BIOLOGY

UB8ARY

GUIDE

,THE STUDY OF INSECTS,,

AND A TREATISE ON THOSE

ItfJUEIOUS AND BENEHCIAL TO CKOPS :

FOR THE USE OF

COLLEGES, FARM-SCHOOLS, AND AGRICULTURISTS,

A. S. PACKARD, JK., M.D.
\\

WITH FIFTEEN PLATES AND SIX HUNDRED AND SEVENTY WOOD-CUTS.

FOURTH EDITION.

SALEM :
NATURALISTS' AGENCY

BOSTON: ESTES & LAURIAT.

NEW YORK: DODD & MEAD.

LONDON: TRUBNER & co.

1874.

ft.

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1869 by

A. S. PACKARD, JR.,
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts.

Printed at the SALEM PRESS.
F. W. Putnam & Co., Salem, Mass.

Plate #

TRANSFORMATIONS OF MOTH

PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION.

SEVERAL corrections of some importance have been made
in this edition, mostly, however, verbal, due in part to changes
in synonymy. On p. 78, fig. 68 of the third edition has been
replaced by a figure of Arthrolycosa antiqua Harger. On p.
258 correct figures of the larva and pupa of Melitcea Harrisii
are given. The most important addition, however, is on p.
438, where a brief account of LeConte's new family Platypsyl-
lidce is given, and his figure of Platypsylla castoris Ritsema
reproduced. On p. 597, line 20, it is stated that the mouth of
the Libellulidse " is not furnished with palpi." This is morpho-
logically inexact, as Gerstaecker has recently stated that the
dragon-flies possess a one-jointed maxillary palpus, and two-
jointed labial palpi. These are not of the usual palpus shape,
but more or less rudimentary and modified in accordance with
the peculiar mouth parts of these and allied insects. On p.
669, for lines 22, 23, read Macrobiotus Americanus JPack. has
been discovered by Rev. W. R. Cross in Maine.

Some important changes have been made in the classifica-
tion of the Coleoptera. The weevils, Curculionidce, should in
accordance with the views expressed by Dr. LeConte be placed
at the end of the group. The Coccinellidce and Erotylidce
should also in accordance with the views of Mr. G. R. Crotch
(Check List of the Coleoptera of America north of Mexico,
1874), be placed in the Clavicorn series, those and allied
families being placed in the following succession : Der-
mestidce, JEndomychidce, Cioidce, Erotylidce, Atomariidce, Cu-
cujidce, Colydiidce, Rhizophagidce, Trogositidce, Nitidulidce,
Coccinellidce, Cistelidce, etc. At the end of the series the
succession of families is as follows : Cerambycidce, Bruchidce,
Chrysomelidce, Tenebrionidce, ^Eyialitidce, Alleculidce,

IV PREFACE.

Pyrochroidce, Anthicidce, Melandryidce, Mordellidce, Stylopidce,
Meloidce, Cephaloidce, (Edemeridce, Mycteridce, Pythidce, Cur-
culionidce, Scolytidce, and Anthribidce, Brenthidce being the
last.

The author should here state, in justice to himself, that the
primary object in preparing the systematic portion of the
work was to give as clear a view as possible of the larger
groups of insects ; so that the groupings of the families into
subdivisions of suborders have been omitted for the sake of
perspicuity. Thus, the difference between the Heteropterous
and Hemipterous divisions of the Hemiptera is not perhaps so
clearly indicated as may seem desirable ; so also, the difference
of the Tenthredinidae and Uroceridae from the rest of the
Efymenoptera, of the Lice from the rest of the Hemiptera, or
the Lepismatidae, Campodese and Poduridse, from the remainder
of the Neuroptera. Perhaps in endeavoring to bring out
clearly the essential unity of organization in the members of
the larger groups, sufficient justice has not been paid to the
frequent diversity observable. Certain small and unimportant
families have also been omitted ; it is believed, without detri-
ment to a work of this scope.

Most authors regard the Hymenoptera and equivalent
groups as "orders" rather than "suborders." When the
reader prefers, he might alter to suit his views. It is not
improbable that the Hexapoda, Arachnida and Myriopoda are
subclasses ; hence, the Hymenoptera, etc., may be considered
as orders, and then, for example, the Hemiptera, Heteroptera
and Lice (Pediculina and Mallophaga) might be regarded as
suborders of the grand group Hemiptera. It matters little to
the author, so long as the fact (or what he believes to be the
fact) be recognized, that the Hexapods, Arachnids and Myrio-
pods are subdivisions of a class, and not separate classes
equivalent each to the Crustacea, for example.

Salem, April, 1874.

PREFACE .

THIS introduction to the study of insects is designed to
teach the beginner the elements of entomology, and to serve
as a guide to the more elaborate treatises and memoirs which
the advanced student may wish to consult. Should the
book, imperfect as the author feels it to be, prove of some
service in inducing others to study this most interesting and
useful branch of natural history, the object of the writer will
have been fully attained.

In order to make it of value to farmers and gardeners,
whose needs the writer has kept in view, and that it may be
used as a text book in our agricultural colleges, concise ac-
counts have been given of insects injurious or beneficial to
vegetation, or those in any way affecting human interests.

When the localities of the insects are not precisely given,
it is to be understood that they occur in the Eastern Atlantic
States from Maine to Pennsylvania, and the more northern of
the Western States. When the family names occur in the
text they are put in spaced Italics, to distinguish them from
the generic and specific names which are Italicized in the usual
way.

The succession of the suborders of the hexapodous insects
is that proposed by the author in 1863, and the attention of
zoologists is called to their division into two series of sub-
orders, which are characterized on page 104. To the first
and highest may be applied Leach's term METABOLIA, as
they all agree in having a perfect metamorphosis ; for the
second and lower series the term HETEROMETABOLIA is pro-

v PREFACE.

posed, as the four suborders comprised in it differ in the
degrees of completeness of their metamorphoses, and are
all linked together by the structural features enumerated
on page 104. ^

The classification of the Hymenoptera is original with the
author, the bees (Apidse) being placed highest, and the saw-
flies and Uroceridse lowest. The succession of the families
of the Lepidoptera is that now generally agreed upon by en-
tomologists. Loew's classification of the Diptera, published
in the "Miscellaneous Collections" of the Smithsonian
Institution, has been followed, with some modifications.
Haliday's suggestion that the Pulicidae are allied to the
Mycetophilidae gives a clue to their position in nature
among the higher Diptera. Leconte's classification, of the
Coleoptera is adopted as far as published by him, i.e., to
the Bruchidae. For the succeeding families the arrangement
of Gerstaecker in Peters and Cams' "Handbuch der Zoo-
logie" has been followed, both being based on that of Lacor-
daire. The Hemiptera are arranged according to the author's
views of the succession of the families. The classification of
the Orthoptera is that proposed by Mr. S. H. Scudder. This
succession of families is the reverse of what has been given
by recent authors, and is by far the most satisfactory yet
presented. The arrangement of the Neuroptera (in the Lin-
mean sense) is that of Dr. Hagen, published in his "Synop-
sis," with the addition, however, of the Lepisrnatidse, Cam-
podeae and Poduridae.

The usual classification of the Arachnida is modified by
placing the Phalangidse as a family among the Pedipalpi, and
the succession of families of this suborder is suggested as be-
ing a more natural one than has been previously given.

The arrangement of the Araneina, imperfect as authors
have left it, is that adopted by Gerstaecker in Peters and

PREFACE. V

Carus' "Handbuch der Zoologie." In the succession of the
families of the Acarina, the suggestions of Claparede, in his
"Studien der Acariden," have been followed, and in the
preparation of the general account of the Arachnids the
writer is greatly indebted to Claparede's elaborate work on
the " Evolution of Spiders."

In the preparation of this "Guide" the author has con-
suited and freely used West wood's invaluable "Introduction
to the Modern Classification of Insects;" Gerstaecker's
" Arthropoden" in Peters and Carus' "Handbuch der Zoo-
logie;" Siebold's " Anatomy of the Invertebrates" (Burnett's
translation, 1854) ; Newport's Article "Insecta" in Todd's
Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology; and Dr. T. W.
Harris' "Treatise on Insects injurious to Vegetation." He
would also acknowledge his indebtedness to Professor L.
Agassiz for many of the general ideas, acquired while the
author was a student in the Museum of Comparative Zoo-
logy at Cambridge, regarding the arrangement of the orders
and classes, and the morphology of the Articulates.

For kind assistance rendered in preparing this book, the
author is specially indebted to Baron R. von Osten Sacken,
who kindly read the proof sheets of the chapter on Diptera ;
to Mr. F. G. Sanborn for the communication of many speci-
mens and facts ; and also to Messrs. Edward Norton, S. H.
Scudder, J. H. Emerton, C. T. Robinson, A. R. Grote, G. D.
Smith, E. T. Cresson, P. R. Uhler, C. V. Riley, Dr. J. L. Le-
conte, Dr. Hagen, W. C. Fish, and E. S. Morse. For much
kind assistance and very many favors and suggestions, and
constant sympathy and encouragement during the printing
of the work, he is under special obligation to his valued
friend, Mr. F. W. Putnam. The types of the new species
noticed here are deposited in the Museum of the Peabody
Academy of Science. He would also express his thanks to

VI PKEFACE.

the American Entomological Society, the Society of Natural
History at Boston, the Secretary of the Massachusetts Board
of Agriculture, the Essex Institute, the Smithsonian Institu-
tion, the Secretary of the Maine Board of Agriculture, and
to Mr. R. Hardwicke, the publisher of "Science-Gossip,"
Prof. Sanborn Tenney, the author of "A Manual of Zo-
ology," and to his coeditors of the "American Naturalist,"
for the use of many of the cuts, a list of which may be
found on the succeeding pages.

PEABODY ACADEMY OP SCIENCE,

SALEM, Nov. 10, 1869.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.

FiGS. 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 33, 34, 35, 38, 39, 40, 84, 86, 87, 91, 93-106, 124,
126, 130, 131, 132, 142, 144, 146, 151, 180, 191-196, 201, 202, 204, 205,
206, 207, 2086, 209, 212, 213, 215, 219, 220, 221, 224, 225, 226, 246, 256
-260, 267, 320, 321, 332, 333, 379, 404, 408, 409, 421, 422, 442, 455, 480,
481, 484, 485, 487, 493, 500, 501, 502, 509, 513, 518, 519, 521, 531, 534,
535, 552, 561, 562, 576, 579, 593, 601 and 651, were borrowed from the
American Entomological Society, at Philadelphia.

FIGS. 2, 14, 15-24, 27, 48, 63-67, 69, 181, 216, 217, 222, 230, 231, 233
-235, 247, 369, 389, 420, 424, 427, 435, 436, 438, 497, 508, 578, 630 and
631 were loaned by the Boston Society of Natural History.

FIGS. 25, 36, 37, 55, 83, 128, 136, 237, 242, 269, 350, 352-357, 362, 368,
372, 373, 380, 511, 512, 514, 542, 543, 544, 545, 546, 556, 585-587, 589,
590, 591, 594, 602, 603, 604 and 605, were borrowed from the report of
the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture for 1862.

FIGS. 155-165, 169-179, 270, 271, 285-296, 300, 303-306, 345-348, 358,
359, 632, 633 and 634, were loaned by the Smithsonian Institution.

FIGS. 1, 5, 8, 10, 30, 31, 32, 51, 52, 57, 58, 62, 64, 68, 72, 79, 80, 81, 82,
85, 89, 92, 110-121, 127, 185, 186, 227, 228, 239, 248, 250, 252, 262, 263,
273, 278, 298, 307-314, 317-319, 322, 324-327, 329-331, 334-343, 361,
363a, 375, 387, 412, 413, 425, 426, 428, 430, 432, 433, 437, 439, 447-451,
456-458, 463, 464, 474, 475, 504, 516, 576, 577, 580-584, 588, 592, 608,
613, 615, 627, 636, 637, 638, 639, 641, 642, 646-649, were taken from the
" American Naturalist."

FIGS. 41, 70, 71, 88, 129, 138, 143, 152, 200, 232, 249, 253, 255, 349,
492, 554, 618, and 645 were borrowed from the "Report of the Maine
Board of Agriculture for 1862."

FIGS. 73-78, were kindly loaned by Prof, Jeffries Wyman.

FIGS. 570, 571, 574, 575, 617 and 635, were loaned by the Illinois
Geological Survey.

I am also indebted to Prof. Sanborn Tenney for the use of Figs.
189, 190, 198, 315, 323, 563-567, from his "Manual of Zoology."

The publishers of Hardwick's " Science-Gossip," London, afforded
me stereotypes of Figs, 517, 557, 569, 573, 606, 607, 609-611, 616, 620
-622, 628, 629 and 640.

Electrotypes of Figs. 119, 261, 281, 281c-284, 328, 344, 351, 360, 363,
367, 374, 376, 414, 429, 434, 452-454, 466, 468-471, 477, 479, 494, 506 1 ,
506 2 , 510 ? 522-526, 530, 532, 533, 536-541, 547-551, 564, 568, 595-598,
were purchased of the publishers of the " American Entomologist."

The following figures were engraved expressly for the work, viz :
Figs. 11, 12, 13, 26, 28, 29, 42, 43-47, 49, 50, 53, 54, 56, 59-61, 80, 107-

(Vii)

THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

Articulated animals are also very distinctly bilateral, i. e. the
body is symmetrically divided into two lateral halves, and
not only the trunk but the limbs also
show this bilateral symmetry. In a less
marked degree there is also an antero-
posterior symmetry, i.e. each end of
the body is opposed, just as each
side of the body is, to the other.*
The line separating the two ends is,
however, imaginary and vague. The
antenna, on the anterior pole, or head,
are represented by the caudal, or anal,
stylets (Fig. 2), and the single parts
on the median line of the body corre-
spond. Thus the labrum and clypeus
are represented by the tergite of the
eleventh segment of the abdomen.
Fig 2 In all Articulates (Fig. 3) the long,

tubular, alimentary canal occupies the centre of the body ; above
it lies the "heart," or dorsal vessel, and below, upon the under
side, rests the nervous system. be a

The breathing apparatus, or
u lungs," in Worms consists of
simple filaments, placed on the
front of the head ; or of gill-like
processes, as in the Crustaceans,
which are formed by membran-
ous expansions' of the legs ; or, a Fig . 3 .
as in the Insects (Fig. 4), of delicate tubes (tracheae), which

* Professor Wyman (On Symmetry and Homology in Limbs, Proceedings of the
Boston Society of Natural History, 1867) has shown that antero-posterior symmetry
is very marked in Articulates. In the adjoining figure of Jcera (Fig. 2) the longi-
tudinal lines illustrate what is meant by bilateral symmetry, and the transverse
lines "fore and aft" symmetry. The two antero-posterior halves of the body are
very symmetrical in the Crustacean genera Jcera. Oniscus, Porcellio, and other
Crustacea, and also among the Myriopods, Scutigera, Polydesmus, " in which the
limbs are repeated oppositely, though with different degrees of inequality, from the
centre of the body backwards and forwards." "Leuckart and Van Beneden have
shown that Mysis has an ear in the last segment, and Schmidt has described an eye
in the same part in a worm, Amphicora." From Wyman.

FIG. 3 represents an ideal section of a Worm. / indicates the skin, or mus-
cular body-wall, which on each side is produced into one or more fleshy tubercles,
usually tipped with bristles or hairs, which serve as organs of locomotion, and

THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 3

ramify throughout the whole interior of the animal, and con-
nect with breathing pores (stigmata) in the sides of the body.
They do not breathe through the mouth as do the higher ani-
mals. The tracheae and blood-vessels follow closely the same

Fig. 4.

course, so that the aeration of the blood goes on, apparently,
over the whole interior of the body, not being confined to a
single region, as in the lungs of the vertebrate animals.

Thus it is by observing the general form of the body-walls,
and the situation of the different anatomical systems, both in
relation to themselves and the walls of the body, or crust,
which surrounds and protects the more delicate organs within,
that we are able to find satisfactory characters for isolating, in
our definitions, the articulates from all other animals.

We shall perceive more clearly the differences between the
three classes of Articulates, or jointed animals, namely,
the WORMS, CRUSTACEANS, and INSECTS, by examining

often as lungs. The nervous cord (a) rests on the floor of the cylinder, sending a
filament into the oar-like feet (/), and also around the intestine or stomach (6), to a
supplementary cord (d), which is situated just over the intestine, and under the
heart or dorsal vessel (c). The circle c and e is a diagram of the circulatory sys-
tem ; c is the dorsal vessel, or heart, from the side of which, in each ring, a small
vessel is sent downwards and around to e, the ventral vessel. Original.

FIG. 4. An ideal section of a Bee. Here the crust is dense and thick, to which
strong muscles are attached. On the upper side of the ring the wings grow out,
while the legs are inserted near the under side. The tracheae (d) enter through the
stif/ma, or breathing pore, situated just under the wing, and their branches sub-
divide and are distributed to the wings, with their five principal veins as indicated

THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

their young stages, from the time of their exclusion from the egg,
until they pass into mature life. A more careful study of this
period than we are now able to enter upon would show us how
much alike the young of all articulates are at first, and how
soon they begin to differ, and assume the shape characteristic
of their class.

Most Worms, after leaving the egg, are at first like some
infusoria, being little sac-like animalcules, often ciliated over
nearly the entire surface of the infinitesimal body.
Soon this sac-like body grows longer, and con-
tracts at intervals ; the intervening parts become
unequally enlarged, some segments, or rings,
Fig. 5. formed by the contraction of the body-walls,
greatly exceeding in size those next to them; and it thus
assumes the appearance of being more or less equally ringed,
as in the young Terebella (Fig. 5), where the
ciliae are restricted to a single circle surrounding
the body. Gradually (Fig. 6) the cilise disap-
\ e pear and regular locomotive organs, consisting
of minute paddles, grow out from each side ;
feelers (antennae), jaws, and eyes (simple rudi-
mentary eyes) appear on the few front rings
of the body, which are grouped by themselves
into a sort of head, though it is difficult, in a
large proportion of the lower worms, for un-
skilled observers to distinguish the head from
the tail.

Thus we see throughout the growth of the
worm, no attempt at subdividing the bod} r
into regions, each endowed with its peculiar
L functions ; but only a more perfect system of
, , Fi 6 ' rings, each relatively very equally developed,

in the figure, also to the dorsal vessel (c), the intestine (6), and the nervous cord (a).
The tracheas and a nervous filament are also sent into the legs and to the wings.
The tracheae are also distributed to the dorsal vessel and intestine by numerous
branches which serve to hold them in place. Original.

FIG. 5. Young Terebella, soon after leaving the egg. From A. Agassiz.

FIG. 6 represents the embryo of a worm (Autolytus cornutus) at a later stage
of growth, a is the middle tentacle of the head ; e, one of the posterior tentacles;
b, the two eye-spots at the base of the hinder pair of feelers ; c is one of a row of
oar-like organs (cirri) at the base of which are inserted the locomotive bristles,

THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 5

but all becoming respectively more complicated. For example,
in the Earth-worm (Lumbricus) , each ring is distinguishable into
an upper and under side, and in addition to these a well-
marked side-area, to which, as for example in marine worms (e. g.
Nereis) , oar-like organs are attached. In most worms eye-spots
appear on the front rings, and slender tentacles grow out, and
a pair of nerve-knots (ganglia) are apportioned to each ring.

In the Crustaceans, such as the fresh-water Crawfish (Astdr
CMS), as shown by the German naturalist Rathke ; and also in
the earliest stages of the Insect, the body at once assumes a
worm-like form, thus beginning its embryonic life from the goal
reached by the adult worm.

The young of all Crustaceans (Fig. 7) first begin life in the
egg as oblong flattened worm-like bodies, each end of the body
being alike. The young of the lower Crustaceans, such as the
Barnacles, and some marine forms (Copepoda), and some
lowly organized parasitic species inhabiting the gills of
fishes, are hatched as microscopic embryos which would readily
be mistaken for young mites (Acarina). In the higher Crus-
taceans, such as the fresh-water Crawfish, the
young, when hatched, does not greatly differ
from the parent, as it has passed through the
worm-like stage within the egg.

Fig. 7 represents the young of the fresh-
water Lobster (Crawfish) before leaving the
egg. The body is divided into rings, ending
in lobes on the sides, which are the rudiments
of the limbs, b is the rudiment of the eye- Fig. 7.
stalk, at the end of which is the eye ; a is the fore antennae ;
c is the hind antennae ; d is one of the maxilla-feet ; e is the
first pair of true feet destined in the adult to form the large
"claw." Thus the eye-stalks, antennae, claws, and legs are
moulded upon a common form, and at first are scarcely distin-

with the cirri serving as swimming and locomotive organs ; d, the caudal styles, or
tail-feelers. In this figure we see how slight are the differences between the
feelers of the head, the oar-like swimming organs, and the caudal filaments; we
can easily see that they are but modifications of a common form, and all arise
from the common limb-bearing region of the body. The alimentary canal, with
the proventriculus, or anterior division of the stomach, occupies the middle of the
body; while the mouth opens on the under side of the head. From A. Agassiz.
FIG. 7. Embryo of the Crawfish. -From Rathke.

6 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

guishable from each other. Here we see the embryo divided
into a head-thorax and a tail.

It is the same with Insects. Within the egg at the dawn of
life they are flattened oblong bodies curved upon the yelk-
mass. Before hatching they become more cylindrical, the
limbs bud out on the sides of the rings, the head is clearly
demarked, and the young caterpillar soon steps forth from the
egg-shell ready armed and equipped for its riotous life.

As will be seen in Fig. 8, the legs, jaws, and antennae are
first started as buds from the side of the rings, being simply

elongations of the body-wall,
which bud out, become larger,
and finally jointed, until the
\x buds arising from the thorax or
abdomen become legs, % those
from the base of the head be-
come jaws, while the antennae
and palpi sprout out from the
front rings of the head. Thus
while the bodies of all articulates
are built up from a common em-
bryonic form, their, appendages, which are so diverse, when we
compare a Lobster's claw with an Insect's antenna, or a Spider's
spinneret with the hinder limbs of a Centipede, "are yet but
modifications of a common form, adapted for the different uses
to which they are put by these animals.

FIG. 8. A Caddis, or Case-fly (Mystacides) in the egg, with part of the yolk
(#) not yet inclosed within the body- walls, a, antennae; between a and b the mandi-
bles; 6, maxilla; c, labium; rf, the separate eye-spots (ocelli), which afterwards in-
crease greatly in number and unite to form the compound eye. The "neck" or
junction of the head with the thorax is seen at the front part of the yolk-mass ; e,
the three pairs of legs, which are folded once on them selves;/, the pair of anal legs
attached to the tenth ring of the abdomen, as seen in caterpillars, which form long
antenna-like filaments in the Cockroach and May-fly, etc. The rings of the body are
but partially formed; they are cylindrical, giving the body a worm-like form.
Here, as in the other two figures, though not so distinctly seen, the antennae, jaws,
and last pair of abdominal legs are modifications of but a single form, and grow
out from the side of the body. The head-appendages are directed forwards, as
they are to be adapted for sensory and feeding purposes ; the legs are directed
downwards, since they are to support the insect while walking. It appears that the
two ends of the body are perfected before the middle, and the under side before the
upper, as we see the yolk-mass is not yet inclosed and the rings not yet formed
above. Thus all articulates differ from all vertebrates in having the yolk-mass
situated on the back, instead of on the belly, as in the chick, dog, or human em-
bryo. From Zaddach.

THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 7

The Worm is long and slender, composed of an irregular
number of rings, all of very even size. Thus, while the size of
the rings is fixed, their number is indeterminate, varying from
twenty to two hundred or more. The outline of the body is a
single cylindrical figure. The organs of locomotion are fleshy
filaments and hairs (Fig. 3,/) appended to the sides.

In one of the low intestinal worms, the Tape-worm (Tcenia),
each ring, behind the head and "neck," is provided with organs
of reproduction, so that when the body becomes broken up
into its constituent elements, or rings (as often occurs naturally
in these low forms for the more ready propagation of the
species, since the young are exposed to many dangers while
living in the intestines of animals) , they become living inde-
pendent beings which "move freely and somewhat quickly
like Leaches," and until their real nature was known they
were thought to be worms. This ami other facts prove, that,
in the Worm, the vitality of the animal is very equally dis-
tributed to each ring. If we cut off the head or tail of some
of the low worms, such as the Flat Worms (Planaria, etc.),
each piece will become a distinct animal, but an Insect or Crab
sooner or later dies when deprived of its head or tail, (abdomen).

Thus, in the Worm the vital force is very equally distributed
to each zoological element, or ring of the body ; no single
part of the body is much honored above the rest, so as to sub-
ordinate and hold the other
parts in subservience to its
peculiar and higher ends in
the animal economy.

The Crustacean, of which
the Shrimp (Fig. 9) is a
typical example, is com-
posed of a determinate
number (21) of rings which rig. 9.

are gathered into two regions; the head-thorax (cephalo-
thorax) and hind -body, or abdomen. In this class there
is a broad distinction between the anterior and posterior ends
of the body. The rings are now grouped into two regions,
and the hinder division is subordinate in its structure and

TIG. 9. A Shrimp. Pandalus annulicornis. a, cephalothorax ; 6, abdomen.

8 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

uses to the forward portion of the body. Hence the nervous
power is transferred in some degree towards the head; the
cephalothorax containing the nervous centres from which nerves
are distributed to the abdomen. Nearly all the organs perform-
ing the functions of locomotion and sensation reside in the front
region ; while the vegetative functions, or those concerned
in the reproduction and nourishment of the animal, are mostly
carried on in the hinder region of the body (the abdomen).

The typical Crustacean cannot be said to have a true head,
in distinction from a thorax bearing the organs of locomotion,
but rather a group of rings, to which are appended the organs
of sensation and locomotion. Hence we find the appendages
of this region gradually changing from antennae and jaws to
foot-jaws, or limbs capable of eating and also of locomotion ;
they shade into each other as seen in Fig. 9. Sometimes the
jaws become remarkably like claws ; or the legs resemble jaws
at the base, but towards their tips become claw-like ; gill-like
bodies are sometimes attached to the foot-jaws, and thus, as
stated by Professor J. D. Dana in the introduction to his great
work on the Crustacea of the United States Exploring Expedi-
tion, the typical Crustaceans do not have a distinct head, but
rather a "head-thorax" (cephalothorax).

When we rise a third and last step into the world of Insects,
we see a completion and final development of the articu-
late plan which has been but obscurely hinted at in the two
lowest classes, the Worms and Crustaceans. Here we first meet
with a true head, separate in its structure and functions from
the thorax, which, in its turn, is clearly distinguishable from
the third region of the body, the abdomen, or hind-body.
These three regions, as seen in the Wasp (Fig. 10), are each
provided with three distinct sets of organs,
each having distinct functions, though all are
governed by and minister to the brain force,
now in a great measure gathered up from the
Fig. 10. posterior rings of the body, and in a more

concentrated form (the brain being larger than in the lower
articulates) lodged in the head.
Here, then, is a centralization of parts headwards ; they are

FIG. 10. Philanthus ventildbris Fabr. A Wood- wasp. From Say.

COMPOSITION OF THE INSECT-CRUST. 9

brought as if towards a focus, and that focus the head, which
is the meaning of the term " cephalization," proposed by Pro-
fessor Dana.* Ring distinctions have given way to regional
distinctions. The former characterize the Worm^ the latter
the Insect. In other words, the division of the body into three
parts, or regions, is in the insect, on the whole, better marked
than the division of any one of those parts, except the abdo-
men, into rings.

COMPOSITION OP THE INSECT-CRUST. Before describing the
composition of the body-wall, or crust, of the Insect, let us
briefly review the mode in which the same parts are formed in
the lower classes, the Worms and Crustaceans. We have seen
that the typical ring, or segment (called by authors zoonule,
zoonite, or somite, meaning parts of a body, though we prefer
the term arthromere, denoting the elemental part of a jointed
or articulate animal), consists of an upper (tergite), a side
(pleurite), and an under piece (sternite). This is seen in its
greatest simplicity in the Worm (Fig. 2), where the upper and
ventral arcs are separated by the pleural region. In the Crus-
tacean the parts, hardened by the deposition of chitine and
therefore thick and unyielding, have to be farther subdivided to
secure the necessary amount of freedom of motion to the body
and legs. The upper arc not only covers the back of the ani-
mal, but extends down the sides ; the legs are jointed to the
epimera, or flanks, on the lower arc ; the episternum is situated
between the epimerum and sternum ; and the sternum, form-
ing the breast, is situated between the legs. In the adult, there-
fore, each elemental ring is composed of six pieces. It
should, however, be borne in mind that the tergum and ster-

* In two papers on the Classification of Animals, published in the American
Journal of Science and Arts, Second Series, vol. xxxv, p. 65, vol. xxxvi, July, 1863,
and also in his earlier paper on Crustaceans, " the principle of cephalization is
shown to be exhibited among animals in the following ways :

1. By a transfer of members from the locomotive to the cephalic series.

2. By the anterior of the locomotive organs participating to some extent in ce-
phalic functions.

3. .By increased abbreviation, concentration, compactness, and perfection of
structure, in the parts and organs of the anterior portion of the body.

4. By increased abbreviation, condensation, and perfection of structure in the
posterior, or gastric and caudal portion of the body.

5. By an upward rise in the cephalic end of the nervous system. This rise
reaches its extreme limit in Man."

10 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

num each consist, in the embryo, of two lateral parts, or halves,
which, during development, unite on the median line of the
body. Typically, therefore, the crustacean ring consists pri-
marily of eight pieces. The same number is found in all insects
which are wingless, or in the larva and pupa state ; this applies
also to the Myriupods and Spiders.

In the Myriopoda, or Centipedes, the broad tergum overlaps
the small epimera, while the sternum is much larger than in
the Spiders and Insects. In this respect it is like the broad
flat under-surface of most worms. Hence the legs of the
Centipede are inserted very far apart, and the "breast," or
sternum, is not much smaller than the dorsal part of the crust.
In the Julus the dorsal piece (tergum) is greatly developed
over the sternum, but this is a departure from what is ap-
parently the more typical form of the order, i. e. the Centipede.
In the Spiders there is a still greater disproportion in size
between the tergum and the sternum, though the latter is very
large compared with that of Insects. The epimera and episterna,
or side-pieces of the Spiders, are partially concealed by tne
over-arching tergum, and they are small, since the joints of the
legs are very large, Audouin's law of development in Articu-
lates showing that one part of the insect crust is always
developed at the expense of the adjoining part. In the Spider
we notice that the back of the thorax is a single solid plate
consisting originally of four rings consolidated into a single
hard piece. In like manner the broad solid sternal plate
results from the reunion of the same number of sternites cor-
responding, originally, to the number of thoracic legs. Thus
the whole upper side of the head and thorax of the Spider is
consolidated into a single hard horny immovable plate, like
the upper solid part of the cephalothorax of the Crab or
Shrimp. Hence the motions of the Spiders are very stiff com-
pared with those of many Insects, and correspond to those of
the Crab.

The crust of the winged insect is modified for the per-
formance of more complex motions. It is subdivided in so
different a manner from the two lower orders of the class, that
it would almost seem to have nothing in common, structurally
speaking, with the groups below them. It is only by examin-

COMPOSITION OF THE INSECT-CRUST. 11

ing the lowest wingless forms such as the Louse, Flea,
Podura, and Bark-lice, where we see a transition to the Or-
ders of Spiders and Myriopods, that we can perceive the plan
pervading all these forms, uniting them into a common
class.

A segment of a winged six-footed insect (Hexapod) consists
typically of eight pieces which we will now examine more
leisurely. Figure 12 represents a side-view of
the thorax of the Telea Polyphemus, or Silk- pt-
worm moth, with the legs and wings 4*emoved.
Each ring consists primarily of the tergum, the
two side-pieces (epimerum and episternum) and
the sternum, or breast-plate. But one of these Fig. 11.
pieces (sternum) remains simple, as in the lower orders. The
tergum is divided into four pieces. They were named by Au-
douin going from before backwards, Fig. 12.

the prcescutum, scutum, scutellum, scm ms "

and postscutellum.

The scutum is invariably present pt
and forms the larger part of the
upper portion (tergum) of the tho-
rax ; the scutellum is, as its name
indicates, the little shield so promi-
nent in the beetle, which is also
uniformly present. The other two tr te c" tr c'" tr

pieces are usually minute and

crowded down out of sight, and placed between the two oppos-
ing rings. As seen in Fig. 11, the praescutum of the moth is
a small rounded piece, bent vertically down, so as not to be
seen from above. In the lowly organized Hepialus, and some

FIG. 11. Tergal view of the middle segment of the thorax of Telea Polyphemus,
prm, praescutum; ms, scutum; scm, scutellum; ptm, postscutellum; pt, patagium,
or shoulder tippet, covering the insertion of the wings. Original.

FIG. 12. Side view of the thorax of T. Polyphemus, the hairs removed. 1, Pro-
thorax ; 2, Mesothorax; 3, Metathorax, separated by the wider black lines. Tergum
of the prothorax not represented, ms, mesoscutum ; scm, mesoscutellum; ms" ,
metascutum; scm", metascutellum ; pt, a supplementary piece near the inser-
tion of patagia; w, pieces situated at the insertion of the wings and surrounded by
membrane ; em, epimerum of prothorax, the long upright piece above being the
episternum; epm", episternum of the mesothorax; em", epimerum of the same;
epm", episternum of the metathorax; em", epimerum of the same, divided into two
pieces; c, c", c", coxae; te', le", le", trochantines ; tr, tr, tr, trochanters.
Original.

14 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

insects. In the higher series of suborders, comprising the Dip-
tera, Lepidoptera and Hymenoptera, placing the highest last,
the thorax shows a tendency to assume a globular shape ; the
upper side, or tergum, is much arched, the pleural region bulges
out full and round, while the legs conceal at their insertion
the sternum which is minute in size.

In the lower series, embracing the Coleoptera, Hemiptera,
Orthoptera, and Neuroptera, the entire body tends to be more
flattened ; in the thorax the terguin is broad, especially that of
the prothorax, while the pleurites (episterna and epimera) are
short and bulge out less than in the higher series, and the ster-
num is almost invariably well developed, often presenting a
large thick breast-plate bearing a stout spine or thick tubercle,
as in (Edipoda. We can use these characters, in classifying
insects into suborders, as they are common to the whole order.
Hence the use of characters drawn from the wings and mouth-
parts (which are sometimes wanting), leads to artificial dis-
tinctions, as they are 2)eripheral organs, though often convenient
in our first attempts at classifying and limiting natural groups.
^ The abdomen. In the hind body, or third region of the
trunk, the three divisions of the typical ring (arthromere), are
entire, the tergum is broad and often not much greater in ex-
tent than the sternum ; and the pleurites also form either a
single piece, or, divided into an epimerum and episternum,
form a distinct lateral region, on which the stigmata are sit-
uated. The segments of the abdomen have received from
Lacaze-Duthiers a still more special name, that of urite, and
the different tergal pieces belonging to the several rings,
but especially those that have been modified to form the genital
armor have been designated by him as tergites. We have
applied this last term to the tergal pieces generally. The typi-
cal number of abdominal segments is eleven. In the lowest
insects, the Neuroptera, there are usually eleven ; as we have
counted them in the abdomen of the embryo of Diplax. In
others, such as the Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera, there may
never be more than ten, so far as present observation teaches
us.

The formation of the sting, and of the male intromittent
organ, may be observed in the full-grown larva and in the in-

COMPOSITION OF THE OVIPOSITOR.

complete pupa of the Humble-bee, and other thin-skinned

Hymenopterous larvae, and in a less satisfactory way in the

young Dragon-flies.

If the larva of the Humble-bee be taken just after it has

become full-fed, and as it is about to enter upon the pupa state,

the elements
(sterno - rhab-
dites Lacaze-
Duthiers), or
tubercles,
destined to

form the ovipositor, lie in
separate pairs, in two groups,
exposed distinctly to view,

Fig. 16.

Fig. 14.

as in Figures 14-18.

Fig. 15.

The ovipositor thus consists of three

pairs of slender non-articulated tubercles, situated in juxta-
position on each side of Fig. 17. 17 a.
the mesial line of the
body. The first pair arises
from the eighth abdominal
ring, and the second and
third pair grow out from
the ninth ring. The ends
of the first pair scarcely
reach beyond the base of
the third pair. With the
growth of the semi-pupa,
the end of the abdomen
decreases in size, and is Fig. is.

FIG. 14. Rudiments of the sting, or ovipositor, of the Humble-bee. 8, 9, 10,
sternites of eighth, ninth, and tenth abdominal rings in the larva, a, first pair, situ-
ated on the eighth sternite ; 6, second and inner pair ; and c, the outer pair. The let-
tering is the same in figures 14-22. The inner pair (6), forms the true ovipositor,
through which the eggs are supposed to pass when laid by the insect, the two
outer pairs, a, and c, sheathing the inner pair. Ganin shows that in the embryo of
Polynema (Fig. 655), the three pairs of tubercles arise from the 7th, 8th and 9th sg-
ments respectively. FIG. 15, 16. The same .1 little farther advanced.

FIG. 17. The three pairs now 'appear as if together growing from the base of the
ninth segment; 17 a, side view of the same, showing the end of the abdomen grow-
ing smaller thi-ough the diminution in size of the under side of the body.

FIG. 18. The three pairs of rhabdites now nearly equal in size, and nearly
ready to unite and form a tube; 18, side view of the same; the end of the abdo-
men still more pointed ; the ovipositor is situated between the seventh and tenth
rings, and ib partially retracted within the body.

18 a.

12 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

Neuroptera, such as the Polystcechotes (Fig. 13 a), the prse-
scutum is large, well developed, triangular, and wedged in
between the two halves of the scutum. The little
piece succeeding the scutellum, i. e. the postscu-
tellum, is still smaller, and rarely used in descrip-
tive entomology. Thus far we have spoken of the
middle, or mesothoracic, ring, where these four
pieces are most equally developed. In the first, al |
or prothoracic, ring, one part, most probably the
scutum, is well developed, while the others are
aborted, and it is next to impossible to trace them
in most insects. The prothorax in the higher in-
sects, such as the Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, and Diptera is
very small, and often intimately soldered to the succeeding or
mesothoracic ring. In the lower insects, however, such as the
Coleoptera, the bugs (Hemiptera), grasshoppers and their
allies (Orthoptera), and the Neuroptera, the large broad pro-
thorax consists almost entirely of this single piece, and most
writers speak of this part under the name of "thorax," since
the two posterior segments are concealed by the wings when
the animal is at rest. The metathorax is usually very broad
and short. Here we see the scutum split asunder, with the
praescutum and scutellum wedged in between, while the post-
scutellum is aborted.

On the side are two pieces, the upper (epimerum) placed
just beneath the tergum, which is the collective name for the
four tergal, or dorsal, pieces enumerated above. In front of
the epimerum and resting upon the sternum, as its name im-
plies, is the episternum. These two parts (pleurites) compose
the flanks of the elemental ring. To them the legs are articu-
lated. Betweetf the two episterna is situated the breast-piece
(sternum), which shows a tendency to grow smaller as we
ascend from the Neuroptera to the Bees.

In those insects provided with wings, the epimera are also
subdivided. The smaller pieces, hinging upon each other, as
it were, give play to the very numerous muscles of flight

FIG. 13. A tergal view of thorax of Hepialus (Sthenopis} ; 1, prothorax ; 2, meso-
thorax ; 3, metathorax. The prothorax is very small compared with that of Poly-
stcechotes (13 a, 1), where it is nearly as long as broad. Original.

COMPOSITION OF THE INSECT-CRUST. 13

needed by the insect to perform its complicated motions
while on the wing.

The insertion of the fore wing is concealed by the " shoulder
tippets," or patagia (Fig. 11), which are only present in the
mesothorax. The external opening of the spiracles just under
the wing perforates a little piece called by Audouin the peri-
treme.

A glance at Figures 11 and 12 shows how compactly the
various parts of the thorax are agglutinated into a globular
mass, and that this is due to the diminished size of the first
and third rings, while the middle ring is greatly enlarged to
support the muscles of flight. There are four tergal, four
pleural, two on each side (and these in the Hymenoptera, Lepi-
doptera, and Diptera subdivide into several pieces), and a
single sternal piece, making nine for each ring and twenty-
seven for the whole thorax, with eight accessory pieces (the
three pairs of peritremes and the two patagia) , making a total
of thirty-five for the entire thorax ; or, multiplying the four
tergal pieces by two, since they are formed by the union of two
primitive pieces on the median line of the body, we have
thirty-nine pieces composing the thorax.

TABLE OF THE PARTS OF THE THORAX APPLIED TO THE PRO-,
MESO-, AND METATHORAX, RESPECTIVELY.

* Praescutum,
Dorsal S Scutum,
Surface i Scutellum,

* Postscutellum.
, C Epimerum,
Thorax Pleural > Episternum,

Surface ^ Episternal apophysis, Stigma, Peritreme.

We must remember that these pieces are rarely of precisely
the .same form in any two species, and that they differ, often in
a very marked way, in different genera of insects. How sim-
ple, then, is the typical ring, and how complex are the va-
rious subdivisions of that ring as seen in the actual, living
insect, where each part has its appropriate muscles, nerves, and
tracheae !

We have seen how the thorax is formed in Insects generally,
let us now advert to the two types of thorax in the six-footed

THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

Fig. 19.

gradually incurved toward the base (Fig. 18), and the three
pairs of rhabdites approach each other so closely that the two
outer ones completely ensheath the inner, until a complete
extensible tube is formed, which is gradually withdrawn entirely
within the body.

The male genital organ is originally composed of three pairs
(two pairs, apparently, in ^32s-
chna, Fig. 19) of tubercles all
arising from the ninth abdominal
ring, being sternal outgrowths
and placed on each side of the
mesial line of the body, two be- Fi s- 20.
ing anterior, and very unequal in size, and the
third pair nearer the base of the abdomen. The ex-
ternal genital organs are to be considered
as probably homologous with the limbs, as
Ganin has shown that they bud out in the
same manner from (see p. 704
fig. 655) the arthromere.*
~ b This view will apply to the
genital armor of all Insects, so
far as we have been able to observe. It is
so in the pupa of jiEschna (Fig. 21), and
the pupa of Agrion (Fig. 22), which com-
pletely repeats, in its essential features, the
structure of the ovipositor of Bombus. Thus
Agrion the ovipositor consists of a pair of closely appressed ensi-
form processes which grow out from under the posterior edge of
the eighth abdominal ring, and are embraced between two pairs

* This term is proposed as better defining the ideal ring, or primary zoological
element of an articulated animal than the terms somite or zoonite, which seem too
vague ; we also propose the term arthroderm for the outer crust, or body Avails, of
Articulates, and arthropleura for the pleural, or limb-bearing region, of the body,
being that portion of the arthromere situated between the tergite and sternite.

FIG. 19. The rudiments of the male intromittent organ of the pupa of ^schna,
consisting of two flattened tubercles situated on the ninth ring; the outer pair
large and rounded inclosing the smaller linear oval pair.

FIG. 20. The same in the Humble-bee, but consisting of three pairs of tubercles,
x, y, z; 8,9, 10, the last three segments of the abdomen.

FIG. 21. The rudimentary ovipositor of the pupa of JEschna, a Dragon-fly.

FIG. 22. The same in pupa of Agrion, a small Dragon-fly. Here the rudiments
of the eleventh abdominal ring are seen, d, the base of one of the abdominal false
gills. The ovipositor of Cicada is formed in the same way. Figs. 14-22 original.

Fig. 21.

and

COMPOSITION OF THE OVIPOSITOK.

of thin lamelliform pieces of similar form and structure, arising
from the sternite of the ninth ring. These outgrowths appar-
ently also homologize with the filiform, antennae-like, jointed
appendages of the eleventh ring, as seen in the Perlidae and
most Neuroptera and Orthoptera (especially in Mantis tes-
sellata where they (Fig. 23) closely
resemble antennae), which, arising as
they do from the arthropleural, or limb-
bearing region of the body, i. e. between Fig. 23.

the sternum and episternum, are strictly homologous with the
abdominal legs of the Myriapoda, the " false legs" of cater-
pillars, and the abdominal legs of some Neuropterous larvae
(Corydalis, Phryganeidce, etc.).

It will thus be seen that the attenuated form of the tip is
produced by the decrease in size of certain parts, the actual
disappearance of others, and the perfection of those parts to
be of future use. Thus towards the extremity of the body
the pleurites are absorbed and disappear, the tergites overlap
on the sternites, and the latter diminish in size and are
withdrawn within the body, while the last, or eleventh sternite,
entirely disappears.* Meanwhile the sting grows larger and

larger, until finally we
have the neatly fashioned
abdominal tip of the bee
concealing the complex
sting with its intricate
system of visceral ves-
Fig. 24. sels and glands.

The ovipositor, or sting, of all insects, therefore, is formed
on a common plan (Fig. 24). The solid elements of the arthro-

*In Ranatra, however, Lacaze-Duthiers has noticed the curious fact that in
order to form the long respiratory tube of this insect, the tergite and sternite of the
pregenital (eighth) segment are aborted, while the pleurites are enormously en-
larged and elongated, so as to carry the stigmata far out to the end of the long tube
thus formed.

FIG. 23. End of the abdomen of Mantis tessellata ; p, many-jointed anal style
resembling an antenna. 5-11, the last seven abdominal segments; the 8-llth ster-
nites being obsolete. From Lacaze-Duthiers.

FIG. 24. Ideal plan of the structure of the ovipositor in the adult insect. l-7t,
the tergites, connected by clotted lines with their corresponding sternites. b, the
eighth tergite, or anal scale; c, epimerum; a, a, two pieces forming the outer pair
of rhabdites; i, the second pair, or stylets; and /, the inner pair, or sting; d, the

18 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

mere are modified to form the parts supporting the sting alone.
The external opening of the oviduct is always situated between
the eighth and ninth segments, while the anal opening lies at
the end of the eleventh ring. So that there are really, as
Lacaze-Duthiers observes, three segments interposed between
the genital and anal openings.

The various modifications of the ovipositor and male organ
will be noticed under the different suborders.

THE STRUCTURE OF THE HEAD. After studying the com-
position of the thorax and abdomen, where the constituent
parts of the elemental ring occur in their greatest simplicity,
we may attempt to unravel the intricate structure of the head.
We are to determine whether it is composed of one, or more,
segments, and if several, to ascertain how many, and then to
learn what parts of the typical arthromere are most largely
developed as compared with the development of similar parts
in the thorax or abdomen. In this, perhaps the most difficult
problem the entomologist has to deal with, the study of the
head of the adult insect alone is only guesswork. We must
trace its growth in the embryo. Though many writers consider
the head as consisting of but a single segment, the most emi-
nent entomologists have agreed that the head of insects is com-
posed of two or more segments. Savigny led the way to these
discoveries in transcendental entomology by stating that the
appendages of the head are but modified limbs, and homol-
ogous with the legs. This view at once gave a clue to the
complicated structure of the head. If the antennae and biting
organs are modified limbs, then there must be an elemental
segment present in some form, however slightly developed in
the mature insect, to which such limbs are attached. But the
best observers have differed as to the supposed number of such
theoretical segments. Burmeister believed that there were two
only ; Carus and Audouin thought there were three ; McLeay
and Newman four, and Straus-Durckheim recognized seven.
From the study of the semipupa of the Humble-bee (Bombus)

support of the sting; , the support of the stylet (i). R, the anus ; 0, the outlet of
the oviduct. The seventh, eighth, and ninth sternites are aborted. From Lacaze-
Duthiers.

THE STRUCTURE OF THE HEAD. 19

and several low Neuropterous forms, as the larva of Ephemera,
but chiefly the embryos of Diplax, Chrysopa, Attelabus, Nema-
tu&, and Pulex, we have concluded that there are four such ele-
mental segments in the head of hexapodous insects.

On reference to fig. 57 it will be seen that there is a sternal
portion on the under side of the two posterior segments of the
head, and in the embryo of Attelabus we have seen sterna also
developed in the antennal and mandibular segments, so that we
may conclude that there are four segments in the head of all
six footed insects, corresponding to the jointed appendages,
i. e. the labium, or second maxillae, the first maxillae, the man
dibles, and the antennae. Though having, in accordance with
the generally received opinions of Milne-Edwards, Dana, and
others, believed that the eyes of Crustacea, and therefore of
Insects, were the homologues of the limbs, and developed on
separate segments placed in front of the antennal segment, as
stated in the previous editions of this work ; I have, however,
on farther study of the subject, been led to reconsider the mat-
tir, and decide that the eyes are but modified dermal sense
cells, and in certain articulates developed on limb-bearing seg-
ments. Thus in the King Crab (Limulus) a pair of ocelli are
situated on the first segment of the body, and the large com-
pound eyes grow out on the back of the third segment, both
bearing limbs. In the embryos of all the insects yet exam-
ined, the eyes are groups of specialized cells of the skin which
grow out on the upper, or tergal, side of the same segment
which bears the antennae. In certain mites, as Hydrachna, and
its allies, the simple eyes are situated over the second pair of
legs, and at a considerable distance behind the head. Among
the worms, also, organs of sight, as in Polyoplithalmus, are
developed on each segment of the body ; or, as in certain Pla-
narians, scattered irregularly over the body.

The three ocelli, when present, are developed after the eyes
appear. Each of these three ocelli is situated upon a distinct
piece ; but we must consider the anterior single ocellus as in
reality formed of two, since in the immature pupa of Bombus
the anterior ocellus is transversely ovate, resulting from the
fusion of two originally distinct ocelli. There are, therefore,
apparently two pairs of ocelli. The clypeus and labrum are

THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

simply a fold of the skin of the front part of the antennary
segment, and are not to be compared with the tergite or rudi-
ment of the eleventh segment of the abdomen.

Now, since the arthropleural is the limb-bearing region in
the thorax, it must follow that this region is quite well devel-
oped in the head, while the tergal region, bearing the organs of
sight, sometimes of enormous size, is perhaps still more largely
developed ; and as all the parts of the head are subordinated
in their development to that of the appendages of which they
form the support, it must follow logically that the larger por-
tion of the body of the head is pleural and tergal, and that the
sternal parts are very slightly developed. Thus each region of
the body is characterized by the relative development of the
three parts of the arthromere. In the abdomen the upper
(tergal) and under (sternal) surfaces are most equally devel-
oped, while the pleural line is reduced to a minimum. In the
thorax the pleural region is much more developed, either quite
as much, or often more than the upper, or tergal portion, while
the sternal is reduced to a minimum. In the head the tergites
form the main bulk of the region, and the sternites are reduced
to a minimum.

TABLE OF THE SEGMENTS OF THE HEAD AND THEIR APPENDAGES,
BEGINNING WITH THE MOST ANTERIOR.

Preoral.

First Segment
( Antennary) ,

Tergal,

Antennas, together with
the labrum, epipharynx,
clypeus, eyes, and ocelli.

Pastoral.

Second Segment
(Mandibular),

} Pleural,

Mandibles.

Third Segment

(First Maxillary'),

| Pleural,

First maxillae.

Fourth Segment

(Second Maxillary, or)
Labial),

^Tergal (occiput),
> Pleural (gena),
} Sternal (gula),

Second maxillae
(Labium).

The Appendages. We naturally begin with the thoracic
appendages, or legs, of which there is a pair to each ring. The
leg (Fig. 25) consists of six joints, the basal one, the coxa, in
the Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, and Diptera, consisting of two

THE APPENDAGES. 21

pieces, i. e. the coxa and trochantine (see Fig. 12) ; the tro~
chanter; the femur; the tibia, and, lastly, the tarsus, which is
subdivided into from one to five joints, the latter being
the normal number. The terminal joint ends in a pair
of claws between which is a cushion-like sucker called
the pulvillus. This sucking disk enables the Fly to
walk upside down and on glass.

In the larva, the feet are short and horny, and the Fig. 25.
joints can be still distinguished. In Myriopods, each segment
of the abdomen has a pair of feet like the thoracic ones. We
must consider the three pairs of spinnerets of Spiders, which
are one to three-jointed, as homologous with the jointed limbs of
the higher insects. In the six-footed insects (Hexapoda), the
abdominal legs are deciduous, being present in the Coleopterous
grub, the Dipterous maggot, the caterpillar, and larva of the
Saw-fly, but disappearing in the pupa state. They are often,
as in most maggots, either absent, or reduced in number to the
two anal, or terminal pair of legs ; while in the Saw-flies, there
are as many as eight pairs. These "false" or "prop-legs"
are soft and fleshy, and without articulations. At the retrac-
tile extremity is a crown of hooks, as seen in caterpillars or the
hind-legs of the larva of Chironomus (Fig. 26), in which the
prothoracic pair of legs is reduced to inarticu-
late fleshy legs like the abdominal ones.

The position of the different pairs of legs
deserves notice in connection with the principle
of " antero-posterior symmetry." The fore-
legs are directed forwards like the human arms, Fi s- 26<
but the two hinder pairs are directed backwards. In the Spiders,
three pairs of abdominal legs (spinnerets) are retained through-
out life; in the lower Hexapods, a single pair, which is ap-
pended to the eleventh segment, is often retained, but under
a form which is rather like an antenna, than limb-like. In
some Neuropterous larvae (Phryganea, Corydalus, etc.) the
anal pair of limbs are very well marked ; they constitute the
" anal forceps " of the adult insect. They sometimes become
true, many-jointed appendages, and are then remarkably like

FIG. 25. A, coxa; B, trochanter; C, femur; D, tibia; F, tibial spurs; E x tarsus,
divided into five tarsal joints, the fifth ending in a claw From Sanborn.

THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

antennae, as in the instance of Mantis tessettata described by
Lacaze-Duthiers (Fig. 23). In the Cockroach these append-
ages, sometimes called "anal cerci," resemble the antenna? of
the same insect. In the Lepidoptera and Itymenoptera they
do not appear to be jointed, and are greatly aborted.

The Wings. The wings of insects first appear as little soft
vascular sacs permeated by tracheae. They .grow out in the
preparatory stages (Fig. 27) of the pupa from the side of the
thorax and above the insertion of the
legs, i.e. between the epimerum and
tergum. During the pupa state they
are pad-like, but when the pupa skin is
thrown off they expand with air, and
in a few minutes, as in the Butterfly,
enlarge to many times their original
size. The wings of insects, then, are
simple expansions of the crust, spread
over a framework of horny tubes.
These tubes are really double, consist-
ing of a central trachea, or air tube,
inclosed within a larger tube filled with
blood, and which performs the functions of the veins. Hence
the aeration of the blood is carried on in the wings, and thus
they serve the double purpose of lungs and organs of flight.

The number and situation of these veins and their branches
(veinlets) are of great use in separating genera and species.
The typical number of primary veins is five. They diverge
outward at a slight angle from the insertion of the wing, and
are soon divided into veinlets, from which cross veins are
thrown out connecting with others to form a net-work of veins
and veinlets, called the venation of the wing (Figs. 28, 29).
The interspaces between the veins and veinlets are called cells.
At a casual glance the venation seems very irregular, but in
many insects is simple enough to enable us to trace and name
the veinlets. The five main veins, most usually present, are

FIG. 27. The semipupa of Bombus, the larva skin having been removed, show-
ing the two pairs of rudimentary wings growing out from the mesothorax () and
metathorax (m). n and the seven succeeding dots represent the eight abdominal
stigmata, the first one (n) being in the pupa situated on the thorax, since the first
ring of the abdomen is in this stage joined to the thorax. Original.

Fig. 27.

THE WINGS.

Fig. 28.

called, beginning at the costa, or front edge, the costal, subcostal,
median, submedian, and internal, and sometimes the median
divides into two, making six
veins. The costal vein is un-
divided ; the subcostal and me-
dian are divided into several
branches, while the submedian
and internal are usually simple.

The venation of the fore-
wings affords excellent marks
in separating genera, but that
of the hind wings varies less,
and is consequently of less use.

The wings of many insects
are divided by the veins into
three well-marked areas ; the
costal, median, and internal.
The costal area (Fig. 316) forms
the front edge of the wing and
is the strongest,
since the veins are
nearer together than
elsewhere, and thus
afford the greatest
resistance to the air Fi g . 2 g.

FIG. 28. Fore and hind wings of a Butterfly, showing the venation. I. fore wing :
a, costal vein; b, subcostal vein; 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, five subcostal veinlets; c, inde-
pendent vein (it is sometimes a branch of the subcostal, and sometimes of the me-
dian vein) ; d, median vein ; di, d2, ds, d4, four median veinlets ; e, submedian vein ;
/, internal vein ; ft, interno-median veinlet (rarely found, according to Doubleday,
except in Papilio and Morpho) ; 6 and d are situated in the " discal cell ; " g l ,g2,'g3 t
the upper, middle, and lower discal veinlets. In the Bombycidae and many other
moths gi and g% are thrown off from the subcostal and median veins respectively,
meeting in the middle of the cell at g%. They are sometimes wholly absent.

II. The hind wing; the lettering and names of the veins and veinlets the same
as in the fore wing. Slightly changed from Doubleday.

FIG. 29. Fore wing of a Hymenopterous insect, c, costal vein; sc, subcostal
vein; m, median vein; sm, submedian vein; i, internal vein; c, 1,2,3, the first,
second, and third costal cells ; the second frequently opaque and then called the
pterostigma. sc, 1, 2, 3, 4, the four subcostal cells; TO, 1, 2, 3, 4, the median cells;
sm r 1, 2, 3, the three submedian cells ; il, the internal cell; this is sometimes divided
into two cells, and the number of all but the costal cells is inconstant, the oute
row of cells (4, 4, 3) being the first to disappear.

The costal edge extends from c to c ; the outer c, the apex ; the outer edge extends
from the apex (c) to , and the inner edge extends from n, the inner angle, to the
insertion of the wing at i. Original. Figs. 30-32 from Scudder.

THE CLASS OF INSECTS,

during flight. The median area (Fig. 31 a) is the largest. It is
in the grasshoppers and crickets sometimes modified to form a
musical organ, being
drum-like, as in the
CEcantlius (Fig. 30), or
rasp-like, as in Archyp-
tera (Fig. 31 a). The
internal area (c) is the
smallest, and less dis-
tinctly marked than the
two other regions ; the musical file-like or-
gan of Phaneroptera curvicauda, a grass-
hopper (Fig. 32 d) is situated on this area.

The limits of the edges of the wing vary
in almost every genus, and their comparative length affords
excellent generic characters. The front edge (Fig. 29) is called
the costal, its termina-
tion in the outer angle
of the wing is called
the apex; the outer edge
is situated between the
apex and the inner an-
gle, between which and
the base of the wing is
the inner, or internal,
edge. These distinc-
tions are of most use
in describing the butter-
flies and moths.

The Appendages of
Fig. si a. the Head. These organs
are divided into two groups,
the first of which comprise the
sensory organs, i. e. the ocelli,
eyes, and antennae, which are attached to the region in front
of the mouth, or preoral region of the head. The second
group consists of the sensorio-digestive appendages, combining
the power of finding and seizing the food and preparing it for
digestion. They are inserted behind the mouth and belong
to the jpostoral region of the head.

THE APPENDAGES OF THE HEAD. 25

We will first describe the ocelli, which are theoretically the
most anterior organs of the head, ending with the basal appen-
dages, the labium (second maxillae) being the hindermost.

The simple eye, Ocellus, or JStemma, is the simplest form of
the eye. Its most elementary form (seen in the larva of the
^Bot-fly and the Cecidomyian larva of Miastor) is that of a brown
spot, or group of pigment-cells lodged under the skin and
against which a nerve-filament impinges. Over this spot New-
port states that the tegument is transparent and convex,
resembling a true cornea, or eye-lens. A well-developed
ocellus consists, according to Newport, of a "very convex,
smooth, single cornea, beneath which is a spherical crystalline
lens, resting upon the plano-convex surface of the expanded
vitreous humor, the analogue of the transparent cones of the
compound eyes." Muller believes that the function of the ocelli
is the perception of nearer objects, while that of the compound
eyes is to see more distant objects. The ocelli constitute the
only visual organs in the Myriapods (except Cermatia), the
Arachnida, and the larvae of many Six-footed Insects ; they
are usually from one to six on a side. In adult insects
they are generally three in number, and
are generally present except in the large
majority of Coleoptera. Their normal site
is in front of the eyes, but they are usually j^g. 33.

thrown back, during the growth of the insect, behind the eyes,
on the vertex, or topmost part of the head (Fig. 33).

The Compound Eyes are a congeries of simple eyes. During
the growth of the insect the simple eyes of the larva increase
in number, and finally coalesce to form the compound
eye, or compound cornea, the surface of which is
Fig. 34. very convex and protuberant in the predaceous insects,
or those requiring an extended field of vision.

The number of facets, or cornese, vary from fifty (in the Ant)
to 3,650, the latter number being counted by Geoffroy in the
eye of a Butterfly. These facets are usually hexagonal, as in
the Dragon-fly (Fig. 34), or, rarely, quadrangular.

FIG. 33. Ocelli of three species of Sand-wasps, Pompilus. From Cresson.
FIG. 34. Three hexagonal facets of the compound eye of a fossil Dragon-fly,
greatly magnified. From Dawson.

26 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

The Antennae (Figs. 35, 36) are inserted usually in the adult
insect between, or in front of the eyes, though in the embryo
they are inserted below and in front of the eyes.
It is normally a long, filiform, slender, many-
jointed appendage, undergoing great changes
in form. When it is highly specialized, as in
Coleoptera and Hymenoptera, it is divided
into three parts, the basal or scape, the middle
or pedicel, and the terminal part or flagellum, Fi s- 36 -
Fig. 35. or davola, which usually comprises the greater part of
the antenna.

It is believed by some that the sense of hearing is lodged
in the antennae, though Siebold has discovered an auditory
apparatus situated at the base of the abdomen of^ some, and
in the fore-legs of other species of Grasshoppers.

Mr. J. B. Hicks has made the latest studies on the auditory
apparatus. According to him "it consists first of a cell, sac,
or cavity filled with fluid, closed in from the ah* by a mem-
brane analogous to that which closes the foramen ovale in the
higher animals ; second, that this membrane is, for the most
part, thin and delicate, but often projects above the surface, in
either a hemispherical, conical, or canoe-shaped, or even hair-
like form, or variously marked ; thirdly, that the antennal nerve
gives off branches which come in contact with the inner wall of
the sacs ; but whether the nerve enters, or, as is most probable,
ends in the small internally projecting papilla which I have
shown to exist in many of these sacs, it is very difficult to say.
The principal part of the nerve proceeds to these organs, the
remaining portion passing to the muscles, and to the roots of
the hairs, at least to those of the larger sort." On the other
hand, Lefebvre, Leydig, and Gerstaecker regard this so-called
"auditory apparatus" as an organ of smell.

The antennae have also the sense of touch, as may readily be
observed in Ants, Bees, and the Grasshopper and Cockroach.
"The Honey-bee, when constructing its cells, ascertains their
proper direction and size by means of the extremities of these

FIG. 35. Filiform antenna of Amphizoa. From Horn.

FIG. 36. A, lamellate antenna of a Lamellicorn Beetle; B, antenna of a Fly,
with the bristle thrown off from the terminal joint; C, bristle-like antenna of a
Dragon-fly, Libellula, From Sanborn.

THE APPENDAGES OF THE HEAD.

organs ; while the same iirsect, when evidently affected by
sounds, keeps them motionless in one direction, as if in the act
of listening." (Newport.)

After cutting off one or both antennae of the June beetle,
Lachnosterna, the insect loses its power of directing its flight
or steps, wheeling about in a senseless manner. Dr. Clemens
observed that the Cecropia moth was similarly affected after
losing its antennae.

The Mandibles (Fig. 37) are inserted on each side of the
mouth-opening. They usually consist of but a single joint,

Fig. 37.

representing probably the basal part of the ideal limb. This
part, however, is often subdivided by two longitudinal furrows
into three parts, each ending in a "tooth" of unequal size for
tearing and cutting the food. This tripartite form of the man-
dibles, to which attention has been called by Mr. Scudder, is
more fully carried out in the maxilla, where each portion is
highly specialized. The mandibles vary greatly in form and
size. The two cutting edges are usually opposed to each other,
or frequently overlap in the carnivorous forms. Their base is
often concealed by the clypeus
and labrum. Their motion is
transverse, being the reverse of
the motion of the jaws of Ver-
tebrates.

Fig. 38. b The JfoazKce(Figs.38&,39)are Fig. 39.

much more complicated organs than the mandibles. They are

FIG. 37. Different forms of mandibles. A, mandible of Cicindelapurpurea; B,
Phylloptera, a green grasshopper; C, Libellula trimaculata; D, Vespa maculata, or
paper-making Wasp ; E, " rostrum" or jointed sucker of the Bed-bug, Cimex lectu-
larius, consisting of mandibles, maxillae, and labium; F, proboscis, or sucker, of a
Mosquito, Culex, in which the mandibles are long and bristle-like. From Sanborn.
G, mandible of Amphizoa ; H, mandible of Acratus, a genus of Cockchafers. From
Horn.

FIG. 38. a, mentum and labial palpi; b, one maxilla, with its palpus, of Acra-
tus. From Horn.

FIG. 39. Maxilla of Amphizoa, with the two lobes (stipes and lacinia), and the
palpifer bearing the four-jointed palpus. From Horn.

28 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

inserted on the under side of the head and just behind the
mouth. The maxilla consists of a basal joint, or cardo,
beyond which it is subdivided into three lobes, the stipes, or
footstalk ; the pdlpifer, or palpus-bearer ; and the lacinia, or
blade. The stipes forms the outer and main division of the
organ. The lacinia is more membranaceous than the other
parts, and its upper surface is covered with fine hairs, and
forms a great part of the side of the mouth. It is divided
into two lobes, the superior of which is called the galea, or
helmet, which is often a thick double-jointed organ edged with
stiff hairs, and is used as a palpus in the Orthoptera and many
Coleoptera. The inferior lobe is attached to the internal angle
of the lacinia. It terminates in a stiff minute claw, and is
densely covered with stout hairs. The maxilla^ palpi are
long, slender, one to four-jointed organs. In Perla I have found
that both pairs of palpi bear organs probably of smell.

The maxillae vary greatly in the different groups. Their office
is to seize the food and retain it within the mouth, and also to
aid the mandibles in comminuting it before it is swallowed.
This function reminds us of that of the tongue of vertebrate
animals.

The labium, or second maxillce (Fig. 40), is placed in front of
the gula, which forms the under part of the head, and is bounded
a on each side by the gence, or cheeks, and
f]T\ posteriorly by the occiput. The genae are
\ J bounded laterally by the eplcranium and
LJ the under side of the eyes. In front are
**& 40 - situated the basal parts of the labium, or

second maxillae, which embraces the submentum and mentum
(or labium proper). The labial palpi are inserted into the
mentum, but often the latter piece is differentiated into two,
the anterior of which takes the name of palpiger, called by
Dr. Leconte (Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections) the ligula,
and from which the palpi originate. The ligula is the front
edge of the labium, being thfe piece forming the under lip.
It is often a fleshy organ, its inner surface being continuous

FIG. 40. Ligula and labial palpi of AmpMzoa, an aquatic beetle. It is quadrate
and without paraglossae; a, mentum of the same, being deeply incised, and with a
tooth at the bottom of the excavation. From Horn.

THE APPENDAGES OF THE HEAD. 29

with the soft membrane of the mouth. In the Bees, it is enor-
mously developed and covered with soft hairs. It is often
confounded with the palpiger. In Hydrous it is divided into
two lobes. In most of the Carabidce and Bees it is divided
into three lobes, the two outer ones forming the paraglossce
(Fig. 41 m), and acting as feelers, while the middle, usually
much longer, forms the lingua, or tongue, being the continuation
of the ligula. In the bees, where
the ligula is greatly developed,
it performs the part of the tongue
in Vertebrates, and aids the max-
illae in collecting nectar and
pollen.

The roof of the mouth is
formed by the labrum and the
epipharynx (Fig. 42 c), a small
fleshy tubercle concealed beneath
the labrum. It is seen in the
bees on turning up the labrum.
It probably corresponds to the
"labellum" of Schiodte. The
labrum (Fig. 41 e) is usually
transverse and situated in front
of the dypeus (Fig. 416). The
shield-like dypeus is the broad, Fig. 41.

visor-like, square piece forming usually the front of the head.
Behind it is the dypeus posterior, or supra-dypeus, a subdivision
of the clypeus, and especially observable in the Hymenoptera.
The epicranium forms a large part of the head ; it is bounded
posteriorly by the occiput, on the sides by the eyes, and in
front by the clypeus, and though usually described as a
single piece, is really composed of several. The ocelli often
appear to be situated upon it, though in reality they are placed
upon a distinct piece or pieces. The " epicranial suture" is the
line of junction of the two "procephalic lobes" (Huxley).

FIG. 41. Front view of the head of a bee, Anthopliora. a, compound eyes; c,
three simple eyes, situated upon the epicranium; 6, clypeus; e, labrum; d, an-
tennae;/, mandibles; i, maxillae; h, maxillary palpi; I, palpifer; j, labial palpi; m,
paraglossae ; k, ligula. From Newport.

THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

(These lobes will be explained farther on when speaking
of their development in the embryo.) Behind the epicra-

nium is the occiput,
or base of the head.
It belongs to the la-
bial, or second max-
illary segment, and
helps to form a com-
plete ring, articulat-
ing with the thorax.
It is perforated by a
foramen to afford a
connection between
the interior of the
head and thorax. It
is sometimes, as in
many Coleoptera, Or-
thoptera, and Hemip-
tera, elongated be-
Fi s- 42 - hind and constricted,

thus forming a "neck." It will be seen beyond, that the
labrum and clypeus are in the embryo developed from a
4 'tongue-like process whose inferior part eventually becomes
the labrum, while superiorly it sends a triangular process (the
rudiment of the clypeus) into the interval between the proce-
phalic lobes." * This part (i. e. the clypeus and labrum) is the
most anterior part of the head, and in the embryo, as in the
adult, is normally situated in front of the ocelli, but is not to
be compared with the " anal plate," or eleventh tergite, of the
larva, or with the telson of the scorpion, as Huxley f supposes.

FIG. 42. Side view of the front part of the head, together with the mouth-
parts of the Humble-bee (Bombus). a, clypeus covered with hairs; 6, labrum;
c, the fleshy epipharynx partially concealed by the base of the mandibles (d);
e, lacinia, or blade of the maxilla?, with their two-jointed palpi (/) at the base ; j, the
labium to which is appended the ligula (<?); below are the labial palpi; A, the two
basal joints, being greatly enlarged; b, the compound eyes. Original.

* These lobes are folded back upon the top of the base of the head, and they
seem to form the tergal portion of the antennary ring, to which they respectively
belong, and do not seem to us to be the sternal portion, as suggested by Huxley,
for they are apparently developed in front of the mouth-opening, and form the roof
of the mouth.

t " Lastly, there are certain parts developed singly in the median line in the Artic-
vlata. Of this nature are the frontal spines of Crustacea, their telson, and the sting

THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM. 31

In describing Insects the vertex, or crown, of the head is the
highest part ; and the front is the part usually in front of the
insertion of the antennae.

THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM lies just beneath, and is continuous
with the integument. It consists of numerous "distinct isola-
ted straight fibres, which are not gathered into bundles united
by common tendons, or covered by aponeuroses [or tendinous
sheaths] to form distinct muscles, as in the Vertebrata, but
remain separate from each other, and only in some instances
are united at one extremity by tendons." (Newport.) These
minute fibres form layers, which Newport regards as separate
muscles. "Each fibre is composed of a great number of very
minute fibrillae, or fasciculi of fibrillae," and has been observed
by Wagner and Newport to be often striated as in Vertebrates.
The muscular system is simplest in the lower insects and the
larvae of the higher forms, and is more complex in the head
than elsewhere, and more complex in the thorax than in the
abdomen. These minute muscles are exceedingly numerous.
" Lyonnet, in his immortal work on the anatomy of the larva
of Cossus ligniperda, found two hundred and twenty-eight dis-
tinct muscles in the head alone, and, by enumerating the fibres
in the layers of the different segments, reckoned 1,647 for the
body, and 2,118 for the internal organs, thus making together
3,993 muscles in a single larva. In the larva of Sphinx ligus-
tri we have found the muscles equally numerous with those
discovered by Lyonnet in the Cossus." (Newport.)

The muscular system corresponds to the jointed structure of
insects, as do the other internal systems of organs. Of the
muscles belonging to a single ring, some stretch from the front
edge of one segment to the front edge of the next, and others

of the Scorpion, whose mode of development appears to be precisely similar to
that of a telson. In the same category we must rank the labrum in front of the
mouth, which in the Crustacea (at least) appears to be developed from the sternum
of the antennary, or third somite, the metastoma (or so called labium, or lingua)
of Crustacea, and the lingua of Insecta, behind the oral aperture.

" However much these appendages may occasionally simulate, or play the part
of appendages, it is important to remember, that, morphologically, they are of a
very different nature, and that the confusing them with true appendages must
tend completely to obscure the beautiful relations which obtain among the dif-
ferent classes of the Articulata." Huxley, Linnaean Transactions, vol. xxii.
London.

32 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

to the hinder edge ; there are also sets of dorsal and ventral
muscles going in an oblique or vertical course. The muscles
are either colorless and transparent, or yellowish white ; and
of a soft, almost gelatinous consistence. In form they are
simply flat and thin, straight, band-like, or pyramidal, barrel
or feather-shaped. They act variously as rotators, elevators,
depressors, retractors, protrusors, flexors, and extensors.

The muscular power of insects is enormous. The Flea will
leap two hundred times its own height. Certain beetles can
support enormous weights. Newport cites the case of Geo-
trupes stercorarius which is "able to sustain and escape from
beneath a pressure of from twenty to thirty ounces, a prodi-
gious weight when it is remembered that the insect itself does
not weigh even so many grains." Some beetles have been
known to gnaw through lead-pipes, and the Stag-beetle of
Europe, Lucanus cervus, has, as stated by Mr. Stephens,
gnawed "a hole an inch in diameter through the side of an
iron canister in which it was confined."

"The motions of the insect in walking as in flying are
dependent, in the perfect individual, entirely upon the thoracic
segments, but in the larva chiefly upon the abdominal. Al-
though the number of legs in the former is always six, and in
the latter sometimes so many as twenty-two, progression is
simple and easy. Miiller states (Elements of Physiology, p.
970, Translation) that on watching insects that move slowly
he has distinctly perceived that three legs are always moved at
one time, being advanced and put to the ground while the
other three propel the body forwards. In perfect insects, those
moved simultaneously are the fore and hind feet on one side,
and the intermediate foot on the opposite ; and afterwards the
fore and hind feet on that side, and the middle one on the
other, so that, he remarks, in two steps the whole of the legs
are in motion. A similar uniformity of motion takes place
in the larva, although the whole anterior part of the body is
elevated and carried forwards at regular distances, the steps of
the insect being almost entirely performed by the 'false/ or
abdominal legs."

" In flight the motions depend upon the meso- and meta-
thoracic segments conjointly, or entirely upon the former. The

</^?

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. S3

sternal, episternal, and epimeral pieces, freely articulated
together, correspond in function with the sternum, the ribs,
and the clavicles of birds.* The thorax is expanded and con-
tracted at each motion of the
wings, as in birds and other ani-
mals, and becomes fixed at each
increased effort as a fulcrum or
point of resistance upon which
the great muscles of the wings
are to act, thus identifying this
part of the body in function as
in structure with that of other ani-
mals." (Newport.)

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. In its
simplest form the nervous system
consists of two longitudinal cord&f
each with a swelling (nerve-knot,
or ganglion,) corresponding to
each segment (Fig. 43). This
cord lies on the ventraljdde of the
body, but in the head it passes
upwards, sending a filament from
each side to surround the cesoph-
agus.t As in the Vertebrates,
the nervous cord of insects is
composed of two distinct columns Fi s- 43 -

of fibres placed one upon the other. "The under or external
column, which is nearest to the exterior of the body, is that in
which the ganglia, or enlargements, are situated. The upper
one, or that which is internal and nearest to the viscera, is
entirely without ganglia, and passes directly over the ganglia
of the under column without forming part of them, but in very

*Bennetonthe Anatomy of the Thorax in Insects, and its Function during
Flight. Zoological Journal, vol. i, p. 394.

fThe brain of insects is formed of several pairs of ganglia, corresponding^
probably, to the number of primitive segments composing the head. The nervous
cord is thus, in the head, massed together and compacted to form a brain.

FIG. 43. Nervous System of Corydalus cornutus. , "cerebrum;" 6, "cere-
brellum;" c, thoracic ganglia, which distribute a nerve to each leg; d, eight pairs
of abdominal ganglia. The dotted lines represent the wings. From Leidy.
3

34 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

close approximation to them." Newport also believes that the
ganglionless upper, or internal, column of fibres is analogous
to the motor column of Vertebrata, while the external, or under
one, corresponds to the sensitive column, thus representing the
cerebro-spinal system of the Vertebrata.

From each pair of ganglia are distributed special nerves to
the various organs. In the larva of Sphinx the normal num-
ber of double ganglia is thirteen, and the nervous cord of the
Neuroptera and other lowly organized and attenuated forms of
insects corresponds in the main to this number. In the adult
insect, especially in the Coleoptera, Diptera, Lepidoptera, and
Hymenoptera, the three thoracic ganglia are fused together,
following the fusion and general headwise development of the
segments of the tegument. Besides the central nervous cord,
corresponding to the spinal cord of the Vertebrates, there is a
vagus, or visceral nerve, representing the S3'mpathetic nerve of
higher animals. This nerve "arises, in the larva, from the
anterior part of the cerebrum, and, forming a ganglion on the
upper surface of the pharynx, always passes backward beneath
the brain, along the middle line of the oesophagus." In its
microscopic structure the nervous cord, like that of Vertebrata,
consists of a central u gray" substance, and an outer or periph-
eral part, the u white" substance.

In the embryo the ganglia are very large and close together,
the commissures, or connecting filaments being very short, and
small in proportion.

ORGANS OF NUTRITION. These consist of the alimentary canal
and its appendages, or accessory glands (Fig. 44). We have
already treated of the external appendages (mouth-parts)
which prepare the food for digestion. The simplest form of
the alimentary canal is that of a straight tube. In the larva
of Stylops and the sedentary young of Bees, it ends in a blind
sac, as they live on liquid food and expel no solid excretions.
When well developed, as in the adult insect, it becomes a long
convoluted thick muscular tube, subdivided into different parts
which perform different functions and have distinct names,
taken from analogous organs in the vertebrate animals. This
digestive tube is composed of three coats, the outer, or peri-

ORGANS OF NUTRITION.

toneal; the middle, or muscular; and the inner, or mucous. The
mucous coat is variously modified, being plaited or folded ; or,

c d

as in the Orthoptera and carnivorous Coleoptera, it is solidified
and covered with rows of strong horny teeth, forming a sort of
gizzard. The alimentary canal is held in place by retractor
muscles, but principally by exceedingly numerous branches of
the main tracheae.

This canal (Fig. 45) is subdivided into the mouth and pha-
rynx, the oesophagus, supplementary to which is the crop, or
" sucking stomach" of Diptera, Lepidoptera, arid Hymenoptera ;
iheproventricufus, or gizzard ; theventriculus, or true stomach,
and the intestine, which consists of the ileum, or short intes-

FIG. 44. Anatomy of Sphinx ligustri. m, t, g, the nervous cord resting on
the floor of the body ; at c, the ganglia form a brain-like organ, much larger than
the ganglia of the thorax (m) and abdomen (g). From the brain Is sent off the
suboesophageal nerve which surrounds the gullet into Avhieh the food is conveyed
by the maxillae, or spiral tongue (a), which, when at rest, is rolled up between the
labial palpi (6).

From the nervous cord is also thrown off a pair of nerves to each pair of legs
(as at n, o,p) and a branch, d, is sent off from above, distributing nerves to the
muscles of flight.

The heart, or dorsal vessel (e,/), lies just beneath the median line of the body,
and is retained in place by muscular bands (as at /) as well as by small tracheal
branches.

The alimentary canal (h,j, g), forms a straight tube in the head and thorax; h,
the crop, or sucking stomach, which opens into the resophagus; j, the true, chyle-
forming stomach, which contracts posteriorly, and then dilates near its anal outlet
into a cloaca (indicated at $r, but not distinctly, as it is concealed by the numerous
urinary vessels). The urinary vessels also indicated at g, form long tubes (which
correspond to the kidneys of Vertebrates), opening into the pyloric end of the
stomach. The position of the testes (fc) is the same as that of the ovary, and the
dotted line I shows the course of the efferent duct (vas deferens) and also of the
oviduct of the female.

The figure represents a longitudinal section of the insect, the legs and ends of
the antennae having been removed. From Newport.

3C THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

tine, and the colon and rectum. The latter part, as well as the
crop and proventriculus, are sometimes absent.

Of the appendages of the canal, the first
are the salivary glands, which are usually
long simple tubes, which in the larva, ac-
cording to Newport, form the silk vessels.
They "empty themselves by a single duct
through the spinneret on the floor (labium)
of the mouth." In the Ant-lion (Myrtneleon)
the silk is spun from "a slender telescopic-
like spinneret, placed at the extremity o/
its body," and Westwood also states that the
larva of Chrysopa spins a cocoon "from the
spinneret, at the extremity of the body."

These silk glands when taken out of the
larva, just as it is about ready to transform,
are readily prepared as "gut" for fish-lines,
etc., by drying on a board.

In the Bees these glands are largely de-
veloped to produce a sufficient amount of
salivary fluid to moisten the dry pollen of
rig. 45. flowers, before it enters the oesophagus.

"Bee-bread" consists of pollen thus moistened and kneaded
by the insect. The Honey-bee also dissolves, by the aid of the
salivary fluid, the wax used in making its cells. Newport
believes this fluid is alkaline, and forms a solvent for the other-
wise brittle wax, as he has seen this insect "reduce the per-
fectly transparent thin white scales of newly secreted wax to
a pasty or soapy consistence, by kneading it between its man-
dibles, and mixing it with a fluid from its mouth, before apply-
ing it to assist in the formation of part of a new cell."

Insects have no true liver; its functions being performed
"by the walls of the stomach, the internal tunic of which is
composed of closely-aggregated hepatic cells." (Siebold.) In
the Spiders and Scorpions, however, there is a liver distinct
from the digestive canal. In the Spiders it is very large,
enveloping most of the other viscera.

FIG. 45. Alimentary tube of Corydalus cornutus. a, oesophagus; 6, proven-
triculus; c, ventriculus; d, large intestine; e, urinary tubes; /, coecum ; gr, testis or
ovary. From Leidy.

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 37

Siebold states that in some insects the ileum has glandular
appendages whose product is perhaps analogous to the pancre-
atic fluid. In the larva of insects is found the corpus adiposum,
or fat-body, in the form of large lobes of fat-cells which spread
through the intervals of the viscera in the general cavity of
the body. It is interpenetrated and retained in place by
numerous tracheae.

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. The vascular, or circulatory,
system is not a closed sac as in the Worms and Vertebrates.
The organs of circulation consist of a contractile, articulated
dorsal vessel, or so-called "heart," which terminates in a
cephalic aorta. The dorsal vessel receives the venous current
through the lateral valvular openings and pumps the blood into
its prolongation or cephalic aorta, whence it escapes, traversing
the body in all directions, in regular currents, which do not
have, however, vascular walls. "In this way, it penetrates the
antennae, the extremities, the wings, and the other appendages
of the body, by arterial currents, and is returned by those of a
venous nature. All the venous currents empty into two
lateral ones, running towards the posterior extremity of the
body, and which enter, through lateral orifices, the dorsal
vessel." (Siebold.)

"The blood of the Insecta is usually a colorless liquid,
though sometimes yellowish, but rarely red. In this liquid are
suspended a few very small, oval, or spheroidal corpuscles,
which are always colorless,- have a granular aspect, and are
sometimes nucleated.

"The dorsal vessel, which is constricted at regular intervals,
is always situated on the median line of the abdomen, being
attached to the dorsal wall of its s'egments by several trian-
gular muscles whose apices point outwards. Its walls contain
both longitudinal and transverse fibres, and, externally, are
covered by a thin peritoneal tunic. Internally, it is lined by
another very fine membrane, which, at the points of these con-
strictions, forms valvular folds, so that the organ is divided
into as many chambers as there are constrictions. Each of
these chambers has, at the anterior extremity on each side, a
valvular orifice which can be inwardly closed. The returning

THE CLASS OF INSECTS,

blood is accumulated about the heart and enters into it during
the diastole of each of its chambers, through the lateral
orifices (Fig. 46 i). It then passes, by the regularly successive

Fig. 47.

Fig. 46.

contractions of the heart, from behind forwards into the aorta,
which is only a prolongation of the anterior chamber. This
aorta consists of a simple, small vessel, situated on the dorsal
surface of the thorax (Fig. 44 e) , and extending even to the
cephalic ganglion, where it either ends in an open extremity, or
divides into several short branches which terminate in a like
manner. The length of the dorsal vessel depends, in all the
three states of insects, upon that of the abdomen. The number
of its chambers is very variable, but is, most usually, eight.

"The blood, after leaving the aorta, traverses the body in
currents which are also extravascular, and in this way bathes
all the organs. The newly-prepared nutritive fluid passes
through the walls of the digestive canal in which it is found,
into the visceral cavity, and thence directly into the blood.
Latterly, this extravascular circulation has been called in
question, but its presence may be easily and directly observed

FIG. 46. Part of the dorsal vessel or heart of Lucanns cervus ; a, the posterior
chambers (the anterior chambers are covered by a part of the ligaments which hold
the heart in place), i, the auriculo- ventricular openings ; #, g, the lateral mus-
cles fixed by the prolongations h, h, to the upper side of the abdomen. From
Straus Dnrclcheim.

FIG. 47. Interior of the dorsal vessel; a, the inner walls with their circular
fleshy fibres; c, the auriculo-ventricular opening; with its semilunar valve (c), in
front of which is d, the interventricular valvule. From Straus Durckheim.

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 39

with very many perfect Insecta and their larvae. The vascular
walls, supposed to have been seen at certain points, are, un-
doubtedly, the result of some error of observation or interpre-
tation. This is also true of the pulsatile organs supposed to
have been observed in the legs of many water-bugs, and which
were thought to affect the circulation."

Blanchard and Agassiz believe in a "peritracheal circula-
tion," and other observers agree that the course of the circula-
tion is along the tracheae, i. e. that the blood circulates in the
space between the loose peritoneal envelope and the trachea
itself. Professor H. J. Clark objects to this view that the blood
disks are too large to pass through such an exceedingly minute
space as the distance between the trachea and its enveloping,
or peritoneal, wall.

Newport thinks that there are actual blood vessels distrib-
uted from the heart and ''passing transversely across the
dorsal surface of each segment in the pupa of Sphinx. If
they be not vessels distributed from the heart, it is a some-
what curious circumstance that the whole of the blood should
be first sent to the head of the insect, and the viscera of the
abdominal region be nourished only by the returning blood,
which has in part passed the round of the circulation."

Newport also describes in Sphinx the supra~&pinal, or great
ventral vessel which lies in the abdomen just over the nervous
cord, and which is also found in the Scorpion and Centipede.
He believes "this vessel to be the chief means of returning
the blood from the middle and inferior portion of the body to
the posterior extremity of the dorsal vessel or heart." He
strongly suspects that anteriorly this great ventral vessel is
connected with the aorta. The circulation of Insects, there-
fore, is probably as much a closed one as in the Myriapods, for
he states that the "blood certainly flows in distinct vessels, at
least in some parts of the body in perfect insects, and that
vessels exist even in the larva." Observations on the vascular
system are exceedingly difficult from the delicate structure of
the vessels, and the subject needs renewed observations to
settle these disputed points.

The blood is forced through the vessel into the body by regu-
lar pulsations. Herold counted thirty to forty in a minute in a

40 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

full-grown caterpillar ; we have counted about sixty a minute
in the recently hatched larva of Dif)lax. During excitement,
the number of pulsations increases in rapidity. Newport found
the pulsations in a bee, Antliophora, when quiet, to be eighty a
minute ; but when "the insects were quite lively, and had been
exposed to the sun for an hour or two, the number of pulsa-
tions amounted to one hundred and forty."

He found that the number of pulsations decreased after each
moult of the larva of Sphinx ligustri, but increased in force;
when it was full grown and had ceased feeding it was thirty.
"After it had passed into the pupa state the number fell to
twent3'-two, and afterwards to ten or twelve, and, during the
period of hibernation, it almost entirely ceases ; but in the per-
fect insect it rose from forty-one to fift3 T , and when excited by
flight around the room it was from one hundred and ten to one
hundred and thirty-nine."

ORGANS OF RESPIRATION. All insects breathe air, or, when
they live in the water, respire, by means of branchiae, the
air mixed mechanically with water. Respiration is carried on
by an intricate system of tubes (pul-
monary tracheae) which open by pores
(spiracles or stigmata) in the sides of
the body ; or, as in aquatic insects, by
branchiae, or gill-like flattened expan-
sions of the body-wall penetrated by
tracheae (branchial tracheae).

There are normally eleven spiracles,
or breathing-holes (Fig. 48), on each side
of the body ; each consisting of an oval
horny ring situated in the peritreme
Fl s- 48 - and closed by a valve, which guards

the orifice (Fig. 49). Within this valve is a chamber closed
within by another valve which covers the entrance into the
tracheae. The air-tube itself (Fig. 50) consists of "an external

FIG. 48. Larva of the Humble-bee just beginning to change to a pupa, showing
eleven pairs of stigmata. In the adult bee, only the third pair is apparent, the
remaining pairs being concealed from view, or in part aborted. In most insects
there are usually only nine pairs of stigmata. Original.

ORGANS OF RESPIRATION. 41

serous, and an internal mucous membrane, inclosing between
them a spirally convoluted fibre, thus giving great strength
and flexibility to the tube."

Nearly all the air enters through the thoracic and first
abdominal spiracles, so that on pinching most insects on
the thorax they can be

- ' irfL ^k^fl^* easi lj deprived of
breath and killed.

"In some aquatic
larvae such as those
of Dyticidce, Eristalis
Fig. 49. (Fi g> 51 ? pupa), and

Epliydra, and also in some perfect insects,
as in Nepa and Ranatra, the parts sup-
porting the stigmata are prolonged into slen- Fig. 50.
der tubes, through which the insect, on rising to the surface,
breathes the atmospheric air.

Agrion (Fig. 52) affords a good instance of branchiae
or gill-like expansions of the crust, or skin. It . is
supposed that these false gills, or branchiae, "absorb
the air from the water, and convey it by the minute
ramifications of the tracheal ves-
sels, with which they are abun-
dantly supplied, and which ter-
Fig.51. minate in single trunks, into the

main tracheae, to be distributed over the whole body,
as in insects which live in the open atmosphere."
(Newport.)

Of branchiae there are three kinds. The first, as in
the larvae and pupae of Gnats, consist of slender fila-
ments arranged in tufts arising from a single stem. Fig.ra.
In the larva of Gyrinus and the aquatic caterpillar of a moth,

FIG. 49. Chamber leading into the trachea; a, a, external valve protecting the
outer opening of the stigma, or breathing hole; 6, c, c, inner and more complicated
valve closing the entrance into the trachea (Z, &); m, conical occlusor muscle
closing the inner orifice. From Straus DurcJcheim.

