Lachno sterna; Areodes lani- 
 gera; Pelidnota punctata; Serica sericea; Apion Sayi; Macrodactylus subspin- 
 osus, Rose chafer; Dicerca divaricata; Chrysobothris fulvoguttata and Harrisii; 
 Alaus oculatus; Attelabus analis and bipunctulatus ; Rhynchites bicolor; Arrhen- 
 odes septentrionis; Telephorus; Corymbites; various fireflies, Photinus and 
 Photuris; Colorado potato beetle; CoccineUa; Pemphigus vitifolire; Apple bark 
 louse, Aspidiotus conchiformis; Cicada rimosa; (Edipoda Carolina; Panorpa. 
 
 18th-30th. Megachile nesting; Pristiphora grossulariae, larva; Neonympha Eury- 
 tris; Grapta Progne, larva; Cynthia cardui, larva, Atalanta larva; Limeiiitis 
 Missippus; Nymphalis Ephestion; Melitaea Phaeton, Pharos, Harrisii; Satyrus 
 Nephele ; Actias Luna; Eudryas grata, larva; Trochilium tipuliforme; ^Egeria exit- 
 iosa ; Platysamia Cecropia ; Telea Polyphemus ; Hypena humuli ; Desmia maculalis ; 
 Crainbus; Asopia costalis; Gooseberry Pempelia larva; Philampelus; Chaero- 
 campa; Halesidota; Datana ministra; Eacles impei'ialis; Citheronia regalis; 
 Hyperchiria lo; Loxotaenia rosaceana; Carpocapsa pomonella, larva; Limacodes; 
 Locust Depressaria larva; Strobisia levipedella; Coleophora; Tinea, clothes-rnoth ; 
 Cerura borealis; Bryophila; Pterophorus larvae; Sarcophaga; Anthomyia raphani, 
 radish fly; Scolytus pyri ; Cerasphorus cinctus ; Monoham.mus titillator; Anomala 
 varians; Fidia viticida; Desmocerus palliatus; Hispa siituralis; Lytta cinerea; 
 Grape Coeliodes larva; Squash bug, Coreus tristis; Lecanium quercifex; Chinch 
 bug ;Thrips; Cicada 17-decim; Tettigoaia rosae; Chrysopa, Phryganea; Neuronia. 
 
 lst-15th. Wasps nesting; Pine Lophyrus larvae; Melitaea Harrisii; Hesperia 
 Hobomoc; Satyrus Alope; Deilephila; Darapsa; Harrisina Americana; Alypia 
 octomaculata ; Phragmatobia rubricosa; Pyrrharctia Isabella; Euphanessa; Ha- 
 dena arctica; Catocala; Dahlia Gortyna larva, boring the stems; Phlox worm; 
 Ennomos subsignaria, Angerona crotataria and many other Phalaenidse: Phycita 
 nebulo, and many other Pyralidae and Tortricidae; Simulium; (Estrus; Ortalis 
 flexa; Acinia; Limnobia; Monohammus scutellatus ; Trichodes humeralis; Lep- 
 tura Canadensis ; Buprestis fasciatus ; Grape Baridius ; Reduvius ; many Libel- 
 
 Iul33. 
 
 16th-31st. Pristiphora grossulariae; Tremex Columba; Heteropterus margin- 
 atus; Polyommatus Comyntas; Thecla falacer; Danais, larva; Argynnis Idalia 
 and Aphrodite; ^Egeria cucurbitae; Sphinx larvae; Utetheisa bella; Lithosia casta; 
 Ichthyura albosigma; Clisiocampa; Lagoa crispata; Xyleutes robiniae; Apatela 
 Americana; Agrotis telifera, devastator; Hypena humuli, 2d brood of larvae; Bra- 
 chytaenia malana; Antithesia pruniana; Pterophorus; Coleophora; Nepticula; 
 Gracilaria; Elachista; Lema trilineata; Anthonomus prunicida ; Eumolpus aura- 
 tus; Prionus laticollis; Orthosoma unicolor; Leptostylus; Monohammus marmo- 
 ratus; Lucanus capreolus, dama; Clytus; Saperda; Osmoderma scabra; Cran- 
 beny Anthonomus ; Tettigonia fabae ; Clastoptera. 
 
 AUGUST. 
 
 lst-15th. Many bees and wasps; Crabronidae; Nyssonidae; Bembecidae; Lar- 
 ridae; Sphex, Pompilus and other fossorial wasps; Cimbex larva; Pelecinus and 
 various Chalcids and Proctotrypidae ; CEceticus makes its cocoon; Gortyna zeae; 
 Agrotis subgothica; Plusia; Heliothis; Northern Army worm (Leucania); Nepti- 
 
ENTOMOLOGICAL CALENDAR. 683 
 
 cula; Gelechia; Lyonetia; Phalaenidae and Noctuidas; Cranberry Antithesia; 
 Saperda calcarata; Clytus; Tettigoniaa and many other Hemiptera, Grain Aphis 
 and other Aphides; Coccidae; Phymata erosa; CEcanthus niveus; Chloiialtis; 
 Acheta; Neraobius, and other grasshoppers. 
 
 16th-3 1st. Orgy ia; larvae of many moths and butterflies; Lycomorpha pholus; 
 Apple Lithocolletis larva; Sac-bearing Lyonetia larva; Tomicus and other bark 
 boring beetles ; Girdler Oncideres; Psocidae; second brood of Chrysopa. 
 
 SEPTEMBER. 
 
 Ants swarm; Males and females of Bombus ; Nymphalis Disippe; Gastropacha 
 Americana, larva; Limacodes, larva; Boll worm (larva); Zerene catenaria; Larvae 
 of various Lithocolletis, Bucculatrix and other Tineids ; Sciara larva; Carabidae; 
 Clytus pictus oviposits on locust; Meloe; Membracis bimaculata; Pemphigus rais- 
 ing galls ; Lachnus strobi. 
 
 OCTOBER. 
 
 CEceticus, and larvae of various Tineids; ^Egeria pyri; Canker worm moth; 
 Anisopteryx; Hibernia tiliaria ; Bdellia somnulentella ; Rhagium lineatum matures, 
 but hibernates in its cell; Hemerobius, and larva. 
 
 The Driver Ant, see p. 181. 
 
GLOSSAKY. 
 
 Acuminate. Ending in a prolonged point. 
 
 Anastomosing. Inosculating or running 
 into each other like veins. 
 
 Annulate. When a leg, antenna, etc., is 
 surrounded by narrow rings of a dif- 
 ferent color. 
 
 Apodous. Footless. 
 
 Areolate. Furnished with small areas; 
 like a net work. 
 
 Aristate. Furnished with a hair. 
 
 Aurelia. Ancient term for pupa. 
 
 Blastoderm. The primitive skin of the 
 
 embryo. 
 Blastodermic cells. The cells forming 
 
 the blastoderm. 
 Bullate. Blistered. 
 
 Calcarated. Armed with spurs. 
 
 Cancellate. Crossed by lines going at 
 right angles to each other. 
 
 Capitate. Ending in a knob. 
 
 Carina. An elevated keel-like ridge. 
 
 Carpus. The pter >stigma. , 
 
 Cellule. A little space surrounded by 
 veins on the wing. 
 
 Chela. Terminal portion of a foot, with 
 a movable lateral toe, like the claw of 
 a crab or mandibles of arachnids. 
 
 Chrysalis. The pupa of Lepidoptera. 
 
 Concolorous. Of the same color with 
 another part. 
 
 Ciliate. Fringed. [ashes. 
 
 Cinereous. Ash color; color of wood 
 
 Cine/ilia. A colored band. 
 
 Clavate. Club-shaped. 
 
 Coarctate. Contracted; compact. 
 
 Confluent. Running into each other. 
 
 Connate. United. 
 
 Cordate. Heart shaped. 
 
 Coriaceous. Leather-like, thick, tough, 
 and somewhat rigid. 
 
 Corneous. Of a horny substance; re- 
 sembling horn. 
 
 Crenate. Scalloped, with rounded teeth. 
 
 Cupreous. Coppery in color. 
 
 Dentated. Furnished with teeth. 
 Depressed. Flattened down. 
 Dilated. Widened, expanded. 
 Dimidiate. Half round. 
 Discal. Relating to the disk; discoidal. 
 
 Edentulous. Destitute of teeth. 
 
 Emarginate. Notched; terminating in an 
 acute notch at tip. 
 
 Entire. (Wings) with a simple, not in- 
 dented, edge. 
 
 Epistoma. That part of the face between 
 the front and labrum. 
 
 Eruca. The larva. 
 
 Excurved. Curved outwards. 
 Exserted. Protruded; opposed to in- 
 closed. 
 Exuvia. Cast-off skin. 
 
 Fades. Appearance, aspect. 
 Falcate. Sickle-shaped. 
 Fascia. A stripe broader than a line. 
 Fauna. An assemblage of animals peo- 
 
 Fenestrated. Marked with transparent 
 spots surrounded by a darker color, 
 like window panes. 
 
 Ferruginous. Rust-colored. 
 
 Filiform. Thread-like. 
 
 Flavescent. Somewhat yellow. 
 
 Flexuous. Almost zigzag. 
 
 Foliaceous. Leaf-like. 
 
 Forcipated. Forceps-like. 
 
 Fovea. A more or less rounded depres- 
 sion. 
 
 Free. Unrestrained in articulated move- 
 ment; not soldered at the points of 
 contact. 
 
 Front. The fore-face, bounded by the 
 eyes, the vertex, and often beneath by 
 the epistoma, or clypeus. 
 
 Fuliginous. Of the color of dark smoke. 
 
 Fulvo-ceneous. Brazen, with a tinge of 
 brownish yellow. [deer. 
 
 Fulvous. Tawny ; color of the common 
 
 Furcated. Forked. 
 
 Fusco-testaceous. Dull reddish brown. 
 
 Fuscous. Dark brown; approaching 
 black. 
 
 Fusiform. Spindle-shaped; gradually 
 tapering at each end. 
 
 Ganglion. A centre of the nervous sys- 
 tem, containing nerve cells, and re- 
 ceiving and giving out impressions. 
 
 Geminate. Arranged in pairs ; twin. 
 
 Gemmiparous. Asexual generation by 
 new individuals arising as buds from 
 the body of the parent. 
 
 Glabrous. Smooth; opposed to hairy, 
 downy, villous. 
 
 Glaucous. Gray; bluish green. 
 
 Hamule. A little hook. 
 
 Hastate. Halberd shaped. 
 
 Haustellate. Furnished with a proboscis 
 
 or tongue-like mouth. \ 
 
 Hexapodous. Provided with six feet. 
 Hirsute. Clothed with shaggy hairs. 
 Hyaline. Transparent; of the color of 
 
 water. 
 Hypostoma. The clypeus in diptera. 
 
 Incrassated. Thickened; swelled out on 
 some particular part. 
 
 (685) 
 
686 
 
 GLOSSARY. 
 
 Infamated. Clouded. 
 
 Infuscated. Darkened with a blackish 
 
 tinge. 
 
 Interrupted. Suddenly stopped. 
 Involuted. Rolled inwards spirally. 
 Irrorated. Freckled; sprinkled with 
 
 atoms. 
 
 Lamelliform. Sheet or leaf-like. 
 Limbate. When a disk is surrounded by 
 
 a margin of a different color. 
 Lamina. A plate or sheet-like piece. 
 Linear. Like a line. 
 Lineated. Provided with line-like marks. 
 
 Mandibulate. Furnished with mandi- 
 bles ; opposed to haustellate. 
 
 Marginated. Surrounded by an elevated 
 or attenuated margin. 
 
 Membranaceous. Thin; skinny, and 
 semi-transparent like parchment. 
 
 Mucronate. Ending in a sharp point. 
 
 Mutic. Unarmed. 
 
 Nymph. Old name for pupa. 
 
 Obcordate. Inversely heart-shaped. 
 
 Obovate. Inversely ovate; the smaller 
 end turned towards the base. 
 
 Obsolete. Not distinct; or almost lost to 
 view. 
 
 Obtected. Covered. 
 
 Ochreous. Of a more or less deep ochre 
 color. 
 
 Olivaceous. Olive colored. 
 
 Operculum. A lid; a small valvular ap- 
 pendage. 
 
 Oval. Egg-shaped. 
 
 Ovate. More or less oval. 
 
 Oviposition. The act of depositing eggs. 
 
 P 'etiolated. Supported on a stem. 
 Piceous. Pitchy, color of pitch; shining 
 
 reddish black. 
 Pilose. Clothed with pile, or dense 
 
 down. 
 
 Process. A projection. 
 Produced. Drawn out; prolonged. 
 Pruinose. Frosty. 
 Pseudova. Unimpregnated eggs, which 
 
 produce young, as in those laid by 
 
 virgin Aphides. 
 Pubescent. Coated with very fine hairs, 
 
 or down. 
 
 Pulverulent. Dusty. 
 Punctured. Marked with numerous 
 
 small impressed dots. 
 
 Raptorial. Adapted for seizing prey. 
 Recurved. Curved backwards. 
 Reniform. Kidney shaped. 
 
 Reticulated. Marked like net work. 
 Revolute. Rolled backwards. 
 Rostrum. The beak or sucking moiith- 
 
 parts in Hemiptera. 
 Rufescent. Somewhat reddish. 
 Rufous. Reddish. 
 Rugose. Wrinkled. 
 
 Sanguineous. Blood-red. 
 
 Scabrous. Rough like a file ; with small 
 raised dots. 
 
 Scalloped. Edge marked by rounded 
 hollows, without intervening angles. 
 
 Sericeous. Having the surface with a 
 silk-like gloss, usually from the pres- 
 ence of minute, dense hairs. 
 
 Serrated. Like saw-teeth. 
 
 Setaceous. Bristle-like. 
 
 Sessile. Not stalked. 
 
 Sinuated. Scooped out. 
 
 Spinous. Armed with spines. 
 
 Spurs. Stiff bristles, or spines, on the 
 tibise. 
 
 Stria. Aline usually depressed; some- 
 times composed of punctures. 
 
 Subaduncate. Somewhat hooked or 
 curved. 
 
 Subulate, Shaped like an awl. 
 
 Sulcate. With groove-like excavations. 
 
 Suture. A seam, or impressed line; 
 usually between segments. 
 
 Tawny. Fulvous; a pale dirty yellow. 
 Teneral. A state of the imago "(Nenrop- 
 
 tera) after exclusion from the pupa, in 
 
 which it has not fully completed its 
 
 coloring, clothing, etc. 
 Tessellate. Spotted like a checker-board. 
 Testaceous. Dull red ; brick color. 
 Tomentose. Covered with fine matted 
 
 hairs. 
 
 Truncated. Cut squarely off. 
 Tuberculose. Covered with tubercle-like 
 
 prominences. 
 
 Uncinate. Hooked at the end. 
 Unequal. Differing in size, or length. 
 Unguiculate. Armed with a hook or nail. 
 
 Valrule. A small valve-like process. 
 
 Ventral. Relating to the under surface 
 of the abdomen. 
 
 Verticillate, Placed in whirls. 
 
 Verriculate. With thickset tufts of par- 
 allel hairs. 
 
 Verrucose. Covered with wart-like 
 prominences. 
 
 Vulose. Clothed with soft, rather long 
 hairs. 
 
 Vulva. Orifice of the oviduct. 
 
 ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 Beauv., Beauvois. Boisd., Boisduval. Burm., Burmeister. Clem., Clemens. 
 Dahlb., Dahlbom. Deu., Dennis. Dej., Dejean. Erich., Erichson. Esch., Esch- 
 oltz. Fabr., Fabricius. Frohl., Frohling. Grav., Gravenhorst. G. and R., Grote 
 and Robinson. Guen., Guene"e. Gyll., Gyllenhal. Hald., Haldeman. H. Sch., 
 Herrich-Schaeffer. Hiibn., HUbner. Latr., Latreille. Lee., Leconte. Linn., Lin- 
 nams. Mann., Mannerheim. Mels.,Melsheimer. Oliv., Olivier. Pack., Packard. 
 Sauss., Saussure. Schief., Schiefermuller. Schonh., Schonherr. St. Farg., St, 
 Fargeau. Tellk , Tellkampf. Walk., Walker. <^,male; ?, female; ?, worker. 
 
Abdomen, 14. 
 
 Abdominal legs, 21. 
 
 Abia caprifolium, 216. A. cerasi, 217. 
 
 Abraxas ribearia, 321. 
 
 Acanthocheir armata, 657. 
 
 Acanthosoma grisea, 546. 
 
 Acaridae, 664. 
 
 Acarina, 628, 631, 638, 639, 642, 644, 660, 6G8. 
 
 Acavus ursellus, 368. 
 
 Achlysia, 631. 
 
 Achorutes, 676. 
 
 Achatodes zeae, 311. 
 
 Acidalia enucleata, 323. A. nivosaria, 323. 
 
 Acilius mediatus, 436. 
 
 Acoloithtis Americana, 282. 
 
 Acraea violae, 251. 
 
 Acratus flavipennis, 454. 
 
 Ac ro sera, 395. 
 
 Acrocinus longimanus, 497. 
 
 Acronycta aceris, 305. A. oblinita, 304. 
 
 Acrophylla, 573. 
 
 Acrydii, 559, 567. 
 
 Acrydiura aleutaceum, 571. 
 
 Aftias Azteca, 298. A. Luna, 234, 298. 
 
 Adela Ridingsella, 348. 
 
 Adelges coccineus, 523. 
 
 Adelocera obtecta, 460. 
 
 Adelops hirtus, 439. 
 