FIG. 50. Portion of a trachea divested of its peritoneal envelope, a, spirally
convoluted fibre, closely wound around the trachea, as ate; c, origin of a secondary
tracheal branch. From Straus DurcJcheim.

FIG. 52. One of the three gill-like appendages to the abdomen of the larva and
pupa of Agrion enlarged, consisting of a broad leaf-like expansion, permeated by
tracheae which take up by endosmosis the air contained in water. Original.
4*

42 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

Hydrocampa stratiolata, they form short stiff bristles placed
along the side of the body. Ayr ion and Ephemera, in their
larval stages, afford the second kind of branchiae, and Libellula
the third kind, or internal gill, situated in the colon. The
Mosquito breathes both by branchiae which form large club-
shaped organs, and by lateral filaments.

In those insects that fly, most of the tracheoa are often dilated
into air-vesicles, so that by filling and emptying them of air the
insect can change its specific gravity. That their use is also
to lighten the body is shown by their presence in the heavy
mandibles and head of the male of Lucanus cervus. In the
adult Humble-bee there are two very large vesicles at the base
of the abdomen. These vesicles are not found in the larvae,
or in the adult forms of creeping insects.

The act of respiration consists in the alternate dilation and
contraction of the abdominal segments, the air entering the
body chiefly at the thoracic spiracles. As in the Vertebrates the
frequency of the acts of breathing increases after exertion.
" When an insect is preparing itself for flight, the act of res-
piration resembles that of birds under similar circumstances.
At the moment of elevating its elytra and expanding its wings,
which are, indeed, acts of respiration, the anterior pairs of
spiracles are opened, and the air rushing into them is extended
over the whole body, which, by the expansion of the air-bags, is
enlarged in bulk, and rendered of less specific gravity ; so that
when the spiracles are closed at the instant the insect endeavors
to make the first stroke with and raise itself upon its wings, it
is enabled to rise in the air, and sustain a long and powerful
flight with but little muscular exertida. In the pupa and larva
state respiration is performed more equally by all the spiracles,
and less especially by the thoracic ones."

During hibernation the act of breathing, like the circulation
of the blood, almost entirely ceases, and the heat of the body
is greatly lowered. Indeed Newport has shown that the devel-
opment of heat in Insects, just as in Vertebrates, depends on the
"quantity and activity of respiration, and the volume and
velocity of the circulation." The Humble-bee, according to
Newport, possesses the voluntary power of generating heat by
breathing faster. He says, confirming Huber's observations,

ORGANS OF SECRETION. 43

"the manner in which the bee performs her incubatory office is
by placing herself upon the cell of a nymph (pupa) that is
soon to be developed, and then beginning to respire at first
very gradually. In a short time the respirations become more
and more frequent, until at length they are increased to one
hundred and twenty, or one hundred and thirty per minute.
The body of the insect soon becomes of a high temperature,
and, on close inspection, is often found to be bathed with per-
spiration. When this is the case the temperature of the insect
soon becomes reduced, and the insect leaves the cell, and an-
other bee almost immediately takes her place. When respira-
tion is performed less violently, and consequently less heat is
evolved, the same bee will often continue on a cell for many
hours in succession. This extreme amount of heat was evolved
entirely by an act of the will in accelerating the respiratory ef-
forts, a strong indication of the relation which subsists between
the function of respiration and the development of animal heat."

ORGANS OF SECRETION. The urinary vessels, or what is
equivalent to the kidneys of the higher animals, consist in In-
sects of several long tubes which empty by one or two common
secretory ducts into the posterior or "pyloric" extremity of
the stomach. There are also odoriferous glands, analogous to
the cutaneous glands of vertebrates. The liquid poured out is
usually offensive, and it is used as a means of defence. The
Bees, Wasps, Gall-flies, etc., and Scorpions, have a poison-sac
(Fig. 54 g) developed in the tip of the abdomen. The bite of
the Mosquito, the Horse-fly, and Bed-bug is thought by New-
port to be due to the simple act of thrusting their lancet-like
jaws through the skin, and it is not known that these and
other insects which bite severely eject any poison into the
wound. But in the spiders a minute drop of poison exudes from
an orifice at the end of the mandibles, "which spreads over the
whole wound at the instant it is inflicted." This poison is
secreted by a gland lodged in the cephalo-thorax, and which
is thought by Audouin to correspond in position to the salivary
apparatus and the silk glands of the Winged Insects.

ORGANS OF GENERATION. We have already described the
external parts. The internal parts of the male insect consist,

THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

of a duct, the ductus ejaculatorius, which opens into the external
intromittent organ. This duct extends backwards, connecting
with the vesiculce seminales, which lead by
the vasa deferentia to the testes (Fig. 53).
The latter are usually rounded glandular
bodies, sometimes, as in Mdolontha and
Lucanus, numbering six on a side. These
organs lie in the abdominal cavity, usually
above and on each side of the alimentary
canal.

The sperm, or fertilizing fluid, contains
very active
spermatic par-
ticles which
are developed
in large cells
in the testes,
Fig. 53. where they are

united into bundles of various
forms.

In the female, the internal re-
productive organs (Fig. 54) are
more simple than those of the
other sex. The external open-
ing of the female is situated at
the end of the oviduct, that
leads by two tubes to the ovary,
which consists of two or more
tubes (in the Queen Bee one hundred and sixty to one hundred
and eighty) in which the ova are developed. On the upper side

Fig. 54.

FIG. 53. Male organs of Athnlia centifolice. h, the penis, or external portion,
in which the ductus ejaculatorius (/) terminates, which extends backwards, and is
connected with the vesiculce seminales (e), and rasa deferentia (rf) which are con-
nected with the epididymis (6), and the testes (a), i and I, two pairs of homy plates,
surrounded by a horny ring (/). ?, horny prehensile hooks attached to k. m, two
elongated muscular parts inclosing the penis (7i). From, Newport.

FIG. 54. Female organs of generation of Athalia centifolife. a, 6, c, the eighteen
ovarial tubes originating from each of the two' oviducts (e), and containing the im-
mature eggs ; /, the spermatheca ; <7, poison-sac, the poison being secreted in the
secretory vessels h. The poison flows through the oviduct into the sting and thence
into the wound made by the sting. 10, the terminal ganglia of the nervous cord.
From Newport.

ORGANS OF GENERATION. 45

of the oviduct are from one to five appendages, the most impor-
tant of which is the spermatheca (the others being sebaceous
glands), which receives the fertilizing fluid of the male during
sexual union, and in which, according to Darwin, the male ele-
ment "is enabled to keep alive four or five years."

Insects bisexual. With the exception of the Tardigrades,
which are doubtfully referred to the Mites (Acarina), there are
no hermaphrodites among Insects, that is, there are no individ-
uals having both male and female organs, and capable of self-
impregnation. On the contrary, the sexes are distinct ; Insects
are bisexual.

Hermaphrodites, so-called.t Cases not nnfrequently occur in
which from arrest of development of the embryo, the sexual
organs are imperfectly developed, so as to present the appear-
ance of being both male and female. "Siebold has investigated
some hermaphrodite Honey-bees belonging to the Italian race,
obtained from a Dzierzon hive at Constance. He found in
many of them a combination of sexual characters, not only in the
external parts, but also in the generative organs. The mixture
of the external characters is manifested sometimes only in the
anterior or posterior part of the body, sometimes in all parts
of the body, or only in a few organs. Some specimens pre-
sent male and worker characters on the two sides of the body.
The development of the internal organs is singularly correla-
ted with these peculiarities of external organization. The sting,
with its vesicle and gland, is well developed in hermaphrodites
with the abdomen of the worker ; soft in those with the drone-
abdomen. The seminal receptacle, when present, is empty.
The ovaries contain no ova. In the hermaphrodites with the
drone-abdomen, the male sexual organs are well developed, and
the testes contain spermatozoids. Frequently with testicular
and ovarian organs present on each side, the epididymis and
copulatory apparatus are well developed, and an imperfect
poison-apparatus exisfs. In these cases the tube contains
spermatozoids, but there are no ova in the ovaries. The her-
maphrodites are thrown out of the cell by the workers as soon
as they emerge, and speedily perish. Siebold ascribes the pro-
duction of these hermaphrodites to an imperfect fecundation
of the ovum." (Zeitschrift fur Wissenschaftliche Zoologie,
1864, p. 73. See Gunther's Zoological Review for 1864.)

46 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

Mr. Dunning describes a specimen of Fidonia piniaria,
"which was sexually a female, and the abdomen was appar-
ently distended with eggs ; the general color was midway be-
tween the colors of the ordinary male and female, but the size
and markings were those of the male. (Transactions Ento-
mological Society, London, Aug. 7, 1865.) Professor West-
wood states that "he had an Orange-tip Butterfly (Anthocharis
cardamines) , which was female in every respect, except that
on the tip of one fore- wing were about a dozen of the bright
orange scales which characterize the male."

THE EGG. Professor H. J. Cl^i'k (Mind in Nature) defines
an egg to be a globule surrounded by the vitelline membrane,
or yelk-envelope, which is protected by the clwrion, or egg-
shell, consisting of "two kinds of fluid, albumen and o?7, which
are always situated at opposite sides or poles." "In the earli-
est stages of all eggs, these two poles shade off into each
other," but in the perfectly developed egg the small, or albu-
minous pole, is surrounded by a membrane, and forms the
Purkinjean (germinal) vesicle ; and thirdly and last, the inner-
most of the three globules is developed. This last is the
Wagnerian vesicle, or germinal dot. The oily matter forms the
yolk. Thus formed, the egg is the initial animal. It becomes
an animal after contact with the male germs (unless the product
of organic reproduction), and the egg-shell or chorion is to be
considered as a protection to the animal, and is thrown off
when the embryo is hatched, just as the larva throws off its
skin to transform into the pupa. So that the egg-state is
equivalent to the larva state, and hence there are four stages
in the life of an insect, i. e. the egg, the larva, the pupa, and
the imago, or adult state.

The egg is not always laid as a perfect egg (Clark). It
sometimes, as in the Ants, continues to grow after it is laid by
the parent, like those of frogs, which, according to Clark, "Are
laid before they can hardly be said to have become fully formed
as eggs." Again, others are laid some time after the embryo
has begun to form ; and in some, such as Melopliagus and
Bmula, the larva is fully formed before it is expelled from the
oviduct.

THE EGG. 47

Eggs are usually small in proportion to the size of the
parent ; but in many minute forms (i.e. Pulex, Pediculus, etc.)
they are proportionately much larger. In shape eggs are
either spherical or oblong. In some there are radiating append-
ages at one end, as in those of Nepa and Eanatra ; or they are
provided with a single stalk, as in Chrysopa, Cynips, and
Opliion.

The eggs of most Hymenoptera, Diptera, and many Coleop-
tera are usually cylindrical ; those of Lepidoptera are more
generally spherical. The eggs of the Mosquito are laid in a
boat-shaped mass, which floats on the surface of quiet pools,
while those of the Chrysopa, or Lace-winged Fly (Fig. 55), are
supported on long pedicels.
They are almost invariably
laid near or upon objects des-
tined to be the food of the Fig. 55.
future larva. Thus the Copris, or "Tumble-bug," places its
egg in a ball of dung which it rolls away to a secure place ;
the Flesh-fly oviposits on meat ; and all vegetable-feeders lay
their eggs on the food-plant where the larva, upon its exit
from the egg, shall readily find an ample supply of food.

The posterior end of the egg is more often the fixed one, and
it may thus be distinguished from the anterior pole. In the
eggs of some Diptera and Orthoptera, the ventral side of the
embryo, according to Gerstaecker, corresponds to the convex
side of the egg, and the concave side of the latter corresponds
to the dorsal region of the embryo.

The surface of the chorion, or egg-shell, which is dense and
brittle, is often covered by a mosaic-work of more or less regu-
lar facets. In many small eggs the surface is only minutely
granulated, or ornamented with ribs and furrows, as in those
of many Butterflies.

TJie Micropyle. On the anterior end (though sometimes
at both ends) of the egg is one or more pores of exceeding
minuteness, through which the spermatozoa (more than one
of which, according to Darwin, is requisite to fertilize an
ovule) enter to fertilize the egg-contents. In some cases
these micropyles are scattered over the whole surface of the egg.
Fig. 56 a represents the micropyles of Nepa cinerea, consisting

48 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

of a whorl of long bristles. Those of Locnsta viridissima (Fig.

566) slightly resemble toadstools. Fig. 56 c represents the an-
terior pole of the egg with
the mieropyles of Pyrrkocoris
apterus. (From Gerstaecker.) ^

This contact of a maUr
sperm-cell with the yolk is
the fertilization of the egg.
From this moment begins the

life of the embryo. Fertiliza-
tion of the female germ by
Fig - M- means of the male sperm,

through the congress of the sexes, is the rule with bisexual
animals, but there are exceptions among insects. An embryo
may start into being without the interposition of the male ; to
this mode of generation has been applied by Leuckart the term

Parthenogenesis. Among certain species of insects there are
some individuals which, by a sort of budding process, and with-
out the aid of the male element, throw off summer broods, con-
sisting of "asexual" individuals, which, as winter approaches,
are succeeded by a brood of true males and females, the latter
of which lay eggs. This phenomenon, called by Steenstrup
''alternation of generations," has been observed among a com-
paratively few species, and the apparent design of such an
anomalous mode of reproduction is to afford an immense num-
ber of individuals, thus providing for the continuance of the
species. The individuals in whom this budding process takes
place are called "asexual" because, though they may resemble
the female sex outwardly, their sexual organs are only partially
developed. This budding process is the same in kind with that
observable in the Jelly-fish, which throw off b}- parthenogen-
esis, or alternations of generations, summer broods of immense
extent, but in winter propagate b} r true eggs. Huxley has
studied the development of Aphis by parthenogenesis, the
anomalous nature of which had previously been discovered by
Bonnet, Trembly, Lyonet, Degeer, Kyber, and others, arid
arrives at the following conclusions :

"1. Ova deposited by impregnated female Aphides in autumn
are hatched in the spring.

ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS. 49

2. From these ova viviparous, and, in the great majority of
cases, apterous forms proceed.

3. The broods to which these give rise are either winged or
apterous, or both.

4. The number of successive broods has no certain limit, but
is, so far as we know at present, controlled only by tempera-
ture and the supply of food.

5. On the setting in of cold weather, or in some cases on the
failure of nourishment, the weather being still warm, males
and oviparous females are produced.

6. The males may be either winged or apterous.

7. So far as I am aware, there is no proof of the existence
of any exception to the law that the oviparous female is apte-
rous.

8. Viviparous Aphides may hybernate, and may co-exist with
oviparous females of the same species." (Linnsean Transac-
tions, xxii, p. 198.)

The origin of the viviparous, asexual, or agamic (from the
Greek a, without ; game, marriage) individual, as it may be
more properly called, is, up to a certain stage, the same as
that of the true egg, i.e. until the germ (pseudovum) of
the former is detached from the false ovary (pseudovarium).
"From this point onwards, however, the fate of the pseudovum
is different from that of the ovum. The former begins at once
to be converted into the germ ; the latter accumulates yelk-sub-
stance, and changes but little. Both bodies acquire their mem-
branous investment rather late; within it the pseudovum
becomes a living larva, while the ovum is impregnated, laid,
and remains in a state of rest for a longer or shorter period.

"Although, then, the pseudovum and the ovum of Aphis
are exceedingly similar in structure for some time after they
have passed out of the condition of indifferent tissue, it cannot
be said that the sole difference between them is, that the one
requires fecundation and the other not. When the ovum is of
the size of a pseudovum which is about to develop into an em-
bryo, and, therefore, long before fecundation, it manifests its
inherent physiological distinctness by becoming, not an em-
bryo, but an ovum. Up to this period the influence of fecunda-
tion has not been felt ; and the production of ova, instead of
4

50 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

pseiidova, must depend upon a something impressed upon the
constitution of the parent before it was brought forth by its
viviparous progenetrix." (Huxley.)

Siebold has also shown that the "ova of the Queen-bee pro-
duces females or males, according as they are fecundated or
not. The fecundated ovum produces a queen or a neuter
according to the food of the larva and the other conditions to
which it is subjected; the unfecundated ovum produces a
drone." This is analogous to the agamic reproduction of
Aphis, and " demonstrates still more clearly the impossi-
bility of drawing any absolute line of demarcation histologi-
cally between ova and buds."

This process of reproduction is not known in the Myriapods.
It occurs among the mites (Acarina), and occurs in isolated
genera of Hemiptera (Aphis, Chermes, Lecanium, and Aspidi-
otus according to Gerstaecker).

Among Lepidoptera the Silk-moth sometimes lays fertile
eggs without previous sexual union. This very rarely hap-
pens, for M. Jourdain found that, out of about 58,000 eggs
laid by unimpregnated silk-moths, many passed through their
early embryonic stages, showing that they were capable of
self-development, but only twenty-nine out of the whole
number produced caterpillars. (Darwin.) Several other moths*
have been found to lay fertile eggs without previous sexual
union, and among Hymenoptera, Nematus ventricosus, Cynips,
Neuroterus, perhaps Apophyllus (according to Gerstaecker),
and Cynips spongijica (according to Walsh, Proceedings of

* We give a list from Gerstaecker (Bronn's Classen und Ordnungen des Thier-
reichs) of all the known cases of agamic reproduction in this suborder, with the
number of times the phenomenon has been observed, and the names of the ob-

Gastropacha quercus, once (Plieninger).
Liparis dispar, once (Carlier).

Sphinx ligustri, once (Treviranus).
Smerinthus populi, four times (Nord-

mann).

Smerinthus ocellatus, once (Johnston).
Euprepia caja, five times (Brown, etc.).

" villica, once (Stowell).
Telea Polyphemus, twice (Curtis).
Gastropacha pini, three times (Scopoli,

Gastropacha quercifolia, once (Easier).
potatoria, once (Burmeis-
ter).

The subject has been also discussed by Siebold in his work entitled, A true Par-
thenogenesis in Lepidoptera and Bees; by Owen, in his "Parthenogenesis," and
by Sir J. Lubbock in the Philosophical Transactions, London, vol. 147, pt. 1.

" Efjgermoth" (? Liparis dispar), (Tardy,

Westwood).

Liparis ochropoda, once (Popoff).
Orgyia pudibunda, once (Werneburg).
Psyche apiformis, once (Rossi).

" helix (Siebold).
Solenobia lichenella (Siebold).

" triquetrella (Siebold).
Bombyx mori, several times.

ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS. 51

the Entomological Society of Philadelphia). Parthenogenesis,
or agamic reproduction, is, then, the result of a budding pro-
cess, or cell-growth. This process is a common mode among
the Radiates, the low Worms, and the Crustaceans. Metamor-
phosis is simply a series of marked stages, or periods, of
growth ; and hence growth, metamorphosis, and agamic re-
production are morphologically identical. All animals, there-
fore, as well as plants, grow by the multiplication of cells.

After hearing the surprising revelations of Bonnet, Reaumur,
Owen, Burnett, and Huxley on the asexual mode of generation
in the Aphis, we are called to notice still a new phase of repro-
duction. None of the observers just mentioned were accus-
tomed to consider the virgin aphis as immature, but rather as
a wingless adult Plant-louse. But Nicolas Wagner, Professor
of Zoology at Kasan,* supported by able vouchers for the
truth of his assertions, both in Russia and in Germany, who
have repeated and thoroughly tested his observations, has
observed an asexual reproduction in the larva of a Cecidomy-
ian fly, Miastor metraloas (Fig. 297), and Meinert has observed
it in this species and the Oligarces paradoxus Meinert.

Says Dr. R. Leuckart, whose article f we have drawn largely
upon in the present account, "This reproduction was said to
commence in autumn, to continue through the winter and
spring, giving origin, during the whole of this period, to a
series of successive generations of larvae, until, finally, in June,
the last of them were developed into perfect and sexually
mature animals. The flies, then, as usual, after copulation,
lay eggs, and thus recommence the developmental cycle just
described."

Professor Leuckart has observed these facts anew in the
larvae of a species of dipterous gall-fly, and which he believes
distinct from the Russian species, found under the bark of a
half dead apple-tree that was attacked by fungi. The young
are developed within the body of the larva-like parent from a

*K. E. Von Baer, "Report on a New Asexual Mode of Reproduction observed
by Professor Wagner in Kasan." Bull. Acad. St. Petersburg, 1863, pt. vi, p. 239.
Also, Wagner in the Journal of the University of Kasan, 1861.

f On the Asexual Reproduction of Cecidomyia Larvae. Annals and Magazine
of Natural History, March, 1866. Translated from Zeitschrift f ttr Wissenschaftliche
Zoologies Bd. xiv.

52 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

"germ-ball" essentially agreeing with the ovary, and the asex-
ual larvae begin life as egg-like bodies developed from this
germ-ball, just as eggs are developed in the little tubes of
which the ovary is an aggregation. Hence these worms bud
out from the germ-stock, just as we have seen in the case of
the Aphides. Leuckart and Wagner farther agree, that " the
so-called chorion never being formed in either of them, the
vitellus [yelk] remains without that envelope which has so re-
markable and peculiar a development in the true egg of in-
sects." .... "The processes of embryo-formation agree in
all essential points with the ordinary phenomena of devel-
opment in a fecundated egg, exactly as has been proved (by
Huxley) to be the case in the Aphides." .... "The only
difference consists in the germ-chambers of the Cecidomyide
larvae separating from the germ-stock, and moving about freely
in the cavity of the body, whilst in the Aphides they remain
permanently attached, and constitute an apparatus which, in
its form and arrangement, reproduces the conditions of the
female organs."

Another case of psedogenesis, which unites that of Miastor
with the parthenogenesis of the Cocci dee, has been discovered
by Grimm who found, in the spring of 1869, the pupa of a
species of Chironomus laying eggs. But in the autumn other
pupae become flies without laying eggs, while the fly itself de-
posits a larger number of eggs than the spring pupa. Grimm
also found that on removing from the perfectly developed in-
sect, before it has left the pupa-case, the eggs which would
otherwise have been fertilized, and preserving them in water,
the development of the larva took place in them also, but
lasted a little longer (about six days). Previous to the forma-
tion of the primitive band, the germ develops as in the Coc-
cidce ; afterwards it resembles that of other Diptera (Simu-
/wm and Chironomidce).

Dimorphism is intimately connected with agamic reproduc-
tion. Thus the asexual Aphis, and the perfect female, may be
called dimorphic forms. Or the perfect female may assume
two forms, so much so as to be mistaken for two distinct spe-
cies. Thus Cynips quercus-spongiftca occurs in male and female
broods in the spring, while the fall brood of females were

DIMORPHISM. 53

described as a separate species, C. aciculata. Mr. B. D. Walsh
considers the two sets of females as dimorphic forms, and he
thinks that C. aciculata lays eggs which produce C. quercus-
spongifica.

Huber supposes there are two sizes of the three forms (i. e.
male, female, and worker) of Bombus, one set being a little
larger than the other.

Alfred Wallace has discovered that there are two forms of
females of Papilio Memnon of the East Indies ; one is normal,
having its wings tailed and resembles a closely allied species,
Papilio Coon, which is not dimorphous, while the other is tail-
less, resembling its tailless male. Papilio Pammon has three
sorts of females, and is hence "trimorphic." One of its forms
predominates in Sumatra, and a second in Java, while a third,
(described as P. Romulus) abounds in India and Ceylon. P.
Ormenus is trimorphic, as Mr. Wallace obtained in the island
of Waignion, "a third female quite distinct from either of the
others, and in some degree intermediate between the ordinary
male and female." Much the same thing occurs in the North
American P. Turnus. Papilio Glaucus is now known to be a
dimorphic form of the former butterfly, both having, according
to Mr. Uhler, been bred from the same batch of eggs. Mr,
W. H. Edwards has found that Papilio Ajax is polymorphous,
the same batch of eggs giving rise to P. Ajax, and varieties
Walshii, Telamonides, and Marcellus. The male sex also pre-
sents dimorphic forms. Mr. Pascoe states that there are di-
morphic forms of Anthribidce; that they occur in the males
of Stenocerus and Micoceros. Six species of Dytiscus have two
female forms, the most common having the elytra deeply sul-
cate, while in the rarer forms the elytra are smooth as in the
male.

There is a tendency, we would observe, in the more abnor-
mal of the two sexual forms, to revert to a lower type. Thus
the agamic Aphis is more generally wingless, and the tailless
female butterfly mimics the members of a lower genus, Pieris.
The final cause of Dimorphism, like that of agamic reproduc-
tion, is the continuance of the species, and is, so far as yet
known, an exceptional occurrence.

Mimetic forms. Many insects often resemble, in a remark-

54: THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

able manner, those of other groups. They are called mimetic
forms. Insects are related to each other by analogy and affin-
ity. Thus the truly tailless species of Papilio, i. e. those where
the tail is absent in both sexes, are related by affinity to Pie-
ris, which has rounded hind wings. They also stand next to
Pier is in the system of Nature. But there are, on the other
hand, mimetic forms, which borrow the features of groups far
above them in the natural system. Thus the Sesia resembles a
Bee, Bombylius and Laphria resemble Bombus; the Syrphus
flies are easily mistaken for Wasps. So in the second series
of suborders of Insects, Forficula resembles the Staphylinus ;
Termes resembles the true Ant ; Psocus, the Aphis; Ascalaphus
resembles Papilio ; Mantispa recalls the Orthopterous Mantis, and
Panorpa reminds us of the Tipulce (Bittacus being strikingly
analogous to the Dipterous Bittacomorpha) . Thus these lower,
more variable groups of insects strive, as it were, to connect
themselves by certain analogous, mimetic forms, with the more
stable and higher groups.

Comprehensive types are mimetic forms which combine the
characters of other and generally higher groups. Thus each
Neuropterous family contains mimetic forms which ally them
strongly with some one of the six other suborders of insects.
The early fossil insects are remarkable for combining the char-
acters of groups which appear ages after. The most remark-
able comprehensive type is a Carboniferous insect, the Eugereon
Boeckingi mentioned farther on.

HYBRIDITY. Hybrids are sometimes produced between differ-
ent species, but though it is known that different genera unite
sexually, we know of very few authentic instances of the pro-
duction of hybrids therefrom. One is related by Mr. Midford,
who exhibited at the March 4th (1861) meeting of the London
Entomological Society, hybrids produced from a male Phiga-
lia pilosaria, and a female Nyssia hispidaria. " The males
resemble JV. hispidaria, but in color have the lighter and
greener tint and transparency of wing of P. pilosaria."

THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS. Immediately after the fer-
tilization of the egg, the first act in the organization of the

THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS.

future embryo is the formation of the germinal layer, or blas-
toderm (from the Greek, meaning primitive skin) . This layer
is formed at the surface out of a surface-layer of largerj often
nucleolated, cells which nearly encompass the yolk-mass. At
one point there is a break in this cellular layer, and the yolk
granules reach to the surface, so that it appears darker than
the other parts of the egg. This cellular layer is soon resolved
into the blastoderm, or germinal layer, which thickens and
narrows, forming a longitudinal band. This is the first stage
of the embryo, which lies as a thin layer of cells upon the outer
surface of the yolk. Both ends of the body are alike, and we
shall afterwards see that its back lies next to the centre of the
egg, its future ventral side looking outwards. The embryo is
thus bent on itself backwards.

In the next stage the blastoderm divides into a certain num-
ber of segments, or joints, which appear as indentations in the
body of the embryo. The head can now be distinguished from
the posterior end chiefly by its larger size, and both it and the
tail are folded back upon the body of the embryo, the head
especially being sunk backwards down into the yolk-mass.

In a succeeding stage, as we have observed in the embryo of
Diplax, a Dragon-fly (Fig. 57), the head is partially sketched

Fig. 58.

out, with the rudiments of the limbs and mouth-parts ; and the
sternites, or ventral walls/ of the thorax and of the two basal
rings of the head appear. The anterior part of the head, in-
cluding the so-called "procephalic lobes" overhangs and con-

FIG. 57. Side view of embryo. The procephalic lobes are not shown. 1, antennae;
2, mandibles; 3, maxillae; 4, second maxillae (labium); 5-7, legs. These numbers
and letters are the same in all the figures from 57-60. The under-side (sternum)
of six segments are indicated. FIG. 58. Ventral view of the same.

56 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

ceals the base of the antennae. It is probable that more
careful observation would have shown the end of the abdomen
folded back upon the dorsal region, as usual at this period in
the embryos of those insects whose embryology has been
studied.

The antennae, mandibles, and maxillae form a group by them-
selves, while the second maxillae (or labium) are very much
larger and turned backwards, being temporarily grouped with
the legs.

There are traces only of the two basal sterna of the abdo-
men. This indicates that the basal abdominal segments grow
in succession from the base of the abdomen, the middle ones
appearing last. The post-abdomen (Fig. 59 A) has probably
been developed synchronous with the procephalic lobes, as it is
in all insect and crustacean embryos yet observed. As stated
by Zaddach, these two lobes in their development are exact
equivalents ; antero- posterior symmetry is very clearly de-
marked, the two ends of the body at first looking alike. But
in this stage, after the two ends of the body have been evolved
from the primitive cell-layer, development in the post-abdomi-
nal region is retarded, that. of the head progressing with much
greater rapidity.

In the next stage (not figured) the yolk is completely walled
in, though no traces of segments appear on the back or side of
the embryo. The revolution of the embryo has taken place ;
the post-abdomen being curved beneath the body, and the back
presenting outwards.

The rudiments of the eyes appear as a darker, rounded mass
of cells indistinctly seen through the yolk-granules, and situ-
ated at the base of the antennae. They consist of a few epithe-
lial cells of irregular form, the central one being the largest.

The second maxillae are a little over twice the length of the
first maxillae and are grouped with the legs, being curved back-
wards. They are, however, now one-third shorter than the an-
terior legs. The second maxillary sternum is still visible.

The tip of the abdomen (or post-abdomen) consists of four
segments, the terminal one being much the larger, and ob-
scurely divided into two obtuse lobes.

The abdominal sternites are now well marked, and the ner-

THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS.

32 E

1 C

vous cord is represented by eight or nine large oblong-square
'seen sideways) ganglia, which lie contiguous to each other.

The formation of the eyes, the post-abdomen, the sternites,
and median portion of the nervous cord seems nearly synchro-
nous with the closing up of the dorsal walls of the body, though
the division of the tegument into segments has not apparently
taken place over the yolk-mass.

The succeeding stage (Fig. 59) is signalized by the appear-
ance of the rudiments of the intestine,
while the second maxillae are directed
more anteriorly.

In form the body is ovate-cylin-
drical, and there is a deep constric-
tion separating the post -abdomen
from the anterior part of the abdo-
men.

The terminal (eleventh) ring is
immensely disproportioned to its size in the embryo just pre-
vious to hatching (see Fig. 61, where it forms a triangular piece

situated between its appendages,
the anal stylets). At a later
period of this stage two more ab-
dominal segments have been added,
one to the end of the main body
of the abdomen, and another to
the post- abdomen. They have
been apparently interpolated at the
junction of the post-abdomen to
the abdomen proper. Should this
observation be proved to be correct, it may then be considered
as a rule that, after reaching a certain number of segments, all
additional ones are interpolated between the main body of the
abdomen and its terminal segment or segments. This is the
law of increase in the number of segments in Worms, and in
Myriopods (lulus, according to Newport's observations), in
Arachnids (Claparede), and Crustacea (Rathke).

The next stage (Fig. 60), is characterized by the differentia-

FIG. 59. An embryo much farther advanced, c, clypeus; E, eye; A, bi-lobed
extremity of the abdomen ; i, the rudiments of the intestines.

c!23

THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

tion of the head into the rudiments of the antennary ring, and
the supraclypeal piece, and clypeus, together with the approx-
imation of the second pair of maxillae, which, when united, form
the labium, the extremities of which are now situated in the
middle of the body. r<a

The antennae now extend to the middle of the labium, just
passing beyond the extremities of the mandibles and maxillae.
The oesophagus can also be seen going from the mouth-opening
situated just beneath the labium. It curves around just behind
the eyes. There are at this period no appearances of movable
blood-disks or of a dorsal vessel.

The abdomen is now pointed at the extremity and divided
into the rudiments of the two anal stylets, which form large,
acute tubercles. The yolk-mass is also almost
entirely inclosed within the body walls, form-
ing an oval mass.

Another embryo, observed July 27th, had
reached about the same stage of growth. The
front of the head, including the antennary
segment, is farther advanced than before. The
entire head is divided into two very distinct
regions ; i. e. one before the mouth-opening
(the preoral region, including the antennary,
or first segment of the head, carrying the
organs of vision ; namely, the ocelli and com-
pound eyes, and the organs of sense, or an-
tennae) ; and the other behind the mouth
(pastoral) consisting of the mandibular, or
second segment, the first maxillary, or third segment, and the
second maxillary, or labial, being the fourth and last segment.
At a later period the embryo is quite fully formed, and is
about ready to leave the egg. The three regions of the body
are now distinct. The articulations of the tergum are present,
the yolk-mass being completely inclosed by the tergal walls.

FIG. 61. The embryo taken from the egg, but nearly ready to hatch. T, the
dotted line crosses the main trachea, going through the yolk-mass, now restricted
to the thoracic region. At x, the tracheae send off numerous branches around an
enlargement of the intestine (colon), where the blood is aerated ; better seen in fig.
62. The abdomen consists of eleven segments, the last being a minute triangular
piece.

Fig. 61.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS.

The body is so bent upon itself that the extremities of the
second maxillae just overlap the tip of the abdomen.

The two limbs of the labium are now placed side by side,
with the prominent spinous appendage on the outer edges of
the tip. These spines are the rudiments of the labial palpi.

The general form of the embryo at a still later period (Fig.
61), on being taken from the egg and straightened out, re-
minds us strikingly of
the Thysanura, and, in
these and other re-
spects, tend to prove
that the Podurse and
Lepismse, and allied
genera, are embryonic,
degraded forms of Neu-
roptera, and should
therefore be considered
as a family of that sub-
order. Seen laterally,
the body gradually ta-
pers from the large N
head to the pointed ex-
tremity. The body is
flattened from above
downwards . At this
stage the appendages
are still closely ap-
pressed to the body.

Just before the ex-
clusion of the embryo,
the legs and mouth-
parts stand out freer Fig. 62.
from the body. The labium, especially, assumes a position at
nearly right angles to the body. The antennae, mandibles,
and maxillae have taken on a more definite form, being like

FIG. 62. The larva just hatched and swimming in the water. N, ventral cord or
nervous ganglia; D, dorsal vessel, or "heart," divided into its chambers. The
anal valves at the end of the abdomen, which open and shut during respiration, are
represented as being open. Both of the dotted lines cross the tracheae, x, net-
work of the tracheae, surrounding the cloaca.

THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

Fig. 63.

that of the young larva, and stand out free from the body.
The head is much smaller in proportion to the rest of the
body, and bent more upon the breast.

The Larva (Fig. 62)
when hatched is about
five hundredths of an
inch in length. The
head is now free and
the antennae stand out
free from the front.
The thorax has greatly
diminished in size,
while the abdomen has
become wider, and the
limbs very long ; and
the numerous minute tubercles, seen in the preceding stage,
have given origin to hairs. The dorsal vessel can now, for the
first time, be seen. When in motion, the resemblance
to a spider is most striking. The flow of blood to
the head, and the return currents through the lacunar
or venous circulation along the side of the body were
easily observed. The vessels were not crowded with
blood disks, the latter being few in number, only one
Fig. 64. or two passing along at a time. Two currents, pass-
ing in opposite directions, were observed in the legs.

FIG. 63. Side view of the head of the larva of Diplax before the first moult, c,
deciduous tubercles terminating in a slender style; their use is unknown; they
have not been observed in the full-grown larva, e, the compound eyes. 1, the
three jointed antennae, the terminal joint nearly three times as long as the two
basal ones. 2, the mandibles, and also enlarged, showing the cutting edge divided
into four teeth. 3, maxillae divided into two lobes : d, the outer and anterior lobe,
2-jointed, the basal joint terminating in two setae; and a, the inner lobe concealed
from view, in its natural position, by the outer lobe, d. 4, the base or pedicel of
the second maxillae, or labium, the expanded terminal portion being drawn sepa-
rately; d and a, two movable stout styles representing, perhaps, the labial palpi;
the lobe to which they are attached is multidentate, and adapted for seizing
prey ; on the right side the two styles are appressed to the lobe, x represents,
perhaps, the ligula; but we have not yet studied its homologies carefully: this
part is attached to a transversely linear piece soldered to the main part of the
labium. y, the llth abdominal ring, with its pair of conical anal styles. 2, the
last tarsal joint and pair of long slender claws.

FIG. 64. The pupa of Diplax, having rudimentary wings, in which the eyes are
much larger, and the legs much shorter than in the recently hatched larva; in-
troduced to be compared with the young larva. Figs. 57-64, original.

TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE INSECT. 61

On review it will be seen how remarkable are the changes in
form of the insect before it is hatched, and that all are the
result of simple growth. We have seen that the two ends of
the body are first formed, and that the under side of the body
is formed before the back ; that the belly is at first turned out-
wards, and afterwards the embryo reverses its position, the
back presenting outwards. All the appendages are at first
simple protrusions from the body-walls, and new segments are
interpolated near the tip of the abdomen. These changes take
place very rapidly, within a very few days, and some of the
most important and earlier ones in a few hours. We can now
better understand that the larva and pupa stages are the result
of a similar mode of growth, though very marked from being
in a different medium, the insect having to seek food and act
as an independent being.

TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE INSECT. We have seen that
during the growth of the embryo, the insect undergoes remark-
able changes of form, the result of simple growth. The meta-
morphoses of the animal within the egg are no less marked
than those which occur after it has hatched. It will also be
seen that the larva and pupa stages are not always fixed, defi-
nite states, but only pauses in the development of the insect,
concealing beneath the larva and pupa skins the most impor-
tant changes of form.

The process of hatching. No other author has so carefully
described the process of hatching as Newport, who observed
it in the larva of Meloe. "When the embryo larva is ready
for its change, the egg-shell becomes thinned and concave on
that side which covers the ventral surface of the body, but is
much enlarged, and is more convex on the dorsal, especially
towards the head. The shell is then burst longitudinally along
the middle of the thoracic segments, and the fissure is ex-
tended forwards to the head, which then, together with the
thoracic segments, is partially forced through the opening, but
is not at once entirely withdrawn. The antennae, parts of the
mouth, and legs are still inclosed within separate envelopes,
and retain the larva in this covering in the shell. Efforts are
then made to detach the posterior segments of the body, which

62 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

are gradually released, and with them the antennae, palpi, and
legs, and the larva removes itself entirely from the shell and
membranes. In this process of evolution the young Meloe
throws off two distinct coverings : first, the shell with its lining
membrane, the analogue of the membrane in which, as I have
elsewhere shown,* the young Myriopod is inclosed, and re-
tained several days after the bursting of the ovum, and which
represents in the Articulata, not the allantois, but apparently
the amnion, of Vertebrata ; next, the first, or foetal deciduation
of the tegument, analogous probably to the first change of skin
in the Myriopod, after it has escaped from the amnion, and
also to the first change which the young Arachnidan invariably
undergoes a few clays after it has left the egg, and before it
can take food. This tegument, which, perhaps, may be analo-
gous to the vernix caseosa of Vertebrata, thrown off at the
instant of birth, is left by the young Meloe with the amnion
in the shell ; and its separation from the body, at this early
period, seems necessary to fit the insect for the active life it
has commenced." (Linn. Trans, xx. p. 306, etc.)

The larva state. The larva (Latin larva, a mask) was so
called because it was thought to mask the form of the perfect
insect. The larvae of Butterflies and Moths are called cater-
pillars; those of Beetles, grubs; and those of the two-winged
Flies (Diptera) maggots; the larvae of other groups have no
distinctive common names.

As soon as it is hatched the larva feeds voraciously, as if in
anticipation of the coming period of rest, the pupa state, for
which stores of fat (the fatty bodies) are developed for the
supply of fat globules out of which the tissues of the new
body of the pupa and imago are to be formed.

Most larvae moult, or change their skin, four or five times.
In the inactive thin-skinned larvae, such as those of Bees,
Wasps, and Gall-flies, the moults are not apparent ; as the
larva increases in size it out-grows the old skin, which comes
off in thin shreds. But in the active larvae, such as cater-
pillars, grasshoppers, and grubs, from the rapid absorption of
vessels in the outer layer of the skin, just before the change,

* Philosophical Transactions, Pt. 2, 1841, p. 111.

TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE INSECT. 63

it becomes hard and dry, and too small for the growing in-
sect, and is then cast off entire.

A series of bee-larvae can be selected showing a graduation
in size and form from the egg and recently hatched larva up to
the full-grown larva. In the caterpillar and other active larvae,
there are usually four or five stages, each showing a sudden and
marked increase in size. Newport states that the caterpillar
of Sphinx ligustri moults six times, and at the last moult be-
comes a third larger than at any earlier period ; the larva of
Arctia coy a moults from five to ten times.

A few days before the assumption of the pupa state, the
larva becomes restless, stops eating, and deserts its food, and
usually spins a silken cocoon, or makes one of earth, or chips,
if a borer, and there prepares for the change to the pupa state.

During this semipupa period (lasting, in many insects, only
for a day or several days, but in some Saw-flies through the
winter) the skin of the pupa grows beneath that of the quies-
cent larva. While the worm-like larva exhibits no trire-
gional distinctions, the muscles of the growing pupa contract
and enlarge in certain parts so as to modify the larva form,
until it gradually assumes the triregional form of the adult
insect, with the differentiation of the body into a head, thorax,
and abdomen.

In a series of careful studies, abundantly illustrated with
excellent plates, Weismann has recently shown that Swammer-
dam's idea that the pupa and imago skins were in reality
already concealed under that of the larva is partially founded
in truth. Swammerdam states, "I can point out in the larva
all the limbs of the future nymph, or Culex, concealed beneath
the skin," and he also observed beneath the skin of the larvae
of bees just before pupating, the antennae, mouth-parts, wings,
and limbs of the adult. (Weismann.)

During its transformations the pupa skin is developed from
the hypodermis, or inner layer of skin. This peals off, as it
were, from the inner layer of the old larva skin, which soon
dries and hardens, and is thrown off. Meanwhile the muscles
of the body contract and change in form, thus causing the origi-
nal segments of the larva to infold and contract at certain parts,
gradually producing the pupa form. If, during this period, the

64 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

insect be examined at intervals, a series of slight changes of
form may be seen, from the larva to the imago state. In some
cases each change is accompanied by a moult, as in the "ac-
tive " Ephemera, where Lubbock counted twenty one moults.

As a general rule, then, it may be stated that the body of
the larva is transformed into that of the imago ; ring answer-
ing to ring, and limb to limb in both, the head of the one
is homologous with that of the other, and the appendages of
the larva are homologous with the appendages of the imago.

Weismann has shown that in the larva of the Meat-fly, Musca
vomitoria, the thorax and head of the imago are developed
from what he calls "imaginal disks." These disks are minute
isolated portions of the hypodermis, which are formed in the
embryo, before it leaves the egg, and are held in place within
the body-cavity of the larva by being attached either to nerves
or tracheae, or both. After the outer layer of the larva skin
dries and hardens, and forms the cask-shaped puparhim, the
use of which corresponds to the cocoon of moths, etc., these
imaginal disks increase in size so as to form the tegument of
the thorax and head. The abdomen of the Meat-fly, however,
is formed by the direct conversion of the eight hinder segments
of the body of the larva, into the corresponding segments of
the imago.

Accompanying this change in the integument there is a
destruction of all the larval system of organs ; this is either
total or effected by the gradual destruction of tissues. Now
we see the use of the "fatty body;" this breaks up, setting
free granular globules of fat, which, as we have seen in the
embryo, produces by the multiplication of cells the new tissues
of the pupa. Thus the larva- skin is cast aside, and also the
softer organs within, but the formation of new tissues keeps
even pace with the destruction of the old, and the insect pre-
serves its identity throughout. The genital glands, however,
are indicated even in the embryo, and are gradually developed
throughout the growth of the insect, so that this histotysis, or
destruction of tissues, is not wholly complete. The quiescent
pupa-state of Musca is long-continued, and its vitality is latent,
the acts of respiration and circulation being almost suspended.
(Weismann. )

TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE INSECT. 65

In the metamorphosis of Corethra, a Mosquito-like Fly, which
is active both in the larva and pupa states, "the segments of
the larva are converted directly into the corresponding seg-
ments of the body of the imago, the appendages of the head
into the corresponding ones of the. head of the imago ; those
of the thorax are produced after the last moult of the larva
as diverticula of the hypodermis round a nerve or trachea,
from the cellular envelope of which the formation of tissue in
the interior of the appendages issues. The larval muscles of
the abdominal segments are transferred unchanged into the
imago ; the thoracic muscles peculiar to the imago, as also
some additional abdominal muscles, are developed in the last
larval periods from indifferent cellular cords which are indi-
cated even in the egg. The genital glands date back to the
embryo, and are gradually developed ; all the other systems of
organs pass with little or no alteration into the imago. Fatty
body none or inconsiderable. Pupa-state short and active."
(Weismann.)

As the two types are most clearly discriminated by the
presence or absence of true imaginal disks, Weismann suggests
that those insects which undergo a marked metamorphosis
might be divided into Insecta discota (or Insects with imaginal
disks), and those without, into Insecta adiscota.

The metamorphosis of Corethra may prove to be a type of
that of all insects which are active in their preparatory stages ;
and that of Musca typical of all those that are quiescent in the
pupa-state, at least the Lepidoptera and those Diptera which
have a coarctate * pupa, together with the Coleoptera and those
Neuroptera in which the metamorphosis is complete, as Pliry-
ganea, Hemerobius, etc.

The transformations of the Humble-bee are easily observed
by taking a nest after the first brood have matured, when we
shall find individuals in all stages of development from the
larva to the imago state. The figures below show four stages,
but in reality there is every gradation between these stages.

*The larvae of some of the higher Diptera spin a slight cocoon, while the true
flies, such as the Muscidse and Syrphidae, etc., change to pupse within the larva
skin which contracts into a cylindrical "puparium" corresponding in use to the
cocoon; such pupae are called "coarctate."

THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

Fig. 64 shows what we may call the semipupa, concealed by
the old larval skin. There are ten pairs of stigmata, two
thoracic and eight abdominal. The head of the semi-pupa
lies under the head (a) and prothoracic ring (6). The basal
ring of the abdomen (c), or fourth ring from the head, is un-
changed in form. This figure also will suffice to represent

k I

Fig. 65.

Fig. 66. Fig. 67.

the larva, though a little more produced anteriorly than in
its natural form.

In another stage (Fig. 65) of the semi-pupa, the larval skin
is entirely sloughed off, the two pairs of wing-pads lying paral-
lel, and very equal in size, like the wings of Netiroptera. The
thoraco- abdominal ring, or propodeum (c), is distinguished by
its oblong spiracle (n), essentially differing from those on
the abdomen. At this point the body contracts, but the head

TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE INSECT. 67

and thorax together are yet, as still more in the previous
stage, much smaller than in the pupa, and there is still a con-
tinuous curve from the tip of the abdomen to the head. (0,
antenna ; 7i, lingua, maxillae, and palpi ; i, fore-legs ; ,;', mid-
dle legs ; ft, meso-scutum ; Z, meso-scutellum ; w, spiracle of
the propodeum.)

In a succeeding stage (Fig. 66) of the semi-pupa, the head
and thorax together nearly equal in size the abdomen, and the
propodeum (c) has become entirely transferred to the thorax.
The head has become greatly enlarged ; the rings are very un-
equal, the hinder pair are much smaller, and overlaid by the
anterior pair ; the three terminal pair of abdominal rings, so
large in Fig. 65, have been absorbed, and partially inclosed in
the cavity of the abdomen ; and there has been a farther dif-
ferentiation of the ring into the sternite (d), pleurite (e), and
tergite (/). (a, eye; 7i, lingua; o, ovipositor, two outer
rhabdites exposed to view.) The abdominal: spiracles in Figs.
65 and 66, are represented by a row of dots. In the pupa
they are concealed by the tergites, which overlap the sternites.

Fig. 67 represents the pupa state, where the body has become
much shorter, and the appendages of the head and thorax greatly
differentiated ; the external genital organs are wholly retracted
within the cavity of the abdomen ; the head is freer from the
body, and the whole bulk of the head and thorax together, in-
cluding the appendages, greater than that of the abdomen.
These changes of form, assumed by the insect in its passage
from the larva to the pupa state, are nearly as striking as
the so-called " hypermetamorphosis " of Meloe and Sitaris
described by Newport and Fabre. (7, mesoscutellum ; p, cly-
peus ; g, maxillae with the palpi ; r, lingua.)

We have also observed similar changes in the semi-pupa of a
Tineid larva, which we found in the mud-cells of Odynerus
albophaleratus. There were over a dozen specimens in different
stages of growth from the larva to the pupa, which were but
partially paralyzed by the well-directed sting of the intelligent
wasp, so that some continued to transform into perfect pupae.

The following changes were noticed : the larva straightened
out, and became a little shorter, the prothoracic ring remaining
the same ; the head of the pupa being beneath it ; the meso-

68 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

thoracic ring enlarged, swelling and rounding above and on the
sides, and with this increase in size drawing the meta-thorax
forwards. The first visible portion of the pupa beneath is the
mesothorax. The thoracic legs of the larva are now con-
stricted at their base, and have become useless.

In the next stage, the most important change noticed is in
the metathorax, which now becomes broadly heart-shaped. In
a succeeding stage, the whole thorax bulges out, and is much
larger and clearly distinguished from the head and abdomen.
The prothorax of the larva disappears, and that of the pupa
takes its place. The occiput of the pupa, just before the larva-
skin is thrown off, can be distinctly seen under the larval occi-
put, pushing aside each half of the latter.

In the last stage of Bombus just before the imago leaves its
cell, the body and limbs are surrounded by a thin pellicle.
This pellicle also envelops the moth, just before it leaves the
pupal state, and is cast off when it moults the pupa-skin. This
is probably identical with the skin cast by the active subimago
of Ephemera, soon after it has taken its flight. Westwood also
considers this subimago skin identical with that covering the
bodies of coarctate Diptera, as in Eristalis.

Newport states, that when the imago of Sphinx is about to
cast off the pupa-skin the abdominal segments are elongated
beyond their original extent, this being the first part of the
insect that is entirely freed from its attachment within the
pupa-case. After this the thorax slits down, and the body is
drawn out of the rent. In the Butterfly the wings mature in a
few moments, but those of /Sphinx being thicker, require two
or three hours.

Newport (Philosophical Transactions, London, 1832 and
1834) has detailed with great minuteness the internal changes
of Sphinx ligustri while transforming. The most marked
changes are in the nervous and digestive systems.

Several anomalous modes of metantorphosis have been ob-
served, one in Diptera and the other in Sitaris and Meloe. The
development of the latter insect will be noticed beyond.

Sir John Lubbock has described the singular metamorphosis
of Lonchoptera, which he considers to be allied to Sargus,
though the adult stages differ greatly. The larvae are oblong

TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE INSECT. 69

ovate, flattened, with four long setae in front and two behind,
with the sides of the body emarginate and spinulated. They
were found under logs. "When the larva is full grown, it de-
taches itself from the skin, which retains its form, and within
which the insect changes into a white opaque fleshy grub con-
sisting apparently of thirteen segments which gradually dimin-
ish in size from one end to the other. There are no limb-cases.
According to analogy the pupa should be i incomplete ; ' it is
probable, therefore, that the legs and wings njake their appear-
ance at a later stage. If this be so the perfect form is only
attained after passing through three well-marked stages. I re-
gret, however, that the specimens at my disposal did not enable
me to decide this point." (Trans. Ent. Soc. London, Third
Ser. i, 1862.)

Haliday states that Thrips goes through a propupa and pupa
stage. There are five well-defined stages in the Homopterous
Typhlocyba, and more than three in Aphis. Yersin has noticed
several stages in the development of Oryllus campestris, and
the genus Psocus has four such stages.

The duration of the different stages varies with the changes
of the seasons. Cold and damp weather retards the process of
transformation. Reaumur kept the pupa of a Butterfly two
years in an ice-house before, on being removed to a warm place,
it changed to a butterfly. Chrysalids survive great alter-
nations of heat and cold ; they may be frozen stiff on ice, and
then, on being gradually exposed to the heat, thaw out and
finish their transformations.

Retrograde Development. There are certain degradational
forms among the lowest members of each group of Insects
which imitate the group beneath them. The Tardigrades (which
are considered by some authors to be allied to the Mites) are
mimicked by the low parasitic worm-like Demodex folliculorum ;
the low Neuroptera, such as Lepisma. imitate the Myriopoda ;
and the wingless Lice remind us of the larvse of the Neuropter-
ous HemeroUus.

Among the Coleoptera, the history of Stylops affords a strik-
ing example. The active six-footed larva is transformed into
the strange bag-like female which takes on the form of a cylin-
drical sac, the head and thorax being consolidated into a

70 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

minute flattened portion. The process of degradation here
seems carried out to its farthest limit.

Thus the degraded forms of the lower series of Hexapods
take on a Myriopod aspect. In the more highly cephalized
Diptera, Lepidoptera, and Hymenoptera the degraded forms
are modelled on a higher articulate type. The idea of a divis-
ion into three regions is involved. Thus the wingless forms
of Flies, such as the Bird-louse, Nirmus; the Bat-tick, Nycte-
ribia; the Bee-lojise, Braida; and Chionea resemble strikingly
the biregional Arachnids.

In the wingless female of Orgyia and the Canker-worm moth,
the head is free, but the thorax is merged into the abdomen.
The resemblance to the lower insects is less striking. The
worker ants and wingless Ichneumons, Pezomachus, still more
strictly adhere to the type of their suborder, and in them the
triregional form of the body persists. Among the first of the
examples here cited we have seen the workings of a law, by
which most degraded forms of insects (and this law is exerted
with greater force in Crustacea) tend to revert to the worm-like,
or, as we may call it, the archetypal, form of all Articulata.

We have seen that many winged forms mimic the groups
above them, whereas the wingless degraded species revert to a
worm-like form. In either case, the progress is towards a
higher or a lower form. The latter is the more exceptional, as
the evolution and growth of all animals is upwards towards a
more specialized, differentiated form.

The Imago. After completing its transformations the adult
insect immediately seeks to provide for the propagation and
continuance of the species. The sexes meet, and, soon after,
the male, now no longer of use in the insect economy, perishes.
The female hastens to lay her eggs either in, upon, or near
what is to be the food of the young, and then dies. This
period generally occurs in the summer and autumn, and during
the winter the species is mostly represented by the egg alone.
Rarely does the adult insect hibernate, but in many species
the pupa hibernates to disclose the adult in early summer.
The larva seldom, as such, lives through the winter.

Re'aumur kept a virgin butterfly for two years in his hot-
house. From this it would seem that the duration of the life

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. 71

of an insect may be in this way greatly prolonged. Most in-
sects live one year. Hatching from the egg in early summer,
they pass through the larva state, and in the autumn become
pupae, to appear as images for a few days or weeks in the
succeeding summer. Many Lepidoptera are double-brooded, and
some have even three broods, while the parasitic insects such as
Lice and Fleas, and many Flies, keep up a constant succession
of broods. Warmth, Mr. R. C. R. Jordan remarks in the Ento-
mologists' Monthly Magazine, has much to do with rapidity
of development, as insects may be forced artificially into hav-
ing a second brood during the same season. Some Coleoptera,
such as the Lamellicorns, are supposed to live three years in
the larva state, the whole time of life being four years. The
Cockchafer (Melolontha) of Europe is three years in arriving
at the perfect state, and the habits of the Goldsmith Beetle
(Cotalpa lanigera), according to Rev. Samuel Lockwood
(American Naturalist, vol. 2, p. 186), and of the June Beetle,
and allied genera, are probably the same.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. The insect-fauna of a coun-
try comprises all the insects found within its limits. The
Polar, Temperate, and Tropical zones each have their distinct
insect-fauna, and each continent is inhabited by a distinct
assemblage of insects. It is also a curious fact that the insect-
fauna of the east coast of America resembles, or has many an-
alogues in, that of the Eastern hemisphere, and the west coast
of one repeats the characteristics of the west coast of the
other. Thus some California insects are either the same spe-
cies or analogues (i.e. representative species) of European
ones, and the Atlantic coast affords forms of which the ana-
logues are found in Eastern Asia and in India. This is corre-
lated with the climatic features which are repeated on alternate
sides of the two hemispheres.

The limits of these faunae are determined by temperature and
natural boundaries, i. e. the ocean and mountain ranges; Thus
the insect-fauna of the polar regions is much the same in
Europe, Asia, and North America ; certain widely spread polar
species being common to all three of these continents.

When we ascend high mountains situated in the temperate

72 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

zone, whose summits nearly reach the snow-line, we find a
few insects which are the same or very similar to those of the
polar regions ; such an assemblage is called an Alpine fauna.

The insect-fauna of each great continent may be divided into
an Arctic, or polar, a Temperate, and a Tropical fauna, and an
Alpine fauna if there are mountains in the warm latitudes which
reach near the snow-line. Mountain barriers, inland seas, des-
erts, and peculiarities in the flora (or collection of plants
peculiar to a certain district), are boundaries of secondary
importance in limiting the distribution of species.

On the other hand insects are diffused ~by winds, rivers,
oceanic currents, and the agency of man. By the latter im-
portant means certain insects become cosmopolitan. Certain
injurious insects become suddenly abundant in newly cultivated
tracts. The balance of nature seems to be disturbed, and
insects multiplying rapidly in newly settled portions of the
country, become terrible pests. In the course of time, how-
ever, they seem to decrease in numbers and moderate their
attacks.

Insect-faunae are not limited by arbitrary boundaries, but
fade into each other by insensible gradations corresponding in
a general way to the changes of the temperature of different
portions of the district they inhabit.

The subject of the geographical distribution of insects, of
which we have as yet but given the rudiments, may be studied
to great advantage in North America. The Arctic insect-fauna
comprises Greenland, the arctic American Archipelago, and the
northern shores of the continent beyond the limit of trees. A
large proportion of the insects found in this region occur in
arctic Europe and arctic Asia, and are hence called circum-
polar, while other species are indigenous to each country.
Again, the arctic fauna of Labrador and Hudson's Bay differs
from that of the arctic portions of the region about Behring's
Straits, certain species characterizing one side of the continent
being replaced by representative species which inhabit the
opposite side.

The Alpine fauna of the White Mountains consists, besides
a very few peculiar to them, of circumpolar species, which are
now only found in Labrador and Greenland, and which are

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. 73

supposed to be relics of a glacial fauna which formerly inhab-
ited the northern part of the temperate zone, and in former
times followed the retreat of a glacial, or arctic climate from
the low-lands to the Alpine summits. These patches, or out-
liers, of an Arctic fauna, containing however a preponderance
of subarctic forms, also occur in the Colder parts of New
England.

The subarctic fauna is spread over British North America,
stretching north-westerly from the interior of Labrador and the
northern shores of the St. Lawrence, following the course of
the isothermal lines which run in that direction, and north of
which no cereals grow. There are subarctic forms which inhabit
the shores of the Bay of Fundy, especially about Eastport,
Maine, where the fogs and cold arctic marine currents lower
the climate.

Dr. J. L. Leconte, in a paper on the Coleoptera of Kansas
and Eastern New Mexico (Smithsonian Contributions to Knowl-
edge), thus subdivides the Coleopterous fauna of the United
States, and gives a useful map to which the reader is referred.

"The whole region of the United States is divided by merid-
ional, or nearly meridional lines into three, or perhaps four,
great zoological districts, distinguished each by numerous
peculiar genera and species, which, with but few exceptions, do
not extend into the contiguous districts. The eastern one
of these extends from the Atlantic Ocean to the arid prairies on
the west of Iowa, Missouri, and Arkansas, thus embracing
(for convenience merely) a narrow strip near the sea-coast of
Texas. This narrow strip, however, belongs more properly
to the eastern province of the tropical zoological district of
Mexico.

"The central district extends from the western limit of the
eastern district, perhaps to the mass of the Sierra Nevada of
California, including Kansas, Nebraska, Utah, New Mexico,
Arizona, and Texas. Except Arizona, the entomological fauna
of the portion of this district west of the Rocky Mountains,
and in fact that of the mountain region proper, is entirely un-
known ; and it is very probable that the region does in reality
constitute two districts bounded by the Rocky Mountains, and
the southern continuation thereof.

74 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

"The western district is the maritime slope of the continent
to the Pacific, and thus includes California, Oregon, and Wash-
ington Territories.

"These great districts are divided into a number of prov-
inces, of unequal size, and which are limited by changes in
climate, and therefore sometimes distinctly, sometimes vaguely
defined."

"The method of distribution of species in the Atlantic and
Pacific districts, as already observed by me in various memoirs,
is entirely different. In the Atlantic district, a large number
of species are distributed over a large extent of country ; many
species are of rare occurrence, and in passing over a distance
of several hundred miles, but small variation will be found in
the species obtained. In the Pacific district, a small number-
of species are confined to a small region of country ; most
species occur in considerable numbers, and in travelling even
one hundred miles, it is found that the most abundant species
are replaced by others, in many instances very similar to them ;
these small centres of distribution can be limited only after
careful collections have been made at a great number of locali-
ties, and it is to be hoped that this very interesting and im-
portant subject of investigation may soon receive proper atten-
tion from the lovers of science of our Pacific shores.

" In the Central district, consisting, as it does to a very
large extent, of deserts, the distribution seems to be of a mod-
erate number of species over a large extent of country, with a
considerable admixture of local species ; such at least seems to
be the result of observations in Kansas, Upper Texas, and
Arizona."

There are a very few species which range from New England
to Brazil, and fewer still (Xyleutes robinice, according to Bois-
duval, is found in California) range from New England to
California. Junonia ccem'a, according to authors, is found both
in the Southern States and California, and Pyrrliarctia Isabella
of the Eastern States would be easily confounded with P. Cali-
fornica.

Variation. Islands afford more variable forms than conti-
nents ; the Madeiran insects and those of Great Britain vary
more than the same species found on the continent of Europe.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. 75

A species spread through two zones of temperature also varies j
many European species, according to McLachlan, becoming
"melanized" in going northward, while others become paler.
Such varieties have been described as different species.

Mr. Alfred Wallace finds that the most constant forms of
species are those the most limited in their geographical range
as to a particular island, while those species, which range over
a large part of the Malayan Archipelago, vary very consider-
ably. It is a general rule throughout the animal and vegetable
world, that the most widely spread species are those capable of
withstanding the greatest climatic changes, and adapting them-
selves to the greatest diversities of topography.

While the most widely distributed species are thought to be
the most variable, Mr. Scudder finds in the genus Chionobas
that C. semidea, restricted to the summit of Mt. Washington
varies almost as much as C. Oeno, which is circumpolar, being
found both in Labrador and Northern Europe.

Mr. Wallace (Transactions of the Linnsean Society, xxv,
1865, p. 14) mentions the following facts "as showing the
special influence of locality in giving a peculiar fades to the
several disconnected species that inhabit it."

" On examining the closely allied species, local forms, and
varieties distributed over the Indian and Malayan regions, I
find that larger or smaller districts, or even single islands, give
a special character to the majority of their Papilionidse. For
instance: 1. The species of the Indian region (Sumatra, Java,
and Borneo) are almost invariably smaller than the allied spe-
cies inhabiting the Celebes and Moluccas ; 2. The species of
New Guinea and Australia are also, though in a less degree,
smaller than the nearest species or varieties of the Moluccas ;
3. In the Moluccas themselves the species of Amboyna are larg-
est ; 4. The species of Celebes equal or even surpass in size those
of Amboyna ; 5. The species and varieties of Celebes possess
a striking character in the form of the anterior wings, differing
from that of the allied species and varieties of all the surrounding
islands ; 6. Tailed species in India or the Indian region become
tailless as they spread eastward through the archipelago."

Variety breeding. Varieties may be produced artificially ;
thus negro varieties of insects may be raised "from parents

76 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

more or less tainted with melanism, and according to Knaggs,
there is a "frequent recurrence of individuals wanting a hind
wing, which may be noticed even at large in Macaria notata."
"Few species are liable to the same extent of variation, and
many apparently to none at all." Certain species vary "ac-
cording as they may have reproduced, generation after gen-
eration, on a chalky, peaty, gravelly, or other soil." Food also
exerts an influence in inducing variation, according as cater-
pillars of the same species feed on different plants ; this occurs
most Commonly in the Micro-lepidoptera. (Knaggs, in the
Entomologist's Monthly Magazine, London.)

Introduced species of insects, like those of plants, often thrive
more vigorously than the native forms. This is instanced by
native insects which abound in unusual numbers in newly
cleared districts where the former presence of forests and
their natural foes kept them under. The Potato-beetle, Can-
ker-worm, and Clisiocampa must have lived formerly in mod-
erate numbers on our native plants, where now countless hosts
affect our introduced plants. Among species introduced from
a foreign country we have only to instance the Hessian Fty,
the Wheat-midge, the Coddling-moth, the Clothes-moth, the
Apple Bark-louse, and the Grain-weevil. Mr. W. T. Brig-
ham informs us that some of the most abundant insects in the
Hawaiian Islands are introduced species carried by vessels
from Europe. Vanessa Antiopa, Pyrameis cardui, and P.
Atalanta, so abundant in this country, are supposed to be intro-
duced butterflies. Aphodius fimetarius, found by us living in
dung on Mt. Washington, is one of our most common beetles,
and the Asparagus-beetle, introduced from Europe a few years
since, is common in gardens in Eastern New York, while Mr.
Walsh has recorded the appearance of the European Gooseberry
Saw-Fly, which ravages the Gooseberry and Currant. Pieris
rapce, the Cabbage-butterfly, introduced from Europe into
Quebec about 1859, soon became abundant within a circle of
forty miles radius about that city, and has even spread into
Maine and Vermont along the railroads leading from Quebec.

Insect Years. There are insect years as well as "apple
years," seasons when insects most abound. Every collector
knows that there are certain years when a particular species of

GEOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION. 77

insect is unusually common. The Army-worm, Leucania uni-
puncta, swarms in countless numbers in a summer following
a dry and warm spring. After a cold and rainy spring, insects
are less abundant. Mr. F. Smith remarks that in England the
summer and autumn of 1860 were unusually wet, which dis-
abled the bees, wasps, and fossorial hymenoptera generally, in
building their nests. We know how ants are hindered from
building their nests by rain, and in a very r&my season num-
bers probably die. A succession of rainy seasons caused the
Andrense, or Spring bees, to disappear from the vicinity of
London. While a severe winter, if the cold be continuous, is
not injurious to insects, mild periods in winter, when it is warm
enough to rouse them from torpidity, are as fatal to insects as
to vegetation, should severe cold immediately follow.

GEOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION. The geological distribution of
insects corresponds generally with that of other animals,
though insect-remains are few in number, owing naturally to
the difficulty with which their fragile forms are preserved
in the rocks. Professor C. F. Hartt has discovered near St.
John, New Brunswick, the oldest insect-remains in the world.
They occur in some plant-beds of the Upper Devonian forma-
tion, and consist of six species of Neuroptera. Mr. Scudder,
who has referred to them in vol. 1 of the American Naturalist,
states that with the exception of one or two Ephemeridse, or
May-flies, they mostly represent families which are now extinct.
He describes a gigantic May-fly, Platephemera antiqua (PL 1 ,
fig. 3) ; Litlientomum Harttii (PL 1, fig. 5) ; Homothetus fossi-
lis (PL 1, fig. 7) ; and Xenoneura anti-quorum which is supposed
to bear a stridulating organ like that of the Grasshoppers,
so that he "is inclined to believe there were chirping Neu-
roptera in those days."

Ascending to the Carboniferous rocks, insect-remains appear
more abundant. At Morris, Illinois, have been collected some
remarkable forms. Among them are Miamia Bronsonii Dana
(PL 1, fig. 1), allied to the White Ants and Hemeristia occi-
dentalis Dana, allied to Hemerobius and Chrysopa. From the
same locality Mr. Harger has described Arthrolycosa antiqua
(Fig. 68), a singular form with a jointed abdomen.

78 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

In the Coal-beds of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, sev-
eral interesting Myriopodous, Neuropterous
and Orthopterous insects have been found ;
among them a Cockroach, Archimulacris
Acadica (PL 1,* fig. 2). In Europe, Car-
boniferous insects have been discovered at
Wettin, Saarbriick, etc.

The insects from these two formations
show a tendency to assume gigantic and
strange shapes. They are also compre-
Fig. 68. hensive types, combining the characters of

different families and even different suborders. The most re-
markable instance is the Eugereon Boeckingii Dohrn, from the
Coal Formation of Germany. It has been referred by Dr.
Hagen, with some doubt, to the Hemiptera, from its long im-
mense rostrum into which all the mouth-parts are produced, the
labium ensheathing them as usual in the Hemiptera. Its fore-
legs are large and raptorial ; but the filiform many-jointed an-
tennae, and the net-veined wings are Neuropterous characters.
Hence Dohrn considers it as a comprehensive type uniting

* EXPLANATION OF PLATE 1.

Fig. 1. Miamia Bronsonii. A Neuropterous insect found in iron-stone concre-
tions in the Carboniferous beds at Morris, Illinois. The figure is magnified one-
third, and has all its parts restored ; the dotted lines indicate the parts not existing
on the stone. Reduced from a figure in the Memoirs of the Boston Society of Nat-
ural History, Vol. I.

Fig. 2. Archimulacris Acadica. Wing of a Cockroach observed by Mr. Barnes
in the coal-formation of Nova Scotia.

Fig. 3. Platephemera antiqua. A gigantic May-fly obtained by Mr. Hartt in the
Devonian rocks of New Brunswick.

Fig. 4. Xylobius sigillarice. The Myriopod (or Gaily- worm) found in the coal-
formation of Nova Scotia, by J. W. Dawson. Copied from a figure in Dr. Dawson's
Air-breathers of the Coal-period. Magnified.

Fig. 5. Lithentomum Hartii. A Neuropterous insect, the specimen first dis-
covered by Mr. Hartt in the Devonian rocks of New Brunswick. This fossil, and
those accompanying it, are the oldest insect-remains in the world.

Fig. 6. Three facets from the eye of an insect, considered by Dr. Dawson a
Dragon-fly. It was found in coprolites of reptiles in the rocks containing the My-
riopod, represented in Fig. 4. Copied from Dr. Dawson's figure, greatly magnified.

Fig. 7. Homothetus fossilis. A Neuropterous insect from the Devonian rocks of
New Brunswick ; it was discovered by Mr. Hartt.

Fig. 8. HaplophleUum Barnesii. A curious Neuropterous insect, of large size,
probably allied to our May-flies; taken by Mr. Barnes from the coal of Cape Bre-
ton.

These figures, with the exception of 1, 4, and 6, are of life size, and borrowed
from the new edition of Dr. Dawson's Acadian Geology.

Plate 1.

Fig.2.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 4.

Fig. 7.

Fig. 8.

FOSSIL INSECTS.

GEOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION. 79

the characters of the Neuroptera and Hemiptera. It is a
large insect, spreading about two inches ; its body must have
measured over an inch in length.

In the Mesozoic rocks, the celebrated Solenhofen locality in
Bavaria is rich in Liassic insect-remains. Dr. Hagen (Ento-
mologist's Annual, London, 1862) states that among the Solen-
hofen fossils the Neuroptera and Orthoptera are most largely
represented ; as out of four hundred and fifty species of insects,
one hundred and fifty are Neuroptera, of which one hundred
and thirty-six are Dragon-flies, and besides "there is a Cory-
dalus, one Chrysopa, a large Apochrysa, and a beautiful
Nymplies. The last two genera, which do not seem very remote
from Chrysopa, are now found only in the Southern Hemi-
sphere, Nymphes is peculiarly an Australian genus."

The Lias of England is very rich in fossil insects, especially
the Purbeck and Rhoetic Beds (see Brodie's Work on Fos-
sil Insects and also Westwood in the Geological Journal, etc.
Vol. X.).

In the Trias, or New-Red Sandstone of the Connecticut
Valley, Professor Hitchcock has found numerous remains of
the larva of an aquatic insect.

The insects of the Tertiary formation more closely resemble
those of the present day. The most celebrated European
localit} T is GEningen in Switzerland.

According to Professor O. Heer, over five thousand specimens
of fossil insects have been found at CEningen, comprising 844
species, of which 518 are Coleopterous. From all Tertiary
Europe there are 1,322 species, as follows : 166 Hymenoptera,
18 Lepidoptera, 166 Diptera, 660 Coleoptera, 217 Hemiptera,
39 Orthoptera, and 56 Neuroptera.

"If we inquire to what insect-fauna of the present period
the Tertiary fauna is most analogous, we shall be surprised to
find that most of the species belong to genera actually found in
the old and the new world. The insect-fauna of (Eningen con-
tains 180 genera of this category, of which 114 belong to the
Coleoptera. Of these last, two (Dineutes and Caryborus) re-
main in Europe, while all the others are now found living both
in Europe and in America. The whole number of Coleopterous
genera furnished by CEningen, and known to me, amount to

80 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

158 ; those that are common to both hemispheres forming then
more than two-thirds of the whole number, while of the actual
Coleopterous fauna of Europe, according to the calculation of
M. Lacordaire, there is only one-third. The genera found to-day
in both parts- of the world have then during the Tertiary epoch
played a more important part than is the case now ; hence
the knowledge of the character of the fauna is rendered more
difficult. We find at CEningen but a very small number (five)
of genera exclusively European ; seventeen are found to-day
in Europe, in Asia, and in Africa, but not in America. For the
most part they belong to the Mediterranean fauna (comprising
eight genera) and give to the insect-fauna of CEningen a strong
proportion of Mediterranean forms. In this fauna I only know
of one exclusively Asiatic genus ; two are peculiar to Africa,
and two others (Anoplites and Naupactus) are American.

"There are now living, however, in Europe certain genera
which, without being exclusively American, since they are found
in Asia and in Africa, belong more peculiarly to America ; such
are Belostomum, Hypselonotus, Diplonyclius, Evagorus, Sten-
opoda, Plecia, Caryborus, and Dineutes. . . . The genera peculiar
to our fauna of Tertiary insects amount to forty-four, of which
twenty-one belong to the Coleoptera; among the Orthoptera
there is one, and six Hymenoptera, six Diptera, and eleven
Hemiptera. They comprise 140 species." (Heer.)

An apparently still richer locality for Tertiaiy insects has
been discovered by Professor Denton west of the Rocky Moun-
tains, near the junction of the White and Green Rivers, Colo-
rado. According to Mr. Scudder "between sixty and seventy
species of insects were brought home, representing nearly all
the different suborders ; about two-thirds of the species were
Flies, some of them the perfect insect, others the maggot-like
larvae, but, in no instance, did both imago and larva of the
same insect occur. The greater part of the beetles were quite
small ; there were three or four kinds of Homoptera (allied to
the tree-hoppers), Ants of two different genera, and a poorly
preserved Moth. Perhaps a minute Tlirips, belonging to a
group which has never been found fossil in any part of the
world, is of the greatest interest."

He thus sums up what is known of American fossil insects.

THE DISEASES OF INSECTS. 81

"The species of fossil insects now known from North America,
number eighty-one : six of these belong to the Devonian, nine
to the Carboniferous, one to the Triassic, and sixty-five to the
Tertiary epochs. The Hymenoptera, Honioptera, and Diptera
occur only in the Tertiaries ; the same is true of the Lepidop-
tera, if we exclude the Morris specimen, and of the Coleoptera,
with one Triassic exception. The Orthoptera and Myriopods
are restricted to the Carboniferous, while the Neuroptera occur
both in the Devonian and Carboniferous formations." Mr.
Scudder describes from the Carboniferous formation of Nova
Scotia, besides Xylobius sigillarice Daws., four additional spe-
cies (X. similis, fractus and Dawsoni, and Arcliiulus xylobio-
ides, n. g. and sp.), forming the family Archiulidce.

THE DISEASES OF INSECTS have attracted but little atten-
tion. They are so far as known mostly the result of the attacks
of parasitic plants and animals, though epidemics are known
to break out and carry off myriads of insects. Dr. Shinier
gives an account of an epidemic among the Chinch bugs, which
"was at its maximum during the moist warm weather that fol-
lowed the cold rains of June and the first part of July, 1865."

Species of microscopic plants luxuriate in infinitesimal for-
ests within the alimentary canal of some wood-devouring insects,
and certain fungi attack those species which are exposed to
dampness, and already enfeebled by other causes. Among the
true entophyte, or parasitic plants, which do not however ordi-
narily occasion the death of their host, Professor Leidy describes
Enterobryus elegans, E. spiralis, E. alternatus, Arthromitus
cristatus, Cladophytum comatum, and Corynodadus radiatus,
which live mostly attached to the mucous walls of the interior
of the intestine of Julus marginatus and two other species of
Julus, and Passalus cornutus. Eccrina longa Leidy, lives in
Polydesmus Virginiensis ; and E. moniliformis Leidy in P.
granulatus.

But there are parasitic fungi that are largely destructive to
their hosts. Such are Sphaeria and Isaria. "These fungi
grow with great rapidity within the body of the animal they
attack, not only at the expense of the nutritive fluids of the
latter, but, after its death, all the interior soft tissues appear

82 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

to be converted into one or more aerial receptacles of spores."
(Leidy.) These fungi, so often infesting caterpillars, are hence
called "caterpillar fungi." They fill the whole body, distend-
ing even the legs, and throw out long filaments, sometimes
longer than the larva itself, giving a grotesque appearance to
the insect. Leidy has found a species which is very common
in the Seventeen-year Locust, Cicada septendecim. He found
"among myriads of the imago between twelve and twenty
specimens, which, though living, had the posterior third of the
abdominal contents converted into a dry, powdery, ochreous-
yellow, compact mass of sporuloid bodies." He thinks this
Cicada is very subject to the attacks of these fungi, and that
the spores enter the anal and genital passages more readily
than the mouth ; thus accounting for their development in the
abdomen.

The most formidable disease is the " Muscardine" caused by
a fungus, the Botrytus Bassiana of Balsamo. It is well known
that this disease has greatly reduced the silk crop in Europe.
Balbiani has detected the spores of this fungus in the eggs of
Bombyx mori as well as in the different parts of the body of
the insect in all stages of growth. Extreme cleanliness and
care against contagion must be observed in its prevention.

Among plants a disease like Muscardine, due to the presence
of a minute fungus (Mucor mellitopJiorus) , fills the stomach
of some insects, including the Honey-bee, with its colorless
spores, and greatly weakens those affected. Another fungus,
JSporendonema muscce, infests the common House-fly.

Another Silk-worm disease called ' ' Pebrine" carries off many
silk-worms. Whether it is of pathological or vegetable origin
is not yet settled.

There are also a few intestinal worms known to be para-
sitic in insects. The well-known "Hair-worm" (Gordius)
in its young state lives within the body of various insects in-
cluding the Spiders. The tadpole-like young differs greatly
from the parent, being short, sac-like, ending in a tail. Upon
leaving the egg they work their way into the body of insects,
and there live on the fatty substance of their hosts, where they
undergo their metamorphosis into the adult hair-like worm,
and make their way to the pools of water in which they live

THE DEFORMITIES OF INSECTS. 83

and beget their species, and lay "millions of eggs connected
together in long cords." Leidy thus writes regarding the
habits of a species which infests grasshoppers.

"The number of Gordii in each insect varies from one to five,
their length from three inches to a foot ; they occupy a position
in the visceral cavity, where they lie coiled among the viscera,
and often extend from the end of the abdomen forward through
the thorax even into the head ; their bulk and weight are fre-
quently greater than all the soft parts, including the muscles,
of their living habitation. Nevertheless, with this relatively
immense mass of parasites, the insects jump about almost as
freely as those not infested.

"The worms are milk-white in color, and undivided at the
extremities. The females are distended with ova, but I have
never observed them extruded. When the bodies of Grass-
hoppers, containing these entozoa, are broken and lain upon
moist earth, the worms gradually creep out and pass below its
surface."

Goureau states that Filaria, a somewhat similar worm, in-
habits Hibernia brumata and Vanessa prorsa. (Ann. Ent. Soc.
France.)

Siebold describes Gordius subbifurcus which infests the
Honey-bee, especially the drones, though it is rather the work-
ers, which frequent the pools where the Gordii live, that we
would expect to find thus infested. Another entozoan is Mer-
mis albicans of Siebold, which is a very slender whitish worm
much like Gordius, and about five inches long. It is found in
the drone of the honey-bee and in some other insects.

Deformities of Insects. Numerous instances of supernume-
rary legs and antennae are recorded. The antennae are some-
times double, but more commonly the legs. "Of these As-
muss has collected eight examples, and it is remarkable that in
six of them the parts on one side are treble." Newport, from
whom we have quoted, states that "the most remarkable ex-
ample is that given by Lefebvre of Scarites Pyraclimon in which
from a single coxa on the left side of the prosternum two tro-
chanters originated. The anterior one, the proper trochanter,
supported the true prothoracic leg ; while the posterior one, in
the form of an oblong lanceolate body, attached to the base of

84 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

the first, supported two additional legs equally well formed as
the true one."

The wings are often partially aborted and deformed ; this is
especially noticeable in the wings of butterflies and moths.
Mr. F. G. Sanborn has described and
figured a wing of a female of Libellula
luctuosa Burm. (Fig. 69), in which
among other deformities "the ptero-
Fig. 69. stigma is shorter and broader than that

of the opposite wing, and is situated about one-eighth of an inch
only from the nodus, only one cubital vein occurring between
them, instead of fourteen as in the opposite wing." (Proceed-
ings of the Boston Society of Natural History, vol. xi, p. 326.)

DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS.
Insects differ sexually in that the female generally appears to
have one abdominal ring less (one ring disappearing during the
semi-pupa state, when the ovipositor is formed), and in being
larger, fuller, and duller colored than the males, while the lat-
ter often differ in sculpture and ornamentation. In collect-
ing, whenever the two sexes are found united they should be
pinned upon the same pin, the male being placed highest.
When we take one sex alone, we may feel sure that the other
is somewhere in the vicinity ; perhaps while one is flying about
so as to be easily captured, the other is hidden under some
leaf, or resting on the trunk of some tree near by, w r hich must
be examined and every bush in the vicinity vigorously beaten
by the net. Many species rare in most places have a metropolis
where they occur in great abundance. During seasons when
his favorites are especially abundant the collector should lay
up a store against years of scarcity.

At no time of the year need the entomologist rest from his
labors. In the winter, under the bark of trees and in moss he
can find many species, or on trees, etc., detect their eggs, which
he can mark for observation in the spring when they hatch out.

He need not relax his endeavors day or night. Mothing is
night employment. Skunks and toads entomologize at night.
Early in the morning, at sunrise, when the dew is still on
the leaves, insects are sluggish and easily taken with the hand ;

COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS. 85

so at dusk, when many species are found flying, and in the
night, the collector will be rewarded with many rarities, many
species flying then that hide themselves by day, while many
caterpillars leave their retreats to come out and feed, when the
lantern can be used with success in searching for them.

Wollaston (Entomologist's Annual, 1865) states that sandy
districts, especially towards the coast, are at all times prefer-
able to clayey ones, but the intermediate soils, such as the
loamy soil of swamps and marshes are more productive. Near
the sea, insects occur most abundantly beneath pebbles and
other objects in grassy spots, or else at the roots of plants.
In many places, especially in Alpine tracts, as we have found
on the summit of Mt. Washington and in Labrador, one has to
lie down and look carefully among the short herbage and in
the moss for Coleoptera.

The most advantageous places for collecting are gardens and
farms, the borders of woods and the banks of streams and
ponds. The deep, dense forests, and open, treeless tracts are
less prolific in insect life. In winter and early spring the moss
on the trunks of trees, when carefully shaken over a newspaper
or white cloth, reveal many beetles and Hymenoptera. In the
late summer and autumn, toadstools and various fungi and rot-
ten fruits attract many insects, and in early spring when the
sap is running we have taken rare insects from the stumps of
freshly cut hard- wood trees. Wollaston says, " Dead animals,
partially-dried bones, as well as the skins of moles and other
vermin which are ordinarily hung up in fields are magnificent
traps for Coleoptera ; and if any of these be placed around or-
chards and inclosures near at home, and be examined every
morning, various species of Nitidulce, Silphidoe, and other
insects of similar habits, are certain to be enticed and cap-
tured.

"Planks and chippings of wood may be likewise empkwed
as successful agents in alluring a vast number of species which
might otherwise escape our notice, and if these be laid down
in grassy places, and carefully inverted every now and then
with as little violence as possible, many insects will be found
adhering beneath them, especially after dewy nights and in
showery weather. Nor must we omit to urge the importance

86 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

of examining the under sides of stones in the vicinity of ants'
nests, in which position, during the spring and summer months,
many of the rarest of our native Coleoptera may be occasion-
ally procured." Excrementitious matter always contains many
interesting forms in various stages of growth.

The trunks of fallen and decaying trees offer a rich harvest
for many wood-boring larvae, especially the Longicorn beetles,
and weevils can be found in the spring, in all their stages. Nu-
merous carnivorous Coleopterous and Dipterous larvae dwell
within them, and other larvae which eat the dust made by the
borers. The inside of pithy plants like the elder, raspberry,
blackberry, and syringa, are inhabited by many of the wild
bees, Osmia, Ceratina, and the wood-wasps, Crabro, Stigmus,
etc., the habits of which, with those of their Chalcid and Ich-
neumon parasites, offer endless amusement and study.

Ponds and streams shelter a vast throng of insects, and
should be diligently dredged with the water-net, and stones
and pebbles should be overturned for aquatic beetles, He-
miptera, and Dipterous larvae.

The various sorts of galls should be collected in spring and
autumn and placed in vials or boxes, where they may be rear-
ed, and the rafters of out-houses, stone-walls, etc., should be
carefully searched for the nests of Mud-wasps.

Collecting Apparatus. First in importance is the net. This
is made by attaching a ring of brass wire to a handle made
to slide on a pole six feet long. The net may be a foot in
diameter, and the bag itself made of thin gauze or mosquito-
netting (the finer, lighter, and more durable the better), and
should be about twenty inches deep. It should be sewed to a
narrow^ border of cloth placed around the wire. A light net
like this can be rapidly turned upon the insect w r ith one hand.
The insect is captured by a dexterous twist which also throws
the bottom over the mouth of the net. The insect should be
temporarily held between the thumb and fore-finger of the hand
at liberty, and then pinned through the thorax while in the net.
The pin can be drawn through the meshes upon opening the
net. The beating-net should be made much stouter, with a shal-
Jower cloth bag and attached to a shorter stick. It is used for
beating trees, bushes, and herbage for beetles and Hemiptera

COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS. 87

and various larvae. Its thorough use we would recommend in
the low vegetation on mountains and in meadows. The water-
net may be either round or of the shape indicated in Fig. 70.
The ring should be made of brass, and
the shallow net of grass-cloth or coarse
millinet. It is used for collecting aqua-
tic insects.

Various sorts of forceps are indispen- Fig. 70.

sable for handling insects. Small delicate narrow-bladed for-
ceps with fine sharp points in use by jewellers, and made
either of steel or brass, are excellent for handling minute
specimens. For larger ones long curved forceps are very con-
venient. For pinning insects into boxes the forceps should be
stout, the blades blunt and curved at the end so that the insect
can be pinned without slanting the forceps much. The ends
need to be broad and finely indented by lines so as to firmly
hold the pin. With a little practice the forceps soon take the
place of the fingers. They will have to be made to order by
a neat workman or surgical-instrument maker. Some persons
use the ordinary form of pliers with curved handles, but they
should be long and slender. A spring set in to separate the
handles when not grasped by the hand is a great convenience.

Various pill-boxes, vials, and bottles must always be taken,
some containing alcohol or whiskey. Many collectors use a
wide-mouth bottle, containing a sponge saturated with ether,
chloroform, or benzine, or bruised laurel leaves, the latter be-
ing pounded with a hammer and then cut with scissors into
small pieces, which give out exhalations of prussic acid strong
enough to kill most small insects.

Besides these the collector needs a small box lined with
corn-pith, or cork, and small enough to slip into the coat-
pocket ; or a larger box carried by a strap. Most moths and
small flies can be pinned alive without being pinched (which
injures their shape and rubs off the scales and hairs) , and then
killed by pouring a little benzine into the bottom of the box.

Killing Insects for the Cabinet. Care in killing affects very
sensibly the looks of the cabinet. If hastily killed and dis-
torted by being pinched-, with the scales rubbed off and other-
wise mangled, the value of such a specimen is diminished

88 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

either for purposes of study or the neat appearance of the col-
lection.

Besides the vapor of ether, chloroform, and benzine, the
fumes of sulphur readily kill insects. Large specimens may
be killed by inserting a pin dipped in a strong solution of ox-
alic acid. An excellent collecting bottle is made by putting
into a wide-mouth bottle two or three small pieces of cyanide
of potassium, which may be covered with cotton, about half-
filling the bottle. The cotton may be covered with paper
lightly attached to the glass and pierced with pin-holes ; this
keeps the insect from being lost in the bottle. For Diptera,
Loew recommends moistening the bottom of the collecting box
with creosote. This is excellent for small flies and moths, as the
mouth of the bottle can be placed over the insect while at rest ;
the insect flies up into the bottle and is immediately suffocated.
A bottle well prepared will, according to Laboulbene, last
several months, even a year, and is vastly superior to the old
means of using ether or chloroform. He states, " the incon-
venience of taking small insects from a net is well known, as
the most valuable ones usually escape ; but by placing the end
of the net, filled with insects, in a wide-mouthed bottle, and
putting in the cork for a few minutes, they will be suffocated."

Pinning Insects. The pin should be inserted through the
thorax of most insects. The Coleoptera, however, should be
pinned through the right wing-cover ; many Hemiptera are
best pinned through the scutellum. The specimens should all
be pinned at an equal height, so that about one-fourth of the
pin should project above the insect.

The best pins are those made in Berlin by Klager. They are
of five sizes, No. 1 being the smallest; Nos. 1, 2, and 5 are
the most convenient. For very minute insects still smaller pins
are made. A very good but too short pin is made by Edles-
ton and Williams, Crown Court, Cheapside, London. Their
Nos. 19 and 20 may be used to impale minute insects upon,
and then stuck through a bit of cork, or pith, through which a
No. 5 Klager pin may be thrust. Then the insect is kept out
of the reach of devouring insects. Still smaller pins are made
by cutting off bits of very fine silvered wire at the right length,
which may be thrust by the forceps into a piece of pith, after
the insects have been impaled upon them.

COLLECTING AND PRESERVING. INSECTS. 89

Small insects, especially beetles, may be mounted on cards
or pieces of mica through which the pin may be thrust. The
French use small oblong bits of mica, with the posterior half
covered with green paper on which the number may be placed.
The insect may be gummed on the clear part, the two sexes to-
gether. The under side can be seen through the thin mica.

Others prefer triangular pieces of card, across the end of
which the insect may be gummed, so that nearly the whole un^
der side is visible.

Mr. Wollaston advocates gumming small Coleoptera upon
cards. Instead of cutting the pieces of cards first, he gums them
promiscuously upon a sheet of card-board. "Having gummed
thickly a space on your card-board equal to, at least, the entire
specimen when expanded, place the beetle upon it, drag out
the limbs with a pin, and, leaving it to dry, go on with the
next one that presents itself. As the card has to be cut after-
wards around your insect (so as to suit it), there is no advan-
tage in gumming it precisely straight upon your frame, though
it is true that a certain amount of care in this respect lessens
your after labor of cutting-off very materially. When your
frame has been filled, and you are desirous of separating the
species, cut out the insect with finely pointed scissors."