 Adranes csecus, 422, 440. 
 
 uEgeriadae,277. JSgeria caudata, 278. JE. 
 
 exitiosa, 277. M. polistiformis, 278. 
 
 M. pyri, 278. M. quinque-caudata, 279. 
 
 JE. tipuliforme, 279. 
 ./Egialites debilis, 475. 
 ./Egialitidaa, 475. 
 
 schna, ovipositor of, 16. ^Eschna, 579, 
 
 581. JE. clepsydra, 602. M. constricta, 
 
 602. M. heros, 604. M. juncea, 598. 
 Agabus, 436. 
 
 Agamic reproduction, 49. 
 Agathidium seminulum, 439. 
 Agenia acceptus, 173. A. brevis, 173. 
 
 A. congruus, 173. 
 Aglossa cuprealis, 329. A. pinguinalis, 
 
 329. 
 Agrion, 599, 601, 602. Ovipositor of. 16. 
 
 A. civile, 603. A. saucium, 603. 
 Agrionina, 598, 603. 
 Agriotes, 461. A. mancus, 461. 
 Agriotypus armatus, 616. 
 Agrotis, 243. A. Cochrani, 306, 308. A. 
 
 devastator, 306. A. subgothica, 306. 
 
 A. suffusa, 306. A. telifera, 306. A. 
 
 tessellata, 306. 
 Air-breathers, 679. 
 Air vesicles, 42. 
 Alans octilatus, 460. 
 Aleochara, 423, 440, 441. 
 Aleurodes, 526. 
 Aleuronia Westwoodii, 609. 
 
 Alimentary canal, 34. 
 
 Allantus basilaris, 224. 
 
 Allecula, 475. 
 
 Allotria, 213. 
 
 Alucita, 202. A. polydactyla, 357. 
 
 Alydus eurinus, 546. 
 
 Alypia octo-maculata, 281. 
 
 Alyson oppositus, 162. 
 
 Amara, 433. 
 
 Amblychila, 429. 
 
 Amblynotus, 212. 
 
 American Silk-worm, 195. 
 
 American Tent Caterpillar, 343. 
 
 Ammophila arenaria, 171. A. cementa- 
 
 ria, 171. A. hirsuta, 171. A. luctuosa, 
 
 171. A. sabulosa, 170, 171. A. urnaria, 
 
 171. 
 
 Amnion, 678, 679. 
 Amphicerus bicaudatus, 471. 
 Amphidasys cognataria, 322. 
 Amphizoa insolens, 435. 
 Amphizoidae, 434. 
 Ampulex Sibirica, 166. 
 Anagrus, 202. 
 Anal cerci, 22. 
 Anal forceps, 21. 
 Anal plate, 30. 
 Anaphes, 202. 
 Anarete, 378. 
 Anarta algida, 316. 
 Anaspis, 476. 
 Anax Junius, 603. 
 Anchylopera fragariae, 340. A. medlo- 
 
 fasciana, 338. A. nubeculana, 338. A. 
 
 ocellana, 338. A. spireaefoliana, 338. 
 
 A. vacciniana, 338. 
 Andrena, 141, 142, 143, 145, 146, 408. A. 
 
 vicina, 144. 
 Andrenetae, 142. 
 Andrenus marginicollis, 443. 
 Angerona crocataria, 319. 
 Angoumois Grain-moth, 350. 
 Anisopteryx, 231. A. pometaria, 324. 
 
 A. vernata, 200, 324, 325. 
 Anisota rubicunda, 300. A. senatoria, 
 
 300. 
 
 Anisotoma, 439. 
 
 Anobium notatum, 47. A. paniceum, 131. 
 Anomala varians, 455. 
 Anomalon vesparnm, 127, 150, 195. 
 Anomis xylina, 313. 
 Anomma arcens, 181. A. Burmeisteri, 
 
 181, 683. 
 
 Anopheles quadrimaculatus, 370. 
 Anophthalmus Tellkampfli, 434. 
 Anotia Bonnetii, 533. 
 Antennae, 26. 
 
 Antennary segments, 20, 58. 
 Antheraea Yama-ma'i, 296. [447. 
 
 Antherophagus, 446. A. ochraceus, 131, 
 
 (687) 
 
688 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Anthicidas, 476. 
 
 Anthicus, 476. 
 
 Anthidium, 135. 
 
 Anthocharis cardamines, hermaphro- 
 dite, 46. 
 
 Anthocoris insidiosus, 544. 
 
 Anthomyia, 131. A. brassicae, 411. A. 
 ceparum, 411. A. cunicularis, 411. A 
 raphani, 411. A. urcana, 150. A. zeae 
 411, 419. 
 
 Anthonomus crataegi, 487. A. prunicida, 
 487. A. quadrigibbus, 487. A. scutel- 
 latus, 487. A. suturalis, 487. A. syco 
 phanta, 487. A. tessellatus, 487. 
 
 Anthophagus caesus ? 442. 
 
 Anthophora, 29, 141 206, 397. A. abrupta, 
 136. A. megachilis, 206. A. taurea, 
 136. 
 
 Anthophorabia, 114, 135, 136, 202, 206. A. 
 megachilis, 131, 137. 
 
 Anthrax, 131. A. morio, 397. A. sinu- 
 osa, 132, 140, 397. 
 
 Anthrenus varius, 448. 
 
 Anthribidae, 53. 
 
 Anthrobia Mammothia, 645. 
 
 Antispila, 342. [333. 
 
 Antithesia bipartitana, 333. A. pruniana, 
 
 Ant lion, 611. 
 
 Apatela Americana, 304. 
 
 Apathus, 131, 142. A. Ashtonii, 131. 
 
 Aphidaa, 112, 517, 519. 
 
 Aphides, 48, 50, 54, 161, 202, 378. 
 
 Aphidius, 198, 203, 521. A. avenaphis, 198. 
 A. triticaphis, 198. 
 
 Aphis, 69, 198, 203, 213, 372, 379. A. aceris, 
 
 521. A. avenae, 522. A. brassicse, 522. 
 A. cerasi, 522. A. dianthi, 520. A. mali, 
 
 522. A. malifoliae, 522. A. persicae, 522. 
 Aphis lion, 609, 611. 
 
 Aphodius fimetarius, 453. A. fossor, 453. 
 
 Aphomia colonella, 329. 
 
 Aphrophora quadrmotata, 532. 
 
 Aphrosylus, 403. 
 
 Apiariae, 115, 147. 
 
 Apion Sayi, 485. 
 
 Apis melliflca, 117. 
 
 Apochrysa. 79. 
 
 Apoica pallida, 154, 156. 
 
 Apophyllus, 50, 211. 
 
 Aporus fasciatus, 174. 
 
 Apple fly, 380, 414. 
 
 Apple leaf crumpler, 331. 
 
 Apple tree borer, 500. 
 
 Arachnida, 104, 625, 632. 
 
 Arachnids, 629, 630, 640, 643, 660. 
 
 Aradus crenatus, 553. 
 
 Aranea diadema, 193. 
 
 Araneae, 633. 
 
 Araneina, 639, 644. 
 
 ArchegogryUus priscus, 564. 
 
 Archetarbus rotundatus, 657. 
 
 Archimulacris Acadica, 78. 
 
 Archyptera, 24. 
 
 Arctia, 239. A. Anna, 286. A. caja, 63. 
 
 A. pudica, 284. A. virgo, 286. 
 Arctians, 280. 
 Arctisca, 667. 
 Argas Persicus, 6(?2. 
 Argynnis Aphrodite, 253. A. Atlantis, 
 
 252. A. Bellona, 253. A. Diana, 253. 
 
 A. Idalia, 252. A. Montinus, 253. A. 
 
 Myrina, 253. 
 
 Argyromiges quercifoliella, 353. 
 Argyroneta, 633. A. aquatica, 649. 
 Arma spinosa, 547. 
 
 Army worm, 77, 196, 197, 203, 305, 383, 407. 
 
 Arthromacra, 475. 
 
 Arthromere, 9, 16. 
 
 Articulata, 1, 3, 6. 
 
 Ascalaphus, 54, 612. A. hyalinus, 613. 
 
 A. macaronius, 613. 
 Asclera, 476. 
 Asemum moestum, 496. 
 Asexual forms, 49. 
 Ash, mountain, slug, 222. 
 Asilidaa. 395. 
 
 Asilus 362. A. sericeus, 396. 
 Asopia costalis, 328. 
 Asparagus beetle, 76, 502. 
 Aspatherium, 617. 
 Aspidiotus, 50. A. conchiformis, 528. A. 
 
 Harrisii, 530. 
 Astata unicolor, 165. 
 Asynapta, 378. 
 
 Atax, 642,661. A. Bonzi, 640. 
 Athalia centifoliae, 44. 
 Athous, 461. 
 Atopa, 464. 
 Atropos divinatorius, 589. A. pulsato- 
 
 rius, 589. 
 Attaci, 234. 
 Atta clypeata, 186. 
 Attagenus pellio, 448. 
 Attacus, 235. A. Atlas, 296. A. Aurota, 
 
 297. A. Mylitta, 296. A. Pernyi, 296. 
 
 A. Yfima-mai,296. 
 Attelabus analis, 485. 
 Attus, 194, 655. 
 Augochlora purus, 143, 156. 
 Aulacizes mollipes, 532. 
 Aulacodes nigriventris, 195. 
 Aulax, 212. 
 
 Baetisca, 595. 
 
 Baetis interpunctata, 595. 
 
 Balanmus nasicus, 485. 
 
 Baridius trinotatus, 491. B. sesostris, 
 
 491. B. vestitus, 491. 
 Bark lice, 11. 
 
 Batrachedra salicipomonella, 352. 
 Batrachidea cristata, 572. 
 Batrachomyia, 406. 
 Bat-ticks, 416, 418. 
 Bdella longicornis, 660. 
 Bdellidae, 660. 
 Bear" animalcules, 668. 
 Bed bug, 551. 
 Bee killer, 396. 
 Bee louse, 418. 
 Bee moth, 332. 
 Bee, venation of, 23. 
 Belostoma, 80, 518. B. grisea, 537. B. ' 
 
 Haldimanum, 537. 
 Bembecidae, 164. 
 Bembex fasciata, 164. B. rostrata, 164. 
 
 B. tarsata, 164. 
 Bembidium, 422, 434. 
 Beris, 392. 
 
 Bernafly, 412. 
 Berosus, 438. 
 Bethylus fuscicornis, 201. 
 Bibio albipennis, 392. 
 Bibionidae, 391. 
 Bicho. 390. 
 Biorhiza nigra, 211. 
 Bird lice, 554. 
 Bird earcoptids, 642. 
 Bird ticks, 416, 417. 
 Bite of insects, 43. 
 Bittacomorpha, 54. B. clavipes, 884. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 689 
 
 Bittacus, 54. B. pilicornis, 614. 
 
 Black fly, 390. 
 
 Blaps mortisaga, 473. 
 
 Blastoderm, 55. 
 
 Blast ophaga grossorum, 207. 
 
 Blatta, 194. B. Germanica, 481. B. ori- 
 
 entalis, 576. 
 Blattariae, 575. 
 Blattina, 576, 577. 
 Blood, 37. 
 
 Blue-bottle fly, 407, 408. 
 Boarmia gnopharia, 322. 
 Bolbocerus, 453. 
 Bolbomyia, 392. 
 Boletophagus cornutus, 474. 
 Bolitobius, 441. 
 Bolitophila, 385. 
 Bombardier beetle, 432. 
 Bombus, 53, 54, 65, 130, 132, 135, 146, 400. 
 B. fervidus, 401. 
 Bombus, head of, 30. 
 Bombycidae, 200, 234, 238, 283. 
 Bombyliidae, 395. 
 Bombylius, 54, 164, 397. 
 Bombyx Huttoni, 295. B. mori, 293, 294, 
 
 295. B. neustria, 300. B.phoedima,384. 
 Bonvouloiria, 447. 
 Boreus, 493, 583, 586, 614. B. brumalis, 
 
 615. B. nivoriundus, 615. 
 Bostrichus, 471. 
 Bot fly, 25, 403. 
 
 Bothropolys multidentatus, 674. 
 Botys citrma, 330. B. verticalis, 330. 
 Brachinus fumans, 432. 
 Brachyara, 392. 
 
 Brachycybe, 676. B. Lecontei, 680. 
 Brachyrleres, 408. 
 Brachys, 459. 
 Bracon, 197, 198. 
 Braconidae, 197. 
 Branchiae, 41. 
 Brathinus nitidus, 439. B. varicornis, 
 
 439. 
 
 Braula, 46, 360, 388. 
 Braula caeca, 127, 419. 
 Braulina, 418. 
 Breeze-flies, 403. 
 Brent hus septentrionalis, 485. 
 Brephos infans, 316. 
 Bristle tails, 622. 
 Bruchidas, 484. 
 
 Bruchus fabi, 484. B. pisi, 484, 513. 
 Buprestidae, 159, 457. 
 Buthus Carolinianus, 659. B. hirsutus, 
 
 660. 
 
 Butterflies, hermaphroditism in, 238. 
 Butterfly, venation of, 23. 
 Butternut saw-fly, 224. 
 Button-wood Tremex, 228. 
 Byrrhidae, 449. 
 
 Byrrhus Americanus, 449. B. pillula, 449. 
 Byrsocrypta, 523. 
 Byturus unicolor, 448. 
 
 Cabbage butterfly, 249. 
 Cabbage maggot, 411. 
 Caberodes metrocamparia, 320. 
 Caddis or case-worm, 6, 615. 
 Caddis-flies, 236. 
 Caenis, 593. C. hilaris, 596. 
 Calandra, 489. 
 Callalucia vermiculata, 283. 
 Callidium antennatum, 496. 
 Calligrapha Philadelphica, 509. C. scal- 
 aris, 509. 
 
 44 
 
 Callimome, 212. 
 
 Callimorpha Lecontei, 286. C. interrup- 
 
 to-marginata, 286. 
 Callimosema scintillana, 337. 
 Callochlora chloris, 290. 
 Callosamia Promethea, 237, 298. 
 Calosoma calidum, 431. C. scrutator, 
 
 431. 
 Caloptenus bivittatus, 570. C. femur- 
 
 ruber, 569. C. spretus,570. 
 Calopterygina, 598. 
 
 Calopteryx, 599, 601, 602. C. apicalis, 603. 
 Calotermes castaneus, 587. 
 Campodea fragilis, 623. 
 Campodeae, 623. 
 Campylomyza, 378. 
 Canker worm, 70, 324. 
 Canker-worm moth, 200. 
 Capnia pygmsea, 591. 
 Capsini, 550. [550. 
 
 Capsus Danicus, 550. C. quadrivittatus, 
 Carabidae, 421, 423, 424, 427, 430, 435, 437, 
 
 446. 
 
 Carabus auronitens, 432. C. serratus, 432. 
 Cardo, 28. 
 
 Carnus hemapterus, 418. 
 Carpenter-bee, 132. 
 Carpet moth, 347. 
 Carpocapsa pomonella, 341. 
 Carpophilus antiquus, 444. 
 Carrion or Sexton Beetle, 438. 
 Caryborus, 79, 80. 
 Case-fly, 6. 
 
 Casnonia Pensylvanica, 433. 
 Cassida, 408. C. aurichalcea, 504. 
 Cassidomyia, 408. 
 Castnia, 280. 
 Cataclysta fulicalis, 330. 
 Catocala, 302. C. piatrix, 317. C. ultro- 
 
 nia, 317. 
 Catocha, 378. 
 Catops, 439. 
 Cebrio bicolor, 463. 
 Cebrionidae, 462. 
 Cecidomyiae, 202, 205. 
 Cecidomyia acrophila, 372. C. aTtemisias, 
 
 199. C. destructor, 373, 374. C. fusci- 
 
 collis, 372. C. glutinosa, 372. C. gros- 
 
 sulariae, 376. C. pavida, 372. C. pini- 
 
 inopis, 376. C. rigid*, 376. C.robmiae, 
 
 499. C. salicis, 364, 373, 376. C. salici- 
 
 brassicoides, 377. C. strobiloides, 377. 
 
 C. tritici, 375, 376. C ? vitis-coryloides, 
 
 377. 
 
 Cecidomyidae, 371. 
 Cecropia moth, 27, 234, 298. 
 Cells of the Honey bee, 120. 
 Cemonus inornatus, 161. 
 Centipedes, 10, 673, 674. 
 Cephalization, 9. 
 Cephaloidae, 476. 
 Cephaloon lepturides, 476. 
 Cephalothorax, 8. 
 Cephus, 215. C. abbreviatus, 227. C. trl- 
 
 maculatus, 227. 
 Cerambycidae, 425, 426, 493. 
 Ceraphron, 199. C. armatum, 200. 
 Cerasphorus cinctus, 495. 
 Ceratma, 143, 219. C. dupla, 134, 140. 
 Ceratocampadae, 299. 
 Ceratomia Amyntor, 274. 
 Ceratopogon, 371. 
 Cerceris, 146. C. bupresticida, 159. C. 
 
 deserta, 159. C. tricmcta, 159. C. tuber- 
 
 culata, 159. 
 
690 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Cercopidae, 588. 
 
 Cercopis, 532. 
 
 Cercyon, 438. 
 
 Cermatia, 070. C. forceps, 673. 
 
 CermatidcB, 673. 
 
 Ceropalus bipunctata, 174. C. Robin- 
 
 souii, 175. 
 Cetouia, 453, 457. 
 Ceuthophilus maculatus, 565. C. stygius, 
 
 565. 
 