For mending broken insects, i.e. gumming on legs and an-
tennae which have fallen off, inspissated ox-gall, softened with a
little water, is the best gum.

For gumming insects upon cards Mr. Wollaston recommends
a gum "composed of three parts of tragacanth to one of
Arabic, both in powder ; to be mixed in water containing a grain
of corrosive sublimate, without which it will not keep, until
of a consistency just thick enough to run. As this gum is of
an extremely absorbent nature, nearly a fortnight is required
before it can be properly made. The best plan is to keep add-
ing a little water (and stirring it) every few days until it is
of the proper consistency. It is advisable to dissolve the grain
of corrosive sublimate in the water which is poured first upon
the gum."

Preservative Fluids. The best for common use is alco-
hol, diluted with a little water ; or whiskey, as alcohol of full
strength is too strong for caterpillars, etc., since it shrivels them

90 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

up. Glycerine is excellent for preserving the colors of cater-
pillars, though the internal parts decay somewhat, and the
specimen is apt to fall to pieces on being roughly handled.

Laboulbene recommends for the preservation of insects in a
fresh state plunging them in a preservative fluid consisting of
alcohol with an excess of arsenious acid in fragments, or the
common white arsenic of commerce. A pint and a half of al-
cohol will take about fourteen grains (troy) of arsenic. The
living insect, put into this preparation, absorbs about T <j 3 (j<y of its
own weight. When soaked in this liquor and dried, it will be
safe from the ravages of Moths, Anthrenus, or Dermestes. This
liquid will not change* the colors of blue, green, or red beetles
if dried after soaking from twelve to twenty-four hours. He-
miptera and Orthoptera can be treated in the same way.

A stay of a month in this arseniated alcohol mineralizes the
insect, so that it appears very hard, and, after drying, becomes
glazed with a white deposit which can, however, be washed off
with alcohol. In this state the specimens become too hard for
dissection and study, but will do for cabinet specimens designed
for permanent exhibition.

Another preparation recommended by Laboulbene is alcohol
containing a variable quantity of corrosive sublimate, but the
latter has to be weighed, as the alcohol evaporates easily, the
liquor becoming stronger as it gets older. The strongest soli*-
tion is one part of corrosive sublimate to one hundred of alco-
hol ; the weakest and best is one-tenth of a part of corrosive
sublimate to one hundred parts of alcohol. Insects need not re-
main in this solution more than two hours before drying. Both
of these preparations are very poisonous and should be handled
with care. The last-named solution preserves specimens from
mould, which will attack pinned insects during damp summers.

A very strong brine will preserve insects until a better liquor
can be procured. Professor A. E. Verrill recommends two sim-
ple and cheap solutions for preserving, among other specimens,
the larvae of insects "with their natural color and form remark-
ably perfect." The first consists of two and a half pounds of
common salt and four ounces of nitre dissolved in a gallon of
water, and filtered. Specimens should be prepared for perma-
nent preservation in this solution by being previously immersed

COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS. 91

in a solution consisting of a quart of the first solution and
two ounces of arseniate of potash and a gallon of water. (Pro-
ceedings Boston Society Nat. Hist., vol. x, p. 257.)

The nests, cocoons, and chrysalids of insects may be pre-
served from injury from other insects by being soaked in the
arseniated alcohol, or dipped into benzine, or a solution of car-
bolic acid or creosote.

Preparing Insects for the Cabinet. Dried insects may be
moistened by laying them for twelve or twenty-four hours in
a box containing a layer of wet sand, covered with one thick-
ness of soft paper.' Their wings can then be easily spread.
/Setting-boards for spreading the wings of insects may be made
by sawing deep grooves in a thick board, and placing a strip
of pith or cork at the bottom. The groove may be deep enough
to allow a quarter of the length of the pin to project above
the insect. The setting-board usually consists of thin parallel
strips of board, leaving a groove between them wide enough to
receive the body of the insect, at the bottom of which a strip
of cork or pith should be glued. The ends of the strips should
be nailed on to a stouter strip of wood, raising the surface of
the setting-board an inch and a half so that the pins can stick
through without touching. Several setting-boards can be made
to form shelves in a frame covered with wire gauze, so that
the. specimens may be preserved from dust and destructive in-
sects, while the air may at the same time have constant access
to them. The surface of the board should incline a little to-
wards the groove for the reception of the insect, as the wings
often gather a little moisture, relax and fall down after the
insect is dried. Moths of medium size should remain two or
three days on the setting-board, while the larger thick-bodied
Sphinges and Bombycidce require a week to dry. The wings
can be arranged by means of a needle stuck into a handle
of wood. They should be set horizontally, and the front mar-
gin of the fore-wings drawn a little forward of a line perpen-
dicular to the body, so as to free the inner margin of the hind
wings from the body, that their form may be distinctly seen.
When thus arranged, they can be confined by pieces of card
pinned to the board as indicated in figure 71, or, as we prefer,
by square pieces of glass laid upon them.

92 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

After the insects have been thoroughly dried they should not
be placed in the cabinet until after having been in quarantine
to see that no eggs of Dermestes or
Anthrenus, etc., have been deposited
on them.

For preserving dried insects in the
cabinet Laboulbene recommends plac-
ing a rare insect (if a beetle or any
Fig. 71. other hard insect) in water for an hour

until the tissues be softened. If soiled, an insect can be
cleansed under water with a fine hair-pencil, then submit it to
a bath of arseniated alcohol, or, better, alcohol with corrosive
sublimate. If the insect becomes prune-colored, it should be
washed in pure alcohol several times. This method will do
for the rarest insects ; the more common ones can be softened
on wet sand, and then the immersion in the arseniated alcohol
suffices. After an immersion of an hour or a quarter of an
hour, according to the size of the insect, the pin is not affected
by the corrosive sublimate, but it is better to unpin the insect
previous to immersion, and then pin it when almost dry.

For cleaning insects ether or benzine is excellent, applied
with a hair-pencil ; though care should be taken in using these
substances which are very inflammable.

After the specimens are placed in the cabinet, they should be
farther protected from destructive insects by placing in the
drawers or boxes pieces of camphor wrapped in paper perfo-
rated by pin-holes, or bottles containing sponges saturated with
benzine. The collection should be carefully examined every
month ; the presence of insects can be detected by the dust
beneath them. Where a collection is much infested with
destructive insects, benzine should be poured into the bottom
of the box or drawer, when the fumes and contact of the ben-
zine with their bodies will kill them. The specimens them-
selves should not be soaked in the benzine if possible, as it
renders them brittle.

Insect-cabinet. For permanent exhibition, a cabinet of shal-
low drawers, protected by doors, is most useful. A drawer
may be eighteen by twenty inches square, and two inches deep
in the clear, and provided with a tight glass cover. For constant

COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS.

use, boxes made of thin, well-seasoned wood, with tight-fitting
covers, are indispensable. For Coleoptera, Dr. Leconte recom-
mends that they be twelve by nine inches (inside measurement).
For the larger Lepidoptera a little larger box is preferable.
Others prefer boxes made in the form of books, which may be
put away like books on the shelves of the cabinet, though the
cover of the box is apt to be in the way.

The boxes and drawers should be lined with cork cut into
thin slips for soles ; such slips come from the cork-cutter about
twelve by four inches square, and an eighth of an inch thick. A
less expensive substitute is paper stretched upon a frame. Mr.
E. S. Morse has given in the American Naturalist (vol. I, p.
156) a plan which is very neat and useful for lining boxes in a
large museum, and which
are placed in horizontal
show-cases (Fig. 72). "A
box is made of the re-
quired depth, and a light
frame is fitted to its in-
terior. Upon the upper
and under surfaces of this
frame, a sheet of white
paper (drawing or log-
paper answers the pur-
pose) is securely glued. Kg. 72.
The paper, having been previously dampened, in drying con-
tracts and tightens like a drum-head. The frame is then
secured about one-fourth of an inch from the bottom of the
box, and the pin is forced down through the thicknesses of
paper, and if the bottom of the box be of soft pine, the point
of the pin may be slightly forced into it. It is thus firmly held
at two or three different points, and all lateral movements are
prevented. Other advantages are secured by this arrangement
besides firmness ; when the box needs cleaning or fumigation,
the entire collection may be removed by taking out the frame,
or camphor, tobacco, or other material can be placed on the
bottom of the box, and concealed from sight. The annexed
figure represents a transverse section of a portion of the side
and bottom of the box with the frame. A, A, box ; B, frame ;

94 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

P, P, upper and under sheets of paper ; C, space between
lower sheet of paper and bottom of box."

Other substitutes are the pith of various plants, especially
of corn ; and palm wood, and "inodorous felt" is used, being
cut to fit the bottom of the box.

Leconte recommends that "for the purpose of distinguish-
ing specimens from different regions, little disks of variously
colored paper be used ; they are easily made by a small punch,
and should bs kept in wooden pill-boxes ready for use ; at
the same time a key to the colors, showing the regions em-
braced by each, should be made on the fly-leaf of the catalogue
of the collection." He also strongly recommends that the
" specimens should all be pinned at the same height, since the
ease of recognizing species allied in characters is greatly in-
creased by having them on the same level."

He also states that "it is better, even when numbers with
reference to a catalogue are employed, that the name of each
species should be written on a label attached to the first speci-
men. Thus the eye is familiarized with the association of the
species and its name, memory is aided, and greater power given
of identifying species when the cabinet is not at hand." For
indicating the sexes the astronomical sign $ (Mars) is used for
the male, and <j> (Venus) for the female, and 9 for the worker.

Transportation of Insects. While travelling, all hard-bodied
insects, comprising many Hymenoptera, the Coleoptera, He-
miptera, and many Neuroptera should be thrown, with their
larvae, etc., into bottles and vials filled with strong alcohol.
When the bottle is filled new liquor should be poured in, and
the old may be saved for collecting purposes ; in this way the
specimens will not soften and can be preserved indefinitely, and
the colors do not, in most cases, change. Leconte states that
"if the bottles are in danger of being broken, the specimens,
after remaining for a day or two in alcohol, may be taken out,
partially dried by exposure to the air, but not so as to be brit-
tle, and these packed in layers in small boxes between soft
paper; the boxes should then be carefully closed with gum-
paper or paste, so as to exclude all enemies."

Lepidoptera and Dragon-flies and other soft-bodied insects
may be well preserved by placing them in square pieces of pa-

REARING LARV^. 95

per folded into a triangular form with the edges overlapping.
Put up thus, multitudes can be packed away in tin boxes, and
will bear transportation to any distance. In tropical climates,
chests lined with tin should be made to contain the insect-
boxes, which can thus be preserved against the ravages of
white ants, etc.

In sending live larvae by mail, they should be inclosed in lit-
tle tin boxes, and in sending dry specimens, the box should be
light and strong, and directions given at the post-office to
stamp the box lightly. In sending boxes by express they
should be carefully packed in a larger box, having an inter-
space of two inches, which can be filled in tightly with hay or
crumpled bits of paper. Beetles can be wrapped in pieces of
soft paper. Labels for alcoholic specimens should consist
of parchment with the locality, date of capture, and name of
collector written in ink. A temporary label of firm paper with
the locality, etc., written with a pencil, will last for several
years.

Preservation of Larvce. Alcoholic specimens of insects, in all
stages of growth, are very useful. Few collections contain al-
coholic specimens of the adult insect. This is a mistake. Many
of the most important characters are effaced during the drying
process, and for purposes of general study alcoholic speci-
mens, even of Bees, Lepidoptera, Diptera, and Dragon-flies are
very necessary.

Larvce^ generally, may be well preserved in vials or bottles
of alcohol. They should first be put into whiskey, and then
into alcohol. If placed in the latter first, they shrivel and
become distorted. Mr. E. Burgess preserves caterpillars with
the colors unchanged, by immersing them in boiling water
thirty or forty seconds, and then placing them in equal parts
of alcohol and water. It is well to collect larvae and pupae
indiscriminately, even if we do not know their adult forms ; we
can approximate to them, and in some cases tell very exactly
what they must be.

REARING LARVAE. More attention has been paid to rearing
Caterpillars than the young of any other suborder of insects,
and the following remarks apply more particularly to them, but

96 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

very much the same methods may be pursued in rearing the
larvae of Beetles, Flies, and Ifymenoptera. Subterranean
larvae have to be kept in moist earth, aquatic larvae must be
reared in aquaria, and carnivorous larvae must be supplied
with flesh. The larvae of Butterflies are rare ; those of
moths occur more frequently, while their imagos may be
scarce. In some years many larvae, which are usually rare,
occur in abundance, and should then be reared in numbers.
In hunting for caterpillars bushes should be shaken and
beaten over newspapers or sheets, or an umbrella; herbage
should be swept, and trees examined carefully for leaf-rollers
and miners. The best specimens of moths and butterflies are
obtained by rearing them from the egg, or from the larva or
pupa. In confinement the food should be kept fresh, and the
box well ventilated. Tumblers covered with gauze, pasteboard
boxes pierced with holes and fitted with glass in the covers, or
large glass-jars, are very convenient to use as cages. The bot-
tom of such vessels may be covered with moist sand, in which
the food-plant of the larva may be stuck and kept fresh for
several days. Larger and more airy boxes, a foot square, with
the sides of gauze, and fitted with a door, through which a bot-
tle of water may be introduced, serve well. The object is to
keep the food- plant fresh, the air cool, the larva out of the sun,
and in fact everything in such a state of equilibrium that the
larva will not feel the change of circumstances when kept in
confinement. Most caterpillars change to -pupae in the autumn ;
and those which transform in the earth should be covered with
earth, kept damp by wet moss, and placed in the cellar until the
following summer. The collector in seeking for larvae should
carry a good number of pill-boxes, and especially a close tin
box, in which the leaves may be kept fresh for a long time.
The different forms and markings of caterpillars should be
noted, and they should be drawn carefully together with a leaf
of the food-plant, and the drawings and pupa skins, and per-
fect insect, be numbered to correspond. Descriptions of cat-
erpillars cannot be too carefully made, or too long. The
relative size of the head, its ornamentation, the stripes and
spots of the body, and the position and number of tubercles,
and the hairs, or fascicles of hairs, or spines and spinules,

ENTOMOLOGICAL WORKS. 97

which arise from them, should be noted, besides the general
form of the body. The lines along the body are called dorsal,
if in the middle of the back, subdorsal; if upon one side, lat-
eral, and ventral when on the sides and under surface, or stig-
matal if including the stigmata or breathing pores, which are
generally parti-colored. Indeed, the whole biography of an
insect should be ascertained by the observer ; the points to
be noted are :

1. Date, when and how the eggs are laid ; and number, size,
and marking of the eggs.

2. Date of hatching, the appearance, food-plant of larva,
and number of days between each moulting ; the changes the
larva undergoes, which are often remarkable, especially before
the last moulting, with drawings illustrative of these ; the hab-
its of the larva, whether solitary or gregarious, whether a day
or night feeder ; the Ichneumon parasites, and their mode of
attack. Specimens of larvae in the different moultings should
be preserved in alcohol. The appearance of the larvae when
full-fed, the date, number of days before pupating, the forma-
tion and description of the cocoon, the duration of larvae in the
cocoon before pupation, their appearance just before changing,
their appearance while changing, and alcoholic specimens of
larvae in the act, should all be studied and noted.

3. Date of pupation ; description of the pupa or chrysalis ;
duration of the pupa state, habits, etc. ; together with alcoholic
specimens, or pinned dry ones. Lepidopterous pupae should be
looked for late in the summer or in the fall and spring, about
the roots of trees, and kept moist in mould until the imago
appears. Many Coleopterous pupae may also occur in mould,
and if aquatic, under submerged sticks and stones, and those
of borers under the bark of decaying trees.

4. Date when the insect escapes from the pupa, and method
of escape ; duration of life of the imago ; and the number of
broods in a season.

ENTOMOLOGICAL WORKS. The titles of a few of the most im-
portant works on Insects are given below. The more advanced
student should, however, possess Dr. Hagen's Bibliotheca En-
tomologica, 8vo, 2 vols., Leipzig, 1862-3, which contains a

98 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

complete list of all entomological publications up to the year
1862. Besides these he should consult the annual reports on
the progress of Entomology published in TViegmann's Archiv
fur Naturgeschichte, begun in 1834, and continued up to the
present time ; and also Giinther's Zoological Record (8vo, Van
Voorst, London), beginning with the year 1864. Occasional
articles are also scattered through the various government re-
ports, and those of agricultural societies and agricultural
papers.

GENERAL WORKS.

The works of Swammerdam, Malphighi, Leeuwenhoek, Lyonnet, Serres, Meckel,.

Ramdohr, Suckow, Merian, and Herbst.
Reaumur, Rene, Ant. de, M^moires pour servir a P Histoire des Insectes. Paris, 1734

-1742, 7 vols. 4to.
Roesel, Aug. Joh. Der monatlich herausgegeben Insekten-Belustigung. NUmberg,

1746-1761, 4 vols. 4to, illustrated.
Geer, Carl de. Memoires pour servir a 1' Histoire des Insectes, 1752-1778, 7 vols.

4 to.

Linnceus, Carolus. Systema Nahirae, 1735. 12th edition, 1766-1768.
Fabricius, Joh. Christ. Systema Entomologiae, 1775, 8vo.

. Genera Insectorum, 1777, 8vo.

i Species Insectorum, 1781. 2 vols. 8vo.

. Mantissa Insectorum, 1787, 2 vols. 8vo.

. Entomologia Systematica, 4 vols. 8vo, 1792-94.

Cramer, P. Papillons exotiques des trois parties du monde. 4 vols. 4to, 1775-82.
Stoll, Casper. Supplement to Cramer's Papillons exotiques. 4to, Amsterdam,

1787-91.
Smith, J. E.> and Abbot, John. The Natural History of the Rarer Lepidopterous

Insects of Georgia. Fol. Plates. London, 1797.
Latreille, Pierre Andre. Precis des caracteres generique des Insectes, 1796, Svo.

. Genera Crustaceorum et Insectorum, 4 vols. Svo, 1806-1809.

. Consideration generates sur P Ordre naturel des Animaux composant

les Classes des Crustaces, des Arachnides et des Insectes.

" . In Cuvier's Regne animal, Svo, 1810.

. Families naturelles du Regne animal, Svo, 1825.

. Cours d' Entomologie, Svo, 1831.

Fabricius, Otho. Fauna Groenlandica. Hafniae, 1780, Svo. Contains Libellula

virgo (erroneously), Phryganea rhombica, Termes divinatorium, etc.
Drury, Drew. Illustrations of Natural History, etc. London, 1770-1782, 4to,3 vols.

(ed. Westwood, 1&37). Numerous species are figured and described.
Treviranus, G. R. Vermischte Schriften anatomischen und physiologischen luhalts

Bd. 1 u. 2. Gottingen, 1816-17, 4to.

Mac Leay, W. S. Horae Entomologicae, 2 vols. London, 1819.
Meigen, F. W. Systematische Beschreibung der bekannten europaischen zweiflii-

geligen Insecten. 7 vols. Aachen and Hamm, 1818-1835. (Although this work

contains only European species, many of them are common to both continents.)
Say, T. American Entomology. 3 vols. With plates. Philadelphia, 1824, 25, 28.
. Complete Writings on the Entomology of North America, edited by J. L.

Leconte, M. D. 2 vols. Svo, colored plates. New York, 1859.
Baer, K. E. v. Beitrage zur Kentniss der niederen Thiere. (Extracted from Nova

Acta Acad. Leopold. Carolin. xiii. 2, 1827.)

ENTOMOLOGICAL WORKS. 99

Palisot de Beauvais, A. J. Insectes recueillis en Afrique et en Ame'rique, dans les
royaumes d' Ovvare et de Benin, a Saint-Domingue et dans les Etats-Unis, pen-
dant les annees, 1786-97. Foi. with 90 plates, Paris, 1805-21.

Savigny, J. C. de. Description de 1' Egypte. Histoire naturelle. Crustaces,
Arachnides, Myriapodes et Insectes, 53 pi. in gr. fol. Paris, 1809-1838. Ex-
plication sommaire des planches par J. V. Atidouin, Paris, 1826, fol.

Curtis, John. Description of the Insects brought home by Commander James
Clark. Ross's Second Voyage. App. Nat. Hist., 1831 , 4to, plates. (Several Arctic
species are described.)

Kirby, W. $ W. Spence. An Introduction to Entomology; or, Elements of the Nat-
ural History of Insects. 4 vols. 8vo, 1828. Seventh edition (comprising vols. 3
& 4 of the early editions). London, 1856, post 8vo.

Wiedemann,C.R,W. Aussereuropaische Zweifliigelige Insecten. 2 vols. Hamm,
1828-30. With plates.

Curtis, John. Farm Insects ; being the Natural History and Economy of the Insects
injurious to the Field Crops of Great Britain and Ireland. 8vo. With plates and
wood-cuts. 1860.

Chevrolat, Aug. Coleopteres du Mexique. Strasbourg, 1834-5.

Stephens, J. F. Illustrations of British Entomology. London, 8vo, 1835. Sev-
eral species of European Insects mentioned in this work have been found in
North America.

Kirby, W. Fauna boreali- Americana, etc. Norwich, 1837, 4to.

Kollar, V. Naturgeschichte der schaedlichen Insekten. Wien, 1837, 4to. Contains
Termesflavipes, injurious in the hot-houses of Schoenbrunn and Vienna. This
description has been omitted in the translation of this work by Mr. London,
London, 1840.

Macquart, J. Dipteres Exotique nouveaux ou pen connus. 2 vols. en 5 parties, et
5 supplements, Paris, 1838-55. With numerous plates. (Published originally in
the Memoires de la Societe" des Sciences et des Arts de Lille, 1838-55.)

Burmeister, H. Manual of Entomology, translated by W. E. Shuckard. London,
8vo, 1836.

Burmeister, Hermann. Zoologischer Hand Atlas. Berlin, 1836-43 fol., 41 plates.

Westivood, J. O. An Introduction to the Modern Classification of Insects. 2 vols.
8vo. London, 1839-40.

Cuvier, G. Le Regne animal distribue" d'apres son Organisation. Nouvelle edi-
tion, accompagnee de planches gravees, representant les types de tons les Gen-
res, etc., publiee par un reunion de Disciples de G. Cuvier. Paris, 1S49, 8vo.
Insectes, Arachnides, Crustace's par Audouin, Blanchard, Doyere, Milne-Ed-
wards et Duges. 4 vols. Texte et 4 vols. atlas.

Guerin-Meneville, F. E. Iconographie du Regne Animal de G. Cuvier, ou repre-
sentation d'apres nature de 1'une des especes les plus remarquables et sou vent
non encore figurees de chaque genre d' animaux, vols. 6 et 7 : Annelides, Crus-
taces, Arachnides et Insectes, Paris, J. B. Bailliere, 1829-44, 164 pi. 8vo.

Griffith, E. The Animal Kingdom, described and arranged in conformity with its
organization. London, 1824-33, Svo. Class Insecta, 2 vols. with 140 pi.' 1832.
Classes Annelida, Crustacea et Arachnida. 1 vol. with 60 pi.

Suites a Buffon et Nouvelles suites a Buffon. Formant avec les (Euvres de cet
auteur un Cours complet d' Histoire naturelle. Paris, Dufart, 1798-1807. Paris,
Roret, 1834-1864, Svo. (Insectes, Crustaces, Arachnides etc., par Latreille, Lacor-
daire, Amyot, Audinet-Serville, Boisduval, Guenee, Rambur, Lepeletier de St.
Fargeau, Macquart, Milne- Edivards, Walkenaer, et Gervais).

Gosse, P. H. Canadian Naturalist. London, 1840.

Zetterstedt, J. W. Insecta Lapponica. Lipsiae, 1840, 4to. Several species from
Lapland have been found in the Arctic regions of North America.

Pictet, F. Histoire naturelle, etc., des insectes Neuropteres, Part I, Perlides; Part
II, Ephemerines. Geneve, 1841-45, Svo, with colored plates.

100 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

Doubledcty, E., and Westwood, J. O. The Genera of Diurnal Lepidoptera. 86 col-
ored plates, 2 vols. fol. London, 1846-52.

Walker, F. List of the specimens of Lepidopterous, Dipterous, Neuropterous, and
Homopterous Insects in the Collection of the British Museum. London, 1848-67.

Amyot, C., and Serville, A. Hemipteres. 8vo, Paris, lloret, 1843.

Ratzeburg,J.T.C. Die Forstinsekten. 4to, 3 vols. Berlin, 1837-44.

Van der Hceven, J. Handbook of Zoology, English translation. 2 vols. 8vo, 1850.

Gerstaecker, A. Handbuch der Zoologie (in connection with V. Carus), 2 vols.
8vo. (vol. 2, Arthropoda). Leipzig, 1863.

De Selys Longchamps, E. Revue des Odonates on Libellules cV Europe avec la col-
laboration de H. Hagen. Paris, 1850, 8vo. (Memoir. Soc. R. Science de Liege,
vol. vi.) (Two species, Lib. Hudsonica, p. 53, and Agrion Doubledayi, p. 209, are
described in this work.)

Hagen, H. Revue des Odonates; Monographic des Calopterygines ; Monographic
des Gomphines (cf. Selys Longchamps).

Agassiz, L. Lake Superior, its Physical Character, its Vegetation, and its Animal 3,
Boston, 1850. With Catalogue of Coleoptera, by Dr. J. L. Leconte, and of the
Lepidoptera, by Dr. T. W. Harris.

Lacaze-Duthiers, H. Rechercb.es sur 1'armure ge"nitale femelle des Insectes.
Plates. 8vo. Paris, 1853.

Melsheimer, F. E. Catalogue of the described Coleoptera of the United States.
Smithsonian Institution. 8vo, 1853.

Dallas, W. S. Catalogue of Hemipterous Insects in the British Museum. 1,2.
Illustrated. London, 1852.

Fitch, Asa. The noxious, beneficial, and other Insects of the State of New York.
Reports 1-8, 1856-66.

Smith, Frederic. Catalogue of Hymenoptera in the British Museum. Parts i-vi.
Plates. London, 1857-58.

Fallen, C. F., Stal, C., and Fieber. Various papers on Hemiptera in Scandinavian
and German periodicals.

Hilbner, J. Sammlung Exotischer Schmetterlinge. 5 vols. 4to. Plates. 1800.

Guenee, A. Species general des Lepidopteres. (Noctuida?, Phalaenida? and Pyra-
lidse) Suite a Buffon. Paris, 8vo, 1852-57.

Stainton, H. T. The Natural History of the Tineina. 8vo, with many plates. Lon-
don, vols. 1-8, 1855-64, 8vo.

Lacordaire, J. T. Genera des Coleopteres. 8vo, tomes 1-7. Paris, Roret, 1854.

Boisduval, J. A. Histoire generate et Iconographie des Lepidopteres et des Che-
nilles de 1' Amerique septentrionale. 8vo. Paris, Roret, 1829-42.

. Species generate des Lepidopteres. 8vo. Roret, Paris, 1856.

Essai sur P Entomologie horticole. 8vo. Paris, 1867.

Practical Entomologist. Entomological Society of Philadelphia. Vols. 1, 2, 4to,
1865-67.

Harris, T. W. A Treatise on some of the Insects of New England, which are
injurious to Vegetation. Third edition, illustrated. Boston, 1862.

Leconte, J. L. Classification of the Coleoptera of North America. Part 1, 1861-2.
Smithsonian Institution.

. List of Coleoptera of North America. 8vo, 1863-6. Smithsonian Institu-
tion.

. New Species of North American Coleoptera. 8vo. Part 1, 1863-6. Smith-
sonian Institution.

. Coleoptera of Kansas and Eastern New Mexico. 4to. 3 plates. 1859.

Smithsonian Institution.

Hagen, H. Synopsis of the Neuroptera of North America. 8vo. 1861. Smith-
sonian Institution.

Morris, J. G. Catalogue of the described Lepidoptera of North America. 8vo,
1860. Smithsonian Institution.

ENTOMOLOGICAL WORKS. 101

Osten Sacken, It. Catalogue of the described Diptera of North America. 1858.

Smithsonian Institution.
Loew, H., and Osten Sacken, R. Monograph of the Diptera of North America.

Parts 1, 2, 8vo, 1802-64. Smithsonian Institution.
Trimble, I. P. A Treatise on the Insect Enemies of Fruit and Fruit Trees. The

Curculio and Apple moth. 4to. Plates. New York, 1865.

MORPHOLOGY.

Savigny, J. C. Memoires sur les Animatix sans Vertebres. 1 Partie. Description
et Classification des Animaux invertebres et articules, 1. Fascicule. The"orie des
Organes de la Bouche des Crustaces et des Insectes. Paris, 1816.

Audouin, J. V. Ilecherches anatomiques sur le Thorax des animaux articules et
celui des Insectes hexapodes en particulier. (Annales d. Scienc. natur. 1, 1824,
p. 97 and 416.)

Eschscholtz, J. F. Beschreibung des inneren Skeletes einiger Insekten aus ver-
schiedenen Ordnungen. Dorpat, 1820, 8vo, p. 24-49, 2 Taf.

Baer, K. E. V. Ueber das aussere und innere Skelet (Meckel's Archiv. f. Anatom.
u. Physiol. 1826, p. 327-374).

Erichson, W. F. Ueber zoologische Charaktere der Insekten, Arachniden und
Crutaceen. (Entomographien, S. 1-28.) Berlin, 1840, 8vo.

Brulle, A. Kecherches sur les Transformations des Appendices dans les Arti-
cules (Annales des Sciences naturelles, 3. ser. II, 1844, p. 271-374).

Leuckart, R. Ueber die Morphologic und die Verwandtschaftsverhaltnisse der
Wirbellosen Thiere. Braunschweig, 1848, 8vo.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

Straus- Diirckheim, H. Considerations generales sur 1' Anatomic compared des
Animaux articules, auxquelles on a joint 1' Anatomic descriptive du Melolontha
vulgaris. Paris, 1828, 4to. 10 pi.

Dufour, L. Numerous anatomical papers in the Annales des Sciences naturelles,
Paris.

Siebold, C. Th. v. Lehrbuch der Vergleichenden Anatomic der wirbellosen Thiere.
Berlin, 1848, 8vo. Translated by W. I. Burnett. Boston, 1851, 8vo.

Gegenbaur, C. Grundziige der vergleichenden Anatomic. Leipzig, 1859, 8vo.

Geoffrey St. Hllaire, Etienne. Considerations philosophiques sur la determination
du Systeme solide et du Systeme nerveux des Animaux articules. (Annal. d.
scienc. natur. II, 1824, p. 295 ff., Ill, p. 199 u. p. 453 ff.)

Newport, G. On the Structure, Relations, and Development of the nervous and
circulatory Systems, and on the existence of a complete Circulation of the Blood
in Vessels, in Myriapoda and Macrourous Arachnida. (Philosoph. Transact.
1843, p. 243-302.)

. On the Structure and Development of the Blood, L.ser. The Development

of the Blood Corpuscle in Insects and other Invertebrata, and its Comparison
with that of Man and the Vertebrata. (Annals of Nat. Hist. XV, 1845, p. 281-284.)

. On the Nervous System of the Sphinx ligustri Lin. and on the Changes

which it undergoes during a Part of the Metamorphoses of the Insect. (Philo-
soph. Transact. 1832, p. 383-398, and 1834, 380-423.)

. On the Temperature of Insects and its Connexion with Functions of Res-
piration and Circulation in this class of Invcrtebrated Animals. (Philosoph.
Transact. 1837, p. 259-338.)

Blanchard, E. Recherches anatomiques et zoologiques sur le Systeme nerveux des
Animaux sans vertebres. Du systeme nerveux des Insectes. (Annal. d. scienc.
natur. 3. ser. V, 1846, p. 273-379.)

102 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

Blanchard, E. Du Systfeme nerveux chez les Inverte'bre's dans ses rapports avec la

Classification de ces Animaux. Paris, 1849, 8vo.
Milne- Edwards, H. Legons sur la Physiologic ct 1' Anatomic compare de 1'Homme

et des Animaux. Paris, Masson 1S57-G4, 8vo.

EMBRYOLOGY.

Itafhke, IT. Untersuchungen Uber die Bildung und Entwickelung des Flusskreb-

ses, Leipzig, Voss. 1829, Fol. mit 5 Taf.
. Zur Morphologic, Reisebemerkungen aus Taurien. Riga, 1837, 4to, mit 5

Taf.
Herold, J. M. Exercitationes de animalium vertebris carentium in ovo formatione

I. De generatione Aranearum in ovo. Untersuchungen Uber die Bildungsge-

schichte der Wirbellosen Thiere im Ei. 1. Th. Von tier Erzeugung der Spinnen

im Ei. Marburg, Krieger, 1824, fol. mit 4 Taf.
. Disquisitiones de animalium vertebris carentium in ovo formatione. De

generatione Insectorum in ovo. Fasc. I, II, Frankfurt a Main, 1835-38, fol.
Kolliker, A. Observationes de prima Insectorum genesi, adjecta articulatorum

evolutionis cum vertebratorum comparatione. Dissert, inaug. Turici, Meyer et

Zeller, 1842, 4to, c. tab. 3.
Zaddach, G. Untersuchung iiber die Entwickelung und den Bau der Gliederthiere.

Heft 1. Die Entwickelung des Phryganiden-Eies. Berlin, Reimer. 1854* 4to, c.

tab. 5.
Leuckart, E. Die Fortpflanzung und Entwickelung der Pupiparen nach Beobach-

tungen an Melophagus ovinus. (Abhandl. d. naturf. Gesellsch. zti Halle IV, 1858

S. 145-226.)
Huxley, T. On the agamic Reproduction and Morphology of Aphis (Transact.

Linnean Soc. of London, XXII, p. 193-236.)
Lubbock, J. On the Ova and Pseudova of Insects (Philosophical Transactions

of the Royal Soc. 1859, p. 341-369.

Claparede, E. Recherches sur P evolution des Araignees. 4to. Utrecht, 1802.
Weismann, A. Ueber die Entstehung des vollendeten Insekts in Larveund Puppe.

Ein Beitrag zur Metamorphose der Insekten, Frankfurt a Main, 1863, 4to.
. Die Entwickelung der Dipteren im Ei, nach Beobachtungen an Chii-ono-

mus, Musca vomitoria und Pulex canis (Zeitschrift fur Wissenschal'tliche Zo-

ologie XIII, p. 107-204.)
. Die nachembryonale Entwickelung der Musciden nach Beobachtungen an

Musca vomitoria und Sarcophaga carnaria. (The same, XIV, p. 187-336.)

FOSSIL INSECTS.

Giebel, C. Fauna der Vorwelt mit steter Beriicksichtigung der lebenden Thiere.
2. Bd. Gliederthiere. 1. Abtheilting. Die Insekten und Spinnen der Vorwelt mit
steter Beriicksichtigung der lebenden Insekten und Spinnen. Leipzig, 1856, 8vo.

Berendt, C. G. Die im "Bernstein, befindlichen organischen Reste der Vorwelt, ge-
sammelt und in Verbindung mit Mehreren herausgegeben. 1. Band. 2, Abth.
Die im Bernstein befindlichen Crustacean, Myriapoden, Arachniden und apteren
der Vorwelt, bearbeitet von C.L.Koch und C. G. Berendt. 1. Band. Die im
Bernstein befindlichen Hemipteren, Orthopteren, und Neuropteren der Vorwelt,
bearbeitet von E. F. Germar, F. J. Pictet, und H. Hagen. Berlin, 1854-56, fol.

Heer, O. Die Insecten-fauna der Tertiaergebilde von CEningen und Radoboj. Leip-
zig, 1849, 4to, 3 vols.

Scudder, S. H. An inquiry into the Zoological Relations of the first discovered
Traces of fossil Neuropterous Insects in North America. From the Memoirs of
the Boston Society of Natural History, Vol. 1, 18C7, with a plate.

ENTOMOLOGICAL JOURNAL. 103

PERIODICAL WORKS (now in course of publication).

Edwards, W. H. Butterflies of North America. Colored plates. Commenced 1868.

Annales de la Societe entomologique de France, Paris. Commenced 1832.

Transactions of the Entomological Society of London. Commenced 1834.

Z/' Insectologie Agricole, Monthly Journal, Paris. Commenced 1867.

Zeitung. Entomologische Verein, Stettin. Commenced 1840.

Limited entomologica. Entomologische Verein, Berlin. Commenced 1846.

Zeitschrift. Entomologische Verein, Berlin. Commenced 1857.

Annales de la Societe entomologiqne Beige, Brussels. Commenced 1857.

Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia. Commenced 1819.

Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia. Commenced 1817.

Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. New Series. Commenced
1818.

Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History. Commenced 1834.

Journal of the Boston Society of Natural History. Commenced 1834.

Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York. Commenced 1824.

Proceedings and Transactions of the American Entomological Society, Philadel-
phia. Commenced 1861.

Proceedings and Communications of the Essex Institute, Salem. Commenced 1848.

American Naturalist, Salem. Commenced March, 1867.

ENTOMOLOGICAL JOURNAL. Every collector should keep a
daily journal of his captures and observations, noting down
every fact and hint that falls under his notice. In this book,
commenced as soon as the season opens in early spring, can
be placed on record the earliest appearance, the time of great-
est abundance, and the disappearance of every insect in any of
its stages. Also the descriptions of larva* , with sketches, and
observations upon their habits ; though drawings had better
be kept upon separate pieces of paper for easier reference.
The insects, when captured and unnamed should be numbered
to agree with corresponding numbers in the note-book. At
the close of the season one will be surprised to see how much
material of this kind has accumulated. He can then make a
calendar of appearances of perfect insects and larvae, so as
to have the work of the next season portioned out to him ;
he will thus know when and where to look for any particular
insect or caterpillar.

THE NUMBER OF SPECIES OF INSECTS. Oswald Heer estimates
that the Insects comprise four-fifths of the whole animal king-
dom. While there are about 55,000 species of animals known,
excluding the Insects, the number of this last single class
amounts to upwards of 190,000 known species, according to

104 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

Gerstaecker's estimate. He reckons that there are at least
25,000 species of Hymenoptera, from 22,000 to 24,000 Lepidop-
tera, about 24,000 Diptera, and 90,000 Coleoptera ; the number
of the other suborders cannot be easily estimated. Besides
these there are about 4,600 Arachnida, and 800 Myriopods.

GROUPING OF INSECTS INTO ORDERS AND SUBORDERS. Be-
fore beginning an account of the Six-footed Insects, we
present the following tabular view of the Classification of In-
sects. The idea that the Myriopods, Spiders, and Six-footed
Insects formed orders and not classes was first proposed by R.
Leuckart in 1848, and afterwards supported by Agassiz and
Dana. The arrangements proposed by these and other authors
are put in tabular form on page 106.

THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

Order L Segments grouped into three distinct re- "]

gions ; eyes compound and simple ; two pairs of HEXAPODA
wings;* three pairs of thoracic legs; one pair of J> (Six-footed In-
jointed abdominal appendages. A more or less I sects).
complete metamorphosis, J

Order II. Segments grouped into two regions, a")
false cephalothorax f and an abdomen ; no antennae ; I A
eyes simple -"wingless ; four pairs of thoracic legs ; }> /A . * x , I y'
three pairs of jointed abdominal appendages (spin- |
nerets) often present. No metamorphosis, . . J

Order III. Body cylindrical, worm-like. Segments *|

not grouped into regions. Head free ; eyes sim- MYRI PODA
pie; antennae present; wingless; numerous ab- ^
dominal legs present; yelk-sac present for a
short period after hatching. No metamorphosis. J

THE ORDER OF SIX-FOOTED INSECTS J (Hexapoda).

Metabola. The body usually cylindrical ; prothorax "|

small ; mouth-parts more generally haustellate | HYMENOPTERA.

(formed for sucking) ; metamorphosis complete ; ^ LEPIDOPTEKA.

pupa inactive; larva usually cylindrical, very DIPTERA.

unlike the adult, . . . . . . j

Heterometabola. The body usually flattened ; pro- ^ COLEOPTFRA

thorax large and squarish; mouth-parts usually HFMIPTFRA '

adapted for biting; metamorphosis in a large J '

number incomplete; pupa often inactive; larva

flattened, often resembling the adult, . .

* The number of wingless forms is comparatively few. The Diptera have but
one pair.

fThe so-called " cephalothorax" of Spiders is not like that region in the Crabs,
the head being much freer from the thorax.

J Leuckart's classification is an advance on others in his considering the Hexa-
poda, Arachuida, and Myriapoda as orders instead of classes, but he says nothing

GROUPING OF INSECTS.

105

The following diagram shows, in a rude way, the relative
rank and affinities of the seven suborders, and of the two
series of Six-footed Insects.

Neuroptera.

Through Lepisma, and Podura which are wingless Neuropter-
ous insects, the lower series is connected with the Myriopods,
the minute degraded myriopod, Pauropus of Lubbock, per-
haps forming the connecting link ; and through the wingless
flies, Braula, Chionea, and Nycteribia, the Diptera, belonging
to the higher series, assume the form of the Spiders, the head
being small, and sunken into the thorax, while the legs are
long and slender. The first and highest series culminates in
Apis, the Honey-bee ; and the second, or lower, in Citindela,
the Tiger-beetle.

regarding the rank and value of the minor groups. Professor Agassiz extended
Leuckait's views in considering the seven grand divisions of the order of Hexapods
as suborders. In 1863 (How to Observe and Collect Insects, Maine Scientific Sur-
vey, and Synthetic Types of Insects, Boston Journal of Natural History), we
proposed a new classification of these suborders, by which they are thrown into
two main groups headed by the Hymenoptera and Coleoptera respectively. These
two groups, as represented in the diagram, are nearly equivalent in value, and
stand in a somewhat parallel relation. There is nothing like a linear series in the
animal kingdom, but it is like a tree. The higher series of suborders form more
of a linear series than the lower series, so that in the diagram the Neuroptera,
Orthoptera, Hemiptera, and Coleoptera form a more broken series than the Hy-
menoptera, Lepidoptera, and Diptera. A Bee, Butterfly, and House-fly are much
more closely allied to each other than a Beetle, a Squash-bug, a Grasshopper,
and a Dragon-fly are among themselves. The Neuroptera are the most indepen-
dent, and stand at the bottom of and between the two series, though by the Orthop-
tera they are very intimately linked with the Hemiptera and Coleoptera.

106

THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

s o.

. ^

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111

PACKARD,
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Ml lit

Arachnida.
Suborders 1
Arauea3,
Acari.

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FABUICIU,

1799.

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o ^3 SjS-S

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I I

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II

HYMENOPTERA. 107

HYMENOPTERA.

THE Bees, Wasps, Saw-flies, Ants, and other members of this
suborder differ from all other insects in having, in the higher and
more typical forms, the basal joint of the abdomen thrown for-
ward upon and intimately united with the thorax. The head
is large, w r ith large compound eyes, and three ocelli. The
mouth-parts are well developed both for biting, and feeding on
the sweets of plants, the ligula especially, used in lapping
nectar, being greatly developed. The other regions of the
body are more distinct than in other insects ; the wings are
small but powerful, with comparatively few and somewhat
irregular veins, adapted for powerful and long-sustained flights ;
and the genital appendages retracted, except in the Ichneu-
mon parasites and Saw-flies, within the body, are in the female
modified into a sting.

The transformations of this suborder are the most complete
of all insects ; the larvae in their general form are more unlike
the adult insects than in any other suborder, while the pupae,
on the other hand, most clearly approximate to the imago.
The larvae are short, cylindrical, footless (excepting the young
of the Saw-flies, the lowest family, which are provided with
abdominal legs like Lepidopterous larvae), worm-like grubs,
wiiich are helpless, and have to be fed by the prevision of the
parent. The pupa has the limbs free, and is generally contained
in a thin silken cocoon ; that of the Saw-flies, however, being
thick.

The Hymenoptera exhibit, according to Professor Dana, the
normal size of the insect-type. "This archetypic size is be-

NOTE to page 106. Ray divided the Hexapods into Coleoptera and Aneloptera,
the latter division embracing all the other suborders except the Coleoptera. His
Ametamorphota Hexapoda contained the wingless hexapoda; while the Ametamor-
phota poly poda comprise the Myriopods, and the A. octopoda the Arachnids. Lin-
naeus' Aptera (with numerous feet) are equivalent to the Myriopods, and his Aptera
(with 8-14 feet) to the Ai-achnids. In Fabricius' system the Eleutherata are equiva-
lent to the Coleoptera ; the Ulonata to the Orthoptera ; the Synistata to the Neurop-
tera ; the Piezata to the Hymenoptera ; the Odonata to the Libellulidae ; the Glossata
to the Lepidoptera ; the Rhyngota to the Hemiptera; the Antliata to the Diptera.
The Mitosata are the Myriopods, and the Unogata, the Arachnids. In Latreille's
system the Suctoria, or FleasJ are now referred to the Diptera; the Parasita or
Lice, to the Hemiptera, and the Thysanura to the Neuroptera.

108 HYMENOPTERA.

tween eight and twelve lines (or twelfths of an inch) in length,
and two and a half and three lines in breadth." This size is
probably a smaller average than in any other suborder ; thus the
Hymenoptera while being the most cephalized, consequently
comprise the most compactly moulded insectean forms.

Besides these structural characters, as animals, endowed
with instincts and a kind of reason differing, perhaps, only in
degree from that of man, these insects outrank all other Articu-
lates. In the unusual differentiation of the individual into males
and females, and, generally sterile workers, with a farther dimor-
phism of these three sexual forms, such as Huber has noticed
in the Humble-bee, and a consequent subdivision of labor
among them ; in dwelling in large colonies, thus involving new
and intricate relations with other insects (such as Aphides,
ant-hill-inhabiting beetles, and the peculiar bee-parasites) ;
their wonderful instincts, their living principally on the sweets
and pollen of flowers, and not being essentially carnivorous
(i.e. seizing their prey like the Tiger-beetle) in their habits, as
are a large proportion of the other suborders, with the exception
of Lepidoptera ; and in their relation to man as a domestic an-
imal, subservient to his wants, the Bees, and Hymenoptera
in general, possess a combination of characters which are not
found existing in any other suborder of insects, and which
rank them first and highest in the insect series.

The body-wall of the Hymenoptera is unusually dense and
hard, smooth and highly polished, and either naked, or covered
with hair as in a large proportion of the bees. The head is
large, not much smaller than the thorax, and its front is A r erti-
cal. The antennae are short, filiform, often geniculate, very
rarely pectinated. The mandibles are large, stout, toothed, and
the maxillae are well developed into their three subdivisions,
the palpi being usually six-jointed ; the labial palpi are usually
four-jointed, and the prolongation of the under lip, or ligula,
is highly developed, being furnished with a secondary pair
of palpi, the paraglossae, while in the pollen-gathering species
the ligula is of great length, and thus answers much the same
purpose as the spiral tongue (maxillae) of the Lepidoptera.

Reaumur states that the Bee does not suck up the liquid
sweets, but laps them up with its long slender hairy tongue.

HYMENOPTERA. 109

"Even in the drop of honey the bee bends the end of its
tongue about, and lengthens and shortens it successively, and,
indeed, withdraws it from moment to moment." The liquid
passes along the upper surface of the pilose tongue, which is
withdrawn between its sheaths, the palpi and maxillae, and thus
" conveys and deposits the liquid with which it is charged
within a sort of channel, formed by the upper surface of the
tongue and the sheaths which fold over it, by which the liquid
is conveyed to the mouth." (Shuckard.)

The thorax forms a rounded compact oval mass, with the
prothorax and metathorax very small, the mesothorax being
large, and also the propodeum, to which the pedicel of the ab-
domen is attached. The pleurites are large and bulging,
while the sternum is minute. The coxae and trochantines are
large, and quite free from the thorax ; and the trochanters
are small, while the rather slender legs <are subject to great
modifications, as they are devoted to so many different uses
by these insects ; thus, in the Sand-wasps they are strongly
bristled for the purpose of digging, and in the Bees, the
basal joint of the tarsi is much enlarged for carrying pollen.

"The manner in which the bee conveys either the pollen, or
other material it purposes carrying home, to the posterior
legs, or venter, which is to bear it, is very curious. The
rapidity of the motion of its legs is then very great,; so great,
indeed, as to make it very difficult to follow them j but it
seems first to collect its material gradually with its mandibles,
from which the anterior tarsi gather it, and that on each side
passes successively the grains of which it consists to the inter-
mediate legs, by multiplicated scrapings and twistings of the
limbs ; this, then, passes it on by similar manoeuvres, and de-
posits it, according to the nature of the bee, upon the pos-
terior tibiae and tarsi, or upon the under side of the abdomen.
The evidence of this process is speedily manifested by the pos-
terior legs gradually exhibiting an increasing pellet of pollen.
Thus, for this purpose, all the legs of the bees are more or less
covered with hair. It is the mandibles which are chiefly used
in their boring or excavating operations, applying their hands,
or anterior tarsi, only to clear their way ; but by the construc-
tive, or artisan bees, they are used both in their building and

110 HYMENOPTERA .

mining operations, and are worked like trowels to collect moist
clay, and to apply it to the masonry of their habitations."
(Shuckard.)

The four wings are present, except in rare instances. They
are small ; the hinder pair long, narrow, ovate, lanceolate.
The costal edge of the fore-wing (Fig. 29), is generally
straight, becoming a little curved towards the apex, which
is obtusely subrectangular ; the outer edge is bent at right
angles, while the inner edge of the wing is long and straight.
The veins are often difficult to trace, as in the outer half of the
wing they break up into a system of net-veins, which are few
in number, yet the continuations of the subcostal, median, and
submedian veins can be distinguished after careful study.

In some low Ichneumonidce, the Proctotrupidce, and
Clialcididm, the veins show a tendency to become obsolete,
only the simple subcostal vein remaining ; and in Pteratomus,
the veins are entirely obliterated, and the linear feather-like
wings are in one pair fissured, reminding us of the Plume-
moths, Pterophorus.

The abdomen is composed in the larva state of ten segments,
but in the adult stinging Hymenoptera, of six complete seg-
ments in the females, and seven in the males ; while in the
lower families the number varies, having in the Tenthredi-
nidce, eight tergites on the upper side and six sternites on the
lower side. The remaining segments are, during the transfor-
mations of the insect, aborted and withdrawn within the body.
The ovipositor and corresponding parts in the male have
been described on pp. 14-18.

The nervous system consists in the larvae of eleven ganglia,
in the adult five or six of these remain as abdominal ganglia,
while the remainder, excluding the cephalic ganglia, are placed
in two groups in the thorax. The cerebral ganglia are well
developed, evincing the high intellectual qualities necessary in
presiding over organs with such different uses as the simple
and compound eyes, the antennae, and lingua and palpi, and
mandibles, especially in those sociable species which build
complete nests.

The digestive system, in those bees which sip up their food,
consists, besides the external mouth-parts, of a "long cesoph-

HYMENOPTERA . Ill

agus which dilates into a thin-walled sucking stomach," which
in the Api arias and Vespidce may be simply a lateral fold,
or, as in many Crabroniclce, "attached solely by a short and
narrow peduncle." In Formica, Cynips, Leucospis, and Xypliid-
ria there is a globular uncurved callous gizzard, which is en-
veloped by the base of the stomach, according to Siebold, who
also states that "those Hymenoptera which are engaged during
a long and active life in labors for the raising and support of
their young, have a pretty long and flexuous stomach and in-
testine, and the first has, usually, many constrictions ; " while
the Cynipidce, Ichneumonidce, and Tenthredinidce,
which take no care of their young, have only a short small
stomach and intestine. The salivary glands consist of two
rather short ramified tufts, often contained entirely in the head.

The tracheae consist, as in other insects, of two main branches,
from which numerous transverse anastomosing branches are
given off, with numerous vesicular dilatations. Two such vesi-
cles of immense volume are situated at the base of the abdo-
men, w T hich according to Hunter and Newport "serve chiefly
to enable the insect to alter its specific gravity at pleasure dur-
ing flight, and thus diminish the muscular exertion required
during these movements."

The urinary vessels are very numerous in the Hymenoptera ;
they are usually short and surround the pylorus in numbers of
from twenty to one hundred and fifty.

The two poison glands (Fig. 54, h,g) are composed of long
ramose tubes, resembling the salivary glands in their minute
structure. The poison is poured from these into a pyriform
sac lodged near the base of the sting, which is provided with a
peculiar muscular apparatus for its sudden extension and with-
drawal. The poison, in the Ants, Bees, and Wasps, consists,
according to Will, of "formic acid, and a whitish, fatty, sharp
residuum, the former being the poisonous substance." (Bur-
nett.)

The wax-secreting apparatus consists of special dermal
glands, as Milne-Edwards supposed. Glaus has shown (see
G-egeiibaur's Verg. Anatomic) that these minute glands arc
mostly unicellular, the external opening being through a fine
chitinous tube on the outer surface of the integument. In the

112 HYMEXOPTERA.

wax-producing insects these glands are developed in great
numbers over certain portions of the body. In the Aphides,
whose bodies are covered with a powder consisting of fine waxy
threads, these glands are collected in groups. Modifications of
them appear in the Coccidae. In the wax-producing Hyrnen-
optera the apparatus is somewhat Complicated. The bees
secrete wax in thin, transparent, membranous plates on the
under side of the abdominal segments. Polygonal areas arc
formed by the openings of an extraordinarily large number oT
fine pore-canals, in which, surrounded by very numerous tra-
cheal branches, the cylindrical gland-cells are densely piled
upon each other. These form the wax organs, over which a
fatty layer spreads. In those bees which do not produce wax,
the glands of the wax organs are slightly developed. Wax
organs also occur in the Humble bees.

The honey is elaborated by an unknown chemical process,
from the food contained in the proventriculus, or crop, and
which is regurgitated into the honey-cells.

The ovaries consist of many-chambered, four, six, or a hun-
dred, short tubes. "The receptacula seminis is nearly always
simple, round or ovoid, and necked, and is prolonged into a
usually short seminal duct." The glandula appendicularis con-
sists of a bifurcate tube which opens into the ductus seminalis,
and only rarely into the capsula seminaUs itself.

In the Tenthredinidce, " this apparatus is formed on a
different type ; the seminal vesicle is a simple diverticulum of
the vagina, and more or less distinct from it, besides it is defi-
cient in the accessory gland. The copulatory pouch is absent in
all the Hymenoptera, as are also the sebaceous glands with those
females which have a sting and a poison gland," while in other
insects the sebaceous glands are present, and it would be nat-
urally inferred, therefore, that the two are homologous, but
modified for diverse functions.

The two testes of the male are "composed of long follicles,
fasciculate and surrounded, together with a portion of the
torose deferent canal, by a common envelope ; but more com-
monly the two testes are contained in a capsule situated on the
median line of the body." (Siebold.)

The eggs are usually long, cylindrical, and slightly curved in

HYMENOPTERA. 113

the Bees ; in the Wasps they are more globular, and affixed by
their smaller somewhat pedicelled end to the side, near the bot-
tom of the cell in which they are laid. The eggs of the lower
families tend to assume a spherical form. The eggs of dif-
erent species of Bombus present no appreciable differences.

The larvae of the Bees and Wasps, especially the social
species, which live surrounded by their food, are of a very
persistent form, the various genera differing but slightly, while
the species can scarcely be separated. Such we have found to
be the case in the Bees and Wasps ( Vespidce) and Fossorial
Wasps. The sexes of the species with a very thin tegument,
such as Apis, Bombus, and Vespa, can be quite easily distin-
guished, as the rudiments of the genital armor can be seen
through.

The Hymenoptera are mostly confined to the warmer and
temperate regions of the earth ; as we approach the poles, the
Bees disappear, with the exception of Bombus, and perhaps
its parasite Apathus ; a species of Vespa is found on the Lab-
rador coast, which has a climate like that of Greenland. No
fossorial species of Wasps are known to us to occur in the arc-
tic regions, while a few species of Ants, and several Chalcidi-
dce and Ichneumonidce are not uncommon in Northern
Labrador and Greenland. Our alpine summits, particularly
that of Mt. Washington, reproduces the features of Northern
Labrador and Greenland as regards its HymenopterouB fauna.
The tropics are, however, the home of the Hymenoptera, and
especially of the Bees.

There are estimated to be about twenty-five thousand living
species of this suborder, and this is probably a much smaller
number than are yet to be discovered.

In geological history, the Hymenoptera do not date far back
compared with the Neuroptera and Orthoptera, and even the
Coleoptera. Indeed they were among the last to appear upon
the earth's surface. The lower forms, so far as the scanty
records show, appeared first in the Jura formation ; the Ants
appear in the Tertiary period, especially in amber.

As we have noticed before, the Hymenoptera are more purely
terrestrial than any other insects. None are known to be
aquatic in the early stages, and only two genera have been found
8

114 HYMENOPTERA.

swimming in the adult state on the surface of pools, and they
are the low, minute, degraded Proctotrupids, Prestivichia
natans and Polynema natans described by Mr. Lubbock. The
Hymenoptera do not imitate or mimic the forms of other in-
sects, but, on the contrary, their forms are extensively copied in
the Lepidoptera, and especially the Diptera. A partial excep-
tion to this law is seen in the antennae of the Australian genus
Thaumatosoma, where they are long and slender, and knobbed
as in the butterfly, and also in Tetralonia mirabilis of Smith,
from Brazil. ;?

The Hymenoptera, also, show their superiority to all other in-
sects in the form of their degraded wingless species, such as
Pezomaclms, the workers of Formica and the female of Mutilla.
In these forms we have no striking resemblances to lower orders
and suborders, but .a strong adherence to their own Hymenop-
terous characters. Again ; in the degradational winged forms,
we rarely find the antennae pectinated ; a common occurrence
in the lower suborders. In a low species of the Apiarice,
Lamprocolletes dadocerus, from Australia, that land of anom-
alies, the antennae are pectinated. This, Mr. F. Smith, the
best living authority on this suborder, says, "is certainly the
most remarkable bee that I have seen, and the only in-
stance, to my knowledge, of -a bee having pectinated antennae ;
such an occurrence, indeed, in the Aculeate Hymenoptera is
only known in two or three instances, as in Psammotlierma flab-
ellata amongst the Mutillidce, and again in Ctenocerus Klugii
in the Pompilidce; there is also a modification of it in one or
two other species of Pompilidce ." Among the Tenthre-
dinidce, the male Lophyrus has well-pectinated antennae, as
also has Cladomacra macropus of Smith, from New Guinea
and Celebes.

The wings of perhaps the most degraded Hymenoptera, the
Proctotrupidce, are rarely fissured ; when this occurs, as in
Pteratomus Putnamii, they somewhat resemble those of Ptero-
phorus, the lowest moth. It 'is extremely rare that the com-
pound eyes are replaced by stemmata, or simple eyes ; in but
one instance, the genus Anthophorabia, are the eyes in the
male sex reduced to a simple ocellus. This species lives in the
darkness of the cells of Anthophora.

115

By reason of the permanence of the type, due to the high
rank of these insects, the generic and specific characters are
founded on very slight differences, so that these insects, and
particularly the two higher families, the Wasps ( Vespidce) and
Bees (Apioarioe) are the most difficult insects to study. The
easiest characters for the recognition of the genera, lie in the
venation of the wings ; though in the fossorial families the legs
vary greatly. The best specific characters lie in the sculptur-
ing and style of coloration, but the spots and markings are apt
to vary greatly. The great differences between the sexes are
liable to mislead the student, and hence large collections are
indispensable for their proper study. Bees act as "marriage
priests" in the fertilization of plants, conveying pollen from
flower to flower, and thus insuring the formation of the fruit.
It is said that many plants could not be fertilized without
the interposition of Bees.

Their interesting habits deserve long and patient study ; it
is for their observations on the insects of this suborder that the
names of Reaumur, the two Hubers, and Latreille will be ever
held in special remembrance.

Most Hymenoptera love the sun, and they may be caught
while flying about flowers. The nests of bees, wasps, and ants
should be sought for and the entire colony captured, together
with the parasites. The hairy species should be pinned while in
the net, and the naked ones can be put in the collecting-bot-
tle. The larger species may be pinned, like other insects,
through the thorax ; but the minute Chalcids, etc., should be
gummed, like small Coleoptera, upon cards.

The nests of bees and of wasps and ants and the young in
various stages of growth should be collected, and in such num-
bers as to show their different stages of construction, to serve
as illustrations of insect architecture.

APIARI^E Latreille (Apidce Leach) . This and those families
succeeding which are provided with a true sting, were called
by Latreille Hymenoptera Aculeata- The male antennae are
mostly thirteen-jointed, while in the female they are twelve-
jointed. The females (and the workers, when they exist)
feed the larvae, which mostly live in nests or cells.

116 HYMENOPTERA.

In the social Bees, besides the normal male and female forms,
there are asexual females, whose inner genital organs are partly
aborted, though externally only differing in their smaller size
from the true females. The male antennae are longer, tapering
more towards the tips, and the eyes of the male approach each
other closer over the vertex than in the opposite sex, though
these are characters which apply to other Hymenoptera. The
mouth-parts are in the higher genera greatly elongated, the
labium being long, with the lingua of great length, and the
lobes of the maxillae long and knife-shaped ; but these parts, as
well as the form of the jaws, are subject to great modifications
in the different genera : the labial palpi are four-jointed, and
the maxillary palpi are from one to six-jointed. The hind
tibia and basal joint of the tarsi are, in the pollen-gathering
species, very broad ; the tibia is in Apis and Boinbus hollowed
on the outside, and stiff bristles project over the cavity from
each side of the joint, forming the honey-basket (corbiculum) ,
on which the "clodden masses of honey and pollen" are con-
veyed to their nests. In the parasitic genera, such as Apatlius,
the tibia is, on the contrary, convex, rather than concave,
though of the usual width ; while in Nomada, also parasitic,
the legs are narrow, the tibia not being dilated.

In Andrena and its allies, Halictus and Colletes, the mouth-
parts, especially the tongue, are much shortened, thus afford-
ing a passage into the Vespidce. In these genera the tongue
is folded back but once between the horny encasement of the
maxillae, but in the higher Apiarice the part formed by the
union of the lingua and maxilla is twice bent back, and thus
protected by the horny lobes of the maxillae. The fore- wings
have two or three subcostal (cubital) cells.

There are two thousand species of this family. The differ-
ences between the larvae of the various genera of this family
are very slight, those of the parasitic species are, however,
readily distinguished from their hosts.

The higher Apiarice, comprising the subfamily Apinw, have
the ligula long, cylindrical, while the labial palpi have two
very long, slender, compressed basal joints, and two short
terminal joints.

The genus Apis has no terminal spurs on the hind tibiae,

APIAKUE. 117

while the fore-wings have three subcostal (cubital) cells, the
middle of which is elongated and acutely wedge-shaped. The
eyes in the male are united above ; the mouth-parts are nearly
aborted, and the hind legs are smooth. In the female there
are two paraglossae on the ligula, and the maxillary palpi
are one-jointed. The worker only differs externally from the
female in the shorter abdomen.

The larva of the Hojiey-bee closely resembles that of Bom-
bus, but the body is shorter, broader, and more flattened, while
the head is less prominent, and the lateral tubercles along the
body are, perhaps, less prominent than in the young Humble-
bee, otherwise the two genera are, in the larval state, much
alike. In its natural position, the larva lies at the bottom of
the cell doubled upon itself, .ho

Though the larvae are said usually to feed upon pollen,
Mr. Desborough states that honey alone is the food of the
grub, as he reared 729 larvae with no other food than honey.
But as with the wild bees they may extract honey from the
pollen provided for them. He says the matured bees may be
observed feeding at night on the bee-bread (pollen). Lang-
stroth (The Hive and Honey-bee), however, states that "pol-
len is indispensable to the nourishment of the young. It is
very rich in the nitrogenous substances which are not contained
in the honey."

The Honey-bee, Apis melliftca^ is now distributed over the
civilized world. It was introduced into this country during
the seventeenth century, and into South America in 1845 (Ger-
stsecker). The Italian, or Ligurian, bee is considered by F.
Smith as being a climatic variety.

The cultivation of the Honey-bee is rapidly increasing in this
country, but the German Bee-masters have made the most pro-
gress in theoretical and practical Bee-culture. Convenient
hives are now constructed by which all the operations of the
bees can be observed at leisure. Gerstaecker thus sums up
the habits of the Honey-bee : A fertilized queen which, with a
few workers, has wintered over, lays its eggs in the spring first
in the worker, and afterwards, at a later period, in the drone-
cells (both arranged in two perpendicular rows of cells). Early
in summer, the workers construct the larger flask-shaped queen-

118 H YMENOPTERA .

cells, which are placed on the edge of the comb, and in these
the queen-larvae are fed with rich and choice nourishment.
As soon as the first of the new brood of queens is excluded
from its cell, which it indicates by a peculiar buzzing noise, the
old queen deserts the nest, carrying away with her a part of the
swarm, and thus forms a new colony. The recently excluded
queen then takes its marriage flight high in the . air with a
drone, and on its return undertakes the management of the
hive, and the duty of laying eggs. When another queen is
disclosed, the same process of forming a new colony goes on.
When the supply of young queens is exhausted, the workers
fall upon the drones and destroy them without mercy. The
first brood of workers live about six w r eeks in summer, and
then give way to a new brood. Mr. J. G. Desborough states
that the maximum period of the life of a worker is eight months.
The queens are known to live five years, and during their whole
life lay more than a million eggs (V. Berlepsch). Langstroth
states that "during the height of the breeding season, she
will often, under favorable circumstances, lay from 2,000 to
3,000 eggs a day." According to Von Siebold's discovery
only the queens' and workers' eggs are fertilized by sperm-
cells stored in the receptaculum seminis, and these she can
fertilize at will, retaining the power for four or five years,
as the muscles guarding the duct leading from this sperm-bag
are subject to her will. Drone eggs are laid by unfertilized
queen-bees, and in some cases even by worker-bees. This last
fact has been confirmed by the more recent observations of
Mr. Tegetmeier, of London.

Principal Leitch, according to Tegetmeier, has suggested the
theory that a worker egg may develop a queen, if transferred
into a queen-cell. "It is well known that bees, deprived of
their queen, select several worker-eggs, or very young larvae,
for the purpose of rearing queens. The cells in which these
eggs are situated are lengthened out and the end turned down-
ward." He suggests that the development into a queen was
caused by the increased temperature of the queen-cell, above
that of the worker-cells.

But Messrs. F. Smith and Woodbury (Proceedings of the
Entomological Society of London, January 2, 1862) support F.

APIARI^. 119

Huberts theory, that the change is due to "the quality as well
as quantity of food with which the royal larva is supplied,"
though Dr. Leitch objects, that it has been by no means con-
clusively proved " that the so-called royal jelly differs in any
respect from the ordinary food supplied to the worker larva ; "
and Mr. Woodbury cites the experiments of Dzierzon, as
quoted by Kleine, "that as Huber, by introducing some royal
jelly in cells containing worker-brood, obtained queens, it may
be possible to induce bees to construct royal cells, when the
Apiarian prefers to have them, by inserting a small portion of
royal jelly in cells containing worker-larvae." Kleine takes " an
unsealed royal cell which usually contains an excess of
royal jelly and removes from it a portion of the jelly, on
the point of a knife or pen, and by placing it on the inner
margin of any worker cell, feels confident that the larvae in
them will be reared as queens."

Before these points are settled we must study the habits of
the Wild Bees, and of the other social Hymenoptera and White
Ants, together with the social Aphides more carefully. Mr. F.
W. Putnam pertinently states, "at present I cannot believe
that the peculiarity of food, or the structure of the cells, pro-
duces a difference of development in Humble-bees, for the lar-
vae, as has been previously stated, were seen to make their own
cells from the pollen paste. Is it not more natural to believe,
as has been suggested to me by Professor J. Wyman, that the
difference in the development of the eggs is owing to their be-
ing laid at various times after impregnation? Thus, if I am
right in supposing that the queens are impregnated by the
males late in the summer, the eggs, laid soon after, produce
the large queen larvae ; * the next-set of eggs, laid in the spring,
produce the workers, or undeveloped females, while from those
deposited still later, male bees are principally developed."
(Proceedings of the Essex Institute, Salem, vol. iv, 1864, p.
103.)

Referring to Mr. Putnam's statement that there are both small
and large queens (besides the workers) , Dr. Gerstaecker infers,

* Dr. Gerstaecker, on the other hand, states that " from the brood-cells of a nest
of Bombus muscorum, found by him on the 18th of September, there were devel-
oped at the end of the same month only workers."

120 HYMEXOPTERA.

"from the examination of numerous individuals found flying in
the spring after hibernation, that these could not be considered
as true queens, since their ovaries were only moderately devel-
oped, though larger than those of the workers, while in the
true queen, captured in the summer, the ovaries were perfectly
developed. This corresponds almost entirely to what we find
in the wasps, whose spring females have only moderately de-
veloped ovaries."

How the Honey-bee builds its cells, and whether they are ex-
actly hexagonal, are questions that have interested the best
observers from Maraldi who wrote in 1712, and Reaumur,
whose Memoires appeared in 1740, down to the present date.
Their solution involves not only the closest observation of the
insect while at work, but also the shrewdest judgment to ex-
plain the facts observed and deduce a legitimate theory. Does
the bee intelligently plan her work out beforehand, or does she
follow the guidance of what is called instinct? Does she
construct hexagonal cells which are mathematically exact,
or does she vary the proportions of each cell, so that it is per-
fect only in its general ideal form? Again, in making the cell,
is the bee actually capable of making such a cell alone, or is it
due to the resultant action of several bees? Professor J. Wy-
man is of the latter opinion, as he thinks "that if left alone to
build a single cell, this would most probably be round. In the
cells of Melipona, as Huber's plate shows, they are only hex-
agonal when in contact with the adjoining, cells." (Proceed-
ings of the Boston Society of Natural History, x, p. 278,
1866.)

A similar view is that proposed in 1862 by the Rev. Samuel
Haughton, in a paper read before the Natural History Society
of Dublin, where he says, according to Mr. F. Smith, that the
hexagonal form of the cell " may be accounted for simply by the
mechanical pressure of the insects against each other during
the formation of the cell. In consequence of the instinct that
compels them to work with reference to a plane, and of the
cylindrical form of the insect's body, the cells must be hex-
agonal."

Mr. G. R. Waterhouse (Transactions of the Entomological
Society of London. Third series, vol. ii, p. 129, 1864) has

APIARI^E. 121

proposed what has been called the "circular theory," or what
the author himself terms "the principle of working in seg-
ments of circles." He contends " that the hexagonal form of the
cells of certain bees and wasps may, and does, arise out of this
mode of action when under certain conditions ; that those condi-
tions are, that the cells are so commenced that their natural cir-
cumferences, as the work proceeds, are either simply brought
into contact with each other, or that the cells are so placed that
the (we will say theoretical) circumferences must intersect.
Contact with adjoining Cells, then, is an essential condition to
bring about the hexagonal form as I have before pointed out
(See Proceedings of the Entomological Society, 1858, p. 17) ;
but for this result it is not necessary that a hexagonal cell
should be completely surrounded by other cells."

Is not this theory, after all, too mechanical ? Is not our bee
more of a free agent ? Does it not have a mind to design its
work ? Mr. F. Smith, who has devoted years to the study of
Hymenoptera, especially the higher forms of this suborder, the
Bees and Wasps, replies to both theories of Waterhouse and
Haughton, by bringing in the case of the Wasps which also
build hexagonal cells, showing that a solitary wasp will build
its cells in very regular hexagons. Thus the nest of the soli-
tary Wasp, Icaria guttatipennis, "consists of a double row, the
number of cells being ten ; I now direct your attention to the
fact that all the cells are perfectly hexagonal, the exterior
planes being as beautifully finished as those in contact with
the inner planes of the opposing cells. I have placed a draw-
ing of this nest (Plate 5, Fig. 7) in the box on the table, and I
particularly wish you to observe, that the first cell is carried
up in a perfectly hexagonal form above the adjoining cells ; a
proof that, if Wasps never build perfect isolated hexagonal cells,
they certainly possess the capability of doing so. The exterior
of all the cells, as I before observed, is hexagonal, not cylindri-
cal, until fresh cells are added on the outer side, as was ob-
served to be the case in combs of the Hive-bee, by Mr.
Tegetmeier." (Proceedings of the Entomological Society of
London. Third series, ii, 1864, p. 135.)

An examination of the cells of three species of Polistes (the
female of which begins alone in the spring to build her nest,

122 HYMENOPTERA.

the cells of which are afterwards greatly increased in number
after the first brood of females appear) , convinced us that
the Wasp begins with the circular cup-shaped form of cell, and
when about depositing an egg in it, changes her mode of ope-
rating, builds up the edges into a hexagonal form, and carries
up the rim of each cell independently to its required height.
She thus apparently changes her plan at a certain stage of the
work, and is so far a free agent.

Mr. Smith also exhibited a portion of the nest of another
wasp, Tatua Morio (Plate 5, Fig. 9), that proved to his mind
the primary intention of the wasp instinctively to build cells
with exactly six sides. The figure represents part of one of
the flat floors, on which the foundations of the cells are laid in
regular hexagons, instead of beginning in hemispherical cups.

Mr. Smith (p. 141) concludes, "that all hexagonal cells are
not constructed upon a circular principle, and that the primary
idea of all social bees and wasps is not to produce cylindrical
cells with hemispherical bases."

In this connection the following extract from Mr. Smith's
remarks is of interest : "It may not be known that in order to
expedite the building of honey -combs, it is a common practice
with bee-keepers in Germany to furnish hives with artificial
foundations for the cells ; these consist of sheets of wax, upon
which is impressed a series of pyramidal hollows ; in fact, the
counterpart of a comb built by the bees themselves, entirely
deprived of the cell-walls ; and it is from such a piece of comb
that the casts for the artificial foundations are obtained. A
piece of casting of this description I lay before you, and I par-
ticularly call your attention (addressing the members of the
Entomological Society of London) to the commencement of the
outer cells ; you will see, in some instances, a single plane of
the hexagonal cell commenced, in others two or three are in
progress ; here you have a ground-plan supplied, or, I may say,
the foundations of the habitations ready prepared, upon which
the laborers are to raise the walls, and you may see how admi-
rably they have done it. Instinct enables the bee to construct
hexagonal cells without teaching, and, we are told, in one un-
deviating manner. Surely the example before us exhibits an
amount of intelligence on the part of the bees in availing them-

APIARI^E. 123

selves of such adventitious aid. Must we not henceforth,
when speaking of the marvels of the hive or the vespiary, erase
from our vocabulary such terms as blind instinct ; and must we
not cease to stigmatize the bee as a mere machine ? "

At the meeting of the same society held Feb. 1, 1864, Mr.
F. Smith exhibited a collection of Wasps' nests, one of Vespa
rufa, the rest of V. vulgaris; they were in various stages of
formation, the earliest consisting of only a single cup contain-
ing the first egg, others consisting of three or four cups, whilst
others again were more complete. The whole had been arti-
ficially obtained by Mr. Stone, who tempted the wasps to build
by excavating holes in banks and furnishing them with foot-
stalks ; in fact, Mr. Stone appeared to possess the power of
inducing wasps to build nests of almost any shape he
pleased.

But to return to the cell of the Bee. It should first be
proved that the cells are not exactly and mathematically per-
fect hexagons, though sufficiently so for the purpose for which
they are used. In the Proceedings of the American Academy
of Arts and Sciences, vol. vii, 1866, Professor Wyman has, by
a most careful as well as novel and ingenious mode of investiga-
tion, proved that the cells are all more or less imperfect, and
that a hexagonal cell mathematically exact, does not exist in
nature, but only in theory.

The form of the cell is liable to marked variations, chief
among which the following may be mentioned, in the author's
own words :

"1. The diameters of workers' cells may so vary, that ten
of them may have an aggregate deviation from the normal
quantity equal to the diameter of a cell. The average varia-
tion is a little less than one half that amount, namely, nearly
0.10 inch, in the same number of cells.

U 2. The width of the sides varies, and this generally in-
volves a variation of the angles which adjoining sides make
with each other, since the sides vary not only in length but in
direction.

"3. The variation in the diameters does not depend ^upon
accidental distortion, but upon the manner in which the cell
was built.

124

HYMENOPTERA.

"4. The relative size of the rhombic faces of the pyramidal
base is liable to frequent variation, and this where the cells are
not transitional from one kind to another.

"5. When a fourth side exists in the basal pyramid, it may
be in consequence of irregularity in the size of the cells, or of
incorrect alignment of them on the two sides of the comb."

Sometimes one of the faces is lost, and a new one formed,

so that all the basal portion of the cell becomes reversed, as

ABC will be seen by refer-

ence to Figs. 73 and
74 ; the first repre-
73. senting the cells when

the base is viewed, and the second when looked at perpendic-
ularly to one of the sides. In both figures A indicates the
ordinary form of the cell. The whole ABC
series of Fig. 74 shows the gradual
introduction of the new face, which
is seen on the lower border, and the
elimination of one of the original faces,
which is seen on the upper border. At
B, which is intermediate between the
two extremes, the four faces consist of two equal rhombs,
one of which is the outgoing and the other the incoming one,
A fl c and two equal hexagons. B, Fig.

74, represents the sides of the same
cell, which, instead of forming three
trapeziums, as at A, a, 6, c, now
form two pentagons, a' and c', and a
parallelogram, &'. At C, Figs. 73
and 74, the forms are in all respects
the reverse of those of A. A and C
are symmetrical with each other, and
B is S3'mmetrical in itself. No pre-
cise number of cells is necessary
for the purpose of making this transition, for it may take
place in two or three, or extend through a long series, as in

a T> C

Fig. 74.

Fig. 75.

"6. Ordinarily, the error of alignment does not amount to
more than one or two diameters of a cell. But occasionally

APIARIJE. 125

the rows of cells on one side of the comb may deviate from

their true direction with regard to those on the other, to the

extent of 30."

u Thus, if a piece of normal comb be held in the position in

which it was built, two of the opposite angles of the hexagon,

Fig. 75, A, a, will be in the

same vertical line, and two

of the sides will be parallel

to this. The same is true

of the opposite side of the

comb ; and thus all the cor- * T f T r~/

responding parts of the cells

on the two sides will be par-
allel. In the deviation we

are now noticing, the change

is like that represented in A,

where the cell a is in its

true position, while the cell

6, which is from the oppo-
site side, and is in contact

with <x, varies from it by

about 30. If we look at

these two cells in the direc-
tion of their sides as at B,

the prism a will have one Fig. 76.

of its angles towards the eye, and b one of its sides.

In consequence of this deviation and the continual crossing

of the rows on opposite sides, the pyramidal base is not made,

and the cell is shortened.

" 7. In curved or bent combs the
cells on the concave side tend to be-
come narrower, while those on the
other tend to become broader to-
wards their mouths. In Fig. 76
(this and Figs. 77 and 78 are made
77> from impressions obtained directly

from the comb and transferred to wood ; they represent the

form of the cells exactly), as in the central line of cells, there

are a variety of hexagons, each resulting from the union

126

HYMENOPTERA.

of two cells, the base being double while the mouth is
single. That on the line a, 6, has three sides at one end,
united by two long sides with one at the other, and thus two
of the opposite sides are not parallel ; at c, cZ, two sides at

' ff

c d e f

Fig. 78.

either end are united by two long sides, these last being par-
allel ; and at e, /, the mouth of the compound cell has seven
sides. Each has a partition at its base, separating the two
originally distinct cells, and each was lined with a cocoon,
showing that it had been used for rearing young. At g, not
only has the partition between the combining cells disappeared,
but also three of the sides of each cell."

The bees do not appear to have any systematic way of mak-
ing a transition from worker to drone cells, which are one-fifth
larger than the former. More commonly, they effect it by a
gradual alteration of the diameters, thus enlarging a worker
into a drone, or narrowing a drone into a worker cell. This
alteration is usually made in from four to six rows. In one case

APIARI^E. 127

Professor Wyman noticed the transition made with only one
cell, as in Fig. 78, but not without destroying the regularity of
the two adjoining rows.

"In consequence of the gradual narrowing or widening of
the transition cells, the comb tends to become more or less tri-
angular and the cells to become disturbed. The bees counter-
act this tendency by the occasional intercalation of an additional
row, of which two instances are given in Fig. 78, at a and 6,
where three rows of worker cells are continuous with two of
drone cells, c, d and e, /; or, reversing the statement, and
supposing the transition, as in the building of the comb, is
from worker to drone-cells, a row of the latter is from time to
time omitted as the rows a and 6; in this way, the regularity of
the comb is preserved."

Honey-cells are formed either by enlarging the ordinary
brood-cells, or adding them to others often larger, or by con-
structing a new comb, devoted entirely to the storing of honey.
"While the cells of this last are built unequivocally in accord-
ance with the hexagonal type, they exhibit a range of variation
from it which almost defies description."

No Ichneumon-flies are known to attack the larva of the
Honey-bee, nor in fact, with few exceptions, any of the wild
bees, owing, probably, to the difficulty of their gaining access
to them, since Anomalon vesparum has been reared from the
cells of wasps which are more exposed than those of bees.
But the Honey, as well as the wild bees, are afflicted by a
peculiar assemblage of insect-parasites, some of which have
the most remarkable habits. The most formidable pest of the
Hive-bee is the Bee Fly, Phora incrassata, which in Europe
sometimes produces the well-known disease called "foul-
brood." The Bee-louse, Braula cceca, is, in Europe, sometimes
troublesome to the adult bee, while Trichodes apiarius, a beetle,
devours the larvae. The larvae of Meloe and Stylops are known
in Europe to infest the Honey-bee, and among the low intesti-
nal worms Assmus enumerates Gordius subUfurcus which in-
fests the drones of the Honey-bee as well as other insects.
Professor Siebold has also described Mermis albicans, which
is a similar kind of hair-worm, from two to five inches long,
and whitish in color. This worm is also found, strangely

128 HYMEXOPTERA.

enough, only in the drones, though it is the workers which
frequent watery places (where the worm deposits its eggs) to
appease their thirst. The Wax-moths, G-alleria cereana and
Achroia alvearia, do much harm by consuming the wax and
thus breaking down the cells, and by filling the hive with
their webs.*

The genus Apis is indigenous in South America, though the
Honey-bee has been extensively introduced into the West In-
dies. Our Honey-bee is replaced in the tropics by the stingless,
minute bees, which store up honey and live in far more numer-
ous colonies. The cells of Melipona are hexagonal, nearly
approaching in regularity those of the Hive-bee, while the
honey-cells are irregular, much larger cavities, which hold about
one-half as much honey as a cell of the Humble-bee. From a
paper on the Brazilian Honey-bees, read by Mr. F. Smith be-
fore the Entomological Society of London, March, 1863, he
states that the Meliponas are small insects, having wings shorter
than the abdomen, the latter being very convex and oblong ;
their mandibles never being dentate ; while the Trigonas have
the wings more ample, and longer than the abdomen, which is
short, somewhat triangular, while the mandibles are serrated,
denticulate, or sometimes edentate. The Meliponas are re-
stricted to the new world, while Trigona extends into Africa,
India, and Australasia.

" All these bees are honey gatherers, but the honey collected
by the different species varies greatly in quality : from the
nests of some it is excellent ; from others, worthless. The
honey of the species ' Mombuca* is said to be black and sour,
the quality being dependent on species of flowers from which
the honey is collected. This great difference in the honey of
the various species is apparently confirmatory of the fact that
each species confines itself to particular flowers, never visiting
any other kind. The different relative length of the tongue in

* EXPLANATION OF PLATE 2. Parasites of the Honey-bee. Fig. 1, Phora incras-
sata; Fig. 2, pupa; Fig. 3, larva. Fig. 4, Braula caeca; Fig. 5, larva. Fig. 6, Tri-
chodcs npiarius : , larva; 5, pupa. Fig. 7, Meloe angusticollis ; Fig. 8, freshly hatched
larva; Fig. 9, second stage of larva; Fig. 10, first stage of semi-pupa; Fig. 11,
pupa. Fig. 12, Stylops Chttdreni in the body of a wild bee, Andrena ; Fig. 13, top
view of the same removed from its host; Fig. 14, male of the same; a, side view.
Fig. 15, Mucor mellitophorus, a parasitic fungus. Fig. 16, unknown larva found in
nest of Humble-bee. Descriptions of the insect parasites will be given beyond.

Plate 2.

Fig. 4.

Fig. 13.

PARASITES OF THE HONEY BEE.

API ART M. 129

the species is also confirmatory of the same supposition ; in-
deed, the great diversity in this respect observable in these
bees, appears to me to be analogous to a similar diversity in the
length of the bills of humming-birds, which, it is well known,
are always adapted for reaching the nectaries of the particular
flowers which they usually frequent."

In regard to the immense numbers of individuals in a col-
ony, Mr. Stretch, who collected them at Panama, "found a
nest several feet in length in the hollow of a tree, containing
thousands of individuals, their numbers being, as he informs
me, apparently countless.

"Gardner, in his travels, gives a list of such species (of
Melipona) as he met in the provinces of Piauhy and Goyaz,
where he found them numerous ; in every house, he says, 'you
find the honey of these bees ; ' many species, he tells us, build in
the hollow trunks of trees, others in. banks ; some suspend
their nests from branches of trees, whilst one species constructs
its nest of clay, it being of large size ; the honey of this spe-
cies, he says, is very good." (Smith.)

In a nest of Trigona carbonaria from Eastern Australia,
Smith, of the British Museum, found from 400 to 500 dead
workers crammed in the spaces between the combs, but he
did not find a female among them. The combs are arranged
precisely similar to those of the common wasp. The number of
honey-pots, which are placed at the foot of the nest, amounted
to 250.

Smith inclines to the opinion that the hive of Trigona con-
tains several prolific females ; ' ' the accounts given of the mul-
titudes inhabiting some nests is too great, I think, to render it
possible that one female could produce them all. Mr. Stretch
described 'a hive that be saw, occupying the interior of a decay-
ing tree, that measured six feet in length, and the multitude of
bees he compared to a black cloud. M. Guerin found six fe-
males in a nest of Melipona fulvipes"

Hill states, in Gosse's Naturalist's Sojourn in Jamaica,
"that the wax of these bees [Trigona] is very unctuous and
dark colored, but susceptible of being whitened by bleaching.
The honey is stored in clusters of cups, about the size of
pigeon's eggs, at the bottom of the hive, and always from the

130 HYMENOPTERA.

brood-cells. The brood-cells are hexagonal ; they are not
deep, and the young ones, when ready to burst their casement,
just fill the whole cavity. The mother bee is lighter in color
than the other bees, and elongated at the abdomen to double
their length." Smith also states that the female of this genus
has the abdomen greatly distended, reminding one of the
gravid female of the White Ant. (Smith, Proc. Ent. Soc.,
London, Dec. 7, 1863.)

In North America, our nearest airy, as regards its habits, of
the true Honey-bee, is the Humble-bee (Bombus), of which
over forty species are known to inhabit North America.

The economy of the Humble-bee is thus : the queen awakens
in early spring from her winter's sleep beneath the leaves or
moss, or in deserted nests, and selects a nesting-place generally
in an abandoned nest of a field-mouse, or beneath a stump or
sod, and "immediately," according to Mr. F. W. Putnam,
"collects a small amount of pollen mixed with honey, and in
this deposits from seven to fourteen eggs, gradually adding to
the pollen mass until the first brood is hatched. She does not
wait, however, for one brood to be hatched before laying the
eggs of another ; but, as soon as food enough has been collected,
she lays the eggs for a second. The eggs [Plate 4, Fig. 2]
are laid, in contact with each other, in one cavity of the mass
of pollen, with a part of which they are slightly covered. They
are very soon developed ; in fact, the lines are nowhere dis-
tinctly drawn between the egg and the larva, the larva and
pupa, and again between the latter and the imago ; a perfect
series, showing this gradual transformation of the young to the
imago, can be found in almost every nest.

"As soon as the larvae are capable of motion and commence
feeding, they eat the pollen by which they are surrounded, and,
gradually separating, push their way in various directions.
Eating as they move, and increasing in size quite rapidly, they
soon make large cavities in the pollen mass. When they have
attained their full size, they spin a silken wall about them,
which is strengthened by the old bees covering it with a thin
layer of wax, which soon becomes hard and tough, thus form-
ing a cell. [Plate 4, Figs. 1, 2.] The larvae now gradually
attain the pupa stage, and remain inactive until their full devel-

Plate 3.

PARASITES OF WILD BEES.

APIARI^E. 131

opment. They then cut their way out, and are ready to assume
their duties as workers, small females, males or queens.

"It is apparent that the irregular disposition of the cells is
due to their being constructed so peculiarly by the larvae.
After the first brood, composed of workers, has come forth,
the queen bee devotes her time principally to her duties at
home, the workers supplying the colony with honey and pollen.
As the queen continues prolific, more workers are added, and
the nest is rapidly enlarged.

"About the middle of summer eggs are deposited which
produce both small females and males." . . . "All eggs laid
after the last of July produce the large females, or queens ;
and, the males being still in the nest, it is presumed that the
queens are impregnated at this time, as, on the approach of
cold weather, all except the queens, of which there are several in
each nest, die." (Putnam, Com. Essex Inst., vol. iv, p. 98, 1864.)

Besides Apathus, the larvae of various moths consume the
honey and waxen cells ; the two-winged flies, Volucella and
Conops, and the larvae of what is either an Anthomyia or
Tachina-like fly ; several species of Anthrax, the Coleopterous
Anobium paniceum of Europe, Meloe, Stylops, and Anthero-
phagus ochraceus are parasitic on Humble-bees.*
' The habits of the genus Apathus are not clearly known, but
they are supposed to prey, in the larva state, upon the larvae of
Bombus, being found in their nests ; their habits, so- far as
known, ally them with Nomada. The species are distinguished
by the tibiae being convex, instead of concave, as in Bombus,
while the mandibles of the females are acute, triangular, biden-
tate, being spatulate and three-toothed in Bombus, and they
have no pollenigerous organs. There are males an^ 7 females
only, as in all the remaining genera of the family. Apathus
Ashtonii (Plains, Fig. 1) is found in the Northern States.

* EXPLANATION OF PLATE 3. Parasites of the Humble and Leaf-cutter Bees.
Fig. 1, Apathus Ashtonii. Fig. 2, Neplwpteryx Edmandsii; a, larva; 6, pupa. Fig.
3, 3 a, Microgaster nephoptericis, an Ichneumon parasite of Nephopteryx. Fig. 4,
Antherophagus ochraceus. Fig. 5, Anthomyia ? larva; a, side view. Fig. 6, Re-
cently hatched larva of Stylops Childrenii; a, side view. Fig. 7, larva; a, pupa of
Anthophorabia megachilis, a Chalcid parasite on Megachile. Fig. 8, Fteratomus
Putnamii, an exceedingly minute Proctotrupirl fly, supposed to be parasitic on An-
thorphorabia megachilis ; a, a hind wing. Fig. 9, a Mite found in the nests of
Humble-bees.

132 HYMENOPTERA.

Xylocopa, the Carpenter-bee, is "the largest and most bulky
of all known bees," but less hirsute than Bombus, while the
basal joint of the labial palpi is almost -four times as long as
the second ; and the maxillary palpi are six-jointed, the mouth-
parts being very highly organized. The larva of X. Virginica
(Plate 4, Fig. 3, adult ; Fig. 4, larva ; Fig. 5, nest) is slenderer
than that of Bombus, the body tapering more rapidly towards
each end.