 Ceutorhynchus, 189. 
 Chalcididse, 202. 
 Chalcids, 161, 207, 410. 
 Chalcis albifrons, 203. C. bracata, 203. 
 Chalcophora Virginiensis, 458. 
 Chalicodoma micraria, 192. 
 Chartergus chartarius, 154. 
 Chartophila floralis, 408. 
 Chauliodes pectinicornis, 607. C. rastri- 
 
 cornis, 60:>. C. serricornis, 607. 
 Chauliognathus Pensylvanicus, 467. 
 Cheese maggot, 413. 
 Chelil'er, 63 1 J. C. cancroides, 659. 
 Chelymorpha cribaria, 504. 
 Chermes, 50, 523. C. abietis, 525. 
 Chernes. C. Sanborui, 659. 
 Chernetidae, 658. 
 Cherry slug, 222. 
 
 Cheyletus, 665. C. semenivorus, 668. 
 Chigoe, 390. 
 
 Chilocorus bivulneruhis, 513. 
 Chilognatha, 671, 676. 
 Chilopoda, 670, 672. 
 Chilopods, 672, 676. 
 Chinch bug, 543. 
 Chion cinctus, 495. 
 Chionea, 358, 55J. C. araneoides, 383. C. 
 
 valga, 383. 
 Chionobas, 75, 262. C. Bore, 263. C. 
 
 Calais, 263. C. Chrixus, 263. C. Jutta, 
 
 283. C. (Eno, 263. C. semidea, 263. 
 Chigue, 390. 
 Chironomtdae, 370. 
 Chironomus oceanicus, 370. 
 Chironomus larva, 21. 
 Chitine, 1, 9. 
 Chlamius, 434. 
 Chlamys plicata, 510. 
 Chloealtis conspersa, 568. 
 Chloeon, 594. 
 Chlorion cyaneum, 167. 
 Chlorops Herpinii, 415. C. lineata, 415. 
 Choerodes transversata, 319. 
 Chrestotes lapidea, 593. 
 Chrysididoe, 190, 199. 
 Chrysis, 157, 191, 192. C. hilaris, 192. 
 Chrysobothris lemorata, 458. C. Harrisii, 
 
 459. 
 
 Chrysomelidae, 501. 
 Chrysopa, 47, 79. C. perla, 611. C. ocu- 
 
 lata, 611. , 
 
 Chrysophanus Americanus,264. C.Thoe, 
 
 264, 357. 
 
 Chrysops niger, 393. C. vittatus, 393. 
 Cicada canicularis, 163. C. Cassinii, 535. 
 
 C. pruinosa, 534. C. rimosa, 534. C. 
 
 septendecim, 535. 
 Cicadellina, 531. 
 Cicadidae, 516. 
 Cicindela generosa, 430. C. hirticollis, 
 
 430. C. punctata, 430. C. purpurea, 
 
 430. C. sexguttata, 430. C. vulgaris, 
 
 430. 
 
 Cicindelidae, 423, 428. 
 Cidaria diversilineata, 325. 
 
 Cillenum, 434. 
 
 Cimbex Americana, 215. 
 
 Cimex, 516. C. columbarius, 551. C. 
 
 hirundinis, 551. C. lectularius, 551. C. 
 
 pipistrelli, 551. 
 Cioidse, 472. 
 Circulatory system, 37. 
 Cis, 472. 
 Cistela, 475. 
 Cistelidse, 425, 475. 
 Citheronia Mexicana, 299. 'C. regalis, 
 
 299. C. sepulcralis, 299. 
 Cladius isomera, 226. 
 Cladomacra macropus, 114. 
 Cladura indivisa, 360. 
 Clambus, 439. 
 
 Classification of insects, 104. 
 Clastoptera proteus, 532. 
 Claviger, 440. 
 Clavola, 26. 
 
 Cleptes semiaurata, 192. 
 Cleridae, 4G8; 
 
 ). alvearius, 469. 
 
 156, 196, 343. C. Ameri- 
 8, 301. C. disstria, 301. 
 
 Clerus, 468. 
 Clinidmm, 44 
 Clisiocampa, 
 
 cana, 207, 2 
 Clivina, 432. 
 Cloaca, 35. 
 Cloe, 593. C. pygmaea, 596. 
 Clothes moth, 346. 
 Clothilla picea, 589O 
 Clover worm, 328. 
 Clubione holosericea, 193. C. medicin- 
 
 ahs, 649. C. tranquilla, 649. 
 Clypeiis, 29. 
 Clytus, 159. C. araneiformis, 497. C. pic- 
 
 tus, 497. C. robiniae, 497. C. speciosus, 
 
 496. 
 Coccus cacti, 527. C. citri, 527. C. lacca, 
 
 527. C. manniparus, 527. C. Gloverii, 5^7. 
 Coccidae, 112, 525. 
 Coccinella bipunctata, 511. C. novem- 
 
 notata, 512. C. trifasciata, 512. 
 Coccinellidae, 511. 
 Coccophagus, 527. 
 Coccus cacti, 526. 
 Cochlidiae, 288. 
 Cockchafer, 71. 
 Cockroach, 194, 575. 
 Cocoons of Silk Worms, 240. 
 Coddling moth, 341. 
 Coeliodes inaequalis, 490. 
 Coelioxys octodentata, 141. 
 Coelodasys (Notodonta) unicornis, 292. 
 Coleophora coruscipennella, 351. C. 
 
 rosacella, 351. C. rosaefoliella, 351. 
 Coleoptera, 420, 421. Antennae of, 422. 
 
 Number of species of, 427. 
 Colias, 244. C. interior, 251. C. Labra- 
 
 dorensis, 250. C. occidentalis, 251. C. 
 
 Philodice, 250. 
 Collecting insects, 84.\ 
 Colletes, 141, 143, 147. 
 Colon, 36. 
 
 Colorado potato beetle, 408, 508. 
 Colpodia, 378. 
 Colydidae, 445. 
 Colydium elongatum, 446. 
 Colymbetes, 436. 
 Common fly, 361. 
 Comprehensive types, 54. 
 Compsidea tridentata, 499. 
 Condylodera tricondyloides, 567. 
 Coniopteryx, 625. C.tineiformis,609. C. 
 
 vicina, 609. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 691 
 
 Conocephalus ensiger, 563. 
 
 Conopidse, 400, 418. 
 
 Conops, 131, 3tJ3. C. flavipes, 401. 
 
 Conorhinus sanguisuga, 542. 
 
 Conotrachelus nenuphar, 488. 
 
 Copris, 47. C. Carolina, 451. 
 
 Coptera, 201. C. polita, 201. 
 
 Coranus subapterus, 541. 
 
 Covdulia tenebrosa, G04. 
 
 Cordulina, 584. 
 
 Coreidse, 542. 
 
 Corethra, 65, 370. 
 
 Coreus marginatus, 544. C. scapha, 545. 
 
 C. tristis, 515. 
 Corimelaena pulicaria, 547. 
 Corisiae, 512. 
 Corixa iuterrupta, 536. 
 Cora, insects injurious to, 306, 311, 350. 
 Cornea, 25. 
 
 Corydalus, 79. C. cornutus, 33, 579, 607. 
 Corymbites aeripennis, 462. C. viridis, 
 
 462. C. cylindi-iformis, 462. C. triun- 
 
 dulatus, 462. C. hieroglyphicus, 4[>2. 
 Corynetes, 468. 
 Costa, 23. 
 
 Cotalpa lanigera, 455. 
 Cotton Anomis, 313. 
 Cotton Boarmia, 322. 
 Cotton Heliothis, 315. 
 Cotton Leaf roller, 335. 
 Cotton Plusia, 312. 
 Coxa, 20. 
 Crabro, 146, 197. C. sex-maculatus, 159. 
 
 C. singulars, 158, 160. C. stirpicola, 
 
 158. 
 
 Crabronidae, 149, 155, 157, 195. 
 Crambidia pallida, 285. 
 Crambus, 23S. C. mutabilis, 332. 
 Cranberry Anchylopera, 338. 
 Cranberry Cidaria, 325. 
 Cranberry Pristiphora, 217. 
 Cranberry Tortrix, 334. 
 Cranberry weevil, 487. 
 Crane-flies, 380. 
 Crepidodera cucumeris, 506. 
 Cressonia juglandis, 274. 
 Crickets, 562. 
 Crioceridaj, 426. 
 Crioceris asparagi, 502. 
 Crocota ferruginosa, 285. 
 Crossidius pulchrior, 495. 
 Croton bug, 576. 
 Crustacea, 636. 
 Crustaceans, typical, 5, 7, 8. 
 Cryphalus materarius, 493. 
 Cryptocephalus, 510. 
 Cryptocercus punctulatus, 576. C. mul- 
 
 tispinosus, 190. 
 Cryptophagidae, 446. 
 Cryptophagus hirtus, 447. 
 Cryptus, 193, 197, 395. C ? ornatipennis, 
 
 197. 
 
 Ctenistes, 422. 
 Ctenocerus, 114. 
 Ctenophora, 381. 
 Ctenostoma, 428. 
 Ctenucha, 239, 280. C. Virginica, 234, 
 
 Cuckoo bee, 141, 147. Cuckoo flies, 191. 
 
 Cucujidae, 446. 
 
 Cucujus, 446. 
 
 Cucumber flea beetle, 506. 
 
 Culex pipiens, 369. 
 
 Culicidae, 368. 
 
 Cupes capitata, 470. C. cinerea, 470. 
 
 Cupesidae, 469. 
 
 Curculionidae, 159, 378, 425, 426, 484. 
 
 Currant Abraxas, 321. 
 
 Currant Borers, 279, 500. 
 
 Currant Pristiphora, 217. 
 
 Cuterebra buccata, 406. C. cuniculi, 406. 
 C. emasculator, 405. C. horripilum, 
 406. 
 
 Cut-worms, Remedies for, 308. 
 
 Cychrus, 432. 
 
 Cyclonotum, 438. 
 
 Cyclopthalmus, 630. C. Bucklandi, 660. 
 
 Cylindrotoma, 384. C. distincttssima, 
 381. C. (Phalacrocera) replicata, 381. 
 
 Cymatophora caniplaga, 304. 
 
 Cymindis, 433. 
 
 Cynipidae, 205, 208. 
 
 Cynips, 50, 202. C. confluens, 209, 211. 
 C. divisa, 209. C. folii, 209. C. gallae- 
 tinctoriae, 211. C. quercus-aciculata, 
 208. C. quercus-futilis, 210, 211. C. 
 quercus globulus, 210. C. quercus-pa- 
 lustris, 211. C. quercus-papillata, 210. 
 
 C. seminator, 210. C. tubicola, 210. 
 Cynthia, 244. 
 
 Cyphon, 464. 
 Cyrtidje, 395. 
 Cyrtophyllum concavnm, 566. 
 
 Daddy-long-legs, 380. 
 
 Daihinia, 565. 
 
 Danais, 245. D. archippus, 251. 
 
 Dascyllida?, 464. 
 
 Dasypogon, 361, 395. 
 
 Death's head Sphinx, 284. 
 
 Deciduous legs, 21. 
 
 Deformities of Insects, 83. 
 
 Degeeria nivalis, 625. 
 
 Deilephila lineata, 275. D. chamoeneril, 
 276. 
 
 Delphax arvensis, 533. 
 
 Demodex, 626, 642. D. folliculorum, 69, 
 667. 
 
 Dendroides Canadensis, 477. D. con- 
 color, 477. 
 
 Depressaria atrodorsella, 34U. D. later- 
 ella, 349. D. robiniella, 349. 
 
 Dermaleichus pici-pubescentis, 666. 
 
 Dermanyssus avium, 663. D. pipistrel- 
 
 Dermaptera, 577. 
 
 Dermatobia moyocuil, 406. D. noxialis, 
 
 406. 
 Dermatodectes bovis, 666. D. equi, 666. 
 
 D. ovis, 666. 
 
 Dermestes lardarius, 448. 
 Dermestidaa, 448. 
 Derodontidae, 447. 
 Desmia maculalis, 330. 
 Desmocerus cyaneus, 506. 
 Desoria, 625. 
 
 Development of Insects, 54. 
 Devil's darning needles, 597. 
 Dexia, 408. 
 
 Diabrotica duodecim-punctata, 506. D. 
 
 yittata, 505. 
 Dianous, 442. 
 
 Diapheromera femorata, 573. 
 Diapria cecidomyiarum, 199. 
 Diaetrophus, 212. 
 
 Dicerca divaricata, 458. D. lurida, 458. 
 Dichelonycha elongatula, 454. 
 Dictyoneura, 582. 
 Dimorphism, 52. 
 Dineutea, 79, 80. D. Americanus, 437. 
 
692 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Diplax, 55, 60, 600. D. Berenice, 605. D. 
 
 Elisa, 005. D. rubicundula, 605. 
 Diplolepariae, 208. 
 Diplolepis confluens, 155. D. confluen- 
 
 tus, 140. 
 
 Diplonychus, 80. 
 Diplosis, 378. D. socialis, 372. 
 Dipnemnones, 648. 
 Diptera, 358. Number of species of, 267. 
 
 Venation of, 360. 
 Diseases of insects, 81, 344. 
 Diving Beetles, 435. 
 Dolerus arvensis, 222. 
 Dolichopodidoe, 402. 
 Dolomedes lanceolatus, 653. 
 Dolopius stabilis, 461. D. pauper, 461. 
 Donacia lurbyi, 502. D. proxima, 502. 
 Dor bug, 455. 
 Dorcas brevis, 451. 
 Dorcatomma, 422. 
 Dorsal vessel, 37. 
 Dorthesia, 526. 
 Dorylus, 181. 
 Doryphora decem-lineata, 508. D. juncta, 
 
 509. 
 
 Dragon-flies, 584, 597, 630, 679. 
 Drassus, 649. 
 Drasteria erechtea, 317. 
 Drilus, 466. 
 Drop-worms, 318. 
 Drosophila, 377, 414. 
 Dryopteris rosea, 293. 
 Ductus ejaculatorius, 44. 
 Dynastes, 455. D. Hercules, 456. D. 
 
 Tityus, 456. 
 
 Dysdera, 633. D. interrita, 649. 
 Dytiscidje, 424, 435, 436, 487. 
 Dytiscus, 53. D. fasciventris, 436. 
 
 Eacles imperialis, 300. 
 
 Earwigs, 577. 
 
 Eburia ? Ulkei, 495. 
 
 Echiniscus, 642. 
 
 Echinomyia, 408. 
 
 Eciton Mexicana, 186. E. Sumichrasti, 
 
 183. 
 
 Ectatomma femiginea, 184. 
 Ectobia Germanica, 576. E. lithophila, 
 
 576. 
 
 Edema albifrons, 292. 
 Eggs, 46. 
 
 Egg-parasites, 198. 
 Eiphosoma annulatum, 195. 
 Elachista ? orichalcella, 352. 
 Elaphrus, 431. 
 
 Elasmocerus terminates, 468. 
 Elater, 460. E. obliquus, 461. 
 Elateridae, 421, 425, 459. 
 Elephantomyia Westwoodii. 383. 
 Elis costaUs, 177. 
 Ellema HaiTisii, 271. 
 Ellopia,318. E. fasciaria, 320. E.flagit- 
 
 iaria, 320. 
 Elm butterfly, 260. 
 Elm Ennomos, 321. 
 Elm Tremex, 228. 
 Elmis, 450. 
 Elodes, 473. 
 Embia Savigni, 588. 
 Embidae, 583, 588. 
 Emesa longipes, 541. 
 Emmenadia, 481. 
 Emphytus maculatus, 220. 
 Empidse, 402. 
 Empis, 361. 
 
 Empretia stimulea, 289. 
 
 Empusa, 575. 
 
 Emydium testudo, 669. 
 
 Encyrtus, 223. E. Botus, 207. E. Eeate, 
 
 207. E. varicornis, 207. 
 Endomychidae, 510. 
 Endropia tigrinaria, 320. 
 Ennomos magnaria, 321. E. subsignaria, 
 
 321. 
 
 Enoicyla pusilla, 616. 
 Entomological journal, 103. 
 Entomological systems, 106. 
 Entomological works, 97. 
 Entomostraca, 616. 
 Eoscorpion carbonarius, 660. 
 Epe'ira domiciliorum, (551. E. vulgaris. 
 
 631, 651. 
 
 Epeolus, 141. E. variegatus, 147. 
 Ephemera decora, 594. 
 Ephemerida?. 578, 580, 581, 583, 593. 
 Ephemerkls, 583, 593. 
 Ephemerina, 583. 
 Ephemerites, 594. 
 Ephydra halophila, 414. 
 Epicranium, 29. 
 Epidosis, 372, 378. 
 Epilachna borealis, 513. 
 Epimera, 9. 
 Epipharyx, 20, 29. 
 Epipone nitidulans, 203. 
 Epirus, 401. 
 Episternum, 9. 
 Epurzea, 445,446. 
 Erastria carneola, 316. 
 Erebus Agrippina, 318. E. odora, 318. 
 Eremophila Ehrenbergi, 575. 
 Erioptera venusta, 383. 
 Eriosoma lanigera, 522. E. pyri, 525. 
 Eristalis, 398. 
 Ernobius mollis, 471. 
 Erotylida3, 510. 
 Erythroneura vitis,532. 
 Eucera, 141. E. maculata, 136. 
 Eucerceris zonatus, 159. 
 Eucheira socialis, 244. 
 Euchroma Columbica, 459. 
 Euclea Monitor, 289. 
 Euchronia Maia, 299. 
 Eucnemis, 460. 
 