The power of boring the most symmetrical tunnels in solid
wood reaches its perfection in the large Virginian Carpenter-
bee (Xylocopa Virginica). We have received from Mr. James
Angus, of West Farms, N. Y., a piece of trellis for a grape-
vine, made of pine wood, containing the cells and young in
various stages of growth, together with the larvae and chrysa-
lids of Anthrax sinuosa (Plate 4, Fig. 6, larva ; Fig. 7, pupa),
a species of fly parasitic on the larva of the bee, and which
buries its head in its soft bod} r and feeds on its juices.

Mr. Angus thus writes us regarding its habits, under date of
J.ily 19 : "I asked an intelligent and observing carpenter yes-
terday, if he knew how long it took the Xylocopa to bore her
tunnel. He said he thought she bored about one-quarter of an
inch a day. I don't think myself she bores more than one-
half inch, if she does that. If I mistake not, it takes her
about two da} r s to make her own length at the first start ; but
this being across the grain of the wood may not be so easily
done as the remainder, which runs parallel with it. She always
follows the grain of the wood, with the exception of the en-
trance, which is about her own length. The tunnels run from
one to one and a half feet in length. They generally run in
opposite directions from the opening, and sometimes other gal-
leries are run above the first, using the same opening. I
think they only make new tunnels when old one% are not to be
found, and that the same tunnels are used for many years.
Some of the old tunnels are very wide! I have found parts of
them about an inch in diameter. I think this is caused by
rasping off the sides to procure the necessary material for con-
structing, their cells. The partitions are composed of wood-
raspings, and some sticky fluid, probably saliva, to make it
adhere.

"APIAROS. 133

"The tunnels are sometimes taken possession of by other
bees and wasps. I think when this is the case, the Xylocopa
prefers making a new cell to cleaning out the mud and rubbish
of the other species. I frequently find these bees remaining
for a long time on the wing close to the opening, and bobbing
their heads against the side, as if fanning air into the opening.
I have seen them thus employed for twenty minutes. Whether
one bee, or more, makes the tunnel, that is, whether they take
turns in boring, I cannot say at present. In opening the cells,
more than one are generally found, even at this season. About
two weeks ago, I found as many as seven, I think, in one." *

The hole is divided by partitions into cells about seven-tenths
of an inch long. These partitions are constructed of the
dust or chippings made by the bee in eating out her cells, for
our active little carpenter is provided with strong cutting jaws,
moved by powerful muscles, and on her legs are stiff brushes
of hair for cleaning out the tunnel as she descends into the
heart of the solid wood. She must throw out the chips she
bites off from the sides of the burrow with her hind legs, pass-
ing the load of chips backwards out of the cell with her fore-
limbs, which she uses as hands.

The partitions are built most elaborately of a single flattened
band of chips, which is rolled up into a coil four layers deep.
One side, forming the bottom of the cell, is concave, being

* " Since writing the above I have opened one of the new holes of Xylocopa
which was commenced between three and four weeks ago, in a pine slat used in
the staging of the greenhouse. The dimensions were as follows : Opening fully
3-8 wide ; depth 7-16 ; whole length of tunnel 6 and 5-16 inches. The tunnel branched
both ways from the hole. One end, from opening, was 2 and 5-8, containing three
cells, two with larva and pollen, the third empty. The other side of the opening, or
the rest of the tunnel, was empty, with the exception of the old bee (only one) at
work. I think this was the work of one bee, and, as near as I can judge, about
twenty-five days' work. Width of tunnel inside at widest 9-16 inch.

For some days this bee has been discharging a great quantity of saw-dust and
pollen, which I had collected by placing a vessel under it. It would seem that she
had cells constructed also in the opposite side of the hole, and that she removed
them to enlarge the tunnel. Among the stuff thrown out, I find a partition of a cell
nearly entire.

I have just found a Xylocopa bobbing at one of the holes, and in order to ascer-
tain the depth of the tunnel, and to see whether there were any others in them, I
sounded with a pliable rod, and found others in one side, at a depth of five and one
half inches; the other side was four inches deep, without bees. The morning was
cool, so that the object in bobbing could not be to introduce fresh currents of air,
but must have had some relation to those inside. The legs on such occasions are,
as 1 have noticed, loaded with pollen.-' American Naturalist, vol. 1, p. 370.

134 HYMENOPTERA.

beaten down and smoothed off by the bee. The other side of
the partition, forming the top of the cell, is flat and rough.

At the time of opening the burrow, July 8th, the cells con-
tained nearly full-grown larvae, with some half developed.
They were feeding on the masses of pollen, which were as large
as a thick kidney-bean, and occupied nearly half the cell. Sa-
pyga repanda is parasitic in the cells of Xylocopa violacea of
Southern Europe.

The habits and structure of the little Ceratina ally it closely
with Xylocopa, as it hollows out the stems of plants, and builds
in them its cylindrical cells. This bee is oblong in form, with
tridentate mandibles, and a short labrum. The maxillary palpi
are six-jointed, and the labial palpi are two-jointed. Ceratina
dupla Say is a common small bright-green smooth-bodied species,
which, in the middle of May, according to Dr. Harris' MS. notes,
tunnels out the stems of the elder or blackberry, syringa, or any
other pithy shrub, excavating them often to a depth of six or
seven inches, and also, according to Mr. Haldeman (Harris
MS.), bores in Cocorus. She makes the walls just wide enough
to admit her body, and of a depth capable of holding three or
four, often five or six cells (Plate 4, Fig. 11). The finely built
cells, with their delicate silken walls, are cylindrical and nearly
square at each end, though the free end of the last cell is
rounded off. They are four and a half tenths of an inch long,
and a little over one-third as broad. The bee places them at
nearly equal distances apart, the slight interval between them
being filled in with dirt.

Dr. T. W. Harris* states that, "May 15, 1832, one female
laid its eggs in the hollow of an aster-stalk. Three perfect in-
sects were disclosed from it July 28th." The observations of Mr.
Angus, who saw some bees making their cells, May 18th, also
confirms this account. The history of our little upholsterer is
thus cleared up. Late in the spring she builds her cells, fills
them with pollen, and lays one or more eggs upon each one.
Thus in about two months the insect completes its transforma-
tions ; within this period passing through the egg, the larval
and chrysalid states, and then, as a bee, living through the win-
ter. Its life thus spans one year.

* According to a note in MSS. deposited in the Library of the Boston Society of
Natural History.

APIARI^. 135

The larva (Plate 4, Fig. 10) is longer than that of Mega-
chile, and compared with that of Xylocopa, the different seg-
ments are much more convex, giving a serrate outline to the
back of the worm. The pupa, or chrysalis, we have found in
the cells the last of July. It is white, and three-tenths of an
inch long. It differs from that of the Leaf-cutter bee in having
four spines on the end of the body, and in having a much
longer tongue and maxillae, both being almost twice as long.

In none of the wild bees are the cells constructed with more
nicety than those of our little Ceratina. She bores out with
her jaws a long deep well just the size of her body, and then
stretches a thin delicate cloth of silk, drawn tight as a drum-
head, across each end of her chambers, which she then fills with
a mixture of pollen and honey.

Her young are not, in this supposed retreat, entirely free
from danger. The most invidious foes enter and attack
them. Three species of Ichneumon-flies, two of which belong
to the Chalcid family, lay their eggs within the body of the
larva, and emerge from the dried larva and pupa skins of the
bee, often in great numbers. The smallest parasite, belonging
to the genus Anthophorabia (so called from being first known
as a parasite on another bee, Anthophora), is a minute species
found also abundantly in the tight cells of the Leaf-cutter bee.

The species of Anthiclium, according to Smith, are gaily
marked with yellow bands and spots ; the ligula is almost twice
as long as the labial palpi, and acutely pointed ; the paraglossae
are short, the maxillary palpi are two-jointed, and there are two
subcostal cells. The males are longer than the females, with an
elongated and stoutly toothed abdominal tip. The female lines
her nest, situated in any hole convenient for its purpose, with
down from woolly-stemmed plants. They pass the winter in
the larva state, and the bees do not appear until mid-summer.
The species mostly occur in the old world.

In Anthophora, which approaches nearer to Bombus in its
plump and hairy body than the two preceding genera, the lig-
ula is twice as long as the labial maxillae, ending in a bristle-
like point ; the basal joint of the hind tarsus is thickly hirsute,
while the middle tarsus of the males is generally elongated.
The species are gregarious, their numerous cells, while indepen.

136 HYMENOPTERA.

dent, are crowded together in grassy banks. Species of
Melecta are parasitic on them, ovipositing in their cells. The
larvae are infected by the Chalcid flies, Anthophorabia and
Monodontomerus, and by a peculiar species of Mite, Hete-
ropus ventricosus, described by Newport. Say has described
Antliopliora abrupta and A. taurea from Indiana.

In Eucera the antennae are very long, while the body is still
plump and hairy : our more common form in the Middle States
is Eucera maculata St. Fargeau. The species are likewise
gregarious, and, according to Smith, their habits are precisely
the same as those of Anthophora.

In Megachile, the Leaf-cutter Bee, the head is broad, the
body stout, oblong, the ligula is about one-half longer than
the labial palpi, being quite stout, while the paraglossse are
short and pointed ; the maxillae are long and sabre-shaped,
while their palpi are short and two-jointed. There are two
subcostal cells in the fore wing. It is a thick-bodied bee, with
a large square head, stout scissor-like jaws, and with a thick
mass of dense hairs on the under side of the tail for the pur-
pose of carrying pollen, since it is not provided with a pollen
basket as in the Honey and Humble-bees. The larva is broader
and flatter than that of Bombus, the raised pleural region is a
little more prominent, and the raised, thickened tergal portion
of each ring is more prominent than in Bombus.
The Megachile lays its eggs in burrows in the stems of the
elder (Plate 4, Fig. 9), which we have received from Mr.
James Angus ; we have also found them in the hollows of the
locust tree. Mr. F. W. Putnam thus speaks of the economy
of M. centuncularis, our most common species. "My attention
was first called, on the 26th of June, to a female busily en-
gaged in bringing pieces of leaf to her cells, which she was build-
ing under a board, on the roof of the piazza, directly under
my window. Nearly the 'whole morning was occupied by the
bee in bringing pieces of leaf from a rose-bush growing about
ten yards from her cells, returning at intervals of a half minute
to a minute with the pieces which she carried in such a manner
as not to impede her walking when she alighted near her hole.
[We give a figure of the Leaf-cutter bee in the act of cutting
out a circular piece of a rose-leaf (Plate 4, Fig. 8). She

API ART JE. 137

alights upon the leaf, and in a few seconds swiftly runs her
scissors-like jaws around through the leaf, bearing off the
piece in her hind legs.] About noon she had probably com-
pleted the cell, upon which she had been engaged, as, during
the afternoon, she was occupied in bringing pollen, preparatory
to laying her single egg in the cell. For about twenty days
the bee continued at work, building new cells and supplying
them with pollen. . . . On the 28th of July, upon removing
the board, it was found that the bee had made thirty cells,
arranged in nine rows of unequal length, some being slightly
curved to adapt them to the space under the board. The
longest row contained six cells, and was two and three-quarters
inches in length ; the whole leaf-structure being equal to a
length of fifteen inches. Upon making an estimate of the
pieces of leaf in this structure, it was ascertained that there
must have been at least a thousand pieces used. In addition
to the labor of making the cells, this bee, unassisted in all her
duties, had to collect the requisite amount of pollen (and
honey?) for each cell, and lay her eggs therein, when com-
pleted. Upon carefully cutting out a portion of one of the
cells, a full-grown larva was seen engaged in spinning a slight
silken cocoon about the walls of its prison, which were quite
hard and smooth on the inside, probably owing to the move-
ments of the larva, and the consequent pressing of the sticky
particles to the walls. In a short time the opening made was
closed over by a very thin silken web. The cells, measured on
the inside of the hard walls, were .35 of an inch in length, and
.15 in diameter. The natural attitude of the larva is some-
what curved in its cell, but if straightened, it just equals the
inside length of the cell. On the 31st of July, two female
bees came out, having cut their way through the sides of their
cells." In three other cells "several hundred minute Ichneu-
mons [Anthophorabia megachilis] were seen, which came forth
as soon as the cells were opened." (Com. Essex Inst., vol. iv,
p. 105, 1864.)

Megachile integer Say MS., according to Dr. Harris (MS.
notes), forms its nest of leaves the first of August. This spe-
cies is twice as large, but closely resembles Megachile brevis of
Say. The front of the head is covered with dense ochreous

138 HYMENOPTERA.

hairs, becoming shorter and black on the vertex. The nest,
preserved in the Harris collection, now in the Museum of the
Boston Society of Natural Histo^, is made of rose-leaves, and
is scarcely distinguishable from that of M. centuncularis.

Osmia, the Mason Bee, is another genus of Carpenter or
Upholsterer bees. The species are generally bluish, with
greenish reflections, with smooth shiny bodies, and the species
are of smaller size than in Megachile. The tongue in this
genus is three times as long as the labium, tapering from the
base to the acute apex, and clothed with short hair.

Mr. F. Smith states that the larva of the English species
hatch in eight days after the eggs are laid, feeds ten to twelve
days, when it becomes full-grown, then spins a thin silken
covering, and remains in an inactive state until the following
spring, when it completes its transformations.

The habits of the little Mason-bees are quite varied. They
construct their cells in the stems of plants and in rotten posts
and trees, or, like Andrena, they burrow in sunny banks. An
European species selects snail-shells for its nest, wherein it
builds its earthen cells, while other species nidificate under
stones. Curtis found two hundred and thirty cocoons of a
British species (Osmia paretina) , placed on the under side of
a flat stone, of which one-third were empty. Of the remainder,
the most appeared between March and June, males appearing
first ; thirty-five more bees were developed the following spring.
Thus there were three successive broods for three succeeding
years, so that these bees lived three years before arriving at
maturity.

Mr. G. R. Waterhouse, in the Transactions of the Entomo-
logical Society of London, for 1864 (3d series, vol. 2, p. 121),
states that the cells of Osmia leucomelana "are formed of mud,
and each cell is built separately. The female bee, having de-
posited a small pellet of mud in a sheltered spot between some
tufts of grass, immediately commences to excavate a small
cavity in its upper surface, scraping the mud away from the
centre towards the margin by means of her jaws. A small
shallow mud-cup is thus produced. It is rough and uneven on
the outer surface, but beautifully smooth on the inner. On
witnessing thus much of the work performed, I was struck with

APIARIJC. 139

three points. First, the rapidity with which the insect worked ;
secondly, the tenacity with which she kept her original position
whilst excavating ; and thirdly, her constantly going over
work which had apparently been completed. . . . The lid is
excavated and rendered concave on its outer or upper surface,
and is convex and rough on its inner surface ; and, in fact, is a
simple repetition of the first-formed portion of the cell, a part
of a hollow sphere."

The largest species of Osmia known to us is a very dark-blue
species which seems to be undescribed. We will call it the
wood-boring Osmia (Osmia lignivora). It is larger than
the Osmia lignaria of Say, being just half an inch long. The
head is much shorter, and less square than in Say's spe-
cies. The front of the head below the antennae is clothed with
dark hairs, but above and on the thorax with yellowish ochreous
hairs. The body is deep blackish blue, with greenish reflec-
tions. We are indebted to a lady for specimens of the bees
with their cells, which had been excavated in the interior of a
maple tree several inches from the bark. The bee had industri-
ously tunnelled out this elaborate burrow (Plate 4, Fig. 12),
and, in this respect, resembles the habits of the Carpenter-bee
(Xylocopa) more closely than any other species of its genus.

The tunnel was over three inches long, and about three-
tenths of an inch wide. It contracted a little in width between
the cell, showing that the bee worked intelligently, and wasted
no more of her energies than was absolutely necessary. The
burrow contained five cells, each half an inch long, being
rather short and broad, with the hinder end rounded, while the
opposite end, next to the one adjoining, is cut off squarely.
The cell is somewhat jug-shaped, owing 'to a slight constriction
just behind the mouth. The material of which the cell is com-
posed is stout, silken, parchment-like, and very smooth within.
The interstices between the cells are filled with rather coarse
drippings made by the bee.

The bee cut its way out of the cells in March, and lived for
a month afterwards on a diet of honey and water. It eagerly
lapped up the drops of water supplied by its keeper, to whom
it soon grew accustomed, and whom it seemed to recognize.

The female of Osmia lignaria Say MS., according to Dr.

140 HYMENOPTERA.

Harris' MS. notes, was found in the perfect state in cocoons
within earthen cells under stones, April 15th. The cell she con-
structs is half an inch long, oval, cylindrical, and contracted
slightly into a sort of neck just before the opening for the exit
of the bee. From Mr. James Angus I have received the pellets
of pollen, about the size of a pea, in which it deposits its eggs ;
the larvae were about one-third grown in August.

This species is larger than Osmia simillima of Smith, while
the male antennae are much paler, being fuscous. The front
of the head is covered with long dense yellow ochreous hairs.
The vertex is not of so dark a green as in 0. simillima, and
is covered with coarse punctures. The thorax is heavily clothed
with yellow ochreous, thick hairs. The abdomen is yellowish,
and much more hairy. The legs are stout, fuscous, with yel-
lowish hairs. Length, .35 inch.

Our smallest and most abundant species is the little green
Osmia simillima of Smith. It builds its little oval, somewhat
urn-shaped cells, against the roof of the large deserted galls of
the oak-gall fly (Diplolepis confluentus), placing them, in this
instance, eleven in number, in two irregular rows, from which
the mature bees issue through a hole in the gall (Plate 4,* Fig.
14. From specimens communicated by Mr. F. G. Sanborn).
The earthen cells, containing the tough dense cocoons, were
arranged irregularly so as to fit the concave vault of the larger
gall, which was about two inches in diameter. On emerging
from the cell the Osmia cuts out with its powerful jaws an
ovate lid, nearly as large as one side of the cell. Both sexes
may be found in April and May in the flowers of the willow

* EXPLANATION OF PLATE 4. Fig. 1, a cell of the Humble-bee; natural size,
with the pollen mass upon the top. Fig. 2, end view of the same mass, showing
the three eggs laid in three divisions of the cavity. Fig. 3, Xylocopa Virginica, the
Carpenter Bee. Fig. 4, the larva of Xylocopa Virginica ; natural size. Fig. 5,
the nest containing the cells of the same, with the partitions and pollen masses,
on which the young larva is seen in the act of feeding; natural size. Fig. 6,
young larva of Anthrax simtosa; side view. Fig. 7, pupa of Anthrax sinnosa,
side view; natural size. Fig. 8, the Leaf-cutter Bee (Megachile), on a rose leaf,
in the act of cutting oxit a circular piece. Fig. 9, cells of Megachile, in the elder;
natural size. Fig. 10, larva of Ceratina dupla, the little green Upholsterer Bee ;
enlarged. Fig. 11, cells of the same in the stem of the elder; natural size. Fig.
12, cells of Osmia lignivora, new species, the wood-devouring Mason-bee, exca-
vated in the maple ; natural size. Fig. 13, cells of Osmia simillima, the common
green Mason-bee, built in the deserted gall of the Oak-gall Fly. Fig. 14, a single
earthen cell of the same; natural size. Fig. 15, pollen mass, or bee-bread of
Osmia lignaria ; natural size. It is made up of distinct pellets of pollen, which
are probably stuck together with saliva.

Plate 4.

ARCHITECTURE OF BEES.

APIARIJE. 141

and fruit trees which blossom later. The antennae are black,
and the green body is covered with fine white hairs, becoming
yellowish above.

In the Harris collection are the cells and specimens of Osmia
padjica Say, the peaceful Osmia, which, according to the man-
uscript notes of Dr. Harris, is found in the perfect state in
earthen cells (Plate 5, Fig. 2) beneath stones. The cell is oval
cylindrical, a little contracted as usual with those of all the spe-
cies of the genus, thus forming an urn-shaped cell. It is half
an inch long^ and nearly three-tenths of an inch wide, while the
cocoon, which is rather thin, is three-tenths of an inch long.

The following genera, called Cuckoo Bees, are parasitic on
other bees, laying their eggs in the cells, or nests, of their host.
In Codioxys the body is stout, and the bee closely mimics its
host, Megachile. The ligula is very long, being almost three
times the length of the labium, and the paraglossse are wholly
wanting ; the maxillary palpi are short, three-jointed, and the
abdominal tip of the male is variously toothed. Codioxys octo-
dentata Say, is abundant late in the summer about flowers. An
allied genus, Melecta, is parasitic on Anthophora, and Epeolus is
parasitic on Colletes.

The species of Nomada are very numerous ; in all, the tongue
is long and acute, with paraglossse about one-fourth as long
as the tongue ; the maxillary pair of palpi are six-jointed ;
and there are three subcostal cells. The species in their slen-
der, smooth, gaily colored body resemble the wasps. These
Cuckoo-bees lay their eggs in the nests of Andrena and Ha-
lictus, and, according to English authors, Panurgus and Eucera,
where they may be found in all stages of development corre-
sponding to those of their hosts. The females do not sting
severely. The species emit sweet, balmy, or balsamical odors.
Shuckard states that these bees should be killed with burning
sulphur to preserve their bright colors.

The larvae differ greatty from those of their hosts, Andrena,
the head being much smaller, the body being smoother and
rounder, and belonging to a more degraded, lower type. The
whole body is more attenuated towards both extremities.
The pupa differs from those of any other genus of this family
known to us, except Andrena, by having three conspicuous

142 HYMENOPTERA.

spines on the upper and posterior edge of the orbit f which are
also found in the pupa of Stigmus, a Crabronid genus, and which
evidently aid in locomotion. Thus the same law of degrada-
tion obtains in these highly organized bee-parasites as in the
lower parasitic species, though in a much less marked degree.

From specimens found in the nests of Andrena and Halictus,
collected at Salem by Mr. J. H. Emerton, and now in the Mu-
seum of the Essex Institute, we have been enabled in great
part to clear up the history of this bee. We have found in the
nests of Andrena vicina both sexes of Nomada imbricata Smith,
and several females of Nomada pulchella of Smith ; and in the
cells of Halictus parallelus Say, specimens of Nomada imbri-
cata. Both full-grown larvae and pupae of different ages, up
to the adult Nomada, ready to take leave of its host, were
found in the cells of the Andrena vicina. It seems, there-
fore, that the newly hatched young of Nomada must feed
on the pollen mass destined for the Andrena. But there
seems to be enough for both genera to feed upon, as the young
of both host and parasite were found living harmoniously to-
gether, and the hosts and their parasites are disclosed both at
the same time. Does not this mild sort of parasitism in No-
mada throw much light on the probable habits of Apathus, the
Humble-bee parasite ? It is more than probable that the Apa-
thus larvae simply eat the food of the Bombus larvae, and do
not attack the larvae of their hosts. Both Nomada and Apathus
in their adult stages live harmoniously with their hosts, and
are seen gathering food from the same flowers, and flying about
the same nest.

In the second subfamily, Andrenetce, the ligula, or tongue, is
for the most part short and broad, and the maxillary palpi
have four joints of equal size.

In Sphecodes the body is smooth and wasp-like, and in its
habit of running and flying in dry sandy places, it resembles
Sphex, whence its generic name. The abdomen is generally
light red, farther aiding in the resemblance to the Sphegidce.
The ligula is short, lancet-shaped, fringed with setae ; the para-
glossae are not so long as the tongue, while the labial palpi are
shorter than the paraglossae, and the maxillae are broad, lan-
ceolate, with six-jointed palpi. The antennae of the males are

APIARI^E. 143

short and sometimes moniliform. Spliecodes dichroa Harris is
our most common species. Mr. F. Smith, from direct observa-
tion, states that this genus builds cells, though earlier authors
have stated that it is parasitic on Halictus and Andrena.

Prosopis is generally yellow on the face, and is "less pubes-
cent than any of the bees." The tongue is broad, subemar-
ginate, the paraglossae reach a little beyond the tongue ; the
labial palpi are as long as the tongue, while there are two sub-
costal cells in the fore wings. Smith states that the genus is
not parasitical as formerly supposed, as he has "repeatedly
bred them" from cells laid in a regular order in the hollow of
bramble stems. Mr. S. Saunders has also raised them in Alba-
nia where "they construct their cells in bramble sticks (which
they bore in the same manner as Colletes) with a thin transpa-
rent membrane, calculated for holding semi-liquid honey, which
they store up for their young. The species are much attacked
by Stylops." Like Spliecodes and Ceratina, this genus, accord-
ing to Smith, is unprovided with pollenigerous organs. We
have several species in this country of which P. affinis Smith,
and P. elliptica Kirby, are found northward. The habits of
our species are not known.

Augochlora comprises beautiful shining metallic green spe-
cies, very commonly met with. The thorax is globose, and
the anterior wings have one marginal and three submarginal
cells ; the first submarginal cell as long as the second and third
united. Augochlora purus Smith is a small, green, rather
common species. Mr. J. H. Emerton has found its nests in Sa-
lem, near those of Andrena. The mouth of the hole opened
under a stone, and was built up so as to form a tube of sand
(Plate 5, Fig. 1). The burrow on the 28th of June was four
inches deep.

Andrena is a genus of great extent, and the species are often
difficult to distinguish. The lanceolate tongue is moderately
long, and the paraglossne are half as long as the tongue itself,
while the six-jointed maxillaiy palpi are longer than the maxillae
themselves. The wings have three subcostal cells, with the
rudiments of a fourth one ; the second is squarish, and the
third receives a recurrent nervure near the middle. The pos-
terior legs "have a long curled lock upon the trochanter be-

144 HYMEXOPTERA.

neath, and the anterior upper surface of the femora is clothed
with long loose hair, which equally surrounds the whole of the
tibiae." (Shuckard.) The abdomen is banded more or less
conspicuously with reddish.

The larva (Fig. 80) is stout and thick, with a head of moder-
ate size, and the mouth-parts are a little shorter than usual, the
maxillae and labium especially. The segments of
the body are much more convex (angularly so)
than usual, giving a tuberculate outline to the
body. It is stouter than that of Halictus, the
wings are less convex than in that genus ; while the
maxillae are much stouter and blunter. The pupa
is distinguished from the other genera by much the
same characters as the imago, except that there
Fig. 79. are t wo tubercles on the vertex near the ocelli.
From a comparison of all its stages, this genus stands inter-
mediate between those placed above, and Halictus, which, in
all its characters, is a more degraded form. The males often
differ widely from the other sex, in their broad heads and widely
spreading bidentate mandibles.

Mr. Emerton has observed the habits of our most common
species, Andrena vicina Smith, which builds its nest in grassy
fields. The burrow is sunken perpendicularly, with short pas-
sages leading to the cells, which are slightly inclined downwards
and outwards from the main gallery. The walls of the gallery
are rough, but the cells are lined with a mucus-like secretion,
which, on hardening, looks like the glazing of earthen-ware. In
Fig. 80 Mr. Emerton gives us a profile view of natural size of
the nest showing the main burrow and the cells leading from it ;
the oldest cell, containing the pupa (a) is situated nearest the
surface, while those containing larvae (b) lie between the pupa
and the cell (e) containing the pollen mass and egg resting
upon it. The most recent cell (/) is the deepest down, and
contains a freshly deposited pollen mass. At c is the begin-
ning of a cell ; g is the level of the ground. The bees were
seen at work on the 4th of May, at Salem, Mass., digging their
holes, one of which was already six inches deep ; and by the
15th, hundreds of holes were observed. On the 28th of May,
in unearthing six holes, eight cells were found to contain pol-

APIAKI^E.

145

len, and two of them a small larva. On the 29th of June six
full-grown larvae were exhumed, and one about half-grown.
About the first of August the
larva transforms to a pupa, and
during the last week of this month
the mature bees appear.

In Halictus, which is a genus
of great extent, the head is trans-
verse, and flattish; the mouth-
parts are of moderate length, the
tongue being very acute, with
acute paraglossae half the length
of the tongue, while the labial
palpi are not quite so long as
the paraglossae. There are three
subcostal cells in the wings, with
the rudiments of a fourth often
present, and the second cell is
squarish. The abdomen is ob-
long ovate, with a longitudinal
linear furrow on the tip in the
female. In the males the body
is longer and the antennae more
filiform and slender than usual in
this family.

The larvae are longer, and with
more acutely convex segments
than in Andrena. The pupae
differ much as the adult bees from /I
Andrena, especially in the shorter
mouth-parts.

Halictus parallelus Say excavates cells almost exactly like
those of Andrena ; but since the bee is smaller, the holes are
smaller, though as deep. Mr. Emerton found one nest, in a
path, a foot in depth. Another nest, discovered September 9th,
was about six inches deep. The cells are in form like those of
Andrena, and like them are glazed within. The egg is rather
slender and much curved ; in form it is long, cylindrical, ob-
tuse at one end, and much smaller at the other. The larva
10

Fig. 80.

146 HYMENOPTERA.

(Figs. 79, 81) is longer and slenderer, and quite different from
the rather broad and flattened larva of Andrena. The body is
rather thick behind, but in front tapers slowly
towards the head, which is of moderate size. Its
body is somewhat tuberculated, the tubercles aid-
ing the grub in moving about its cell. Its length
is .40 of an inch. On the pupa are four quite dis-
tinct conical tubercles forming a transverse line
Fig. si. j us t j n front of the ocelli ; and there are also
two larger, longer tubercles, on the outer side of each of
which an ocellus is situated. Figure 82 represents the pupa
seen from beneath.

Search was made for the nests on July 16th, when
the ground was very hard for six inches in depth,
below which the soil was soft and fine, and over
twenty cells were dug out. "The upper cells
contained nearly mature pupae, and the lower ones
larvae of various sizes, the smallest being hardly
distinguishable by the naked eye. Each of these
small larvae was in a cell by itself, and situated
upon a lump of pollen, which was of the size and shape of a
pea, and was found to lessen in size as the larva grew larger.
These young were probably the offspring of several females,
as four mature bees were found in the hole." (Emerton.)
The larva of an English species hatches in ten days after the
eggs are laid.

Another brood of bees appeared the middle of September,
as on the ninth of that month (1864) Mr. Emerton found sev-
eral holes of the same species >of bee made in a hard gravel
road near the turnpike. When opened, they were found to
contain several bees with their young. September 2, 1867, the
same kind of bee was found in holes, and just ready to leave
the cell.

Like Bombus, the females are supposed to hybernate, the
males not appearing until late in the season. Like Andrena,
these bees suffer from the attacks of Stylops, and according to
Shuckard, an Ichneumon preys upon them, while certain spe-
cies of Cerceris, Philanthus, and Crabro carry them off to store
their nests with.

VESPARI^E. 147

In Colletes the females, as Shuckard observes, resemble the
workers of the Honey-bee, while there is considerable disparity
between the sexes, the males being much smaller, the tongue
and maxillae very short; and the four-jointed labial palpi
much shorter than the paraglossae. There are three subcostal
cells, with the rudiments of a fourth. These bees form large colo-
nies, burrowing in the earth eight or ten inches deep, lining their
cells ' ' at the farther end with a very thin transparent mem-
branaceous coating, resembling goldbeaters' skin." They thus
furnish six or eight cartridge-like cells, covering each* with a
cap, "like the parchment on a drum-head." Smith, from whom
we have been quoting, states that Miltogramma punctata, which
is a Tachina-like fly, and the Cuckoo-bee, Epeolus variegatus,
have, in Europe, been reared from their cocoons.

VESPARI^E Latreille, Wasps. In this family, which comprises
about 900 species, the body is more attenuated, more cylindri-
cal, with a harder and smoother tegument than in the Ap iarice .
In the species with densely populated colonies, such as Vespa,
and Polistes, there are workers which are often very numerous,
while in Eumenes and Odynerus, etc., there are only males and
females. The antennae are elbowed, the mandibles are large,
stout ; the maxillae and labium of varying length ; the maxil-
lary palpi are six-jointed ; while on the labial palpi, which are
four-jointed, there are well-developed paraglossae. The pro-
thorax is prolonged on each side to the insertion of the wings
which are long and narrow, and once folded longitudinally
when at rest ; the fore pair have two or three subcostal cells ;
the hind shanks and tibiae are smooth. The eggs, when first
laid, are globular, soon becoming oval.

The larvae of this family are soft, fleshy, with larger heads in
proportion to the rest of the body, than in the Apiariw;
the antennal tubercle, or rudimentary antennae, are more dis-
tinct, and the mandibles are larger. The surface of the body
is smoother in Vespa and Polistes, but more tuberculated in the
solitary genera, Odynerus and allies, while the end of the body
is more acute.

As in the Apiarice the higher genera are social, building
papery nests, while the lower are solitary and build cells of mud
or sand in protected places.

148 HYMENOPTERA.

In Vespa, the Paper Wasp, the ligula is squarish, with the
paraglossse nearly as long as the tongue, the outer maxillary
lobes rounded oval, half as long as the palpi, and the labial
maxillae are scarcely longer than the tongue. The abdomen
is broad at base, acutely conical. The nests are either with or
without a papery covering, supported by a short pedicel.

Such females as have hybernated, begin to make their
cells in the early part of summer. Smith states that the soli-
tary female wasp " begins by making three saucer-shaped re-
ceptacles, in each of which she deposits an egg ; she then
proceeds to form other similar -shaped receptacles, until the
eggs first deposited are hatched and the young grabs require a
share of her attention. From the circular bases she now be-
gins to raise her hexagonal cells, not building them up at once,
but from time to time raising them as the young grubs ^grow.
(Proc. Ent. Soc., London, 1858, p. 35.)

Waterhouse states that the cells formed by the solitary fe-
male early in the season appear u to be built entirely of glisten-
ing, whitish, silk-like threads which I have little doubt are a
secretion from the insect, all the threads being firmly attached
together as if they had originally been of a glutinous nature."
The cells formed later in the season by the workers, differ
in consisting of masticated rotten wood. "Almost simultane-
ously with the commencement of the cells, it appears that the
nest-covering is commenced. At first it has the appearance of
a miniature umbrella, serving to shelter the rudimentary cells."
Plate 5, Fig. 3, shows a group of cells surrounded by one
layer of paper, and the beginning of another. As the nest

grows larger the cells are ar-
ranged in galleries, supported by
pedicels, and the number of
layers in the outside covering
greatly increases in number.

While our common and largest
species, Vespa maculata Linn.
(Fig. 83), and the yellow wasp,
Y. arenariaFabr., build papery
nests consisting of several galleries, with the mouth of the cells
directed downwards, the East Indian species, V. orientals,

VESPARI^. ' 149

builds its cells of clay, and, according to Waterhouse, "the
work is exceedingly beautiful and true." Another species,
according to Smith, makes its nest of sandy loam, the exterior
being so hard that a saw used in opening one of its sides was
blunted.

The larva of Vespa arenaria is long and cylindrical, not
so much curved as in Polistes. Its position in its cell corre-
sponds to its form, as the cell is longer and narrower than that
of Polistes. Each segment of the body is posteriorly some-
what thickened, as is the lateral (pleural) ridge of the body.
The tip of the abdomen is rather blunt, the last sternite be-
ing large and transverse. The pupa is provided with a single
tubercle on the vertex, where there are two in the Crabron-
idce and Sphegidce.

By the time the nest of V. arenaria is large enough to
contain ten full-grown larvae, and has about fourteen cells in
all, being about an inch in diameter, the occupants of the two
or three central cells will have changed to pupae, and one wasp
will have been excluded.

In a nest of the same species two inches in diameter, there
were a second brood of larvae. The outer row of cells were
occupied by pupae, while the central ones, emptied of the first
brood, were filled with a second brood of larvae. Evidently as
soon as an imago leaves its cell, the female deposits an egg
therein, as very minute larvae were found occupying cells next
to those containing large full-grown larvae.

In comparing a number of pupae from a large nest, they
will be found to be in all stages of perfection, from the
larva which has ceased feeding, and is preparing to transform,
to the imago, still veiled by its thin subimago pellicle. It is dif-
ficult to draw lines between these stages. Also when com-
parecl closely side by side, it is difficult, if not impossible to find
any two pupae just alike, the development proceeding very un-
equally. Thus the limbs may be more perfect than the antennae,
or certain parts may be less perfect in some than in others, while
the limbs may be more highly colored like the imago.

Like the bees, Vespa suffers from numerous parasites, includ-
ing Rhipiphorous paradoxus, which is a beetle allied to Stylops,
and Lebia (Dromius) linearis. The larva of Volucella is said

150 ' HYMENOPTERA.

to feed on the Vespa-larvae, and Mr. Stone says that Anthomyia
incana is also parasitic in Wasps' nests, while two species
of Ichneumons, one of which is Anomalon vesparum, also in-
fest the larvae. No parasites have been as yet detected in this
country.

The Hornet, V. crabro Linn., has, according to Mr. Angus,
become domesticated about New York. This and the smaller
wasps are sometimes injurious by eating into ripe fruit, but the
injury is more than counterblanced by the number of flies and
other insects they feed their young with.

Indeed, as Saussure states, the species of Vespa are more
omnivorous in their tastes than any other w^asps. They live by
rapine and pillage, and have obtained a worse repute than other
insects more injurious. In spring and early summer they feed on
the sweets of flowers ; but later in the season attack strawber-
ries, plums, grapes, and other fruits, and often enter houses and
there help themselves to the dishes on the table. They will eat
raw meat, 'and then aid the butcher by devouring the flies that
lay their eggs on his meats. They will sometimes destroy Honey-
bees, attacking them on their return from the fields laden with
pollen ; they throw themselves upon their luckless victims, and
tear the abdomen from the rest of the body, and suck their
blood, devouring only the abdomen. They fall upon flies and
butterflies, and, biting off their wings, feet, and head, devour
the trunk. In attacking insects they use only their powerful
jaws, and not the sting, differing in this respect from the
fossorial wasps.

Saussure states that though wasps do not generally lay up
food, yet at certain periods they do fill the cells with honey.

The females feed their young with food chewed up and re-
duced to a pulp. Saussure questions whether the larvae of one
sex are not fed on animal and the other on vegetable food,
since Huber had shown "what a great influence the kind of
food exerts on the sex of Bees." But it is now known that the
sexes of some, and probably all insects are determined before
the larvae is hatched. I have seen the rudiments of the ovi-
positor in the half-grown larvae of the Humble-bee, and it is
most probable that those rudiments began to develop during
embryonic life. It is far more probable that the sexual differ-
ences are determined at the time of conception.

151

Westwood states that the larvae, which live head-downward
from the reversed position of the comb, retain their position in
the cell, while young, by a glutinous secretion, and afterwards
' ' by the swollen front of the body which fills the open part of
the cell." "The female cells are mostly placed apart from
those of the males and neuters, those of the males being often
mixed, but in a small number, in the neuter combs. The egg
state lasts eight days, the larva state thirteen or fourteen, and
that of the pupa about ten. After the imago has been produced,
one of the old workers cleans out the cell, and fits it for the
reception of a fresh inhabitant. The upper tier of cells, being
first built, serves for the habitation of the workers ; the females,
being produced at the end of the summer, occupy the lowest
tiers." When about to transform the larvae spin a thin cover-
ing, thus closing over the cell.

In Polistes the paraglossae are slender, and a little longer
than the long, or as in one instance noticed by us in P. Cana-
densis, barrel-shaped ligula, which is split at the end'; the palpi
are stouter, while the whole body is much longer than in Vespa ;
the abdomen is subpedunculate, and the thorax is rather ob-
long than spherical, as in Vespa.

The larva differs from that of Vespa in its much larger head,
and shorter, more ovoid form of the body, which is dilated in
front so as to retain the insect in its cell, while the tip is
more acute ; the antennal tubercles are closer together ; the
clypeus is more regularly triangular and more distinct, while
the labrum is much larger and excessively swollen, as are the
mouth-parts generally. The mandibles are bidentate, where in
Vespa they are tridentate. The pupa differs from that of Vespa,
besides the usual generic characters, in having the tubercle on
the head smaller.

The nests of Polistes (Plate 5, Fig. 4, nest of P. annularis
Fabr., from Saussure) are not covered in by a papery wall as in
Vespa, but may be found attached to bushes, with the mouth
of the cells pointed downwards. While at Burks ville Junction,
Va., in the last week of April, I had an opportunity of watch-
ing three species beginning their cells on the same clump of
bushes. They all worked in the same method, and the cells
only differed slightly in size. The cells were formed mostly of

152 HYMENOPTERA.

crude silk, and the threads could be seen crossing each other, the
same structure being observed at the top and bottom of each
cell.

In the three-celled nest of Polistes (Plate 5, Fig. 5, 5 a)
first noticed April 29th, there were but two eggs deposited, the
third cell being without an egg, and a little smaller, and
the rim not so high as in the other two. The outer edge did
not seem to be perfectly circular, though stated by Water-
house to be so in the incipient cells, for in some cases we de-
tected two slight angles, thus making three sides, which,
however, would be easily overlooked on casual observation ;
as there are only two sides within, the cell, from being at its
earliest inception hemispherical, or "saucer-shaped," becomes
five, and subsequently six-sided, and thus from being cir-
cular, it is converted by the wasps into a hexagonal cell. In
some cells, perhaps a majority, both in this and the other spe-
cies, the newly made rim of the small cells is thinner than the
parts below, and slightly bent inwards ; thus being quite the re-
verse of the thickened rim of the cells of the Hive Bee. It
would seem that the wasp plasters on more silk, especially on
the angles, building them out, and making them more promi-
nent, in order to complete, when other cells are added, their
hexagonal form. The three cells are of much the same size
and height when the third egg is laid, as we observed in another
nest, that of Polistes Canadensis (Linn.)-, built at the Defences
of Washington, near Munson's Hill, June 9th.

Again, when one or two more cells have been added to the
nest, and there are four or five in all (Plate 5, Fig. 6 ; 6 a, top
view, in which there are four cells), two of them are nearly
twice as large as the others, while the fifth has been just begun,
and is eggless. The form of the two which run up much higher
than the others is the same as that of the smaller and shorter
ones, L e. they are on one side nearly semicircular, and on the
other, partly hexagonal, and the angular sides show a tendency
to be even more circular than when the others are built around
them, for the little architect seems to bring out the angles
more prominently when carrying up the walls of the other cells.
Thus she builds, as if by design, one and the same cell both
by the "circular" and "hexagonal" methods, afterwards adopt-

VESPARI^. 153

ing only the latter, and if she devotes her attentions specially
to plastering the corners alone, with the design of making the
cell six-sided, then we must allow, contrary to Mr. Water-
house's views, that the wasp builds the hexagon by choice, and
not as the mere result of her blindly "working in segments of
circles ;" for if our point be proved, and the most careful obser-
vation of the wasp while at work is needed to prove it, then it
may be shown that the wasp is a free agent, and can abandon
one method of working at a certain stage of her work, and
adopt a different mode of operating.

The eggs are oval, pointed at the end, ancl glued to the in-
side of the cell. They are situated midway from the top and
bottom of the incipient cell, and placed on the innermost sides,
so that in a group of several cells the eggs are close together,
only separated by the thin cellular walls. In a completed cell
the egg is placed very near the bottom.

For several days a Polistes Canadensis was engaged in build-
ing its nest in my tent in camp near Washington. When first
noticed on June 9th, there were three cells, two of which con-
tained eggs; and it was not for two days, the llth, that the
third cell was completed, and a third egg deposited in it. The
wasp paid especial attention to strengthening the pedicel, going
over it repeatedly for an hour or two with its tongue, as if lay-
ing on more silken matter, and then proved the work by its
swiftly vibrating antennae. It would often fly out of the tent,
and on its return anxiously examine each cell, thrusting its head
deep down into each one. It gradually became accustomed to
my presence, but eventually abandoned the nest, without adding
more cells. The others, while at work on the bushes, abscond-
ed at my approach, and seemed very wary and distrustful, as
if desirous of concealing their abodes. Mr. Smith has found
Trigonalys bipustulatus to be a parasite on Polistes lanio Fabr.
(P. Canadensis Linn.), from St. Salvador, S. A.

Saussure arranges the higher Vespidse into two parallel series.
Vespa is offset by Chartergus and Nectarina ; lower down we
find Tatua and Synoeca, while Polistes is offset by Polybia.
These five genera are tropical, and in their habits, the general
appearance of their nests, and in the number of individuals
represent Vespa and Polistes of the temperate zone. The

154 HYMENOPTERA.

genus Nectar ina is a short plump wasp, somewhat like Odyne-
rus in shape ; its distinguishing mark is the concealment of
the postscutellum by the scutellum. Nectarina mellifica Say,
of Mexico, builds a large nest externally like that of a wasp,
but it is more irregular, and the papery covering consists of
but one layer. The interior of the nest is very different, the
galleries of cells, instead of being parallel, being arranged in
concentric spheres.

Chartergus has the tip of the clypeus slighted excavated, and
an oval sessile abdomen. C. chartarius Olivier makes an ex-
ceedingly thick tough nest, attached by a broad base to the
bough of a tree, about twice as long as thick, and ending in a
cone, pierced in the centre by the entrance which passes
through the middle to the basal gallery ; the other galleries are
formed by a continuation of the sides of the nest, and arrayed
in a conical plane.

In Tatua, the abdomen is pedicelled, but the petiole is not
enlarged, and the abdomen itself is very regularly conical. T.
morio Cuvier, from Cayenne, forms a nest like that of Charter-
gus ; but the galleries form a flat floor, and each gallery has an
entrance from the outside of the nest, where in the latter there is
one common entrance. Plate 5, Fig. 9, shows how the bases
of the cells are laid out on the edge of a gallery. In Synceca
the peculiarly shaped abdomen is cordate and compressed. The
curious nest of S. cyanea Fabr. is formed of a single layer of
cells fixed against the trunk of a tree, and covered in with a
dense covering made from the bark of dead trees. Some nests
of Synoeca are three feet long. In the very extensive genus
Polybia, which resembles Polistes in its general shape, the abdo-
men is pedicelled, and the mandibles are four-toothed. The nests
are somewhat like those of Chartergus, but much smaller. Sev-
eral species occur in Mexico, and in Brazil the number of
species is very great. In Apo'ica the abdomen is very long,
and the third segment is as long as the second. Plate 5, Fig.
11, represents the nest of Apoica pallida Olivier, from Cayenne.
It is unprotected, with a conical base, and with a single row
of cells.

In Icaria we have an approach to Polistes in the slender
series of cells composing the nest, forming two or three rows

VESPARLE. 155

only. Plate 5, Fig. 7, represents the nest of I. guttatipennis
Saussure, from Senegal ; 8, ground plan of a similar nest. These
wasps are mostly distinguished from Polybia by the petiole
ending in a globular mass. Plate 5, Fig. 10, represents
the elegant nest of Mischocyttarus laUatus Fabr., from Cay-
enne and Brazil, which consists of a few cells supported by a
long pedicel. The wasp itself much resembles Polistes, but
the petiole is very much longer.

The remaining genera noticed here are solitary, building
separate cells, and with only males and females. There are
three subcostal cells in the fore wings, and the maxillae and
labium are much elongated.

In Eumenes the abdomen has a long pedicel, being sessile in
Odynerus. While authors place Eumenes higher than Ody-
nerus, we would consider the latter as a higher, more cepha-
lized form, since the abdomen is less elongated, and the head
is larger.

In Odynerus the ligula is long, deeply forked at the
slender extremity, while the slender paraglossse are shorter,
ending in a two-toothed claw-like tip ; the maxillse are slender,
and the palpi have an elongated basal joint ; the clypeus is
nearly circular, toothed on the front edge. The larva differs
from those of the higher Vesparice,, in its more elongated head,
the square clypeus, the unusually deep fissure of the bilobate la-
brum, and in the larger tubercles of the body, as the larva is
more active, turning and twisting in its. cell, while feeding on
its living food ; and in this respect it is more closely allied to
the young Crabronidce . In the pupa of 0. albopJialeratus,
the tip is more incurved than in the pupa of Vespa, so that the
hind legs (tarsi) reach to the tip, and the abdomen is rounded
ovate, while in Vespa it is oblong.

The cells (Plate 4, Figs. 13, 14) of Odynerus alboplialeratus
Sauss. have been detected like those of Osmia in a deserted gall
of Diplolepis confluens, where several were found in a row,
arranged around one side of the gall, side by side, with the holes
pointing towards the centre of the gall. The cells are half an
inch long, and one-half as wide, being, formed of small pellets
of mud, giving a corrugated, granulated appearance to the
outside, while the inside is lined with silk.

156 HYMENOPTERA .

We have received from Mr. Angus deserted cells of Cera-
tina in a syringa stem, in which we detected a pupa of an
Odjmerus, perhaps 0. leucomelas ; the cell was a little shorter
than that of the Ceratina it had occupied. The cocoon of
the Odyiierus was of silk, and almost undistinguishable from
the old cocoon of Ceratina. The wasp had dispensed with the
necessity of making a mud cell. If future research shows that
either this or any other species makes a mud cell or not at
will, it shows the intelligence of these little "free-agents;"
and that a blind adherence to fixed mechanical laws does not
obtain in these insects.

The larvae of Odynerus and Eumenes are carnivorous. I
found several cells of O. alboplialeratus, June 22d, in the
deserted nest of a Clisiocampa, which were stored with micro-
lepidopterous larvae and pupae, still alive, having been para-
lyzed by the .sting of the wasp. The larvae of the wasp was
short and thick, being, when contracted, not more than twice
as long as broad ; the rings of the body are moderate!}" convex,
and the pleural region is faintly marked. Prof. A. E. Verrill
has discovered the cells of an Odynerus at New Haven, forming
a sandy mass (Plate 5, Fig. 12) attached to the stem of a
plant.

In Eumenes the lingua is very long, being narrower and
more deeply divided than in Odynerus ; the second subcostal
space of the wings is long and narrow, while in Odyxferus it is
triangular. The genus is easily recognized by the very long
pedicel of the abdomen. Eumenes fraterna Say constructs a
thin cell (Plate 5,* Fig. 15) of pellets of mud, and as large

* EXPLANATION OF PLATE 5. Fig. 1. Mouth of the tunnel of Augochlora pnrus ;
from Emerton. Fig. 2. Cells of Osmia pacifica ; communicated by Mr. Sanborn.
Fig. 3. Vertical section of nest of Vespa with a group of primitive cells surrounded
by one layer of paper, and part of another; from Saussure. Fig. 4. Nest of Po-
listes annularis ; from Saussure. Fig. 5. Three primitive cells of Polistes; 5 a, top
view of the same, one being eggless. The sides adjoining are angular. Figs. G and
6 a, a cell farther advanced, consisting of four cells, each containing an egg, and
with the edges of the cells built up higher and more decidedly six-sided ; original.
Fig. 7. Cells of Icaria giittatipennis, showing that each cell is built up independently
in regular hexagons. Fig. 8. Ground plan of a similar nest. Fig. 9. Ground plan
of cells of Tatua morio ; from Smith. Fig. 1C. Nest of Hftschocyttfirus labiutus ;
from Saussure. Fig. 11. Nest of Apo'ica pallida ; from Saussure. Fig. 12, Nest of
Odynerus birenimaculatus . Fig. 13. Nest of Odynerus albophaleratus ; original,
Fig. 14. Mud cell of Pelopceus flavipes ; original. Fig. 15. A row of spherical cells
of Eumenes fraterna, with the female; from Harris.

Plate 5.

ARCHITECTURE OF WASPS.

CRABRONID^E. 157

as a cherry. It is attached by a short stout pedicel to bushes,
and the cavity is filled with the larvae of small moths.

Rapliiglossa odyneroides, from Epirus, described by S. S.
Saunders, makes elongated cells in galleries in briars, storing
them with the larvae of what he supposed to be weevils. The
dark brown dense tough cocoon of a Chrysis was also found in
the cells.

In Masaris, which connects the Ve spar ice, with the succeed-
ing family, the wings are not completely folded when at rest ;
there are but two subcostal cells ; the maxillae are rudimen-
tary ; and the antennae are clavate and eight-jointed. Masaris
vespoides Cresson, inhabits Colorado Territory.

CRABRONIDJS Latreille. Sand-wasps, Wood-wasps. In the
more typical genera the head is remarkably large, cuboidal,
while the clypeus is very short, and covered for the most part
with a dense silvery or golden pile. The antennae are genicu-
late, the long second joint being received, when at rest, in a
deep frontal vertical groove ; the mandibles are large, and of
even width throughout, and the mouth-parts are rather short,
especially the lingua, which is often, however, well developed.
There is only one subcostal cell, except in the Philanthince.
The thorax is sub-spherical, and the abdomen is either short
and stout, or more or less pedicellate. The forefeet are
adapted for digging and tunnelling, the forelegs in the females
being broad and flat, and in the males, which are supposed to
do no work, they are sometimes, as in Thyreopus, armed with
vexhillate expansions.

The larva is rather short and thick, a little flattened on the
under side, but much rounded above ; the segments are convex
above, the thoracic segments differing from the abdominal seg-
ments in not being thickened posteriorly on each ring. They
spin either a very slight cocoon, or a thin dense brown oval
cylindrical case, generally reddish brown in color. The pupae
have much the same character as the imago, with prominent
acute tubercles above the ocelli.

The members of this family afford, so far as we are ac-
quainted with their habits, most interesting examples of the
interdependence of structure and the habits of insects. Most

158 HYMENOPTERA.

of the species are wood-wasps, making their cells in cy-
lindrical holes in rotten wood, or enlarging nail-holes in
posts, as is the case with Crabro singularis, according to the
observations of Mr. C. A. Shurtleff, thus adapting them to the
requirements of their young. Other genera (Rhopalum pedicel-
latum, Stigmus fraternus, and Crabro stirpicola) avail them-
selves of those plants whose stem has a pith which they can
readily excavate and refit for their habitations. The females
provision their nests with caterpillars, aphidae, spiders, and
other insects.

This family is most difficult to classify ; it consists rather of
groups of genera, some higher and some lower, though as a
general rule those genera with pedunculate abdomens are the
lowest in the series. In illustration, we regard Stigmus, w r ith
its elongated decephalized body, as inferior to Blepharipus,
which again is subordinate to the more cephalized Crabro,
where the body is shorter, the abdomen sessile, the anterior
part of the body more developed headwards, while its nests
are constructed more elaborately. The genus Psen, for the
same reason, is lower than Cerceris, of which it seems a de-
graded form.

Some of the most useful characters in separating the genera
of this family are to be found in the form of the clypeus, its
sculpturing and relative amount of pubescence or hirsuties ; in
the form and sculpturing of the propodewn (Newman), or tho-
racico-abdominal ring of Newport ; while the tip of the abdo-
men presents excellent generic and also specific characters,
depending on its grooved or flattened shape.

The species of this family are mostly found in the north
temperate zone, being very abundant in North America and in
Europe. The Pemphredoninse occur far north in abundance,
while Cerceris occurs farthest towards the tropics.

The subfamily Philanthince includes the three genera, Plii-
lantlms, Eucerceris, and Cerceris. In Philantlms (Fig. 84,' wing),
the head is short, transversely suboval, the clypeus longer
than broad, with the first joint of the abdomen nearly as broad
when seen from above as the succeeding one. Our more com-
mon form southward is Philantlms vertilabns Say (Fig. 85).
In Europe P. apivorus provisions its nest with honey-bees.

CRABRONID^:.

159

Fig. 85.

Fig. 87.

Cresson remarks that Eucerceris (Fig. 86, fore wing of male ;
a, female) differs from Cerceris in the venation, which differs
greatly in the two sexes. E. zonatus Say
occurs in the west.

The species of Cerceris (Fig. 87, wing)
have transversely oblong heads, the front of
the head is flattened and destitute of hairs,
and the rings of the abdomen are contracted,
the middle part being un-
usually convex and coarsely
punctured, while the basal
ring is nearly one-half nar-
rower than the succeeding
ones. Cerceris deserta Say is our most com-
mon form. In Europe some species are
known to store their nests with bees, and the larvae of Cur-
culionidce and Buprestidce. Dufour unearthed in a sin-
gle field thirty nests of C. bupresticida which were filled with
ten species of Buprestis, comprising four hundred individuals,
and none of any other genus. Cerceris tuberculata provisions
its nest with Leucosomus ophthalmicus ; and C. triciucta with
Clythra.

In the subfamily Crabronince, there is a great disparity in
the sexes, the form of the females being the most persistent.
In the male the head is smaller, narrow behind, with shorter
mandibles, and a narrower clypeus ; the body is also much
slenderer, especially the abdomen, and the legs are simple in
Crabro, but in Thyreopus variously modified by expansions of
the joints, especially the tibia. The
species of Crabro (Fig. 88) are readily
distinguished by the large cubical
head, and the sharp mucronate abdo-
minal tip of the female. The more
typical form of this very extensive
genus is Crabro sex-maculatus Say,
so-called from the six yellow spots

on the subpedunculate abdomen. According to Dr. T. W.
Harris (MS. notes), this wasp was seen by Rev. Mr. Leonard,
of Dublin, N. H., burrowing in decayed wood, June 10th.

160 HYMENOPTERA.

Crabro singularis Smith, was discovered by Mr. C. A. Shuvtleff
boring in a post.

In Thyreopus, the body is slender, and the forelegs are
curiously dilated in the males, often forming a broad expansion,
and so dotted as to present a sieve-like appearance, while the
head is much shorter, being more transverse. T. latipes Smith
is known by the broad, long, acute, mucronate, shield-like ex-
pansion of the fore tibia, which is striped with black at the
base.

The species of Rhopalum are usually blackish, without the
gay colors prevalent in the genera before mentioned ; the legs
are simple, and the abdomen is long and slender, with a long
peduncle. The body of the larva is short and thick, tapering
rapidly towards each extremity ; the segments are convex,
those of the thorax especially being smooth, broad, and regu-
larly convex, while the abdominal rings are provided with
prominent tubercles. The tip of the body is quite extensible,
and when protruded is subacute, terminating in a small knob-
like body, formed by the last ring. The larvae of this genus
differ from those of the Vesparice andApiarice known to us
by having a few hairs scattered over the body.

In the pupa the antennae, in their natural position, do not
quite reach to the second pair of trochanters, and reach onl}-
to the tip of the maxillary palpi. The tip of the abdomen is
very acute and elongated unusually far beyond the ovipositor.
On the head, between the ocelli and antennae, are two very
prominent, acute tubercles, and the abdominal segments are
dentate on the hind edge. Thus both the larva and pupa
would seem, by their anatomy, to be unusually active in their
loose, illy-constructed cells, which do not confine their food so
closely as in the other wasps, as the insects on which they prob-
ably feed have a greater range in their rather roomy cells. April
18th we opened several stems grown in the open air, and
found both larvae and pupae ; the latter in different stages of
development. The cells were placed in the closely packed
dust made by the larva of an JEgeria, or directly bored in the
pith of the plants. There were six such cells, each with its
inhabitant, within a space an inch in length, some laying cross-
wise, others along the middle. The larvae spin but a very

CRABRONIDJE. 161

slight cocoon, not at all comparable with that of Crabro ; the
walls of the cell being simply lined with silken threads. Under
other circumstances, i. e. where the cells are more exposed, it
is not unlikely that a more elaborate cocoon may be spun.

Mr. James Angus has bred numerous specimens of Rlwpa-
lum pedicellatum Pack., from stems of the Rose, Corcorus, Ja-
ponica, and Spiraea, grown in hot-houses at West Farms, N. Y.
The larva is a quarter of an inch long.

The following genera belong to the subfamily Pemphre-
donince :

The genus Stigmus, as its name indicates, may at once be
known by the very large pterostigma, as well as the unusually
small size of the species. The body of the larva is moderately
long and slender, cylindrical, tapering slowly towards both ex-
tremities. The rings are short, very convex, subacutely so,
and the larva is of a beautiful roseate color. Stigmus frater-
nus Say burrows in the stems of the Syringa, of which speci-
mens have been received from Mr. Angus with the larvae and
pupae.

In Cemonus the front narrows rapidly towards the insertion
of the mandibles, and there is a short triangular enclosure on
the propodeum, while the abdomen is shorter and thicker than
in PempJiredon, a closely allied genus ; the rjedicel is also
longer. The larvae of Cemonus inornatus Harris live in irregu-
lar burrows in the elder, like those of Rhopalum from which
they have been reared by Mr. Angus. They are known by the
broad flattened head and body, serrate side and tergum of the
body, and large, conspicuously bidentate mandibles, as well as
by the peculiarly flattened abdominal tip.

In Passalcecus the labrum is very prominent, while the man-
dibles are very large, widening towards the tip, and in the com-
mon P. mandibularis Cresson they are white, and thus very
conspicuous. This species burrows in company w r ith the other
wood-wasps mentioned above in the stems of the elder and
syringa. The cells are lined with silk. The wasps appear
early in June. Their nests are tenanted by Chalcids. The
female stores her cells with Aphides, as we have found them
abundantly in stems of plants received from Mr. Angus.

The genus Psen seems to be a degraded Gerceris, but the
11

162 HYMENOPTERA.

abdomen is pedicelled, and differs from Mimesa, a still more
slender-bodied genus, in having the tip of the abdomen more or
less grooved, while in Mimesa it is flat and not grooved at all.
Psen leucopus Say has a dense silvery pile on the front of
the head, with black antennae, and the pedicel is rather short.

NYSSONID^E Leach. In this family the head is transversely
longer and less cubical than in the preceding group ; the ver-
tex is higher and more convex, while the front is narrow, the
clypeus long and narrow, the eyes long and narrow, and the
antennae are more clavate than in the Crabronidoe, and
the propodeum is sometimes armed with acute spines, while
the enclosed space is smoothly polished or striated. The wings
are long and narrow, and the abdomen is sessile in the typical
genera, where it is obconic, but clavate when pedicellate.

In Trypoxylon the body is long, with a pedicellate clavate
abdomen. In Europe "Mr. Johnson has detected it frequent-
Ing the holes of a post pre-occupied by a species of Odynerus,
and into which it conveyed a small round ball, or pellet, con-
taining about fifty individuals of a species of Aphis ; this the
Odynerus, upon her return, invariably turned out, flying out
with it, held by her legs, to the distance of about a foot from
the aperture of her cell, where she hovered a moment, and then
let it fall ; and this was constantly the case till the Trypoxylon
had sufficient time to mortar up the orifice of the hole, and the
Odynerus was then entirely excluded ; for although she would
return to the spot repeatedly, she never endeavored to force
the entrance, but flew off to seek another hole elsewhere."

T. politum Say has purplish wings, and no enclosure on the
propodeum.

T. frigidum Smith lives in the stems of Syringa, from which
it has been reared by Mr. Angus. The thin, delicate cocoon is
long and slender, enlarging slightly towards the anterior end.

The genus Mellinus (belonging to the third subfamily, Mel-
linince,) is known by its broad front, and slender antennae,
and its pedunculate abdomen, while in Alyson, a slender-
bodied genus, it is sessile. Mellinus bimaculatus Say has a
black head, with pale tipped antennae, and two ovate yellow
spots on the abdomen. Atyson oppositus is black, with two

NYSSONID^. 163

yellow spots on the abdomen, which has the basal ring yel-
lowish red in the female. *

The fourth subfamily is the Nyssonince, so named from Nys-
son, a typical genus.

The genus Gorytes is truly a mimetic form, closely simulat-
ing the genus Odynerus, one of the Vesparice. The front of
the head is narrow, while the clypeus is larger than usual. The
species are numerous, occurring late in the summer on the
flowers of Spiraea. Gorytes flavicornis Harris is polished russet
brown, with narrow yellow rings on the abdomen, the propo-
deum is smooth and polished, and the basal ring of the abdomen
is black. A species has been observed in Europe protruding
her sting into the frothy secretion of Tettigoniaa living on
grass, and carrying off the insect to provision its nest with.

Oxybelus is a short, stout, black genus, with whitish abdomi-
nal spots, and stout spines on the thorax, while the sessile
abdomen is distinctly conical. "Its prey consists of Diptera,
which it has a peculiar mode of carrying by the hind, legs the
while it either opens the aperture of its burrow or else forms a
new one with its anterior pair. Its flight is low, and in skips ;
it is very active." (West wood.)

Oxybelus emarginafus Say has two oval membranous appen-
dages to the metathorax, and is a common black species found
abundantly on the flowers of the Virginia Creeper.

In Nysson the body is a little longer, narrow compared with
that of Oxybelus, while the terminal joint of the antennae is
thickened, flattened, and excavated beneath. Nysson lateralis
Say is dull black, with six light spots on the abdomen.

The species of Stizus are of large size and easily recognized
by their hirsute body, stout legs, triangular silvery clypeus,
and the high transverse vertex of the head. The propodeum
has a faintly marked triangular enclosure. The species are
very rapacious, paralyzing grasshoppers and other large insects
with their formidable sting, and carrying them off to provision
their nests. Professor S. Tenney has sent us a specimen of
the Dog-day Cicada (C. canicularis) which Stizus speciosus had
thus stung. Mr. Atkinson has observed the same fact, and has
found the deep burrows of this species, the hole being three-
fourths of an inch in diameter. He has observed it feeding on
sap running from a tree.

164 HYMENOPTERA.

The species of Larra are smaller, and differ from those of
Stizus in the long, narrow, very prominent labrum, the shorter
clypeus, broader front and longer abdomen, the tip of which is
without the broad subtriangular area which is present in Stizus
and the other genera of this family. Larra unicincta Say is black-
ish, with a single reddish band on the second abdominal ring.

BEMBECID^E Latreille. We have but two genera, Bembex
and Monedula, which have large heads and flattened bodies,
bearing a strong resemblance to Syrphus flies from their similar
coloration. The labrum is very large and long, triangular, like
a beak. The species are very active, flying rapidly about
flowers with a loud hum. "The female Bembex burrows in
sand to a considerable depth, burying various species of Dip-
tera (Syrphidae, Muscidae, etc.), and de'positing her eggs at the
same time in company with them, upon which the larvae, when
hatched, subsist. When a sufficient store has been collected,
the parent closes the mouth of the cell with earth." " An
anonymous correspondent in the Entomological Magazine, states
that B. rostrata constructs its nests in the soft light sea-sands
in the Ionian Islands, and appears to catch its prey (consisting
of such flies as frequent the sand ; amongst others, a bottle-
green fly) whilst on the wing. He describes the mode in
which the female, with astonishing swiftness, scratches its hole
with its forelegs like a dog. Bembex tarsata, according to
Latreille, provisions its nests with Bombylii" (Westwood.)
Dufour states that two Diptera, Panopea carnea and Toxophora
fasciata, the latter allied to Systrophus, are parasites on Bem-
bex. Mr. F. G. Sanborn has noticed the exceedingly swift
flight of our common Bembex fasciata Fabr. on sandy beaches
where it is found most abundantly.

Monedula differs from Bembex in its slenderer body, more
clavate antennae, and its shorter, very obtuse labrum. The
body is smoother, and most generally more highly colored and
more gaily spotted than in Bembex.

Monedula Carolina Fabr. and M. ^-fasciata Say are common
southwards of New England.

LARRID^E Leach. Mr. F. Smith defines this family as having
"mandibles notched exteriorly near the base ; the labrum con-

LARRLLME. 165

cealed, with a single spine at the apex of the intermediate
tibiae ; the abdomen is ovoid-conical."

The genus Astata is a large hairy form, with long antennae
and palpi and an elongated prothorax. Its spiny legs show its
near relationship to the Sphegidce. Astata unicolor Say repre-
sents the genus in this country.

Tacliytes is also of larger size than the following genus.
It is covered with long dense golden short hairs, with a trap-
ezoidal front. Tacliytes aurulentus Fabr. is rare ; it frequents
the flowers of the Asclepias, as we have found pollen masses at-
tached to the spines of its legs. We figure
(89) a tarsus of a wasp belonging probably to
this genus, received from Mr. V. T. Chambers,
showing the pollen masses of Asclepias at-
tached to the spines.

The genus Larrada "contains those species
which have the marginal cell truncated at the
apex and appendiculated, and three submarginal
cells, the first as long as the two following ;
.... the metathorax [propodeum] truncated
posteriorly, elongate, the sides being generally
parallel ; the mandibles are large and arcuate, Fi o- 89.
with a tooth on their exterior towards the base ; abdomen
ovate-conical, acuminate at the apex." Larrada argentata
Beauv. is covered with silvery pile. It is a slender form, with
short, nearly unarmed legs.

A Brazilian species of Larrqda, according to Mr. H. W.
Bates, builds a nest composed apparently of the scrapings of
the woolly texture of plants ; it is attached to a leaf, having a
close resemblance to a piece of German tinder, or a piece of
sponge. The cocoons were dark brown, and of a brittle consist-
ency. The reporter, Mr. F. Smith, adds : "I am not aware of
any similar habit of building an external nest having been pre-
viously recorded; our British species of the closely allied
genus Tachytes, are burrowers in the ground, particularly in
sandy situations ; their anterior tarsi are strongly ciliated, the
claws bifid and admirably adapted for burrowing. On examin-
ing the insect which constructed the nest now exhibited, I find
the legs differently armed ; the anterior pair are not ciliated,

166 HYMENOPTERA.

and the claws are simple and slender, clearly indicative of a
peculiar habit differing from its congeners, and how admirably
is this illustrated in the nest before us?"

SPHEGID^E Latreille. Smith defines this family as having
"the posterior margin of the prothorax not prolonged back-
wards to the insertion of the wings, and anteriorly produced
into a neck, with the abdomen petiolated." The very fossorial
legs are long and spiny, the posterior pair being of unusual
length. The mandibles are large, curved, narrow, and acute,
the base not being toothed externally, and the antennae are
long and filiform. The species are often gaily colored, being
ornamented with black and red, brown and red, or are entirely
black, or blue. They love the sunshine, are very active, rest-
less in their movements, and have a powerful sting.

The sting of these and other wasps which store up insects for
their young, penetrates the nervous centres and paralyzes the
victim without depriving it of life, so that it lives many days.
A store of living food is thus laid up for the young wasp.
After being stung the caterpillars will transform into chrys-
alids, though too weak to change to moths. Mr. Gueinzius,
who resides in South Africa, observes that "large spiders
and caterpillars became immediately motionless on being stung,
and I cannot help thinking that the poisonous acid of Hymen-
optera has an antiseptic and preserving property; for cater-
pillars and locusts retain their colors weeks after being stung,
and this, too, in a moist situation under a burning sun."

These insects either make their nests in the sand, or, like the
succeeding family, are "mud-daubers," building their cells of
mud and plastering them on walls, etc.

The tropical genus Ampulex is more closely allied to the
preceding family than the other genera. The species are
brassy green. Dr. G. A. Perkins has described in the Ameri-
can Naturalist, vol. 1, p. 293, the habits of a wasp, probably
the Ampulex Sibirica Fabr., which inhabits Sierra Leone, and
oviposits in the body of the cockroach. The dead bodies of
the cockroaches are often found with the empty cocoon of the
wasp occupying the cavity of the abdomen.

A species of this genus, abundant at Zanzibar at certain sea-

SPHEGIDJE. 1(57

sons, was frequently observed by Mr. C. Cooke to attack the
cockroach. The cockroach, as if cowed at its presence, im-
mediately yields without a struggle. The Ampulex stings
and paralyses its victim, and then flies away with it.

Chlorion is closely allied, containing blue and metallic green
species, often with golden yellow wings. Chlorion cyaneum
Dahlb., a blue species, is found in the Southern States.

The genus Priononyx "differs from the genus Sphex in hav-
ing the claws quadridentate beneath at their base ; the neura-
tion of the wings and the form of the abdomen are the same as
in Harpactopus" which is found only in the tropics and Aus-
tralia. Priononyx Thomce is found from South Carolina to
Brazil, including the West Indies.

The genus /Sphex is quite an extensive one. The head is as
wide as the thorax ; the antennae are filiform, mandibles large
and acute, bidentate within, the teeth notched at their base,
forming a rudimentary tooth, the apical tooth being acute.
The thorax is elongate-ovate, truncated behind, with a trans-
verse collar (prothorax). The fore wings have one marginal
and three submarginal cells ; the marginal cell elongate, rounded
at its apex ; the
first submarginal
cell as long as the
two following. The
abdomen is pedun-
culated, conically
ovate, and the an-
terior tarsi are cili-
ated in the females.

/Sphex ichneumo-
nea Linn. (Figure
90) is a large rust-
red species, with a
dense golden pu- Fig. 90.

bescence. It is common from Massachusetts southwards. In
the last week of July, and during August and early in Sep-
tember, we noticed nearly a dozen of these wasps busily en-
gaged in digging their holes in a gravelly walk. In previous
seasons they were more numerous, burrowing into grassy

1 G 8 H YMENOPTERA .

banks near the walk. The holes were four to six inches deep.
In beginning its hole the wasp dragged away with its teeth a
stone one half as large as itself to a distance of eight inches
from the hole, while it pushed away others with its head. In
beginning its burrow it used its large and powerful jaws almost
entirely, digging to the depth of an inch in five minutes, com-
pleting its hole in about half an hour. After having inserted
its head into the hole, where it loosened the earth with its
jaws and threw it out of the hole with its jaws and fore
legs, it would retreat backwards and push the dirt still
farther back from the mouth of the cell with its hind legs. In
cases where the farther progress of the work was stopped by a
stone too large for the wasp to remove or dig around, it would
abandon it and begin a new hole. Just as soon as it reached
the required depth the wasp flew a few feet to the adjoining
bank and falling upon an Orchelimum vulgare or O. gracile,
stung and paralyzed it instantly, bore it to its nest, and was out
of sight for a moment, and while in the bottom of its hole
must have deposited its egg in its victim. Reappearing it be-
gan to draw the sand back into the hole, scratching it in quite
briskly by means of its spiny fore tarsi, while standing on its
two hind pairs of legs. It thus threw in half an inch of dirt
upon the grasshopper and then flew off. In this w r ay one Sphex
will make two or three such holes in an afternoon. The walk
was hard and composed of a coarse sea-gravel, and the rapidity
with which the wasp worked her way in with tooth and nail was
marvellous.

Sphex tibialis St. Fargeau is a black, stout, thick insect.
Mr. J. Angus has reared this species, sending me the larvae in
a cavity previously tunnelled by Xylocopa Virginica in a
pine board. The hole was six inches long, and the oval cylin-
drical cocoons were packed loosely, either side by side, where
there was room, or one a little in advance of the other. The
interstices between them were filled with bits of rope, which
had perhaps been bitten up into pieces b}^ the wasp itself ; while
the end of the cell was filled for a distance of two inches with a
coarse sedge arranged in layers, as if rammed in like gun- wad-
ding. The cocoons are eighty to ninety hundredths of an inch
long, oval lanceolate, somewhat like those of Pompilus. They

SPHEGIM;. . 1C9

consist of two layers, the outer ver} T thin, the inner tough,
parchment-like. The larvae hybernate and turn to pupae in
the spring, appearing in the summer and also in the autumn.

The larva is cylindrical, with the pleural ridge prominent,
and with no traces of feet ; the head, which is small and not
prominent, and rather narrow compared with that of Pelopseus,
is bent inwards on the breast so that the mouth reaches to the
sternum of the fourth abdominal ring. The posterior half of
each ring is much thickened, giving a crenulated outline to the
tergum. The abdominal tip is obtuse.

Spliex Lanierii Guerin, according to Smith (Proceedings
of the Entomological Society of London, Feb. 7, 1859), con-
structs its nest of a cottony substance, filling a tunnel formed
by a large curved leaf. The species of the genus are sup-
posed to burrow in the ground, and the two cases above
cited show an interesting divergence from this habit. Mr.
Smith adds, that in "the Sphex which constructs the nest in
the rolled leaf, the anterior tarsi are found to be very slightly
ciliated, and the tibiae almost destitute of spines, thus affording
another instance proving that difference of structure is indica-
tive of difference of habit."

The genus Pelopceus is of a slighter form than in Sphex, the
body being longer and slenderer ; the clypeus is as broad as
long, triangular above, in front convex, or produced and end-
ing in two teeth. The outer costal eell is lanceolate oval, the
second subcostal cell subtrapezoidal, being widest above ; it is
also somewhat longer than broad. The first median cell is very
long and narrow, much more so than usual. The pedicel of
the abdomen is long, the first joint in the male being often as
long as the remainder of the abdomen.

The larva of P. cceruleusl^mn. is much like that of Sphex,
having a cylindrical body with the rings thickened posteriorly.
It differs from that of Pompilus in its longer and narrower head,
the short broadly trapezoidal clypeus, and the distinctly marked
exserted labrum. The mandibles are long and tridentate.

The pupa (of P. flavipes) differs from that of the Ve spar ice
in having the head more raised from the breast ; the palpi are
not parltially concealed, as they may be easily seen for their
whole length. The long curved mandibles cover the base of the

170 HYMENOPTERA.

maxillae and lingua, and the antennae reach to the posterior coxae.
The maxillae are slender, not reaching to the tip of the labium.

The female usually provisions her cells (Plate 5, Fig. 14) with
spiders. The cells are constructed of layers of mud of unequal
length, and formed of little pellets placed in two rows, and di-
verging from the middle. They are a little over an inch long,
and from a half to three-quarters of an inch wide, and are some-
what three-sided, the inner side next the object, either stone-
walls or rafters, to which it is attached, being flat. As the
earthen cells sufficiently, protect the delicate larvae within, the
cocoons are very thin, and brown in color.

The cells of .Pelopceus flavipes from Brownville, Texas, col-
lected by an United States officer and presented to the Boston
Society of Natural History, contained both spiders and numer-
ous pupae of a fly, Sarcophaga nudipennis Loew (MS) which is
somewhat allied to Tachina. These last hatched out in mid-
summer a few days before the specimens of Pelopaeus. It is
most probable that they were parasitic on the latter. These
specimens of P. flavipes were more highly ornamented with yel-
low .than in those found northwards in the Atlantic States,
the metathorax being crossed by a broad yellow band.

The genus Ammophila is a long slender form, with a petio-
late abdomen, the tip of which is often red. The petiole of the
abdomen is two-jointed, and very long and slender, being
longer than the fusiform part. In the males the petiole is in
some species much shorter. The wings are small, with the apex
more obtuse than usual ; the second subcostal cell is pentag-
onal, and the third is broadly triangular.

Westwood states that "the species inhabit sandy districts,
in which A. sabulosa forms its burrow, using its jaws in bur-
rowing ; and when they are loaded, it ascends backwards to
the mouth, turns quickly around, flies to about a foot's distance,
gives a sudden turn, throwing the sand in a complete shower
to about six inches' distance, and again alights at the mouth
of its burrow."

"Latreille states that this species provisions its cells with
caterpillars, but Mr. Shuckard states that he has observed the
female dragging a very large inflated spider up the nearly per-
pendicular side of a sand-bank, at least twenty feet high, and

POMPILIDJE.

171

that whilst burrowing it makes a loud whirring buzz ; and, in
the Transactions of the Entomological Society of London, he
states that he has detected both A. sabulosa and A. hirsuta
dragging along large spiders. Mr. Curtis observed it bury
the caterpillars of a Noctua and Geometra. St. Fargeau, how-
ever, states that A. sabulosa collects caterpillars of large size,
especially those of Noctuse, with a surprising perseverance,
whereas A. arenaria, forming a distinct section in the genus,
collects spiders." (Westwood.)

Ammophila cementaria Smith, and A. urnaria Klug, are the
more common species in this country ;; they are red and white,
while A. hictuosa Smith is a black, shorter, stouter, more hirsute
species. They may all be seen flying about hot sandy places,
and alighting near wells and standing water to drink.

POMPILID^E Leach. In this family the body is oblong, the
sides often compressed, and the head shorter, when seen from
above, being more trans-
versely ovate than in
the- preceding family.
The antennae are long,
not geniculate, and in
the males are stouter
and with shorter joints
than in the females.
The eyes are narrow
oval, and the maxillary
palpi are six, and the
labial palpi four-jointed.
The prothorax is ex-
tended on the sides back
to the base of the wings, Fi s- 91<

which latter are large and broad, the fore pair having three
subcostal cells. The legs are very long and slender, with thick
slender spines. The Pompilidce, of which about seven hun-
dred species are known, have a wide geographical range, from
the temperate zone to the tropics. Like the Sphegidce, they
oviposit in the body of other insects, storing their nests, usually
built in the sand, with spiders and caterpillars.

The head of Pompilus (Fig. 91) is a little longer, seen from

172

HYMENOPTERA.

above, than in the other genera ; the front of the head is about

a third longer than broad. The antennae are long and fili-
form and sometimes crenulate, as in Figure 91 a, in the
males ; the mandibles are stout, broad, sabre-shaped,
being much curved, with low flattened teeth, and the
maxillary palpi are longer than the labial palpi. The
wings are rather broad, with the three subcostal cells
lying in a straight row. The abdomen is slightly com-
pressed, and equals in length the remainder of the
body. The sting is very large and formidable, and ex-
cessively painful, benumbing the parts it enters. They

Fig. 91 a. are exceedingly active, running and flying over sandy

places like winged spiders.

There are about five hundred species of this genus described.

They are usually shining black or deep bluish black, with

Fig. 92.

smoky or reddish wings, and sometimes a reddish abdominal
band. This genus is interesting, as affording in its form a
mean between the globular thorax and short body of the
Apia rice and the elongated body of the Ichneumon idee.

The Pompilus formosus Say (Fig. 92), called in Texas the
Tarantula-killer, attacks that immense spider the Myyale Hentzii,
and, according to Dr. G. Lincecum (American Naturalist, May,

1867), paralyzes it with its formidable sting, and inserting an

egg in its body, places it in its nest, dug to the depth of five
inches. There is but a single brood,
produced in June, which is killed off by
the. frosts of November. This species
feeds in summer "upon the honey and
pollen of the flowers of the Elder, and
of Vitis ampelopsis, the Virginia Creeper ;
but its favorite nourishment is taken from
the blossoms of Asdepias quadrifolium"

(Lincecum.) P. cylindricus Cresson (Fig. 93, wing) is one of

our smallest species, being

from three to five lines

long. It occurs in the

South and West. P. arctus

Cresson (Fig. 94, wing) in-
habits Colorado Territory.

P. Marice Cresson (Fig. 95,

? enlarged) is a beautiful

and rare species found in

Pennsylvania. The genus

Priocnemis is characterized

by the two hind pair of

tibise being serrated (

Fig. 96, a, wing ; 6, pos-

Fig. 95.

terior leg ; c, anterior leg), and by the want of spines on the an-
terior legs. P. unifasciatus Say is a wide-spread species and

readily recognized by the deep black
color of the body, the yellow an-
tennae and the large yellow spot at
the tip of each anterior wing.

The genus Agenia (Fig. 97, a,
wing ; 6, posterior leg) differs in
having smooth legs. A. brevis Cres-
son (Fig. 98, wing) is a little spe-
A. congruus Cresson (Fig. 99, wing)

Fig. 96.

cies found in Georgia,
was captured in West Virginia ; and A. acceptus Cresson (Fig.
100, wing) in Georgia. The genus Notocyphus (Fig. 101,
?,wing) is found in Brazil and Mexico. Planiceps (Fig. 102,

174

HYMENOPTERA.

Fig. 101.

wing) contains a few species, of which P. niger Cresson, an
entirely black species, is found in Connecticut. Aporus (Fig.
103, wing) contains a single American
species, A. fasdatus Smith, taken in
North Carolina.

From Mr. F. G. Sanborn we have re-
ceived the larva and cocoon of Pompilus
Fig. 97. funereus St. Farg., a small black spe-

cies, which builds its nest in fields. The larva is short and
broad, with the lateral region rather prominent, and the tip of
the abdomen rather acute. It differs
from Pelopaeus in its stouter, rather flat-
tened body, and thickened segments,
though as our specimen is preserved in
alcohol these characters may have be-
come exaggerated. It more nearly re-
sembles Pelopaeus in its transverse
clypeus, thin bilobate labrum, and the
stout mandibles, which are, however,
much stouter than in Pelopaeus, while
the whole head is shorter, broader, and
rounder. It is probable that this pecu-
liar form of the head (which as in Sphex
is bent beneath the breast), together Fig. 103.

with the broad transverse clypeus, and broad, short, bilobate,
thin, transparent labrum, and especially the unidentate short
broad mandibles are family characters, sep-
arating the larvae of this group from those of
the Sp hegidce . The cocoon is ovate, long,
and slender, much smaller at one end than
the other, not being so regularly fusiform
as in Sphex.

Ceropales differs from the foregoing gen-
Fig. 100. era i n ^s broad head, its much shorter ab-
domen ; and also in the eyes being a little excavated, in the
depressed labium, the narrow front, which dilates above and
below the middle, and in the greatly elongated hind legs, gen-
erally banded with red or whitish. Ceropales bipunctata Say
is generally distributed throughout the United States. It

8COLIADJE.

175

is easily recognized by the black body and legs, and red pos-
terior femora, and is six lines long. C. Robinsonii Cresson
(Fig. 104, <?) is an elegant
species found in West
Virginia. An allied genus
is Mygnimia (Fig. 105,
wing) containing M. Mex-
icana Cresson and M. us-
tulataDahlb., two Mexican
species.

In the genus Pepsis
(Fig. 106, wing) the max-
illary and labial palpi are
of equal length. The spe-
cies are large, some of
them being among the lar-
gest of Hymenoptera, and
are generally indigo-blue in color. Pepsis heros Dahlbom is
found in Cuba ; it is two inches long. P. cyanea Linn.,

which is blackish-blue, with
blue abdomen and wings,
the latter reddish at the
apex, has been described by
Beauvois from the United
States,' while P. elegans St.
Farg. also occurs in the
Southern States.

P. formosa Say affords
another example of a species
rig. 106. common to both sides of the

Rocky Mountains, as it has been found both in Texas and Cal-
ifornia. It is black, with bluish or greenish reflections, with
bright fiery red wings, and is thirteen to eighteen lines long.

SCOLIAD^E Leach. This family forms a group very easily
distinguished from the Bembecidce or Chrysididce , as well
as the Pompilidce, by the broad front, the small indented eyes,
and the great sexual differences in the antennae, those of the
male being long and slowly thickened towards the tip, while in

17i // * / HYMEX^PTERA.

174 \1k

the female they are short, thick, and elbowed on the second
joint. The clypeus is large, irregularly quadrilateral, becom-
ing shorter in the lower genera, and the labrum is small,
scarcely exserted, while the mandibles are, in the female es-
pecially, large and broad. The prothorax is very square in
front. In the fore-wings are three subcostal spaces. The
abdomen in the t}-pical genus (Scolia) is broad and flat, longer
than the rest of the body. The abdomen of Mutilla approaches
that of the Chrysididce in having the second ring much en-
larged over the others. The males usually have the anal
stylets very prominent, while the sting of the female is very
powerful. The body and legs are general^ very hirsute, and
the first tarsal joint is as long as the tibiae.

The genus Sapyga is easily recognized by its smooth slender
body, being ornamented with yellow, with transverse bands on
the abdomen. The head is long, very convex in front, and
the antennae are clavate ; the prothorax is very broad, giving
an oblong appearance to the thorax. The legs are slender and
smooth. It is said to be parasitic, laying its eggs in the cells
of Osmia. Sapyga Martinii of Smith is found northward.

The species of Scolia are often of great size, being black
and very hirsute, with the labium composed of three linear di-
visions ; the abdomen alone being banded or spotted with
yellow on the sides. They are found in the hottest places
about strongly scented flowers. In Europe, Scolia bicincta
u makes its burrows in sand-banks, to the depth of sixteen
inches, with a very wide mouth ; " and it is probable that the
nest is stored with grasshoppers.

Scolia quadrimaculata Fabr. is found in the Middle and
Southern States. The larva of Scolia Jlavifrons was found by
Passerini to live in the body of the lamellicorn beetle, Oryctes
nasicornis. In Madagascar, Scolia oryctophaga lives on
Oryctes simia, according to Coquerel.

Professor Sumichrast states that at Tehuacan (Department
of Puebla) the Scolia Azteca Sauss. is very common ; and is
particularly abundant in the leather tanneries, which leads him
to think that the females of this species also deposit their eggs
under the epidermis of the larva which abounds in the tan.

Tiphia is black throughout and rather hirsute. The antennae

MUTILLARI^E. 177

are shorter than in Scolia or Myzine ; the clypeus is also shorter,
while the prothorax is longer. In the fore-wings the outer cos-
tal cell is short, broad, angulated, oval ; and of the two sub-
costal cells, the outer one is broad and triangular, twice as long
as broad, while the first median cell is regularly short rhom-
boidal, much more so than in the other genera.

The females, according to Westwood, "make perpendicular
burrows in sandy situations, for the reception of their eggs ;
but the precise food stored up for the larvae has not been ob-
served." Tipliia inornata Say is a common species with us,
and flies low over sandy places early in the season.

The short oval head, the large eyes, short meso-scutum,
large meso-scutellum, and the flattened, rather smooth body,
characterize the genus Myzine. The females are very different
from the males, the two sexes being for a long time considered
as separate genera. The female, especially, differs in the great
length of the square prothorax, which is very broad and convex
in front. In the male the eyes are lunate, while in the female
they are small, entire, and remote. In its general form the fe-
males much resemble Scolia, while the males are long and nar-
row, with broad yellow bands, especially on the abdomen, and a
large exserted sting-like organ. Myzine sexcincta Fabr. is seen
from New England southwards, flying low over hot sandy places.
The genus Elis is closely allied. Sumichrast (American Nat-
uralist, vol. 2), surmises that Elis costalis St. Farg. lives on
certain Scarabaeides, which undergo their metamorphosis in the
formicary of QEcodoma in Mexico.

MUTILLARI^: Latreille. This interesting family is character-
ized by the females alone being wingless, though Morawitz says
that wingless males occur in two species ; and by the absence,
generally, of the three ocelli. In Mutilla and Myrmosa the
thorax is still high, compressed, and oblong cuboidal, and ex-
cept in the closely united tergal pieces the females do not greatly
recede from the type of the winged males. The species are
very equal in size, are black, or black and red, and either
smooth or hirsute.

The antennae are inserted low down on the front, the clypeus
being very short and broadly ovate (especially in Myrmosa),
12

178 HYMENOPTERA.

or it is indented, as in Mutilla. The tongue is shorter than usual.
The sides of the thorax contract in width, both before and be-
hind. The meso-scutum is squarer than usual, while the meso-
scutellum is much narrower and longer, and the propodeum is
squarely truncated behind, thus presenting a full convex surface.
The abdomen is not much longer than the rest of the body, be-
ing shorter than usual. In all these characters this family shows
its affinities to the Ants. The wings are very dissimilar in the
different genera. In Myrmosa the neuration closely approaches
that of Sapyga, while in the larger, more acute primaries of
Mutilla, and especially in the short outer costal cell, and short
open pterostigma, the latter genus differs from the others.

The male of Sderoderma closely mimics the Procto-
trypidce, the veins of the wings being absent, while the
form of the head and abdomen also reminds us of some genera
in that family. The wingless female is very different, having
more of the form of Mutilla, with a large oblong head and long
acutely conical abdomen. The species are minute and rarely
met with. S. contracta "Westwood is found in "Carolina."

In the female Methoca the eyes are very long, and the seg-
ments of the abdomen are widely separated, much as in the
ants. Methoca Canadensis Smith is shin-
ing black, and slightly villose.