 Eudamus BathylJus, 269. E. Tityrus, 269. 
 Eudryas, 280. E. grata, 281. E. unio, 282. 
 Eugereon Boeckingi, 54, 78, 582. 
 Eulophus ba sails, 207. 
 Eumenes, 147, 155, 156. E. coarctata, 207. 
 
 E. fraterna, 156. E. tinctor, 192. 
 Eumolpus auratus, 509. 
 Euphanessa mendica, 285. 
 Eupithecia miserulata, 325. 
 Euplexoptera, 577. 
 Eupyrrhoglossum Sagra, 277. 
 Euremia, 280. 
 Euryomia In da, 457. 
 Euryptychia saligneana, 337. 
 Eurytoma, 203, 205, 212. E. flavipes, 205. 
 
 E. hordei, 203, 205. E. secalis, 205. 
 Euscirrhopterus Poeyi, 282. 
 Euura orbitalis, 218. E. perturbans, 218. 
 
 E. salicis-ovum, 218. 
 Evagoras viridis, 542. 
 Evagorus, 80. 
 
 Evania, 194, 195. E. laevigata, 194. 
 Evaniidae, 194. 
 Eyes, 25. 
 
 Facets of eye, 25. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 693 
 
 False legs, 17. 
 
 False Scorpions, 632. 
 
 Fatty body, 37. 
 
 Fauna, 71. 
 
 Femur, 21r 
 
 Fidia viticida, 502. * 
 
 Fidonia piniaria, hermaphrodite, 43. 
 
 Figites, 212. F. (Diplolepis) 5-lineatus 
 
 208. 
 
 Figitidae, 212. 
 Filaria, 83. 
 
 Filistata hibernalis, 649. 
 Fire fly, 462, 465. 
 Fire-worms, 339. 
 Fir saw fly, 224. 
 Flagellum, 26. 
 Flata, 112. F. limbata, 533. 
 Flea, 11, 360, 388. 
 Flesh fly, 407, 408. 
 Flight of Insects, 32. 
 FCBIIUS, 194, 195. F. jaculator, 195. 
 Forest-flies, 416. 
 Forlicula, 5i, 577. 
 Forficularite, 577. 
 Formica flava, 183. F. fulvacea, 183. F. 
 
 fusca, 180. F. herculanea, 183. F. Pen- 
 
 sylvanica, 183. F. rubra, 183. F. san- 
 
 guinea, 180, 182, 183. 
 FormiiianjB, 179. 
 Formicomus, 476. 
 Fornax, 4 >0. 
 Fossil Diptera, 368. 
 Front of the head, 31. 
 Fruit-worm, (Cranberry) 340. 
 Fulgora candelaria, 533. F. lanternaria, 
 
 Fulgoridae, 532. 
 Fungus eating-flies, 199. 
 
 Galea, 28 V 
 
 Galerita Lfecontei, 433. 
 
 Galeruca gelatinariaa, 504. G. margiii- 
 
 ella, 505. 
 Gales us, 201. 
 Galgudini, 539. 
 Galgulus oculatus, 539. 
 Galleria cereana, 332. 
 Gall-flies, 109,208,371. 
 Gall-midges, 199. 
 Gamasidae, 683. 
 Gamasus coleoptratorum, 663. 
 Gastropacha Americana, 300. 
 Gastrophilus equi, 404. 
 Gelechia cerealella, 350. G. fungivorella, 
 
 350. G. roseosuffusella, 350. 
 Gena, 28. 
 
 Generation, organs of, 43. 
 Genital organs, 16. 
 Geographical Distribution, 71. 
 Geological Distribution, 77. 
 Geometra iridaria, 323. 
 Geometridae, 303. 
 Geophilidae, 675. 
 Geophilus bipuncticeps, 675. G. cephal- 
 
 icus, 675. G. proavus, 673. 
 Georyssidaa, 449. 
 Georyssus pusillus, 450 
 Geotrupes, 663. G. splendidus, 453. G. 
 
 stercorarius, 32. 
 
 Gerris, 516, 539. G. paludum, 540. 
 G. rufoscutellatus, 540. 
 Gills, 41. 
 Girdler, 498. 
 Gizzard, 35. 
 Glaucopis, 280, 283. 
 
 GlomeridJB, 677. 
 
 Glomeris marginata, 677. 
 
 Glossina morsitans, 407. 
 
 Glow-worm, 424. 
 
 Glyphe, 203. 
 
 Golden-eyed fly, 393. 
 
 Goldsmith beetle, 455. 
 
 Goliathus cacicus, 456. G. Drurii, 456. G. 
 
 Goliathus, 456. 
 Gomphina, 584. 
 
 Gomphus, 597. G. fraternus, 603. 
 Gonatopus lunatus, 199. 
 Gonia, 408. 
 Gonocerus, 545. 
 Gonyleptes ornatum, 657. 
 Gooseberry Midge, 376. 
 Gooseberry Pempelia, 331. 
 Gooseberry Pristiphora, 217. 
 Gooseberry saw-fly, 217, 219. 
 Gooseberry worm, 331. 
 Gordius, 82. 
 Gortyna flavago, 310. G. nitela,310. G. 
 
 leucostigma, 310. 
 Gorytes flavicornis, 163. 
 Gracilaria, 342. ^ 
 Grain moth, 347, 350. 
 Grain weevil, 490. 
 Gramatophora trisignata, 304. 
 Grape Acoloithus, 282. 
 Grape Alypia, 281. 
 Grape Anomala, 455. 
 Grape Baridius, 491. 
 Grape Borer, 278. 
 Grape Cidaria, 325. 
 Grape Desmia, 330. 
 Grape Eudryas, 281. 
 Grape Fidia, 502. 
 Grape-leaf Flea beetle, 507. 
 Grape-leaf folder, 330. 
 Grape Penthina, 336. 
 Grape Philampelus, 275. 
 Grape Pterophorus, 356. 
 Grapte Thyreus, 276. 
 Grape weevil, 490. 
 Grapholitha, 337. 
 Grapta c-argenteum, 260. G. comma, 260. 
 
 G. Faunus, 260. G. interrogationis, 259. 
 Graptodera chalybea, 507. G. exapta, 507. 
 Grasshoppers, 556. 
 Grease moth, 329. 
 Green-head fly, 393. 
 Grotea anguina, 197. 
 Gryllidae, 558, 562. 
 Gryllotalpa borealis, 563. G. longipennis, 
 
 563. 
 Gryllus abbreviatus, 564. G. campestris, 
 
 60. G. domesticus, 533. G. luctuosus 
 
 564. G. neglectus, 564. G. niger, 564. 
 Guest gall-flies, 212. 
 Gyrinidae, 424, 436, 437. 
 Gyrinus, 422., G. borealis, 437. 
 Gyropiis porcelli, 555. 
 
 Hadena chenopodii, 309. 
 Hadenoecus snbterraneus, 565. 
 Hafesidota caryas, 287. H. maculata, 287. 
 
 H. tessellaris, 287. 
 Halictus, 141. 142, 144, 145. H. paralellus, 
 
 145. 
 
 Haliplus, 436. 
 Halonota simulana, 337. 
 Haltica chalybea, 507. H. cucumeris, 
 
 506. H. striolata, 507. 
 Hamamelistes cornu, 523. 
 Haplophlebium, 594. 
 
694 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Harpactopus, 167. 
 
 Harpactor cinctus, 542. 
 
 Harpalus, 542. H. caliginosus, 420, 434. 
 
 Harpax, 575. 
 
 Harvest-men, 032, 656. 
 
 Hatching of the larva, 61. 
 
 Head, appendages of, 24. Segments of, 
 
 20. Structure of, 18. 
 Hearing, organs of, 559. Sense of, 26. 
 Heart, 37. Development of, 42. 
 Hedychrum bidentulum, 191. H. dimidi- 
 
 aturn, 192. H. lucidulum, 191. H. re- 
 
 gium, 1'Jl. 
 Hegemon, 453. 
 Heliciius, 450. 
 Heliconia Melpomone, 251. 
 Helicop-syche, 616. H. arenifera, 619. H. 
 
 glabra, 61'.). 
 
 Heliocheilus paradoxus, 315. 
 Heliothis armigcra, 315. 
 Helluomorpha praeusta, 433. 
 Helochara communis, 532. 
 Helophilus, 399. 
 Hemeristia occidentalis, 77, 598. 
 Hemeristina, 596. 
 
 Hemerobiidse, 237, 580, 583, 609, 622. 
 Hemerobius, 581, 586. H. alternatus, 610. 
 
 H. occidentalis, 610. 
 Hemiptera, 514. 
 Hemiteles, 193. 
 Hepiali, 301. 
 Hepialus, 11, 233, 236. H. humuli, 302. 
 
 H. mustelinus, 302. 
 Hermaphrodites, 45. 
 Herminia jucchusialis, 328. 
 Hersilla, 631. 
 Hesperia Hobomoc, 269. H. Mystic, 270. 
 
 H. Wamsutta, 270. 
 Hesperians, 269. 
 ^Hessian-fly, 200, 202, 207, 372. 
 Hetaerms, 443: 
 Heteroceridae, 450. 
 Heteromera, 424. 
 Heterometabolia, iii. 
 Heteropus ventricosus, 136, 667, 668. 
 Hexapoda, 21. 
 Hibernation, 42. 
 Hickory girdler, 498. 
 Hickory saw-fly, 224. 
 Hickory tree borer, 495, 497. 
 Hipparchia, 262. 
 Hippobosca, 333, 364. H. bubonis, 417. 
 
 H. equinae, 417. 
 Hippoboscidae, 416. 
 Hippodamia convergens, 511. H. macu- 
 
 lata, 511. 
 
 Hirmoneura, 395. 
 
 Hispa rosea, 503. H. suturalis, 504. 
 Histeridae, 442. 
 Hister interruptus, 443. H. merdarius, 
 
 443. 
 
 Hockeria, 203. 
 Homolota, 441. 
 Homoptera lunata, 318. 
 Homothetus fossilis, 77. 
 Honey-ant, 184. 
 
 Honey bees, 45, 50, 52, 116, 141, 361. 
 Honevsuckle saw fly, 216. 
 Hop butterflies, 259,' 260, 265. 
 Hop Hepialus, 302. 
 Hop Hypena, 327. 
 Hop-vine moth, 327. 
 Horia sansruinipennis, 479. 
 Hornet, 150. 
 
 Horntails, 227. 
 
 Horse bot fly, 404. 
 
 Horse fly, 393. 
 
 Horse tick, 417. 
 
 House fly, 407, 409. 
 
 Humble bee, 130, 131, 194, 198, 329. Sting 
 
 of, 15. 
 
 Hyalomyia, 404. 
 Hybernia tiliaria, 325. 
 Hybos, 402. 
 
 Hybridity, 54. [CC1. 
 
 Hydrachna, G31, 632, 660. H. concharum, 
 Hydrachnidae, 661. 
 Hydrobius, 438. 
 Hydrocampa, 329, 330. 
 Hydrocoris, 518. 
 Hydrometra, 539. 
 
 Hydrophilidae, 424, 437. H. piceus, 438. 
 Hydrophilus, 422. H. triangularis, 438. 
 Hydrophorus, 403. 
 Hydropsyche scalaris, 621. 
 Hylobates, 540. 
 Hylobius pales, 486. 
 Hylotoma McLeayi, 217. 
 Hylurgus dentatus, 492. H. piniperda, 
 
 445. H. terebrans, 492. 
 Hymenoptera, 107. 
 Hypena humuli, 327. 
 Hyperchiria varia, 299. 
 Hyperhomala virescens, 567. 
 Hypermetamorphosis, 67. 
 Hyphautria cuuea, 287. H. textor, 286. 
 Hypoderma bovis, 405. H. tarandi, 405. 
 Hypodermis, 63. 
 
 Hyponomeuta millepunctatella, 348. 
 Hypoprepia fucosa, 284, 285. 
 Hyporhagus, 475. 
 Hypselonotus, 80. 
 
 Ibalia, 213. 
 
 Icaria guttatipennis 121, 155, 156. 
 
 Ichneumonidae, 1S2. 
 
 Ichneumon, 135, 146. I. oviilorum, 200. 
 
 I. paratus, 197. I. suturalis, 196. 
 IdiaBigoti,410. 
 Idioptera, 360. 
 Imago, 70. 
 Inaequitelae, 650, 
 Inostemma inserens, 201. 
 Inquilinae, 212. 
 Insects bisexual, 45. 
 Insect Criist, composition of, 9. 
 Insect years, 76. 
 Intestine, 35. 
 Introduced species, 76. 
 loplocama formosana, 338. 
 Ips fasdatus, 445. I. ferrugineus, 445. 1. 
 
 sanguinolentus, 4-45. 
 Isopteryx Cydippe, 591. 
 Itch mite, 666. 
 Ithomia, 251. 
 Ixodidae, 601. 
 Ixodes, 629, 632. I. albipictus, 662. I. 
 
 bovis, 663, 668. I. ricinus, 663. I. uni- 
 
 punctata, 662, 668. 
 
 Japyx solifugus, 623. 
 
 Jassus irroratus, 532. 
 
 Jigger, 390. 
 
 Joint-worm, 203, 204, 205. 
 
 Juglans squamosa, 224. 
 
 Jnlidae, 671,673, 678. 
 
 Julus, 62, 671, 673, 676, 678. J. Canaden- 
 
 sis, 679. J. multistriatus, 679. 
 June beetle, 27, 455. 
 Junonla coeuia, 261. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 I 
 
 695 
 
 Katydid, 586. 
 
 Killing insects for the Cabinet, 87. 
 
 Labellum, 29. 
 
 Labia minuta, 577. 
 
 Labidomera trimaculata, 508. 
 
 Labidus, 186. 
 
 Labium, 28. - 
 
 Labrum, 29. 
 
 Lace winged flies, 609, 611. 
 
 Lachlauia abnormis, 596. 
 
 Lachneides, 300. 
 
 Lacbnosterna, 27. L. fusca, 455. 
 
 Lachnus carya3, 522. L. strobi, 522. 
 
 Lacinia, 28. 
 
 Lady bird, 511. 
 
 Laemophloms adustus, figure of, 555. 
 
 Lagoa crispata, 288. 
 
 Lagriidas, 475. 
 
 Lamellicornia, 451. 
 
 Lamellicorns, 425, 426. 
 
 Lamprocolletes, 114. 
 
 Lampyridae, 42i, 425, 465. 
 
 Lampyris, 465. 
 
 Laphvia, 54. L. thoracica, 396. 
 
 Large BlaclrCut-worm, 306. 
 
 Larrada argentata, 165. 
 
 Larra unicincta, 164. 
 
 Larridae, 164. [95. 
 
 Larvae, preservation of, 95. Rearing of, 
 
 Larva state, 62. 
 
 Lasioptera, 378. L. rubi, 372. 
 
 Lathridiidae, 447. 
 
 Lathridius minutus, 447. 
 
 Leaf beetles, 501. 
 
 Leaf cutter bee, 135, 136. 
 
 Leaf rollers, 332. 
 
 Lebia, 433. L. (Dromius) linearis, 149. 
 
 Lecanium, 50, 526. L. acericola, 528. L. 
 
 hesperidum, 528. L. McClurae, 528. 
 Legs, false, 17, 21. Joints of, 20. 
 Leiopus alpha, 497. L. xanthoxyli, 497. 
 Lema trilineata, 503. 
 Lepidocyrtus albinos, 425. 
 Lepidoptera, 229. Digestive system of, 
 
 237. Nervous system of, 237. 
 Lepisesia flavofasciata, 277. 
 Lepisma, 578, 583, 622. L. saccharina, 623. 
 Lepismatidae, 622. 
 Leptidae, 394. 
 Leptis vermilio, 395. 
 Leptocerus niger, 620. L. sepulchralis, 
 
 620. 
 
 Leptoris breviornatana, 334. 
 Leptura?, 494. 
 
 Lestes, 601. L. eurina, 603. 
 Lestremia, 378. 
 
 Leucania unipuncta, 196, 203, 305, 313. 
 Leucarctia acraea, 286. 
 Leucosomus ophthalmicus, 159. 
 Leucospis amni, 203. L. Poeyi, 203. 
 Leuctra tennis, 591. 
 Libellula, 578, 579, 581, 599, 602. L. auri- 
 
 peunis,599. L. luctuosa, 84. L. quad- 
 
 rimacnlata, 604. L. trimaculata, 004. 
 Libellulidae, 578, 579, 580, 581, 583 597 
 Libellulina, 60t. 
 Libythea Bachmanii, 264. 
 Lice, 553. 
 Ligula, 28. 
 Ligyrtis, 425. 
 
 Limacodes, 228. L. scapha, 290. 
 Limenitis Arthemis, 262. L. Ephestion, 
 
 262. L. Misippus, 261. 
 Limnobates, 540. 
 
 Limnobia annulus, 382. 
 
 Limiiobina, 381. 
 
 Limnophiladispar, 383. 
 
 Limnophilides, 617. 
 
 Limnophilus flavicornis, 618. L. pellu- 
 cidus, 618. L. perpusillus, G17. L. 
 rhombicus, 617. L. subpunctulatus, 
 618. 
 
 Limonius ectypus, 461. L. plebeius, 461. 
 
 Linden slug, 222. 
 
 Lingua, 29. 
 
 Liotheum anseris, 555. 
 
 Lipoptena, 417. 
 
 Lithacodes fasciola, 290. 
 
 Lithentomum Harttii, 77. 
 
 Lithobiid*, 673. 
 
 Lithobius Americanus, 673. L. forfica- 
 tus, 673. 
 
 Lithocolletis, 342. L. curvilineatella, 354. 
 L. Fitchella, 353. L. geminatella, 353, 
 354. L. juglandiella, 353. L. nidifican- 
 sella, 354. L. salicifoliella, 353. 
 
 Lithosia argillacea, 284. L. casta, 284. 
 
 Lithosians, 280. 
 
 Livia vernalis, 531. 
 
 Locustariae, 557, 564. 
 
 Locusta viridissima, 48, 567. 
 
 Locusts, 564. 
 
 Locust Depressaria, 349. 
 
 Locust Eudamus, 269. 
 
 Locust gall midge, 499. 
 
 Locust tree borer, 497. 
 
 Lonchaea nigra, 413. 
 
 Lonchoptera, 68. 
 
 Longicornia, 493. 
 
 Lophyrus, 114, 219. L. Abbotii, 226. L. 
 abdominalis, 226. L. abietis, 224, 226. 
 L. Americana, 226. L. compar, 226. L. 
 Fabricii, 226. L. insularis, 226. L. Le- 
 contei, 22(5. L. pinetum, 226. L. pini- 
 rigidae, 225, 226. 
 
 Louse, 11. 
 
 Lozotasnia fragariana, 335. L. gossypi- 
 ana, 335. L. rosaceana, 335, 336. 
 
 Lubber grasshopper, 570. 
 
 Lucanidae, 426, 450. 
 
 Lucanus dama, 451. L. cervus, 32, 451. 
 
 Ludius attenuatus, 461. 
 
 Lycaena comyntas, 265. L. neglecta, 265. 
 
 Lycomorpha Pholus, 2aS. 
 
 Lycosa, 627, 631. L. fatigera, 654. L. ta- 
 rantula, 654. 
 
 Lyctus opaculus, 472. 
 
 Lycus, 465. 
 
 Lyda inanita, 215. L. scripta, 226. 
 
 Lydella, 642. 
 
 Lygaeida?, 512. 
 
 Lyga3us, 542. L. turcicus, 543. 
 
 Lymexylidae, 469. 
 
 Lymexylon sericeum, 469. 
 
 Lyonetia saccatella, 355. 
 
 Lystra auricoma, 533. L. lanata, 533. 
 
 Lytta vittata, 480. L. cinerea, 480. L. 
 mtirina, 480. L. marginata, 480. 
 
 Macaria granitata, 323. 
 
 Machilis, 623. 
 
 Macrobiotus, 669. 
 
 Macrodactylus subspinosus, 454. 
 
 Macroglossa stellatarum, 277. 
 
 Macrolepidoptera, 242. 
 
 Macrosiagon, 481. 
 
 Macrosila Carolina, 274. M. cingulata, 
 
 272. M. cluentius, 274. M. quinque- 
 
 niaculata, 272. 
 
696 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Madams vitis, 491. 
 Magdalinus olyra, 488. 
 Malachidae, 467. 
 Malachius, 467. 
 Male genital organs, 16. 
 Mallophaga, 554. 
 
 Mamestra arctica, 311. M. picta, 312. 
 Mandibles, 27. 
 
 Mandibular segments, 20, 58. 
 Mantidae, 574. 
 
 Mantis, 54. M. argentina, 575. M. Caro- 
 lina, 575. 
 
 Mantispa, 54, 579. M. brunnea, 611. 
 Mantispids, 592. 
 
 Mantis tessellata, ovipositor of, 17. 
 Masaris vespoides, 157. 
 Mason bee, 138, 207. 
 Maxillae, 27. 
 
 Maxillary segments, 20, 58. 
 May flies, 593. 
 Mazonia Woodiana, 660. 
 Meat fly, 408. 
 Mechanitis, 251. 
 Mecistocephalus fulvus, 675. 
 Mecynorhina Savagei, 456. 
 Medeterus, 403. 
 Megachile, 206, 397. M. brevis, 137. M. 
 
 centuncularis, 136, 138. M. integer, 137. 
 
 M. muraria, 191. M. Poeyi, 203. 
 Megathentomum pustulatum, 621. 
 Melanactes, 462. 
 Melandrya striata, 476. 
 Melandryidae, 475. 
 Melanism, 76. 
 Melanotus communis, 461. 
 Melecta, 136, 141. 
 Melipona, 128. M. fulvipes, 129. 
 Melitaea Anicia, 258. M. Chalcedon, 258. 
 
 M. Harrisii, 257. M. CEnone, 257. M. 
 
 Packardii, 256. M. Phaeton, 255. M. 
 
 Texana, 258. M. Tharos, 256. 
 Melittia cucurbitas, 279. 
 Mellinus bimaculatus, 162. 
 Meloe, 6, 131, 427. M. angusticollis, 478. 
 
 M. violaceus. 478. 
 Meloidaa, 477. 
 
 Melolontha, 454. M. variolosa, 455. 
 Melophagus, 46. M. ovinus, 418. 
 Membranacei, 550. 
 Mentum, 27, 28. 
 Mermis albicans, 127. 
 Merodon bardus, 399. M. narcissi, 399. 
 Merope tuber, 615. 
 Mesochorus, 193. 
 Metabolia, iii. 
 Metapodius nasalus, 546. 
 Methoca Canadensis, 178. 
 Metoecus paradoxus, 481. 
 Metrocanipa, 318. M. margaritata, 320. 
 , Miamia Bronsoni, 77, 591. M. Danae, 593. 
 Miastor, 25. M. metroloas, 51, 380. 
 Micoceras, 53. 
 Micralymma, 442. 
 Microceutrum, 558. 
 Microdon globosns, 398. 
 Microgaster, 193, 198, 203. M. nephopte- 
 
 ricis, 131, 198. 
 
 Microlabris Sternbergi, 659. 
 Microlepidoptera, 242. 
 Microlipus, 468. 
 Micropeplns, 442. 
 Microphantes, 633. 
 Micropya, 47. 
 Microtonus sericans, 476. 
 Midas clavatus, 395. M. fulvipes, 395. 
 
 Milesia excentrica, 398. 
 
 Millepedes, 678. 
 
 Milnesium tardigradum, 669. 
 
 Miltogramma punctata, 147. 
 
 Mimesa, 162. 
 
 Mimetic forms, 53. 
 
 Miris dorsalis, 550. 
 
 Mischocyttarus labiatus, 155, 156. 
 
 Mites, 628, 632, 639. Transformations of, 
 
 643. 
 
 Mole cricket, 563. 
 Monedula Carolina, 164. M. 4-fasciata, 
 
 164. 
 
 Monodontomerus, 136, 205. 
 Monohammus scutellatus. 498. M. titil- 
 
 lator, 498. 
 Monomma, 475. 
 Monommidae, 475. 
 Monotomidae, 445. 
 Mordella, 207, 476. 
 Mordellidae, 476. 
 Mordellistena, 476. 
 Morpho Epistrophis, 262. M. Menelaus, 
 
 2(52. M. Polyphemus, 262. 
 Mosquito hawks, 597. 
 Motions of Insects, 32. 
 Musca, 641. M. (Calliphora) vomitoria, 
 
 408. M. domestica, 409, 410. M. (Lu- 
 
 cilia) Caesar, 408, 409. M. vomitoria, 64. 
 Muscardine, 82. 
 MuscidB, 164, 407. 
 Muscles, 31. 
 Muscular power, 32. 
 Music of insects, 362, 561, 563. 
 Mutilla, 176, 177. M. Europaea, 179. M. 
 
 ferrugata, 179. M. occidentalis, 179. 
 Mutillariae, 177, 181. 
 
 Mycetobia pallipes, 387. M. sordida, 388. 
 AJycetophagidae, 447. 
 Mycetophagus, 447. 
 Mycetophila scatophora, 385. 
 Mycetophilidae, 385. 
 Mydasidae, 395. 
 Mygale avicularia, 648. M. Hentzii, 172, 
 
 648. M. nidulans, 648. 
 Mygnimia Mexicana, 175. M. ustulata, 
 
 Mylacris anthracophila, 577. 
 Mymar pulchellus, 201. 
 Myobia, 641, 642. 
 Myodites, 481. 
 Myopa atra, 401. 
 Mynapoda, 10, 104, 625, 670. 
 MyriapodS, 626, 627, 636, 670. 
 Myrmecocystus Mexicanus, 184. 
 Myrmeleon, 581, 611. M. abdominalis, 
 
 612. M. obsoletus, 612. 
 Myrmica molefaciens, 185. M. molesta, 
 
 Myrmicariae, 181. 
 
 Myrmosa, 177. M. unicolor, 178. 
 
 Mysia 15-punctata, 512. 
 
 Mystacides, 6. 
 
 Myzine sexcincta, 177. 
 
 Nabis ferus, 541. 
 
 Nannophya bella, 605. 
 
 Nautocoris, 516. 
 
 Necrobia, 468. 
 
 Necrophilus Surinamensis, 439. 
 
 Necrophoms, 663. N. Americamis, 421, 
 
 439. 
 
 Nectarina, 153. N. melliflca, 154. 
 Neides, 545. 
 Nematocampa filamentaria, 390. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 697 
 
 Nematus, 217. N. conjugatus, 214. N. 
 
 grossulariae, 214. N.trilineatus,220. N. 
 
 vertebratus, 219. N. ventricosus, 50, 
 
 219. 
 
 Nemobius vittatus, 564. 
 Nemoptera, 610. 
 Nemoura albidipennis, 591. 
 Neonvmpha, 2(J2. N. Eurytris, 264. 
 Nepa^ 516, 518, 537, 538. N. cinerea, 47. 
 Nephila plumipes, 651. 
 Nephopteryx Edmaudsii, 131, 198, 331. 
 Nepidas, 537. 
 Nepticula, 342. N. amelanchierella, 356. 
 
 N. corylifoliella, 356. N. microtheriella, 
 
 355. N. platanella, 356. 
 Nerice bidentata, 292. 
 Nervous system, 33. 
 Neuronia semifasciata, 617. 
 Neuroptera, 578. 
 Neuroterus, 50. 
 Neurotherius, 599. 
 Nirrnus, 555. 
 
 Nitidula bipustulata, 445. 
 Nitidnlariae, 444. 
 Nitidulidae, 446. 
 Noctua, 243. 
 Noctuaelitae, 302. 
 Noctuidae, 238, 303. 
 Noctuids, 292. 
 Nomada, 131, 141, 212. N. imbricata, 142. 
 
 N. pulchella, 142. 
 Nops, 644. 
 
 Nochrna ovivorus, 664. 
 Notocyphus, 173. 
 Notodonta, 292. 
 Notonecta, 516, 518. N. irrorata, 537. N. 
 
 undulata, 537. 
 Notoneetidae, 536. 
 Notoxus anchova, 476. 
 Nudavia mundana, 285. 
 Nycteribia, 358, 388, 626. N. "Westwoodii, 
 
 418. 
 
 Nycteribidas, 418. 
 Nymphes, 79. 
 
 Nyssia, 322. N. hispidaria, 54. 
 Nysson lateralis, 163. 
 Nyssonidse, 162. 
 
 Oak Biorhiza, 211. 
 O.ik Cynips, 210. 
 Oak gull flies, 210. 
 Oat-louse Aphidius, 198. 
 Occiput, 29, 30. 
 Osellary segments, 20, 58. 
 Ooelli, 19, 25. 
 Osinari, 295. 
 
 Octoglena bivirgata, 680. 
 O,;yptera, 408. 
 > O Joutomachus clarus, 182. 
 Odor of buars, 545. 
 Odynerus, 147, 154, 162, 203, 211, 401. O. 
 
 albophaleratus, 155, 156. O. leucome- 
 
 las, 153, 218. 
 
 CEcanthus, 24. CE. niveus, 564. 
 CEceticus, 231, 291. 
 CEcodoma, 177. CE. cephalotes, 188, 189. 
 
 CE. Mexicana, 187, 188. CE. sexdentata, 
 
 189. CE. Texana, 189. 
 CEcophylla smaragdina, 184. 
 CEdemeridse, 425, 476. 
 CEdipoda Carolina, 571. CE. corallina, 
 
 571. CE. xanthoptera, 571. 
 CEsophagus, 35. 
 CEstridae, 403. 
 CEstromyia, 405. 
 
 CEstrus, 363. CE. hominis, 406. CE. ovis, 
 
 405. 
 
 Oil beetle, 478. 
 Oligarces paradoxus, 51. 
 Oligoneuria, 596. 
 Olyntha ? 588. 
 Omaliurn, 442. 
 Omophron, 431. 
 Omosita colon, 445. 
 Omus, 429. 
 
 Oncideres cingulatus, 498. 
 Oncodes, 395. 
 Onion fly, 411. 
 Oniscus, 2. 
 
 Ophion, 195. O. macrurum, 195. 
 Opomalea brachyptera, 568. 
 Ophthalmic ring, 19, 58. 
 Orange belted horse-fly, 394. 
 Orchehmum gracile, 168. O. vulgare. 24, 
 
 168, 567. 
 Orgyia, 70, 231. O. antiqua, 288. O. leu- 
 
 costigma, 288. 
 Oribates alatus, 664. 
 Oribatidse, 632, 663. 
 Ormyrus, 212. 
 Ornithomyia, 417. 
 Ornithoptera Priamus, 245. 
 Ortalis, 360. O. flexa, 411. 
 Orthoptera, 556. 
 Orthosia, 243. 
 Orthosoma unicolor, 495. 
 Oryctes nasicornis, 176. O. simia, 176. 
 Oscinis frit, 416. O. granarius, 415. O. 
 
 vastator, 415. 
 Osmia, 155, 206, 401. O. leucomelana, 138. 
 
 O. lignaria, 139. O. lignivora, 139. O. 
 
 paciflca, 141, 156. O. paretina, 138. O. 
 
 simillima, 140. 
 Osmoderma scabra, 457. 
 Othniidse, 447. 
 Othnius umbrosus, 447. 
 Otiocerus Coquebertii, 533. 
 Otiorhynchus sulcatus, 487. 
 Ovary, 35, 44. 
 Oviduct, 35, 44. 
 Ovipositor, 15. 
 Ox Bot fly, 405. 
 Oxybelus emarginatus, 163. 
 Oxyporus, 442. 
 Oxytelus, 442. 
 
 Paederus, 442. 
 
 Palaeopterina, 591, 593, 596. 
 
 Pale cut-worm, 310. 
 
 Palingenia bilineata, 593, 594. 
 
 Palpares, 583, 612. 
 
 Palpifer, 28. 
 
 Pangonia, 393. 
 
 Panorpa, 54, 581, 583. 
 
 Panorpa Germanica, 613. P. communis, 
 
 613. P. rufescens, 614. 
 Panopea carnea, 164. 
 Panorpid, 622. 
 Panorpidse, 580, 583, 613. 
 Pampina, 615. 
 Panurgus, 141. 
 Paper Avasp, 148. 
 Papilio, 54, 236, 237, 245. P. Asterias, 196, 
 
 239, 245, 247. P. brevicauda, 245, 246, 
 
 247. P. Daunus, 247. P. Glancns, 53, 
 
 247. P. Memnon, 53. P. Ormenus, 53. 
 
 P. Pammon, 53. P. Philenor, 248. P. 
 
 Romulus, 53. P. Troilus, 247. P. Tor- 
 
 nns, 53, 240, 247. 
 Papilionidae, 75, 244. 
 
698 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Papirius, 625, 626. P. Saundersii, 624. 
 
 Paraglossa, 29. 
 
 Parandra brunnea, 494. 
 
 Paraponyx, 330. 
 
 Parnassius Smintheus, 248. 
 
 Parnidse, 450. 
 
 Parnopes, 192. 
 
 Parthenogenesis, 48. 
 
 Pasimachus elongatus, 432. 
 
 Passalaecus mandibnlaris, 161. 
 
 Passalus cornutus, 451. 
 
 Patagia, 13. 
 
 Pauropodidae, 675. 
 
 Pauropus Huxleyi, 675. P. peduncula- 
 
 tua, 675. 
 
 Pea weevil, 484; figure of, 513. 
 Peach tree borer, 277. 
 Pear slug, 222. 
 'Pear Tremex, 228. 
 Pebrine, 82. 
 Pedicia albivitta, 384. 
 Pedicil, 2(5. 
 Pediculina, 553. 
 Pediculus corporis, 553. P. humanus 
 
 capitis, 553. P. vestimenti, 553. 
 Pedipalpi, 6-28, (544, 655. 
 Pedipalps, 655, 657. 
 Pelecinus polycerator, 195. 
 Pelidnota punctate, 455. 
 Pelopaeus, 174. P. caeruleus, 169. P. 
 
 flavipes, 156, 169, 170, 408. 
 Pempelia grossulariae, 331. P. semiru- 
 
 bella, 331. 
 Pemphigus formicarius, 524. P. formi- 
 
 cetorum, 524. P. rhois, 524. P. ulmi- 
 
 cola, 524. P. vagabundus, 524. 
 Pentamera, 424. 
 Pentatoma, 408. P. tristigma, 546. P. 
 
 ligata, 546. 
 
 Pentatomidae, 516, 542. 
 Penthina vitivorana, 336. 
 Pepsis cyanea, 175. P. elegans, 175. P. 
 
 formosa, 175. P. heros, 175. 
 Perga Lewisii, 215. 
 Perilampus platygaster, 206. P. triarigu- 
 
 laris, 20f>. 
 
 Periplaneta, 194. P. Americana, 195, 576. 
 Periphyllus testudo, 521. 
 Peritracheal circulation, 39. 
 Peritreme, 13. 
 Perla abnormis, 590, 
 Perlida?, 580, 581, 586, 590. 
 Postabdornen, 56. 
 Perophora Melsheimerii, 21&. 
 Pezomachus, 70, 193, 194, 197, 203. 
 Pezzotettix alpinus, 569. P. borealis, 
 
 539. 
 