The species of Myrmosa may be known
by the very short clypeus, the broad ver-
tex, and the rings of the abdomen of the
male being unusually contracted. The
Fig. 107. abdomen of the female is cylindrical,

about twice as long as broad, and thickest on the second ring.
The rings are densely hirsute on the hinder
edge. Myrmosa unicolor Say (Figs. 107,
male ; 108, female) is widely distributed. We
have taken this species in Maine, while sex-
ually united, early in June. The wingless
female is like an ant, and is pale reddish on
the thorax and basal ring of the abdomen, Fig. ios.

and the antennae and feet are concolorous, while the head and
remaining abdominal rings are much darker. It is .20 inch
long. The male is .28 inch long and entirely black.

FOKMICARLE. ,179

The genus Mutilla is a very extensive one, and enjoys a wide
geographical range. It is throughout stouter than Myrmosa,
the head is more cubical, and the thorax and abdomen is
shorter, the tip of the latter being somewhat truncated.

The wingless female closely resembles, both in its form and
motions, a worker ant. The body is coarsely granulated and
either naked or densely hirsute, and of a scarlet, black, or pale
red, or brown-black color. The females are found running in
hot sandy places, and hide themselves quickly when disturbed,
while the males frequent flowers. Mutilla
occidentalis is a large species. It is of a
beautiful scarlet color and is armed with a
very powerful sting. According to Profes-
sor A. E. Verrill this species was found by
him, at New Haven, to construct deep
holes in a hard beaten path, storing its nest
with insects. This species is also said by
Kirby to be very active, "taking flies by surprise." (West-
wood.) Mr. Verrill noticed that this insect makes a slight
creaking noise. The larvae of M. Europcea are said to live
parasitically in Humble-bees' nests. Mutilla ferrugata Fabr.
(Fig. 109) is found frequently in New England.

FORMICARY Latreille. The family of ants would seem
naturally to belong with the truly fossorial Hymenoptefa, both
from their habits and structure.

Both males and females are winged, but the males are much
smaller than the females, while the wingless workers are smaller
than the males. In these wingless forms the segments of the
thorax become more or less separated, making the body much
longer and slenderer, and less compact than in the winged nor-
mal sexual forms, the prothorax being more developed than in
the males and females. The workers often consist of two
forms : one with a large cubical head, or worker major, some-
times called a soldier/ and the usual small-headed form, or
worker minor^

The head is generally triangular. The eyes are large in the
males, smaller in the workers, anc^ in those of some genera
(Ponera, Typhlopone, etc.) they are absent; while in the

180 HYMENOPTERA.

workers the ocelli are often wanting, though present in the
winged individuals of both sexes. The anteunaa are long,
slender and elbowed. The mandibles are stout, and toothed,
though in those species that do not themselves labor, but en-
slave the workers of other species, they are unarmed and
slender. The maxillary palpi are from one to six-jointed, and
the labial palpi two to four-jointed. The fore-wings usually
have but a single complete subcostal (cubital) cell. The sting
is often present, showing that in this respect as well as their
^fossorial habits the ants are truly aculeate Hymenoptera. The
larva is short, cylindrical, with the end of the body obtuse.
The rings of the body are moderately convex. The head is
rather small and bent upon the breast. The larvae are fed by
the workers with food elaborated in their stomachs.

The larvae of the stingless genera usually spin a delicate
silken cocoon, while those of the aculeate genera do not. Both
Latreille and Westwood, however, state that sometimes, as in
Formica fusca, of Europe, the pupae are naked, and at other
times enclosed in a cocoon.

The colonies of the different species vary greatly in size. In
the nests of Formica sanguinea the number of individuals is very
great. The history of a formicarium, or ant's nest is as follows :
The workers only (but sometimes the winged ants) hibernate,
and are found early in spring, taking care of the eggs and
larvae produced by the autumnal brood of females. In the
course of the summer the adult forms are developed, swarming
on a hot sultry day. The little yellow ants, abundant in paths
and about houses in New England, generally swarm on the af-
ternoon of some hot day in the first week of September, when
the air is filled towards sunset with myriads of them. The
females, after their marriage flight in the air, may then be seen
entering the ground to lay their eggs for new colonies, or, as
Westwood states, they are often seized by the workers and
retained in the old colonies. Having no more use for their
wings they pluck them off, and may be seen running about
wingless. According to Gould, an early English observer,
the eggs destined to hatch the future females, males and
workers, are deposited at three different periods.

The nests of some species of Formica are six feet in diameter

FORMIC ARI.E. 181

and contain many thousand individuals. Ants also build
nests of clay or mud, and inhabit hollow trees. They enjoy
feeding upon the sweets of flowers and the honey of the Plant-
lice, which they domesticate in their nests. Several species of
beetles, including some of the Stapliylinidce , take up their
abode in ants' nests. Ants are useful as scavengers, feeding
on decaying animal matter. A good method of obtaining the
skeletons of the smaller animals, is to place them on a densely
populated ant-hill. The habits of the ants, their economy and
slave-making habits, are described in the works of Huber, La-
treille, and Kirby and Spence.

Upwards of a thousand species of ants have already been
described ; those of this country have still to be monographed.

The first group of this extensive family consists of Dorylus
and its allies, and Formica and the neighboring genera, all of
which are distinguished by having only the first abdominal seg-
ment contracted, while in the second group (Myrmicarice) , the
two basal rings are contracted into knot-like segments.

The genus Dorylus was, by Latreille, Klug, and others, in-
cluded in the Mutillarice. The head is very short, the
ocelli are large and globular. The thorax and abdomen are
elongated, the last is cylindrical, with a small, round, basal
joint. The legs are short, with broad compressed femora and
feather-like tarsi. In the wings the outer subcostal cells are
wanting. The females are not yet known. Mr. F. Smith says
that Dorylus was found by Hon. W. Elliot to live in the man-
ner of ants, under the stone foundation of a house in India.
The society was very numerous. 'The difference in size of the
male and worker is very remarkable. The males are of large
size and are found in tropical Asia and Africa.

Typhlopone is an allied genus. T. pallipes Haldeman is
found in Pennsylvania.

To the genus Anomma belong the Driver-ants of Western
Africa. They march in vast armies, driving everything before
them, so formidable are they from their numbers and bite,
though they are of small size. They cross streams, bridging
them by their interlocked bodies. Only the workers are known.
Two species only, A. Burmeisteri Shuckard, and A. arcens
Westwood, are described from near Cape Palmas, West Africa.

182 HYMENOPTERA.

The genus Ponera is found distributed throughout the
tropics. The females and workers are arrned with spines ; the
abdomen is elongated, the segments more or less diminished
in size, the first comparatively large and often cubical. The
legs are slender. P. ferruginea Smith is a Mexican species.

The allied genus Odontomachus springs like some leaping
spiders. It uses for this purpose its unusually long mandibles,
which are bent at right angles. 0. darus Roger lives in Texas.

Formica includes the typical species of ants. Over two hun-
dred species of this genus have been already described. The
body is unarmed. The abdomen is short, oval or spherical,
the scale-like first segment being lenticular in form, with a
sharp upper edge. The subcostal cell of the fore-wings ends in
a point. Formica sanguinea Latr. is one of our most abundant
species, making hillocks of sand or clay, according to the nature
of the ground. From the formicary walks, and underground
galleries, radiate in all directions. This species has been ob-
served making forays upon each others colonies. We have
found a variety of this species in Labrador, where it is com-
mon. It does not throw up hillocks, but tunnels the earth.

This species has been observed in Europe by P. Huber, to
go on slave expeditions. They attack a "negro-colony" be-
longing to a smaller black species, pillaging the nest, and carry-
ing off merely the larvae and pupae. The victors educate them
in their own nests, and on arriving at maturity the negroes take
the entire care of the colony. Polyergus rufescens is also a slave-
making ant, and "Latreille very justly observes that it is physi-
cally impossible for the rufescent ants (Polyergus rufescens),
on account of the form of their jaws, and the accessory parts of
their mouth, either to prepare habitations for their family,
to procure food, or to feed them." Formica sanguinea sallies
forth in immensely long columns to attack the negro ant. Hu-
ber states that only five or six of these forays are made within
a period of a month, at other seasons they remain at peace.
Huber found that the slave-making Polyergus rufescens when
left to themselves perish from pure laziness. They are waited
upon and fed by their slaves, and when they are taken away, their
masters perish miserably. Sometimes they are known to labor,
and were once observed to carry their slaves to a spot chosen

FOKMICARLE. 183

for a nest. The F. sanguinea is not so helpless, "they assist
their negroes in the construction of their nests, they collect their
sweet fluid from the Aphides ; and
one of then* most usual occupations
is to lie in wait for a small species
of ant on which they feed ; and when
their nest is menaced by an enemy
they show their value for these faith-
ful servants, by carrying them down
into the lowest apartments, as to a
place of the greatest security."
(Kirby.) Pupae of both of the slave-
making species were placed in the
same formicary by Huber, where they Fig. no.

were reared by the "negroes," and on arriving at maturity
"lived together under the same roof in the most perfect amity,"
as we quote from Kirby. Darwin states that in England, F.
sanguinea does not enslave other species.

In this country Mr. J. A. Allen has
described in the Proceedings of the
Essex Institute, vol. 5, 1866, a foray
of a colony of F. sanguinea upon a
colony of a black species of Formica,
for the purpose of making slaves of
them.

Formica Pensylvanica, our largest
species, is found in oaks and decay-
Fig. 111. ing trees, while F. herculanea Latr.
burrows in the earth, its hole opening beneath stones and sticks.
Gould, who wrote in 1747, states that there are two sizes of
workers of the common European Formica rufa, and flava;
one set of individuals exceeding the other by about one-third.
Kirby states that in his specimens "the large workers of For-
mica rufa are nearly three times, and of F. flava , twice the
size of the small ones." Mr. E. Norton describes F. fulvacea
(Fig. 110, worker minor), and also Tapinoma tomentosa (Fig.
Ill, worker major ; antennae broken off), from Mexico.

The tropical genus Polyrliacliis includes, according to Smith,
all those species that closely resemble Formica, but which

184

HYMENOPTERA.

have the thorax and node of the peduncle armed with spines
or hooks. They construct small semicircular nests, of a kind
of net-work, on the leaves of trees and
shrubs. Their communities are small, sel-
dom exceeding twenty individuals. Mr.
Norton describes P. arboricola (Fig. 112,
worker major) from Mexico. An allied
genus is Ectatomma (Fig. 113, worker major
of E. ferruginea Norton, from Mexico).

Mr. F. Smith has described a new genus,
(Ecophylla, which is allied to Formica.
They are green ants, found building in trees Fig. 112.

in the tropics of the old world. The nest of (E. smaragdina
Smith is "formed by drawing together a number of green
leaves, which they unite with a fine web. Some nests are a
foot in diameter. They swarm, says Mr. Wallace, in hilly for-
ests in New Guinea. Their sting is not very severe. This
genus forms a link between Formica and Myrmica ; it

agrees with the former in hav-
ing a single node to the pe-
duncle, and with the latter in
Laving the ocelli obsolete in
the workers, and in being fur-
nished with a sting."

The curious Honey-ant of
Texas and Mexico, Myrmeco-
cystus Mexicanus West wood,
has two kinds of ' ' workers of
very distinct forms, one of the
usual shape," according to
Smith, "and performing the
- 113< active duties of the formica-

rium ; the other and larger worker is inactive and does not quit
the nest, its sole purpose, apparently, being to elaborate a kind
of honey, which they are said to discharge into prepared recep-
tacles, which constitutes the food of the entire population of
the community. In the honey-secreting workers the abdomen
is distended into a large globose bladder-like form. From
this honey an agreeable drink is made by the Mexicans."

FOKMICARLE. 185

The second subfamily, Myrmicarice, includes those species
in which the two first abdominal segments are contracted and
lenticular. In Myrmica the females and workers are armed
with spines, and the ocelli are absent in the workers. The
species are very small, and mostly bright colored. Myrmica
molesta Say is found in houses all over the world.

Gr. Lincecum describes the habits of the Agricultural Ant of
Texas, Myrmica molefaciens. It lives in populous communi-
ties. "They build paved cities, construct roads, and sustain
a large military force." In a year and a half from the time
the colony begins, the ants previously living concealed beneath
the surface, appear above and "clear away the grass, .herbage,
and other litter, to the distance of three or four feet around the
entrance to their city, and construct a pavement, .... con-
sisting of a pretty hard crust about half an inch thick," formed
of coarse sand and grit. These pavements would be inun-
dated in the rainy season, hence, " at least six months pre-
vious to the coming of the rain," they begin to build mounds
rising a foot or more from the centre of the pavement. Within
these mounds' are neatly constructed cells into which the
"eggs, young ones, and their stores of grain, are carried in
time of rainy seasons." No green herb is allowed to grow on
the pavement except a grain-bearing grass, Aristida stricta.
This grain, when ripe, is harvested, and the chaff removed,
while the clean grain is carefully stored away in dry cells.
Lincecum avers that the ants even sow this grain. They also
store up the "grain from several other species of grass, as
well as seeds from many kinds of herbaceous plants."

Pheidole is distinguished by having workers with enormous
heads. P. notabilis Smith, from the Island of Bachian, Indian
Archipelago, is noted for the enormously enlarged, cubical
head of the worker major, which is at least six times the size
of the abdomen, while in the worker minor, the head is of
the ordinary size. An Indian species, P. providens "VYestwood,
according to Col. Sykes, "collects so large a store of grass
seeds as to last from January and February, the time of
their ripening, till October."

The genus Atta is also well-armed, while the workers have
a very large, deeply incised and heart-shaped head, without

186

HTMENOPTEEA.

ocelli, and the second abdominal knot-like ring is very trans-
verse. A. clypeata Smith is a Mexican species.

In Etiton the man-
dibles nearly equal
the length of the in-
sect itself. This ge-
nus is the most
ferocious of all the
ants, entering the nest
of species of Formica
and tearing them,
limb from limb, and
then carrying off the
remains to their own
houses.

Eciton Mexicana
Roger (Fig. 114,
worker major, a, front
view of head, show-
Fig, lu. ing the immense
sickle-like mandibles, and only the two basal joints of the
antennae ; Fig. 115, worker minor, with a front view of the
head, showing the mandi-
bles of the usual size).
This species, with Eciton
Sumiclirasti Norton, (Fig.
116, worker minor) has
been found by Professor
Sumichrast at Cordova and
Orizaba, Mexico.

The males of Eciton are
not yet known. Smith
supposes that Labidus (a
genus allied to Dorylus) is
the male form, and Sumi-
chrast thinks this conjec-
ture is "sustained by the rig. 115.
fact that it is in the season when the sorties of the Eciton
are the more frequent that the Labidus also show themselves."

FORMIC ARLE.

187

An allied genus is Pseudomyrma. P. bicolor Guerin (Fig.
117) is found in Central America. P.flamdula Smith, found in
Central and South America, in Mexico lives, according to
Sumichrast, within the spines which arm the
stems of certain species of Mimosa. These
spines, fixed in pairs upon the branches, are
pierced near the end by a hole (Fig. 118 a),
which serves for the entrance and exit of the
ants.

The genus (Ecodoma differs from Atta in
having the thorax armed with spines. CE. Fig. lie.
Mexicana Smith (Figs. 119, female; 120, worker major) is
abundant on the Gulf Coast of Mexico. In many places, ac-
cording to Sumichrast, the natives eat the females after hav-
ing detached the thorax. The intelligence of these
ants is wonderful. They are seen in immense num-
bers transporting leaves. Sumichrast states that
"the ground at the foot of the tree, where a troop of
these 'ameras,' or workers, is assembled for despoil-
ing it of its leaves, is ordinarily strewn with frag-
ments cut off with the greatest precision. And if the
Fig, 117. tree i s no t t 00 lofty, one can satisfy himself that a
party of foragers, which have climbed the tree, occupies itself
wholly in the labor of cutting them off, while at the foot of
the tree are the carriers which make the journeys between the
tree and the nest. This manage-
ment, which indicates among these a
insects a rare degree of intelligence,
is, perhaps, not a constant and in-
variable practice, but it is an. incon-
testable fact, and one which can be
constantly proved."

"It is specially in the argillaceous
countries that the QEcodomas build
their enormous formicaries, so that
one perceives them from afar by the Fig. us.

projection which they form above the level of the soil, as
well as by the absence of vegetation in their immediate
neighborhood. These nests occupy a surface of many square

188 HYMENOPTERA.

metres,* and their depth varies from one to two metres.
Very many openings, of a diameter of about one to three in-
ches, are contrived from the exterior, and conduct to the inner
cavities which serve as storehouses for the eggs and larvae.
The central part of the nest forms a sort of funnel, designed
for the drainage of water, from which, in a country where
the periodical rains are often abundant, they could hardly es-
cape without be-
ing entirely sub-
merged, if they
did not provide
for it some out-
let.

"The system
which reigns in
Fig. 119. the interior of

these formicaries is extreme. The collection of vegetable
debris brought in by the workers is at times considerable ;
but it is deposited there in such a manner as not to cause any
inconvenience to the inhabitants, nor impede their circulation.
It is mostly leaves which are brought in from without, and it
is the almost exclusive choice of this kind of vegetation which
makes the (Ecodo^a a veritable scourge to agriculture. At
each step, and in almost every place in the
elevated woods, as on the plains ; in desert
places as well as in the neighborhood of
habitations, one meets numerous columns
of these insects, occupied with an admirable
zeal in the transportation of leaves. It
seems even that the great law of the divi-
Fig. 120. sion of labor is not ignored by these little

creatures, judging from the observations which I have often
had occasion to make." (Sumichrast.)

"The (E. cephalotes" says H. W. Bates, "from its immense
numbers, eternal industry, and its plundering propensities, be-
comes one of the most important animals of Brazil. Its immense
hosts are unceasingly occupied in defoliating trees, and those
most relished by them are precisely the useful kinds. They

* A metre is about thirty-nine (39.37) inches.

FORMICARY . 189

have regular divisions of laborers, numbers mounting the trees
and cutting off the leaves in irregularly rounded pieces the size
of a shilling, another relay carrying them off as they fall."
"The heavily laden fellows, as they came trooping in, all de-
posited their load in a heap close to the mound. About the
mound itself were a vast number of workers of a smaller size.
The very large-headed ones were not engaged in leaf-cutting,
nor seen in the processions, but were only to be seen on dis-
turbing the nest." Bates also says, "I found, after removing
a little of the surface, three burrows, each about an inch in
diameter ; half a foot downward, all three united in one tubular
burrow about four inches in diameter. To the bottom of this I
could not reach when I probed with a stick to the depth of four
or five feet. This tube was perfectly smooth and covered with
a vast number of workers of much smaller size than those oc-
cupied in conveying the leaves ; they were unmixed with any
of a larger size. Afterwards, on probing lower into the bur-
row, up came, one by one, several gigantic fellows, out of all
proportion, larger than the largest of those outside, and which
I could not have supposed to belong to the same species. Be-
sides the greatly enlarged size of the head, etc., they have an
ocellus in the middle of the forehead ; this latter feature, added
to their startling appearance from the cavernous depths of the
formicarium, gave them quite a Cyclopean character."

Of another species, the (Ec. sexdentata, Mr. Smith quotes
from Rev. Hamlet Clark, that at Constancia, Brazil, the pro-
prietor of a plantation used every means to exterminate it and
failed. " Sometimes in a single night it will strip an orange or
lemon tree of its leaves ; a ditch of water around his garden,
which quite keeps out all other ants, is of no use. This spe-
cies carries a mine under its bed without any difficulty. In-
deed, I have been assured again and again, by sensible men,
that it has undermined, in its progress through the country, the
great river Paraiba. At any rate, without anything like a nat-
ural or artificial bridge, it appears on the other side and con-
tinues its course." This testimony is confirmed by Mr.
Lincecum (Proceedings of Academy of Natural Sciences,
Philadelphia, 1867, p. 24) in an interesting account of the (Ec.
Texana, which he has observed for eighteen years. He states

190 HTMENOPTERA.

that they often carry their subterranean roads for several hun-
dred yards in grassy districts, where the grass would prove an
impediment to their progress. On one occasion, to secure ac-
cess to a gentleman's garden, where they were cutting the
vegetables to pieces, they tunnelled beneath a creek, which was
at that place fifteen or twenty feet deep, and from bank to bank
about thirty feet. He also observes that the smaller workers
which remain around the nest do not seem to join in cutting or
carrying the leaves, but are occupied with bringing out the
sand, and generally work in a lazy way, very differently from
the quick, active leaf-cutters. Also, that the pieces of leaves
are usually dried outside before being carried in, and that if
wet by a s,udden shower are left to decay without. He also
thinks that their lives are dependent upon access to
water, and that they always choose places where it
is accessible by digging wells. In one case, a well
was dug by Mr. Pearson for his own use, and water
found at the depth of thirty feet. The ant- well
which he followed was twelve inches in diameter."
Fig. 121. (Norton, American Naturalist, vol. 2.)
The genus Cryptocerus is remarkable for its flattened head,
with the sides expanded into flattened marginal plates, con-
cealing, or partly hiding the eyes. C. multispinosus Norton
(Fig. 121) is the most common species about Cordova, Mexico,
where they live, according to Sumichrast, within the trunks of
trees.

CHKYSIDID^E Latreille. In this small group the thirteen-
jointed antennae are elbowed, the eyes are oval and the ocelli
distinct. The maxillary palpi are five, and the labial palpi
three-jointed. There are about four hundred species known.

These insects are very different from the ants in their oblong
compact form, their nearly sessile, oblong abdomen, having only
three to five rings visible, the remaining ones being drawn with-
in, forming a long, large, jointed sting-like ovipositor, which
can be thrust out like a telescope. The abdomen beneath is
concave, and the insect can roll itself into a ball on being dis-
turbed. They are green or black. The sting has no poison-
bag, and in this respect, besides more fundamental characters,

191

the Chrysis family approaches the Ichneumons. They best
merit the name of "Cuckoo-flies," as they fly and run briskly
in hot sunshine, on posts and trees, darting their ovipositor into
holes in search of the nests of other Hymenoptera, in which to
lay their eggs. Their larvae are the first to hatch and devour
the food stored up by other fossorial bees and wasps. "St.
Fargeau, however, who has more carefully examined the econ-
omy of these insects, states that the eggs of the Chrysis do
not hatch until the legitimate inhabitant has attained the greater
part of its growth as a larva, when the larva of the Chrysis
fastens on its back, sucks it, and in a very short time attains
its full size, destroying its victim. It does not form a cocoon,
but remains a long time in the pupa state." (Westwood.)

" In the Entomological Magazine has been noticed the dis-
covery of Hedychrum bidentulum, which appears to be parasitic
upon Psen caliginosus ; the latter insect had formed its cells in
the straws of a thatched arbor, as many as ten or twelve cells
being placed in some of the straws. Some of the straws, per-
haps about one in ten, contained one or rarely two, of the
Hedychrum, placed indiscriminately amongst the others.
Walkenaer, in his Memoirs upon Halictus, informs us that
Hedychrum lucidulum waits at the mouth of the burrows of
these bees, in order to deposit its eggs therein ; and that when
its design is perceived by the bees, they congregate together
and drive it away. St. Fargeau states that the females of
Hedychrum sometimes deposit their eggs in galls, while H.
regium oviposits in the nest of Megachile muraria ; and he
mentions an instance in which the bee, returning to its nearly
finished cell, laden with pollen paste, found the Hedychrum
in its nest, which it attacked with its jaws ; the parasite im-
mediately, however, rolled itself into a ball, so that the Mega-
chile was unable to hurt it ; it, however, bit off its four wings
which were exposed, rolled it to the ground and then deposited
its load in the cell and flew away, whereupon the Hedychrum,
now being wingless, had the persevering instinct to crawl up
the wall to the nest, and there quietly deposit its egg, which it
placed between the pollen paste and the wall of the cell, which
prevented the Megachile from seeing it." (Westwood.)

In Cleptes the underside of the abdomen is not hollowed out ;

192 HYMENOPTEKA.

it is acutely oval, and with five rings in the male. Cleptes
semiaurata Latr. is found in Central Europe. "We have no na-
tive species. In Clirysis and the other genera, Stilbum, Parno-
pes, and Hedychrum, the abdomen is hollowed beneath, and
the tip is broad and square. Clirysis hilaris Dahlb. (Fig. 122)
is a short, thick, bluish green species, .32 inch in length. It
is not uncommon in New England.

In Hedychrum the maxillary palpi and ligula are rather short,
the last cordate ; the mandibles are three-toothed within. The
abdomen is broad and short, almost spherical, the second seg-
ment being the largest. H. dimidiatum Say is found in the
Middle States.

The European Stilbum splendidum, Fabr. according to Du-
four, lives in the cells of Pelopseus spirifex. It makes oblong
cocoons of a deep brown, with rounded
ends ; they are of great tenacity, being
mixed with a gummy matter.

Mr. Guenzius states that in Port
Natal "a species of Stilbum la}^s its
eggs on the collected caterpillars stored
Fig. 122. up by Eumenes tinctor, which con-

structs a nest of mud and attaches it to reeds, etc., not in a
single, but a large mass, in w T hich cells are excavated, similar
to the nest of Chalicodoma micraria ? * First, it uses its ovi-
positor as a gimlet, and when its point has a little penetrated,
then as a saw or rasp ; it likewise feels with its ovipositor, and,
finding an unfinished or an empty cell it withdraws it immedi-
ately, without laying an egg."

ICHNEUMONID^E Latrcille. The Ichneumon-flies are readily
recognized by the usually long and slender body, the long ex-
serted ovipositor, which is often very long, and protected by a
sheath formed of four stylets of the same length as the true
ovipositor. The head is usually rather square, with long,
slender, many-jointed antennae which are not usually elbowed.
The maxillary palpi are five to six-jointed, while the labial

* A query ( ?) after the name of a species indicates a doubt whether the insect
really belongs to that species ; so with a ? after the name of a genus. A ? before
both the genus and species expresses a doubt whether that be the insect at all.

ICHNEUMONID^. 193

palpi are three to four-jointed. The abdomen is inserted im-
mediately over the hind pair of trochanters, and usually consists
of seven visible segments. The fore- wings have one to three
subcostal (cubital) cells.

The larva is a soft, fleshy, cylindrical, footless grub, the
rings of the body being moderately convex, and the head rather
smaller than in the foregoing families. The eggs are laid by
the parent either upon the outside or within the caterpillar, or
other larva, on which its young is to feed. When hatched it
devours the fatty portions of its victim which dies gradually of
exhaustion. The ovipositor of some species is very long, and
is fitted for boring through very dense substances ; thus Mr.
Bond, of England, observes that Rliyssa, persuasoria actually
bores through solid wood to deposit its eggs in the larvae of
Sir ex ; the ovipositor is worked into the wood like an awl.
When about to enter the pupa state the larva spins a cocoon,
consisting in the larger species of an inner dense case, and a
looser, thinner, outer covering, and escapes as a fly through
the skin of the caterpillar. The cocoons of the smaller genera,
such as Cryptus and Microgaster, may be found packed closely
in considerable numbers, side by side, or sometimes placed up-
right within the body of caterpillars.

The Ichneumon-flies are thus very serviceable to the agricul-
turist, as they must annually destroy immense numbers of cat-
erpillars. In Europe over 2,000 species of this family have
been described, and it is probable that we have an equal num-
ber of species in America ; Gerstaecker estimates that there
are 4,000 to 5,000 known species.

The Ichneumons also prey on certain Coleoptera and Hymen-
optera, and even on larvae of Phryganidce, which live in the
water. In Europe, Pimpla Fairmairii is parasitic on a spider,
Clubione holosericea, according to Laboulbene. Boheman
states that P. ovivora lives on a spider, and species of Pimpla
and Hemiteles were also found in a nest of spiders, according to
Gravenhorst. Bouche says that Pimpla rufata devours, during
winter and spring, the eggs of Aranea diadema, and Ratzburg
gives a list of fourteen species of Ichneumons parasitic on
spiders, belonging to the genera Pimpla, Pezomachus, Ptero-
malus, Cryptus, Hemiteles, Microgaster, and Mesochorus. Mr.
13

194 HYMENOPTERA.

Emerton informs me that he has reared a Pezomachus from
the egg-sac of Attus, whose eggs it undoubtedly devours. They
are not even free from attacks of members of their own family,
as some smaller species are well known to prey on the larger.
Being cut off from communication with the external world,
the Ichneumon larva breathes by means of the two principal

tracheae, which
terminate in the
end of the body,
and are placed,
according to Ger-
staecker, in com-
munication with a
stigma of its host.
From the com-
plete assimilation
of the liquid food,
Fig. 123. the intestine ends

in a cul de sac, as we have seen it in the larvae of Humble-bees
and of Sty lops, and as probably occurs in most other larvae
of similar habits, such as young gall-flies, weevils, etc., which
live in cells and do not eat solid food.

The first subfamily, the Evaniidce, are insects of singular and
very diverse form, in which the antennae are either straight or
elbowed, and thirteen to fourteen-
jointed ; the fore-wings have one to
three subcostal (cubital) cells, and the
hind wings are almost without veins.
In Evania and Fcenus the abdomen
has a very slender pedicel, originating
next the base of the metanotum. The
former genus has a remarkably short
triangular compressed abdomen in the
female, but ovate in the male. The ri -

species are parasitic on Blatta and allies. Evania Icevigata
Olivier (Fig. 123, $ and pupa) is a black species, and is para-
sitic on the cockroach, Periplaneta, from the eggs of which we
have taken the pupa and adult. The eggs of the cockroach are
just large enough to accommodate a single Evania. This species

ICHNEUMONIDJE .

195

is widely distributed, and in Cuba, according to Cresson, it
devours the eggs of Periplaneta Americana.

The genus Autocodes of Cresson, " forms a very close con-
necting-link between the minute Ichneumons and the Evaniae."
A. nigriventris Cresson (Fig. 124, a; &, metathorax; c, inser-
tion of the abdomen) lives in Cuba.

Fcenus is quite a different genus, as the abdomen is very long
and slender. Foenus jaculator Linn, is known in Europe to

frequent the nests ^ ^ ^ ,,-

of Crabronidce,
ovipositing in the
larvae.

Pelecinus is a fa-
miliar insect, the im-
mensely elongated,
linear abdomen of
the female easily Fig. 125.

distinguishing it. The male is extremely rare ; its abdomen
is short and clavate. It strikingly resembles Trypoxylon,
though the abdomen is considerably larger. Pelecinus poly-
cerator Drury (Fig. 125, $ and ?) is widely distributed
throughout this country.

The genuine Ichneumonidce have long, straight, multiarticu-
late antennas. The first subcostal (cubital) cell of the fore-

wings is united with the median
) cell lying next to it, while the
secoriti is very small or wholly
wanting. There are two recurrent
veins. Mr. Cresson has described
the genus Eiplwsoma (Fig. 126),
Fig. 126. which he states may be known by

the long, slender, compressed abdomen, and the long posterior
legs, with their femora toothed beneath the tips. E. annu-
latum Cresson, a Cuban species, is, according to Poey, "para-
sitic upon a larva of Pyralis." (Cresson.)

Iii Opliion the antennae are as long as the body, the abdo-
men is compressed, and the species are honey-yellow in color.
0. macrurum Linn. (Fig. 127) attacks the American Silk-
worm, Telea Polyphemus. Anomalon is a larger insect and
usually black. A. vesparum is, in Europe, parasitic on Vespa.

196

HYMENOPTERA .

The genus RJiyssa contains our largest species, and frequents
the holes of boring insects in the trunks of trees, inserting its

remarkably long ovipositor
in the body of the larvae
deeply embedded in the
trunk of the tree. Harris
states that Uliyssa (Pimpla)
atrata and lunator (Fig. 128,
male) of Fabricius, "may
frequently be seen thrusting
their slender borers, measur-
ing from three to four in-
ches in length, into the
trunks of trees inhabited
by the grubs of the Tre-
mex, and by other wood-
Fi s- 12 ?- eating insects ; and, like

the female Tremex, they sometimes become fastened to the
trees, and die without being able to draw their borers out
again." The abdomen of the male is very slender.

Pimpla has the ovipositor half as long as the abdomen. P.
pedalis Cresson is a parasite on Clisiocampa.

The genus Trogus leads to Ichneumon. The antennae are
shorter than the body ; the abdomen is slightly petiolate, fusi-
form, and the second subcostal cell
is quadrangular. Trogus exesorius
Brulle is tawny red, and is a para-
site of Papilio Asterias.

The genus Ichneumon (Fig. 129)
is one of great extent, probably
containing over three hundred spe-
cies. The abdomen is long and
slender, lanceolate ovate, slightly
petiolate. The second subcostal cell
is five-sided, and the ovipositor is
either concealed or slightly exserted. Fig. * 128.

Ichneumon suturaUs Say is a very common form, and has been
reared in abundance from the larva of the Army- worm, Leu-
cania unipuncta. The body is pale rust-red, with black sutures
on the thorax. Another common species, also parasitic on the

ICHNEUMONIDJE.

197

Army-worm, is the Ichneumon paratus, which is blackish,
banded and spotted with yellow.

The singular genus Gfrotea, established by Mr. Cresson, has
a long and narrow thorax (Fig. 130 a), and a very long and
petiolated abdomen (c). We have
taken G. anguina Cresson, the only
species known, from the cells of
Crabro in raspberry stems received
from Mr. Angus.

Cryptus is a genus of slender
form, with a long, cylindrical abdo-
men, which is p etiolate. In the fe-
male it is oval with an exserted
ovipositor. Cresson figures a wing Fi &- 129 -

(Fig. 131) of C.? ornatipenniS) a Cuban species, which has the
wings differently veined from the other species. Westwood
remarks that in Europe a species of this genus preys on the
larvae of the Ptinidce.

Pezomaclius is usually wingless, and might at first sight read-
ily be mistaken for an ant. The body is small, the oval abdo-
men petiolate, and the wings, when pres-
ent, are very small. The species are very
numerous. Gerstaecker suggests that
some may be wingless females, belong-
ing to winged males of allied genera.

The third subfamily is the Braconidce, containing those
genera having long multiarticulate antennae, and with the first
subcostal cell separate from the first median, lying just behind
it. The second subcostal cell is usually
large, and there is only one recurrent vein.

The genus Bracon is distinguished by the
deeply excavated clypeus. The first sub-
costal cell is completely formed behind,
wanting the recurrent nerve ; the second cell
is long, and four-sided. More than five
hundred species, mostly of bright, gay
colors, are already known. The genus Rliopalosoma of Cres-
son connects Bracon and other minute genera (Bracoriidae)
with the true Ichneumons. R. Poeyi Cresson (Fig. 132) is a

Fig. 131.

198 HYHENOPTERA.

pale honey-yellow species, with a long club-shaped abdomen.
It lives in Cuba.

JRogas is a genus differing from Bracon in having the three
first abdominal rings long, forming a slender petiole.

In Microgaster, a genus containing numerous species, the
antennae are eighteen-jointed, and the abdomen is shorter than
^__^ usual, and clavate. There are two or three
subcostal cells, the second very small. Mi-
crogaster nephoptericis (Plate 3, figs. 3, 3 a) is
parasitic on Nephopteiyx Edmandsii, found in
the cells of the Humble-bee.

Aphidius, the parasite of the Plant-lice, is
a most valuable ally of man. It is known by
its small size, and by having the second and
third segments of the abdomen moving free on
Fig. 132. eac k O ther. There are three cubital cells, though
the wings are sometimes wanting. Aphidius (Praon) arena-
phis of Fitch, the Oat-louse Aphidius, is black with honejr-
yellow legs, and is one-tenth of an inch long. Aphidius
(Toxares) triticaphis Fitch, the Wheat-louse Aphidius, is black,
shining, with thread-like antennae composed of twenty-five
joints. Its length is .08 inch. Frequently the large size of
the parasite causes the body of the dead Aphis to swell out
into a globular form.

PROCTOTKYPIDJE (Proctotrupii) Latreille. Egg-parasites.
In this family are placed very minute species of parasitic Ich-
neumon-like Hymenopters which have rather long and slender
bodies, with straight or elbowed antennae of various lengths,
often haired on the joints, usually ten to fifteen, sometimes only
eight in number, while the wings are covered with minute hairs
and most of the nervures are absent. The maxillary palpi are
three to six, the labial palpi usually three-jointed. The abdo-
men has from five to seven joints, and the tarsi are mostly five-
jointed, rarely four -jointed. These insects are often so minute
that they can scarcely be distinguished by the naked eye unless
it is specially trained ; they are black or brown, and very
active in their habits. ' They may be swept off grass and
herbage, from aquatic plants, or from hot sand-banks. They

PROCTOTRYPID.E. 199

prey on the wheat-flies by inserting their eggs in their larvae,
on gall-midges, and gall-flies, and on fungus-eating flies. In
Europe, species of Teleas lay their eggs in those of other
insects, especially butterflies and moths and hemipters, where
they feed on the juices of the larvae growing within the egg,
coming out as perfect Ichneumons. We probably have many
species of these insects in this country. They usually occur in
great numbers where they are found at all. They are almost
too small to pin, and if transfixed would be unfit for study,
and should, therefore, be gummed on mica, or put into small
vials with alcohol.

In Proctotrupes the antennas are long, feathered, twelve-
jointed. The fore-wings have the beginning of a cubital cell,
and two longitudinal veins on the posterior half. The abdo-
men is spindle-shaped and very acutely pointed, the terminal
joints being tubular in their arrangement,
and thus, as West wood states, approaching
the CJirysididce. An unknown species
(Fig. 133) we have taken at the Glen, in
the White Mountains.

The head of Diapria is horizontal and Fig. 133.

longer than broad; the ocelli are moved forward on to the
front edge ; the long, filiform antennae have a projection on
the under side, with the basal joint much elongated ; in the
male they are thirteen or fourteen-jointed, with one joint less
in the female. The wings are without stigma or veins. The
abdomen is long, oval, pedicelled. In Europe, D. ceddomyi-
arum Bouche is parasitic on the larvae of Cecidomyia arte-
misiae. Esenbeck considers that this genus is also parasitic on
the earth-inhabiting Tipulidce.

Gonatopus is a wingless genus, with the head very broad,
transverse, and the front deeply hollowed out, while the ten-
jointed antennae are long, slightly clavate, and the thorax is
much elongated, deeply incised, forming two knot-like portions.
Gonatopus lunatus Esenbeck, found in Europe, is one and a
half lines long.

Ceraphron has the antennae inserted near the mouth ; they
are elbowed, and eleven-jointed in the male, and ten-jointed in
the female. The abdomen has a very short pedicel. The fore-

200 HYMENOPTERA.

wings have a very short, bent costal (radial) vein. C. arma*
turn Say was described from Indiana.

The egg-parasite, Teleas, has the elbowed twelve-jointed an-
tennae inserted very near the front of the head, and slightly
hairy and simple in the male, but in the female terminated in a
six-jointed club. The thorax is short, the legs thickened and
adapted for leaping, and the abdomen is pedicelled. Many
species have been found in Europe. According to Westwood,
"the type of this genus is the Ichneumon ovulorum of Linnaeus
(Teleas Linncei Esenbeck), which Linnaeus and
De Geer obtained from the eggs of moths." It
has been raised from the eggs of several Bom-
bycidce. "Bouche observed the female deposit
rig. 134. an e gg i n each o f the eggs of a brood of Bom-
byx neustria. He describes the larva as elliptical, white,
shining, rugose, subincurved, and one-third of an inch long."
(Westwood.)

Of the extensive genus Platyg&ster over a hundred European
species are already known. The body, especially the abdomen,
is generally flattened, the antennae are ten-jointed, and in the
female clavate. The wing veins are absent ; the rather slender
legs are not adapted for leaping, and the tarsi are five-jointed.
A species of Platygaster (Fig. 134) not yet named, oviposits
in the eggs of the Canker-worm moth, Anisopteryx vernata,
and by its numbers does much to check the increase of this
caterpillar. We have seen several of these minute insects
engaged in inserting their eggs into those of the Canker-
worm.

Dr. Harris, in speaking of the enemies of the Hessian-fly,
states, that "two more parasites, which Mr. Herrick has not
yet described, also destroy the Hessian-fly, while the latter is
in the flax-seed or pupa state. Mr. Herrick says, that the egg-
parasite of the Hessian-fly is a species of Platygaster, that it is
very abundant in the autumn, when it lays its own eggs, four
or five together, in a single egg of the Hessian-fly. This, it
appears, does not prevent the latter from hatching, but the
maggot of the Hessian-fly is unable to go through its trans-
formations, and dies after taking on the flax-seed form. Mean-
while its intestine foes are hatched, come to their growth, spin

PROCTOTRYPIDJE. 201

themselves little brown cocoons within the skin of their victim,
and in due time, are changed to winged insects/and eat their
way out." P. error Fitch (Fig. 135) is closely allied to P.
tipulce Kirby, which, in Europe, destroys great numbers of the
Wheat-midge. Whether this is a parasite of the midge, or
not, Dr. Fitch has not yet determined.

The habits of the genus Bethylus remind us of the fossorial
wasps. Bethylus fuscicornis, according to Haliday, "buries
the larvae of some species of Tinea, which feed upon the low
tufts of Rosa spinosissima, dragging them to a considerable
distance with great labor and solicitude, and employing, in the
instance recorded by Mr. Haliday, the bore of a reed stuck in
the ground instead of an arti-
ficial funnel, for the cells which
should contain the progeny of
the Bethylus, with its store of
provision." (Westwood.)

The genus Inostemma is re-
markable for having the basal
segment of the abdomen of the
females furnished with a thick rig. 135.

curved horn, which extends over the back of the thorax and
head. Dr. Fitch states that I. inserens is supposed by Kirby to
insert its eggs into those of the Wheat-midge. In the genus
Galesus of Curtis, the mandibles are so enlarged and length-
ened as to form a long beak, and Westwood farther states that
in some specimens the anterior wings have a notch at the ex-
tremity. Say's genus Coptera has similar wings. C. polita
Say was discovered in Indiana.

In the very minute species of My mar and its allies, the head
is transverse, with the antennae inserted above the middle of
the face ; they are long and slender and elbowed in the male,
but clavate in the female. There are no palpi, while the very
narrow wings have a very short subcostal vein and on the
edges are provided with long dense cilise. The antennae of
Mymar are thirteen-jointed in the male, and nine-jointed in the
female ; the club is not jointed. The tarsi are four-jointed,
and the abdomen is pedunculated. Mymar pulcliellus Curtis
is a quarter of a line long. It is found in Europe. An allied

202 HYMENOPTEEA.

form Polynema ovulorum Linn, lays numerous eggs in a single
butterfly's egg.

In Anaplies the male antennae are twelve-jointed, those of
the female nine-jointed, and the abdomen is subsessile and
ovoid. In Anagrus the male antennae are thirteen-jointed,
those of the female nine-jointed, while the tarsi are four-jointed,
and the acutely conical abdomen is sessile. No native species
are known.

The smallest Hymenopterous insect known, if not the most
minute of all insects, is the Pteratomus Putnamii Pack. (Plate
3, figs. 8, 8 a, hind wing), which we first discovered on the
body of an Anthophorabia in the minute eggs of which it is
undoubtedly parasitic. It differs from Anagrus in the obtusely
conical abdomen, and the narrower, very linear wings, which
are edged with a fringe of long, curved hairs, giving them a
graceful, feathery appearance. The fore-wings are fissured,
a very interesting fact, since it shows the tendency of the
wings of a low Hymenopterous insect to be fissured like
those of Pterophorus and Alucita, the two lowest Lepidop-
terous genera. It is one-ninetieth of an inch in length.

CHALCIDID^E Westwood. This is a group of great extent ;
the species are of small size ; they are often of shiny colors, as
the name- of the principal genus implies, being either bronzen
or metallic. They have also elbowed antennae with from six
to fourteen joints, and the wings are often deficient in veins.
In some genera, including Chalcis, the hind thighs are thickened
for leaping. The differences between the sexes, generally very
marked in Hymenoptera, are here especially so. The abdo-
men is usually seven-jointed in the male and six-jointed in the
female, the other rings being aborted. The male of several
species has the joints of the antennae swelled and furnished with
long hairs above. Some of the species of Pteromalus are wing-
less, and closely resemble ants. They infest eggs and larvae.
Some species prey upon the Aphides, others lay their eggs in
the nests of wasps and bees. One species is known in Europe
to be a parasite of the common house-fly. Others consume
the larvae of the Hessian-fly, and those Cecidomyiae that pro-
duce galls, and also the true gall-flies (Cynips). Some are

CHALCIDID^C. 203

parasites on other Ichneumon parasites, as there are species
preying on the genus Aphidius, which is a parasite on the
Aphis. Mr. Walsh has bred a species of Hockeria and of
Glyphe, which are parasitic on a Microgaster, which in turn
preys upon the Army-worm, Leucania unipuncta ; and Chalcis
albifrons Walsh, was bred from the cocoons of Pezomachus, an
Ichneumon parasite of the same caterpillar.

The pupae of some species are said to have the limbs and
wings soldered together as in Lepidoptera, and the larvae sel-
dom spin a silken compact cocoon. We have
probably in this country at least a thousand
species of these small parasites, nearly twelve
hundred having been named and described in
Europe alone. They are generally large enough
to be pinned or stuck upon cards or mica ; some
individuals should be preserved in this way,
others, as wet specimens. Fig. 136.

Chalcis is known by the abdomen having a long pedicel, its
much thickened, oval thighs, and curved tibiae. Chalcis bra-
cata (Fig. 136), so named by Mr. Sanborn "in allusion to the
ornamental and trousered appearance of the posterior feet"
is about .32 inch in length. "Reaumur has described and
figured a species of Chalcis, which is parasitic in the nest of
the American wasp Epipone nitidulans and which he regarded
as the female of that wasp." (Westwood.)

The genus Leucospis is of large size. It is known by having
the large ovipositor laid upon the upper surface of the abdo-
men, and being spotted and banded with
yellow, resembling wasps. One of our more
common species is the L. affinis (Fig. 137) of
Say. The Cuban L. Poeyi Guerin is para-
sitic on the Megachile Poeyi of Guerin.

The well-known Joint-worm, Eurytoma,
(or Isosoma Walsh) produces galls on wheat-
stems. The antennae are, in the male, slender and provided
with verticils of hairs. The acutely oval abdomen has a
short pedicel. The hind legs are scarcely thicker than the
fore limbs. E. hordei Harris (Fig. 138) is found in gall-like
swellings of wheat-stalks. It is still a matter of discussion,

204 HYMENOPTERA.

whether it directly produces the galls, or is parasitic, like
many of the family, on other gall-insects. Dr. Harris, who has
studied the habits of the Joint-worm, states that the body of
the adult fly is jet black, and that the thighs, shanks (tibiae),
and claw-joints, are blackish, while the knees and other joints
of the feet, are pale-3 r ellow. The females are .13 inch long,
while the males are smaller, have a club-shaped abdomen, and
the joints of the antennae surrounded with a verticil of hairs.
The larva is described by Harris from specimens received from
Virginia, as varying from one-tenth to nearly three-twentieths
of an inch in length. It is of a pale yellowish white color,
with an internal dusky streak, and is destitute of hairs. The
head is round and partially retractile, with a distinct pair of
jaws, and can be distinguished from the larvae of the dipterous
gall-flies by not having the v-shaped organs on the segment
succeeding the head. During the sum-
mer, according to Mr. Gourgas's observa-
tions reported by Dr. Harris, and when '
the barley or wheat is about eight or ten
inches high, the presence of the young
Joint-worms is detected "by a sudden
rig. 138. check in the growth of the plants, and

the yellow color of their leaves," and several irregular gall-
like swellings between the second and third joints, or, accord-
ing to Dr. Fitch, "immediately above the lower joint in the
sheathing base of the leaf;" or, as Harris states, in the joint
itself. The ravages of this insect have been noticed in wheat
and barley. During November, in New England, the worms
transform into the pupa state, according to the observations of
Dr. A. Nichols, and "live through the winter unchanged in
the straw, many of them in the stubble in the field, while others
are carried away when the grain is harvested." In Virginia,
however, the larva does not transform until late in February,
or early in March, according to Mr. Glover. From early in
May, until the first week in July, the four-winged flies issue
from the galls in the dry stubble, and are supposed to im-
mediately lay their eggs in the stalks of the young wheat or
barley plants. The losses by this insect has amounted, in
Virginia, to over a third of the whole crop. The best remedy

CHALCIDID^E. 205

against the attacks of this insidious foe, is to burn the stubble
in the autumn or spring for several successive years. Plough-
ing in the stubble does not injure the insects, as they can
work their way out of the earth.

It has been objected by Westwood, Ratzburg, and more
recently by Mr. Walsh, (who afterwards changed his views),
that as all the species of this family, so far as known, are para-
sitic, the Eurytoma cannot be a gall-producer, and that the
galls are made by a dipterous insect (Cecidomyia) on which
the Eurytoma is a parasite ; but, as they offer no new facts to
support this opinion, we are inclined to believe from the
statements of Harris, Fitch, Cabell, T. Glover (Patent Office
Report for 1854), and others, that the larva of the Eurytoma
produces the gall. We must remember that the habits of
comparatively few species of this immense family have been
studied ; that the genus Eurytoma is not remotely allied to
the Cynipidse, or true gall-flies (which also comprise animal
parasites) , in which group it has actually been placed by Esen-
beck, for the reason that in Europe "several species of
Eurytoma have been observed to be attached to different
kinds of galls." (Westwood.) Dr. Fitch also describes the
Yellow-legged Barley-fly, Eurytoma Jla/uipes, which produces
similar galls in barley, and differs from the Wheat Joint- worm
in having yellow legs, while the antennae of the male are not
surrounded with whorls of hair. The Eurytoma secalis Fitch
infests rye. It differs from E. hordei in "having the hind pair
of shanks dull pale-yellow, as well as the forward ones." We
shall also see beyond that several species of Saw-flies produce
true galls, while other species of the same genus are external
feeders, which reconciles us more easily to the theory that the
Eurytoma hordei, and the other species described by Dr. Fitch,
differ in their habits from others of the family, and are not ani-
mal parasites. Indeed the Joint-worm is preyed upon by two
Chalcid parasites, for Harris records finding the larvae, proba-
bly of Torymus, feeding on the Eurytoma larvse, and that a
species of Torymus (named T. Harrisii, by Dr. Fitch, and per-
haps the adult of the first-named Torymus) and a species of
Pteromalus are parasites on Eurytoma.

In Monodontomerus (Torymus) the third joint of the an-

206 HYMENOPTEKA.

tennse is minute, and the hind femora are thick, but not ser-
rated, and beneath armed with a tooth near the tip.

The wings are rudimentary so that it does not quit the cell.
Newport states that the larva is flat, very hairy, and spins a
silken cocoon when about to pupate. It is an "external feed-
ing parasite" consuming the pupa as well as the larva of An-
thophorabia. The imago appears about the last of June,
perforating the cell of the bee. It also lives in the nests of
Osmia, Anthophora, and Odynerus.

The genus Antliopliordbia is so-called from being a parasite on
Anthophora. The males differ remarkably from the females,
especially in having simple instead of compound eyes, besides
the usual three ocelli. A. megachilis Pack. (Plate 3 ; fig. 7,
larva; 7 a, pupa) is a parasite on a species of Megachile.
The larva is white, short and thick, cylindrical, with both
extremities much alike ; the segments are slightly convex, and
the terminal ring is orbicular and rather large. Length, .04
inch, being one-third as broad as long. On opening the cells
of Megachile, we found nearly a dozen containing these para-
sites, of which 150 larvae were counted clustering on the out-
side of a dead and dry Megachile larva. In England they
occur, according to Newport's observations, in much less num-
bers, as he found from thirty to fifty in a cell of Anthophora.
A few females hatched out in the middle of October, and there
were a few pupae left, but the majority wintered over in the
larva state, and a new and larger brood appeared in the spring.

Perilampus is a beautiful genus, with its shining, metallic
tints. The eleven-jointed antennae are short, lying when at
rest in a deep frontal furrow. The head is large, while the
abdomen is slightly pedicelled, being short, contracted, with
the ovipositor concealed. P. platygaster Say and P. triangu-
laris Say were described from Indiana.

The numerous species of Pteromalus often oviposit in the
larvae of butterflies. In this genus the antennae are inserted
in the middle of the front. The abdomen is nearly sessile, ob-
tusely triangular, or acutely ovate* in form, with the ovipositor
concealed. The femora are slender. There are about three
hundred species known to inhabit Europe. Pteromalus va-
nessce Hams is a parasite on Vanessa Antiopa. P. clisio-

CHALCIDID^E.

207

Fig. 139.'

campce Harris infests Clisiocampa. " Pteromalus apum is
parasitic in the nests of the Mason-bee." (Westwood.) A spe-
cies of this or an allied genus (Fig. 139)
infests the eggs of the Clisiocampa Ameri-
cana. Its eggs are probably laid within
those of the Tent-caterpillar moth early
in the summer, hatching out in the autumn,
and late in the spring or early in June.

An allied genus, Siphonura, is a para-
site on galls. It resembles a beetle, Mor-
della, from its very peculiar scutum.

The antennae of Semiotellus are twelve-jointed. S. (Ceraph-
ron) destructor Say (Fig. 140), according to that author,

destroys the Hessian-fly, while lying
in the "flax-seed" state. Fitch de-
scribes it as being a tenth of an
inch long, black, with a brassy
green reflection on the head and
thorax, while the legs and base of
the abdomen are yellowish.

In Encyrtus^ which comprises
over a hundred species already
known, usually rather small in
Fig. 140. s i ze? ^e body is short and rounded.

The eleven-jointed antennae are inserted near the mouth. The
thorax is square behind, and the sessile abdomen is short and
broad at the base. Encyrtus Bolus
and E. JReate are described from
North America by Mr. F. Walker.
Encyrtus varicornis is in Europe
found as a parasite in the cells of
Eumenes coarctata.

The antennae of Euloplius are nine- Fig< 141

jointed, with a long branch attached to the third, fourth, and
fifth joints. The abdomen is flattened, sessile. E. basalts
Say was described from Indiana. We figure a Chalcid (Fig.
141, cT), allied to Eulopus, which preys upon the American
Tent Caterpillar.

A species of Blastophaga (B. grossorum Grav.) is interest-
ing as it is the means of assisting in the fertilization of the Fig

208

HYMENOPTERA.

blossoms, which act, as applied to this instance of the fertiliza-
tion of flowering plants by insects, has been called by Mr.
Westwood " caprification."

CYNIPID^E Westwood. (Diploleparice Latreille.) Gall-flies.
In this most interesting family we have a singular combination
of zoological and biological characters. The gall-flies are closely
allied to the parasitic Chalcids, but in their habits are plant-
parasites, as they live in a gall or tumor formed by the ab-
normal growth of the vegetable cells, due to the irritation first
excited when the egg is laid in the bark, or substance of the leaf,
as the case may be. The generation of the summer broods is
also anomalous, but the parthenogenesis that occurs in these
forms, by which immense numbers of females are produced, is
necessary for the work they perform in the economy of nature.
When we see a single oak hung with countless galls, the work
of a single species, and learn how numerous are its natural

Fig. 142 /

enemies, it becomes evident that the demand for a great nu-
merical increase must be met by extraordinary means, like the
generation of the summer broods of the Plant-lice.

The gall-flies are readily recognized by their resemblance to
certain Chalcids, but the abdomen is much compressed, and
usually very short, while the second, or the second and third seg-
ments, are greatly developed, the remaining ones being imbri-
cated or covered one by the other, leaving the hind edges
exposed. Concealed within these, is the long, partially coiled,
very slender ovipositor, which arises near the base of the abdo-
men.* Among other distinguishing characters, are the straight

*Fig. 142. I, abdomen of Cynips quercus-aciculata Osten Sacken, \vith the ovipos-
itor exserted ; II, the same with the ovipositor retracted ; III, the abdomen of the
female of Figites (Diplolepis) 5-Uneatus Say; IV, the same showing the ventral
portion, in nature covered by the tergal portion of the abdomen ; V, end view of the

CYNIPID^E. 209

(not being elbowed) thirteen to sixteen-jointed antennae, the
labial palpi being from two to four-jointed, and the maxil-
lary palpi from four to six-jointed. The maxillary lobes are
broad and membranous, while the ligula is fleshy, and either
rounded or square at the end. There is a complete costal cell,
while the subcostal cells are incomplete. The egg is of large
size, and increases in size as the embryo becomes more devel-
oped. The larva is a short, thick, fleshy, footless grub, with
the segments of the body rather convex. When hatched they
immediately attack the interior of the gall, which has already
formed around them. Many species transform within the gall,
while others enter the earth and there become pupae.

It is well known that of many gall-flies the males have never
been discovered. "Hartig says that he examined at least
15,000 specimens of the genus Cynips, as limited by him, with-
out ever discovering a male. To the same purpose he collected
about 28,000 galls of Cynips divisa, and reared 9,000 to 10,000
Cynips from them ; all were females. Of G. folii, likewise, he
had thousands of specimens of the female sex without a single
male." (Osten Sacken.) Siebold supposes in such cases that
there is a true parthenogenesis, which accounts for the immense
number of females.

Mr. B. D. Walsh has discovered (American Entomologist,
ii, p. 330) that Gynips quercus-aciculata O. Sack., which pro-
duces a large gall in the autumn upon the black oak, in the
spring of the year succeeding lays eggs which produce galls
disclosing Cynips quercus-spongifica O. Sack. He proved this
by colonizing certain trees with a number of individuals of
G. quercus-aciculata, and finding the next spring that the eggs
laid by them produced G. quercus-spongifica. The autumn
brood of Cynips consists entirely of agamous females, while
the vernal brood consists of both males and females, and Mi\
Walsh declares after several experiments that " the agamous
autumnal female form of this Cynips (G. q. aciculata) sooner
or later reproduces the bisexual vernal form, and is thus " a
mere dimorphous female form" of G. q. spongiftca.

abdomen of Cynips, showing the relations of segments 7-8, the sternal portion of
the eighth segment being obsolete ; sp, the single pair of abdominal spiracles ; VI,
terminal ventral piece, from which the sheaths (s s) and the ovipositor (o) take
their origin ; it is strongly attached at m to the tergites of the sixth and seventh
rings; o, ovipositor; .<?, s its sheaths; a, an appendage to v, the terminal sternite.
From Walsh.

210 HYMENOPTER A .

In this connection he refers to tfce discovery of Glaus, in
1867, of several males of Psyche helix, which had been sup-
posed to be parthenogenous, thousands of specimens having
been bred by Siebold, all of which were females.

Baron Osten Sacken (in the Proceedings of the Entomol-
ogical Society of Philadelphia, vol. 1, p. 50) says that "a
strong proof in confirmation of my assertion is, that in
those genera, the males of which are known, both sexes
are obtained from galls in almost equal numbers ; even
the males, not unfrequently, predominate in number (see
Hartig, 1. c. iv, 399). Now the gall-flies, reared by me
from 'the oak-apple, were all females. Dr. Fitch, also, had
only females ; and Mr. B. D. Walsh, at Rock Island,
Illinois, reared (from oak-apples of a different kind) from
thirty-five to forty females, without a single male. This
leads to the conclusion that the Cynipes of the oak-apples
belong to the genera hitherto supposed to be agamous."

For an account of the habits and many other interesting
points in the biology of these interesting insects, we further
quote Baron Osten Sacken. ' ' Most of the gall-flies always attack
the same kind of oak ; thus, the gall of C. seminator Harris,
is always found on the white oak ; C. tubicola Osten Sacken on
the post oak, etc. Still, some galls of the same form occur on
different oaks ; a gall closely resembling that of C. quercus-
globulus Fitch, of the white oak, occurs also on the post oak,
and the swamp chestnut oak ; a gall very similar to the com-
mon oak-apple of the red oak occurs on the black-jack oak, etc.
Are such galls identical, that is, are they produced by a gall-fly
of the same kind? I have not been able to investigate this
question sufficiently. Again, if the same gall-fly attacks dif-
ferent oaks, may it not, in some cases, produce a slightly differ-
ent gall ? It will be seen below, that C. quercus-futilis, from a
leaf-gall on the white oak, is very like C. quercus-papillata from
a leaf-gall on the swamp-chestnut oak. I could not perceive
any difference, except a very slight one in the coloring of the
feet. Both gall-flies may belong to the same species, and
although the galls are somewhat different, they are in some
respects analogous, and might be the produce of the same gall-
fly on two different trees.

CYNIPIM;. 211

' ' Some gall-flies appear very early in the season ; Cynips
quercus-palustris for instance, emerges from its gall before the
end of May ; these galls are the earliest of the season ; they
grow out of the buds and appear full grown before the leaves
are developed. May not this gall-fly have a second generation,
and if it has, may not the gall of this second generation be
different from the first produced, as it would be under different
circumstances, in a more advanced season, perhaps on leaves
instead of buds, etc?

"A remarkable fact is the extreme resemblance of some of
the parasitical gall-flies with the true gall-fly of the same gall.
Thus, Cynips quercus-futilis, O. Sacken, is strikingly like Aulax?
futilis, the parasite of its gall. The common gall on the black-
berry stems produces two gall-flies which can hardly be told
apart at first glance, although they belong to different genera."
(Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Philadelphia.)

Hartig has divided this family into three sections : First,
Cynips and its allies, the true gall-flies (Psenides) in which the
second (counting the slender pedicel as the first) segment of
the abdomen is longer than half its length, and the subcostal
area is narrow, the basal areolet (cell) being opposite the base
of the former.

Cynips confluens Harris forms the oak-apple commonly met
with on the scrub-oak. There is a spring and summer brood.
These galls, sometimes two inches in diameter, are green and
pulpy at first, but when ripe have a hard shell with a spongy
interior, in the centre of which, lodged in a woody kernel,
which serves as a cocoon, the larva transforms, escaping
through a hole, which it gnaws through both the kernel and
shell. We have found the fly ready to escape in June, and Dr.
Harris has found it in October. Two galls are represented on
Plate 4, fig. 13 ; the larger of which has been tenanted, after
the gall-flies had escaped, by an Odynerus. Cynips gallce-tinc-
torice Olivier produces the galls of commerce, brought from
Asia Minor.

Biorhiza (Apophyllus Hartig) is a wingless genus, and lives
beneath the earth in galls formed at the roots of oak trees.
Biorhiza nigra Fitch is black throughout, including the antennae
and feet, and is but .08 inch long.

212 H YMENOPTERA .

Galls are often found on the blackberry, tenanted by another
genus, Diastrophus, which has usually fifteen-jointed antennae
in the male, and one joint less in the female. On opening a
gall containing this fly, we often find an inquiline gall-fly,
Aulax, "showing the most striking resemblance in size, color-
ing and sculpture, to the Diastrophus, their companion. The
one is the very counterpart of the other, hardly showing any
differences, except the strictly generic characters." (Osten
Sacken.) These galls are also infested by Chalcid parasites,
Callimome (two species), Ormyrus, and Eurytoma.

Osten Sacken enumerates "eight cynipidous galls on the dif-
ferent kinds of roses of this country." The flies all belong to
the genus Rhodites, which is distinguished by the under side
of the last abdominal segment being drawn out into a long
point, while the antennae are fourteen-jointed
in both sexes. R. rosce produces the bede-
guar gall (" from the Hebrew bedeguacJi, said
to mean rose- apple"). It was formerly used
as a medicine. The galls form a moss-like
mass, encircling the rose branch. Rlwdites
Fig. 143. dichlocei-us of Harris (Fig. 143), produces

hard, woody, irregular swellings of the branches.

We now come to the second section, the Quest gall-flies (In-
quilinse), which are unable to produce galls themselves, as they
do not secrete the gall-producing poison, though possessing
a well developed ovipositor. Hence, like the Nomada, etc.,
among bees, they are Cuckoo-flies, laying their eggs in galls
already formed.

This group may generally, according to Mr. Walsh, be dis-
tinguished from the preceding by the sheaths of the ovipositor
always projecting, more or less, beyond the "dorsal valve,"
which is a small, hairy tubercle at the top of the seventh ab-
dominal segment. This dorsal valve also projects greatly.
In almost all the species, the ovipositor projects from between
the tips of the sheaths.

Among the Inquiline genera are Synophrus, Ambtynotus,
Synerges, and Aulax, which are guests of various species of
Cynipides.

In Figites and allies (Figitidae), the third section of the

TENTHREDINID^E .

213

family, the second segment is shorter than half the length of
the abdomen, being much longer and less high and compressed
than in the Cynipides, and the ovipositor is retracted within
the abdomen. These insects are true internal parasites, re-
sembling the Chalcids. Ibalia is a parasite on a wood-beetle.
This genus has, by Walsh, been placed in the Cynipides.
Figites has feather-like antennae in the male ; it is a parasite
on the larvae of Sarcophaga. The genus Allotria is a para-
site on Aphis.

Walsh states thaj two genera, which he has identified as
Kleidotoma and Eucoila are true Figitidw, and "have the
wings fringed like a Mymar, and the former has them emargi-
nate at tip with the radial area in my species distinctly open,
and the latter simple at tip with the radial area in my species
marginally closed by a coarse brown vein." Eucoila is sup-
posed to be parasitic on some insect attacking the turnip.

TENTHREDINID^E Leach. The Saw-flies connect the Hymen-
optera with the Lepidoptera. In the perfect state they con-
form to the Hymeiiop-
terous type, but as b

larvae they would often

be mistaken for Lepi- rf

dopterous larvae, and |;7.- :
in their habits closely K
resemble many cater-
pillars. The three
divisions of the body,
usually so trenchantly
marked 'in the higher
Hymenoptera, are here
less distinct, since the abdomen is sessile, its basal ring being
broad and applied closely to the thorax, while the succeeding
rings are very equal in size. The head is broad and the thorax
wide, closely resembling that of the Lepidoptera. The wings
(Fig. 144, fore- wing) are larger in proportion to the rest
of the body than usual ; they are more net- veined, the cells
being more numerous and extending to the outer margin.*

*In treating of this family we avail ourselves largely of the important Avork on
the American species, publishing at the time of writing, by Mr. E. Norton, in the
Transactions of the American Entomological Society, vols. 1, 2. We therefore

144>

214 HYMENOPTERA.

All these characters show that the saw-fly is a degraded
Hymenopter.

The antennae are not elbowed ; are rather short and simple,
clavate, but in rare instances fissured or feathered. The ab-
domen consists, usually, of eight external segments, the two
last being aborted on the under side, owing to the great develop-
ment of the ovipositor. The ovipositor or "saw" (compare
Fig. 24) consists of two lamellae, the lower edge of which is
toothed and fits in a groove in the under side of the upper one,
which is toothed above, both protected by the usual sheath-like
stylets. On pressing, says Lacaze-Duthiers, the end of the
abdomen, we see the saw depressed, leave the direction of
the axis of the body, and become perpendicular. By this
movement the saw, which both cuts and pierces, makes a gash
in the soft part of the leaf w r here it deposits its eggs.

The eggs are laid more commonly near the ribs of the leaf,
in a series of slits, each slit containing but a single egg.
"Some species, on the other hand, introduce their eggs by
means of their saws into the edges of leaves (Nematus conju-
gatus Dahlb.), and others beneath the longitudinal ribs of the
leaves. A few, indeed, merely fasten their eggs upon the outer
surface of the leaves (Nematus grossularice, etc.), attaching them
together like a string of beads (Reaumur, vol. v, plate 10, fig.
8) , whilst a few place them in a mass on the surface of the leaf
(ibid, plate 11, figs. 8, 9)." (Westwood.) The irritation set up
by the saws in the wounded leaf, causes a flow of sap which is
stated by Westwood to be imbibed by the egg, so that it swells
gradually to twice its original size. It is known that the eggs
of ants increase in size as the embryo develops, and we would

copy his diagram (Fig. 144), showing the venation of the wing (compare Fig. 29
and our nomenclature), with the explanation of parts given by him.

a, stigma; 6, costa or costal margin; c, apical margin; d, costal and post-
costal veins; e, externomedial ; /, g, anal; h, posterior margin; i, marginal vein;
j, submarginal vein; k, first, second, and third (transverse) submarginal nervures;
I, recurrent nervures (discoidal); m, discoidal vein; n, first and second inner api-
cal or submarginal nervures. Bullae or clear spots, on the veins or nervures, with
bullar or clear lines crossing them. 1,2, marginal or radial cells ; 3, 4, 5, 6, submar-
ginal or cubital cells; 7, 8, 9, discoidal cells; 10, costal cell; 11, 12, brachial or me-
dial cells ; 13, 14, inner and outer apical cells. (Hinder cells, Hartig. Cellule dn
limbe, St. Farg.) No. 11 is sometimes the medial, and Nos. 12 and 13 the submedial
cells; Nos. 9 and 14 the apical cells; Nos. 7 and 13 discoidal; Nos. 10, 11, 12, 15, the
first, second, third and foutti brachial cells; 15, lanceolate cell. 1, open; 2, con-
tracted; 3, petiolate; 4, subcontracted; 5, with oblique cross nervure; G, with
straight cross nervure.

TENTHREDINIM:. 215

question whether the increase in size of the eggs of the Saw-
fly is not rather due to the same cause.

The punctures in the plant often lead, in some genera, to the
production of galls, in which the larvae live, thus showing
the near relationship of this family to the gall-flies (Cynipidae) .

The larvae strongly resemble caterpillars, but there are six
to eight pairs of abdominal legs, whereas the caterpillar has
but five pairs. Many species curl the hind body up spirally
when feeding or at rest. They are usually green, with lines
and markings of various colors. They usually moult four
times, the last change being the most marked. Most of the
larvae secrete silk and spin a tough cocoon, in which they hiber-
nate in the larva, and often in the pupa state. The pupa has
free limbs, as in the other families. The eggs are usually de-
posited in the leaves of plants, but in a few cases, according
to Norton, in slender or hollow stems. While some are slug-
shaped, like the Pear-slug, others like Lyda inanita, mentioned
by Westwood, live on rose bushes, and construct a "portable
case, formed of bits of rose-leaves arranged in a spiral coil ; "
and other species are leaf-rollers, like the Tortricids. The
larva of Ceplius does injury to grain, in Europe, by bftring
within the stems of wheat. A remarkable instance of the care
of the saw-fly for her young, is recorded by Mr. R. H. Lewis,
who observed in Australia, the female of Perga Lewisii deposit
its eggs in a slit next the midribs of an Eucalyptus leaf. They
were placed transversely in a double series. "On this leaf
the mother sits till the exclusion of the larvae ; and as soon as
these are hatched, the parent follows them, sitting with out-
stretched legs over her brood, protecting them from the attacks
of parasites and other enemies with admirable perseverance."
(Westwood.)

The species are mostly limited to the temperate zone, but
few being found in the tropics. The perfect insects mostly
occur in the early summer, and are found on the leaves of the
trees they infest, or feeding on flowers, especially those of
the umbelliferous plants.

The genus Cimbex contains our largest species, the antennae
ending in a knob. C. Americana Leach is widely distributed,
and varies greatly in color. The large whitish larva, with a

216 HYMENOPTERA.

blackish dorsal stripe, may be found rolled up in a spiral on
the leaves of the elm, birch, linden and willow trees. When
disturbed it ejects a fluid from pores situated above the spira-
cles. It constructs a large tough parchment-like cocoon, and
the fly appears in the early summer.

The genus Trichiosoma is recognized by its hairy body, and
the antennae have five joints preceding the three-jointed club.
T. triangulum Kirby is found in British America and Colorado,
and a variety, T. bicolor Hams, on Mount Washington ; it is
black, except the tip of the abdomen, with the fourth and fifth
joints of the antennae piceous, and the thorax is covered with
ash-colored hair.

In Abia the antenna? are seven-jointed, with the club obtuse ;
the body is villose, the abdomen having a metallic silken hue.
The Abia capnfolii Norton (Fig. 145, larva) is very destruc-
tive to the Tartarian Honeysuckle, sometimes stripping the
bush of its leaves during successive sea-
sons in Maine and Massachusetts. It
hatches out and begins its ravages very
soon after the leaves are out, eating cir-
cular holes in them. It lies curled up
on the leaf and when disturbed emits
drops of a watery fluid from the pores in
the sides of the body, and then falls to
the ground. During the early part of
August it spins a pale yellowish silken
cocoon, but does not change to a pupa,
Mr. Rile}^ states, until the following
Fig. 145. spring. He describes the larva as being

common about Chicago ; that it is "bluish green on the back,
and yellow on the sides, which are pale near the spiracles, and
covered with small black dots. Between every segment is a
small, transverse, yellow band, with a black spot in the middle
and at each end. Head free, of a brownish black above and
color of the body beneath." The fly is described by Norton
as being black, with faint greenish reflections on the abdomen ;
there are two white bands at the base of the metathorax, and
the wings are banded. It is .36 inch long and the wings ex-
pand .70 inch. The larvae can easily be destroyed from their

TENTHREDINID M . 217

habit of falling to the ground when the bush is shaken, where
they can be crushed by the foot. Dr. Fitch has reared AUa
cerasi from one or two cocoons found on the wild cherry, the
fly appearing in New York during March.

Hylotoma is a much smaller genus ; the basal joint of the
antenna is oval, while the second is small and round, and
the terminal joint is very long. The larva is twenty-footed, and
when eating curves the end of the body into the form of an S.
The pupa is protected by a gauzy, doubly enveloping cocoon.
H. McLeayi Leach is wholly black, sometimes with a tinge of
blue. It is found throughout the Northern States.

The genus Pristiphora, closely allied to Nematus, is known
by its nine-jointed antennae, and the single costal cell ; the first
submarginal (subcostal) cell having two recurrent veinlets.
P. identidem Norton has been discovered by Mr. W. C. Fish to
be destructive to the cranberry on Cape Cod. He has reared
the insect, and sent me the following notes on its habits, while
the adult fly has been identified by Mr. Norton, to whom I
submitted specimens. The larvae were detected in the first
week of June, eating the leaves ; "they were light or pale yel-
lowish green when first hatched," and grew darker with age.
The head of the young was dark, but in the full-grown worm
lighter. When full-grown they were about .30 of an inch in
length, and had two lighter whitish green stripes running along
the back from head to tail. They had spun their cocoons b}^ the
20th of June in the rubbish at the bottom of the rearing bot-
tles. On. the 29th of June they came out in the perfect state.
We would add to this description that the body, in two alco-
holic specimens of the larvae, was long, cylindrical, and smooth,
with seven pairs of abdominal feet. The head is full, rounded
and blackish, but after the last moult pale honey-yellow. The
male is shining black, and Mr. Norton informs me that it is
his P. idiota. P. grossularice Walsh is a widely diffused species
in the Northern and Western States, and injures the currant
and gooseberry. The female fly is shining black, while the
head is dull yellow, and the legs are honey-yellow, with the tips
of the six tarsi, and sometimes the extreme tips of the hinder
tibiae and of the tarsal joints pale dusky for a quarter of their
length. The wings are partially hyaline, with black veins, a

218 HYMENOPTERA.

honey-yellow costa, and a dusky stigma, edged with honey-
yellow. The male differs a little in having black coxae. Mr.
Walsh states that the larva is a pale grass-green worm, half
an inch long, with a black head, which becomes green after
the last moult, but with a lateral brown stripe meeting with
the opposite one on the top of the head, where it is more or
less confluent ; and a central brown-black spot on its face.
It appears the last of June and early in July, and a second
brood in August. They spin their cocoons on the bushes on
which they feed, and the fly appears in two or three weeks, the
specimens reared by him flying on the 26th of August. P.
sycophanta Walsh is an "inquiline," or guest gall-saw-fly,
inhabiting a Cecidomyian gall on a willow.

The genus Euura comprises several gall-making species. It
differs from the preceding genus in the second, instead of the
first, submarginal cell having two recurrent venules. Mr.
Walsh has raised E. orbitalis Norton (E. genuina Walsh) from
galls found on Salix humilis. This gall is a bud which is
found enlarged two or three times its natural size, before it
unfolds in spring. The larva is twenty-footed, is from .13 to
.19 of an inch long, of a greenish white color, and the
head is dusky. It bores out of its gall in autumn, descending
an inch into the ground, where it spins a thin, silken, whitish
cocoon. The gall of E. salicis-ovum Walsh is found on Salix
cordata. The female is shining yellow, while the ground color
of the male is greenish white. The gall of this species is an
oval roundish, sessile, one-chambered, green or brownish swell-
ing, .30 to .50 of an inch long, placed lengthwise on the side of
small twigs. The larva is pale yellowish, and the fly appears
in April. The fly is, according to Walsh, " absolutely undistin-
guishable by any reliable character from the guest gall-saw-fly,
Euura perturbans Walsh," which inhabits dipterous galls made
by Cecidomyian flies on the willow and grape (Wal&h). If these
two "species" do not differ from each other, either in the larva
or adult state, "by any reliable characters," then one must
question whether the variation in habits is sufficient to separate
them as species, and whether E. salicis-ovum does not, some-
times, instead of forming a new gall, lay its eggs in a gall ready-
made by a dipterous gall-fly. We have seen that Odynerus

TENTHREDINIDJE. 219

albophaleratus, which usually makes a mud cell situated in the
most diverse places, in one case at least, makes no cell at all,
but uses the tunnel bored out by a Ceratina ! and yet we should
not split this species into two, on account of this difference
in its habits. We had written this before meeting with Mr.
Norton's remark that "it is difficult to give a hearty assent
to Mr. Walsh's inquilines or guest-flies, without further inves-
tigation." (Transactions of the American Entomological
Society, vol. i, p. 194.)

In Nematus the nine-jointed antennae have the third joint
longest. There is one costal and four subcostal cells, the
second cell receiving two recurrent veinlets ; the basal half
of the lanceolate cell is closed ; the hind wings have two mid-
dle cells, and the tibiae are simple.

The larvae are hairy with warts behind the abdominal feet.
The}' have twenty feet, the fourth and eleventh segments (count-
ing the head as one) being footless. They are either solitary,
feeding upon the leaves of plants, or social and generally found
on pine trees, while some species live in the galls of plants. The
pupa, according to Hartig, is enclosed in an egg-shaped cocoon,
like that of Lophyrus, but less firm, though with more outside
silk. It is generally made in the earth, or in leaves which fall
to the ground. N. vertebratus Say is green, with the antennae
and dorsal spots blackish, the thorax being trilineate. There
are fifty species in this country, of which the most injurious
one, the Gooseberry saw-fly, has been brought from Europe.
This is the N. ventricosus Klug which was undoubtedly imported
into this country about the year 1860, spreading mostly from
Rochester, N. Y., where there are extensive nurseries. It does
more injury to the currant and gooseberry than any other native
insect, except the currant moth (Abraxas ribearia). Professor
Winchell, who has studied this insect in Ann Arbor, Michigan,
where it has been very destructive, observed the female on
the 16th of June, while depositing her cylindrical, whitish and
transparent eggs, in regular rows along the under side of
the veins of the leaves, at the rate of about one in forty-five
seconds. The embryo escapes from the egg in four days.
It feeds, moults and burrows into the ground within a period of
eight days. It remains thirteen days in the ground, being

220

HYMENOPTERA .

most of the time in the pupa state, while the fly lives nine days.
The first brood of worms appeared May 21, the second brood
June 25. Winchell describes the larva as being pale-green,
with the head, tail and feet, black, with numerous black spots
regularly arranged around the body, from which arise two or
more hairs. Figure 146, 1, shows the eggs deposited along the
under side of the midribs of the leaf; 2, the holes bored by the
very young larvae, and 3, those eaten by the larger worms.

In transporting gooseberry and currant bushes, Walsh recom-
mends that the roots be carefully cleansed of dirt, so that the

cocoons may not be car-
ried about from one gar-
den to another. The leaves
of the bushes should be
examined during the last
week of May, and as only
a few leaves are affected
at first, these can be de-
tected by the presence of
the eggs and the little
round holes in them, and
should be plucked off and
burnt. The female saw-
fly is bright honey-yellow,
with the head black, but
yellow below the insertion of the antennae. The male differs
in its black thorax, and the antennae are paler reddish than in
the female.*

The genus Empliytus has nine-jointed antennae ; the third

* Mr. Norton has communicated the following description of the larva of another
saw-fly of this genus which infests the weeping-willow.

" Nematus trilineatus Norton. The larvae of this were first seen upon the weep-
ing-willows about August 1st, in immense numbers, almost wholly stripping large
trees of their leaves. They begin upon the edge of the leaf and eat all of it except
the inner midrib. They are very sensitive to disturbances, very lively, and are
generally found with the hinder part of their bodies bent up over the back. They
are twenty-footed, of a bright green color, palest at head and tail, with five rows of
black dots down the back, the outer row upon each side irregular and with inter-
vals. On each side above the feet is another row of larger black dots, and the three
anterior pair of feet are black at the base, middle and tip.

" A great number of the saw-flies were found flying about the trees, August 19th,
in the proportion of about ten males to one female. The males being almost
wholly black upon the thorax."

1*6-

TENTIIREDIN ID^E .

221

and fourth joints of equal length ; the wings have two subcos-
tal and three median cells, the first as long as the second, gen-
erally longer ; the first receiving one recurrent vein, the second
two. We have found the larva of E. maculatus Norton on the
cultivated strawberry, to which, in the Western States, it some-
times does considerable damage, but it can be quite readily
exterminated by hand-picking. Mr. Riley has carefully ob-
served the habits of this insect, and we condense the follow-
ing remarks from his account in the Prairie Farmer : Early in
May, in Northern Illinois, the female saw-fly deposits her eggs
in the stem of the plant. They are white and .03 of an inch
long, and may be readily perceived upon splitting the stalk ;
though the outside
orifice, at which
they were intro-
duced, is scarcely
perceptible, their
presence causes a
swelling in the
stalk. By the mid-
dle of May the
worms will have
eaten innumerable
small holes in the
leaves. They are
dirty yellow and
gray green, and at rest curl the abdomen up spirally. They
moult four times, and are, when full-fed, about three-fourths of
an inch in length. They make a loose, earthen cocoon in the
ground, and change to perfect flies by the end of June and
the beginning of July. A second brood of worms appears,
and in the early part of August descend into the ground and
remain in the larva state until the middle of the succeeding
April, when they finish their transformations. The fly is pitchy
black, with two rows of dull, dirty white, transverse spots upon
the abdomen. The nine-jointed antennae are black, and the
legs are brown, and almost white at the joints. Fig. 147 rep-
resents the Strawberry Emphytus in all its stages of growth.
1, 2, ventral and side-view of the pupa; 3, the fly enlarged;

147 -

222

HYMENOPTERA.

5, the same, natural size ; 8, an antenna enlarged ; 4, the
larva while feeding ; 6, the same, at rest ; 7, the cocoon ; 9, an
egg enlarged.

Of the genus Dolerus, known by the second submarginal cell
receiving two recurrents, D. arvensis Say, is a common blue-
black species found in April and May on willows.

The genus JSelandria is the most injurious genus of the
family. It embraces the Pear and Rose- slugs, the Vine-slug
and the Raspberry slug. The flies are small,
black, with short and stout nine-jointed an-
tennae, and broad thin wings. "The larvae
are twenty and twenty-two-footed, present-
ing great differences in appearance and habit,
being slimy, hairy or woolly, feeding in
companies or alone, eating the whole leaf as
they go, or, removing only the cuticle of the
leaf, and forming sometimes one and some-
times two broods in a year. Sdandria vitis,
the Vine-slug, is twenty-footed ; it has a
smooth skin, and the body is somewhat thick-
ened in the middle but slender towards the
tail. "While growing, the color is green
above, with black dots across each ring, and
yellow beneath, with head and tail black.
They live upon the vine and are very destruc-
tive, feeding early in August in companies, on
the lower side of the leaf, and eating it all as
they go from the edge inwards. There are two broods in a
season. The fly is shining black, with red shoulders, and
the front wings are clouded." (Norton.)

S. rubi Harris feeds on the raspberry, appearing in May.
The larva is green, not slinry, and feeds in the night, or early
in the morning. 3. tilice feeds on the linden. The Pear-slug, JS.
cerasi Peck (Fig. 148, larvae feeding on a leaf of the pear, and
showing the surface eaten off in patches ; a, enlarged ; 5, fly),
is twenty-footed ; it narrows rapidly behind the swollen thorax,
and is covered with a sticky olive-colored slime. It feeds on
the upper side of the leaves of both the wild and cultivated
cherry and pear trees, and has been found on the plum and

TENTHREDINID^E. 223

mountain-ash. It appears in June and September. The fly is
shiny black, with the tips of the four anterior femora, and the
tibiae and tarsi, dull white. An egg-parasite, belonging to the
genus Encyrtus, renders, according to Peck, a great number
of its eggs abortive.

The Rose-slug, Selandria rosce Harris, is longer than the Pear-
slug, the body being scarcely thickened anteriorty, and not.
covered with slime. It is pale-green and yellowish beneath.
It appears in July and August, and does great injury in dis-
figuring and killing the leaves of the
rose, which remain dried and with-
ered on the bush. When full-fed,
the larva, like the Pear-slug, makes
a cocoon beneath the surface of the
ground. The flies are seen in abund-
ance about the rose-bushes as soon F ig 148.
as the leaves are expanded, when they may be caught with
nets, or the hand on cloudy days. Hand-picking, and the
application of a very weak solution of carbolic acid, coal oil,
whale oil soap, or quassia, are useful in killing the larvae.

On the 25th of July a young friend brought me a large num-
ber of some remarkable larvae (Fig. 149, natural size) of a
saw-fly, which I surmised might belong to this genus. It pre-
sented the appearance of an animated, white, cottony mass,
about an inch long and two-thirds as high. The head of the
larva is rounded, pale whitish, and covered with a snow-white

powdery secretion, with prominent
black eyes. The body (Fig. 150,
naked larva) is cylindrical, with eight
Fig. 150. pairs of abdominal legs, the segments

transversely wrinkled, pale pea-green, with a powdery secre-
tion low down on the sides, but above and on the back, arise
long, flattened masses of flocculent matter (exactly resembling
that produced by the woolly plant-lice and other Homopterous
Hemiptera) forming an irregular dense cottony mass, reaching
to a height equal to two- thirds the length of the worm, and con-
cealing the head and tail. On the 27th and 28th of July the
larvae moulted, leaving the cast skins on the leaf. They were
then naked, a little thicker than before, of a pale-green color,

224 HYMENOPTERA.

and were curled on the leaf. They eat out the edge of the
leaf of the butternut tree. Sometime during August, two

cocoons were spun between the
leaves, but I did not succeed in
raising the saw-fly. On describing
the larva, in a letter to Mr. E. Nor-
ton, he kindly sent me alcoholic
specimens of larvae (without the
woolly substance, which dissolves
and disappears in alcohol) found
feeding on the hickory, which are
Fig - 151 ' apparently, from the comparison of

alcoholic specimens, identical with the Butternut Selandria.
The adult fly (Fig. 151, <?, a, cocoon), he has named S. caryce,
of which he has kindly furnished
me with the subjoined description.*
Allanius is closely related to Se-
landria, both in its structure and its
habits, but differs in having the an-
tennae short and somewhat clavate.
A. basilaris Say is a common species. Fig. 152.

The Pine saw-fly, Lopliyrus, may be known by the feathered
antennae of the male. L. abietis Harris (Fig. 152, female)
infests the fir and pitch-pine. The male is black above and
brown beneath, while the female is yellowish brown above,

* Selandria caryce Norton, nov. sp. (Belonging to tribe 2. Under wings with one
middle cell. Div. A. Antennae filiform, short).

Female. Color shining black. The pro- and mesothorax and scutellum rufous,
the apex of the latter black ; the nasus and legs white, with their tarsi blackish ; the
base of coxae and a line down the upper side of the legs black. Antennae ehort,
the second joint as long as the first; the four final joints together, not longer than
the two preceding. Nasus slightly incurved. Claws of tarsi apparently bifid,
Wings sub violaceous. Lanceolate cell petiolate, the first submedial cell above it,
with a distinct cross vein. Under wings with one submarginal middle cell (all
other species have this cell discoidal), the marginal cell with a cross nervure, and
all the outer cells closed by an outer nervure, which does not touch the margin.
The submedial cell extended nearly to margin. Length, .25 of an inch. Expanse
of wings .40 of an inch.

" The male resembles the female, but the under wings are without middle cells.
The larvae feed upon the leaves of the hickory (Juglans squamosa.) They are
found upon the lower side of the leaf, sometimes fifteen or twenty upon one leaf,
which they eat from the outer extremity inward, often leaving nothing but the
strong midribs. They cover themselves wholly with white flocculent tufts which
are rubbed off on being touched, leaving a green twenty-two legged worm, about .75

TENTHREDINIDJE.

225

with a short black stripe on each side of the thorax. The
larvae are about half an inch long, of a pale dirty green, yel-
lowish beneath, striped with green, and when full-fed yellowish
all over. They are social, and may often be found in consider-
able numbers on a single needle of the pitch-pine. The larvae
spin tough cocoons
among the leaves,
and the flies appear
during August, but
probably in greater
numbers in the

spring.

These slugs can
be best destroj^ed
by showering them
with a solution of
carbolic acid, pe-
troleum, whale oil Fig. 153.
soap, or tobacco water. Mr. Fish has sent me the larvae of a
saw-fly, allied to L. abietis, which, in Eastham, Mass., ravaged
the young pitch-pines planted in the sandy soil of that region.*
The eggs are laid singly in the side of a needle of the pine ;
though sometimes an egg is inserted on each side of the
leaf.

Mr. Riley has described the habits of the White-pine saw-fly,

of an inch in length when fully grown ; darkest above, and with indistinct black-
ish spots upon the sides. The head is white with a small black dot upon each side.

" Specimens were taken upon the leaves July 4th. Went into the ground about
the 20th of July. The cocoon is formed near the surface of the ground of a little
earth or sand drawn together. Four specimens came forth about August 22d, all
seeming very small for so large larvae."

* On sending specimens of the male and female to Mr. Norton he writes that
this is an undescribed species, of which he has prepared the following description :

" Lophyrus pini-rigidce Norton. New Species. Female. Length, 0.30 ; expanse
of wings, 0.65 of an inch; antennae seventeen-jointed, short, brown; color, luteous
brown, with a black line joining the ocelli, a black stripe down each of the three lobes
of the thorax above, and the sutures behind ; body paler beneath ; the trochanters
and base of the tibiae waxen; claws with an inner tooth near the middle; wings
very slightly clouded ; cross nervure of the lanceolate cell straight. Male. Length,
0.25; expanse of wings, 0.55 of an inch; antennas fifteen-jointed, black, quite short,
with twelve branches on each side, those at the base nearly as long as the sixth
and seventh; apical joint simple, enlarged at base; color of insect black, with the
abdomen at apex and beneath yellow- brown ; legs the same color at base; below
the knees whitish.

226

HYMENOPTERA.

L. Abbotii Leach. The flies appear early in June, and there is
but a single brood of larvae, which remain on the trees, in Illi-
nois, until November, and hibernate before changing to pupae.
The female is honey-yellow, with pale rufous legs, and the
male is jet black. Fig. 153 represents, after Riley, the trans-
formations of this species, whose habits closely resemble those
of L. abietis. 1, is the fly somewhat magnified; 6, magnified
antenna of the male ; 7, female antenna ; 2 and 3, pupae ;
4, larvae in different positions, natural size ; 5, cocoon. The L.
Lecontei Fitch has been found feeding on the Scotch and Aus-
trian pines in New Jersey, and has been . described by Mr.
Riley. The larva is an inch long, dirty or yellowish white,
with dorsal black marks wider before than behind, and usually
broken transversely in the full-grown individuals ; they are
farther apart than in L. Abbotii. "The lateral spots are some-
what square, with an additional row of smaller black marks
below them, and the last segment is entirely black above. The
antennae of the male fly are twenty- one-jointed, and have on
one side seventeen large, and on the other seventeen small
branches, there being eighteen on one side and fifteen on the
other in L. Abbotii. The female may at once be distinguished
from L. Abbotii by her abdomen being jet-black above, with a
small brown patch at the end, and a transverse line of the
same color just below the thorax."