 Phalacrocera replicata, 384. 
 Phalacridae, 444. 
 Phalacrus, 444. 
 Phalsenidse, 23t, 318. 
 Phalangidae, (!27, 632, 656, 657. 
 Phalangids, 655. 
 Phalangium dorsatum, 656. P. ventri- 
 
 cosum, 657. 
 
 Phanaeus, 424. P. carnifex, 453. 
 Phaneroptera curvicauda, 560. 
 Pharynx, 35. 
 Phasma 4-guttatum, 573. 
 Phasmida, 572. 
 Pheidole notabilis, 185. P. providens, 
 
 185. 
 
 Phenax variegata, 533. 
 Phengodes plumosa, 467. 
 Phigalia pilosaria, 54. 
 
 Philampelus vitis, 275. 
 
 Philanthinae, 157, 158. 
 
 Philanthus, 146, 442. P. apivorus, 158. 
 
 P. ventilabris, 8, 158. 
 Philopotamus, 621. 
 Philopterus, 555. 
 Phloea corticata, 547. 
 Phloeothrips caryae, 549. P. mali, 549. 
 Phlox worm, 315. 
 
 Phobetrum, 289. P. pithecium, 290. 
 Phodaga alticeps, 480. 
 Pholcus, 636, 639. P. Atlanticus, 650. 
 Phoi-a incrassata, 127, 416. 
 Photinus pyralis, 466. 
 Photuris Pensylvanica, 466. 
 Phryganea grandis, 616, 617. 
 Phryganeidae, 236, 580, 581, 582, 583, 615. 
 Phryganeids, 290, 586. 
 Phryganidae, 193, 
 Phryganidia, 290. 
 Phrynidae, (529, 657. 
 Phrynus, 639. P. asperatipes, 658. P. 
 
 reniformis, 655. 
 Phthirius pubis, 554. 
 Phycita nebulo, 331. 
 Phyllium siccifolium, 574. 
 Phyllophorus tettudinatus, 521. 
 Phylloptera oblongifolium, 566. 
 Phyllotreta striolata, 507. 
 Phymaphora pulchella, 511. 
 Phymata, 552. 
 
 Phytocoris, 516. P. linearis, 550. 
 Piens, 54, 237, 361. P. oleracea, 249. P. 
 
 Protodice, 249. P. rapse, 76, 249. 
 Pill beetles, 449. 
 Pimpla, 193, 196. P. Fairmairii, 193. P. 
 
 ovivora, 193. P. pedalis, 196. P. ru- 
 
 fata, 193. 
 
 Pine Lophyrus, 226. 
 Pine saw-fly, 224. 
 Pinning ins'ects, 88. 
 Piophila casei, 413. 
 Pipunculus, 401. 
 Pique, 390. 
 
 Pirates biguttatus, 541. P. picipes, 541. 
 Pissodes strobi, 486. . 
 Planiceps niger, 174. 
 Plant-lice, 198, 397, 400, 519. 
 Platephemera antiqua, 77, 594. 
 Platoeceticus Gloverii, 291. 
 Platygaster, 200, 325, 375. P. error, 201, 
 
 37(5. P. tipulae, 201, 376. 
 Platymodes Pensylvanica, 576. 
 Platynus cupripenne, 433. 
 Platypeza, 402. 
 Platypteryx geniculata, 293. 
 Platypus, 440. 
 Platyroptilon Miersii, 385. 
 Platysamia, 29J5. P. Cecropia, 234, 298. 
 
 P/Euryale, 298. 
 Plecia, 80. 
 
 Plectrodes pubescens, 454. 
 Pleurite, 9. 
 Ploa, 516, 537. 
 Ploiaria brevipennis, 540. 
 Ploteres, 539. 
 Plume moths, 353. 
 Plum gouger, 487. 
 Plum slug, 222. 
 Plum weevil, 488. 
 Plusia alticola, 313. P. divergens, 313. 
 
 P. ignea, 313. P. montana, 313. P. 
 
 precationis, 312. 
 Podura, 11. 615, 624. 
 Podurae, 623, 625. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 699 
 
 Podurida?, 623. 624. 
 
 Poecilocerus, 560. 
 
 Poison glands, 43. 
 
 Poison of insects, 43. 
 
 Polistes, 121, 147, 149. P. annularis, 151, 
 
 156. P. Cauadensis, 151, 152, 153. P. 
 
 lanio, 153. 
 
 Polybia, 153, 154, 155. 
 Polydesmidae, 677. 
 Polydesmus, 676. P. Canadensis, 677. P. 
 
 erythropygus, 677. 
 Polyergus rufescens, 182. 
 Polynema ovulorum, 202. 
 Polyphemus. 240. 
 Polyphylla, 455. 
 Polyrhachis arboricola, 184. 
 Polystoechotes, 12, 236. P. nebulosus, 
 
 585. P. punctatus, 611. 
 Polyxenus fasciculatus, 678. 
 Pompilidse, 114, 171. 
 Pompilus, 25. P. arctus, 173. P. audax, 
 
 401. P. cylindricus, 173. P.formosus, 
 
 172. P. funereus, 174. P. Mariae, 173. 
 Ponera, 179. P. ferruginea, 182. 
 Postscutellum, 11. 
 Potamanthus cupidus, 595. P. margina- 
 
 tus, 595. 
 
 Potato beetle, 503, 508. 
 Potato-stalk weevil, 49. 
 Praescutum, 11. 
 Preservative fluids, 89. 
 Preserving insects, 84. 
 Prestwichia, 114. 
 Priocera undulata, 468. 
 Priocuemis unifasciatus, 173. 
 Prionidae, 494. 
 
 Prionocyphon discoideus, 464. 
 Priononyx Thomae, 167. 
 Prionus brevicornis, 495. 
 Prisopus flabellicornis, 573. P. spini- 
 
 ceps, 573. 
 Prisiiphora grossulariae, 217. P. identi- 
 
 dem, 217. P. idiota, 217. P. syco- 
 
 phanta, 218. 
 Procephalic lobes, 55. 
 Proconia quadrivittata, 532. 
 Proctotrupes, 199. 
 
 Proctotrupid fly, 131. 
 Proctotrupii, 198. 
 
 Proctotrypidae, 198. 
 
 Promus, 473. 
 
 Prophets, 574. 
 
 Propodeum, 66. 
 
 Prop-legs, 21. 
 
 Proscopia gigantea, 572. 
 
 Prosopis alfinis, 143. P. elliptica, 143, 
 
 Prostemma guttata, 541. P. guttula, 539. 
 
 Protolycosa, 643. 
 
 Protoplasma Fitchii, 385. 
 
 Proventriculus, 35. 
 
 Psammotherma, 114. 
 
 Pselaphidae, 439, 440. 
 
 Pselaphus, 422, 440. 
 
 Psen caliginosus, 191. P. leucopus, 162. 
 
 Psenides. 211. 
 
 Psenocerus pini, 399. P. supernotatus, 
 
 499. 
 
 Psephenus Lecontei, 450. 
 Pseudomyrma bicolor, 187. P. flavidula, 
 
 187. 
 
 Pseudoscorpiones, 658. 
 Psexidovarium, 49. 
 Pseudovura, 49. 
 Psoci, 658. 
 Psocidae, 583, 588. 
 
 Psocus, 54, 69. P. pulicarius, 589. P. 
 
 salicis, 590. P. venosus, 590. 
 Psyche helix, 290. 
 Psychinae, 290. 
 Psychoda phalaenoides, 380. 
 Psychomorpha epimenis, 281. 
 Psylla pyri, 531. 
 Psyllidae, 530. 
 Pteratomus, 110 114. P. Putnamii, 131. 
 
 202. 
 
 Pteromali, 415. 
 Pteromalus, 193, 202, 205, 206. P. apium, 
 
 207. P. clisiocampae, 206. P. vanessae, 
 
 206. 
 
 Pteronarcys proteus, 590. P. regalis, 590. 
 Pterophondae, 356. 
 Pterophorus, 202. P. periscelidactylus, 
 
 356. 
 
 Pteroptus vespertilionis, 663. 
 Pterostichus, 433. 
 Ptilodontes, 292. 
 Ptinidae, 197, 470. 
 Ptinus fur, 470. 
 
 Ptycholoma ? semifuscana, 334. 
 Ptychoptera, 382. P. paludosa, 384. P. 
 
 rufocincta, 384. 
 
 Pulex irritans, 389. P. musculi, 389. 
 Pulicidae, 588. 
 Pulvillus, 21. 
 Pycnoscelus, 576. 
 Pyralidae, 326. 
 
 Pyralis, 195. P. fariualis, 328. 
 Pyrameis Atalanta, 261. P. cardui, 261 
 
 P. Huntera, 261. 
 Pyrochroaflabellata, 477. 
 Pyrochroidae, 477. 
 Pyvomorpha dimidiata, 283. 
 Pyrophorus noctilucus, 462. 
 Pyrrharctia Isabella, 239, 286. 
 Pyrrhocoris apterus, 48, 539, 543. 
 Pythidffi, 476. 
 Pytho, 476. 
 
 Quedius, 441. 
 
 Race horse, 573. 
 
 Radish fly, 411. 
 
 Rapnidia, 608. 
 
 Raphiglossa odyneroides, 157. 
 
 Ranatra, 516, 537. R. fusca, 538. 
 
 Ranatra, abdomen of, 17. 
 
 Raspberry slug, 222. 
 
 Rectum, 35. 
 
 Red-legged Grasshopper, 569. 
 
 Reduvmi, 540. 
 
 Reduvius personatus, 541. 
 
 Respiration, 42. 
 
 Respiration, organs of, 40. 
 
 Rhabdites, 15. 
 
 Rhagium lineatum, 501, 
 
 Rhamphidia, 383. 
 
 Rhipidandrus, 473. 
 
 Rhipidius, 48. 
 
 RhipiceridaB, 463. 
 
 Rhipiphoridae, 480. 
 
 Rhipiphorus Finnicus, 481. 
 
 Rhipiphorus paradoxus, 149. 
 
 Rhizopertha pusilla, 472. 
 
 Rhizophagus depressus, 445. 
 
 Rhodices dichlocerus, 212. R. rosae, 212 
 
 Rhopalosoma Poeyi, 197. 
 Rhopalum pedicellatum, 
 Rhopalus, 540. 
 Rhyacophila fuscula, 621. 
 Rhynchites bicolor, 485. 
 
 158,161. 
 
700 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Rhyparochromus leucopterus, 543. 
 
 Ehyphidae, 392. 
 
 Rhyphus alternatus, 392. 
 
 Rhyssa atrata, 196, 228. 
 
 Rhyssa lunator, 196, 228. 
 
 Rhyssa persuasoria, 193. 
 
 Rhyssodes, 446. 
 
 Rhyssodidaj. 446. 
 
 Rice weevil, 490. 
 
 Robber-flies, 395. 
 
 Romalea microptera, 570. 
 
 Rose bug, 454. 
 
 Rose chafer, 454. 
 
 Rose gall fly, 212. 
 
 Rose slug, 222. 
 
 Rotatoria, 668. 
 
 Rove-beetles, 440. 
 
 Salda, 541. 
 
 Salivary glands, 36. 
 
 Salix cordata, 218. 
 
 Salticus, 633. S. (Attus) familiaris, 654. 
 
 Samia, 298. S. Cynthia, 296. 
 
 Sandalus petrophya, 463. 
 
 Sand wasps, 157. 
 
 Saperda bivittata, 500. S. Candida, 500. 
 
 Saprinus, 443. 
 
 Sapyga, 178. S. Martinii, 176. S. repanda, 
 
 134. 
 Sarcophaga, 213. S. carnaria, 408. S. 
 
 nudipennis, 170, 408. 
 Sarcopsylla penetrans, 390. 
 Sarcoptes scabiei, 666, 668. 
 Sargus, 392. 
 
 Satumia Promethea, 239. 
 Satyrus, 262. S. Alope, 263. S. Nephele, 
 
 263. 
 
 Saw-flies, 213. 
 Scape, 26. 
 Scaphidiidae, 443. 
 Scaphidium, 443. 
 Scarabaeidae, 422, 424, 451. 
 Scarites, 432. S. Pyrachmon, 83. 
 Scatopse, 377. 
 
 Scenopinus, 1. S. pallipes, 401. 
 Schizocephala, 575. 
 Schizopodidae, 463. 
 Sohizopodus laetus, 463. 
 Schizotus, 477. 
 
 Sciara, 374. S. (Molobrus) mali, 386. 
 Sciophila, 385. 
 Scleroderma contracta, 178. 
 Scolia, 231. S. Azteca, 176. S. bicincta, 
 
 176. S.flavifrons, 176. S. oryctophaga, 
 
 176. S. quadrimaculata, 176. 
 Scoliadae, 175. 
 
 Scolopendra gigantea, 674. S. heros, 674. 
 Scolopocryptops sexspinosa, 674. 
 Scolytidaj, 49, 425. 
 Scolytus, 446. S. destructor, 492. 
 Scorpio Allenii, 659. 
 Scorpion fly, 613. 
 Scorpionidae, 631, 659. 
 Scorpions, 627, 629, 643, 659. 
 Scutellera viridipunctata, 547. 
 Scydmaenus, 440. 
 Scydma3nidae, 439. 
 Scymnus cervicalis, 513. 
 Secretion, organs of, 43. 
 Sedentary spiders, 648. 
 Seed-corn maggot, 411. 
 Segestria, 638. 
 Selandria caryae, 224. S. cerasi, 222. S. 
 
 rosae, 223. S. rubi, 222. S. tiliae, 222. 
 
 S. vitis, 222. 
 
 Semblis, 582. 
 
 Semiotellus (Ceruphron) destructor, 207, 
 
 375. 
 
 Semi-pupa, 67. 
 
 Sericostoma Americanuni, 618. 
 Series of insects, 104. 
 Sesia, 54. S. diflfinis, 277. S. Thysbe, 277 
 Setina aurita, 284. 
 Setodes Candida, 620. 
 Sheep bot-fly, 405. 
 Sheeptick, 360, 416, 418. 
 Sialidae, 237, 580, 583, 605. 
 Sialis Americana, 60(5. S. infumata, 60u. 
 Siderea? nubilana, 333. 
 Sigalphus caudatus, 415. 
 Silk moth, 50. 
 
 Silk weed Labidomera, 508. 
 Silpha Lapponica, 439. 
 Silphidae, 422, 438. 
 Simulidse, 390. 
 Simulium molestum, 390. S. (Rhagio) 
 
 Columbaschense, 391. 
 Siphonantia, 680. 
 Siphonia, 408. 
 Siphonura, 207. 
 Sirex, 193. 
 Sitaris, 479. 
 
 Sitodrepa panicea, 470. 
 Sitophilus granarius, 490. S. oryzae, 490. 
 Size of insects, normal, 107. 
 Skippers, 269. 
 Smell, organs of, 26. 
 Smerinthus excaecatus, 275. S. gemina- 
 
 tus, 275. S. modestus, 275. 
 Sinynthurus, 624, 625. 
 Snout-moths, 326. 
 Solenobia ? Walshella, 346. 
 Solpuga, 639. S. araneoides, 655. S. 
 
 (Galeodes) Americana, 655. 
 Solpugidae, 632, 655. 
 Solpugids, 655. 
 Soothsayers, 574. 
 
 Sounds produced by insects, 362, 561, 563. 
 Spaniocera, 378. 
 Spanish fly, 480. 
 
 Species of insects, number of, 103. 
 Specific names, 345. 
 Spectres, 572. 
 Spercheus tessellatus, 438. 
 Sperm, 44. 
 Sphaerotherium, 677. 
 Sphecodes, 142, 143. S. dichroa, 143. 
 Sphegidae, 142, 149, 165, 166. 
 Sphex, 142. S. flavipennis, 401. S. ich- 
 
 neumonea, 167. S. Lanierii, 169. S. 
 
 tibialis, 168. 
 Sphinges, 236. 
 Sphingidae, 238, 27. 
 Sphinx, 627. S. chersis, 272. S. drupi- 
 
 ferarum, 272. S. gordius, 272. S. kal- 
 
 miae, 272. S. ligustri, 63, 237. 
 Sphinx ligustri, anatomy of, 35. 
 SpiKBridium, 438. 
 Sphyracephala brevicornis, 413. 
 Spider fly, 358, 416. 
 Spiders, 643, 644. 
 Spiders, evolution of, 637, 638. 
 Spider's web, method of spinning, 645. 
 Spilosoma Virginica, 287. 
 Spinnerets, 21. 
 Spiracle, 40. 
 
 Spirobolus marginatus, 679. 
 Spirostrephon, 680. 
 Spondylis, 494. 
 Spongophora bipunctata, 577. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 701 
 
 Spring beetles, 459. 
 
 Spring-tails, 615, 624. 
 
 Squash beetle, 505. 
 
 Squash vine borer, 279. 
 
 Stag beetle, 32. 
 
 Staphylinidse, 181, 423, 427, 440,,577. 
 
 Staphylinus, 54, 441, 
 
 Statyra, 475. 
 
 Steganoptycha ? ochreana, 337. 
 
 Stemma, 25. 
 
 Stenobothrns curtipennis, 569. 
 
 Stenocerus, 53. S. putator,. 495. 
 
 Stenopoda, 80. 
 
 Stenus Juno, 442. S. stygicus, 442. 
 
 Sternite, 9. 
 
 Stemo-rhabdites, 15. [lata, 302. 
 
 Sfchenopis, 236, 237. S. argenteomacu- 
 
 Stignms, 142. S. fraternus, 158, 161. 
 