There are several allied genera, such as Cladius (C. isomera
Harris), Lyda (L. scripta Say), and Xyela (X. infuscata Har-
ris), which belong here. The last genus, Cephus, which by some

" The females of Lophyrus are all much alike and I have found the number and
forms of the joints of the antennae, so far, the only reliable guide. The male looks
precisely like that of L. abietis, but the form of the antennae differs in being much
shorter. The female looks much like L. abdominalis Say, taken on the pine near
New York. The following list will show how the species may be distinguished by
counting the number of joints."

male, not described,

L. Fabricii Leach,
L. compar Leach,
L. pini-rigidaa Norton,
L. Abbotii Leach,
L. abietis Harris,
L abdominalis Say,
L. pinetum Norton,
L. Americanus Leach,
L. insularis Cresson,
L. Lecontei Fitch,

15 joints
not described
21 joints,
not described,
19 joints,
not described,
17 joints,
17 "

female, 16 joints.
16
17
17
18
38
18
19
20
21

Pine.

UROCEBID^. 227

authors is placed in the next family, is retained by Norton in the
present group. The larva is, in Europe, injurious to rye and
wheat, boring in the stems of the plant. Cephus abbreviates Say
is our more typical form, though rarely met with. C. trimaculatus
Say is found in New York early in June, according to Dr. Fitch.

UROCERID^E Leach. The family of " Horntails" are so-called
from the long prominent horn on the abdomen of the males,
while the ovipositor or "saw," resembling that of the true saw-
flies, is attached to the middle of the abdomen, and extends far
beyond its tip. They are of large size, with a long cylindrical
body and a large head, square next the thorax, but much
rounded in front. The antennae are long and filiform. The
larvae are "cylindrical fleshy grubs, of a whitish color, with a
small rounded horny head, and a pointed horny tail. They have
six very small legs under the fore-part of the body, and are pro-
vided with strong and powerful jaws, wherewith they bore long
holes in the trunks of the trees they inhabit. Like other borers
these grubs are wood-eaters, and often do great damage to pines
and firs, wherein they are most commonly found." Harris
farther states that, when about to transform, the larvae make
thin cocoons of silk in their burrows, interwoven with little
chips made by the larva. "After the chrysalis skin is cast off,
the winged insect breaks through its cocoon, creeps to the
mouth of its burrow, and gnaws through the covering of bark
over it, so as to come out of the tree into the open air."

Xiphidria is so-called from the sword-like ovipositor, which
is much shorter than in the succeeding genera. The body is a
little flattened, somewhat turned up behind, and the tip of the
abdomen ends in an obtuse point, while the antennae are short,
curved and tapering at the end. Xiphidria albicornis Harris is
black with yellowish legs and white antennae, with the two
lowest joints black. It is nearly three-fourths of an inch long.

The typical genus of the family is Urocerus, which has a large
body, with a large ovipositor and long, sixteen to twenty-four-
jointed antennae, while the body of the male ends in a stout
acute horn. U. albicornis Fabricius has white antennae, and the
female is of a deep blue-black color, while the male is black.
It is found on pine trees in July. It is an inch in length.

228 HYMENOPTERA.

The genus Tremex is known by the wings having two mar-
ginal and three submarginal cells. Tremex Columba Linn, in-
fests the elm, pear and button-wood. The female is an inch
and a half long, rust-red, varied with black, while the abdomen
is black with seven ochre-yellow bands on the upper side, all
but the two basal ones being interrupted in the middle. They
fly during the last of summer.

"Dr. Harris thus describes the habits of this interesting in-
sect. The female, when about to lay her eggs, draws her borer
out of its sheath, till it stands perpendicularly under the middle
of her body, when she plunges it, by repeated wiggling motions,
through the bark into the wood. "When the hole is made deep
enough, she then drops an egg therein, conducting it to the
place by means of the two furrowed pieces of the sheath. The
borer often pierces the bark and wood to the depth of half an

inch or more, and is sometimes driven
in so tightly that, the insect cannot
draw it out again, but remains fast-
ened to the tree till she dies. The
eggs are oblong oval, pointed at
each end, and rather less than one-
twentieth of an inch in length.
Fi s- 154< "The larva, or grub, is yellowish

white, of a cylindrical shape, rounded behind, with a conical,
horny point on the upper part of the hinder extremity, and it
grows to the length of about an inch and a half. It is often
destroyed by the maggots of two kinds of Ichneumon-flies
(Rhyssa atrata and lunator of Fabricius). These flies may
frequently be seen thrusting their slender borers, measuring
from three to four inches in length, into the trunks of trees
inhabited by the grubs of the Tremex, and by other wood-eat-
ing insects ; and like the female of the Tremex they some-
times become fastened to the trees, and die without being able
to draw their borers out again."

We have noticed the trunk of an elm, at Saratoga Springs,
perforated by great numbers of holes, apparently made by these
insects. T. latitarsus Cresson (Fig. 154 ; a, antenna ; 6, wing ;
c, hind leg) is remarkable for the expansions on the hind legs.
It lives in Cuba.

LEPIDOPTERA.

229

LEPIDOPTERA.

BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS are readily recognized by their
cylindrical, compact bodies ; their small head, with its large
clypeus ; by the maxillae being prolonged into a tubular

Fig. 155.* Fig. 156.

"tongue;" the obsolete mandibles; and the broad, regularly
veined wings, which are covered with minute scales.

Their transformations are complete ; the active larvae assum-
ing a cylindrical, worm-like form, being rarely footless, and

md
Fig. 157. Fig. 158.

having from one to five pairs of fleshy abdominal legs, besides
the three pairs of corneous jointed thoracic limbs. A large
proportion (butterflies excepted) spin silken cocoons before

*For explanation of cuts, 155 to 171, see pages 233 and 234.

230

LEPIDOPTERA.

changing to pupae (chrysalids, nymphs). In the pupa state
the limbs and appendages of the head are soldered together,
and the head and thorax tend to form one region, upon which
the third region, or abdomen, is more or less movable. Three

Fig. 159. Fig. 160. Fig. 161.

or four genera of the lower families are partially aquatic, while,
as a whole, the suborder is purely terrestrial.

The three regions of the body are very distinct, but the head,
though free, is smaller and with its parts less equally developed

Fig. 162.

than in the Hymenoptera, and the "propodeum" has now be-
come plainly the first abdominal ring. The abdomen is also
longer, with the genital armor partially exserted, thus showing
a tendency to decephalization. In fine, the whole body is

Fig. 163. Fig. 164.

loosened and less compact than in the Hymenoptera. Their
broad wings ; obsolete mouth-parts, with the abnormally devel-
oped maxillae ; and active larvae, with their worm-like shape,

LEPIDOPTERA. 231

are also characters which show that they are more degraded than
the Hymenoptera. There is also a greater disproportion in the
relative size of the three thoracic rings. In the abdominal rings
the pleurites are much larger than in Hymenoptera, where they
are partially obsolete. They
scarcely use the legs, the fore
pair (so remarkably differen- J^ B

tiated in the higher Hymenop-
tera) being partially obsolete
in some butterflies (Vanessa,
etc.). They are essentially
fliers, not having the great
variety in the mode of loco- Fig. 165.

motion observable in the Hymenoptera. No parasites are
known to occur in this suborder. They are only social while in
the larval state, and then merely because their eggs, in such in-
stances, are laid in bunches, and on distinct food-plants to
which the larvae are confined. The adults rarely
take an active part in the economy of nature,
and have but little opportunity for the mani-
festation of instinct and reason, though the
larvae in seeking for suitable places in which
to undergo their transformations often exhibit
Fig. 166. wonderful instinct.

The readiest method of determining the natural position of
groups is by a comparison of their degradational forms. Thus
we find that in the degraded Hymenoptera the tripartite form
of the body is preserved ; while, on the contrary, in the wing-
less Lepidoptera (such as the female
of Orgyia and Anisopteryx) the body
is either oval, the head being less
free and smaller than in the winged
form, and the thorax and abdomen
continuous, their respective rings
being of much the same size and
shape, while the legs are feeble:
or, as in the female of CEketicus, Fig. 167.

the body is elongated, and worm-like. The wingless moths,
then, are much lower than the worker ants, the female Scolia,

232

LEPIDOPTERA.

etc., giving us an unfailing test of the difference in rank of the
two suborders. In their habits and transformations, and

in their external

A anatomy, the Lep-

idoptera vary less
than other insects.
The Lepidop-
tera, while in the
perfect state, can
be scarcely said to
walk much, com-
pared with beetles
Fig. 168. ^, . an( j o ther walking

insects, the legs being only used to support them while at rest,
and not for locomotion. They move almost entirely by their
broad wings, which
with them are more
highly specialized
than in other in-
sects. Their fore
wings are usually
triangular in form,
while their hind
wings are some-
what square or rounded.

...i

Fig. 170.

i
Fig. 169.

.The anterior wings are the most
typical in form and venation.

The surface, from the costa to the inner edge, may be

Fig. 171.

divided into three areas, the costal, median, and internal.
There are five principal veins : the costal and subcostal are

LEPIDOPTERA. 233

grouped together, and form the costa or front edge of the wing ;
the median occupies the middle of the wing; and the sub-
median and internal, the hinder, or internal, area of the wing.
The costal vein is usually simple, and joins the costa near its
outer third. The subcostal, near the middle of the wing, is
usually subdivided into five branches, which are called ven-
ules, while the median is usually subdivided into one venule
less, and the submedian and internal are simple. The last, or
fifth, subcostal venule, and the first median venule, generally
each throw out a small venule, which meet to form the discal
venule, thus enclosing a large central area called the discal area,
or cell. There are rarely any cross venules present. Some-
times, as in Hepialus, there is a transverse costal venule, and
an interno-submedian venule. They are usually found only in
degraded Lepidoptera, and recall the net-veined style of vena-
tion of the Neuroptera.

The legs are slender, cylindrical, and weak. The coxae are
closely united with the thorax, the trochanters are spherical,

FIGS. 155, 153, give a general view of the body of a butterfly denuded of scales.
FIG. 155. a, antenna ; 1, prothorax ; m, patagia, or shoulder-tippets ; k, mesoscutum ;
n, abdomen; A, costal edge of fore-wing; D, apex; C, outer edge excavated; E,
outer angle; B, inner edge; ab, discal cell; am, discal venules, throwing off the
independent vein, al. The dotted lines indicate the inner, middle and outer third
of the wing. FIG. 157 illustrates the mode of ornamentation of the wings
of moths; ab, am and al, the inner, the middle, and outer third of the wings. The
capitals are the same as in FIG. 155 ; sd, the basal line ; sa, the inner line ; sp,
the outer, and ms, the marginal line variously waved, scalloped and angulated.
In most of the Noctuidae are the dentiform spot, 1 6 ; mo, the orbicular, and mr, the
reniform spots ; between the two latter often runs the transverse shade, um. In
FIG. 158, hind wing, fr indicates the "bristle" which fits into the "hook" on
the fore- wing, uniting the two wings during flight; cm, situated in the discal cell,
indicates the "lunule," and beyond are the outer and marginal dusky bands.
FIG. 159, la, internal vein; Ib, submedian vein; 2, 3, 4, 5, the four branches
(venules) of the median vein (in FIG. 1GO, 5 becomes the independent venule) ;
6 to 12, branches of the subcostal (in FIG. 161, xii, is the costo-subcostal recurrent
venule). In FIG. 1(52, wings of the Hepialus, the venation is more irregular, and in
the fore-wing the discal cell is divided into an anterior and posterior discal
cellule, by the disco-longitudinal vein ; sd, x, and s, accessory cells. In the Tineids
the venation is very simple. In FIG. 163, the submedian and internal veins have
disappeared ; 9 is the costal vein ; 2, 3, the two branches of the median vein ; 4 to
8, branches of the subcostal vein. In FIG. 164, the internal vein is shortened, and the
submedian forked, while the median and subcostal are merged together. From
Heinemann, in Morris's Synopsis, Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections. Compare
also FIG. 29 on page 23.

FIGS. 156 and 165. a, antenna, on one side wholly, and on the other partially,
pectinate; 6, eye; /, ocellus; h, labial palpus; g, maxillae or "tongue;" o, coxa;
p, trochanter; g, femur; r, tibia; V, single anterior spur; r*, two middle tibial
spurs; 2, 3, two pairs of posterior tibial spurs; s, tarsus.

234 LEPIDOPTERA.

and the femora, tibiae and tarsi, slender and very equal in
length. There are usually two tibial spurs. The tarsus is
five-jointed, the terminal joint ending in two slender claws.

The scales covering the body of Lepidoptera are simply
modified hairs. In studying the wing of the Cecropia moth,
we find the hairs of the body and base of the wing gradually
passing into the forms represented in Fig. 166. They are
attached to the wings and laid partially over one another like
the tiles on a roof (Fig. 167). They are inserted in somewhat
regular lines, though, as seen in the figure, these lines are often
irregular, as shown by the line of scars where the scales have
been removed. The scales are beautifully ornamented with mi-
croscopic lines. We find, on removing the scales, that the
head consists of three well-marked pieces,* i. e. the occiput
or basal piece which lies behind the ocelli ; the epicranium,
lying behind the insertion of the antennae, and carrying the eyes
and ocelli, and the clypeus, which constitutes the front of the
head. The latter piece is larger than in all other insects, its
size being distinctive of the Lepidoptera. There is a general
form of this piece for each family, and it affords excellent
characters in the different genera, especially among the butter-
flies (as Mr. L. Trouvelot has shown us in a series of drawings
made by him), and the Zygcenidce and Bombycidce. It is
largest, and most perfectly shield-shaped, in the Attaci. In the
Phal cen idee, it is smaller, and square ; and in the Tine idee
it is smaller still, while the occiput and epicranium are
larger.

The labrum is remarkably small and often concealed by the
overhanging clypeus. The labium is small, short, triangular,
and the mentum is nearly obsolete. The lingua is obsolete, its
place being supplied by the tongue-like maxillae. The labial
palpi are feebly developed, sometimes rudimentary, and consist

*Fio. 168. A, head of Ctenucha Virginica denuded; oc, occiput; ec, epicranium,
with the two ocelli, o, and the base of the antennae, at; e, eye; c, clypeus^ I, la-
brum; m, mandible; mx, tongue, or maxillae, with the end split apart; B, rudimen-
tary maxilla of Actias Luna, with its single-jointed rudimentary palpus, showing
the mode of attachment to the base of the maxilla; C, two-jointed, rudimentary
labial palpus of A. Luna; D, the same, single jointed, of Platysamia Cecropia.

FIGS. 169, 170. Head of amoth in relation to the prothorax (1). FIG. 171, A, B, side
view and (C) front view of the head of a moth; , antenna; b, eye; d, the "front;"
e, orbit of the eye; /, ocellus; g, maxilla situated between h, the three-jointed la-
bial palpi ; t, the maxillary palpus, sometimes very large and three-jointed.

LEPIDOPTERA.

235

of from one to three joints, the terminal one being small and
pointed. They are recurved in front of the head, on each side
of the spiral tongue, and are
covered with hairs ; their func-
tion, as touchers or feelers,
seeming to be lost. The man-
dibles are rudimentary, consist-
ing of a pair of horny tubercles,
partly concealed by the front
edge of the clypeus. The
maxillae, on the other hand,
are remarkably developed. In
their rudimentary state, as in Attacus, they form a pair of
grooved blades, the hollowed sides being opposed and held

Fig. 173. Fig. 174. Fig. 175.

together by a row of minute teeth, thus forming a canal. The
insect sucks through this long tube the sweets of flowers.

Fig. 176. Fig. 177. Fig. 178. Fig. 179.

The "tongue" is often nearly as long as the body of the insect
itself, and when at rest, is rolled up and held between the
palpi. At its base are the minute rudimental maxillary palpi,

236 LEPIDOPTERA.

which are generally concealed, but are apparent in the smaller
and lower moths, Crambus and the Tineids. They are usually
from two to three-jointed, and even five to six-jointed, as in
Tinea granella, and longer than the maxillae, thus resembling
the Phryganeidce , or Caddis flies.

In seeking for honey with their long maxillae, the Lepidop-
tera play an important part in the fertilization of plants,
especially the Orchids.

The ocelli are often present, though they do not form a tri-
angle on the vertex, as there are only two, the third and most
anterior one being absent. The eyes are large and globose,
and vary in their distance apart in different families.

The antennae vary greatly ; they are either filiform (Fig. 172,
a), or setiform (Fig. 172, &), or fusiform, as in the Sphinges
(Fig. 172, c), or club-shaped, as in Papilio (Fig. 172, d). They
are rarely entirely naked, but are finely ciliated (Fig. 173), or
have a pair of bristles on each joint (Fig. 174), which are
sometimes tufted (Fig. 175). The joints are sometimes toothed
(Fig. 176), lamellate (Fig. 177), serrate (Fig. 178), or pec-
tinate (Fig. 179).

The thorax in Lepidoptera is remarkable for the small size
of the first, or prothoracic ring, the mesothorax being highly
developed. In Telea (Figs. 11 and 12, on page 11) the Char-
acteristic form is well shown. The tergal arch of the pro-
thorax is almost obsolete, the scutum alone being represented
by a corneous piece, while the pleural parts are more developed
as supports for the forelegs. In the mesothorax the prae-
scutum is present, but is usually vertical, being bent down
and concealed between the two rings, becoming visible, how-
ever, from above in Hepialus (Sthenopis), in which respect it
strikingly resembles the position and development of the same
piece in the neuropterous Polystoechotes. The scutum is large,
with convex sides, broadest behind the middle, and deeply
notched for the reception of the triangular scutellum, which
is about one-fourth the size of the scutum. The postscutellum
is transverse, and situated out of sight, unless the two hinder
thoracic rings are separated, under the scutellum. The epi-
sterna and trochantines are large, and the whole mesothoracic
flanks nearly twice as wide as those of the metathorax. The

LEPIDOPTERA. 237

metathorax is much compressed antero-posteriorly. The scu-
tum is thrown aside as it were by the scutellum into two lat-
eral, nearly square halves, the remaining tergal pieces being
usually obsolete and membranous, but in Sthenopis the prse-
scutum and scutellum (Fig. 13, page 12) are large, and meet
in the middle of the segment, much as in the neuropterous
Sialidce and Hemerobiidce.

The abdomen is oval in Papilio, becoming long and linear in
the Tineids. In the Zygcenidce, especially, the basal ring is
membranous and is partly adherent to the thorax, and somewhat
inflated on each side. The number of abdominal segments
varies, being either eight or nine ; the variation occurring, as
stated by Lacaze-Duthiers, in closely allied genera ; thus the
genital and anal openings are placed more usually behind the
eighth, but sometimes behind the ninth segment.

The genital armor is very simple, consisting of two valve-
like pieces. The parts beyond (anal stylets, etc.) are aborted,
so that the anus and external opening of the oviduct are
brought closely together. In the male the parts are more com-
plex, the anal forceps often, as in the Callosamia Promethea,
forming long curved hooks for clasping the abdomen of the
female.

The nervous system of Lepidoptera, and its changes during
the transformations of the larva, have been studied most
thoroughly by Herold (in Pieris) and Newport (in Sphinx
ligustri and Vanessa urticse). In the imago the ventral cord
consists of seven ganglia, while in the larva there are eleven.
This decrease in their number is due to the fusion, during the
pupa state, of the first, second, third and fourth ganglia of
the larva, exclusive of those situated in the front part of the
head ; these form the two thoracic ganglia which distribute
nerves to the legs and the muscles of the wings. Meanwhile
the fifth and sixth ganglia of the larva have either disappeared
entirely, or been united with the others.

The digestive system (see Fig. 44, on page 35) of butterflies
and moths is modified to suit their peculiar habits. They draw
in the sweets of plants through the "tongue" by a sucking
stomach which opens into the hinder end of the oesophagus.
4 'The ileum is long, small, and nearly always forms several

238 LEPIDOPTERA.

convolutions. The colon is constantly of a large size, and is
often dilated into a caecum at its anterior portion." (Siebold.)
The salivary glands are composed of two simple tubes, which
are very large in the larval state, extending into the abdomen.

The respiratory system is normal and well developed. In
the larva the stigmata are wanting on the second and third
thoracic and last abdominal segment. In those species of
Sphingidce, Bombycidce and Noctuidce, which have a
long-sustained flight there are numerous vesicular dilatations
of the tracheae.

The urinary tubes are six in number ; they are long, free,
and open into the stomach by two excretory ducts.

The silk-glands consist of two long, flexuous, thick-walled
sacs, situated on the sides of the body, and opening by a
common orifice on the under lip (labium) usually at the
extremity of a short tubular protuberance (Siebold). They
are most developed when the larva approaches the pupa state.

We once found a larva of Clisiocampa Americana that had
just spun its cocoon, and to ascertain whether the silk had been
exhausted, we removed the worm from its cocoon, when it spun
another, but thinner one ; and upon removing it a second time
it spun a third very thin cocoon, before the supply of silk was
entirely exhausted.

The ovary consists of four very long, spiral, multilocular
tubes. The receptaculum seminis is pyriform, and often has a
long, spiral ductus seminalis. At its base is situated a large,
double sebaceous gland ; and there are two small ramose
glands, perhaps odoriferous, situated at the orifice of the vagina.
The copulatory pouch is a remarkably large, pyriform reservoir,
having for the reception of the male intromittent organ a
canal, which opens by a special orifice, situated below and
behind the external opening of the oviduct. (Siebold.)

The testes form two round or oval follicles, and the two
short deferent canals unite with two simple and very flexuous
accessory glands, to form the long ductus ejaculatorius.

Several interesting cases of hermaphroditism in butterflies
and moths have been published by European entomologists.
Mr. Edwards has noticed two remarkable instances in the Pro-
ceedings of the Philadelphia Entomological Society (vol. iv,

LEPIDOPTERA. 239

p. 380), the latter of which we have also seen. u A specimen of
Papilio Asterias is in my collection, and was captured by Mr.
J. Meyer of Brooklyn, L. I., two or three years since. It is a
fine instance of a perfect hermaphrodite. The right wings are
both male, the left wings both female, distinctly marked upon
both surfaces with no suffusion of color. The size is that of
the largest specimens of Asterias. The Saturnia Promethea
is in the collection of Mrs. Bridgham of New York, and is a
curious instance of an imperfect hermaphrodite. The left an-
tenna and left primary are male ; the right antenna and left
secondary are female ; the right primary is also female, but the
right secondary is something between the two, neither male
nor female. The color of the upper surface is nearly the same
as the under surface of the male. On the under side the
color and markings of the left primary are male, but the other
three wings are female. The color and markings of the male
Promethea are quite different from those of the female, and on
this hermaphrodite the confusion of the sexes is conspicuous.
It is a bred specimen. The body had been viscerated, so that it
is impossible to determine its sex."

The larva of Ctenucha, which resembles that of Arctia, con-
structs its cocoon out of the hairs of its body, without spinning
any silken threads, so far as we could ascertain by microscopi-
cal examination. The hairs of this, as of probably most hairy
caterpillars, but more especially the Bombycid larvae, are
thickly armed with minute spinules, so that by 'being simply
placed next to each other, they readily adhere together. The
cocoon is finished in about twelve hours. We once noticed
a Ctenucha larva just beginning its cocoon. Early in the
morning it described an ellipse upon the side of the glass jar in
which it was confined, out of hairs plucked from just behind its
head. From this elliptical line as a base, it had by eight o'clock
built up, rather unequally, the walls of its cocoon, in some
places a third of the distance up, by simply piling upon each
other tlie spinulated hairs, which adhered firmly together. At
four o'clock in the afternoon, the arch was completed, and the
larva walled in by a light partition, and soon afterwards the thin
floor was made. No silk is spun throughout the whole opera-
tion, while in the cocoon of Pyrrharctia Isabella there is a
slight frame-work of silk upon which the hairs are placed.

240 LEPIDOPTERA.

Trouvelot states that the Polyphemus larva constructs its
cocoon by drawing the leaves together as a support for the
threads, forming the foundation of the cocoon. "This seems
to be the most difficult feat for the worm to accomplish, as after
this the work is simply mechanical, the cocoon being made of
regular layers of silk united by a gummy substance. The silk
is distributed in zig-zag lines of about one-eight of an inch
long. When the cocoon is made, the worm will have moved
his head to and fro, in order to distribute the silk, about two
hundred and fifty-four thousand times. After about half a
day's work, the cocoon is so far completed that the worm can
hardly be distinguished through the fine texture of the wall ;
then a gummy, resinous substance, sometimes of a light brown
color, is spread over all the inside of the cocoon. "The larva
continues to work for four or five days, hardly taking a few
minutes of rest, and finally another coating is spun in the
interior, when the cocoon is all finished and completely air-
tight. The fibre diminishes in thickness as the completion of
the cocoon advances, so that the last internal coating is not
half so thick and so strong as the outside ones."

In those moths which spin a thick cocoon, the pupa, a few
days previous to its exit, secretes an acid fluid from two glands
opening into the mouth. This fluid, according to Mr. L. Trou-
velot (American Naturalist, vol. i, p. 33), in his account of the
Polyphemus silk-worm, dissolves the hard gummy substance
uniting the silken threads, until after the expiration of half an
hour, the moth is able to push the fibres aside, and work its
way out, without breaking a thread.

Trouvelot says that the larvae of the Polyphemus moth (and
this remark will probably apply to all other Lepidopterous
larvae) seem entirely unable to discern objects with their sim-
ple eyes, but can distinguish light from darkness.

In their adult state butterflies and moths take but little food,
consisting of honey, though Papilio Turnus, according to a
Canadian observer, is attracted to heaps of decaying fish.

Caterpillars grow very rapidly, and consume a great quantity
of food. Mr. Trouvelot gives us the following account of the
gastronomical powers of the Polyphemus caterpillar. "It is
astonishing how rapidly the larva grows, and one w r ho has no
experience in the matter could hardly believe what an amount

LEPIDOPTERA. 241

of food is devoured by these little creatures. One experiment
which I made can give some idea of it : when the young silk
worm hatches out, it weighs one-twentieth of a grain ; when

10 days old it weighs 1-2 a grain, or 10 times its original weight.

20 " " " " 3 grains " 60 " " " "

30 " " 31 " " 620 " " " "

40 " " " " 90 " " 1800 " " " "

56 K 207 4140

When a worm is thirty days old it will have consumed about
ninety grains of food ; but when fifty-six days old it is fully
grown and has consumed not less than one hundred and twenty
oak leaves weighing three-fourths of a pound ; besides this it
has drank not less than one-half an ounce of water. So the
food taken by a single silk-worm in fifty-six days equals in
weight eighty-six thousand times the primitive weight of the
worm. Of this, about one-fourth of a pound becomes excre-
mentitious matter ; two hundred and seven grains are assimi-
lated and over five ounces have evaporated. What a destruction
of leaves this single species of insect could make if only a one
hundredth part of the eggs laid came to maturity ! A few
years would be sufficient for the propagation of a number large
enough to devour all the leaves of our forests." The Lepidop-
tera are almost without exception injurious to vegetation and
are among the chief enemies of the agriculturist.

They are rarely found fossil owing ta the delicacy of their
bodies. Remains, doubtfully referred to the Lepidoptera, have
been found in the Jura formation. A Sphinx-like moth has
been discovered in the Tertiary formation of Europe, and a few
minute forms have occurred in Amber.

Butterflies are easily distinguished from the other groups by
their knobbed antennae. In the Sphinges and their allies the
feelers are thickened in the middle : in the Moths they are fili-
form and often pectinated like feathers. Lepidoptera have
also been, divided into three large groups, called Diurnal, Cre-
puscular and Nocturnal, since butterflies fly in the sunshine
alone, most Sphinges in the twilight (some of them, however,
fly in the hottest sunshine), while the moths are generally
night-fliers, though many of them fly in the day time, thus
showing that the distinctions are somewhat artificial.

The larger Lepidoptera (butterflies and the larger moths)
16

242 . LEPIDOPTERA.

have been called Macrolepidoptera, while the smaller ones,
including the smaller Pyralidce, the Tortricidce, and the
Tin ei dee, are called Microlepidoptera.

In studying these insects the best generic characters will be
found in the antennae, the shape of the head-parts, the vena-
tion and proportions of the wings : very slight changes in these
parts separating genera and species. Size and coloration,
which are usually very constant, afford good specific characters.

A good method of preserving larvae dry, adopted at Dresden,
is to squeeze out the intestines through a hole made near the
anal extremity of the larva, then to insert a fine straw, after
which it may be placed in a glass vase, itself placed in a tin
vessel and held over a lamp ; the larval skin is blown while
suspended over the lamp, by which the skin dries faster. It
mjay be done with a small tube or blow-pipe fixed at the end
of a bladder, held under the arm or between the knees, so as
to leave the hands at liberty ; and the straw which is inserted
into the body of the larva may be fastened by a cross-pin stuck
through the skin, and thus retained in its proper position
throughout the process of blowing. The small larvae, such as
those of the Tineae, may be put alive into a hot bottle, baked
until they swell to the proper extent and dry, when they can be
pinned with all their contents inside. (Westwood, Proceed-
ings of the Entomological Society of London, Sept. 7th, 1863.)

Dr. Knaggs has, in the Entomologist's Monthly Magazine,
given some directions for managing caterpillars. Very young
caterpillars, which will not eat the food provided, and become
restless, should be reared in air-tight jam-pots, the tops of which
are covered with green glass to darken the interior of the ves-
sel. When small larvae hide themselves by mining, entering
buds and spinning together leaves, they should have as small a
quantity of food as possible. In changing larvae from one plant
to a fresh one, a slight jar or puff of breath will dislodge them,
and they can be transferred to the jam-pot, or the glass cylin-
der, covered at one end with muslin, can be turned muslin end
downwards for them to crawl upon. The duplicate breeding
cage, pot or tube, should be "sweetened" by free currents of
fresh dry air and then stocked with fresh food.

Dr. Knaggs advises that "hiding places," or bits of chips,

LEPIDOPTERA. 243

etc., be provided for such Noctuid larvae as naturally lie
cealed, such as Orthosia, XantMa, Noctua, etc., "while for
Agrotis and a few others a considerable depth of fine earth or
sand is necessary."

"Larvae, which in nature hibernate, must either be stimulated
by warmth and fresh food to feed up unnaturally fast, or else
through the winter must be exposed to out-door temperature."
For such larvae as begin to eat before the trees are leaved
out, the leaves of evergreens must be provided, pine leaves,
chickweed, grasses and mosses. Hibernating, living larvae,
must during the winter be kept dry, otherwise the damp seems
to hang about their fur, and causes them to be attacked by a
white fungus ; while smooth larvae require the natural damp-
ness of the soil. Mr. Gibson strongly recommends that during
the winter all cages containing larvae be placed in front of a
window facing the east or north-east, so that the inmates may
be kept as cool as possible.

When the moth is fairly out of the pupa, as remarked by Mr.
Sanborn, their wings often fail to properly expand, on account
of the want of moisture, "the insect being unable to expand its
wings in a heated, dry room. He has avoided this difficulty
by placing the insect just emerged, or about to come forth,
beneath a bell-glass, within which he had placed moistened
pieces of bibulous paper."

Mr. Trouvelot has noticed that the difference in size of the
wings of moths or butterflies is due to the fact that some of
the fluid thrown into the wings during their development
escapes from a break in the surface of the wing, so that this
wing is smaller than the other. He has, by pinching a wing
while thus developing, caused the fluid to "flow from the punc-
ture, and immediately the wing so wounded ceased to grow,
while the three others continued their development to its full
extent." "I have sometimes advanced the development of the
wings of Telea Polyphemus. I selected for this purpose,
pupae very far advanced in their transformation, as is shown by
the looseness of the pupal skin, and by the color of the wings
of the moth, which can be seen through it. I took carefully
the pupal skin from around the moth and suspended the insect
in the position that Lepidoptera take when emerging from the

244 LEPIDOPTEKA.

chrysalis. It is very rare that the wings of such an insect
are developed, though I have obtained some perfect specimens
in this way ; and in one instance the development of the wings
took place only three days after the pupal skin had been
removed. Success is more certain if the insect is put under a
glass jar with a moistened sponge, and something for the insect
to hang from ; the dampness of the air in the jar will prevent
the soft wings from drying too fast, and when the time arrives
for the insect to accomplish its transformation, the fluid will be
active. Such an insect has much analogy with a vertebrate
born prematurely ; the insect, like the quadruped, remains
almost motionless till the natural time for its birth arrives."

Latreille. The Butterflies, or Diurnal Lepi-
doptera, are at once distinguished from the moths by their
knobbed antennae, though they are sometimes nearly filiform.
The body is small, but there is a greater equality in the size of
the three regions than in the moths, the abdomen being much
shorter and smaller, as a general rule, than in the lower fami-
lies. The ocelli are usually wanting ; the spiral tongue or
maxillae, are long and well developed ; and the wings are car-
ried erect when in repose, and are not held together during
flight by a bristle and socket as in the moths.

The larvae vary greatly in shape and in their style of orna-
mentation, but they uniformly have, besides the thoracic legs,
five pairs of abdominal legs. The pupa is called a " chrysalis"
or "aurelian" from the bright golden hues which adorn those
of many species. They disappear as the wet tissues beneath the
pupa-skin harden just before the fly appears. The pupa is usu-
ally angulated on the sides of the thorax and along the upper
side of the abdomen. A few species, such as those of Vanessa,
hibernate, while several species, such as Vanessa Antiopa, are
social as young larvae. The most " perfect state of society is ex-
hibited by a Mexican butterfly (Eucheira socialis Westwood) ,
the caterpillars of which construct a very strong parchment-like
bag, in which they not only reside, but undergo their change to
the pupa state." Butterflies also occasionally swarm while
in the perfect state, such as species of Colias, Cynthia and
Danais, multitudes of which are sometimes seen passing over-

PAPILIONTD2E. 245

head in long columns. They are truly tropical insects, since
Gerstaecker mentions that three times as many species (600)
occur at a single point (Para, Brazil) as in all Germany, where
scarcely 200 species live. There are about 5,000 species known ;
900 inhabit North America and probably the number will be
increased to a thousand, while about 125 species have been
found in New England and its immediate border.

The noble genus Ornithoptera has very long, slightly knobbed
antennae, and a well developed prothorax ; while the fore-
wings are very large, elongated, triangular, and the hind wings
are relatively smaller and rounded. 0. Priamus Linn, is found
in the Moluccas. There are twenty species known. The larvae
as in some species of Papilio have an external forked sheath
for the " tentacles." The pupa is sustained by a silken thread
as in Papilio (Wallace).

Of the extensive genus Papilio, or "Swallow-tail," over 300
species are known. The larva is rather short and stout, with a
v-shaped scent-organ, or "tentacles." The pupa is supported
by a filament passed entirely around it. The common P. As-
terias Drury appears in New England in June, when it lays its
eggs on the leaves of parsley and other umbelliferous plants.
From this brood a new set of butterflies appear in August.
The larva is yellow, striped and spotted with black, and when
irritated, pushes out, from a slit in the prothoracic ring, a
v-shaped, yellow, fleshy, scent-organ, used as a means of de-
fence. The chrysalis is free, attached by the tip of the abdo-
men and supported by a loose silken thread, which is passed
over the back. It lives in this state from nine to fifteen days.
It has two ear-like projections on each side of the head and a
prominence on the back of the thorax.

Mr. W. Saunders has received from St. John's, Newfound-
land, several specimens of a butterfly, one of which I have before
me, and instead of being a very remarkable variety of P. As-
terias, seems to be a distinct and undescribed species, as^
supposed by my friend to whose collection it belongs. He
writes me, after giving a detailed description, presented below,*

* " Papilio brevicauda Saundei's. Female. Expands three and one-fifth inches;
head, palpi and antennaB black; thorax black, fringed with yellow hairs on each
side, for about half its length ; body above black, with a row of seven or eight
yellow spots along each side which are largest about the middle of the row ; under

246 LEPIDOPTERA.

that "this species resembles P. Asterias, but differs from it
in many points. In P. Asterias the palpi are edged within with
yellow ; in P. brevicauda they are black. P. Asterias has two
yellow spots above at the base of the antennae, which are either
wanting, or exceedingly faint in the other species. P. Asterias
has a spot of bright yellow on the anterior edge of each side of
the thorax ; P. brevicauda has a fringe of duller yellow, extend-
ing fully half the length of the thorax. On the primaries the
discal bar in P. Asterias is much narrower, and the inner row
of spots smaller and bright yellow, the upper one in the row
being divided ; in P. brevicauda the spots are fulvous, the upper

side of the body black, the abdomen being furnished with two rows of yellow spots
corresponding with those above, with several additional spots within near the tip ;
feet black. Primaries above brownish black, with a bar of yellow across the end
of the discal cell; just beyond this is a row of eight spots, extending across the
wing nearly parallel with the outer margin ; the upper one, which rests on the sub-
costal vein, is yellow, elongated and irregular, with a blackish dot beyond the mid-
dle ; the lower ones are fulvous ; the second and third smaller than the first and of
an elongated, triangular form, with the apex pointing inwards; the fourth, fifth
and sixth are similar in shape, but larger, the latter with its apex partially wanting;
the seventh spot is wider and slightly concave on both the inner and outer edges,
the inner edge is broken; the eighth is long, narrow and irregular, with its lower
edge close to the hind margin of the wing. Behind the upper spot in this row is a
second yellow spot nearly round. Between these and the outer margin is a second
row of spots, eight in number, but much smaller in size. These are all yellow, the
three upper ones nearly round, the lower ones more or less elongated, the lowest
contracted in the middle as if composed of two spots joined together; the fringe
of the wing is also spotted with yellow, the spots corresponding in number and
position with those forming the second row.

" Secondaries above brownish black, with a row of seven large spots nearly con-
fluent beyond the middle, in continuation of those on primaries, all more or less
triangular in form, the middle ones somewhat elongated; these spots are yellow
above and at the sides, fulvous from near the middle to the outer edge ; the fulvous
marking is less distinct on the second and third spots ; within the margin is a sec-
ond row, all yellow excepting the upper one which is tinged with fulvous ; the up-
per spot is oblong, the second nearly round; third, fourth and filth lunular, nearly
equal in size; the sixth similar in form, but much smaller; while the inner one is
irregularly concave above, holding in the cavity the eye-like spot at the anal angle.
On the outer edge are six yellow spots, larger and more striking than those form-
ing part of the fringe on the primaries. The space between the two inner rows of
spots is sprinkled with metallic blue atoms. At the anal angle is a round, red spot,
with a black dot in it below the middle, and a crescent of bluish atoms above;
\ails very short, scarcely one-eighth of an inch long, not more than half the
length of those of P. Asterias.

"Under surface of wings somewhat paler in color, with spots corresponding to
those above. The upper spot of the inner row on the primaries is tinted with
fulvous ; the spots composing the inner row on the secondaries are more decidedly
and uniformly fulvous ; the four upper spots in the second row are also streaked
with the same color; the bluish atoms between the rows are partially replaced by
green ones." Taken at St. John's, Newfoundland.

PAPILIONIDJE. 247

one is undivided. The inner row of spots on the secondaries
are also entirely yellow in P. Asterias, smaller and very differ-
ent in form from those on P. brevicauda. The second row of
spots is also smaller in P. Asterias, and the red spot at the
anal angle paler, with a smaller black dot in it, and a wider
crescent of bluish atoms above. The length of the tail, which
is one of the most striking points of difference, has already
been noticed."

We have compared some interesting varieties of P. Asterias
in the Museum of the Boston Society of Natural History, col-
lected about Boston by Mr. Shurtleff, which approach (in the
reddish hue of the spots, usually yellow, especially on the under
side, and the shortness of the tail) the Newfoundland speci-
men kindly sent us by Mr. Saunders, and strongly suggest the
inference, with which Messrs. Scudder and Sanborn agree, that
P. brevicauda is a very remarkable
species allied to P. Asterias.

The yellow Papilio Turnus Linn, flies
in June and July through woods and
about lilacs. Its larva feeds on the
apple and wild thorn ; it is green with
two eye-like spots on the thorax, and
pupates in the middle of August. The
black dimorphic ? form, P. Glaucus,
is found in the Southern States. P.
Daunus Boisd. (Fig. 180) originally Fi s- 18 -
found in Mexico, has been found in Kansas, near the Rocky
Mountains, by Mr. James Ridings. He states that it strikingly
resembles P. Turnus, but has longer antennae, with longer, more
curved fore-wings, besides differing in other characters. It ex-
pands nearly five inches. P. Troilus Linn, appears more com-
monly southward. The larva feeds on the sassafras and lilac
trees, and was found by Mr. Saunders feeding, rolled up on
a leaf, on the spice bush, August 3d. "Its length was about
one and three-fourths inches, the body being thickest from the
third to the fifth segments. The head is rather small, flat in
front, slightly bilobed, dull flesh color, with a faint tinge of
brown. The body is bright pea-green, with a yellow stripe
across the anterior part of the second segment ; edged behind
with dull black. On the fourth segment are two prominent

248 LEPIDOPTERA.

eye-like spots, of dull yellowish or yellowish buff, encircled
by a fine ring of black, and a large black pupil filling most
of the lower portion. The posterior portion of this black
pupil is encircled by a shining bluish black ring, the anterior
portion of which strikes a little beyond the middle of the
pupil ; there is also a line of black in front of the pupil ex-
tending nearly across the yellow portion, and a pale pinkish
spot in the upper part of the yellow which is edged with a
slightly darker shade. On the fifth segment are two large,
irregular spots of the same color, pale buff, encircled by a faint
ring of black, and having a faint pinkish spot on the anterior
portion of each ; these spots are nearer to each other than
those on the fourth segment, a portion of the space between the
fifth and sixth segments being deep black ; each segment, from

the sixth to the eleventh in-
clusive, has four blue dots,
encircled with black, those on
the seventh, eighth and ninth
segments being largest. On
each side, close to the under
surface, is a wide yellow
stripe, gradually softening
into the green above, and
Fig. MI. edged below with blackish

brown. Immediately below the spiracles is a row of blue dots
edged with black, one on each segment from the sixth to the
twelfth inclusive. The under surface is dull, pale greenish, or
3 r ellowish white, having a decided reddish tinge as it approaches
the yellow stripe on the sides. The feet partake of the same
general color." P. Phttenor Fabr. is black, with a greenish
reflection towards the outer border, with whitish spots on the
margin, and on the hind wings six whitish lunules. The larva
is brown, with two lateral rows of small, reddish tubercles,
and two long tubercles on the prothoracic segment. The
chrysalis (Fig. 181, side and dorsal view) is grajdsh violet, yel-
lowish on the back, with the head ending in a truncated cone.
The genus Pai*nassius has short, thick antennae, with a
rounded club, and the fore-wings are much rounded at the
apex ; it inhabits mountains. P. Smintheus Doubleday, with
three other species, is found in the Rocky Mountains.

PAPILIONIDJE.

249

The White Turnip, or Cabbage butterfly, Pieris oleracea Harris
(Fig. 182 ; a, larva), is well known as being often destructive to
cruciferous plants. In this genus, and its allies, the wings are
rounded and entire on the edges, and are grooved on the inner
edge to receive the abdomen. The greenish caterpillars are
slender, "tapering a very little toward each end, and are spar-
ingly clothed with a short down which is quite apparent, how-
ever, in Pieris oleracea." We have found the larvae of this
species on turnip leaves in the middle of August, at Chamber-
lain Farm in Northern Maine. They are of a dull green, and
covered with dense hairs. They suspend themselves by the
tail and a transverse loop ; and their chrysalids are angular
at the sides, and pointed at both ends. (Harris.) Pieris
oleracea is white, with the
wings dusky next the body,
the tips of the fore- wings are
yellowish beneath, and the
hind wings are straw-colored
beneath. The yellowish, pear-
shaped, longitudinally ribbed
eggs, are laid three or four
on a single leaf. In a week
or ten days the larvae are
hatched. They live three Fig. 182.

weeks before becoming full-fed. The chrysalis state lasts ten
to twelve days. There is an early summer (May) and a late
summer (July) brood. Pieris rapce Schrank has been intro-
duced from Europe and is now found in the vicinity of Quebec
and the northern parts of New England.

P. Protodice Boisd. and Lee. is found southward. The
head of the chrysalis, kindly sent me by Mr. Saunders, is pro-
longed into a, tubercle, which is equilaterally triangular, seen
in outline, with two small tubercles near the base. On the
thorax is a high, thin dorsal ridge, edged with red. On each side
of the abdomen is a ridge, largest anteriorly, and rising into
a thin tubercle on the second ring. There is a thin dorsal
ridge on the posterior half of the abdomen. The tip is deeply
excavated by -a furrow extending the whole length of the ter-
minal ring. There are seven rows of black dots on each ring.

250 LEPIDOPTERA.

It is pale whitish straw yellow throughout, with thick, black
dots on the anterior half of the body. It is .70 of an inch in
length. It also occurs in California.

The Sulphur-yellow butterflies, Colias, of which C. Pliilodice
Godart, our most common butterfly, is a type, occur everywhere.
There are three broods, one appearing in April and Ma}% and
the other in July ; while a third brood appears late in August
(Scudder). "The female deposited her eggs on the 24th of
July ; they were very long, tapering at each end, with twelve
or fourteen raised, longitudinal ribs, and smaller cross lines in
the concave spaces between them. They hatched on the 31st.
The freshly hatched larva is about a thirteenth of an inch long ;
the head is black, and the body dull yellowish brown. When
five-eighths of an inch long, it is nearly the same as when ma-
ture ; the head being dark green and slightly downy, with
minute hairs, which also give a downy appearance to the whole
body, which is also dotted minutely with paler points. There
is a yellowish white stripe, on each side close to the under sur-
face. Beneath, the body is slightly paler than above. The full
grown larva is an inch long, and differs from the young in hav-
ing an irregular streak of bright red running through the
whitish lateral line. It feeds on the clover and lupine, and on
the cultivated pea. It is not unlike a saw-fly larva in its ap-
pearance and movements, feeding on the upper surface of the
leaves and twisting its body into a coil when disturbed. The
chrysalis is about seven lines long, girt with a silken thread
across the greatest diameter of the body, which is full and bulg-
ing on the sides. The head is pointed conically, with a purplish
red line on each side, running to the tip and margined behind
with yellow. The body is pale green, with a yellowish tinge,
and a ventral line of a darker shade formed by a succession of
minute, yellowish dots ; a yellow stripe runs along the side on
the five hinder segments. Beneath, on the seventh, eighth and
ninth rings, is a blackish brown line on each side, deepening
in color about the middle of each segment, and a dorsal line
of dark green about the same length. It remains in the chrys-
alis state about ten days." (Saunders.)

Mr. Scudder has described three species of this genus from
the north. Colias Pelidne we have taken abundantly in

PAPILIONIMJ. 251

Labrador. It represents our C. Philodice. C. interior lives
north of the Great Lakes, and C. occidentalis ranges from
Fort Simpson to the Gulf of Georgia.

The species of a closely allied genus, Terias (T. Lisa and
T. Delia), are much smaller and are more tropical.

The genus Danais has antennae with a long and curved knob,
the head and thorax are spotted with white, and the wings are
round and entire. - The caterpillars have projecting, thread-like
horns, arranged in pairs on the top of the second and eleventh
segments, and the body (D. Archippus) is banded with yellow,
black and white. The oval chrysalicls are short and thick and
decked with golden spots. The larva of D. Archippus Harris
feeds on the silk-weed, Asclepias, and matures in about two
weeks, changing its skin three times, while the chrysalis state
lasts for ten or twelve days. The butterfly appears from July
to September.

A very beautiful and quite aberrant tropical genus is Heli-
conia, in which the wings are small, very narrow and often very
transparent, while the antennae are nearly as long as the body.
The larvae are either long, cylindrical and spinose (Acraea
violae), or furnished with several pairs of long fleshy append-
ages, and the chrysalids are often brilliantly spotted with
golden and suspended by the tail.

According to H. W. Bates (Transactions of the Entomolog-
ical Society, 1857), the venation of the wing in many species
of Meclianitis and Ithomia, which are allied to Heliconia, varies
in different individuals of the same species. The sexes have
the closest resemblance in color and markings. They are
very gregarious in their habits. The Brazilian tc H. Melpomone
varies in a curious manner. I have no doubt they are hybrids
(i. e. the varieties), and I can almost point out the species with
which it hybridates. Strange to say, the hybrids occur in one
district and not in another, and one style of hybrids only occur
in one district and not in the others, the species being equally
abundant in all the districts."

Argynnis is readily recognized by the numerous round and
triangular silver spots on the under side of the hind wings-.
The very spiny caterpillars have a round head, and the spines
are branched, two of the prothoracic ones being the largest and

252 LEPIDOPTERA.

reaching over the head. The angular arched chrysalids have
the head either square, or slightly notched, with a smooth
thorax, while on the back of the abdomen are two rows of
usually gold colored tubercles. They usually feed on violets,
and may be found from May to July. Argynnis Idalia Drury
is found the last of summer. A. Cybele Fabr. is found in the
Middle States, and A. Atlantis Edwards in the White Moun-
tain valleys and the colder portions of New England.

Mr. C. A. Shurtleff discovered the larva and pupa of the lat-
ter, July 17th, at Eastport, Maine, and being with him at the
time, we made the following description of them : The larva
is uniformly cylindrical, tapering alike towards each end of the
body. On each side of the vertex of the head is a small low
spine, giving the head an oblong shape when seen sidewise.
The front is broad, somewhat square, flattened, with scattered
hairs. On the first and second thoracic rings are two large
subdorsal spines and minute lateral warts bearing small bris-
tles, and on the hind edge of these rings are two large spines.
On the third thoracic ring are three large spines. On each
abdominal ring are six stout spines of the same size and placed
equidistant on the upper surface. The bristles on the spines
are nearly one-half as long as the spines themselves. Small pa-
pillae, giving rise to bristles, are scattered over the bocty, with
a row of them above the abdominal feet. The triangular anal
plate is small, papilliform and prominent. The larva is dark
velvety purple, the base of the head being of a pale horn color ;
the body beneath is scarcely paler than above ; the spines are
pale livid on the basal half. They were full-fed and ready to
pupate July 17th. The head of the pupa is square in front.
On the prothorax are two subdorsal spines, and an elevated
mesial ridge on the mesothoracic ring, rising highest behind.
At the base of each wing is a sharp, conical, prominent papilla,
immediately succeeded by a broad, thin-edged dilatation, con-
stricted and appressed to the base of the abdomen ; this is the
internal angle of the wings. On the abdomen are two lines of
subdorsal sharp papillae, one on each side. The wings extend
to the fifth abdominal ring, and from this point the abdomen
rapidly tapers to the tip. The surface of the body is wrinkled
with conspicuous black spiracles-. Its general color is chest-

PAPILIONIM:.

253

nut brown, mottled with black ; the wings being black at the
base. The sexes of the rare and superb A. Diana Cramer differ
remarkably, the male being dark velvety brown, with a deep
orange border, while the female is blue-black, with lighter blue
spots and patches on the border of the wings. It has been
taken in West Virginia, Georgia and Arkansas.

A. Aphrodile (Fig. 183*) abounds in the Northern States.
According to Scudder, it is double-brooded, appearing about
the middle of June, and fresh specimens late in August. A.
Montinus, a more diminutive species, was discovered by Mr.
Scudder on the lower half of the barren summits of the White
Mountains. Allied to this last species by their size, are A.
Myrina Cramer and A. Bellona Fabr. found in damp meadows
late in summer.
A. Myrina has
tawny wings bor-
dered with black
above, and ex-
pands from one
and three-fourths
to one and eight-
tenths of an inch.
A. Bellona differs
from the other
species by not

having any silvery spots on the under side of the wings. Mr.
Saunders has reared A. Myrina from eggs deposited June 24th,
by a specimen confined in a box. "The egg is pale green,
elongated, shaped something like an acorn, with the base
smooth, convex and the circumference striated longitudinally,
with about fourteen raised striae which are linear and smooth ;
the spaces between are about three times wider than the striae,
depressed, concave in the middle, and ribbed by a number of
cross lines, fifteen to twenty between each stria, and distinctly
indented. The egg is contracted at the apex, the striae protrud-
ing at the tip all around a little beyond the body of the egg.
The larva hatched in six or seven days, and when fresh from the

* The upper side of the wings is figured on the left side, and the under side
on the right, in this and in FIGS. 184 and 188.

254 LEPIDOPTERA.

egg was about one-tenth of an inch long. The head is medium
sized, black, and shining ; the body above is dark brown, with
transverse lines of a paler color, especially on the anterior seg-
ments ; it is thickly covered with stout hairs of a pale brownish
color ; between the first and second moult it is one-fourth of an
inch long. The head is bilobed, shining, black and hairy, and
the body above is greenish black, the greenish tinge most
apparent on the second and third segments, with a few small
yellowish dots along each side, and transverse rows of strongly
elevated, black tubercles, emitting numerous short, black hair-
like spines.

"The under surface is similar to the upper ; the feet are black
and shining, and the prolegs are black, tipped with a paler hue.
After the second moult there are two fleshy tubercles on the
second segment much longer than the others, being three or
four times their length, which are covered throughout with
small hair-like spines. The yellowish spots along the sides of
the body assume more of an orange tint, and there are one or
two faint, longitudinal streaks of the same color along the sides
close to the under surface, and between the rows of large, raised
tubercles, are many smaller ones which are also black and
appear but slightly raised. August 7th the larva was full-
grown. The head is, at this period, slightly bilobed, black,
shining, and covered with short, fine, black hairs.

"The body above is dark greyish brown, beautifully spotted
and dotted with deep velvety black ; the second segment, has
two long, fleshy horns, yellowish white at base, black above,
covered with minute, blackish, hair-like spines. The third and
fourth segment, have each four whitish spines tipped with
black, those on the sides placed on the anterior portion of
the segment, those above about the middle. All the other seg-
ments have six whitish spines, excepting the terminal one,
which has four. All the spines have fine branches of a black
or brownish black color and are about one-third the length of
the fleshy horns on the second segment. A pale line extends
along each side from the fifth to the terminal segments close to
the under surface. The under surface is brownish black, darker
on the anterior segments ; feet black and shining ; prolegs
brown, with a shining band of brownish black on the outside.

PAPILIONIDJE. 255

The duration of the pupa stage was ten or eleven days." The
pupa, received from Mr. Saunders, has two large, conical tuber-
cles in front of the insertion of the antennae, and two acute
tubercles on the pro-
thorax. The thorax is
acutely bituberculated
on the sides, with an
acute thin dorsal ridge,
on each side of which
are two small, sharp
tubercles. Along the
back of the abdomen Fig. 184.

are two rows of tubercles, those on the third abdominal ring
being much larger. It is half an inch long, and pale ash,
with black dots and irregular lines.

Melitcea differs in not having silver spots beneath, while the

caterpillars are covered with
blunt tubercles which give rise
to short stiff bristles. They
feed on different species of
rig. 185. plantain. The clirysalids are

like those of Argynnis, but spotted with black or brown, and
not with golden.

Melitcea Phaeton Drury (Fig. 184) is found in damp bogs.
We have taken the young larva less than one-half of an inch
long, early in spring under leaves, where it had
doubtless hibernated. The mature larva (Fig.
185, enlarged, the specimen from which the
drawing was made, is too contracted, the head
being drawn in unnaturally ; fig. 186, pupa) is
cylindrical, and the head is slightly angulated.
There are nine rows of black spines which are
fleshy and surrounded at the tips with rather
long, thickset spinules. The head and thoracic
and last three abdominal rings are black ; the rest Fi s- 186 -
of the body being deep orange, with black lines between the
spines, and dots along the side. Towards the last of May and
early in June it changes to a chrysalis, which is white with a
slight bluish tinge, with yellow papillae, and scattered black

256 LEPIDOPTERA.

spots, giving it a gay and variegated appearance. The butter-
fly rises from cold, swampy places the last of June and early
in July. Its wings are velvety black, with orange red cres-
cents and spots. It expands from two to two and a quarter
inches, being our largest species.

M. Tharos Boisd. and Leconte is a very abundant species in
New England. There are two broods, one appearing in June
and early in July, and the second one late in August and Sep-
tember. It has short, broad wings which are tawny orange
above, with black, irregular lines and spots ; it expands from
one and three-tenths to one and a half inches.

Mr. Saunders has sent us a remarkable and undescribed but-
terfly, under the name of Melitced Packardii Saunders, with the
following description: "It resembles M. Tharos in size, and
expands 1.42 of an inch. The palpi are pale brown above, yel-
lowish below; antennae black above, dotted with white and
tipped with red ; below white tipped with red. Head, thorax
and abdomen, black above, clothed with brownish hairs ; white
underneath ; feet brownish yellow ; wings above brown, with a
cupreous tinge, sprinkled with fulvous atoms, with a wide band
of dark brown on the outer margin, faintly edged on each side
with black. The primaries have a fulvous macular band a short
distance from the base, extending nearly across the wings, and
a patch of the same hue a little beyond and towards the front
margin. Beyond the middle is a wide band of the same,
divided by the veins into a series of seven spots ; the upper one
is very small, a mere dot with a whitish hue ; the second is much
larger ; the third and fourth are nearly uniform in size, larger
and more elongated than the second ; the fifth and sixth are the
largest and wider and longer than any of the upper ones ; the
seventh is nearly of the same width as the sixth, but not more
than half the length ; the fringe is dotted with white, especially
about the tip.

"On the secondaries a wide fulvous patch covers the inner
part of the wing, extending from near the base to near the
middle of the wing, and bounded towards the inner margin by
a brown edging ; within this patch are three rounded blackish
spots, one most distinct about the middle, the others near the
inner margin and partly lost in the brown edging of the wing

PAPILTONIDJE. 257

Beyond this is an imperfect band of fulvous spots, in continua-
tion of those on the primaries ; the upper ones faint and indis-
tinct, and two of the lower ones prominent and nearly round ;
the last small and linear. The inner margin is edged with
fulvous, having a yellowish tinge which encroaches on the outer
brown marginal band at the anal angle. The fringe of the
secondaries is dotted with dull white. The primaries below
are fulvous, with a single wavy, brown line across the wing a
short distance within the outer margin ; base yellowish, costal
margin sprinkled with dark brown atoms, and a streak of the
same along the middle of the wing near the hind margin. At
the tip is a yellowish patch, occupying the space between
the brown line and the margin, and within this, one of silvery
white nearly equal in size. Below the white are three indis-
tinct, yellowish patches, the lower one extending to the outer
margin ; a large patch of yellow at the lower corner where the
outer and hinder margins meet. The secondaries below are
yellowish from the base to near the middle, with streaks and
spots of brown ; the yellowish color extending down the inner
to the hinder margin. Beyond the middle the wings are
silvery white, sprinkled with yellow and brown scales, divided
by the brown veins and partially crossed by an irregular streak
of brown. There are also two brown patches on the hind mar-
gin, the smaller one nearly round and occupying the space
between the first and second median venules ; the larger being
irregular and resting on the median vein, and extending across
the third to the second subcostal venule." (Canada.) This is
now known to be a suffused variety of M. Tharos.

Melitcea Nycteis Scudder is rarely found in Maine and Mas-
sachusetts ; it is pale fulvous above, with blackish brown
markings, and expands from one and three-fifths to one and
four-fifths inches. M. Harrisii Scudder may be readily distin-
guished from M. Nycteis by the under surface of the hind wings
being cinnamon-red, with bands and spots of white margined
with black. It expands one and three-fourths inches and is
found in New England, though rather a rare species. The larva
has been reared in Norway, Maine, by Mr. S. I. Smith. It feeds
on Diplopappus umbellatus, pupating from the middle to the
last of June, and remaining in the chrysalis state from ten to
17

258 LEPIDOPTERA.

sixteen days ; the butterfly appears from June 20th to Aug.
1st. The larva (Fig. 187, with the chrysalis, after Mr. TV. H.
Edwards) closely resembles that of Melitcea Phaeton, but,
says Mr. Scudder in a letter, it is
smaller, and the orange color pre-
dominates over the black. Like that
of M. Phaeton the caterpillar lives in
swarms on its food plant, covering
the whole summit of the plant with a
web, which at all times is foul with
excrement, and presents a most un-
sightly appearance. The chrysalis, he also states, may be best
described by saying that it is a miniature copy of that of
Phaeton.

M. Chakedon Doubleday is found in California and the
Rocky Mountains, while M. Anicia Doubleday, the under side
of which is much like that of Chalcedon, occurs not only in
California and the Rocky Mountains but also in Kansas. M.
Texana Edwards is a Texan species expanding one and one-
half inches.

In Vanessa the wings are notched and angulated or tailed on
the hind edges, while the palpi are long and beak-like. The
larva is cylindrical and stoutly spined, the spines being long
and branched. The caterpillars are gregarious during the early
stages. "The head of the chrysalis is deeply notched, or fur-
nished with two ear-like prominences ; the sides are very angu-
lar ; in the middle of the thorax there is a thin projection, in
profile, somewhat like a Roman nose, and on the back are two
rows of very sharp tubercles of a golden color." (Harris.)
Vanessa Antiopa Linn, is one of our most abundant butterflies,
being much more common in this country than in Europe,
whither it has probably been carried. Its wings are purplish
brown above, with a broad buff yellow border in which is a row
of pale blue spots. The butterfly hibernates, appearing before
the snow is off the ground. It is seen until June, and then
not until the middle of August. The larva is black, spotted
minutely with white, with a row of eight dark, brick-red spots
on the back. The chrysalis is dark brown, with large tawny
spots around the tubercles on the back. The caterpillar defoli-

PAPILIONID^E. 259

ates the willow, poplar and Balm of Gilead. Vanessa Mil-
bertii Godart is much smaller and is rather rare. It occurs
about roadsides in May, July and August. The larva feeds
on nettles. Mr. Saunders informs me that "it was found feed-
ing on the nettle, nearly full grown, July 26th. It was from
one to one and one-eighth inches long. The head is black,
thickly covered with fine, brownish white hairs, and sprinkled
with many minute whitish dots. The body is black, thickly
sprinkled with whitish dots and with small, fine, white hairs,
each segment, excepting the second, with a transverse row of
branching spines. A greenish yellow lateral line runs close to
the under surface, with a second broken line of a brighter yel-
low color. All the spines and their branches are black, except-
ing the lower row on each side from the fifth to the twelfth
segment, springing from the greenish yellow lines ; these are of
a greenish yellow color. Under surface dull greenish, minutely
dotted with whitish dots. There is a wide, central, blackish
stripe covering anteriorly, nearly the whole of the under sur-
face." V. Californica Boisd. is bright fulvous, with three black
bands on the anterior edge of the fore-wings, and there are no
black crescents in the black border of the wings.

The genus Grapta differs from the preceding in its deeply
incised wings, its smaller size, and red and brown colors.
The under side of the hind wings has usually a silvery or
golden dot and curved line, or both, imitating different punc-
tuation marks. Grapta interrogationis Doubleday is one of the
largest species, and has a golden semicolon beneath. It is found
in May, August, and in autumn. The caterpillars injure the
foliage of the elm and lime trees, and also the hop vine, some-
times defoliating the whole vine. The larva has been found,
by Mr. Saunders, feeding on the hop, August 7th. "When
full grown its length is one and one-fourth inches. The head
is reddish black, flat in front and somewhat bilobed, each lobe
tipped with a tubercle emitting five single, black, pointed
spines ; it is covered with many small, white, and several black-
ish tubercles. The body is cylindrical, black, thickly covered
with streaks and dots of yellowish white ; the second segment
is without spines, but with a row of yellowish tubercles in their
place ; the third segment has four branching spines, all black,

260 LEPJDOPTERA.

with a spot of dark yellow at their base ; and on the fourth
segment are four spines, as there are on all the others, except-
ing the terminal, which has two pairs, one posterior to the
other. The spines are yellow, with blackish branches, except-
ing the terminal pair which is black ; and there is a row of
reddish ones on each side. The under surface is yellowish grey,
darker on the anterior segments, with a central line of blackish
and many small, black dots." The chrysalis state lasts from
twelve to fourteen days. It is ash brown, with the head deeply
notched, and eight silvery spots on the back. Grapta c-argen-
teum Kirby (Fig. 188, GL Progne Harris) is a small species
with a silvery L in the middle of the under side of the hind
wings. It is our most common species northward. It appears
the last of summer. The larva lives on the hop and elm.

Grapta comma Double-
day is more common
southward. It is known
by having a silvery
comma in the middle
of the hinder wings.
The caterpillar lives on
the hop and elm. Mr.
W. H. Edwards has
Fig. 188. found the larvae on the

broad-leaved nettle. He says "my attention was first attracted
by observing certain leaves drooping, and more or less eaten.
On the under side of these I usually found the caterpillar
inactive, and never more than one upon the same plant. The
half-grown larvae were black, with a 3 r ellowish stripe along the
side from the third segment to the tail, and with yellow stripes
across the back, and spots of the same color at the base of
the dorsal spines, which were yellow, tipped with black. The
mature larvae were white, mottled or striped with grey or
ashen, and with red spiracles."

The chrysalis is brownish gray or white, variegated with
pale brown, and ornamented with gold on the tubercles. The
fly appears in May, July, August and September. In the colder
and mountainous portions of New England and New York,
these species are replaced by the Ch-apta Faunus of Edwards,

PAPILIONID^. 261

who states that "comparing Faunus with c-album, the former
is deeper colored by many degrees ; it is one-fifth larger, the
black spots and margins much heavier, and, owing to this and
the depth of the ground- color, the general hue of the surface is
much darker than either c-album or any of the American spe-
cies." The under side of Gr. Faunus is beautifully marbled in
several colors.

The genus Pyrameis differs from Vanessa in having the
wings simply scalloped, not notched ; beneath, they are not
marked with metallic colors, and the long, tapering palpi curve
upward. The larvae are covered with branched spines, corre-
sponding in size, and often wanting on the first and last seg-
ments ; the head is heart-shaped. They are solitary, hiding
under a rolled leaf or spinning a slight web, and hang by the
hind feet alone when about to transform. The chrysalids are
angular on the sides, with two or three lateral rows of sharp,
golden tubercles, and a short, thick tubercle on the top of the
thorax. P. cardui Linn, feeds on thistles and the sunflower,
the hollyhock, burdock and other rough-leaved plants, in June
and July. It remains in the pupa state twelve days, the but-
terfly appearing in Maine, about the 20th of July. Pyrameis
Santera Fabr. has much the same habits, while P. Atalanta
Linn, feeds on the nettle. These species are all double-
brooded, first appearing in May and then in July, August
and September.

Junonia is closely allied to Vanessa. J. coenia Boisd. and
Lee. is found in the Southern States, the West Indies, Mexico
and California.

In Limenitis the antennae are very slender, and the hind
wings are scalloped, while on both wings the discal area is
open. The caterpillar and chrysalis are like those of Danais.
L. Misippus Fal>r. (Fig. 189) is tawny yellow above, and of a
paler yellow beneath, with a broad, black border, spotted with
white, and black veins. It expands from three to three and a
half inches and flies from June to September. The larva is
pale brown, variegated with white on the sides, and some-
times with green on the back ; the prothoracic ring has two
slender, blackish, spinulated horns, and on the tenth and
eleventh rings are short tubercles. It feeds on the poplar and

262

LEPIDOPTERA.

willow. The pupa is known by a thin, almost circular, projec-
tion standing out from its back. The young larvae winter in
cases "composed of the leaf of the willow, on which the larva
feeds, neatly joined by its longest opposite margins, so as to
form a cylindrical tube closed at one end and lined with silk."
(Trouvelot.) L. Ephestion Stoll is blue black, with three black
lines on the hind edges, and just within the outer border is a
row of orange colored spots. It lives on the scrub-oak (Quercus
ilicifolia) in June, and also on the whortleberry and the cherry.
Limenitis Artliemis Drury is smaller and has an oblique, broad,
white band, crossing both wings. It is common in the White
and Adirondack Mountains, where it is double brooded, ap-
pearing late
in June, and
again late in
August.

The superb
and regal ge-
nus Morplio
is the Atlas
among but-
terflies. The
broad wings

Fie. 189.* -,

spread nearly

six inches, and are usually of a brilliant blue above, and brown
beneath, with eye-like spots. Morplio Menelaus Linn., from
Brazil, expands five and a half inches. M. Polyphemus Chenu
is a Mexican species. M. Epistrophis Hiibner is of a delicate
pale green, with two rows of lunate brown spots on the hind
wings. The apex of the fore-wings is brown, and the discal
spot is connected with the brown costa. It inhabits Brazil.

The genus Satyrus, and its allies, Chionobas, HipparcMa and
Neonympha, are wood brown and ornamented, especially be-
neath, with eye-like spots, and have the wings entire, with the
veins of the fore-wings swelled at their base, and the discal
area open on the hind wings. They have a short, quick, jerky
flight. The caterpillars are green and smooth, spindle-shaped,
or cylindrical, tapering at both ends ; the hind end is notched,

*FiG8. 189, 190 and 198, are from Tenney's Zoology.

PAPILIONID^E.

263

and the head entire or notched. They live mostly on grasses.
"The chrysalis is either oblong and somewhat angular on the
sides, with the head notched, and two rows of pointed tuber-
cles on the back, or short and rounded,
with the head obtuse." (Harris) . Chio-
nobas is found on Alpine summits and
in the Arctic regions and on subarctic
mountains. C. semidea Say (Fig. 190 ;
Fig. 191, hind wing) lives on the summit
of Mount Washington. It feeds on
sedges, according to Scudder.

Mr. Scudder, has in the accompanying
figures, closely exhibited the differences
between the Alpine and Arctic species
of Chionobas. C. Jutta Moschler (Fig.
Northern Labrador ; it extends as far south as Quebec, accord-
ing to Edwards. C. Chrixus Doubleday, (Fig. 193) is found
on Pike's Peak, Colorado Territory ; C. Calais Scudder (Fig.
194) is found on Albany River, Hudson's
Bay ; 0. Bore Schiodte (Fig. 195) we
have collected in Hopedale, Labrador,
as also C. (Eno Boisd. (Fig. 196).

Satyrus Alope Fabr. is our largest spe-
cies. It is dark brown, with a broad,
lg ' ' ochre-yellow band beyond the middle.
It is abundant in open fields in July and August,
green larva is striped with dark, the head is round, and the tail
is forked. The chrysalis is rather long, rounded on the sides
and with the head notched. 8. Nephele Kirby is the more

Fig. 190.

192) we took

Fig. 192.

The pale

Fig. 193. Fig. 194. Fig. 195. Fig. 196.

northern form, and in the upper Middle States, as about the
Catskill mountains, occupies higher ground, according to Mr.
Edwards, while S. Alope, which prevails southward, is found
in the lowlands and valleys. S. Nephele is smaller, darker, and

264 LEPIDOPTERA.

there is no yellow band on the fore-wings, though, sometimes,
each eye-like spot is surrounded by a yellowish diffuse ring.

Neonympha Eurytris Fabr. flies low, with a jerky sort of
motion, in thick woods, in June and July. The larva is like
that of S. Alope, while the chrysalis is shorter with the head
obtusely rounded. The adult is dark brown, with two black
eye-spots, pupilled with a lead-colored dot, and surrounded
with an ochre-yellow ring. On the hind wing is a smaller, simi-
lar spot. It expands one and seven-tenths of an inch.

The aberrant ^enus Libythea, with its long, snout-like palpi,
reminds us of the Pyralids. It is small and the wings are
irregularly notched. L. Bachmanii of Kirtland is not a common
butterfly. It occurs southward, and in Central America is re-
placed by L. Garment a.

The small, delicate Theclas and Lycsenas are often of great
beauty and interest. The palpi are elongated, the wings
entire, and the hind pair are often once or double tailed.
The larvae are slug-like, as when moving on their short feet,
sixteen in number, they seem rather to glide than walk. They
are oval, flat below and rounded above, both extremities being
much alike, with the small head retracted within the body.
The short and thick chrysalids are flat beneath, but very con-
vex above and rounded at each end. Chrysophanus Ameri-
canus Harris, our most abundant form, is coppery red above.
Its green larva feeds on the sorrel, and there are three broods
of butterflies in the year. The chrysalis is usually suspended
under a stone. One sent by Mr. Saunders, is smooth, with
no fine hairs. The head and thorax, including the wings, is
dull reddish brown, dotted with black ; the abdomen is much
lighter cinereous, with very distinct, and irregular black dots,
and a lateral row of twin black dots, one dot being a little
behind its mate. On the middle of the back are three rows of
smaller black dots. It is .45 of an inch in length. Chryso-
phanus Thoe Westwood is quite a rare species. Mr. Saunders
describes the eggs as being "nearly round, a little flattened at
the apex and flattened also at the base, where it is fastened to
the box. They are greenish white, and thickty indented ; at the
apex is a considerable depression ; immediately around this,
the indentations are small, growing larger towards the base."

PAPILIONHXE. 265

The genus Lyccena is azure blue throughout, with dark mark-
ings. Lyccena neglecta Edwards (Polyommatus pseudargiolus
Harris) is very common about the Kalmia and Rhodora in
May, and a new brood appears in June and July. It has been
reared by Mr. Saunders, from whom I have received the pupa,
which is a little hairy, being much smaller than in Thecla
Acadica and paler ashy. It is spotted quite thickly with black
blotches, and on each side of the abdomen is a subdorsal row
of rather large, black, contiguous blotches, more distinct than
in T. Acadica. It is .30 of an inch long.

L. comyntas Harris is quite common southward. It differs
from the other species in having a little tail on the hind wings,
at the base of which are two deep, orange-colored crescents.
It flies in July and August. The caterpillar lives on the Lespe-
deza. It is green with three darker stripes. The brown chrys-
alis has three rows of black spots on the back.

Thecla differs from the two preceding genera, in its conspic-
uous tails and the longer clubs of the antennae and its dusky
brown hues. The larvae are longer and flatter, and they usually
live on trees. Thecla Immuli Harris feeds on the hop-vine.
It flies in July and August. . Thecla niplion Godart, a dusky
rust-red butterfly, feeds on the pine. The larva is green, with
a dorsal yellow stripe, and a white one on each side. It
changes to a short, thick, greyish pupa, with two rows, of
blackish dots, and beyond these a row of rust-red ones. Mr.
Saunders has sent us the following description of the cater-
pillar and chrysalis of Thecla Acadica Edwards, found by him
at London, Canada West, feeding on the willow, June llth
and 18th. u lt was .63 of an inch in length, with a very small,
pale brown head, withdrawn within the prothoracic segment,
when at rest. The body is rather dark green, and is thickest
from the mesothoracic to the sixth abdominal segment. There
is a darker green, dorsal line, the dorsal region being flat,
rather wide, and edged on each side with a raised, whitish yel-
low line, and the sides of the body are inclined at almost an
acute angle, and striped with faint, oblique lines, of a greenish
yellow. A whitish yellow line borders the under surface, be-
ginning at the anterior edge of the second segment (the head
is, for convenience, counted as a single ring, or segment) and

266 LEPIDOPTERA.

extending entirely around the body. The chrysalis is .32 of
an inch long, and .15 wide. It is fastened with a silken
thread. The abdomen is thickened and somewhat raised. It
is minutely hairy, pale brown, with many dots and patches of
a darker color ; the upper edge of the wings being quite dark,
with a dark ventral stripe, and four or five short, dark lines on
the side, It remains in the chrysalis state eight or nine days,
the caterpillar turning dark July 3d, just before pupating."
The body, especially the abdomen, is thicker and fuller than in
Chrysophanus Americanus.

TJiecla Mopsus Hiibner is found in New England and Canada.
Mr. Saunders sends me the following description of the larva
taken June 9th, by beating bushes, at London, Canada. "It
was .40 of an inch in length. The head is small, of a shin-
ing black color, with a pale stripe across the front just above
the mandibles, and is drawn within the second ring when at
rest. The body above is green along the middle rings, deep rose
color at each extremity, and is thickly covered with short, brown
hairs. The second segment is rosy above, greenish yellow at
the sides, with an edging of the same color in front ; the third
segment is entirely rose colored ; from the third to the tenth
segments is a dorsal stripe of rose which is wide on the fourth,
fifth, eight and ninth segments, but narrow and linear on the
intermediate ones ; on the tenth segment the green encroaches
on the rose color on the sides of the body, extending more than
half-way upon the segment behind the tenth. The body is
rose colored with a dorsal streak of a darker shade. The rose
color at each extremity is united by a rosy line along each side
close to the under surface which grows fainter on the middle
segments. The under surface is dull green, with a yellowish
tint; the feet and prolegs (abdominal legs) are yellowish
green. June 24th, the larva has now become quite large and
will probably soon go into the chrysalis state. I found it
would readily eat the plum and cherry.

"Its length is now .70 ; its width about .20 of an inch. The
head is very small, bilobed, black and shining, with a streak of
dull white across the front above the mandibles, which are
reddish brown. The body above is dull green, with a yel-
lowish tint, especially on the anterior segments, which are

PAPILIONIM;. 267

thickly covered with very short, brown hairs, scarcely visible
without a magnifier; these hairs arise from small, pale, yel-
lowish dots which appear slightly raised ; there is a dorsal streak
of dark green arising from the internal organs showing through
the semitransparent skin. There is a patch of dull pink, or
rosy color, on the anterior segments from the second to the
fourth inclusive ; it is faint on the second ring, and covering
but a single portion of its upper surface, and nearly covering
the dorsal crest on the third segment, and reduced again to a
small, faint patch on the fourth. On the posterior segments is
a much larger rosy patch, extending from the hinder part of the
ninth segment to the end of the body. The hinder part of
the ninth segment is merely tinged. On the tenth segment it
becomes a rather large patch, widening posteriorly. Behind
this the body is entirely covered with rosy red. The sides of
the tenth segment, close to the under surface, have a streak of
the same color, and there is a faint continuation of this on the
ninth segment. The head is drawn within the second segment
when at rest. The second segment is smaller than the third ;
there is a wide dorsal crest, or ridge, from the third to the tenth
segments inclusive ; behind this the body is suddenly flattened,
the sides suddenly sloping. The under surface is yellowish
green, with a few very fine brownish hairs ; the feet and
prolegs are greenish, semitransparent.

"On June 29th it fastened itself to the lid of the box, chang-
ing to a chrysalis July 1st, which was .45 of an inch in
length, and its greatest width .20 of an inch. The body is
pale brown and glossy, with many small, dark brown or black-
ish dots distributed over the whole surface ; they are thicker
along the middle above, with a faint, imperfect, ventral stripe
from the seventh to the eleventh segments ; the surface is
thickly covered with very short, brown hairs, invisible without
a magnifier. The imago appeared July 13th."

Mr. Saunders has found the larva of Theda strigosa Harris,
a rare species in Canada and New England, feeding on the
thorn, Crataegus, July 13th. "The head is small, greenish, with
a faint tint of brown, and a black stripe across the front below
the middle, and a patch of white between this stripe and the
mandibles, which are brownish black above. The body is of a

268 LEPIDOPTERA.

rich velvety green, with a yellowish tinge, slightly paler be-
tween the segments, and a dorsal stripe of a darker shade,
centred along the middle segments with a faint, j^ellowish
line. The anterior edge of the second segment is yellowish
brown, with a few dots of a darker color. The body is thickly
covered with minute hairs which are brown above and white
below, being scarcely visible to the naked eye. The body is
flattened above (dorsal crest not bordered with yellow as in T.
Acadica), steeply sloped at the sides, where it is striped with
faint oblique line's of yellowish, two or three on each segment.
The two last segments have a patch of yellowish 011 each side,
making the dark dorsal line appear much more prominent. A
faint yellowish line close to the under surface from the fifth to
the terminal segments. The under surface is bluish green,
with a darker patch on the last two segments.

" The chrysalis changed June 19th, and is nearly oval in form.
The head-case is rounded, and the body is dark reddish brown,
with black markings thickly covered with fine, short, whitish
hairs, rather more numerous on the anterior and posterior
segments. Anterior segments with many thickly set patches
of blackish, and a dark ventral line from the sixth to the
twelfth segments. It is bound by a few silken threads on
the anterior portion of the seventh segment."

The accompanying cut (Fig. 197) represents the pupa of a

Thecla, found in July b} T Mr. Sanborn, on the Glen road to

Mount Washington. The body is smooth and tapers gradually

from the mesothorax, and the venation of the wings is

very apparent. Another pupa, probably T. niplion, found
by Mr. Sanborn, is very different, being much stouter,
and thicker through the abdomen, by a third of its
Fig. 197. Diameter, than the chrysalis figured. It is rough and
covered with short, fine, stiff hairs ; the tegument is so thick,
that there are no traces of the veins of the wing, while the
sutures between the segments and the appendages are not
nearly as distinct. The larva, according to Mr. Sanborn's
notes, was found feeding upon the White Pine, July 13th.
"It was .45 of an inch long; the head was retracted, yellow-
ish, and the body pale, transparent green, with four longi-
tudinal, white stripes, and one transverse, lozenge-shaped

PAPILIONID^. 269

patch, of the same color, on the eleventh segment. The rings
were all somewhat elevated in the middle of their diameter and
thinly covered with yellowish brown, short hairs." He did not
succeed in rearing the butterfly, but this description will be
useful to any entomologist who may be fortunate enough to
rear it hereafter.

The Hesperians, or Skippers, are a large group of small,
dark, dun-colored butterflies, whose antennae have the knob
curved like a hook, or ending in a little point bent to one side,
reminding us of the antennae of the Sphinges. * They are moth-
like in their motions, form, and larval characters. They are
stout bodied, with large heads and prominent eyes, and thick
palpi, almost square at the end. The larvae are spindle-shaped,
naked, and with a remarkably large head. They are solitary,
and often hide in folded leaves like the Tortricidce, trans-
forming in a rude cocoon of dead leaves or stub-
ble, held together by silken threads. The pupae
are somewhat conical, like those of moths,
smooth and generally covered with a bluish
white powder. They are fastened by the tail
and a slight band of threads within their rude Fl &- 198>
cocoons. We have many species in this country ; the largest
forms occurring southwards.

Eudamus Tityrus Cramer feeds on the locust and is our largest
species northward. E. Bathyllus flies in June and July. It feeds
on Glycine and Hedysarum in May and June. In Hesperia
the knobs are shorter, and end in a point turned sidewise.
The upper wings are raised, and the lower spread out flat when
at rest. The chrysalis has a long tongue-case free at the end,
in this respect showing a transition to the hawk-moths. They
are snuff-brown, with dark spots.

Mr. W. Saunders has been very successful in raising the
larvae of H. Hobomoc Harris and other butterflies and moths,
by watching for the fertile eggs in captured specimens, which
are often deposited on the sides of the collecting box. The
food-plant of the larvae can usually be discovered after experi-
menting with those plants on which other species of this or
allied genera are known to feed. "The egg, deposited June
17th, is nearly round, flattened on the lower side, and of a

270 LEPIDOPTERA.

pale green color. Under the microscope it appears plainly
reticulated, with fine, six-sided markings, strongly resembling
the cornea of a fly's eye. The larva on finding its way out,
June 27th, began to eat the egg-shell at the centre above.
It feeds on grass, on the inside of the leaves near the joints,
drawing portions of the leaves together with silken threads.
When placed on a strongly ribbed blade of grass, it spins a
few threads from rib to rib, and stations itself behind the
threads. By the 14th of July the caterpillars were three-
eighths of an inch long and resembled those of H. Mystic
of the same age." Mr. Saunders did not succeed in raising
the caterpillars to maturity as they were unfortunately lost.

The most abundant species in New England is H. Wamsutta
Harris (Fig. 198) which frequents roadsides throughout the
summer. According to Mr. Saunders' notes, from "eggs de-
posited July 10th, the young larva was hatched July 24th, the
eggs growing darker about two or three days previous. The
egg is pale greenish yellow, or yellowish green, strongly con-
vex above, and flattened at the place of attachment. The flat-
tened portion is slightly concave and very faintly reticulated
under a power of forty-five diameters.

The young larva, when first hatched, is about the same as
that of Mystic and Hobomoc, probably .10 of an inch, and is
scarcely distinguishable from them, excepting that it is slightly
darker in color. The head is large and prominent and of a
shining black color. The second segment has a ring of brown-
ish black, encircling it above. The body is dull brownish yel-
low, very faintly dotted with black, each dot emitting a single,
rather long, brownish hair. The under surface is rather paler
than the upper.

Mr. Saunders has also reared the larva of H. Mystic Edwards
from the egg, which is "strongly convex above, flattened below
and depressed in the centre of the flattened portion. Under
a magnifying power of eighty diameters, the surface is seen
to be faintly reticulated ; it is pale yellowish green. The eggs
were deposited about the 20th of June and hatched on the
28th and 29th of June. When hatched it was .10 of an inch
long, with a large, black head, and was white, becoming yel-
lowish brown, especially towards the end of the body. It feeds

SPHINGID^E. 271

on grass, and at this stage can scarcely be distinguished from
the young larva of H. Hobomoc. When an inch long the head
is not large in proportion to the body, though it is prominent
and wider than the second segment ; it is dull reddish brown
and black posteriorly. The body above is semitransparent,
dull brownish green, with minute, whitish hairs, similar to
those on the head, with a dorsal line and many darker dots
over the surface. The second segment is pale whitish, with a
line of brownish black across the upper surface, with a faint,
pale, lateral line close to the under surface : the terminal seg-
ments are paler than the rest of the body. The feet are
whitish, semitransparent. This species is found from Canada
to Maryland.

SPHINGID^E Latreille. The Hawk-moths or Humming-bird
moths are among the largest and stoutest of Lepidoptera. The
body is very stout, spindle-shaped, with narrow, powerful wings.
Their flight is, consequently, exceedingly swift and strong.
The antennae are prismatic in form and thickened in the mid-
dle. The tongue, or maxillae, is remarkably long, so that the
insect is able, while on the wing, to explore the interior of
deep flowers. This habit of remaining for a considerable time
poised in the air on their rapidly vibrating wings, causes them
to be mistaken for humming-birds. At rest the wings are
folded, roof-like, over the body. The larvae have sixteen legs,
and on the last segment is an acute horn, sometimes represented
by a simple tubercle. At rest they stand with the forepart
of the body elevated in a supposed Sphinx-like attitude. The
larvae descend into the earth and transform, often in rude,
earthen cocoons, moulded into form by the pressure of the
body. The tongue-case is usually free.

There are between 300 and 400 species known, a large part
of which are tropical American. Most of the species fly in
June and July. The larvae transform in the latter part of
August and in September.

In Ellema the body is small. The head is small, narrow and
somewhat tufted, and with small eyes. It might be passed over
on a hasty 'view for a Noctuid. The larva of Ellema Harrisii
Clemens is green, has no caudal horn, and lives on the pine.

272 LEPIDOPTERA.

Mr. Saunders writes me that he has found it feeding on the
pine, about the middle of September. "It is two inches long,
the body being smooth and nearly cjdindrical and thickest in
the middle of the body. The head is large, pointed above, flat
in front and green, with a yellow stripe on each side. The
body is bright green, with a dorsal row of dark red spots on
the fifth to the twelfth segments inclusive, with a bright yel-
low stripe on each side of the reddish spots and a lateral
white stripe mixed with yellow." The moth is a very small,
ash grey species, only expanding two inches. It frequents
flowers at dusk in June.

The genus Sphinx, as now limited by systematists, is much
larger bodied, with a long and narrow head, small eyes and
long and narrow wings. The head of the larva is rather
large, semi-oval and flattened in front. The body is C3^1in-
drical, smooth and obliquely banded on the side, with an
arching, caudal horn. It transforms in a subterranean earthen
cell. The tongue-case of the pupa is short and free, instead
of being soldered to the body. Sphinx gordius Cramer is dark
brown, with a roseate tinge, and the thorax is blackish brown
above. The larva feeds on the apple.

Sphinx Jcalmice Smith is hoary and rust-red, and on the hind
wings are a median and marginal black band. The caterpillar
feeds on the lilac and laurel. It is pale green, with seven
oblique, lateral, pale yellow bands, edged above with black,
which is again bordered with pale blue. Sphinx drupiferarum
Smith has the fore- wings blackish brown, with the discal dot
and outer edge of the wing whitish fawn-color. The larva
feeds on the different species of plum. The body is pale green,
with lateral purple bands, edged beneath with white. Sphinx
chersis Hiibner (S. cinerea Harris) is the largest species we
have, and is pale ashen, and reddish gray beneath. The larva
feeds on the lilac.

The large " potato worm " belongs to the genus Macrosila,
containing our largest species of the family ; the head is pro-
portionally large, and the wings are rather broad, with the
interior angles dilated. M. cingulata Fabr. has pink hind
wings and pink spots on the abdomen. It feeds on the sweet
potato. M. quinque-maculata Haworth (Fig. 199, moth ; a,

SPHINGID^E,

273

274

LEPIDOPTEEA.

larva ; 6, pupa) is gray ; the fore-wings are immaculate at the
base, and on the hind wings are two distinct angulated bands.
The larva feeds on the tomato and potato vines. It is dark
green, with a series of greenish yellow angular bands on the
side. The tongue-case is long and much arched. M. Carolina
Linn, is cinereous, with a white spot at the base of the fore-
wing, while the central band of the hind wings are indistinct.

The larva (Fig. 200)
feeds on the tobacco
and tomato. It is dark
green with lateral,
oblique, white bands,
edged above with blu-
ish and short trans-
Fig. 200. , , , , .

verse black stripes.

The tongue-case is shorter and less curved than in M. 5-macu-
lata. The tongue of a Madagascar hawk-moth, M. cluentius,
Wallace states, is nine and a quarter inches long, probably
adapted for exploring the long nectaries of some Orchids.

In Ceratomia the body is thick, with the head and eyes small ;
the thorax is short and round, while the abdomen is rather
long. The larva is easily known by the
four thoracic horns, besides the usual
caudal horn. The tongue-case is not
free. C. Amyntor Hiibner (quadricornis
Harris) feeds on the elm.

We now come to the more aberrant
forms of the family. Under the name
of Cressonia Mr. Grote has separated
Fig. 201. from the genus Smerinthus, a species in

which the wings are more notched than in the latter genus, and
the antennae are slightly pectinated. Cressonia juglandis Smith
(Fig. 201, venation) is of a pale fawn-color, and has no e3^e-like
spots on the hind wings, as in Smerinthus. The larva is bluish
green, with a row of subdorsal and stigmatal reddish brown
spots, and six oblique, lateral, bright yellow bands. It lives on
the wild cherry.

In Smerinthus the body is stout, the head sunken and the
maxillae are only as long as the palpi, being almost obsolete.

SPHINGID^. 275

The species are said to fly heavily and only in the night. The
head of the larva is semi-oval or pyramidal, acute above, and
the thoracic rings are obliquely banded on each side. The
pupa is smooth, cylindrical and somewhat conical in form. JS.
modestus Harris is a very large species, expanding nearly six
inches. It feeds on the Lombardy poplar. JS. exccecatus Smith
has the hind wings rosy on the inner angle. The "ocellus" or
eye-like spot is black, with a large, pale blue pupil. The
larva is apple green, with seven oblique, yellowish white lines
on the sides, and a bluish caudal horn. It feeds on the apple
and the Rosa Carolina. JS. geminatus Say (Fig. 202, venation
of the hind wing) is so called from the two sky-blue pupils in
the black ocellus on the roseate hind wings.
The pupa has been found at the roots of
willows.

In the genus Pliilampelus, or lover of the vine,
as its name indicates, the tongue is again as long Fi s- 202 -
as the body. The antennae have a long hook tapering to
the end, bearing cilise in the male. The abdomen is large and
thick, and the wings are deeply concave on the inner border.
The larva has a tubercle in place of a caudal horn. The
tongue-case of the pupa is not free. P. vitis Harris is olive
greeii, with pale green hind wings, which are rose-red towards
the inner margin. The larva is flesh-colored mixed with yel-
low, and with short, transverse, black lines, and lateral, semi-
oval, yellowish white bands, edged with black.

In Deilepliila the abdomen tapers suddenly at the tip and
the fusiform antennae end in a minute hook. The gaily colored
larva has a straight and rather short caudal horn. There are no
oblique bands on the sides of the body, but a row of subdorsal
spots on each side. Clemens states that the anterior segments
are much attenuated, and are capable of being withdrawn or
shortened, or much extended. " When disturbed they fall from
their food-plants, shorten the anterior segments and bend the
head inwards." They transform in a cell excavated from the
surface. The tongue-case of the pupa is not free. D. lineata
Fabr. is olive green, with six white lines on the thorax. The hind
wings are black with a rose colored central band. The larva is
yellowish green ; the subdorsal -spots consisting of two curved,

276

LEPIDOPTERA.

short, black lines, with yellow above and beneath. It is double
brooded in Texas. The larva feeds on the purslane and turnip,
and will, in confinement, eat the apple. D. chamceneni Harris
has a white line on each side of the head and thorax. The
larva feeds on the willow-herb (Epilobium angustifolium) . It
is bronze green, dull red beneath, with nine round cream-
colored spots, pupilled with black, and a dull red caudal horn.
The genus Thyreus has a lateral tuft on each side of the tip of
the flattened, oval abdomen, and the head is broad and obtuse,
while the fore-wings are excavated just below the tips. The

body of the
larva tapers
^ gently from
the first ab-
dominal ring,
and the last
segment has a
lenticular tu-
bercle instead
of a true horn.
When at rest
it throws its
head from side
to side thus
producing a
Fi s- 203 - crepitating

noise. It transforms in a cell on the surface. T. Abbotii
Swainson (Fig. 203 and larva) is dull chocolate brown, with
dull sulphureous hind wings, with a dark brown terminal band
broken up into short lines on a roseate spot at the inner angle.
The larva is reddish brown, with numerous patches of light
green. The tubercle is black, encircled at base by a yellowish
line and a blackish cordate patch. It feeds on the wild and
cultivated grape-vines and on the Ampelopsis quinquefolia, or
woodbine.

The Bee-moth or Clear-wing, Sesia, is smaller than the fore-
going genera, and the body is flattened, oval and gaily colored
with yellow, black and red, while the wings are transparent in
the middle. The larva tapers in front, has a dorsal stripe just

277

above the row of stigmata, and a short recurved horn. It
transforms in an imperfect cocoon at the surface of the earth.
Sesia diffinis Boisd. is pale greenish yellow, with the abdomen
black beneath, and the legs black. The larva is
pale green, reddish beneath. Sesia Tliysbe Fabr.
is a more common species northward. The thorax
is deep olive green, with the abdomen reddish be-
neath, and with whitish legs. It is abundant, flying in June
in the hot sun about the lilac and Rhodora Canadensis.

Under the name of Lepisesia Mr. Grote has separated L.
flavofasciata Barnston (Fig. 204, venation of fore-wing) found
in Canada, from the genus Macroglossa, repre-
sented in Europe by M. stellatarum Linn.
Mr. Grote also separates from the latter
genus, under the name of Eupyrrlwglossum, Fig 205.
a Cuban moth, which has larger, fuller eyes, and larger hind
wings than in Macroglossa. E. Sagra (Fig. 205, venation of
fore-wing) is a handsome form described by Professor Poey.

Harris. These elegant and gaily colored moths,
which by the arrangement of their colors and their clear wings,
look like bees and wasps, are readily recognized by their small
size, narrow wings, thickened antennae, and by the tufts at the
end of the body, which they can spread out fan-like. They fly
very swiftly in the hottest sunshine. The larvae are borers,
living mostly in the hollowed stems of plants. They are whit-
ish, cylindrical, with sparse, short, inconspicuous hairs, and
they have no anal horns. They transform in a rude, oblong,
oval cocoon, constructed of the chips they make in boring out
their tunnels, cemented by a gummy secretion. The pupae are
chestnut-brown, with transverse rows of short teeth on the
abdominal rings, by which they make their way out, partly
through the hole previously made by the larva for the exit of
the moth. The shell of the chrysalis is often left protruding
from the hole. This family is, therefore, quite injurious to
gardeners.

uEgeria exitiosa Say (Fig. 206, $) the Peach-tree borer, has
caused the death of many peach trees and also, according to
Fitch, occasionally attacks the plum. It is a slender, dark

278 LEPIDOPTERA.

blue moth, expanding an inch and a half, or more. The male
is much smaller than the female (Fig. 207), expanding one inch.
She deposits her eggs near the root of the tree. The larvae are
hatched and bore in to feed upon the inner bark and sap wood.
When one year old they make their cocoon under the bark or
at the root of the tree. Borers of all sizes, Harris states, will
be found in the trees throughout the year.

The trees should be protected by wrapping sheathing paper
around the bottom of the trunk, and putting fresh mortar around
the roots. The wounded part may be cov-
ered with clay. ^Egeria pyri Harris infests
the pear tree. It is purple black above and
golden yellow beneath, with three yellow
bands across the abdomen, the middle band
Fig. 206. being the larger.

The habits of the Grape-root borer, ^. polistiformis Harris,
resemble those of the Peach-tree borer. It sometimes de-
stroys grape-vines in the Middle and Western States, but does
not attack the Scuppernong variety. The larva lives under
ground, the female, according to Walsh, "depositing her egg
on the collar of the grape-vine, close to the earth ; the young
larvae, as soon as they hatch out, immediately descend into
the roots." They attack the sap-wood and bark of the roots,
eating irregular furrows. The cocoons are oval, and covered
with bits of wood and dirt. They are
found, through the summer, in the earth
near the roots of the grape, and the moths
fly from the middle of June until the mid-
dle of September, according to Dr. Kron.
Harris describes the moth as being dark
Fig. 207. brown, tinged with tawny orange on the

sides, and banded with bright yellow upon the edge of the
second abdominal ring. The thorax and fourth abdominal
ring are faintly tinged with yellow, or tawny orange, as are
the palpi, under side of the antennae, and the legs. The female
has a little orange colored tuft on each side of the tail, and
the males have two tufts on each side. The wings expand
from one to one and a half inches. Another species, ^E.
caudata Harris, inhabits the wild currant.

ZYGJSNID.E.

279

The currant borer, ^Egeria tipuliforme Linn. (Fig. 208 ; 6,
larva ; a, pupa, enlarged) has been introduced from Europe, and

is a great pest in our gar-
dens, injuring the currant
bushes. It is a slender,
agile, dark blue moth, found
flying in July in the hot sun,
about the currant leaves.
The larva bores in the stems,
and by splitting them open,
in the fall and spring, we
shall find the larva, which

quinque

pupates towards the last of May.

Mr. James Ridings describes from Virginia

caudata (Fig. 209) which has

five filaments at the tip- of

the abdomen. Its body is

blue black, with a transparent

spot at the base of the hind

wings, while the third abdom-

inal segment is red above.

The Squash-vine borer, rig. 210.

Melittia cucurbitce Harris (Fig. 210 ; a, larva), often kills, very

suddenly, the squash plant. The moth is orange colored,
spotted with black, and its hind legs are
fringed with long, orange and black hairs.
She oviposits on the vine close to the roots,
from the tenth of July to the middle of Au-
gust. The larva eats out the interior of the
vine, and usually transforms in a rude earthen
cocoon near the roots, but as we have no-

ticed, within the stem, beginning to spin its cocoon the first

of October.

ZYG.ENID.E Latreille. This interesting group connects the
diurnal with the nocturnal Lepidoptera. Some of the forms
(Castnia) remind us strikingly of the butterflies. The group
may be recognized by the rather large free head, and the
simple antennae which are slightly swollen in the middle, or

280 LEPIDOPTERA.

partially clavate, as in Zygsena. The wings are long and nar-
row in the typical genera, becoming shorter and broader in the
lower genera, such as Euremia, from India. The scales are
fine, powdery and scattered thinly over the surface, often leav-
ing naked spots on the wings. The species are usually green
or deep blue, with scales of purplish black, or entirely black,
alternating with gay colors, such as golden, bronze, or white
and red. They fly in the hot sunshine.

The sixteen-footed, greenish larvae are short, cylindrical, the
body being obtuse at each end. The head is veiy small and
when at rest is partially drawn into the prothoracic ring. The
segments are short and convex, with transverse rows of un-
equal tubercles which give rise to thin fascicles of very short
and evenly cut hairs, which are often nearly absent. The
larvae are either naked, as in Alypia, Eudryas and Castnia, or,
as in the lower moth-like species, they are hairy, like those of
the Lithosians and Arctians in the next family. Before trans-
forming, the larvse usually spin a dense, silken cocoon, though
Eudryas and Castnia make none at all, and Ctenucha a slight
one of hairs. The pupa of Zygsena, especially, is intermediate
in form between that of jEgeria and Arctia, being much
stouter than the first, and somewhat less so than the last.
The head is prominent, and the tips of the abdomen sub-acute.
Ctenucha is more like Arctia, while Castnia and Alypia are
elongate, slender, with the head made especially prominent by
a tubercle on the front of the clypeus.

In common with the Sphingidce, and ^Egeriadce, the
Zygsenidse are confined to the temperate and tropical regions.
The family type, Zygcena, has its metropolis about the Mediter-
ranean Sea, and thence spreads to the north of Europe, and
southward to the Cape of Good Hope. Zygcena exulans is
found as far north as Lapland, and in vertical distribution rises
6,000 to 7,000 feet in the Alps of Styria.

Castnia is, however, a tropical American genus. Alypia is
the most northern genus, extending into the Hudson Bay ter-
ritories. Glaucopis and allies, which comprise a large number
of species, are almost exclusively tropical American. In Aus-
tralia, as Klug observes, Castnia is represented by Synemon.
The American genus Eudryas is represented by very closely
allied South African genera.

281

Castnia closely resembles the Hesperians, though much
larger. The species are of large size and of brilliant hues, and
fly in the day time, like the butterflies. The head is, however,
much narrower in front, and the antennae inserted higher up.
The larva is a borer, living in the stems of Orchids ; it is not
known, but probably has the usual form of boring caterpillars,
and the pupa is said by Klug to resemble that of Cossus.

Alypia comprises black moths, ornamented with white and
yellow patches on the wings. The antennae are long, and a
little thickened in the middle. The wings are short and broad.
The body of the pupa is not contracted at the base of the
abdomen as in Euclryas. The larva feeds on the grape and
constructs an earthen cocoon, like that of .ZEgeria, according
to Harris. A. octo-maculata Fabr. is black, with eight spots,
two on each wing, those on the fore wing being yellowish, those
on the hind wing white.

The genus Psychomorpha is allied to Alypia, but differs in
the broadly pectinated antennae, and the shorter palpi, which
do not pass beyond the front of the
head. P. epimenis Drury (Fig. 211) is
found from Connecticut southwards.
It is black, with a broad, yellow, white,
irregularly lunate patch crossing the
outer third of the wing, and on the un-
der side is larger, being triangular,

with two square black spots connected with the costa ; on the
hind wings is a little larger, mostly regular crescent-shaped
brick-red spot; it expands 1.10 inches. Doubleday (Harris
Correspondence) states on the authority of Abbot, that the
larva feeds on Bignonia radicans, in Georgia. "It is pale,
with black lines, and though having the full complement of
legs, seems to be a semi-looper in its walk, like Brephos."

Eudryas is a peculiar form, gaily colored, and easily known
by the densely tufted forelegs, and the short tufts of metallic
scales on the thorax and abdomen. The antennae are filiform,
and the abdomen is tipped with hairs. The larva of E. grata
F|ibr. is gaily colored with orange and blue, dotted with black.
The body is long and widens towards the eighth ring, which is
humped, from which the body rapidly narrows to the tip.

282 LEPIDOPTERA.

Across each segment is a row of tubercles which give rise to
three fascicles of hairs. The pupa is rather long, with a promi-
nent tubercle on the front of the head, and the abdominal tip
ends in four tubercles. The larva feeds on the grape dur-
ing midsummer and at the end of August creeps down, bury-
ing itself three or four inches, without making any cocoon.
Mr. L. Mitchell of Norwich, Connecticut, has had the kind-
ness to send me "a piece of wood burrowed by the E. grata
with one of the pupae in position." As E. unio is now known
to burrow in the stems of plants, our opinion that Eudryas is
allied to Castnia would seem to be confirmed by the habits of
the larvae which seem, at least occasionally, to bore into wood.
Eudryas unio Hiibner according to Mr. Kirkpatrick, burrows
in the stems of Hibiscus, thus resembling Castnia in its habits.
Mr. Grote establishes the genus Euscirrhopterus for a moth
closely allied to Eudryas. E. Poeyi Grote (Fig. 212, fore
wing ; the venation of the hind wing
being "almost identical with that of
Eudryas") is a brown and yellow
Cuban species.

Zygcena is a European genus, and
its characters have been indicated

in describing those of the family. The antennae are much
thickened towards the end, the wings are long and narrow,
and the species are usually entirely blue black, or green with
red, or white and red bands and spots.

Acoloithus represents the Procris (P. vitis) of Europe, but
the wings are longer and narrower, and the hind wings are
very ovate. The gregarious larva of A. Americana is a little
over half an inch long, being short and thick. It is yellow with
a transverse row of black spots on each ring. Before pupating
it spins a dense cocoon in crevices. The moth is deep blue
black, with a saffron collar. Riley states that the u eggs are
deposited in clusters, and in twenty-five to thirty days from the
time of hatching, the worms, which then measure rather more
than half an inch, spin dirty white, flattened cocoons, mostly
in clusters on the leaf. Three days afterwards they become
chrysalids, also somewhat flattened, and of a shiny yellowish
brown ; while in ten days more the moths issue."

BOMBYCIDJE. 283

The genus Pyromorpha has thin, oblong wings, very broad
at base, the hinder pair being as broad as the fore-pair ; with
a small, slender body. P. dimidiata Herrich-Schaeffer (after-
wards described by Clemens under the name of Malthaca per-
lucidula) is blackish brown, with the basal half of the costal
region of both wings yellowish. It expands one inch, and is
found sparingly in the Middle States, but has been detected
near Boston by Mr. Sanborn.

The species of Glaucopis and its allies, abounding in tropical
America, are represented in the Northern States by Ctenucha,
which has pectinated antennae, long, slender, acutely pointed
palpi, and rather broad wings ; the apex of the fore-pair being
much rounded. The thick-bodied larva feeds on sedges and
grass, and is very hairy, like an Arctian. The pupa is short
and thick, and much like that of Arctia. Ctenucha Virginica
Charpentier is of a deep indigo blue, with a smoky tinge on the
fore wings, a lighter blue abdomen and a saffron collar. It
flies in the hottest sunshine. The female lays
her smooth, green, spherical eggs in a broad mass.

Lycomorpha has dentated antennae, the body
is unusually slender, and the wings long and nar-
row. L. Pholus Drury is deep blue, the wings
being saffron at base. The larva feeds on lichens. From Mr.
E. Bicknell I have received the eggs of this moth. The
larvae hatched August 10th, and closely resembled the larvae
of the Arctians when of the same age.

The genus Callaluda, according to Grote, differs from its
better known ally, Ctenucha, by its antennae not being so
broadly pectinated, its shorter palpi, and by important differ-
ences in the venation of the wings. C. vermiculata Grote (Fig.
213, hind wing) occurs in Colorado Territory.

BOMBYCID^; Latreille. This large and handsome family com-
prises some of the largest and most regal of moths. Their
thick heavy bodies, and small sunken heads, and often obsolete
mouth-parts (the maxillae or tongue being especially short com-
pared with other moths), and the broadly pectinated antennae,
together with their broad, often falcate wings and sluggish
habits, notwithstanding numerous exceptions, afford good

284 LEPIDOPTERA.

characters for distinguishing them. The clypeus is large, the
antennae are inserted higher up than in other moths, so that
when in doubt as to the position of some aberrant forms, a ref-
erence to these characters enables us to determine quite readily
as to their affinities. The larvae are thick, usually more hairy
than other moths, or, as in the typical forms, Attacus, etc., are
thick, fleshy and with seven longitudinal rows of long tubercles,
crowned with spines. The hairs, especially of the Arctians,
are thickly spinulated, so that the cocoons of the hairy species
are very dense and made with but little silk, while the naked
larvae, of which the silk-worm is a type, spin very dense co-
coons of the finest silk. It is probable that the caterpillars are
usually developed in the egg soon after it is laid in autumn.
Dr. Burnett has noticed that the embryos of the American Tent
caterpillar are developed before winter sets in, and ' ' Guerin-
Meneville has found that the larvae of the Japanese silk- worm
(Samia Yama-ma'i) are developed in the egg within a few days
of their deposition in autumn, although they are not hatched
until the following spring." (Zoological Record, 1864.)

Several moths of this family (Arctia pudica, Setina aurita,
Hypoprepia fucosa, etc.) have been known to produce a stridu-
lating noise by rubbing their hind legs over a vesicular expan-
sion situated on the sides of the thorax, and the Death's-head
Sphinx has long been known to produce a creaking sound.
The pupae are very short and thick and easily recognized by
their plump form. "Bar mentions the occurrence in Cayenne
of an aquatic caterpillar, which produces a moth, resembling
Bombyx phazdima of Cramer. This larva lives at the bottom
of the water, and feeds on the roots of an abundant weed."
(Bulletin Societe Entomologique de France, 1864.)

Lithosia and its allies (Lithosiinae) have very narrow wings,
the antennae filiform, and the body slender. The larvae are
cylindrical and covered with short, spinulated hairs. Some of
them do not spin cocoons, so far as we know, the pupa of Cro-
cota being found under stones with the dried larva skin still
adhering to the tip of the abdomen. Lithosia argillacea Pack,
is slate- colored, with yellow palpi and prothorax. The base of
the wings and the tip of the abdomen are yellowish.

Lithosia casta Sanborn (Fig. 214) is an undescribed species

BOMBYCIDJE. 285

of great beauty, discovered by Mr. Sanborn at Berlin Falls,
N. H., August 10th, and also at Ausable Chasm, N. Y. It is
pure milk white, with a slight slate-colored tinge on the hind
wings, and is slate-colored beneath, especially on the fore
wings, and white on the inner edge of the hind wings. Just
behind the middle of the white abdomen are tufts of tawny
hairs, and the tip is white. It ex-
pands one and a quarter inches.

Crambidia has still narrower
wings. C. pcdlida Pack, is of an
uniform drab color and would be
easily mistaken for a Crambus.
Nudaria has broad wings like a Fi #- 214 -

geometrid moth, with hyaline spots. The larva is hirsute and
makes a thin cocoon of interwoven hairs. N. mundana is a
European moth. It is represented in this country by Euplidj-
nessa mendica Walk., which has broader wings and longer
palpi. The wings have two rows of smoky transparent spots.
Hypoprepia has rather broader wings than Lithosia. H. fu-
cosa Hiibner is deep scarlet, with three leaden stripes on the
fore wings, the middle stripe situated at the apex of the wing.
The larva, Mr. Saunders informs me, is "spiny and black,
sprinkled lightly with yellow dots and short lines ; there is a
dorsal row of yellow dots from the fifth to the twelfth segments.
The head is black." Early in May, according to Harris, it

makes its cocoon, which is thin
and silky, and the moth appears
twenty days afterwards.

Crocota is red, or yellowish red,
throughout, with black margins
and dots on the wings. The an-
Fig. 215. tennse are filiform and the wings

are broad, being triangular in form. Our most common
species is Crocota ferruginosa Walk., which is pale rust-red,
with two dusky broad bands on the outer half of the wing. A
much larger form is Utetlieisa bella Linn. (Fig. 215), a beautiful
moth, whose yellow fore wings are crossed by bands of white,
encircling black dots, while its scarlet hind wings are edged
irregularly with black.

286 LEPIDOPTERA.

The genus Callimorpha is still larger, with broad wings.
C. Lecontei Boisduval is white, the fore wings being almost
entirely bordered with brown. The caterpillars of this genus
are usually dark colored, with longitudinal yellow stripes. By
day they hide under leaves or stones and feed by night on
various shrubby and herbaceous plants. C. interrupto-marginata
Beauv. (Fig. 216, fore wing) has an anchor-shaped black spot
when the wings are folded, one side of the anchor being seen
in the figure.

Arctia and its allies are stout-bodied, with short, moderately
broad wings, and simple or feathered antennae. The hairy
larvae are covered with dense whorls of long, spinulose hairs.
They make a loose cocoon of interwoven hairs under the
shelter of some board or stone. The pupa is short and thick.
Arctia virgo Linn, is an exceedingly beautiful insect. Its fore
wings sometimes expand two inches and a half, and are flesh-
red, streaked thickly with broad, black slashes, and on the
vermilion-red hind wings are seven or eight large black spots.
The caterpillar is brown. A. Anna Grote
is allied, but differs in the wholly black ab-
domen and black hind wings. It was de-
scribed first from Pennsj^lvania, and has
been detected by Mr. B. P. Mann on the
Alpine summit of Mount Washington, N. H.

The common black and reddish, very hairy caterpillar, found
feeding on various garden weeds, is the young of Pyrrharctia
Isabella Smith, a stout-bodied, snuff colored moth. The cater-
pillar hibernates, as do most of the others of the group of
Arctians, and we have kept it fasting for six weeks in the
spring, previous to pupating in the middle of June ; it re-
mained twenty-seven days in the pupa state, the moth appear-
ing early in June.

Leucarctia differs from Spilosoma in having narrower wings,
and the outer edge much more oblique. Leucarctia acrcea Smith
is white and buff colored. Its caterpillar is the salt-marsh cat-
erpillar, which at times has been very injurious by its great
numbers. It is yellow, with long hairs growing from yellow
warts, and it makes a coarse, hairy cocoon.

Hyphantria textor Harris is entirely white. The caterpillar, or

BOMBYCHXE. 287

"fall web worm," is slender, greenish yellow, dotted with black,
with thin, silken hairs. It spins a thin and almost transparent
cocoon, or almost none at all. H. cunea Drury is white, spot-
ted with black dots. Mr* Saunders informs me that the larva
"will feed on Chenopodium album. The head is small, black,
shining, bilobate. The body is black, with a slight shade of
brown, and sprinkled with very small, whitish dots. Each seg-
ment has a transverse row of shining black tubercles, each
giving rise to a tuft of hairs of the same color ; on each side
of the body is a double row of orange-colored spots from the
sixth to the twelfth segment inclusive."

The "yellow bear" is the caterpillar of Spilosoma Virginica
Fabr. The moth is white, with a black discal dot on the
fore wings and two black dots on the hind wings, one on the
middle and another near the inner angle.

Halesidota has a more slender body, with longer antennae and
palpi, and longer wings than Arctia, being thin and yellowish,
crossed by light brownish streaks. The larva is very short
and thick, usually white, with dark pencils and tufts of hairs,
arising from twelve black tubercles on each ring,
placed as seen in the cut (Fig. 217). H. tessel-
laris Smith, the "checkered tussock moth," is
ochre -yellow, with its partially transparent fore
wings crossed by five rows of dusky spots. H.
caryce Harris is light ochreous, with three rows
of white semitransparent spots parallel to the very oblique
outer margin. "The chrysalis, according to Harris, is short,
thick, and rather blunt, but not rounded at the end and
not downy." Mr. Saunders writes me, that the larva of H.
maculata Harris "feeds on the oak. It is 1.30 inches in
length ; the body is black, thickly covered with tufts of bright
yellow and black hairs. From the fourth to the eleventh seg-
ments inclusive is a dorsal row of black tufts, the largest of
which is on the fourth segment." The moth appears early in
June ; it is light ochre-yellow, with large, irregular, light,
transverse, brown spots on the fore wings.

These tufted larvae lead to the tussock caterpillars, which, as
in Orgyia, have long pencils of hair projecting over the head
and tail. The pretty larvae of this genus are variously tufted

288 LEPIDOPTERA.

and colored, and feed on the apple tree and various garden
vegetables. The males have very broad wings, with very
broadly pectinated antennae, and fly in the hot sunshine in
September. The females are wingless and often lay their eggs
on the outside of the cocoon, 1 and then die, scarcely moving
from their eggs. 0. antiqua Och. is tawny brown, while 0. leu-
costigma Smith is dark brown, with a lunate white spot near
the outer angle.

The thick and woolly -bodied, pale yellowish, crinkled-haired
Lagoa is an interesting genus. The tip of the abdomen is very
broad, and the antennae are curved and broadly pectinated,
while the wings are short and broad. The larva is very densely
pilose with short, thick, evenly cut hairs, those at the end being
longer and more irregular. It is broadly oval, and might easily
be mistaken for a hairy Limacodes larva, for, like it, the head is
retracted and the legs are so rudimentary as to impart a glid-
ing motion to the caterpillar when it walks. Lagoa crispata
Pack, is so named from the crinkled woolly hairs on the fore
wings. It is dusky orange and slate-colored on the thorax and
low down on the sides. Previous to the last moult it is whitish
throughout and the hairs are much thinner. The larva (Fig.
218) feeds on the blackberry, and, according to a cor-
respondent in Maryland, it feeds on the apple. The
cocoon is long, cylindrical and dense, being formed of
the hairs of the larva, closely woven with silk. The
pupa is very thin, and after the moth escapes, the
thin skin is found sticking partially out of the co-
coon, as in Limacodes and its allies (Cochlidiae).
rig. 218. This last group of genera is as interesting as it is
anomalous, when we consider the slug-like, footless larvae,
which are either nearly hemispherical, boat-shaped, or oblong,
with large fleshy spines, and are painted often with the gayest
colors. The pupae are very thin skinned, and the cocoons are
nearly spherical. The moths are often diminutive, the larger
forms being stout, woolly-bodied and with short, thick antennae,
pectinated two-thirds their length, while the smaller genera
with slender bodies have simple filiform antennae, and closely
resemble some of the Tortrices.

Eudea is a very stout and woolly genus ; the antennae are

BOMBYCIM;. 289

three-fourths as long as the fore wings and pectinated on their
basal half. The fore wings are a little shorter than the body and
the hind wings reach to the tip of the broadly tufted abdomen.
Eudea Monitor Pack, is cinnamon brown, with a large irregular
green patch in the middle of the fore wings. We named
this species from the striking resemblance of the larva to the
iron-clad "Monitor." It is very regularly elliptical, flattened
above, and a broad conspicuous brown spot in the middle of
the back reminds one of the "cheese-box" or turret. Long,
fleshy, bristling spines arise from each end of the larva.

Empretia stimulea Clemens (Plate 8 ; Fig. 1 ; 1 a, larva) is
our largest species of this group. The moth is rarely found by
collectors, and is of a rich, deep velvety brown, with a reddish
tinge. There is a dark streak along the basal half of the me-
dian vein, on which is situated a golden spot, while there are
two twin golden spots near the apex of the wing. It expands
an inch and a half. The larva is thick and elliptical, the body
being rounded above, but flattened beneath, and a little fuller
towards the head. There is a pair of densely spinulated tuber-
cles on each side of the segments, the subdorsal pair on the
metathoracic ring, and a pair on the seventh abdominal ring,
being two-thirds as long as the body is wide. There are three
pairs of small, but well developed thoracic legs, while there are
none on the abdominal segments. The body is reddish, with
the upper side green between the two largest pair of spines,
centred with a broad elliptical reddish spot, edged with white,
as is the green portion along the side of the body. According
to Mr. S. I. Smith, of New Haven, from whom the specimen
figured was received, the larva feeds on the raspberry. He
states that the hairs sting, as its specific name indicates. The
cocoon is rounded, almost spherical, and is surrounded with a
loose web, the whole structure being over three-fourths of an
inch in length. The moth appeared June 18th.

Phobetrum has narrow wings, and the male is very unlike the
female, which has been raised by Mr. Trouvelot, and was con-
founded by us with the Thyridopteryx ephemerceformis of Ha-
worth. Its antennae are very broadly pectinated, and the
remarkably long, narrow fore wings are partly transparent.
Thyridopteryx nigricans Pack, must be considered as belonging
19

290 LEPIDOPTERA.

to this genus. The cocoon of the latter species is tough, leath-
ery, brown, and nearly spherical. The larva of P. pithecium
Smith is broad, ovate, flattened, with six long, tongue-like,
fleshy lateral appendages. It feeds on the
plum, cherry and apple.

In Limacodes the fore wings are oblong,
the costa being straight, while the hind
wings scarcely reach to the tip of the ab-
Fig. 219. domen. The fore wings are often crossed

"by straight lines forming a V. L. scaplia Harris (Fig. 219) is
light cinnamon brown, with a dark tan-colored triangular spot,
lined externally with silver, which is continued along the costa
to the base of the wing and terminates sharply on the apex.
The larva, as its specific name indicates, is boat-shaped, being
of the form of a castana nut, and is green, spotted above with
brown, and pale beneath, while the sides
of the body are raised, the dorsal- surface
being flattened. It constructs a dense, oval,
spherical cocoon, surrounded by an outer
thin envelope. Fig. 220.

Callochlora chloris H-Sch. (Fig. 220) is a pale brown moth,
allied to Euclea, and with a broad, pea-green band crossing
the fore wings.

Lithacodes (L. fasciola Boisd. Fig. 221) and Tortricodes,
strikingly resemble the genus Tortrix, from their narrow
wings, slender bodies, and filiform antennae.

The subfamily Psy chinas, embraces some remarkably diver-
gent forms. The two genera, Phryganidia and Thyridop-
teryx, differing so much in the breadth of their
wings and thickness of their bodies, are, how-
ever, connected by many intermediate forms
occurring in Europe. Psyche is a hairy-bodied
Fig. 221. moth, with broad and thin wings, the female of
which is wingless and closely resembles the larva, and inhabits
a case, which is constructed of bits of its food-plant. The
female of Psyche helix has been known to produce young from
eggs not fertilized by the male. It lives in a case of grains of
sand arranged in the form of a snail shell, thus resembling
some Phryganeids in its habits, as it does structurally.

BOMBYCID^E.

291

The male of Tliyridopteryx (T. ephemerceformis Haworth),
the "basket-worm," is stout-bodied, with broadly pectinated
antennae and a long abdomen ; the anal forceps and the adjoin-
ing parts being capable of unusual extension in order to reach
the oviduct of the female, which is wingless, cylindrical, and in
its general form closely resembles its larva, and
does not leave its case. On being hatched from
the eggs, which are, so far as known by us, not
extruded from its case by the parent, the young
larvae immediately build little, elongated, bas-
ket-like cones, of bits of twigs of the cedar, on
which they feed, and may then be seen walking
about, tail in the air, this tail or abdomen cov-
ered by the incipient case, and presenting a
comical sight. The case (Fig. 222) of the full
grown larva is elongated, oval, cylindrical, and
the fleshy larva transforms within it, while it
shelters the female through life. The genus
(Eceticus comprises large species, with much
the same habits, growing in tropical America
and in Australia.

A basket- worm, allied to (Eceticus^ has been
discovered in Florida, by Mr. Glover, feeding upon the orange,
and we give the following account of it from the study of
his admirable drawings. With much the same habits^-it be-
longs to quite a different and undescribed genus. The body
of the male resembles that of the broad winged Psyche, and
indeed, this moth may be regarded as a
connecting link between the latter genus
and CEceticuSo It may be called the
Platoeceticus Gioverii (Fig. 223). Its
body is slender, with pectinated an-
tennae ; the wings very broad, irregular,
and the hind wings are broad and
much rounded, reaching a third of their length beyond the tip
of the abdomen. It is dark brown throughout, and expands
three-fourths of an inch. The wingless, cylindrical, worm-like
female (Fig. 223 5) is acutely oval in form, and whitish. The
larva (Fig. 223 c) is rather flattened and resembles that of

fc-lM

292 LEPIDOPTERA.

Thyridopteryx. It constructs an oval cocoon (Fig. 223 d)
which hangs to the edge of the leaf.

The genus Perophora, another sack-bearer (P. Melsheimerii
Harris) , is a gigantic Psychid, being about the size of the silk-
worm moth, which it closely resembles in the imago state. It
also lives in a case during the larva state, formed of two oblong
pieces of leaf, fastened together in the neatest manner by their
edges, and lined with a thick and tough layer of brownish
silk. The larva is cylindrical, as thick as a common pipe-stem

and light reddish brown in color.
The head has extensible, jointed
feelers which, when extended, are
kept in constant motion, while be-
hind is a pair of antenna-like organs,
broad and flattened at the end. The
Fig. 224. tail is widened and flattened, form-

ing a circular horny plate, which like the operculum of a whelk,
closes up the aperture of the case. Before transforming within
its case, the* larva closes each end with a circular silken lid.
The pupa is blunt at the hinder end and with a row of teeth on
each abdominal ring. Both sexes are winged. Our species,
P. Melsheimerii Harris, is reddish ash grey, sprinkled with
blackish points, and with a common oblique blackish line.

Notodonta and its allies (Ptilodontes Hiibner) are mostly
naked in the larva state, with large humps on the back, and the
hind legs often greatly prolonged, as
in Cerura, the "fork-tail." The pupa
and moths are best described by stat-
ing that they bear a close resemblance
to the Noctuids, for which they are
often mistaken.

Ccelodasys (Notodonta) unicornis Fi s- 225 -

Smith derives its specific name from the horn on the back of
the caterpillar, and its generic name from the large conical tuft
of hairs on the under side of the prothorax. The moth is light
brown, with irregular green patches on the fore wings. The
cocoon is thin and parchment-like, and the caterpillars remain
a long time in their cocoons before changing to pupae. Nerice
bidentata Walker (Fig. 224) is a closely allied moth. Edema

BOMBYCID.E. 293

albifrons Smith (Fig. 225) is known by the costa being white
on the outer two-thirds. It feeds on the oak, to which it is oc-
casionally destructive. Mr. Riley (American Entomologist,
vol. i, p. 39) describes the larva as being of a "bluish white
ground-color, marked longitudinally with yellow bands and
fine black lines, with the head and a hump on the eleventh seg-
ment either of a light coral* or dark flesh color." It generally
elevates the end of the body. It pupates during the last of
September, the moth appearing about the middle of April, in
the vicinity of Chicago.

Platypteryx, a small geometra-like moth, with its broad fal-
cate wings, seems a miniature Attacus. Its larva is slender,
with fourteen legs, and naked, with several little prominences
on the back, and the tail is forked like
Cerura. The pupa is enclosed in a co-
coon among leaves. P. geniculata
Walker, and Dryopteris rosea Grote,
represent this interesting group. We
also give a rude sketch, traced from
Abbot's drawings, from the advanced
sheets of the Harris Correspondence, of
an undescribed species of Dryopteris
(Fig. 226, and its larva). Doubleday rig. 220.

states that the moth is rose-colored, with a few red dots in the
yellow portion of the hind wings.

' The Chinese silk- worm, Bombyx mori Linn., has white falcate
fore wings, while the hind wings do not reach to the tip
of the abdomen, and the antennae are well pectinated. The
larva is naked, rather slender compared with those of the next
group, and cylindrical ; the second thoracic ring is humped, and
there is a long horn on the tail. It is three to three and a half
inches long. It is of an ashy or cream color, but "in almost
every batch of w r orms there will be seen after the first moult
has occurred, some dark colored, which, at the first glance,
appear to be a distinct species," but Captain Hutton, of India,
shows that "so far, however, are they from being a mere pass-
ing variety .that they are actually types of the original species,
and merely require to be treated according to the established
rules of breeding in order to render them permanent and
healthy."

294 LEPIDOPTERA.

"He attributed the enormous loss of silk- worms by mus-
cardine and other diseases, and the consequent diminution
of the crop of silk, to the combined effects of bad and scanty
food, want of sufficient light and ventilation, too high a tem-
perature, and constant interbreeding for centuries of a debili-
tated stock. He asserted that there was no such thing now in
existence as a perfectly healthy -domesticated stock of silk-
worms ; and moreover, that it was useless to seek for healthy
seed, for whether in Europe, Persia, India or China, the worms
were all equally degenerated, or, if there were a difference at
all, it was in favor of the European race. He had for several
years been experimenting on Bombyx mori, with a view, if
possible, to reclaim the worms, to 'restore to them a healthy
constitution and to induce them to revert from their present
artificial and moribund condition to one of vigor and perma-
nent health. The occasional occurrence in a brood of one or
more dark grey or blackish-brindled worms the 'vers tigres'
or 'vers zebres' of the French contrasting strongly with
the pale sickly hue of the majority, must have been noticed by
all who have had experience in rearing silk-worms ; such occur-
rences have been always spoken of as indicating varieties aris-
ing from domestication. The author had endeavored, by a series
of experiments, to ascertain the cause of this phenomenon, his
conviction being, either that the species had at some time or
other been crossed by another of different colors, and that Na-
ture, as sooner or later she always would do, was making an
effort to separate them, or that the original color of the worm
had been dark, and an effort was being made to revert from a
sickly condition to the original healthy starting point. He ac-
cordingly picked out all the dark colored worms and reared
them separately, allowing the moths to couple only inter se, and
the same with the white worms. In the following spring the one
batch of eggs produced nearly all dark brindled worms, whilst
the other batch produced white worms, sparingly interspersed
with an occasional dark one ; these latter were removed into a
dark batch, which was also weeded of its pale worms. In the
third year the worms were still darker than before, and were
always larger and more vigorous than the pale ones, giving
larger and better stuffed cocoons. He finally succeeded in

BOMBYCID.E. 295

getting an entire brood of dark worms, which he regarded as
a sign of increased health and strength in the larvae, thus
proving that the dark worms were of the original race, which
also agrees with the colors of the numerous species of the genus
of which he has, with others, made known nearly twenty. The
author also considers the white cocoons as a strong sign of de-
generacy, arguing that the good quality of the silk produced,
was no proof of the general health of the insect, as the mala-
dies affected rather the quantity produced, and the present great
fineness was due likewise to the di&ease." (Proceedings of the
Entomological Society of London.) The silk-worm is an an-
nual, though some species of this group yield two and three
broods in the warmer parts of India. It moults four times, but
occasionally only three times.

The cocoon of the silk-worm is white or whitish yellow and
is over an inch long and nearly half as broad ; 360 cocoons
weigh a pound and a half. In France and Italy about thirty-
six days elapse between the hatching of the larva and the for-
mation of the cocoon, it taking four days for the spinning of
the cocoon. In England and certain parts of India it requires
forty-six days for its formation.

The above remarks apply to Bombyx mori Linn., the Chinese
silk-worm, which feeds on the mulberry, originally derived from
the mountainous provinces of China. It is the largest and
strongest of the domesticated species. There are, however, as
shown by Captain Hutton, twelve species of silk-worms, most
of which have been confounded under the name of B. mori,
and which belong to the genera Bombyx of Schrank, Ocinara
of Walker, and Triloclia Moore. There are six domesticated
species of Bombyx. There is not silk enough in the cocoon
of Ocinara to make it worth cultivating (Hutton) .

Captain Hutton, speaking of the larvae of B. Huttoni, re-
marks that it "is curious to observe the instinctive knowledge
which these worms appear to possess of the approach of a hail-
storm. No sooner are the peals of thunder heard, than the
whole brood seems to regard them as a warning trumpet-call,
and all are instantly in motion, seeking shelter beneath the
thicker branches, and even descending the trunk of the tree to
some little distance, but never proceeding so low down as to

296 LEPIDOPTERA.

lose the protecting shelter of the boughs. For rain they care
nothing, but appear to be able to distinguish between the com-
ing of a heavy shower, and the more pitiless pelting of the hail."
Attacus and its allies (Attaci) form the central and most
typical group of the family. They are among the largest of
insects. The genus Attacus is found in China, the East Indies
and the South Sea Islands, and in Brazil. Its immense size,
falcate wings, with the large triangular transparent spot in the
centre, readily distinguish it. A. Atlas Linn., from China,
expands from seven to nine inches. Samia is a smaller genus
and with a partially transparent lunate spot in the middle of
the wings. Samia Cynthia Linn, has been introduced from
China and is a hardy worm, quite easily raised, and the silk is

Fig. 227.

of a good quality. Mr. W. V. Andrews urges, in the American
Naturalist (vol. ii, p. 311), the cultivation of the Cynthia silk-
worm in this country, as it is double-brooded, our native spe-
cies bearing but a single crop of worms. It feeds on the ail-
anthus, and can be reared in the open air. Among many allied
forms, generally referred to the genus Attacus but which still
need revision, are the A. Mylitta (Tussah worm), from China
and India ; A. Pernyi, from Manchouria, which feeds on the oak,
and which has been raised in France, and the Japanese Anthercea
Yama-mai, all of which produce silk, though less reared in
Europe than the Cynthia worm. The silk of the Yama-mai
moth approaches nearest that of B. mori, and as it feeds on

BOMBYCIDvE.

297

the oak, and can be raised in the open air, its cultivation has
gained much attention in Europe. A. Aurota Beauv. is com-
mon in Central and South America. In Brazil it could be
raised with success for home use, but is too delicate for a
northern climate.

Telea Polyphemus (PL 6, male ; PL 7, female) is brown, with
large transparent eye-like spots in the centre of the wings.
The thread of which the cocoon is
spun is continuous, and is readily
unwound. It is coarser than that
of the Bombyx mori, but has a rich
gloss and can be used very exten-
sively in commerce. Its larva
(Fig. 227), which feeds on the Fig. 228.

oak, is thick, fleshy, striped obliquely with white on the sides,
with -angulated segments, on which are tubercles giving rise
to a few short hairs. The pupa (Fig. 228) is very thick, and
the cocoon (Fig. 229) is regularly oval cylindrical.

Mr. L. Trouvelot gives an account in the American Natural-
ist (vol. i) of this silk -worm, which is our most hardy native
worm. So successful was he in rearing them that in a single
season "not less than a million could be seen feeding in the
open air upon bushes

covered with a net."
The moths leave the co-
coons late in May, ap-
pearing until the middle
of June. They then lay
their eggs, generally
singly, on the under side Fig. 229.

of the leaves. In ten or twelve days the caterpillars hatch ; the
operation usually takes place early in the day. The worm
moults five times, the first four moultings occurring at intervals
of ten days, while about twenty days elapse between the fourth
and fifth moults, this process usually occurring late in the after-
noon. It makes its cocoon late in September, and in six or
eight days after beginning its cocoon assumes the pupa state,
and in this condition passes the winter.

The genus Actias is at once known by the hind wings be-

298 LEPIDOPTERA.

ing prolonged into a long tail which reaches far behind the tip
of the abdomen. Actias Luna Linn, is green and the larva
closely resembles that of Telea ; it is, however, banded ob-
liquely with yellow instead of white, and spins a cocoon that is
of much the same shape. It is not so hardy a worm as the
Polyphemus caterpillar. It lives on the walnut, hickory and
maple. In the Museum 'of the Peabody Academy is a closely
allied and undescribed species from the west coast of Guate-
mala, which we would call Actias Azteca. It differs from A.
Luna in its much smaller size, expanding only three and a half
inches, and in the shorter fore wings, the apex being much
rounded and with shorter veins, while the "tails" on the hind
wings are only half as long as those of A. Luna. It also dif-
fers in having the origin of the first subcostal venule much
nearer the dis'cal spot than in A. Luna, being very near that
of the second subcostal venule. It is whitish green, with
markings not essentially differing from those of A. Luna.

Callosamia is a genus with broader wings and no transpa-
rent eye-like spots. The larva has large tubercles and is very
plump. Its characters are intermediate between those of
Sam-la and Platysamia. C. Promethea Drury is a smaller spe-
cies than the others. Its larva is pale bluish green, with the
head, tail and feet 3^ellow, with eight warts on each ring, those
on the two first thoracic rings being the largest, much longer
than the rest and coral red. The cocoon is hung by a stout
silken cord to the stem of the leaf which is then wrapped
around it. It may be found attached to the twigs of the
wild cherry, Azalea and Cephalanthus, or button bush, in
winter after the leaves have fallen.

Our most common species of this group is the Cecropia moth,
belonging to the genus Platysamia, which has a broader
head and wings than the foregoing genera. The caterpillar of
P. Cecropia Linn, is longer, with long spinulated tubercles,
especially marked on the thoracic rings ; the large, very dense
cocoon is open at one end and thus the silk cannot be un-
wound so well as that of the Polyphemus worm, but it is still
useful, and Platysamia Euryale Boisduval is cultivated in Cali-
fornia for its silk, though the cultivation of the Chinese silk-
worm (B. mofi) is carried on there very largely.

BOMBYCID^E. 299

The next group, the Ceratocampadse of Harris, is composed
of large moths, in which the hind wings scarcely extend beyond
the tip of the abdomen, and the wings are often ocellated.
The larvae are longer than in the Attaci and more hairy.

Eucronia Maia Drury has a narrow, lunate, curved white
line in the centre of each wing ; it expands from two and a
half to three inches, and is black with a common, broad, yel-
lowish white band. The caterpillar is elongated, with six
long branched prickles on each ring. It feeds on the oak.

Hypercliiria lo of Walker (Saturnia lo of Harris) is a little
larger than the preceding. The male is yellow and the female
reddish brown, with a faint eye-like spot on the fore
wing, and on the hind wings a large round blue
spot, margined with black and pupilled with white.
The caterpillar is green, with spreading tufts of
spines, very sharp, stinging severely when the insect Flg " m
is handled, and arising from a tubercle, of which there are six
on each ring ; the fascicles on the side are as represented in
Fig. 230. The pupa is thick, pointed at the tip of the abdo-
men, and the cocoon is thin, being made under leaves on the
ground. It feeds on the corn and cotton, to which it is very
harmful southwards, and also on the maple, elm, etc.

Citheronia regalis Hiibner expands from five to six inches,
and its fore wings are olive colored, spotted with yellow and
veined with broad red lines, while the hind wings ate orange
red, spotted with olive, green and yellow. The caterpillar is
spiny, having four large acute spinulated
spines on the anterior thoracic segments. It
feeds on the walnut, hickory and the persim-
mon tree, and spins no cocoon. A second spe-
cies, O. Mexicana Grote and Robinson, has
been described, as its name indicates, from Mexico : it is
more orange and less red, with duller yellow patches. Fig.
231 is a rude sketch (from the Harris Correspondence) of the
young larva, with two of the peculiar long hairs next the head
magnified. A much smaller species, which expands only 3.10
inches, is the C. sepulcrcdis G. and R., which was discovered
at Andover, Mass., by Mr. J. O. Treat. It is purplish 'brown,
without any yellow spots, and with a diffuse discal spot, centred

| I

300 LEPIDOPTERA.

with reddish scales. Mr. Treat has raised this fine moth from
the larva found on the common pitch pine ; it resembles that
of C. regalis. It also occurs in Georgia, as it has been figured
in the unpublished drawings of Abbot, now in the possession
of the Boston Society of Natural History.

Eacles imperialis Hiibner has broader wings, expanding from
four and a half to over five inches. The wings are yellow with
purple brown spots. The larva is but slightly tuberculated,
with long, fine hairs. Its chrysalis is like that of Anisota.

The genus Anisota is much smaller than the foregoing, with
variously striped larvae, which are naked, with two long,
slender spines on the prothoracic ring, and six much shorter
spines on each of the succeeding segments. They make no co-
coons, but bury themselves several inches deep in the soil just
before transforming, and the chrysalids end in a long spine,
with the abdominal rings very convex and armed with a row of
small spines. The species have much smaller, narrower wings,
with less broadly pectinated antennae than in the foregoing
moths. A. rubicunda Fabr. is rose colored, with a broad,
pale yellow band on the fore wings. Anisota senatoria Smith
is pale tawny brown, with a large, white, round dot in the cen-
tre of each fore wing.

The next group of this extensive family embraces the Lach-
neides of Hiibner, in which the moths have very woolly stout
bodies, small wings, with stoutly pectinated antennae, while the
larvae are long, cylindrical and hairy, scarcely tuberculated, and
spin a very dense cocoon. The pupae are longer than in the
two preceding subfamilies. Gasfropacha (Fig. 159, hind wing)
has scalloped wings, and a singular grayish larva whose body
is expanded laterally, being rather flattened. G. Americana
Harris is rusty brown, slightly frosted, and with ashen bands
on the wings.

In Tolype the wings are entire. T. Velleda Stoll is a curi-
ous moth, being white, clouded with blue gray, with two broad,
dark gray bands on the fore wings. The larva is hairy and is
liable to be mistaken for an excrescence on the bark of the
apple tree, on which it feeds.

The American Tent Caterpillar is the larva of Clisiocampa,
well known by its handsome caterpillars, and its large, con-

BOMBYCID^E. 301

spicuous webs placed in neglected apple trees and on the wild
cherry. The eggs are laid on the twigs, in bunches of from
300 to 400, placed side by side and covered with a tough
gummy matter ; they are sometimes infested by chalcid para-
sites.

The larvae of C. Americana Harris hatch out just as the
leaves are unfolding and soon form a web, under which the col-
ony lives. They may be destroyed by previously searching
for the bunches of eggs on the twigs before the tree is leaved
out, and the caterpillars may be killed with a brush or mop
dipped into strong soap-suds, or a weak solution of petroleum.

The larvae become full grown about the middle of June, then
spin their dense white cocoons, under the bark of trees, etc.,
and the moths appear about the
first of July. The larva of C.
Americana is about two inches
long, hairy, with a dorsal white
stripe, with numerous fine crin-
kled black lines on a yellow
ground, united below into a
common black band, with a blue
spot on the side of each ring.
The moth (Fig. 232, and larva) F & 232 -

is reddish brown, with two oblique, dirty white lines on the
fore wings. It expands from an inch and a quarter to an inch
and a half. The Forest Tent caterpillar, C. disstria Hubner
(C. sylvatica Harris) differs in the apex of the fore wings
being much longer, with two transverse rust brown, nearly
straight, parallel lines. It is sometimes destructive to the
apple and oak trees.

The Hepiali are a group of boring moths, the larvae boring
in the stems of plants or in trees. The wings are narrow, both
pairs being very equal in size, and show a tendency to recur to
the net-veined style of venation of the Neuroptera. Xyleutes is
a large moth, with a stout vein passing through the middle of
the discal space, and the short antennae have two rows of short
teeth on the under side. X. robinice Peck is gray, with irregu-
lar black lines and dots on the wings, and a black line on the
inside of the shoulder tippets. The hind wings of the male

302 LEPIDOPTERA.

(X. crepera Harris) are distinctly triangular and yellow on the
outer half. The larva is nearly three inches long, is reddish
above and covered with sparse long hairs. It bores in various
directions through the red oak and locust, and spins a dense
cocoon. The pupa is much elongated, with the suture between
the segments well marked, and the head and thorax rather small.
Sthenopis is a gigantic moth, with more falcate wings than
in Hepialus. S. argenteomaculata- Harris expands nearly
three inches, and is ashy gray, variegated with dusky clouds
and bands, with a small, triangular, silvery spot and round
dot near the base of the fore wings. Hepialus is smaller, with
a larger head and straighter wings. H. humuli Linn, is
injurious to the hop vine in Europe. Our most common spe-
cies, H. mustelinus Pack., is sable brown, with slight silvery
lines on the fore wings. It expands a little over an inch and
a quarter.

Latreille (Noctuidoe). Owlet moths. There
is a great uniformity in the genera of this family, which are
characterized by their thick bodies, the thorax being often
crested, by the stout and well developed palpi, and the simple
and sometimes slightly pectinated antennae. The fore wings
are small and narrow, and the rather large hind wings are
when at rest folded under them, so that the moth looks much
smaller than when frying. They fly swiftly at night, and are
attracted by light. The fore wings have almost invariably a
dot and reniform spot in the middle of the wing, and the moths
are generally dark and dull colored. The larvae taper towards
each end, and are striped and barred in different ways. They
have sixteen feet, except those of the lower genera, such as
Catocala and other broad-winged genera, which have fourteen,
and look when they walk like the Geometers. They make
thin earthen cocoons, and the pupae generally live under
ground. In these and other more essential characters, this
family is intermediate between the Bombycidse and the Phalae-
nidae. There are about 2,500 species known.

These moths can be taken at dusk flying about flowers, while
they enter open windows in the evening, and during the night
are attracted by the light within. When alighted on the table

303

under a lamp a slight tap with a ruler will kill them without
injuring the specimens. In warm, foggy evenings, they enter
in great numbers. The moths fly in July and August, but
many species occur only in autunin, while others hibernate and
are taken early in the spring. An English writer says, " moths'
are extremely susceptible of any keenness in the air ; a north
or east wind is very likely to keep them from venturing abroad.
Different species have different hours of flight."

An English entomologist states, that " after dusk the flowers
of the willow are the resort of several species of moths (Noo
tuidas), some of which have hibernated, and others have just
left their pupa state. It is now some fifteen years since the
collectors first took moths in this way, that were likely long to
have remained deficient in the collections but for the discovery,
by Mr. H. Doubleday, of the attractive powers of the sallow
blossoms. I believe it was the same gentleman who found out
about the same time that a mixture of sugar and beer [or rum
and sugar or molasses, etc.], mixed to a consistence somewhat
thinner than treacle, is a most attractive bait to all the Noc-
tuidce. The revolution wrought in our collections, and our
knowledge of species since its use, is wonderful."

"The mixture is taken to the woods, and put upon the
trunks of trees in patches or stripes, just at dusk. Before it is
dark some moths arrive, and a succession of comers continue
all through the night, until the first dawn of day warns the
revellers to depart. The collector goes, soon after dark, with
a bull's-eye lantern, a ring net, and a lot of large pill boxes.
He turns his light full on the wetted place, at the same time
placing his net underneath it, in order to catch any moth that
may fall. The sugar bait may be used from March to October
with success, not only in woods, but in lanes, gardens, and
wherever a tree or post can be found to put it upon. The best
nights will be those that are warm, dark and wet ; cold, moon-
light, or bright, clear and dry nights are always found to be
unproductive. It is also of no avail to use sugar in the vicinity
of attractive flowers, such as those of the willow, lime or ivy.
Sometimes one of the Geometridce or Tineidce comes, and
occasionlly a good beetle." The virgins' bower, when in blos-
som, is a favorite resort of Noctuse. Many can be taken by

304 LEPIDOPTERA.

carrying a kerosene lamp into the woods and watching for
whatever is attracted by its light.

Tliyatira and Cymatophora are allied by their small, hairy
heads, to the Notodontae in the preceding family. In Thyra-
tira the palpi are long and depressed, and the
f ore w i n g s are dark, with five or six large light
spots, and the larva is like that of the Noto-
Fig. 233. dontae, the segments being humped, and the
anal legs raised while at rest, while Cymatophora is pale ashen,
the fore wings being crossed by four or five waved lines. The
larva is smooth, rather flattened beneath, with a large head.
It feeds on trees, between two leaves united by silk. C. cani-
plaga talker describes from Canada. Gramatophora trisig-
nata Doubleday (Fig. 233, fore wing) is a gaily colored spe-
cies, greenish, marbled with
black, with three large, round,
brown spots on the fore wings.
The larva (Fig. 234) is
humped, giving it a zig-zag
outline, and is brown with the
third to the sixth abdominal Fi e- 234.

rings much paler. It has the unusual power of boring very
smooth, cylindrical holes in solid pine wood. We have re-
ceived specimens of its tunnels from Mrs. J. Brigham. We
have found the larvae just moulting on the leaves of the lilac.
September 12th.

In Acronycta the head becomes large and broad, the fore
wings are broad and short, with dark streaks and a dark mark,

like the Greek letter Psi on the
inner margin. The larvae vary
in being humped or cylindrical,
- 235- downy, slightly hairy, or very

hairy, and feed exposed on shrubs. The pupa lies in a co-
coon made in moss or in crevices of bark. A. oblinita Smith
(Fig. 235, larva) is whitish gray, with darker streaks on the
fore wings.

Apatela Americana Harris is a large, pale gray moth, without
black streaks, whose woolly, yellowish caterpillar, with long,
slender pencils of black hairs, feeds on the maple.

305

We have received from Mr. Sanborn a singular caterpiller
allied to this genus (Fig. 236), which is figured in the Harris
Correspondence as Acronycta acris? var. Americana. "It is
greenish brown," according to Harris, "each segment above
with a transverse oval greenish yellow spot ; the body is beset
with a few long black bristles, dilated at the end, which do not
grow, as usual, from small warts ;
there are no long bristles on
the second and third thoracic,
or on the tenth abdominal rings.
It moves very quickly, and rests
with the fore part of the body Fig. 236.

bent sideways. The chrysalis was found under a log fastened
to another with a few threads. The moth appeared June 28th."
In Leucania the fore-wings are short, the outer margin nearly
straight, while the hind wings are usually white. Leucania
unipuncta Hawofth (Plate 8, fig. 2; a, larva) is the "Army-
worm" of the Northern States. Its larva is smooth, cylindri-
cal, tapering rapidly towards each end, and striped with fine,
dark, longitudinal lines. It feeds on grasses, and in certain
years has greatly ravaged wheat fields. It hides by day among
tufts of grass. The moth is rusty, grayish brown, peppered
with black scales, and with an oblique row of about ten black
dots running towards the apex, and a white discal spot. It
expands a little over one and a half inches. It constructs, in
the middle of August, a rude earthen
cocoon, or cell of dry grass. The moth*
appears the last of August northwards.
Six species^ of Ichneumon, and one of
Tachina, prey upon this species. To pre-
vent the too great accumulation of this
Fig. 237. yer y Destructive caterpillar, the grass land

should be burnt over in autumn. When on the march their
armies may be kept out by ditching, and hogs and fowl should
be turned into fields during the middle of August, while they
are transforming, to prevent their attacks the succeeding year.
Agrotis, the Dart-moth, is known by its crested thorax;
the palpi are broad and truncated, level with the front, and
the antennae are either somewhat pectinated or distinctly cili-

306

LEPIDOPTERA.

ated. The dot and reniform spot are very distinct, being sit-
uated on a black ground, and there is a basal, median, black
streak on the fore wing. The apex of the hind wings is much

produced. The larvae,
called "cutworms," are
thick, with a distinct,
horny, prothoracic
plate, like that in the
Tortrices, or leaf-rol-
lers ; they are marked
with shining and warty,
or smooth and coiicolor-
Mgt 238> ous spots, and often lon-

gitudinal dark lines, and live by day hidden under sticks and
the roots of low plants ; feeding by night. The pupa is found
living under ground. Agrotis tessellata of Harris (Fig. 237)
is dark ash colored ; the two ordinary spots bn the fore wings
are large and pale, and alternate with a triangular and a square,
deep, black spot. It expands an inch and a quarter. Agrotis

devastator Harris is the moth of
the cabbage cut-worm. Another
very abundant species, often seen
flying over the blossoms of the
I Golden-rod in autumn is the Agro-
tis subgothica (Fig. 238). Mr.
Riley states that this moth is the
"parent of a cut-worm which very
closely resembles that of A. Coch-
rani, but which has the dark side
divided into two stripes. The
Fig. 239. chrysalis remains somewhat longer

in the ground ? and the moth makes its appearance from four
to six weeks later than A. Cochrani."

A. suffusa Den. and Schief. (A. telifera of Harris, fig. 239)
is so named from the lance-like streaks on the fore wings. It
appears late in July, and probably attacks corn, as Mr. Uhler
has found the chrysalids at the roots of corn in Maryland.
Riley describes the larva under the name of the Large Black
Cut-worm. It is an inch and a half in length when crawling.

NOCTU^ELITJE. 307

"Its general color above is dull, dark, leaden brown, with a
faint trace of a dirty yellow white line along the back. The
subdorsal line is more distinct, and between it and the stigmata
are two other indistinct pale lines. There are eight black,
shiny, piliferous spots on each segment ; two near the subdorsal
line, the smaller a little above anteriorly ; the larger just below
it, and a little back of the middle of the segment, with the line
appearing especially light above it. The other two are placed
each side of the stigmata, the one anteriorly a little above,
the other just behind, in the same line with them, and having a
white shade above it."

While cut-worms have usually been supposed to feed upon
the roots of grasses and to cut off the leaves of succulent
vegetables, Mr. Cochran, of Calumet, 111., has discovered that
one species ascends the apple, pear and grape, eating off the
fruit; buds, thus doing immense damage to the orchard. Mr.
Cochran, in a letter published in the "Prairie Farmer," states
that "they destroy low branched fruit trees of all kinds except
the peach, feeding on the fruit buds first, the wood buds as a
second choice, and preferring them to all things, tender grape
buds and shoots (to which they are also partial) not excepted ;
the miller always preferring to lay her eggs near the hill or
mound over the roots of the trees in the orchard, and if, as is
many times the case, the trees have a spring dressing of lime
or ashes with the view of preventing the operations of the May
beetles, this will be selected with unerring instinct by the mil-
ler, thus giving her larvae a fine warm bed to cover themselves
with during the day from the observation of their enemies.
They will leave potatoes, peas and all other young, green
things, for the buds of the apple and the pear. The long,
naked, young trees of the orchard are almost exempt from
their voracious attacks, but I found them about midnight, of a
dark and damp night, well up in the limbs of these. The
habit of the dwarf apple and pear tree, however, just suits
their nature, and much of the complaint of those people who
cannot make these trees thrive on a sandy soil, has its source
and foundation here, though apparently, utterly unknown to
the orchardist. There is no known remedy ; salt has no prop-
erties, repulsive to them ; they burrow in it equally as quick as

308 LEPIDOPTERA.

in lime or ashes. Tobacco, soap and other diluted washes do
not even provoke them ; but a tin tube, six inches in length,
opened on one side and closed around the base of the tree, fit-
ting close and entering at the lower end an inch into the
earth, is what the lawyers would term an effectual estoppel to
further proceedings.

" If the dwarf tree branches so low from the ground as not to
leave six inches clear of trunk between the limbs and ground,
the limbs must be sacrificed to save the tree, as in two nights
four or five of these pests will fully and effectually strip a four
or five year old dwarf of every fruit and wood bud, and often
when the tree is green utterly denude it of its foliage. I look
upon them as an enemy to the orchard more fatal than the can-
ker worm when left to themselves, but fortunately for man-
kind, more surely headed off."

Mr. Riley has named this cut-worm Agrotis Cochrani (Fig.

240, and larva) and de-
scribes the larva which,
according to the obser-
vations of J. Townley
of Marquette, Wis.,
also ascends standard
trees, not confining
Fig. 240. j^ i n j ur i eg to dwarf

trees. The cut-worm is 1.07 inches in length. "It is slightly
shagreened and the general color is of a dingy ash gray, with
lighter or darker shadings. The back is light, inclining to flesh
color with a darker dingy line along the dorsum. The sides,
particularly along the subdorsal line, are of a darker shade.
On each segment there are eight small, black, shiny, slightly
elevated points, having the appearance of black sealing-wax,
from each of which originates a small black bristle. The stig-
mata are of the same black color and one of the black spots is
placed quite close to them anteriorly. The head is shiny and
of the same dingy color, with two darker marks ; thick and
almost joining at the upper surface, becoming thinner below
and diverging towards the palpi. The upper surface of the
first segment is also shiny like the head. The ventral region is
of the same dingy color, but lighter, having a greenish tinge

NOCTU^ELIT^. 309

anteriorly and inclining to yellow under the anal segment.
Prolegs and feet of the same color. It has a few short bristles
on the anterior and lateral segments.

"The head is light brown, with a dark brown spot on each
side and dark brown above, leaving the inverted Y mark in the
middle light brown, and having much the appearance of a
goblet, as one looks from tail to head. The cervical shield is
dark brown, except a stripe above and on each side. There
are sparse, short, white bristles laterally and posteriorly.
The venter and legs are of a glaucous glassy color, and the
feet are light brown."

"The moth in its general appearance bears a great resem-
blance to Hadena chenopodii, but the two are found to differ
essentially when compared. From specimens of H. chenopodii,
kindly furnished me by Mr. Walsh, and named by Grote, I am
enabled to give the essential differences, which are: 1. In
A. Cochraniy as already stated, the middle area exceeds some-
what in width either of the other two, while in H. chenopodii
it is but half as wide as either ; 2. In the Agrotis the space
between the spots and between the reniform and transverse
posterior is dark, relieving the spots and giving them a
light appearance, whilst in the Hadena this space is of the
same color as the wing, and the reniform spot is dark. The
claviform spot in the Hadena is also quite prominent, and one
of its distinctive features ; while in the Agrotis it is just about
obsolete.

Another larva is called by Mr. Riley the W-marked cut-
worm. "It measures one and an eighth inches, and its gen-
eral color is ash gray, inclining on the back and upper sides
to dirty yellow : it is finely speckled all over with black
and brown spots. Along the back there is a fine line of a
lighter color shaded on each side at the ring joints with
a darker color. Subdorsal line light sulphur yellow, with a
band of dirty brownish yellow underneath. Along the stig-
matal region is a wavy line of a dark shade with flesh colored
markings underneath it ; but the distinguishing feature is r
row of black velvety marks along each side of the back, on al
but the thoracic segments, and bearing a general resemblance
(looking from tail to head) , to the letter W. The ventral region

310 LEPIDOPTEEA.

is greenish gray ; prolegs of the same color ; thoracic feet brown
black. Head black with white lines in front, resembling an in-
verted Y, and white at the sides. The thoracic segments fre-
quently have a greenish hue." It is the Noctua dandestma.

Still another, of which the moth is unknown, is described
by Mr. Riley under the name of the Pale Cut- worm. "It
is of the same length as Cochran's cut- worm, and the general
color is pale gray, with a lilac colored hue, caused by innumer-
able light purplish markings on an almost white ground.
There is no particular shading on the back, and it is very slight
along the subdorsal line. The stigmatal line, however, being
destitute of the above mentioned markings, is almost white.
Above this line there is a band of a darker shade than the rest
of the body. At first sight this worm appears quite smooth and
uniform in color, the most striking feature being the second
segment, which is shiny black, with three white lines. One of

these lines is on the
top, and continues
to some extent on
the head ; the others
are placed on each
side of this and do
not run down as far.
Fig. 2tt. a The anal segmen t

has also two black shiny marks on its surface. The stigmata
are black and the head is gray, below light shiny, and brown
above. Legs and feet of the same color as the under side of
the body which is nearly white with a glaucous tinge. There
are a few scattering hairs near the tail. This worm is
smoother than the others."

In Gortyna the antennae are crenulated in the male, and the
fore wings are yellow with darker markings. The larva is dull
colored with warty spots. That of G. Jlavago, an European
species, feeds in the stems of thistles and the burdock, chang-
ing to a pupa inside the stem. G. leucostigma attacks the colum-
bine (Harris) . The habits of the Dahlia and Aster stalk borer
(Gortyna nitela Guenee) have been described by Mr. Riley,
who states that the fore wings of the moth (Fig. 241 ; a, larva)
are lilac gray, speckled with minute yellow dots, with a dis-

311

tinct white band running across them. The caterpillar is gen-
erally of a livid or purplish brown, though varying much as to
depth of shading and is darker before than behind. "The
young worm hatches about the first of July and immediately
commences its work of destruction. It works in such a sur-
reptitious manner as to be too often unnoticed till the vine is
destroyed. The plant does not generally show any signs of
decay until the cocoon is about fully grown, when it wilts and is
past recovery. This occurs about a month after the worm is
hatched, and it then crawls just under the surface of the ground,
fastens a little earth together around itself by a slight web and
changes to a chrysalis of a very light mahogany brown color,
and three-fourths of an inch long. The moth comes forth the
fore part of September. The careful culturist need fear nothing
from this troublesome insect, as an occasional close inspection
of the plants about the first of July will reveal the hole where
the borer has entered, which is generally quite a distance from
the ground, and by splitting downwards one side of the stalk
with a penknife it may be found and killed. If this inspection
be made at the proper time the worm will be found but a shott
distance from the hole and the split in the stalk will heal by
being kept closed with a piece of thread." (Prairie Farmer.)

Achatodes differs from Gortyna in not having the fore wings
falcate. A. zete, described by Harris, is rust-red with gray
clouds and bands on the fore wings and yellowish gray hind
wings ; it expands an inch and a half. The larva feeds inside
the stalks of corn, within which it transforms ; it is a little
over an inch long, smooth and naked, with the head and the
top of the first and last rings of the body black, and with a
double row of small, smooth, black dots across each of the
other rings. It also infests the dahlia and elder.

The genus Mamestra comprises rather large moths in which
the antennae are rather long and simple in the male ; the front
of the head is smooth and convex, and the reniform dot is
very distinct, while the outer margin of the fore wings is rather
oblique. The larva is longer than usual and feeds on the
leaves of low plants, remaining concealed by day. The pupa
is subterranean, the cocoon being made of earth.

Mamestra arctica Boisd. (Hadena arnica) is common north.

812 LEPIDOPTERA.

ward, and is found in the colder subarctic regions of America
and Europe. It cuts off the leaves of roses and other shrubs.
Fitch states that the larva, late in May in New York, cuts off
the young shoots of the currant. It is an inch and a half long,
of a shining livid color, with faint dots, from which arise a very
short, fine hair. It remains in the pupa state about a month be-
neath the ground, the moth appearing in July. It is found also
in Labrador and in Europe. The moth expands an inch and
three quarters and is of a deep Spanish brown, variegated with
gray, with a very conspicuous reniform dot ; the outer edge is
bordered with blue gray. Harris also describes M. picta, a red-
dish brown species, with a conspicuous white Z on the outer
edge of the fore wing. The larva is yellow, gaily variegated
with three longitudinal stripes. It feeds on garden vegeta-
bles, and Mr. Fish informs me that it feeds on the cranberry.

The genus Plusia is quite unlike the foregoing genera, as
the palpi are long and slender, and the fore wings are acute,
with silver marks and lines, usually a dot and dash, like a
semicolon ; the inner angle is tufted, and the hind wings are
tiiangular.

Our most common species is Plusia precationis Guenee,
the larva of which, according to Mr. Saunders,. feeds on the
hollyhock in August. "It is one and a half inches long,
the body tapering anteriorly and thickening in the middle
and towards the end. The head is small, smooth, shining
green, with a black stripe on each side. The body is green
with dull whitish, longitudinal lines above and a whitish stripe
somewhat more distinct on each side near the spiracles. It
changed to a chrysalis August' 9th." A species of Plusia, like
P. prsecationis, is figured by Mr. Glover in his unpublished
plates of insects injurious to the cotton plant. It has a much
curved, semicircular discal spot, with a distinct dot just beyond,
the two spots arranged thus *" . The caterpillar is pale
green, the body increasing in size from the head to the tail and
with a lateral row of brown dots. "It was found eating the
cotton flower in Georgia the last of October." It forms a loose,
thin cocoon among the leaves, and the pupa is pale green,
spotted above with irregular brown spots. Mr. Glover also
figures quite a different species of Plusia, which has the same

313

habits as the species just mentioned. It belongs, however, to
a different section of the genus, and on the discal area is an
oblique, golden, irregular oval patch, containing two unequal
dots. The larva is pale green and has a broad, lateral, white
stripe. The chrysalis is brown and protected by a thin, loose
cocoon. P. divergens Fabr. lives on the Alps, in Finmark, and
in Labrador. Mr. F. G. Sanborn found, July 6th, a closely allied
species on the summit of Mount Washington, N. H., which dif-
fers from P. divergens in the forked, golden, discal spot being
a third smaller, while the two branches of the spot go off at
right angles to each other. On the fore wings the second line
from the base is acutely dentate on the submedian vein, where
in P. divergens it is straight, and the outer line is also den-
tate, not being so in P. divergens. The hind wings are yel-
lowish at base, with a wide black margin. It may be called
Plusia montana. Mr. Grote has described P. ignea (P. alticola
of Walker) from Pike's Peak, which is closely allied
to P. divergens. Plusia cerea Hiibner (Fig. 242, side
view) is a reddish brown moth, with obscure markings,
and without the usual metallic spots. It expands a
little over an inch, and is not uncommon in the North-
ern States.

Anomis is a slender-bodied genus, with triangular Fig. 242.
fore wings. A. xylina Say feeds upon the cotton. It is a
brown moth with a dark discal oval spot centred by two
pale dots. She deposits, according to Mr. Glover, a low, much
flattened, vertically ribbed egg upon the surface of the leaf.
The larva is a looper, whence it can be readily distinguished
from the army and boll worms, and its body is thickest in the
middle, very hairy, green, dotted with black along a subdorsal
yellowish line, and with black dots beneath. It matures early
in the season, and a second brood becomes fully grown in Sep-
tember and October. When about to transform it gathers a
leaf together by a web, thus forming a rude cocoon. (Glover.)

Like our northern army worm (Leucania unipuncta) the
Army worm of the South (Fig. 243, egg and larva, Riley),
makes its appearance in great numbers in a single day,
committing the greatest havoc in a few hours. Professor J.
Darby, of Auburn, Ala., writes me that "Saturday, Septem-

314 LEPIDOPTERA.

ber 19th, I was in the field examining the forms (buds before
flowering) and the young bolls (fruit after the floral organs
have fallen off) . I examined all carefully, with no signs of eggs
or worms. On Sunday I did not see it. On Monday I passed
it as usual and observed nothing unusual. On Tuesday morn-
ing I passed it and noticed nothing unusual. On Tuesday noon
every plant in the field was stripped of all its upper leaves ;
not one remaining as far as could be seen, and the plants were
covered with millions of worms. I counted on one plant forty-
six worms. They commence at the top of the plant, eating
every leaf. When the leaves were gone they attacked the
young bolls, eating through the perianth and consuming the
young cotton. In the course of four days the work was done.
They did not touch the grape, nor any other plant in the field.

Many left the field and thousands
were in the road and on the fences,
but not one in a thousand thus
escaped. To-day, September 23d,
there is scarcely one to be seen.
Their disappearance is as myste-
rious as their coming. They have
left no signs that I can see, either
243. oa the stalks or in the ground.

They have extended over hundreds of miles, and nothing
has proved a barrier to them, having been as destructive
on islands in the river, as elsewhera. One-third of the
cotton crop has been destroyed. Nothing of the kind has
occurred in thirty years past to my knowledge." The larva
is reddish brown, with distinct black spots, the dorsal line
being streaked with yellow and black. It hibernates as a
moth. The presence of this caterpillar in the "West Indies
caused the cultivation of cotton to be abandoned. The same,
or another species, also appears often in Guiana and other parts
of South America. A good remedy against the worm is a mix-
ture of two parts of carbolic acid with 100 of water, to be
sprinkled on the leaves of the plant. Heliotliis has pubescent
antennae, the thorax and abdomen are smooth, and the fore
wings slightly acute at tip. The larva is elongated, but not
attenuate, with a large head and distinct lines along the body.

NOCTUJELIT^.

315

It feeds exposed on low plants, preferring the flowers. The
pupa is conical and subterranean. H. armigera Linn. (Fig.
244; a, larva) is the "boll
worm" of the Southern States,
so destructive to cotton crops.
Riley states that it also feeds
on the fruit of the tomato, and
in Southern Illinois on the silk
and green kernels of corn and
also the phlox, tomato and
corn-stalks, and, according to
Mr. T. Glover, it bores into the
pumpkin. Mr. Riley, in the Fig - 2M -

"Prairie Farmer," describes H. phloxiphaga Grote under the
name of the "Phlox worm" (Fig. 245, and larva). He states
that there are two broods in a year, the first appearing in July,
and becoming moths by the middle of August,
the second passing the winter in the ch^salis
state. The eggs are deposited singly on all
rig. 246. portions of the plant, and the caterpillar,
when about to become a chrysalis, enters the ground, and in-
terweaves grains of sand with a few silken theads, forming a
very slight elastic cocoon." The genus Helioclieilus differs
from Heliothis in its broader and shorter wings and its vena-
tion. H. paradoxus
Grote (Fig. 246, vena-
tion of fore wing) is a
pale testaceous moth,
with the fore wings
darker. It inhabits
Colorado Territory.

Anarta is rather a
small moth, with a
hairy body and small
head ; the fore wings Fig. 245.

are thick and velvety, with confused markings, and the hind
wings are yellow or white, often bordered with black. The
larva is short and smooth in repose, with the anterior portion
of the body bent under the breast. The pupa is enclosed in a

316 LEPIDOPTERA.

cocoon of silk mixed with earth. The genus is arctic or sub-
arctic, and inhabits Alpine summits. A. algida Lefebvre in-
habits Labrador and Lapland. A closely allied and undescribed
species, seems to be peculiar to the summit of Mount Wash-
ington, N. H., where it has been detected by Mr. Sanborn.

Xanthoptem semicrocea Guenee (Plate 8, fig. 3 ; a, larva) is
brown, with the base of the wings saffron yellow ; it expands
a little less than one inch. Dr. A. W. Chapman, of Appalachi-
cola, Fla., states in a letter to Mr. Sanborn, that the larva
feeds on the leaves of the Pitcher plant, Sarracenia. It is red
and cylindrical, with short black tubercles on the top of each
segment, and a black cylindrical spine on each side of the
four basal rings of the abdomen, surmounted by fine hairs.
It does not spin a cocoon but hangs loosely by a few silken
threads within the pitcher-like leaf, and the moth is the only
insect that can get out of the bristly and narrow opening of
the "pitcher."

The little slender-bodied genus Erastria has filiform antennae
and a slender crested abdomen, with the usual lines and dots
quite distinct. The larva is smooth and slender, with only
three pairs of abdominal legs. The pupa is enclosed in a co-
coon among leaves or moss. E. carneola Guenee is a common
species, with the outer edge of the fore wings flesh colored.

In Breplws the hind wings are bright orange, the body is
hairy and the antennae are ciliated ; the abdomen is slender,
and the wings are broader than usual. The larva is smooth,
elongate, with sixteen legs, though the first two abdominal
pairs are useless for walking, hence the larva has a semi-
looping gait. It feeds on trees and makes a slight cocoon
in moss or under bark. B. infans Moschler inhabits Labrador
and New England. It flies early in April before the snow has
left the ground.

Catocala is a beautiful genus, the species being numerous
in this country and of very large size, often expanding three
inches or more ; the wings are broad, and in repose form a
very flat roof. The larva is elongate, slender, flattened beneath
and spotted with black, attenuated at each end, with fleshy
filaments on the sides above the legs, while the head is flat-
tened and rather forked above. It feeds on trees and rests

317

attached to the trunks. The pupa is covered with a bluish
efflorescence, enclosed in a slight cocoon of silk, spun amongst
leaves or bark. C. piatrix Grote is brown on the anterior
wings and varied with black, while the hind wings are yellow
with a broad median and marginal band. It is common in the
Middle and Eastern States.

C. ultronia Hiibner (Plate 8, fig. 4 ; a, larva) expands two
and a half inches and is of a rich umber color, with a broad
ash stripe along the middle of the wings, not extending to-
wards the apex, which is brown. The hind wings are deep red,
dusky at base, with a median black band, and beyond is a red
band a little broader than the dark one, while a little less than
the outer third of the wing is blackish. The larva feeds on
the Canada plum. It is gray with black punctures, and the
head is edged with black. The segments are transversely
wrinkled, and on each one are two whitish and two brownish
papillae ; the two brown ones on
the eleventh ring are much en-
larged, and on the ninth ring is a
small brownish horn. On the
sides of the body, before the spir-
acles is a line of light pink fila- Fi - 247 -
ments fringing the scalloped sides. On July 15th the larva
changed to a chrysalis in an earthen cocoon, and the moth ap-
peared on the 2d of August.

Drasteria is a small, grayish moth, with two gemmate black
dots near the apex, and a broad diffuse line on the fore wing.
The larva is a looper, and the body is attenuated at each end.
D. erechtea Cramer flies very abundantly in grass lands in May
and early summer. Mr. Saunders informs me that the larva
(Fig. 247) is "one and a quarter inches long and walks
like a geometer ; the body is thickest in the middle, being
somewhat smaller towards the head, but tapering much
more posteriorly, while the head is not large and is rather
flattened in front and is pale brown, with darker longi-
tudinal lines. The body above is reddish brown, with many
longitudinal darker lines and stripes ; there is a double whitish
dorsal line, with a stripe on each side of the darker shade,
another stripe of the same hue on each side close to the stig-

318 LEPIDOPTERA.

mata, and between these stripes are faint longitudinal lines.
It fed on clover and went into the chrysalis state Sept. 21st."

The two remaining genera have broad wings, and are black-
ish, with numerous transverse waved lines. The edges of the
wings are scalloped, the palpi are very long, and the head nar-
row between the eyes, thus showing their affinities to the
Phalcenidce. The species of Homoptera are of a dark ash
color. H. lunata Drury has a lunate discal spot.

Erebus is a gigantic moth, with the outer margin very
oblique and a large, incised, discal spot and sublunate margi-
nal spots. Our large, blackish species, dark as night, is Ere-
bus odora Drury ; it expands about five inches. The magnifi-
cent, pale gray Erebus Agrippina Cramer (E. strix of
Fabricius) inhabits Brazil ; it expands nearly ten inches.

Latreille (Gfeometridce) . The Geometrids are
easily known by their slender, finely scaled bodies and broad
thin wings, which in repose are not folded roof-like over the
body, but are spread horizontally and scarcely overlap each
other. The antennae are usually pectinated. They are deli-
cate, pale, often greenish or yellowish moths, and fly more by
day than the Noctuids. The palpi are short and slender, and
the tongue, or maxilla?, is weak and short.

The larvae rarely have more than ten legs, some having four-
teen, and a few (Metrocampa and Ellopia) twelve. Thus from
the absence of legs on the basal rings of the abdomen, the larvae
are loopers, or geometers, as grasping the object on which they
are walking with their fore legs, they bring the hind legs close
up to the fore legs, thus making a loop like the Greek letter
Omega. They usually let themselves down by spinning a
silken thread, hence they are sometimes called "Drop-worms."
When about to pupate, the larva either spins a slight, loose,
silken cocoon, or conceals itself under a covering of leaves
fastened together with silk, or buries itself in the ground
without any cocoon, while Harris states that a very few fasten
themselves to the stems of plants and are changed to chrysa-
lids, which hang naked and suspended by the tail. The pupa
is long, slender, conical, generally smooth, sometimes with
lateral protuberances on the head, and usually dark brown, but

PHAI^GNIM). 319

often variegated. The species, of which there are about 1,800
described, are widely distributed, and more are found in the
arctic regions than of the preceding family.

We place at the head of this family the genus Urania and
its allies. From their large size, splendid colors, swallow-
tailed wings, the fore pair of which are elongated towards the
tips, while the outer edge is very oblique, as in Papilio ; their
habit of flying by day and other resemblances to the butter-
flies Latreille placed them among the butterflies immediately
after the Hesperians. They have also been supposed to belong
to the same group as Castnia, but the shape of the head, the
long geometriform antennae, the palpi and the conical pupa and
other characters ally them with the Urapteryx and the higher
Phalsenidae. Urania Leilus is velvet black, the fore wings
crossed by' emerald green striae, and the hind edge of the hind
wings are banded with light blue and golden, while the fringe
and long tail are white. It is found in Surinam and Brazil.

Urapteryx is a true Geometrid, with very square hind wings
extending beyond the abdomen, with their outer margin pro-
longed into a short tail. U. politia Cramer is a yellow species
found in Mexico and the West Indies. The larva of the
European U. sambucaria feeds on the oak, elder, bramble,
etc., and is elongate, with projections from the eighth and
twelfth segments. The pupa is elongate and enclosed in a net-
like cocoon suspended by threads.

In Choerodes the hind wings are still angulated, the angle
reaching beyond the tips of the abdomen ; the falcate apex of
the fore wings is acute, and the outer margin is entire and
angulated just above the middle. The species are usually pale
ochreous, with short transverse strigae and two darker lines,
the outer one of which is obtusely angulated just before the
apex. G. transversata Drury is a pale ochreous species, which
we have found resting on red maple leaves.

The genus Angerona comprises the single species A. croca-
tana Fabr., the larva of which (Plate 8, fig. 5 a) we have found
feeding on the cultivated strawberry during the last of June.
It is an inch and a half long and when at rest extends itself
straight out. The body gradually increases in size to the first
pair of abdominal legs. The head is flattened so as to be

320 LEPIDOPTERA.

square above, and whitish green, with three longitudinal brown
lines. The prothoracic ring is concolorous with the head, from
which two brown lines extend, forming an inverted V on the
hinder edge. The body is pale grass green above, with the
sides bulging. There are four minute black dots on each ring,
a whitish, indistinct subdorsal line, and a lateral white line ex-
tending to the sides of the anal legs. The body is greenish
white. The moth (Plate 8, fig. 5, male) is of a rich yellow,
with brown patches on the wings, and appears in July.

In Endropia, which is closely allied to Choerodes, the outer
edge of the wings is deeply notched. E. tigrinaria Guenee
is dirty ochreous, the wings being sprinkled with black ; the
outer line is nearly straight, ferruginous, paler within, with
some submarginal spots, and the basal line on the fore wings
is angulated, while the apex is pale and margined' externally
with blackish.

Metrocampa is pearly white, with the wings a little bent in
the middle. M. perlata Guen. is pure white, with two darker
oblique lines not angulated ; it is found not uncommonly north-
ward. The larva of the English M. margaritata has twelve
legs, and like Catocala has fleshy filaments on the sides just
above the legs. The pupa lives on the surface of the earth.

Ellopia has pectinated antennae and exceedingly thin trans-
parent wings, which are angulated in the middle of the outer
edge, and with an inner and outer line, the latter bent nearly
at right angles. The larva has twelve legs, but is smooth.
The English E. fasdaria feeds on firs. Ellopia flagitiaria
Guenee is pale ashen ochreous, with the speckles and two bands
pale brown. It expands from six to eighteen lines.

In Caberodes the antennae are broadly pectinated, and the
apex of the fore wings is nearly rectangular. The species
are pale ochreous with thick wings, and the outer line termi-
nates near the apex. C. metrocamparia Guenee is common
northwards; with a blackish discal dot and outer dusky line
arcuated and margined with white.

The genus Nematocampa is characterized by the four fila-
ments on the back of the larva. N. Jilamentaria Guen. (Plate
8, fig. 7 ; 7 a, larva) is a small moth of a pale ochreous color,
with reddish brown lines and dots, a ring in the discal space,

PHAL^NIDJS. 321

and just beyond a dark lead-colored band which becomes a
broad squarish patch on the inner angle, and which is continu-
ous with a broad band of the same color on the hind wings.
It expands three quarters of an inch. Its singular larva we
have found feeding, late in June, on the strawberry. It is .70
of an inch long, cylindrical and with two pairs of long curled
filaments, situated on the third and fifth abdominal rings re-
spectively ; its general color is wood gray, and the pupa is
pale reddish gray. The moth appeared on the 27th of July.

The genus Abraxas, to which our currant worm belongs, may
be known by the whitish or ochreous wings being covered with
dark, often partially transparent blotches, and the larva being
gaily speckled with black and golden spots. A. ribearia Fitch
is ochre-yellow, with two rows of dark spots, the inner row be-
ing incomplete and the outer row with a large blotch in the
middle of the wings. As soon as the leaves of the currant
and gooseberry are fairly expanded, late in May or early
in June, the young caterpillar may be found busily eating
them. In about three weeks after hatching it becomes
fully grown, being about an inch long, and bright yellow
with black dots. The chrysalis may be found under the
bushes, either upon the ground or just under the surface.
In two weeks after pupating the yellowish moth may be seen
flying about the garden. Riley states that by sprinkling
powdered hellebore upon the leaves, or applying a solution of
eight or twelve ounces to a bucket of water, the larvae will
be killed, while hand-picking and shaking the bushes will also
reduce their numbers.

The genus Ennomos is stouter and much more hairy than
any of the preceding genera ; the antennae are well pectinated
in the male, the wings are not so broad as usual and are den-
tate. The larva is rather long and twig-like, either smooth or
humped, and spins a cocoon consisting of leaves drawn to-
gether by silk. E. magnaria Guen. is yellow, punctured with
black, with two dusky lines, and the fringe is partly blackish.
E. subsignaria Hiibner (Fig. 248, moth ; Plate 8, fig. 6, larva)
is a delicate, white, widely distributed species, and in the city
of New York, where it is free from the attacks of its natural
enemies, it is very destructive to the elm trees.
21

322 LEPIDOPTEKA.

A writer in the "Practical Entomologist" (vol. i, p. 57) states
that the caterpillars are hatched as soon as the leaves unfold,
and live unobserved for a week or so in the young shoots in
the tree-tops, and when half grown are seen crawling about the
tree. Towards the end of June they pupate, and in about a
week after the moth appears. The importation of the English
sparrow is said to have very effectually checked the ravages of
this caterpillar, which may be recognized by its resemblance to
the twigs of the tree on which it feeds, while its rather large
head and the terminal ring of the body are bright red.

In Amphidasys the body is very stout and the triangular
wings are inclined to be small (in Nyssia, an European genus,
the female has minute rudimentary wings) and narrow, while
the antennae are broadly pectinated. The larva is stout, twig-
like, being dark brown and
warted ; it is swollen at each
end, and the head is often bifid.
The pupa is subterranean. Such
are the habits of A. cognataria
Guen. which is white and very
thickly sprinkled with ashy
black. We have found the
larva feeding on the ' ' Missouri
Figt 248< currant," the gooseberry, and

the red Spiraea. It went into the pupa state on the 22d of
September.

Boarmia has pectinated antennae, the tip being generally
simple, while the abdomen is rather slender and the wings are
dusky gray and crossed by dentate lines. The larva is twig-
like, elongate, with small humps and lateral projections, and
lives on trees. The pupa is subterranean. B. gnopharia Guen.
is ashen, the wings clouded with fuscous, and dusted with black
scales, with four black dentate lines. A species of Boarmia,
figured by Mr. Glover, "eats the flowers of the cotton, being
found early in October." The larva is of the same thickness
throughout, with a rather large head angulated above, and two
tubercles near the tip. It is brown, with a double lateral
pale stripe. The chrysalis is brown and enclosed in an under-
ground cocoon. The moth expands nearly an inch and a half,

and is ash colored, sprinkled densely with brown speckles, with
three angulated, transverse, black stripes.

Geometra and its allies (Nemoria, lodis, and Racheospila) ,
have smooth, round or angular, entire wings, which are green,
often with whitish lines. Geometra is the largest genus; "it
has pectinated antennae, and the larva is rather short, downy,
with several dorsal humps. The pupa is enclosed in a trans-
parent cocoon amongst moss." (Stainton.) G. iridaria Guen.
is pea green, with two broad bands, and the costa of the fore
wings is white sprinkled with rust red.

A great many species, often difficult to identify from the
sameness in their markings, are comprised in the genus Adda-
lia, which is known by its rather thin wings, with the edges
usually entire, and with stripes and bands and other markings
common to both. The hind wings are often slightly angulated.
The larva is smooth, slender, and feeds concealed under low
plants. The pupa is subterranean, or lives in a cocoon among
leaves. A. nivosaria Guen. is pure white. A. enudeata Guen.
is whitish yellow ; its wings are speckled with brown, and
with pale lines and submarginal spots.