 Stilbum splendidum, 192. 
 
 Sting, 14. 
 
 Stipes, 28. 
 
 Stiretrus fimbriatus, 547. 
 
 Stizus speciosus, 163. 
 
 Stomach, sucking, 35. 
 
 Stomoxys caltricans, 407. 
 
 Strategus, 425. 
 
 Stratiomyidae, 392. 
 
 Stratiomys, 393. 
 
 Strawberry Corimelrena, 547. 
 
 Strawberry Ernn^vtus, 221. 
 
 Strawberry saw nv, 221. 
 
 Strawberry leaf roller, 34.0. 
 
 Strawberry Lozotoenia, 335. 
 
 Strepsiptera, 481. 
 
 Strigamia bothrioms,675. S. chionophi- 
 
 la, 675. S. epileptica, 675. 
 Stylopidae, 424, 481. 
 Stylops, 34, 131, 143, 146, 149, 194, 691. S. 
 
 Childrenii, 131, 482. 
 Stylopyga, 576. 
 Styringomyia, 383. 
 Submentum, 28. 
 Sucking myriapods, 680. 
 Sugantia, 680. 
 Sugar mite, 665. 
 Sylvanus Surinamensis, 446. 
 Symmetry, antero-posterior, 2, 21. 
 Symmetry, bilateral, 2. 
 Synerges, 212. 
 
 Synoeca, 153. S. cyanea, 154. 
 Synophrus, 212. 
 Syrphidae, 164, 397. 
 Syrphus, 54, 363, 398, 400. 
 Syrtis erosa, 552. 
 Systropus, 397. 
 
 Tabanidae, 393. 
 
 Tabanus atratus, 394. T. cinctus, 394. 
 
 T. liueola, 393, 394. 
 
 Tachina, 325. T. (Lydella) doryphorae, 
 
 408. T. (Senometopia) militaris, 407. 
 Tachina-like fly, 131, 147. 
 Tachydromia, 402. 
 Tachyporus, 441. 
 Tachytes aurulentus, 165. 
 Taeniopteryx frigida, 591. 
 Tanarthrus salinus, 476. 
 Tanypus varius, 371. 
 Tapinoma tomentosa, 183. 
 Tardigrada, 668. 
 Tardigrades, 45, 69, 632,642. 
 Tarsus, 21. 
 
 Tatua, 153. T. morio, 122, 154, 156. 
 Tegenaria atrica, 649. T. civilis, 629. T. 
 
 medicinalis, 649. 
 
 Telea Polyphemus, 11, 195, 243, 297. 
 Teleas, 199, 200. T. Linnaei, 200. 
 Telephorus Carolina, 467. T. bilineatus 
 
 467. 
 
 Tenebrio molitor, 474. 
 Tenebrionidae, 473. 
 Tent-caterpillar, 207. 
 Tenthredinidae, 213. 
 Tergite, 9, 14. 
 
 Terms Delia, 251. T. Lisa, 251. 
 Termes, 54. T. bellicosus, 588. T. fatale, 
 
 588. T. llavipes, 587. T. lucifugus, 588. 
 Termites, 588. 
 Termitidae, 5j3.58L-5Q3. 
 Termopsis angtrsTicollis, 587. 
 Testis, 35, 44. 
 Tetracha Virginica, 429. 
 Tetralonia, 114. 
 Tetramera, 424, 484. 
 Tetranychus telarius, 631, 660. 
 Tetrapneumones, 647. 
 Tettigidea lateralis, 572. 
 Tettigonia bifida, 532. 
 Tettigoniae, 163. 
 Tettix granulata, 572. 
 Tetyra marmorata, 547. 
 Thaumatosoma, ]14. 
 Thecla Acadica, 265. T. humull, 265. T. 
 
 Mopsus, 266. T. Niphon, 265. T. stri- 
 
 gosa, 267. 
 
 Thelaxes ulmicola, 523. 
 Thelyphonus caudatus, 658. T. gigan- 
 
 teus, 658. 
 Thereva, 396. 
 Therevidae, 395. 
 Theridion stndiosum, 650. T. verecun- 
 
 dum, C51. T. vulgare, 650. 
 Thinophilus, 403. 
 Thomisus celer, 652, 653. T. vulgaris, 
 
 652. 
 
 Thorax, structure of, 11. 
 Thousand Legs, 678. 
 Thripidae, 547. 
 
 Thrips, 69, 80, 378. T. cerealium, 550. 
 Throscidas, 459. 
 Thyatira, 304. 
 
 Thyreocoris histeroides, 547. 
 Thyreopus, 159. T. latipes, 160. 
 Thyreus Abbotii, 276. 
 Thyridopteryx, 290. T. ephemeraeformis, 
 
 289,291. T. nigricans, 289. 
 Thvsanoptera, 548. 
 Thysanura, 608, 609, 613, 622, 623. 
 Ticks, 661. 
 Tiger Beetles, 428. 
 Tinagma, 342. 
 Tinea, 201. T. flavifrons, 346. T. gran- 
 
 ella, 347. T. tapetzella, 347. 
 Tineidse, 303, 234, 342, 582. 
 Tineidae, transformation of, 67. 
 Tineids, 236, 237. 
 
 Tingis hyalina, 552. T. hystricellus. 
 Tiphia inornata, 177. 
 Tipula, 360, 381. T. trivittata, 382. 
 Tipulidse, 199, 381. 
 Tmesiphonis, 422. 
 Tobacco worm, 274. 
 Tolype Velleda, 300. 
 Tolyphus, 444. 
 Tomfcus monographus, 493. T. pini, 498, 
 
 T. xylographus, 493. 
 Tortricidae, 332. 
 Tortricodes, 290. 
 Tortrix gelidana, 334. T. oxycoccana 
 
 334. 
 
702 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Torymus Har 5. 
 
 Touch, sense of, 26. 
 
 Toxophora fasciata, 164. 
 
 Toxorhina, 383. 
 
 Trachea, 40. 
 
 Trachys pygmaBa, 459. 
 
 Tragocephala infuscata, 569. T. viridi- 
 
 fasciata, 569. 
 
 Transformations of insects, 561. 
 Transportation of insects, 94. 
 Trechus, 434. 
 Tremex, 196. T. Columba, 228. T. lati- 
 
 tarsus, 228. 
 Trichii, 457. 
 Trichiosoma bicolor, 216. T. triangulum, 
 
 216. 
 
 Trichocera, 381, 383. 
 Trichodectes canis, 555. 
 Trichodes apiarius, 127, 468. T. NuttaUii, 
 
 468. 
 
 Trichopterygidae, 443. 
 Trichopteryx intermedia, 444. 
 Tricondyla, 567. 
 Tricrania, 479. 
 
 Tridactylus apicalis, T. terminalis, 563. 
 Tri&ona, 128, 129. T. carbonaria, 229. 
 Trigo'nalys bipustulatus, 153. 
 Trilocha, 295. 
 Trimera, 424, 484. 
 Trochanter, 21.,. 
 Trochantine, 21. 
 Trogosita, 445. 
 Trogositidae, 445, 
 Trogus exesorius, 196. 
 Trombididaa, 660. 
 Trombidiiim, 660. " 
 Tropidacris cristata, 571. T. dux, 571. 
 Trox, 425. T. Carolina, 453. T. scabro- 
 
 sus, 453. 
 
 Trupanea apivora, 396. 
 Trypeta, 412. T. pomonella, 415. 
 Trypoxylon, 195. T. frigidum, 162. T. 
 
 politum, 162. 
 Tsetze fly, 407. 
 Tumble bug, 47. 
 Turnip flea beetle, 507. 
 Tychus, 422. 
 Typhlocyba, 69, 531. 
 Typhlodromus pyri, 666, 668. 
 Typhlopone, 179. T. pallipes, 181. 
 Tyroglyphus domesticus, 665. T. farinae, 
 
 666. T. sacchari, 665. T. siro. 640, 
 
 665. 
 
 Udeopsylla robusta, 565. 
 
 Ula, 381. 
 
 Upis ceramboides, 474. 
 
 Urania Leilus, 319. 
 
 Urapteryx politia, 319. U. sambucaria, 
 
 319. 
 
 Urinary tubes, 43. 
 Urinary vessels, 35. 
 Urite, 14. 
 Uroceridae, 227. 
 Uiocerus albicomis, 227. 
 CJroplata rosea, 503. U. suturalis, 504. 
 Uropoda, 631. U. vegetans, 663. 
 Utetheisa bella, 285. 
 
 Vanessa Antiopa, 206, 244. 258. V. Cali- 
 fornica, 259. V. Milbertii, 259. V. ur- 
 ticae, 237 
 
 Variety breeding, 75. 
 
 Vas deferens, 35. 
 
 Vasa deferentia, 44. 
 
 Vates, 575. 
 
 Velia, 518, 538, 540. 
 
 Venation, 22. 
 
 Venation of Lepidoptera, 229. 
 
 Ventriculus, 35. 
 
 Ver macaque, 406. 
 
 Ver moyocuil, 40(5. 
 
 Vertex of the head, 31. 
 
 Vesiculae seminales, 45. 
 
 Vespa, 147, 195, 400. V. arenaria, 148, 149. 
 
 V. crabro, 150. V. maculata, 148. V. 
 
 orientalis, 148. V. rufa, 123. V.vulgA- 
 
 ris,123. 
 Vespariae, 147, 
 Vine slug, 222. 
 Volucella, 131, 149, 400. 
 
 Wandering spiders, 648, 
 
 Walking sticks, 572. 
 
 Warega fly, 409. 
 
 Wasp, 8. 
 
 Water boatmen, 536. 
 
 Water fleas, 616. 
 
 Water mites, 661. 
 
 Water tigers, 435. 
 
 Wax, 111. 
 
 Weeping willow saw-fly 220. 
 
 Weevils, 484. 
 
 Wheat beetles, 446. 
 
 Wheat-fly, 199. 
 
 Wheat joint worm, 203. 
 
 Wheat-louse Aphidius. 198. 
 
 Wheat-midge, 201, 372. 
 
 Wheat moths, 347, 350. 
 
 Whip scorpions. 657. 
 
 Whirligigs, 536. 
 
 White ant, 130, 586. 
 
 White-pine, saw-fly, 225. 
 
 Willow Cecidomyia, 364, 
 
 Wine-cask borer, 493. 
 
 Wine-fly, 414. 
 
 Wings, 22. 
 
 Wire worms, 460. 
 
 W-marked cut- worm, 309. 
 
 Wood ticks, 662. 
 
 Wood wasp, 8, 157. 
 
 Xanthia, 243. 
 
 Xanthoptera semicrocea, 316. 
 
 Xenoneura antiquorum, 77. 
 
 Xenos, 482. 
 
 Jiphidium fasciatnm, 567. 
 
 Xiphidria albicornis, 227. 
 
 Xyela infuscata, 226. 
 
 Xyleutes robiniae, 301. X. crepera, 302. 
 
 Xylobius sigillariae, 679. 
 
 Xylocopa, 139. X. violacea, 134. X.Vir 
 
 ginica, 168, 397. 
 Xylophagidze, 392. 
 Xylophagus, 392. 
 
 Yellow-legged Barley-fly, 205. 
 
 Zenoa piceae, 46_3. 
 Zerene catenaria, 323. 
 ZoOnule, zoonite, 9. 
 Zygaena exulans, 280. 
 Zygamida3, 234, 237, 279. 
 Zygoneura, 378. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 THE EARLY STAGES OF ICHNEUMON PARASITES. Ganin has 
 shown that certain Proctotrypidce (Platygaster, Polynema, 
 Teleas and Ophioneurus) , the larvae of which live in the eggs 
 as well as the larvae of other insects, pass through a series of 
 remarkable changes, heretofore unsuspected, before assuming 
 the final and more normal larval state. He compares these 
 
 Fig. 652. 
 
 g 
 
 Development of Platygaster. 
 
 changes to the hyper-metamorphosis of Meloe and Sitaris (see 
 p. 478). The ovary of Platygaster differs from that of other 
 insects in that it is a closed tube or sac. Hence it follows 
 
 (703) 
 
704 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 that at every time an egg is laid, the egg tube is ruptured. 
 This was also observed in the sheep tick (Melophagus} by 
 Lenckart, and in certain flies (Limnobia, Psychoda, and My- 
 cetobia) by Ganin himself. 
 
 The earliest stage observed after the egg is laid, is that in 
 which the egg contains a single cell with a nucleus and nucle- 
 olus. Out of this cell (Fig. 652 A, a) arise two other cells. 
 The central cell (a) gives origin to the embryo. The two 
 
 outer ones multiply by subdivision 
 and form an embryonal membrane, 
 or "amnion," which is a provisional 
 envelope and does not assist in 
 building up the body of the germ, 
 which however is accomplished by 
 the cells resulting from the subdivi- 
 sion of the central single cell. Fig. 
 652 B, g, shows the germ just form- 
 ing out of the nucleus (a) ; and 6, 
 the peripheral cells of the blasto- 
 derm skin, or "amnion." Fig. C 
 shows the yolk transformed into the 
 embryo (g) with the outer layer of 
 blastodermic cells (b). The body 
 of the germ is bent upon itself. 
 Fig. 652 D shows the embryo much 
 further advanced with the two pairs 
 of lobes (md, rudimentary mandi- 
 bles, d, rudimentary pad-like or- 
 gans, seen in a more advanced stage 
 in E) and the bilobate tail (st). 
 Fig. 653 shows the first larval stage 
 after leaving the egg (m, mouth ; a, 
 rudimentary antennae ; md, mandibles ; d, tongue-like appen- 
 dages ; st, anal stylets ; the subject of this figure belongs to a 
 distinct species from Fig. 652 E). This strange form would 
 scarcely be thought an insect, were not its origin and further 
 development known, but rather a parasitic Copepodous Crus- 
 acean, whence he calls this the Cyclops-like stage. In this 
 condition it clings to the inside of its host by means of its 
 
 First larva of Platygaster. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 705 
 
 Fig. 654. 
 
 temporary hook-like jaws (md) , moving about like a Cestodes 
 embryo with its well known six hooks. The tail moves up and 
 down, but is scarcely used in 
 locomotion. The nervous and 
 vascular systems and tracheae 
 are wanting, while the alimen- ng 
 tary canal is simply a blind 
 sac, remaining in an unorgan- 
 ized state. 
 
 mt 
 
 The second larval state 
 (Fig. 654, o>, oesophagus ; iig, 
 supracesophageal ganglion; 
 ft, nervous cord ; ga and g, 
 genital organs ; ms, bands of 
 muscles) is attained by means 
 of a moult, as usual in the 
 metamorphoses of insects. ffa 
 The cells of the inner layer of g 
 
 Fig. G55. 
 
 the skin 
 ( hypoclcr- 
 
 Second larva of Platygaster. 
 
 mis) now multiply greatly, and give rise to 
 what corresponds to the primitive band of 
 the embryos of other insects. The third 
 larval form is of the usual shape of ich- 
 neumon larvae. 
 
 In Polynema the larva in its first stage 
 is very small and motionless, and with 
 scarcely a trace of organization, being a 
 mere flask-shaped sac of cells. After five 
 or six days, it passes into a worm-like stage 
 and subsequently into a third stage (Fig. 
 655, tg, three pairs of abdominal tubercles 
 destined to form the ovipositor ; /, rudiments 
 of the legs ; /&, portion of the fatty body ; 
 at, rudiments of the antennae, jfl, imaginal 
 discs, or rudiments of the wings). 
 
 The larva of Ophioneurus is at first of 
 the form indicated by Fig. 656 E. It differs from the genera 
 already mentioned, in remaining within its egg membrane and 
 
 Third larva of Polynema. 
 
706 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 not assuming their strange forms. From the non-segmented, 
 sac-like larva it passes directly into the pupa state. 
 
 The development of Teleas is like that of Platygaster. 
 Fig. 656 A, represents the egg ; B, C, and Z>, the first stage 
 Fig. 656. of the larva, the ab- 
 
 domen (or posterior 
 division of the body) 
 being furnished with 
 a series of bristles 
 on each side. B 
 represents the ven- 
 tral, C the dorsal, 
 and D the profile 
 view ; at, antennae ; 
 md, hook-like man- 
 dibles ; mo, mouth ; 
 6, bristles ; m, intes- 
 tine ; sw, the tail, 
 and ul, under lip, or 
 labium. In the sec- 
 ond larval stage, 
 
 Development of Egg-parasites. "~ 
 
 which is oval in form, and non-segmented, the primitive band 
 is formed. 
 
 THE EMBRYONAL MEMBRANES OF INSECTS. After the forma- 
 tion of the germinal layer or blastoderm, the outer layer of 
 blastodermic cells peels off or moults, forming the so-called "am- 
 nion" ("parietal membrane" of Brandt, Fig. 657, am). This 
 skin is a moult from the blastoderm. At a later period, after 
 the formation of the primitive band, a second membrane (Fig. 
 657, db "faltenblatt" of Weismann ; visceral layer of Brandt) 
 separates from the primitive band. It surrounds the embryo 
 in the Hymenoptera, Diptera and Coleoptera, enveloping the 
 limbs, and is shed as a thin pellicle when the embryo leaves 
 the egg. Melnikow (Archiv fur Naturgeschichte, 1869, p. 136) 
 from whose article the accompanying figure is taken, shows 
 that in the lice, however, both the amnion and visceral mem- 
 brane share in building up the body of the embryo, and pass 
 upon the dorsal side of the embryo. Brandt (Memoirs of the 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 707 
 
 Fig. 657. 
 
 d&J 
 
 St. Petersburg Academy, 1869) also shows that the visceral 
 layer in the Libellulidae enters, together with the " amnion," 
 into the formation of the yolk sac. 
 Melnikow remarks that u it appears 
 from these facts that the differences 
 which we see in the embryonal mem- 
 branes of insects, are in direct rela- 
 tion to the mode in which the prim- 
 itive band is formed. It seems, 
 therefore, that the mode of origin of 
 the primitive band, or its position in 
 relation to the yolk, is concerned in 
 the above mentioned differences of 
 the embryonal membranes. 
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE LOUSE. 
 After the budding out of the limbs 
 from the primitive band, the germ 
 appears as seen in Fig. 657. We 
 now see the amnion (am) surround- 
 ing the yolk mass, and the visceral 
 membrane (db) within partially envel- 
 oping the embryo. The head (vie, procephalic lobes, or anten- 
 nal segment,) besides the antennae (as), bears three pairs of short 
 tubercles, which are the rudiments of the mandibles, maxillae, 
 and labium or second maxillae. Behind the mouth-parts arise 
 six long slender tubercles forming the rudimentary legs, while 
 the primitive streak rudely marks out the ventral walls of the 
 thorax and abdomen. Fig. 658 represents the head and mouth- 
 parts of the embryo of the same louse ; vk is the forehead, or 
 clypeus ; ant, the antennae ; mad, the mandibles ; max 1 , the first 
 pair of maxillae, and max*, the second pair of maxillae, or 
 labium. Fig. 659 represents the mouth-parts of the same 
 insect a little farther advanced, with the jaws and labium 
 elongated and closely folded together. Fig. 660 represents the 
 same still farther advanced ; the mandibles are sharp, and 
 resemble the jaws of the Mallophaga or biting lice ; and the 
 maxillae (max 1 ) and labium (max 2 ) are still large, while after- 
 wards the labium becomes nearly obsolete. Fig. 661 repre- 
 
 Embryo of louse. 
 
708 
 
 APPENDIX, 
 
 Fig. 658. 
 
 Fig. 631. 
 
 Fig. 659. 
 
 tfk- 
 
 Fig. 660. 
 
 max 
 
 Fig. 662. 
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF MOUTH-PABTS OF THE LOUSE. 
 
APPENDIX. 709 
 
 sents the mouth-parts of one of the Mallophaga, Goniodes, to 
 compare with the rudimentary mouth-part of Pediculus ; ib is 
 the upper lip, or labrum, situated under the clypeus ; mad", the 
 mandibles ; max, the maxillae ; Z, the lyre-formed piece ; pZ, the 
 " plate", and o, the beak or tongue. (This and figs. 658-661 
 are from Melnikow's memoir.) Fig. 662 represents the mouth 
 of Pediculus vestimenti (copied from Schiodte) with the parts 
 entirely protruding, and seen from above, magnified one hun- 
 dred and sixty times ; aa, the summit of the head, with four 
 bristles on each side ; 6&, the chitinous band, and c, the hind 
 part of the lower lip ; dd, the foremost protruding part of the 
 lip (the haustellum) ; ee the hooks turned outwards ; /, the 
 inner tube of suction slightly bent and twisted ; the two pairs 
 of jaws are perceived on the outside of these lines ; a few blood 
 globules are seen in the interior of the tube. 
 
 FORMATION OP THE WINGS. As has already been remarked 
 on p. 64, the genital glands and the muscles of the adult insect 
 were found by Weismann to exist in a rudimentary state in the 
 embryo, while the imaginal discs (which are minute scales, or 
 isolated portions of the inner layer of skin, attached either to 
 a nerve or trachea, and which are readily seen on dissection 
 in the young larva) , which are destined to grow and spread so 
 as to form the skin of the adult, even exist, though in an ex- 
 tremely rudimentary condition, in the embryo. Weismann has 
 also satisfactorily shown that in the Diptera the wings arise 
 from similar discs in connection with what he doubtfully re- 
 garded as a nerve. 
 
 More recently, however, Landois has published in Siebold 
 and Kolliker's " Zeitschrift " a fuller account of the formation 
 of the wings in the butterflies. They are found to exist in the 
 caterpillar, soon after leaving the egg, in the form of minute 
 expansions of the peritoneal membrane surrounding a trachea. 
 This forms a microscopic sac filled with fat cells, some of which 
 transform into elongated nucleated cells, in which trachese are 
 developed. As the bag grows larger, the trachese enlarge, and 
 project towards what is destined to be the outer edge of the 
 wing, until when the larva is ready to transform into the pupa, 
 
710 APPENDIX. 
 
 the wings appear as little bags hanging down the sides, just 
 under the skin. The number of main tracheae in the wing 
 appears from one of Landois' figures to be six. Hence, as we 
 have before suspected, this is probably the typical number of 
 veins in the wings of all insects, though usually but five are 
 readily made out. 
 
 A NEW FOSSIL CARBONIFEROUS INSECT. Mr. S. I. Smith 
 contributes to the "American Journal of Science" a descrip- 
 tion of the fore wing of Paolia vetusta from near Paoli, Indi- 
 ana. The wing (Fig. 663) is 2.54 inches in length and about 
 .85 inch wide. The venation is remarkable for the number of 
 slender branchlets which the veins throw off towards the poste- 
 rior border and the tip of the wing. The great care with 
 which the specimen has been drawn and engraved obviates the 
 necessity of farther description. Mr. Smith remarks that 
 
 Fig. 663. 
 
 Wing of Paolia vetusta. 
 
 "this wing differs so much in neuration from any family of 
 recent insects, that it is difficult to point out any near affinity 
 with living forms, although it shows some points of resem- 
 blance to several families of Neuroptera, and especially to the 
 Ephemerids." To Hemeristia and Miamia, he adds, " it shows 
 more resemblance, but still differs more from either of these 
 genera, which are considered distinct families by Mr. Scudder, 
 than they do from each other. It seems still more allied to 
 Dictyoneura libelluloides of Goldenberg, Prof. Hagen consider- 
 ing it, with Eugereon Bockingii Dohrn, as a species of this 
 genus. " In both Dictyoneura and Eugereon, as figured, the 
 wings have considerable resemblance to the specimen from 
 Indiana, but in neither o them are the nervures so numerously 
 
7J> 
 
 INJURIOUS INSECTS. 
 
APPENDIX 711 
 
 branched towards the posterior border of the wing, and in 
 Eugereon the spaces between the first three nervures next 
 the anterior border are connected by straight cross-nervures. 
 There are also important differences in the branching of the 
 main nervures." 
 
 ABDOMINAL SENSE ORGANS. On p. 17 the remarkable 
 antenniform abdominal appendages of Mantis tessellata are fig- 
 ured as an illustration of what we have called " sensorio-geni- 
 ital" organs. Dr. Dohrn has shown that the jointed abdominal 
 appendages of Gryllotalpa are true sensory organs. More 
 recently we have observed sense organs (probably of smell) 
 in the anal stylets of the cockroach (Periplaneta Americana), 
 consisting of about ninety minute sacs, situated in single rows 
 on the upper side of each joint of the stylets. They are like 
 similar organs in the antennae of the same insect. Similar 
 organs are situated on the female anal stylets of Chrysopila, a 
 Leptis-like fly. These also are like the single sacs situated on 
 the ends of the labial and maxillarj" palpi of Perla. American 
 Naturalist, IV. p. 690. 
 
 INJURIOUS AND BENEFICIAL INSECTS. Explanation of Plate 14. Of 
 much interest to gardeners is the bean weevil (Bruchus varicornis of 
 Leconte, fig. 8, bean containing several grubs; 8a, pupa). This 
 is the well known and very destructive bean weevil of Europe, con- 
 cerning which Mr. Angus writes from West Farms, N. Y., to the 
 author : " I send you a sample of beans which I think will startle you 
 if you have not seen such before. I discovered this beetle in the kid- 
 ney or bush bean a few years ago, and they have been greatly on the 
 increase every year since. I might say much on the gloomy prospect 
 before us in the cultivation of this important garden and farm pro- 
 duct if the work of this insect is not cut short by some means or 
 other. The pea Bruchus is bad enough, but this is worse." 
 
 Another insect recently brought to the notice of farmers, is the 
 corn Sphenophorus ($. sece Walsh, fig. 11), of which Mr. R. Howell, 
 of Tiago County, New York, writes, June 14, 1869: "This is the 
 fourth year they have infested the newly planted corn in this vicinity. 
 The enclosed specimens were taken on the llth instant. I presume 
 that they have been in every hill of corn in my field. They pierce the 
 young corn in numerous places, so that each blade has from one to 
 six or eight holes of the size of a pin, or larger, and I found a num- 
 ber last Friday about an inch under ground hanging to young stalks 
 
712 
 
 APPENDIX, 
 
 Fig. 664. 
 
 Larva of Leiopus xanthoxyli. 
 
 with much tenacity. When very numerous every stalk is killed. 
 Some fields two or three years ago were wholly destroyed by this in- 
 sect. Among plant house insects may be noticed the white scale bark 
 
 louse (Aspidiotus bromelice 
 Bouche, fig. 6, magnified ; 4, 
 young magnified; 4, end 
 of body still more enlarged). 
 It is often destroyed by a 
 minute chalchid fly, Cocco- 
 phagus(?). Boisduval's fern 
 bark louse (Lecanium fili( um 
 Boi-;d., fig. 7a, scale enlarged 
 seen from above; 7&, the 
 same, seen from beneath, 
 and showing the form of the 
 body surrounded by the 
 broad, flat edge of the scale ; 
 7c, an antenna, enlarged ; 
 7d, a leg, enlarged ; 7e, end of the body, showing the flattened hairs 
 fringing the edge), is common on hot-house plants, as also the Platy- 
 cerium bark louse (Lecanium platycerii Pack., fig. 5, magnified; 5a, 
 an antenna, enlarged), and the plant house Coccus (C. adonidum 
 Linn., fig. 3, magnified). The plant house Aleurodes (.4. vaporarium of 
 Westwood, fig. 9, enlarged; 9a, pupa enlarged), is more common per- 
 haps than one would suppose. It lives out of doors on tomato leaves 
 and we found it not uncommon, in September, on strawberry plants on 
 the grounds of the State Agricultural College, at Amherst. The list of 
 hot-house insects is completed by one of the most injurious of all, the 
 mi mte Thrips (Heliothrips hcemorrhoidalis Haliday), from Europe, fig. 
 2, greatly magnified, which by 
 
 , , Fig. 665. 
 
 its punctures, causes the sur- 
 face of the leaf affected to turn 
 red or white, while at times 
 the entire leaf withers. 
 
 Fig. 10 represents the Cran- 
 berry weevil, Anthonomus su- T 
 turalis Leconte ; 10a, its larva, I 
 mentioned on p. 487. Fig. 12 1 
 represents the Byturus uni- 
 color Say (enlarged) which 
 feeds on the flowers of the 
 raspberry. 
 
 Explanation of Plate 15. 
 Fig. 1, Leiopus facetus Say, the 
 
 larva of which bores in the branches of the apple tree. Fig. 2, Leiopus 
 xanthoxyli Shimer. which bores under the bark of the prickly ash. 
 
 Larva of Callidium amcenum. 
 
Plate 15. 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 No. 10. 
 
 NO. e. 
 
 INJURIOUS AND BENEFICIAL 'iNSECf 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 713 
 
 Fig. 664, a, represents the larva; b, upper side, c, under side of 
 the head, greatly enlarged. Fig. 3, Callidium amcenum Say, Fig. 
 665, a, larva ; &, upper, c, under side of head enlarged. Fig. 5, Drep- 
 
 Fig. 666. 
 
 Head of larva of Telephorus bilineatus. 
 
 anodes varus Gr. and Rob. Fig. 4, the larva and pupa, the former 
 closely resembling the twigs of the juniper, on which it feeds. Fig. 
 
 Fig. 667. 
 
 6, BuccMlatrix th niello, 
 Pack., enlarged ; (a, cocoon, 
 natural size,) which feeds 
 on the cedar. Fig. 7, Tel- 
 ephorus bilineatus Say ; Fig. 
 8, larva enlarged. Fig. 666, 
 a, upper; 6, under side of 
 the head, much enlarged. 
 The larva of this species 
 was identified by Mr. P. S. 
 Sprague, who found it near 
 Boston, under stones in 
 spring, where it changes to 
 a pupa and early in May 
 becomes a beetle, when it 
 eats the newly expanded 
 leaves of the birch. Fig. 9, 
 Galerita janus Fabr. Fig. 
 667, larva; a, upper, &, un- 
 der side of head, a little 
 enlarged. The specimen 
 here figured was discovered 
 by Mr. J. H. Emerton, under stones July 1st. Fig. 10, Larva of Cor- 
 dulia lateralis Burm. Fig. 11, larva of Macromia transversa Say. 
 
 A 
 
 Larva of Galerita Janus. 
 
714 APPENDIX. 
 
 NEW CLASSIFICATION OF THE HEMIPTERA. Prof. Schiodte 
 has proposed the following classification of the Hemiptera, 
 which is probably the best yet suggested, and is based on a 
 more profound study of their external anatomy than has been 
 previously made. It will be noticed, however, that the lice 
 (Pediculina) are not included, though he regards them as 
 forming a separate division (Siphunculata Latr.) of equal value 
 with the Heteroptera and Homoptera. He does not seem to 
 include the Mallophaga among the Hemiptera. The families 
 of the Homoptera are not characterized. 
 
 I. Genae (cheeks) hollowed out, to receive the first pair of coxae. 
 [Posterior pair of coxae hinged, provided with femoral grooves.] 
 
 Suborder HOMOPTERA. 
 
 II. Genae entire, remote from the coxae. 
 
 Suborder HETEROPTERA. 
 A Posterior coxae acetabulate, rotating, with no femoral grooves. Trochalopoda. 
 
 a. Metathoracic epimera laminate, nearly concealing the first ventral segment 
 
 [of the abdomen. 
 
 1. Antennae covered at the base. Fam. 1. Cimices. 
 
 2. Antennae entirely uncovered. 
 
 *. Antennae inserted before the eyes. Tarn. 2. Corel. 
 **. Antennae inserted below the eyes. Fam. 3 Lygcei. 
 
 b. Metathoracic epimera without the ventral lamina. [metrce. 
 1: Claws superposed (inserted before the end of the joint). Fam. 4. Hydro- 
 2. Claws terminal. 
 
 *. Metathoracic epimera almost covered by the mesothoracic epimera. 
 
 Last pair of abdominal spiracles forming a short tube. Fam. 5. Nepce. 
 
 **. Metathoracic epimera wholly uncovered. Abdominal spiracles equal. 
 
 [Fam. 6. Reduvii. 
 
 B. Posterior coxae hinged, provided with femoral grooves. Pagiopoda. 
 a. Antennae uncovered. Fam. 7. Acanthice. 
 b Antennae partially covered. 
 
 1. Body depressed, prone, 
 a. Beak free. 
 
 f. Metathoracic epimera uncovered. 
 *. Feet cursorial. Fam. 8. Pelegoni. 
 **. Feet natatory. Fam. 9. Naucorides. 
 
 tf. Mesothoracic epimera almost covered by the metathoracic epimera. 
 
 [Fam. 10. Belostomata. 
 
 /3. Beak free. [Metathoracic epimera uncovered, appendiculated.] Fam. 
 
 [11. Corixce. 
 
 2. Body boat-shaped, supinate. [Metathoracic epimera uncovered. Beak 
 
 free.] Fam. 12. Notonectce. 
 
 NEW CLASSIFICATION OF THE SPIDERS. The arrangement 
 of the groups of spiders given by me is very imperfect. I 
 therefore present the following classification of Dr. T. Thorell 
 (On European Spiders. Part I, 1869-70) as the most satisfac- 
 tory. While I have considered the Araneina as forming a sub- 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 715 
 
 order of the order Arachnida, it will be noticed that Thorell 
 regards the Araneina as an order, dividing it into the seven 
 suborders and twenty-two families indicated below. The ar- 
 rangement of these groups is like the branches of a tree, and 
 this represents well the relations of the groups of articulates, 
 as well as other sub-kingdoms. As Thorell remarks : " As 
 regards the larger groups of spiders, the suborders and the 
 families, the reasons for the order of arrangement we have 
 chosen will, we hope, easily be seen if one casts one's eye on 
 the accompanying diagram, which gives a view of the con- 
 nection founded on real affinity, which the families of the 
 spiders adopted by us, according to our opinion, have to each 
 other." 
 
 Fig. (JC8. 
 
 I. Orbitelariae. 
 
 1. Epeiroidae. 
 II. Retitelariae. 
 
 2. Theridioidse. 
 
 3. Scytodoidje. 
 
 4. Enyoidae. 
 III. Tubitelarise. 
 
 5. Urocteoidae. 
 
 6. Omanoidae. 
 
 7. Hersilionidae. 
 
 Phrynoidae. 
 
 Opiliones. 
 
 8. Agalenoidae. 
 
 9. Drassoidae. 
 
 10. Dysderoidae. 
 
 11. Filostatoidae. 
 IV. Territelariae. 
 
 12. Theraphqsoidae. 
 
 13. Liphistioida9. 
 
 14. Catadysoidae. 
 V. Laterigradae. 
 
 15. Tnomisoidae, 
 
 vi. Citigradae. 
 
 16. Lycosoidae. 
 
 17. Oxyopoidae. 
 ni. Saltigradze. 
 
 18. Myrmecionidae. 
 
 19. OtiothopoidaB. 
 
 20. Dinopoidae. 
 
 21. Eresoidae. 
 
 22. Attoidas. 
 
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