Macaria is easily recognized by its falcate wings, which
have a rounded excavation below the hooked tip, and there is
a rather prominent angle on the hind wings.
There are usually two large blotches, one in
the middle of the wing, and the other on the
outer third of the costa. The larva is rather
short and smooth, and feeds on trees and Fig. 249.
shrubs. The pupa is protected by a cocoon. M. granitoid.
Guen. is gray, with indistinct darker bands and minute black
speckles, with a rust red costal spot in front of a black discal
spot. ';-4h:

Zerene is a beautiful genus, with feathery antennae and broad,
thin, white wings. Z. catenaria Drury is white with black
discal dots, and two black scalloped lines. The larva is a gen-
eral feeder, eating sedges, the goldenrod, blueberry, waxwork,
and according to Mr. Fish, is injurious to the cranberry. It is
a pretty caterpillar (Fig. 249) and is straw colored, the seg-
ments being wrinkled and thickened, with two subdorsal darker
threads ; the head is yellow with six black dots ; the spiracles

824 LEPIDOPTERA.

are black, situated in a white field, and with a black dot on
each side. In Maine it pupates about the middle of August,
making a thin gauzy cocoon, consisting of yellowish green
silken threads. The pupa is white, with scattered black dots
and black stripes ; it remains thirty-two days in the pupa
state, the moth appearing during the middle of September.

In Anisoptery'x the male antennae are simply pubescent, the
wings are ample, and rounded at the tip, while the hind wings
are rounded. The female is wingless, the head small and the
body is oval. The male of A. vernata Peck (Plate 8, fig. 9 ;
9 a, female ; 9&, larva), the moth of the Canker worm, is ash
colored, with a whitish costal spot near the tip of the fore
wings which are crossed by two jagged whitish bands dotted
with black on the outside ; they expand about one inch and a
quarter. In the early spring and late in autumn the male flies
about and couples with the wingless female, which lays a patch
of short, cylindrical eggs, from sixty to one hundred or more,
arranged in rows, and glued to the surface of the bark. The
larvae hatch from the first to the middle of May, or as Harris
states, about the time of the flowering of the red currant, and
the leaving out of the apple tree. Almost before the presence
of the larvae is known they often nearly strip an orchard of its
leaves. They also attack the cherry, plum, elm, and other
trees and shrubs. The canker worm (Plate 8, fig. 96) when
mature is about an inch long, ash colored on the back, black
on the sides, and beneath yellowish. It varies greatly in the
intensity of its markings. It ceases eating when four weeks
old, and late in June creeps down, or lets itself down by a
thread, and burrowing from two to six inches in the loose earth,
there forms a rude earthen cocoon, fastening the grains of earth
together with silk. Twenty-four hours after the cocoon is fin-
ished the worm becomes a chrysalid, which, in the male, is
slender, rather pointed in front and light brown in color. Com-
ing forth in the autumn and following spring, its progress up
the tree can be arrested by the application of coal oil or prin-
ter's ink, by the well known methods, around the trunk, while
the bunches of eggs should be picked off and burnt. The A.
pometaria Harris is as abundant as A. vernata ; it has thinner
wings, wanting the whitish bands and spot, and having an

325

oblique, dusky, apical line. We are inclined to think that it is
simply a variety of A. vernata. Harris has detected an ich-
neumon parasite which preys upon the canker worm, and a
species of Tachina also attacks the caterpillars, and we have
noticed a minute species of Platygaster (Fig. 134), first dis-
covered by Herrick, ovipositing in its eggs. The Calosomas
also devour them, and probably other ground beetles ; and cer-
tain wasps (Eumenes) store their nests with them. (Harris.)

Allied to the canker worm is the Hybernia tiliaria Harris, the
male of which is much larger and has feathered antennae. The
female is larger and slenderer than that of the canker worm,
and along the back are two rows of black dots on a pale gray-
ish ground. The moth flies late in the autumn. The larva is
bright yellow, with ten crinkled black lines along the top of the
back, and is an inch and a quarter in length. It feeds on the
lime, apple and elm, and is sometimes very destructive.

Eupithecia is a diminutive form, with very small rounded
hind wings, while the fore wings are much elongated towards
the apex, and at rest both pairs are spread out and pressed
closely to the surface on which the moth rests. The larva is
rather short, stiff, often marked with dorsal lozenges, and the
head is small and rounded. It feeds on trees or low plants ;
sometimes on seeds of plants. The pupa is slender, conical and
pointed. E. miserulata Grote is clear silky grayish, with a
black interrupted outer line and a grayish fringe, interrupted
with black.

Cidaria numbers many species in which the antennae of the
male is simple or slightly pubescent, and the fore wings are
rather pointed at the tip, while the hind wings are rounded.
The larva is elongate and slender, with the head often notched.
It feeds on trees or shrubs, and the pupa is of variegated
colors. Cidaria diversilineata Hiibn. (Plate 8, fig. 10, 10a,
larva) is yellowish ochreous, with brownish angular lines, and
at rest the abdomen is curved over the back. Mr. Saimders
has found the larva feeding on the woodbine. According to
his notes "the body above is dark brown, with a slightly
reddish tint, and patches of a darker shade along the dorsal
region, being the color of the twigs of its food plant. It
remains in the pupa state about a week." We have also

326 LEPIDOPTERA.

found both brown and green specimens feeding on the grape
vine in midsummer. The worms can be removed by hand-pick-
ing as they are rather conspicuous objects. A larva, probably
of Cidaria, has been found by Mr. W. C. Fish, stripping the cran-
berry plants in Harwich, Mass., late in August. Mr. Fish
writes, "I have never met them that I am aware of before, but
on one bog in this place they destroyed nearly two acres of
cranberry vines, eating off all the green leaves, the bog being
as black in spots as though a fire had been over it." They
were not numerous elsewhere in that town, but may prove at
times to be a great pest to cranberry growers. We failed to
rear the larvae sent by Mr. Fish. They are about the size of
the canker worm. The head, which is no wider than the rest
of the body, is deeply indented, on each side rising into a tu-
bercle ; the anal plate is long, acute, and beneath it are two
minute acute tubercles, tinged with reddish. It is dull reddish
brown, simulating the color of the twigs of the cranberry, and is
finely lineated with still darker lines. The head is speckled with
brown, with a conspicuous transverse band across the vertex,
and two rows of pale spots across the front. Just above the
spiracles is a broad dusky band. Beneath, the bod}^ is paler,
with a mesial clear line edged with brown. It is .80 of an inch
in length. Mr. Fish states that the owner of the bog flowed' it
with water so that it was completely covered and the worms
were killed. This is a rapid and the most effectual way to ex-
terminate insects ravaging cranberry lots.

PYRALID^E Latreille. The Snout-moths, so called from their
very long and slender compresse'd palpi, are very easily recog-
nized by this character alone. The more typical forms have
triangular fore wings, and a slender abdomen and long
slender legs, the front pair of which are often tufted. They
are usually dull ash gray, with a marked silken lustre. The
larger genera, Hypena and Herminia, etc., are called Deltoids,
as when at rest the wings form a triangle of the form of the
Greek letter Delta. Their antennae are sometimes pectinated
in the male. They are usually gregarious in their habits, and
often extremely local. They haunt moist grassy places, are
readily disturbed by day, and fly before dusk, while some are

PYRALIDJ3. 327

true day-fliers. The larvae are generally known by their remark-
ably glassy appearance, and the few hairs on them have an un-
usually bristly look. Many spin a cocoon. The pupa is long,
slender, and conical.

The largest form is Hypena, in which the male antennae are
hairy, and the palpi are long, ascending, and the fore legs are
not tufted, and there are often slight tufts of raised scales on
the fore wings. The larva is elongate, cylindrical, with four-
teen legs, and feeds on low or climbing plants, making a slight
cocoon among leaves.

The Hop vine moth, H. humuli Harris (Fig. 250 ; a, larva
and pupa) is very destructive to the hop. It is marbled with
gray beyond the middle of the fore wings, with a distinct
oblique gray spot on the tip ; they are crossed by two wavy
blackish lines formed of elevated black tufts, and there are two
similar tufts in the middle of the wings ; it expands one inch
and a quarter. The ^^ ^ ^ , /^^
larva is glassy pea-
green. The body is
long and slender,
with rather convex
rings, and with long
sparse hairs. The head is rather large and deeply divided inta
two lobes by the median suture ; it is a little more yellowish
green than the body, which tapers gradually towards the tail,
while the anal legs are long and slender, there being but two
pairs of abdominal legs, so that the caterpillar walks with a
looping gait. The body is striped with a narrow whitish line,
edged broadly below with dusky, and with two white lines on
the sides of the body, though specimens vary in the number of
lines, some having no lateral whitish stripes. It is .45 of an
inch in length. When half grown the larva is pale livid flesh
color, not greenish, with a broad dark dorsal line, bounded on
each side by a whitish line. It is double-brooded, the first lot
of caterpillars appearing in May and June, the moths coming
out late in June and early in July ; while the second brood of
larvae appear in July and August, the moth flying in Septem-
ber. It is very active, leaping off the leaf to the ground when
disturbed. When fully grown it forms a loose silken cocoon

icicue 01 tne wings ; it

328

LEPIDOPTERA.

within a folded leaf or any crevice, the moth appearing in three
weeks. We have raised a species of Tachina from the pupa.
The vine ghould be showered with a solution of whale oil, and
soapsuds, and the plants shaken to rid them of these pests.
Herminia differs from Hypena in its tufted fore legs ; the
larva is short, slender towards each end, covered with small
spots ; it has sixteen legs, and feeds concealed among dry
leaves, making a narrow cocoon among them. H. jucchusi-
alis Guenee is one of our most common species.

Pyralis has narrow wings, the fore wings being oblong, with
distinct lines, and the palpi are short, ascending. The Meal
moth, P. farinalis Harris, is reddish gray at the base and hind
edge of the fore wings, becoming more reddish towards the tip,

with two whitish cross
lines, the space between
being ochreous. The
larva is dull whitish, with
a reddish brown head,
and having reddish pro-
thoracic and anal plates.
It feeds on straw and
corn, and Mr. Riley has
found it feeding on clover.
The Clover worm,
or Asopia costalis Fabr.
(Fig. 251 ; 1, 2, larva in
different positions; 3, 7, cocoon; 4, pupa; 5, 6, moth), ac-
cording to Riley, " attacks and spoils clover for feeding pur-
poses, both in the stack and mow, by interweaving and
covering it with abundant white silken webs and black excre-
ment that much resembles coarse gunpowder. The parent of
these clover worms is a pretty little lilac-colored moth, with
wide golden fringes," and has been introduced from Europe.
The moths fly late in June and in July, and they creep into all
parts of the stack, as the larvae have been found eight feet from
the ground, though they are mostly found at the bottom. The
larva is three-fourths of an inch long and is dull dark brown,
with an olivaceous hue. Mr. Riley thinks there are several
broods through the year, and suggests as a preventative to

PYRALID^. 329

stack the clover on a good log or rail foundation so as to allow
the air to pass up through from beneath.

In Aglossa pinguinalis Harris, the Grease moth, the palpi are
rather long, the fore wings are grayish brown clouded with a
darker hue, and are crossed by two indented lines. The larva
is of an uniform dark brown, with a darker head and protho-
racic plate, and feeds on greasy horse clothes, etc.

Another species of Aglossa (perhaps A. cuprealis) has been
sent me by Prof. A. E. Verrill, who writes me that the larva does
great damage to the old leather -bound volumes in the library
of Yale College, by eating out great patches and galleries in
the leather covers, and also, in some cases, some of the glue
and pasteboard. It spins a silken cocoon. The moth (Plate 8,
fig. 20) differs from A. pinguinalis by the hind wings being
pale whitish gray, instead of grayish brown. The palpi have
the third joint one-third as long as the second. It is pale
brown, with a slight reddish
tinge, and the wings are
crossed by two pale bands,
with several pale costal
spots. The outer band is
heaviest on the costa and
inner angle, and faint in Fig. 252.

the middle of the wing. The hind wings are pale, shining
whitish, with no bands. It expands .90 of an inch.

In Europe, Mr. Curtis states, the Apliomia colonella Linn.
(Fig. 252) which also occurs with us, is a formidable foe of the
humble bee, feeding upon its honey. When fully fed it spins a
tough web of a close woolly texture, in which the caterpillar
turns to a chrysalis (a). "The female moth creeps into the
nest in June to deposit her eggs, and the caterpillars live in
families sometimes of five hundred, to the total destruction of
the progeny of the poor humble bees. The moths are of a dirty
white, the upper wings have a greenish and rosy tinge, with a
line of black dots round the margin, a whitish space near the
base, and two black lines near the costa in the male. The fe-
male has two distinct, indented, transverse bars, and two black
spots on the disc."

Hydrocampa and its allies are exceedingly interesting from

330 LEPIDOPTEEA.

the aquatic habits of the larvae, which remind us of the Caddis
worms. Cataclysta is at once known by its slender body and
narrow wings, the hinder pair of which have a row of eye-like
spots along the hind margin. The larva is elongate, with a pale
head, and is aquatic, feeding beneath the leaves of the Duck
weed, living in a cylindrical silken case covered with leaves.
The pupa has a long ventral projection, and is enclosed in the
case of the larva. C. fulicalis Clemens has, on the outer mar-
gin of the hind wings, a row of five black lunules connected
by intermediate metallic violet blue spots, and behind them a
row of orange yellow dots.

The larva of Paraponyx is provided with branchiae and spira-
cles ; the pupa residing in a cocoon among leaves under water.
Hydrocampa has large white spots on the outer edge of the
fore wings. The larva is rather thick, attenuated at each end,
with a black head. It is aquatic, living in a flat case under
the leaves of water lilies. The pupa resem-
bles that of Cataclysta.

The genus Botys (Fig. 253) includes
many species, in which the conical abdomen
is longer than the wings, and the tip of
Fig. 253. the front pair is often prolonged. The larva

is said by Stainton to be lively, attenuated at each end and
semitransparent, with warty spots. It feeds in rolled up
leaves. The pupa is elongate, smooth, enclosed in a slight co-
coon among leaves. B. verticalis Albin is whitish, with the
outer edge of the fore wings dark grayish. The larva feeds on
the nettle. B. citrina G. and R. is a bright yellow species.

The genus Desmia is at once known by its resemblance to
Botys, and by its black body and wings, spotted with broad
white patches, while the male antennae are swollen in the middle.
D. maculalis Westwood, the Grape leaf folder, is shiny black,
with a white fringe on its wings, which are spotted in the mid-
dle with white patches, and with two white bands on the abdo-
men of the female. It is found chiefly in the Southern States,
where it attacks the grape. The larva, according to Riley, who
observed the moth in Southern Illinois, is "glass-green, and
folds a leaf, or attaches two, that may be close together, by aid
of a few silken threads. It is very active, jumping and jerk-

PYRALID^. 331

ing at the least touch. It acquires a flesh-colored hue
prior to changing to a chrysalis, which it usually does just
within the leaf. Many which thus changed with me on the
21st of July, became moths on the 29th of the same month."

To the genus Pliycita belongs the Apple leaf crumpler, or
P. nebulo of Walsh, which in the West is known to strip the
trees of their early leaves. It draws the leaves together by a
web, and about the middle of June becomes fully grown,
when it closes up its horn-like case, and at the end of the
same month and early in July appears as a long, narrow-winged
moth, somewhat like Nephopteryx, but with broader fore wings.

Nepliopteryx is a genus with very narrow wings, with the
male antennae sinuous at the base. It feeds on various trees,
while the larva of N. Edmandsii Pack. (Plate 3, fig. 2; 2 a,
larva ; 2 6, pupa) , feeds on the cells of the humble bee.

The genus Myelois closely resembles Nephopteryx. Our
most injurious species is the Gooseberry worm, which is very
common. It may be called the M.
convolutella (Fig. 254 ; a, cocoon)
and is an importation from Europe
(Zeller) . Though familiar with the in-
sect, and having raised the moth, our a Fig. 254.
specimens were too much rubbed for identification, and we are
indebted to Mr. Saunders of London, Canada, for very perfect
specimens of the moth, and notes regarding its habits, confirma-
tory of our own observations. The moth is pale gray, with a
dark, transverse, diffuse band on the inner third of the wing,
enclosing a zig-zag white line not reaching the costa. There is
a discal discoloration, and beyond, a white zig-zag line with a
long, very acute angle on the internal margin, and a row of
marginal black dots, while the apex is white, and the veins and
their branches white ; it expands nearly an inch. As soon
as gooseberries and currants are well formed, many turn pre-
maturely red and dull whitish, which is due to the presence
of a pale green, smooth worm, which, after eating out the inside
of one berry, leaving a hole for the passage of the excrement,
enters another berry making a passage-way of silk until it
draws together a bunch of currants, or two or three gooseber-
ries. During the last of June it pupates, while the moth does

332 LEPIDOPTERA.

not appear until the spring of the following year, Mr. Saun-
ders' specimens having left the chrysalis May 8th.

CrambuSj so abundant throughout the summer in grass, is at
once known by 1he long narrow wings being rolled around the
body in a tubular form. The larva has sixteen legs, is whit-
ish or dull colored, with large shining spots, and feeds on moss
in silken galleries. Mr. Saunders has hatched the larvae from
the eggs. "They feed readily on grass, the blades of which
they fasten together with silken threads, under which they live
concealed ; they will also feed on clover." Crambus mutabilis
Clemens is grayish fuscous, the palpi a little darker, while the
fore wings have a grayish median stripe, not extending bej T ond
the disk, and the discal dot is dark brown. It is a variable and
a common species. Other kinds are variously streaked with
silvery white.

The Bee moth, Galleria, has rather broad wings, which are
indented on the outer edge. G. cereana Fabr. (Plate 8, fig.
11) is dusky gray, streaked with purple brown on the outer
edge, with a few dark brown spots on the inner margin. The
larva is yellowish white, with brownish dots. It constructs
silken galleries running through the comb, in which it feeds.
It spins a thick white cocoon. Two broods of moths appear,
one in April and May, the other in August. They lay their
eggs at evening while the bees are resting. The caterpillars
mature in about three weeks.

TORTRICID^E Leach. The "Leaf-rollers" are best character-
ized by the shortness of the palpi, which project beak-like, and
are rarely long enough to be curved in front of the
head ; and by the oblong fore wings. They are of small
size, rarely expanding over an , inch, and are folded
roof-like (Fig. 255) over the body. The fore wings are
Fig. 255. b roa( j ? compared with those of the Tin ei dee , and
are much rounded on the costa. They are variegated with
bands and spots, often of brilliant metallic hues, while the hind
wings are dull colored like the body, the inner edge being folded
fan-like against the body. The antennae are filiform and the
legs are much shorter than in the Pyralids. They fly mostly by
night, resting during the day upon the plant on which the larva

TOETRICID^E. 333

feeds. They most abound in summer, though a few species
are found in the spring and autumn.

The larvae are cylindrical, usually transversely wrinkled, and
nearly naked. The pupa is slender, and the rings of the
abdomen armed with transverse rows of teeth. Many of
the larger species roll up the leaves of trees, or gather them
into a rude tent, with silken threads ; others devour the inte-
rior of fruit buds and seeds, or live in the tender shoots, or
under the bark, or in the roots, while some live exposed on the
leaves of plants.

In Antithesia the palpi are longer than the head, and the
thorax is tufted behind ; the fore wings are more than twice as
long as broad, the costa being regularly arched, while the apex
is obtuse, and the apical third of the costa is white or ochreous.
A. bipartitana Clem, has white fore wings, with a dark brown
basal patch, and a central concolorous band, with two or three
dark brown spots on the outer third of the costa. The tip of
the wing is spotted with brown, and there
is a pale brownish spot in the middle of
the white apical third of the wing. It is <as ' 7a r "^ 9tt
not uncommon northwards.

Another species has been detected on
the rose by Mr. F. W. Putnam. The larva Fig. 256.

is yellowish green with a jet black head and prothoracic shield,
and pupates late in June, the moth appearing during July. It
is identical with the Antithesia pruniana of Hubner (Plate 8,
fig. 13, natural size) a destructive moth in Europe, where it
devours the plum, as its specific name indicates. The inner
two thirds of the fore wings are marbled with black and lilac
colored scales ; the apical third being white, with three costo-
apical dark spots, and the extreme apex black.

The genus Siderea has rather long fore wings, the costa be-
ing regularly arched, and the tip rather pointed, the outer edge
being concave below the tip. Clemens, doubtfully, refers his
S.? nubilana (Fig. 256, 7a, head) to this genus. The fore
wings are brown, with dark brown markings, and there is a
dark brown basal line and a central irregular dark brown band,
which becomes ochreous brown in the middle of the wing, and
seems to be separated from a conspicuous dark brown triangu-

334

LEPIDOPTERA.

Fig. 257.

lar patch, which is edged narrowly with ochreous. Near the
inner angle are two dark brown oblique stripes.

The typical genus Tortrix has the palpi much longer than
the head, with the fore wings about twice as long as broad, and
the costa arched abruptly at the base, while the outer edge is
truncate and sometimes hollowed out below the tip. T. geli-
dana Moschler is a common arctic form, and occurs commonly
in northern Labrador, and has been detected
on the Alpine summit of Mount Washington
by Mr. F. G. Sanborn. He has also detected
a new species which feeds on the cranberry,
for which we suggest the name Tortrix oxycoc-
cana. Its body is dark brown, with lighter
hairs on each side of the abdominal segments,
and fuscous at the tip. The fore wings are
of a peculiar glistening gray, mottled with red-
dish brown scales, especially towards the outer edge. There
are no well defined spots or bands. The hind wings and body,
and under surface of the wings are slate colored. The wings
expand -.64 inch.

The Leptoris breviornatana of Clemens (Fig. 257 ; a, side
view of the head and labial palpi ; 6, fore wing ; c, hind wing),
which is referred to the genus Tortrix by Mr. C. T. Robinson,
has tawny yellow fore wings, with the veins brown. An oblique

brown band arises on the basal
third of the costa, and runs to
the middle of the inner margin,
but does not reach it. On the
costa is a brown patch. It lives
in Virginia. Mr. Robinson also
informs me that in a forthcom-
ing paper on this family he re-
fers the Ptycholoma? semifus-
cana of Clemens (Fig. 258 ; o, head ; 6, fore wing ; c, hind
wing) to the present genus. "The fore wings are white along
the costa and hinder margin, marked with pale brown, ochreous
and tarnished silvery stripes and spots." It ranges from
Maine to Virginia.

The genus Lozotcenia has palpi rather longer than the head.

Fig. 258.

TOKTRICIM;. 335

It differs from Tortrix in the male having a fold or flap of scales
extending nearly to the tip of the fore wing, while the outer
edge is indented below the tip, which is rather produced up-
wards. The larvae of this genus feed in leaves, the edges of
which are drawn together by silken threads, or in the stems and
seeds of plants. L. rosaceana Harris (Plate 8, fig. 12; 12 a,
larva) is pale brown, with two oblique, darker reddish brown
bands, and a triangular spot of the same color on the costa near
the tip. The hind wings are ochreous yellow, and blackish
within. The larva, early in June, binds together the leaves of
the rose, apple and strawberry. It is plump and rather large,
and of a pale yellowish green. We found, on the 23d of June,
the fully grown larva on the leaves of the strawberry, doubling
them up and binding them together by a few silken threads.
The worm is pale livid, greenish above and paler beneath, with
a conspicuous black dot on each side of the hinder edge of the
prothorax. The head is very pale honey yellow, with two black
spots : one near the insertion of the mandibles, and the other
on the side near the base of the head. The posterior half of
each segment is transversely wrinkled a few times. The body
is scattered over with a few minute tubercles, each giving rise
to a fine hair. It is .80 of an inch long. One specimen spun
its slight cocoon on June 26th, the pupa appearing June 30th.
It is sometimes attacked by Ichneumons. The pupa is pointed
on the vertex of the head, and on the back of each abdominal
ring are two rows of spines. The moth usually appears the
last of June. There is a second brood in August.

We have reared another species from the wild strawberry.
It may be called the Lozotcenia fragariana. "It is a very pretty
moth expanding .80 of an inch, with red fore wings, darker on
the outer half and with a large triangular white spot near the
middle of the costa ; the outer edge of the spot is hollowed out.
The outer edge of the wing is pale, especially in the middle,
and concolorous with the head and palpi, and thorax. The
hind wings and abdomen are whitish buff. The hind wings
are whitish beneath. The larva may be found in Maine, early
in June, folding the leaves, and the moth appears in the mid-
dle of the same month.

The Lozotcenia gossypiana, or Cotton Leaf-roller, we describe

336 LEPIDOPTERA.

from the very characteristic drawings of Mr. Glover. The
larva closely resembles that of L. rosaceana and is about the
same size. It rolls up the leaf of the cotton into a loose cir-
cular fold, and when fully grown spins a thin, loose, transpar-
ent cocoon between the leaves. On the abdominal tip of the
brown cocoon are three pairs of minute hooks, the two outer
pairs supported on a pedicel, by which the chrysalis is re-
tained in place in the cocoon. The moth is the size of the
L. rosaceana, being pale reddish brown, and with three darker
bars, the inner one crossing the costal two-thirds of the wing,
the middle and broadest crossing the wing obliquely, and ter-
minating near the outer angle, while the third bar cuts off the
apex of the wing. The hind wings are paler, but dusky along
the inner side.

The species of Penthina may be recognized by the oblong
fore wings, the apex being obtuse, sometimes a little falcate.
An interesting species, according to information received from
Mr. M. C. Reed of Hudson, Ohio, rolls up the leaves of the
grape, and when the fruit becomes formed, eats the pulp and
seeds, thus doing a two-fold injury to the vine. It may be
called the Penthina vitivomna* (Plate 8, fig. 22, enlarged).
The head, thorax, and palpi, and basal half of the antennae are
fulvous. The fore wings are dark slate brown. From the mid-
dle of the costa proceeds a blackish band which curves to the
middle of the outer third of the wing ; beyond is a linear curved
costal band succeeded by another broader but quite short costal
line ; the costa is tawny beyond, sending a tawny patch obliquely
inwards. Near the margin is an irregular blackish patch and
two dark spots on the costa, and a larger one at the apex. The
hind wings and body are dark slate color. It expands .40 of an
inch. The first brood of caterpillars feeds on the leaves, ap-
pearing in May (in Ohio), or as soon as the leaves are grown.
The second brood appears when the grapes are nearly filled
out, and then they feed on the pulp and seeds. Mr. Reed writes
me that "in every instance where a grape was opened contain-
ing a fully grown larva, the seeds were mere shells. They con-
tinue their work until the grapes are fully ripe, and at that
time on removing to a new berry, seem to make their home in
the old one, which is attached by a web." The larva turns

*It is the Lobesia botrana of Southern Europe according to Prof. Zeller.

TORTRICID^. 337

over the edge of a leaf to form a rude cocoon for the chrysalis.
Mr. Eead suggests destroying the leaves thus affected before
they fall in autumn, as the larvae do not descend to the earth
to undergo their transformations.

Halonota differs from Tortrix in having the apex of the fore
wings rather obtuse, and there is a pale blotch usually present
on the middle of the inner margin. H. simulana Clemens is
brownish ochreous, with dull ochreous palpi, reddish at the
tip ; the fore wings are brown, with a slight brassy hue, and
with an ochreous dorsal blotch; the costa is streaked with
ochreous, and there are two violet streaks, one running be-
neath the tip and the other to a faint eye-like patch, behind
which, on the hinder margin, are three black spots.

The genus Grapholitha is characterized by Stainton as hav-
ing the palpi longer than the head, with the fore wings more
than twice as long as wide, the costa being
slightly arched, and the apex rather pointed,
while the outer edge is a little hollowed out
below the apex, and rounded at the inner an-
gle. The larvae live in the folded leaves of
shrubs, or in the tops of herbaceous plants,
or in their roots. Mr. Eobinson refers the
JSteganoptycha? oclireana of Clemens, to Gra-
pholitha (Fig. 259 ; a, head ; 6, fore wing ; c,
hind wing.*) The fore wings are pale yel-
lowish, and the outer half of the costa is Fig ' 259 '
streaked with ochreous brown, and there is an eye-like patch
which is white, and contains two ochreous brown streaks and
two black dots. It was discovered in Virginia. Robinson also
refers Clemens' Euryptychia saligneana (Fig. 256 ; 8 a) to this
genus. It was bred by Mr. B. D. Walsh, in Illinois, from a
willow gall. The fore wings are white, tinted with yellowish,
with a dark brown basal patch, the wing beyond being nearly
white varied with lead colored speckles, and striped over the
venules with dull, leaden gray, transverse stripes, two of which
near the anal angle, form a white eye-like patch. (Clemens.)

Under the name of Callimosema scintillana (Fig. 256 ; 9 a),

*The artist has represented the last branch of the median vein forked at the
tip. It should have been the middle branch. ( Clemens.')

338

LEPIDOPTERA.

Clemens describes a moth with narrow fore wings, and a large
eye-like spot across the inner angle, the venation being the
same as in loplocama. In this latter genus (Fig. 256; 10 a,
I. formosana Clemens) the wings are broader and have the
costa of the fore wings dilated at the base, while the labial
palpi are broad, and reach far beyond the front of the head.

In Anchylopera the palpi are
shorter than the head, with the
fore wings broader than usual,
and the costa somewhat obtusely
arched towards the base, while
the tip is often hook-like and
the outer edge concave. The
larva feeds between the united
leaves of plants. A. spirewfoli-
ana Clemens * s white on the fore
wings, with a large, reddish
brown dorsal patch extending
from the base to the middle of
the wing, and an oblique band
from the middle of the costa to
about the centre of the wing ;
the costa beyond is streaked
alternately with white and red-
dish brown to the apex. The
larva feeds on the leaves of
Spiraea opulifolia, or Nine-bark.
It is pale green with a yellowish
tinge. (Clemens.)*
*Fig. 260. Mr. Fish has discovered an un-

described species which feeds on the cranberry, and which we
may call the Cranberry Anchylopera, A. vacciniana (Plate 8,
fig. 21, enlarged). The moth is dark ash, the fore wings being
whitish, dusted with brown and reddish scales, with white nar-
row bands on the costa, alternating with broader yellowish

*FiG. 260; la, represents the head of A. nubeculana, described by Clemens in
the Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Philadelphia; 16, the vena-
tion of the fore wing; and 1 c, the hind wing; 2 a, the head of A. ocellana Clemens;
26, the fore wing; 2 c, the hind wing; 3 a, the head of A. mediofasciana Clemens;
36 the fore wing; and 3 c, the hind wing.

TORTEICID^. 339

brown bands, five of which are several times larger than the
others, and from four of them irregular indistinct lines cross
the wing. The first line is situated just beyond the inner third
of the wing, and is often obsolete. The second line is the
largest and is slightly bent once in the middle of ti*8
wing. There is a large brown spot parallel to the costa,
being situated on the angle. The third line is oblique and
stops before reaching the inner angle and is forked on the
costa, while the fourth line is a short apical diffuse irregular
line. The apex of the wing is dark brown, and is a little more
acute than usual in the genus. The length of a fore wing is .20
of an inch. It lays its eggs on the leaves during the month
of August and a new brood of larvae appear in September,
though they hatch mostly in the following spring, or early in
June, and become fully grown in July.

The larva seen from above is much like that of Lozotaenia
rosaceana, but the head is a little larger in proportion to the
rest of the body, being as wide as the body in its thickest part.
The body is more hairy, while the prothorax is not dark. The
chrysalis is rather slender, the body being contracted at the
base of the abdomen, on the rings of which there are dorsal
rows of fine spines.

Mr. Fish writes me that " these larvae, called the Cranberry-
vine worms, hatch about the first of June from eggs that have
remained upon the leaves of the plant all winter. They com-
mence to feed upon the tender growing shoots of the plant,
drawing the leaves -together with their web for shelter, conceal-
ing themselves and feeding within. Before reaching their
full size they, if very numerous, almost wholly destroy the
leaves and tender shoots, giving the whole bog a dark dry ap-
pearance as though a fire had been over it. This is why they
are in some places known as 'fire-worms/ Having reached
their full size they spin up among the leaves or among the
dead leaves upon the ground. After remaining in the pupa
state about ten or thirteen days the moths come out and de-
posit their eggs upon the leaves.

"This year the moths were out the last of June and first of
July. In five or six days the eggs hatched and this second
brood, which is usually the most destructive, mostly changed

340 LEPIDOPTEKA.

to pupae on the 20th of July. On the 26th of July the
first moth came out and most were out before the 4th of
August. I saw the moth at Sandwich as late as the 20th of
August. Most of the eggs laid in August do not hatch until
the following spring. I did succeed in finding two or three
larvae in September, but they were rare at that time. The
only sure means known of destroying them, is to let water upon
the bog for twenty -four hours."

Another Tortricid larva, which seems to differ generically
from the vine worm, in being thicker and having a larger,
squarer prothoracic ring, and a less hairy body is called the
" Fruit- worm." According to Mr. Fish, these worms appear the
first of August and work all through the month. The first signs
of their presence are seen in the berries that are attacked turn-
ing prematurely red. Most of them reach their full size before
the first of September. In some places where the vines have

been retarded by be-
i n g kept under water

until the first of June

previous (it is com-
mon to cover the bogs
with water when con-
venient), they do not
reach their full size until a few weeks later. When fully
grown they enter the ground and spin their cocoons within a
few inches of the surface. The cocoons are covered with grains
of sand and are hardly distinguishable from small lumps of
earth. They remain in the ground all winter. I do not know
positively the perfect insect, as I have never been able to rear
it in-doors. In the spring of 1867 I bred two species of Ich-
neumons from these cocoons that had remained in the house
over winter."

The Strawberry leaf-roller (A. fragarise Riley, Fig. 261 ; c,
lines showing the dimensions of the moth ; a, larva, natural
size ; 6, the head and four succeeding rings of the body ; d,
the terminal ring of the abdomen, showing the anal legs) has,
according to Riley, recently been doing much injury to straw-
berry plants in Illinois and Canada. "It crumples and folds
the leaves, feeding on their pulpy substance, and causing them

TORTRICID^. 341

to appear dry and seared, and most usually lines the inside of
the fold with silk. There are two broods during the year, and
the worms of the first brood, which appear during the month
of June, change to the pupa state within the rolled up leaf,
and become minute reddish brown moths during the fore part
of July. After pairing in the usual manner, the females deposit
their eggs on the plants, from which eggs in due time hatches
a second brood of worms. These last come to their growth to-
wards the end of September, and changing to pupae, pass the
winter in that state. The moth expands from .40 to .45 of an
inch. The head and thorax are reddish brown, with pale palpi
and legs, and dusky antennae, while the tarsal joints are dusky
at the tips. The fore wings are reddish brown and streaked
and spotted with black and white, as in the figure, while the
hind wings and abdomen are dusky." (American Entomologist,
vol. i, p. 89.)

The Coddling moth, Carpocapsa, has palpi longer than the
head ; the apex of the fore wings is rather obtuse, and the
outer edge is suddenly hollowed out below the tip. The larvae
feed in the interior of fruits. C. pomonella Linn. (Fig. 256,
II a) is gray, with numerous darker, transverse lines, and with
a curved black line before the ocellated patch on the inner an-
gle, which line is edged with a coppery tint. The moth lays its
eggs on apple and pear trees early in summer in the blossom-
end of the fruit, and the larva hatches in a few days, burrowing
into the core. It matures in three weeks, when the apple drops
to the ground and the larva transforms in a thin cocoon in
crevices in bark, etc., and in a few days another brood of moths
appear, though most of them remain in their cocoons through
the winter as larvae, where we have found them under the loos-
ened bark early in May.

This formidable pest may be partially destroyed by gather-
ing "wind-falls," though the larva often deserts the worm-eaten
apple before it falls. The best remedy is that suggested by
Dr. Trimble, who binds bands of hay about the trees from
July until the middle of September. The larvae crawl under
these bands and there spin their silken cocoons, when every
few days the bands can be removed and the worms de-
stroyed.

342 LEPIDOPTEEA.

TINEID^E Leach. The Tineids are a family of great extent,
and the species are very destructive to vegetation, having in-
numerable modes of attack. They may be distinguished
from the Tortricidceby their smaller size, while the narrow
wings which lie on the top of, or are rolled around the body
when at rest, are often falcate, or pointed acutely, and edged
with a long fringe of exceeding delicacy. The maxillary palpi
are greatly developed, while the labial palpi are of the usual
size, and usually recurved in front of the head. The antennae are
long and filiform. The larvae are cylindrical, variously
wrinkled transversely, and with from fourteen to sixteen feet.
They often construct cases in which they live, and usually spin
a slight silken cocoon. About 1,200 species are already known
in Europe alone. Those of this country have been mostly de-
scribed by Dr. Clemens.

In studying this interesting family, Stainton remarks that
"the elongated wings, the slender body and the long or very
long fringes to the wings, are characters by which the Tineidae
may generally be recognized at once ; and the development of
the palpi and their variety in form and structure, offer most
tangible grounds for separating the greater number of the gen-
era. Indeed, if the student will look at the head of a species
to see whether it is hairy or smooth, if he will then notice the
palpi, whether the maxillary palpi are developed and to what
extent, and whether the labial palpi are slender, ascending or
drooping, whether the second joint is densely clothed with
scales, or bears a long protruding tuft, and if he will farther
notice the form of the hind wings, which are either well rounded
or very pointed, or indented towards the tip, he will be per-
fectly surprised to see how easily he will arrange these insects
into genera by their structure."

The larvae vary excessively in the number of legs, sixteen
being the usual number, but in several genera (Gracilaria, Lith-
ocolletis, etc.), we only find fourteen; in Nepticula, though
the legs are but poorly developed, they number eighteen ; on the
other hand the larvae of a few of the smaller genera (Antispila,
Tinagma, etc.) are absolutely footless.

For collecting and preserving these minute and delicate
moths, which are called by collectors, micro-kpidoptera, especial

TINEIM:. 343

instructions are necessary. When the moth is taken in the
net, it can be blown by the breath into the bottom. "Then
by elevating the hand through the ring, or on a level with it, a
common cupping glass of about two inches in diameter, or a
wine glass carried in the pocket, is placed on top of the left
hand over the constricted portion, the grasp relaxed, and the
insect permitted to escape through the opening into its interior.
The glass is then closed below by the left hand on the outside
of the net, and may be transferred to the top of the collecting
box, when it can be quieted by chloroform" (Clemens) ; or the
moths may be collected in pill boxes, and then carried home
and opened into a larger box filled with fumes of ether or ben-
zine or cyanide of potassium. In pinching any moths on the
thorax, as is sometimes done, the form of that region is inva-
riably distorted, and many of the scales removed. In search-
ing for "Micros" we must look carefully on the lee side of?
trees, fences, hedges, and undulations in the ground, for ;
they avoid the wind. Indeed, we can take advantage of
this habit of many Micros, and by blowing vigorously on the
trunks of trees start the moth off into the net so placed as to
intercept it. This method is most productive, C. G. Barrett
states, in the "Entomologist's Monthly Magazine," while a
steady wind is blowing.

In seeking for the larvae we must remember that most of
them are leaf miners, and their burrows are detected by the
waved brown withered lines on the surface of leaves, and their
tl frass" or excrement, thrown out at one end. Some are found
between united leaves, of which the upper is crumpled. Others
construct portable cases which they draw about the trunks of
trees, fences, etc. Others burrow in the stems of grass, or in
fungi, toadstools, and in the pith of currant or raspberry bushes.
Most are solitary, a few gregarious. A bush stripped of its
leaves and covered with webs, if not done by Clisiocampa (the
American Tent Caterpillar), will witness the work of a Tineid.
Buds of unfolded herbs suffer from their attacks, such as the
heads of composite flowers which are drawn together and con-
sumed by the larvae.

After some practice in rearing larvae it will be found easier
and more profitable to search for the leaf miners, and rear the

344 LEPIDOPTERA.

perfect, fresh, and uninjured moths from them. In this way
many species never found in the perfect state can be secured.*
In raising "micro" larvae it is essential that the leaf in
which they mine be preserved fresh for a long time. Thus
a glass jar, tumbler or jam-pot, the top of which has been
ground to receive an air-tight glass cover, and the bottom
covered with moist white sand, will keep a leaf fresh for a
week, and thus a larva? in the summer will have to be fed but
two or three times before it changes ; and the moth can be
seen through the glass without taking off the cover ; or a glass
cylinder can be placed over a plant inserted in wet sand, hav-
ing the top covered with gauze. Dr. H. G. Knaggs in treat-
ing of the management of caterpillars in breeding boxes,
enumerates the diseases, beside muscardine and cholerine, to
which they are subject. Among direct injuries are wounds and
bruises, which may be productive of deformities in the future
imago ; the stings of ichneumon flies, whose eggs laid either
upon or in the body may be crushed with finely pointed scis-
sors or pliers ; frost bites, and suffocation chiefly from drown-
ing. If the caterpillar has not been more than ten or twelve
hours in the water it may be recovered by being dried on a
piece of blotting paper and exposed to the sun. Larvae may
also starve to death even when food is abundant, from loss of
appetite, or improper ventilation, light, etc. ; or they may eat
too much, become dropsical, and die. Caterpillars undoubt-
edly suffer from a contagious disease analogous to low fever.
Many die while moulting, especially the larvae of Butterflies,
Sphinges, and Bombycids ; others are carried off by diarrhoea,
which is generally caused by improper feeding on too juicy or
relaxing food, when oak leaves or dry stunted foliage should
be given them. To relieve constipation they should be fed
with lettuce and other natural purgatives, and lastly, they may
be attacked by fungi, especially, besides those previously men-

*"In general, it may be said, the mines of the leaf miners are characteristic of
the genus to which the larva may belong. A single mine once identified, enables
the collector to pronounce on the genus of all the species he may find thereafter.
This added to the ease with which the larvae are collected, and the little subsequent
care required to bring them to maturity, except to keep the leaves in a fresh and
healthy state, makes the study of this group, in every respect, pleasant and satis-
factory to the entomologist." (Clemens.)

345

tioned, a species of Oidium. Such patients should be put in
direct sunlight or dry currents of air. (Entomologist's Monthly
Magazine, June, 1868.) The pupae easily dry up ; they should
be kept moist, in tubes of glass closed at either end, through
which the moth can be seen when disclosed.

In setting micro- lepidopt era : "If the insect is very small I
hold it by its legs between the thumb and finger of the left
hand, whilst I pierce it with the pin held between the thumb
and finger of the right hand ; if the insect is not very small I
use a rough surface, as a piece of blotting-paper, or piece of
cloth, for it to lie upon and prevent its slipping about, and
then cautiously insert the point of the pin in the middle of the
thorax, as nearly as possible in a vertical direction. As soon
as the pin is fairly through the insect, remove it to a piece of
soft cork, and by pressing it in, push the insect as far up the
pin as is required.

"For setting the insects I find nothing answers as well as a
piece of soft cork, papered with smooth paper, and with
grooves cut to admit the bodies. The wings are placed in the
required position by the setting needle, and are then retained
in their places by a wedge-shaped thin paper brace, placed over
them till a square brace of smooth card-board is placed over the
ends of the wings." (Stainton.) A small square of glass can
also be laid on the wings to keep them expanded, and thus
serve the same purpose as the paper braces. Linnaeus first set
the example of having the specific names of the Tortricids
end in ana and of the Tineids in ella, and at the present day
the rule is generally followed by entomologists, who have also
given the same terminations to the names of the, smaller spe-
cies of Pyralids, such as Pempelia, Crambus and allied genera.

In the group of Tineids proper, the head is roughly scaled,
with short and thick labial palpi, while the maxillary palpi are
generally extremely well developed, and the antennae some-
times (Adela) extremely long. The larvae live in a portable
case and feed on wool, hair, etc., and fungi, or decayed wood.

Solenobia has very short labial palpi, which are almost con-
cealed in the hairs of the mouth, and the case of the larva is
shorter than usual. The unimpregnated females of this genus
lay fertile eggs, so that one may breed a species for years with-

346 LEPIDOPTERA.

out ever seeing a male. (Stainton.) Soknobiaf Walshella
Clemens is gray, varied with fuscous. The silken case is gran-
ulated with fine sand ; the larva is probably lichenivorous.

In Tinea the head is rough, the maxillary palpi are usually
folded and five jointed, while the labial palpi are cylindrical,
hairy and sometimes bristly. The fore wings are
oblong ovate, and the hind wings ovate and clothed
with scales.

Fig. 232. The common Clothes moth, Tinea flavifrontella
Linn. (Fig. 262 ; fig. 263, a, larva, with its case, b ; c, chrysa-
lis, enlarged) is of a light buff color, with a silky iridescent lus-
tre, the hind wings and abdomen being a little paler. The head
is thickly tufted with hairs and is a little tawny. The wings are
long and narrow, pointed acutely, with the most beautiful and
delicate long silken fringe, which increases in length towards
the base of the wing. The moth begins to fly about our apart-
c 6 nients in May, individuals

remaining through the sum-
mer. They lay their eggs
in woollens, though we have
a reared numerous specimens
which had attacked a mass
of cotton. Early in June
we found numbers of the
Fi s- 263 - caterpillars in their flattened

cylindrical cases which in this instance were white, the color
of the substance they fed upon. The larva is whitish with a
tolerably plump body, which tapers slightly towards the end
of the body, while the head is honey yellow. The segments
of the body are thickened above by two transverse folds. The
body of the chrysalis is considerably curved, with the head
smooth and rounded. The antennae, together with the hind legs,
which are laid on the breast, reach to the tip of the abdo-
men. On the upper surface of each ring is a short trans-
verse row of minute spines, which aid the chrysalis in moving
towards the mouth of its case, just before changing to a moth.
When about to transform, the skin splits open on the back,
and the perfect insect glides out. The skin is moulted with
great rapidity. To avoid the ravages of this destructive moth,

TINEID^. 347

woollens and furs should be carefully shaken and examined
early in June. Dr. Harris states that "powdered black pep-
per strewed under the edge of carpets is said to repel moths.
Sheets of paper sprinkled with spirits of turpentine, camphor
in coarse powder, leaves of tobacco, or shavings of Russian
leather, should be placed among the clothes when they are laid
aside for the summer ; and furs and other small articles can be
kept by being sewed in bags with bits of camphor wood, red
cedar, or of Spanish cedar, while the cloth lining of carriages
can be secured forever from the attacks of moths by being
washed or sponged on both sides with a solution of the corro-
sive sublimate of mercury in alcohol, made just strong enough
not to leave a white stain on a black feather." The moths can
be most readily killed by pouring benzine among them, though
its use must be much restricted from the disagreeable odor
which remains, and c

its inflammable na-
ture. The use of a
weak solution of car-
bolic acid is also rec-
ommended. Tinea
tapetzella Linn., the
Carpet moth, is black-
ish at the base of the
fore wings, the re-
mainder being yellow-
ish white, while the b Fig. 204.
hind wings are dark gray, and the head white. The larva
feeds on carpets, etc.

Tinea granella Linn. (Fig. 264 natural size, and enlarged,
with the wings spread ; a, larva, natural size and enlarged ; 6,
pupa, natural size and enlarged ; c, grains of wheat held to-
gether with a firm web) the Grain moth, is found flying .in
granaries during the summer. The female lays thirty or more
minute eggs, one or two on each grain of wheat. The white
worm hatches in a few days, eats its way into the grain, clos-
ing the entrance with its castings, and after it has devoured
the interior of one grain, unites others in succession to it, until
it binds together by a fine web a number of them. When

348 LEPIDOPTERA.

nearly full grown they cover the grains with a very thick web.
According to Curtis the larvae retire to cracks and crevices in
the floor and walls of the granary, and construct their cocoons
by gnawing the wood and working it up with their web until it
has the form and size of a grain of wheat, wherein it remains
through the winter, changing to a chrysalis early in the spring ;
while two or three weeks after the moth appears. It is creamy
white, with six brown spots on the costa, and with a long
brown fringe. To prevent its attacks empty granaries should
be thoroughly cleansed and whitewashed, or washed with coal
oil, and when the moths are flying numbers may be attracted
to the flames of a bright light ; also when the larvae are at work,
the grain should be shovelled over frequently to disturb them.

The beautiful genus Adela is at once known by its exces-
sively long antennae. The larva makes a flat case, and feeds
on the leaves of various low plants, such as the wood Anemone
and Veronica. The A. Ridingsella of Clemens has coppery
brown fore wings, with a pale grayish brown mesial patch
dusted with black, and four or five black spots at the inner
angle, while the hind wings are fuscous.

Hyponomeuta has a smooth head, with rather short, slender,
reflexed, subacute labial palpi ; the fore wings are white, dotted
in rows with black, and on the base of the hind wings is a
transparent patch. The larvae are gregarious, and the pupa is
enclosed in a cocoon. H. millepunctatella Clemens is white,
with the base of the costa blackish, and with longitudinal rows
of distinct black dots, two of which, one along the inner mar-
gin, and one along the fold, are plain. The hind wings are
blackish gray.

In Depressaria the fore wings are unusually oblong, being
rounded at the apex ; and the hind wings are broader than
usual, with the inner edge emarginate opposite the subme-
dian vein, and rounded opposite the internal vein. The abdo-
men is flattened above, with projecting scales at the sides.
The larvae of this genus are extremely active, and feed on a
variety of substances ; some in rolled up leaves of composite
plants, some in the leaves and others in the umbels of the
umbelliferous plants. Many of the worms descend from the
plant on the slightest agitation, so that considerable caution is

TINEID^E. 349

necessary in attempts to collect them. The full-fed larvae de-
scend to the ground and change to pupae among the fallen
leaves. The perfect insects have the peculiarity of sliding
about when laid on their backs. D. atrodorsella Clem, is yel-
low ochreous, with six or eight black costal dots, with a red-
dish patch extending from the disc towards the tip of the wing.
The head is rufous above, with the face blackish brown above
and yellowish beneath.

During the last summer we observed a locust tree which had
some of the branches well nigh defoliated by an undescribed
species of this genus which we may call the Depressaria robin-
iella (Plate 8, fig. 14, natural size). The head, palpi and fore
wings are light brick red, spotted irregularly with yellow, and
the antennae are slate brown. The fore wings are a little
darker in the middle, especially towards the inner edge. There
is a submarginal darker brown band near the outer edge, which
does not reach the costa, and on the outer edge is a row of
minute black dots. The hind wings and abdomen are of a pale
slate gray, and of the same color beneath, while the legs are
of a very pale straw yellow. It differs from most of the spe-
cies of the genus in having the apex of the fore wing less
rounded than usual, and in this and other respects it is allied
to the European D. laterella. The larva is thick-bodied, with
a black head, and is green, the cervical shield being green. It
devours the leaves, drawing them together by threads, and
also eats the flower buds. It was most abundant in the last
week of June. It turned to a chrysalis July 8th, and in about
two weeks the moth appeared.

In Gelechia the fore wings are rather long and pointed, and
the hind wings are trapezoidal and more or less excavated below
the tip. The terminal joint of the labial palpi is slender, al-
most needle-like, smooth and pointed. This genus is of great
extent and comprises a considerable diversity of species. The
moth is extremely active. Clemens states that "the habits of
the larvae are extremely varied, feeding upon leaves, flower-
buds, young shoots, and in the interior of grain and seeds. The
species that feed in buds and shoots are mostly in the larva
state in spring and the beginning of summer ; those that feed
in and upon leaves are met with in summer and autumn, and

350

LEPIDOPTERA.

those that feed on seeds do so in the autumn and winter."
The Angoumois Grain moth, G. cerealella Linn. (Fig. 265), is
ochreous, with a fuscous streak towards the base, and a few
fuscous dots towards the tip of the wing, while the hind wings
are grayish ochreous. The wings are sometimes unspotted.
It feeds in wheat granaries, where it secretes itself within
the grain, devouring the mealy substance. Reaumur, according
to Mr. Stainton, thus speaks of the econon^ of material in the
food of the larva of Gelechia cerealella. "A grain of wheat
or of barley contains the precise quan-
tity of food necessary to nourish the
larva from its birth till it is full fed.
For if we open a grain inhabited by
a younger and smaller larva, we find
that there is more or less of the sub-
stance of the grain still to be consumed,
according to the size of the larva.

But what is remarkable is, that in the latter case, we find
at least as much and probably more excrement, and in larger
pellets, than we find in a grain tenanted by an older larva."
It is thus driven to eat its excrement over once and perhaps
more than once ! We have received from Mr. F. G. Sanborn
the larva (Fig. 266, much enlarged) of this moth, which had
eaten out the kernel of grains of parching corn, leaving but a
thin shell. The body is unusually short, thick and white, the
tegument being very thin and transparent. Gelechia fungivo-

retta Clem, has roseate white
fore wings, dusted and banded
with brown. Walsh states that
"the larva mines a cabbage-
like gall (C. salicis-brassicoides) ,
Fig 266. peculiar to Salix longifolia, and

a pine-cone-like gall on Salix cordata, named C. salicis-stro-
biloides by Osten Sacken." The larva of a similar species,
G. roseosuffusella , inhabits the fruit panicles of the sumach.

Coleophora is a beautiful form, with long fringes to the
wings, which are long and lanceolate, especially the hinder pair.
The head is smooth above and in front, and the slender, simple
antennae are sometimes thickened with scales as far as their

TINEID^E. 351

middle. The labial palpi are slender, rather porrected, with a
slender prolonged tuft from the second joint, and the third
joint is pointed. The larva is a case-bearer, changing to a
pupa within the case. While these moths abound in the larva
state, the adult insects are rarely met with. The leaf-feeding
larvae are very easily found, as their presence may be detected
by the pale blotches they form on the leaf they feed upon,
while the seed-feeding larvae are much better concealed.

"Coleophora larvae do not well bear confinement in the hu-
mid air of the breeding jar. To be successful in rearing the
larvae, one must use a pot of moistened sand, in which the food
plant is placed, covered with a glass cylinder, with fine gauze
tied over the top ; or the plant may be kept in water and cov-
ered with a cylinder of glass. For this purpose old chimney
tops to lamps answer very well. The larvae of this genus, taken
in the fall of the year, hibernate in their cases until the fol-
lowing spring, and feed upon the first leaves that put forth.
They must not, therefore, be kept in a warm room during
the winter. The pupae of the fall brood of larvae thrive much
better, likewise, if not kept in a warm room during the cold
months. The spring, or early summer brood of larvae, produce
images in a few weeks after entering the pupa state, and hence
it is much more satisfactory to collect early in the year than
during the latter part." (Clemens.)

In C. roscefoliella Clem, the head and thorax are white, while
the fore wings are pale grayish towards the base, clouded with
dark brown from the middle to the tip, and the hind wings are
dark brown. The case is silken, covered with granulations,
cylindrical, slightly compressed, the mouth slightly deflexed
and the opposite hook-like end turned down slightly. Its color
is brown, varied with gray and reddish-brown granulations.
The larva feeds in the spring on the common garden rose, and
the case was found in winter attached to a thorn on one of the
stems. C. rosacella Clem, also feeds in the spring on the rose
and sweet briar. The case is made of the cuticle of the rose-
leaf on which the larva feeds. It is a compressed cylinder, and
dilated slightly in the middle of the under edge. Color dark
ochreous. (Clemens.) Coleophora coruscipennella Clemens is
a beautiful bronzed green species, with the terminal half of the

352 LEPIDOPTERA.

antennae white, ringed with brown. The fore wings are reddish
violet on the apex, and the hind wings are dark brown. An
unknown species is represented on Plate 8, fig. 17. It was
found feeding on the pear the 5th of September, carrying about
a flattened case of the form indicated in the figure, which is
enlarged about five times. We have also found another Col-
eophora larva, with a long, flattened, cylindrical case, alike at
each end, constructed of the outer skin of the leaf. It was
found late in September feeding on the apple.

In the genus Batrachedra the wings arc narrow, especially
the hind ones which are sharply pointed, with a tuft near the
base of the costa. B. salidpomonelta Clemens (Fig. 267, vena-
tion and side view of the head, enlarged), in its larval state,
according to Mr. Walsh, inhabits the gall
made by a saw-fly on the willow.

Elachista is a very extensive genus charac-
terized by the long and slender, slightly re-
curved palpi. The fore wings are smooth,
elongate and rarely oblong, and the hind
wings are narrow and pointed. The larva
mines the leaves of grasses and allied plants.
Fig. 267. Over fifty species have been described in

Europe. Clemens refers doubtfully to this genus, a Virginian
species, Elachista ? orichalcella, which is of a beautiful metallic
coppery color, while the hind wings and fringe are rather pale
ochreous.

The genus Lithocolletis comprises very minute but most richly
colored moths. The head is rough, the labial palpi filiform
and drooping, while the fore wings are elongate, and the hind
wings are linear lanceolate, with long fringes. They are often
excessively abundant, are rather sluggish, but fly readily in the
early morning. In Europe they are double-brooded, and hiber-
nate in the pupa state (Clemens states that some hibernate as
moths), appearing in the perfect state in spring, while a second
brood of moths appear in August. The larvae have fourteen
feet, and mine the leaves of trees, shrubs or low plants, sepa-
rating either the upper or lower cuticle and feeding on the
inner substance of the leaf. When the mine is on the upper
surface, or at least most frequently when it is in this position,

TINEID^E. 353

the leaf becomes folded and curved at the place mined, and the
separated cuticle is gathered into folds, or covers the curved
portion so as to make a capacious habitation. Some of the
miners of the upper surface of leaves make large blotches, or
tracts, and when the mines are fresh the separated cuticle is
whitish and very noticeable. The miners of the under surface,
cause the upper cuticle to become discolored in patches, and
this with the. fold of the side of the leaf is often sufficient to
indicate the presence of a mine. Usually the species are con-
fined to a single plant ; some, however, feed on several allied
plants. The larva seldom quits the mine and changes in it
to a pupa. Some species either make no cocoon or only a very
slight one, and others make one of grains of excrement woven
together with silk. L. Fitchella Clemens (Argyromiges querci-
foliella Fitch) is silvery white, with pale reddish saffron fore
wings, slightly tinged with a brassy hue. It feeds on the oak,
according to Dr. Fitch.

L. saUtifollella Clemens during the latter part of June or
early in July mines the under surface of the leaves of the yel-
low willow (Salix vitellina var. alba). L. juglandiella makes
an elongated, rather wide tract on the upper surface of the
leaves of the black walnut.

During the last summer the larva of an undescribed species,
which we may call Litliocolletis geminatella (Plate 8, fig. 15 ; a,
larva ; 6, pupa ; c, its mine, the first three figures enlarged six
diameters) was abundant on the apple and pear trees. The
moth is of a dark slate gray, without any prominent markings,
with ochreous hairs on the top of the head. There is a black
round spot on the middle of the inner edge of the wing (omit-
ted in the figure, which is drawn from a slightly rubbed speci-
men). On the outer edge is an eye-like spot, pupilled with
black, like the "eye" in a peacock's tail. The antennae are
dark, ringed with a pale slate color. It expands .30 of an inch.
The larva is pale livid reddish with a black head and cervical
shield, and .14 of an inch in length. It was first discovered
about the middle of August, hanging from a branch suspended
by a thread. From this time it became abundant, until the
leaves began to fall in the first week of October ; nearly every
leaf on some of the pear and apple trees having a mine like
23

354 LEPIDOPTERA.

that represented in Plate 8, fig. 15 c. Usually the larva draws
two leaves together, or folds one up, and as it eats its way
along the surface of the leaf, leaves its excrement filling up the
space behind, thus making blotches and otherwise disfiguring
the leaves. In this mine it transforms into a long slender
pupa, which may be found surrounded with the castings of the
larva. The moths first appeared August 19th, and flew in-doors
at night attracted by the light.

Bucculatrix pomonella Clem. (Plate 8, fig. 16, enlarged) is a
pale whitish species with yellowish scales, with a black line,
which beginning on the middle of the costa, curves around to-
wards the apex, ending in the usual eye-like spot on the outer
edge, beyond which is a dark marginal line ; in the middle of
the wing near the inner side is a longitudinal black oval spot,
paler within. The hind wings are pale gray, and the body and
legs pale whitish yellow. The wings expand .30 of an inch.
We never met with the larva, but the cocoon is long and slen-
der, a little blunt at each end and white, with slight longitudinal
ridges. It may be found attached to the bark on the branches
of the apple tree in May and also in the autumn and winter.
Besides differing from L. geminatella in making a regular co-
coon, the pupa is a little stouter and the top of the head is
blunter.

Another species, which appears to be undescribed, we would
call the Lithocolletis nidificansella (Plate 8, fig. 19, moth; 19 a,
cocoon) from the singular way the cocoon is suspended in a
leaf like a hanging nest, by silken cords. The single speci-
men figured was found early in September, the moth appearing
on the llth. The larva feeds on the pear, and when about to
transform had evidently drawn the edges of the leaf together
by a few threads, and then suspended its thin cocoon in the
manner indicated in the figure, the position of the chrysalis
being represented by the black line in the centre of the cocoon.
The moth is silvery white, with gray hind wings. The fore
wings are white, with golden bronze streaks and spots. The
costa is white, with three oblique golden lines running out-
wards from the edge of the wing towards the outer margin, the
inner one being minute, and the outer one broad and less
oblique than the others. Beyond, are three apical straight

TINEIM:. 355

thread-like lines next the eye-like black dot, near which arises
a slender pencil of long hairs. Below the costa the wing is
spotted with gold, and there is a broad oblique golden dark
band directed outwards and reaching to the middle of the
wing. The costa is golden on the outer third of its length.
The wings expand .36 of an inch.

Lyonetia is closely allied to the preceding genus, and may
be distinguished from it by the head being smooth, the scales
being broad and flattened down. Mr. F. G. Sanborn first
drew our attention to this moth, having reared it from cocoons
found on the apple. From the singular habit of the larva in
making a case instead of living in a mine in leaves, we would
call it the Lyonetia saccatella (Plate 8, fig. 18 ; 18 a, the larva ;
186, the larva with its case, all a little enlarged). The moth
is a perfect gem ; its head and short antennae are pale gray
and its fore wings are light slate gray on the basal half, and
beyond bright orange, enclosing two white bands, one costal
and the other arising from the inner edge, both nearly meeting
in the middle of the wing, and edged externally with black.
There is a square, black, very conspicuous spot near the fringe,
in which is a long pencil of black hairs, not shown in the
figure. The outer angle of the wing is dusky. It expands
.20 of an inch. The larva is a little flattened green worm,
and constructs a flattened oval case of the skin of the leaf
which it draws about. The case is open at each end, and
is roomy enough for the larva to turn around in. It be-
comes fully grown by the last of August, and in Octo-
ber we have found the cocoons attached to the bark of the
tree, where they may also be seen through the winter and in
the spring.

The last important genus, Nepticula, contains the smallest
known lepidopterous insects. "Many of them are excessively
beautiful, resplendent with burnished copper, gold and silver
scales. They may fre observed in May and June, sitting on
the trunks of trees or palings ; but to see these atoms requires
an experienced eye. Most of the species appear to be double-
brooded, and are easily collected in plenty in the larva state.
A nut-leaf, containing from twenty to thirty larvae of Nepticula
microtheriella, is no unusual sight. In Nepticula the antennae

356 LEPIDOPTERA.

are not half as long as the fore wings, which are rather broad
while the hind pair are lanceolate.

"The larvae mine very narrow serpentine patfcs in the inte-
rior of leaves, the mine being always on the upper surface.
They vary much in form, being sometimes a slender galley or
line, either simple, or enlarged towards the end into a blotch.
When the larva is full-fed it quits the mine, cutting for this
purpose the separated cuticle, in order to weave a minute co-
coon." (Clemens.) JV. corylifoliella Clemens mines the hazel.
N. platanella Clemens mines the button- wood tree, or syca-
more, and N.. amelanchierella Clemens mines the leaves of the
June berry in June and July.

PTEROPHORID^E Latreille. The small group of Plume-moths
may be at once known by their fissured and plumed wings.
The body is long and slender, with long antennae and legs.
They are the lowest moths, the long slender abdomen and fis-
sured wings being marks of degradation. The larvae have six-
teen legs and are rather hairy. They form no cocoon, but,
fastening themselves by the tail to a leaf or stem, shed their
larva-skins and appear in the pupa state. Some of the pupae
are nearly as hairy as the larvae, others are quite naked. Most
of the larvae feed in the early summer months, and the perfect
insects appear rather later, though some may be seen in spring.
(Stainton, Manual of British Butterflies and Moths.)

In Pteropliorus the hind margin of the 'fore wing is more or
less deeply cleft, while the hind wings are almost divided into
three separate slender lobes or plumes. The larvae live in the
flowers and stems as well as on the leaves of plants. P. peri-
scelidactylus Fitch (Plate 8, fig. 23 ; a, larva ; 6, pupa, enlarged)
is tawny yellow, the fore wings having three large white spots
and two bands beyond ; the outer line is thread-like, the inner
line being much broader on the costal division of the wing, re-
appearing at the base of the split in the wing, and below
extending out to the lower half of the outer line. The hind
wings are darker brown than the rest of the moth, while the
third and shortest division of the wing is white, but brown at
the end, with the fringe on the outer fourth of the wing still
darker brown. The legs are white with tufts of brown scales

PTEROPHORIDJE. 357

surrounding the hind legs. It expands .65 of an inch. The
larvae, received from Mr. M. C. Reed, of Hudson, Ohio, were
pale green, with a greenish yellow head. Along the body is a
double dorsal paler line, and whitish tubercles, from which pro-
ceed very long uneven hairs, and the body is also covered with
very short white hairs, giving a frosted appearance to the
worm. They are about half an inch long. About the middle
of June it changes to the singular chrysalis represented on the
plate, and in about a fortnight appears as one of the most deli-
cate and graceful of moths. It may be seen flying about our
graperies in midsummer, and is attracted to our apartments
after nightfall by the lights within. It feeds upon the young
leaves of the grape, hiding itself in a hollow ball made of
leaves drawn together by threads. The pupa is slender, coni-
cal, obliquely truncated at the head, with two long compressed
horns placed side by side, and jutting upwards from the mid-
dle of its back, and numerous smaller projecting points and
ridges. It reminds one of the chrysalids of the butterflies,
in its habit of remaining attached by its tail to the plant on
which it feeds.

In Alucita the wings are still farther subdivided, each wing
being divided from the base into six distinct feathers. The
larva of the European A. polydactyla feeds in the unopened
buds of the honey-suckle. It is not hairy, and spins a co-
coon.

Fig. 269.
Chrysophanus Thoe Westwood.

358 DIPTERA.

DIPTERA,

FLIES may be easily recognized by their having but a single
pair of wings, the hinder pair being aborted, and existing in a
rudimentary state under the name of "halter." The more es-
sential character of the Diptera, however, consists in the greatly
centralized, more or less globular thorax. Both the prothorax
and metathorax are greatly aborted, and the legs are somewhat
weak. As the second pah- of wings are obsolete, the muscles
adapted for flying are not developed.

When the wings are entirely wanting, as in Chionea, the
Spider fly, and the Spider-like Bat-tick (Nycteribia), the tho-
rax becomes still more globular, and the head of .Nycteribia
shows a tendency to become immersed in the thorax, as in the
spiders.

The abdomen is either short, conical and broad at the base,
being rarely pedicellate ; or long and cylindrical, or flattened
either horizontally or laterally. The conical form of the abdo-
men accords with the quick jerky flight of the House fly, as
compared with the steady slow flight of Tipula, whose abdomen
is very long. The abdomen is composed of from five to nine
distinct segments. As Lacaze-Duthiers states, the Diptera as
a rule have no true ovipositor like that of bees, etc. , though the
three terminal rings are retracted within the abdominal cavity,
and are capable of being thrust out like the joints of a telescope.
When about to lay their eggs they simply place them in cracks
or upon the substances that are to form the future food of the
larva, having no organs for boring, though the female Tipulids
are able to work the hard tip of the abdomen into the ground
where they deposit their eggs. The terminal ring of the abdo-
men in the males is provided with clasping organs.

The head is very free from the thorax in the true flies, and
is spherical, hemispherical or conical. The eyes are large, with
very numerous facets, and often approach each other closely on
the front of the head, especially in the males. The ocelli, when
present, are placed on the vertex, and the antennae are in-
serted below, in the middle (antero-posteriorly) of the front.

DIPTEEA. 359

They are either long and evenly jointed, as in the. Tipulidce,
often with long cilia, and sometimes verticillate, as in Ce-
cidomyia ; or, as in the House fly, the typical form is a
short and stout, two to three-jointed antenna, ending in a
bristle.

In the Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera only a portion of the
mouth parts are used for sucking in food, but in the present
group, the labruni, with the two pairs of appendages, i. e., the
maxillae and mandibles, are (when all are well developed, as
in the Mosquito) ensheathed partially within the labium, and
with the last form a channel for the passage of the fluid food
into the mouth.

The labium forms the under side of the sheath, while the
mandibles and maxillae are represented by simple setae, though
the one, two, or three-jointed maxillary palpi are present, and
in this last character the rostrum of the flies differs from the
beak of the Hemiptera. As in the Hymenoptera, the lingua
is well, though differently developed, terminating in a large
fleshy knob which is divided into two fleshy flaps called the
labellce.

The wings are naked, as in the Hymenoptera, though fine
hairs may be detected by the microscope on the veins, becom-
ing most apparent in the Psychodae, where the wings are very
hairy. In form they are long and narrow, the costal edge
being straight, the apex of the wing obtusely rounded, while
the oblique outer edge is very long and nearly parallel with
the costa, where in the Lepidoptera it is nearly at right an-
gles to. it. The veins are six in number, and in their direction
and branches (Fig. 270-271) correspond more closely with the
venation of the Lepidoptera than any other suborder. The
veins are straight, and with fewer branches than in the Lepi-
doptera, but with more cross venules, which in the wing of
the Tipulidce, remind us of the net-veined Neuroptera.
When, as in the Cecidomyiae, the veins become in part ob-
solete, only three veins remain, the costal, subcostal and
median. The form and size of the cells, especially the submar-
ginal ones, are of much use in distinguishing the species, while
the changes in the costal and basal .portion of the wing are
the most important in classifying the genera and families.

360 DIPTERA.

The function of the halteres, or "poisers," is still problema-
tical. Hicks and Leydig consider them as organs of hearing,
while Goureau and Loew think they are concerned in the act
of respiration.

Besides the well known wingless genus Chionea, and the
Flea, Sheep-tick, and Braula, Loew, the eminent German ento-
mologist, enumerates several European species of Tipula, the
females of which have the wings rudimentary ; and also a spe-
cies of Limnobia (Idioptera). Epidapus is wingless in both
sexes. " Psyllomyia, Apterina and Elachiptera, and species
of Tachista, Chersodromia and Geomyza have rudimentary
wings in both sexes ; in other forms the wings are only abbre-
viated in both sexes (Sciomyza), or in those of the male or fe-
male are smaller than in the other sex (species of Empis,
Rhamphomyia, Idioptera and Tipula)."

FIG. 270. Diagram of a wing with two submarginal and five posterior cells (Cladura
indivisd). Cells: I, costal; 2, subcostal; 3, marginal; 3*, inner marginal; 4, sub-
marginal; 5, second submarginal; 6-10, first to fifth posterior; 11, discal; 12, first
basal; 13, second basal; 14, anal; 15, axillary; 16, spurious. Veins: b I, auxiliary;
cm, first longitudinal; h, n, o, second longitudinal; h i, praefurca; k n, anterior
branch of the second longitudinal vein; Jc o, posterior branch of the second longi-
tudinal vein; i k, petiole of the first submarginal cell; ip, third longitudinal; d q
rst, fourth longitudinal; q r, fork of its anterior branch; the posterior branch of
this fork, ending in r, is Mr. Loew's anterior intercalary vein ; s t, fork of the pos-
terior branch of the fourth vein ; the branch of this fork, ending in t., is Mr. Loew's
posterior intercalary vein ; e u, fifth longitudinal; / v, sixth longitudinal; g w,
seventh longitudinal. Cross-veins: x, humeral; a? a?, subcostal; xxx, marginal;
x*, small, or anterior cross-vein; #**, great cross-vein. From Osten Sacken.

Fig. 270.

FIG. 271 (1). Wing of Ortalis. , transverse shoulder- vein ; 6, auxiliary vein ; c,
d> e > /> 9 and &> first > second, third, fourth, fifth and sixth longitudinal veins; i,
small or middle transverse vein; k, hinder transverse vein; I, m, , o, costal vein;
p, anterior basal transverse vein ; q, posterior basal transverse vein ; r, rudiment
of the fourth trunk; s, axillary incision; A, S, and C, first, second and third costal
cells ; D, marginal cell ; E, submarginal cell ; F, G and H, first, second and third
posterior cells; 7, discal cell; K, first or large basal cell; L second basal cell, or

DIPTERA.

361

M. Marey has determined that a common fly when held cap-
tive moves its wings 330 times a second ; a honey bee 190
times, and a cabbage butterfly (Pieris) nine times. The wings
describe a figure 8 in the air. (Cosmos.) Landois, calcu-
lating the rapidity of the vibrations by the sound produced

anterior of the small basal cells ; M, third basal cell, or posterior of the small
basal cells; JV, anal or axillary corner of the wing; O, alar appendage, (alula).

FIG. 271 (2). Wing of Empis. t, anterior branch of the third longitudinal vein;
u, anterior intercalary.

Fig. 271.

FIG. 271 (3). Wing of Dasypogon. t,. anterior branch of the third longitudinal
vein; u, anterior intercalary vein; v, posterior intercalary vein. From Loew.

Comparing the wing of Ortalis with that of tine bee and butterfly figured on
page 23, we should prefer to use the same terminology and call I, m, n, the margi-
nal vein ; A, 6, the costal ; c, d and e the three branches of the subcostal vein ; /, the
median vein ; h, the submedian ; and r, the internal vein. In Macquart's system,
modified slightly by Sacken (fig. 270), b, I, is the costal; cm, the subcostal; d and e,
the median ; /, the submedian, and g the internal vein.

362 DIPTERA.

thereby, states that the fly, which produces the sound of F, vi-
brates its wings 352 times a second, and the bee, which makes
the sound of A', 440 times a second. " On the contrary a tired
bee hums on E', and therefore vibrates its wings only 330 times
in a second. This difference is probably involuntary, but the
change of 'tone' is evidently under the command of the will,
and thus offers another point of similarity to a true 'voice.'
A bee in the pursuit of honey hums continually and content-
edly on A', but if it is excited or angry it produces a very dif-
ferent note. Thus, then, the sounds of insects do not merely
serve to bring the sexes together ; they are not merely ' love
songs/ but also serve, like any true language, to express the
feelings. (Sir John Lubbock's Address before the London
Entomological Society, 1868.)

Landois describes the sound-producing organs in several
genera of flies. "He distinguishes three different tones as
emitted by these insects : during flight, a relatively low tone,
a higher one when the wings are held so as to prevent their
vibrating, and a higher still when the fly is held so that all mo-
tion of the external parts is prevented. The last mentioned
is the true voice of the insect ; it is produced by the stigmata
of the thorax, and may be heard when every other part of the
body is cut away. The first sound is caused by the rapid vi-
bration of the wings in the air ; the second is caused, or at all
events accompanied, by the vibration and friction of the abdo-
minal segments, and by a violent movement of the head
against the anterior wall of the thorax." The halteres also
assist in producing the sound. The vibration of the head in
the Diptera during the emission of sound is regarded by this
author as due to the transmission of movement from the tho-
rax. (Zoological Record, 1867.) Landois also states that
there are small species which give a deeper note than larger
ones, on account of the wing-vibrations not being of the same
number in a given time. (Lubbock.)

The legs are slender, unarmed, except with stout bristles, as
in Asilus ; the joints ar simple, cylindrical ; the tarsi are five-
jointed, the terminal joint ending in two claws (ungues), be-
tween which is the cushion, or pulvillus, consisting of two or
three fleshy vesicles, often armed with hairs, which are tubular.

DIPTEKA. 363

and secrete an adhesive fluid, which is said to aid the fly in
walking up-side-down on polished surfaces.

The nervous system in the Diptera is characterized by a
grouping of the thoracic ganglia into a single mass, from which
proceed nerves to the abdomen ; the abdominal ganglia being
for the most part aborted. Thus in some Muscidm, GEstrus,
and Hippobosca, the nervous cord behind the cephalic portion,
consists of a single thoracic ganglion, which gives out nerves
in different directions. The higher Muscids, such as Syrphus
and Conops have in addition one or two ganglia situated at
the base of the abdomen. The higher groups, such as the
Tabanidce, Asilidce and Bombylidce have six ganglia,
and the Empidce, Tipulidce and Culicidce have more.
The larvae usually have one more pair than the adult, having
ten and sometimes eleven ganglia, with long commissures,
which are often double.

The digestive system is less complex than usual. As in the
two preceding suborders, on one side of the oesophagus is a
pedicellate sucking stomach which extends into the abdomen
near the true chyle-making stomach. The latter is of the
usual intestinoid form, enlarging a little anteriorly, with two
coecal appendages beneath on each side, near the cardiac ex-
tremity.

The four, rarely five, Malpighian vessels which correspond
to the kidneys of vertebrates, are united before they open into
the single or double common outlet.

There are two main tracheae, and two large air-sacs, one on
each side, at the base of the abdomen. The system of tracheae
is simplest in the aquatic Tipulid larvae, resembling in this
respect the Phryganeae, where the tracheae are subcutaneous
and designed to extract the air from the water.

The testes are generally colored, being provided with a pig-
ment layer. They are oval, curved or tortuous glands,, with
a short efferent vessel (vas differens). The ovaries consist of
three to four chambered tubes, and a short oviduct. The re-
ceptaculum seminis is generally triple. A true bursa copulatrix
is wanting in the Diptera, but in "many Muscidce the vagina
has, as a seminal receptacle or uterus, a spacious and sometimes
two-lobed reservoir in which the fecundated eggs are accumu-

364 DIPTERA.

lated in great numbers, and remain until the larvas are suffi-
ciently developed to be hatched, so that these animals are
viviparous. In the pupiparous Hippoboscae, the female organs
are formed on an entirely special type, corresponding with the
remarkable mode of reproduction in these animals." (Siebold.)
Near the external opening of the oviduct is a pair of glands
designed to secrete the gummy matter coating the eggs.

The eggs of the Diptera are usually cylindrical, elon-
gated and slightly curved, and the surface is smooth, not being
ornamented as in the Lepidoptera. In the Tipulidce, the
eggs become mature as soon as the pupa skin is thrown off,
when they are immediately laid.

The larvae are footless, white, fleshy, thin skinned, cylindrical
and worm-like, spindled or linear in shape. They have, in the
higher families, as in the Tipulidce, a distinct head ; but they
are often headless, as in the Muscidce, and are then called
maggots. They live in mould, decaying organic substances, or
in the water. Many maggots are provided with two corneous
hooks, probably the mandibles, with which they seize their food.
The pupa is either naked (Pupa obtecta, Fig. 276), like the
chrysalids of , moths, with the limbs exposed, as in the Tipu-
lidce ; or they are coarctate (pupa coarctata, Fig.
272) as in the flies generally, the skin of the larva
serving to protect the soft pupa within, as during
the growth of the pupa the old larval skin separates
from the newly formed pupa skin, which contracts
slightly. It is then called the puparium, and is
usually cylindrical and regularly rounded at each end
like the cocoon of moths. Those which have the
Fig. 272. pupae obtected, when aquatic and active, are provided
with gill-like filaments permeated with tracheae.

The semipnpa stage of Diptera, corresponds generally with
that of the Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera. By an ingenious
device Dr. Fitch succeeded in observing in the living insect
the processes by which the larva of the willow Cecidomyia
(C. salicis) turns to a pupa, and which is usually accomplished
during the night. He states that "as the first step of this
change, at the anterior end of the larva the cutis or opake
inner skin becomes wholly broken up and dissolved into a

DIPTERA. 365

watery fluid, whereby the thin transparent, outer skin or cuticle
is elevated like a vesicle or blister, which occupies about
a fourth of the length of the worm on its under side, but
is much shorter on its back. The insect is now in its em-
bryo-pupa state, having lost its larva form and having not
yet assumed its pupa form. In the fluid contained in this vesi-
cle, the wings, legs and antennae of the future fly now begin
to be developed, whereby the sheaths of the wings at length
come to be discerned immediately under the skin. This skin
is exceedingly thin, delicate and transparent, like the tunica
arachnoides of the human brain, a mere film, as thin as a spi-
der's web. Eventually the insect, by gently writhing, ruptures
this film at its anterior end, and gradually crowds it off down-
wards to the lower end of the vesicle, carrying the minute
black jaws of the larva with it. It there remains, becoming
dry and torn into shreds which flake and fall off by the con-
tinued motions of the insect. At the same time from the
remainder of the surface not occupied by this vesicle, a still
more slight and delicate film, appearing as though the worm
had been wet in milk which had dried upon it, forming an ex-
ceedingly thin pellicle or scurf, becomes separated by the same
motions of the insect and drops . off in minute scales scarcely
to be perceived with a magnifying glass. And now the insect
has acquired its perfect pupa form."

Frederic Brauer has proposed in his "Monographic der
CEstriden," a division of the Diptera into two large groups.
This division is much more natural than the old one into those
with coarctate and obtected pupae. The first group is the Dip-
tera orthorapJia, comprising the Nemocera, or flies with long an-
tennae, together with the fitratiomyidce, Xylophagidce,
Tabanidce, Acroceridce (?), Bombylidcz, Asilidce,
Leptidce, Therevidce, JEmpidce and Dolicliopidcc (pass-
ing over some small families whose metamorphoses are not
known). In these families the larva skin at the last moult
splits down along the middle of the back of the three thoracic
rings, while a transverse split on the first thoracic ring makes a
T-shaped fissure. Through this the mummy-like pupa with free
limbs escapes ; or it remains within the loose envelope formed
by the old larval skin, when this author calls it a "false pu-
parium."

366 DIPTEBA.

In the second group, the Diptera cydorapha, the true coarc-
tate, cylindrical, smooth puparium is formed by the contraction
of the larva skin, but is very different in shape from the ma-
ture larva ; while this puparium remains in vital connection by
means of tracheae, with the enclosed pupa, which escapes from
the puparium through a curved seam or lid in the anterior
end, and not by a slit in the back. This group includes the
Pipunculidce, JSyrphidce, Conopidce^ CEstridce, Mus-
cidce and Pupipara.

Certain Diptera are injurious to crops, as gall producers, but
indirectly the Tachinidce are beneficial since they prey on cat-
erpillars ; while the greater number act as scavengers in the
water and on land, and thus as sanitary agents. Diptera enjoy
a wider geographical range than other insects. None of the
larger families are exclusively tropical; the Muscidce and
mosquitoes are found in the circumpolar regions in abundance,
as well as in the tropics. They are the earliest to appear in
spring and the latest to disappear in autumn. They are
active at all times, in rain or sunshine, day or night, though
the greater number prefer the sunshine.

From their habit of living in vegetables, flowers, and other
substances sometimes eaten by persons, physicians occasion-
ally are called to treat cases where dipterous larvae have been
swallowed and produced sickness. Among those most fre-
quently vomited are larvae of various Muscids, especially An-
thomyia. " C. Grerhardt records a case in which a patient, after
four days illness, vomited about fifty larvae of some dipterous
insect, probably a large species of Muscidae. A. Laboul-
bene describes and figures in the Annals of the Entomologi-
cal Society of France, a larva of Teichomyza fusca Macquart,
which is exceedingly abundant in the public urinals in France,
and which lives in human urine. He identifies it with the
larvae described and figured by Davaine in 1857, as having been
evacuated from the intestines of a woman after she had suffered
much pain. (Zoological Record for 1867.) Four other cases
are on record of larvae having been voided by the urinary pas-
sages, or found living in urine, though, as suggested to us by
Dr. Hagen, it is possible that in such cases, the worms were
not voided, but lived in the urine previous to the time they
were detected by the reporters of such cases.

DIPTERA. 367

Dr. J. Leidy reports in the Proceedings of the Academy of
Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, for 1859, a case where a num-
ber of specimens which " appeared to be the larvae of the Blue-
bottle fly," were given him by a physician, having been vomi-
ited from the stomach by a child. Also, a second case where
numerous larvae of a species of Anthomyia, " were given to him
for examination by a physician who had obtained them from
his own person. He had been seized with all the symptoms
of cholera morbus, and in the discharges he had detected nu-
merous specimens of this, to him, unknown parasite. It was
in the latter part of summer, and the larvae, it is suspected,
had been swallowed with some cold boiled vegetables. Dr.
Leidy had observed the same kind of larva in another case,
accompanied with the ordinary phenomena of cholera mor-
bus."

Isidore Geoffroy Saint Hilaire records a case of a larva of
the common fly found living in the skin of an infant ; while
Dr. Livingston, according to Cobbold, detected a "solitary
larva of a species which had taken up its residence in his leg.
Dr. Kirk removed this parasite by incision ; and on a second
occasion he obtained a similar specimen . from the shoulder of
a negro."

There are about 2,500 species of North American flies de-
scribed, and it is probable that the number of living North
American species amounts to 10,000. In Europe there are also
about 10,000 known species, belonging to about 680 genera.

The flies of this country, compared with the other groups,
have been but little studied, though the habits of manj 7 are so
interesting and the species very numerous. The different parts
of the body vary much more than in the Hymenoptera and
Lepidoptera, and in such a degree as to often afford compara-
tively easy characters for discriminating the genera.

Their habits are very variable. Fresh water aquaria are
necessary for the maintenance of aquatic larvae. If quantities
of swamp mud and moss with decaying matter are kept in boxes
and jars, multitudes of small flies will be hatched out. Leaf-
mining and seed-inhabiting species can be treated as micro-
lepidoptera, and earth-inhabiting larvae like ordinary cater-
pillars. Dung, mould in hollow trees, stems of plants and

368 DIPTERA.

toadstools contain numerous larvae or maggots, as the young
of flies are called, which must be kept in damp boxes.

Flies can be pinned alive, without killing them by pressure,
which destroys their form ; and numbers may be killed at once
by moistening the bottom of the collecting box with creosote,
benzine or ether, or putting them into a bottle with a wide
mouth, containing cyanide of potassium. Minute species can
be pinned with very slender pins, or pieces of fine silver wire,
and stuck into pieces of pith, which can be placed high up
on a large pin. In pinning long-legged, slender species, it is
advisable to run a piece of card or paper up under their bodies
upon which their legs may rest, and thus prevent their loss
by breakage. Of these insects, as with all others, duplicates
in all stages of growth should be preserved in alcohol, while
the minute species dry up unless put in spirits.

In the genuine flies the thorax is highly centralized; the
maxillae are covered by the labrum, and the labium is not pro-
vided with palpi. The females lay eggs from which the larvae
are hatched. They are also divided into the Nemocera, com-
prising those flies having long, thread-like, many-jointed an-
tennae, and embracing the higher families, i.e. the Culicidce,
Tipulidce, Bibionidce, and Rhyphidce ; while the remain-
ing families of this division are included in the Brachycera, or
flies with short antennae, such as the Muscidce, etc. But the
fossil genera, Electra and Chryothemis, discovered by Profes-
sor Loew in the amber of the Tertiary formation, and a North
American genus of Xylophagidce,and the genus Rachicerus,
have intermediate characters combining these distinctions,
which are thus shown to be somewhat arbitrary.

CULICIDJE Latreille. The family of Mosquitoes or Gnats
have the mouth-parts very long and slender; the maxillae and
mandibles are free and lancet-like. Figure 274 (A, larva ; c,
its respiratory tube ; B, pupa ; d, the respiratory tubes ; a, the
end of the abdomen, with the two oar-like swimming leaves,
seen in profile at B, from drawings made by Mr. E. Burgess,)
illustrates the transformations of a species inhabiting brackish
water in the vicinity of Boston. The larvae remain most of
the time at the bottom feeding upon decaying matter, thus act-

CULICID^E.

369

Fig. 273.

ing as scavengers and doing great benefit in clearing swamps
of miasms. Occasionally they rise to the surface for air by a
jerking movement, inhaling it through the star-like respiratory
tube which connects with the tracheae.

The pupae have club-shaped bodies owing to the greatly en-
larged thorax, with two respiratory tubes like those of Corethra,
situated on the thorax. They
remain near the surface of
the water wriggling towards
the bottom when disturbed,
aided by the two broad
swimming caudal leaves.
Though active in their hab-
its they do not eat. The eggs
are laid in a boat-shaped
mass, which floats on the surface of the water. About four
weeks after hatching the imago appears, so that there are
several broods during the summer. The females alone bite,
the males not coming into our apartments but spending their
lives in the retirement of the swamps and woods.

This genus abounds in the high Arctic regions as well as in
the tropics. Culex pipiens
Linn, inhabits Europe, and
there are over thirty North
American species described in
various works.

Figure 274 represents a ver-
tical and side view of the head
(greatly magnified) of a com-
mon species of Culex found in
Labrador. The antennas (a)
do not reach as far as the tip
of the beak, and are supplied
at each joint with a thin ver-
ticil of hairs (by an oversight
partly omitted in the upper fig-
ure). The beak consists of a stout bristle-like labrum (not
shown in the figure), the bristle-like maxillae (ma;, with their
rather large three-jointed palpi mp) with the mandibles (m)
24

Fig. 274.

370 DIPTEKA.

which are thicker than the maxillae and barbed at the tip, and
the single hair-like lingua, or tongue (/#). These six bristle-
like organs are folded together within the hollowed labium (7),
which is a little enlarged at the tip, and forms a gutter-like case
for the rest of the mouth-parts. The mosquito, without any
apparent effort, thrusts them, thus massed into a single awl-like
beak, into the flesh, and draws in the blood through the chan-
nel formed by the fine bristles, Westwood stating that the la-
bium does not penetrate the flesh, but becomes bent upon
the breast of the fly. He adds "it is supposed that, at
the same time it instils into the wound a venomous liquid,
which, while it enables the blood to flow faster, is the chief
cause of the subsequent irritation." So far as we are aware
no poison glands have been demonstrated to exist in the head of
flies, or other six-footed insects, and we are disposed to doubt
whether any poison is poured into the wound, and to question
whether the barbed mandibles are not sufficient to produce
the irritation ordinarily accompanying the punctured wound
made by the mosquito as well as other flies.

A large mosquito, with two light spots on each wing (Ano-
pheles quadrimaculatus Say), bites fiercely. It is abundant
very early in the spring before other mosquitoes appear. It
seems to hibernate in houses. The genus Corethra has the
male antennae very long and densely hairy. The wings are
finely ciliated as in Culex, and the inner edge has a short
fringe. The beautifully transparent and delicate whitish larvae
may be seen in early spring in quiet pools. Early in April
the pupa state is assumed, disclosing the flies late in the
month.

CHIROXOMID^E Westwood. Of this small family the genus
Chironomus includes some small species which are mosquito-
like, with feathered antennae, and abound in swarms in early
spring before the snow disappears. The larvae are long, slen-
der, worm-like ; sometimes of a blood-red color, and aquatic in
their habits. While most of the larvae of this genus live in
fresh water, we have observed multitudes of the young of C.
oceanicus Pack, living on floating eel-grass and in green sea-
weeds at low water mark in Salem harbor. There are two

CECIDOMYIM:.

371

Fig. 275.

broods of the larvae, the first becoming fully grown the last of
April, the other the last of September, 6

the flies appearing about the middle of
October. The larva (Fig. 275, a, en-
larged about three times, with the head
greatly magnified ; 6, the labrurn ; c,
the mandibles ; d, the labium) is cy-
lindrical, whitish and about a quarter
of an inch long. The single pair of
fore legs (Fig. 276a) are provided with
about twenty-five longitudinal rows of hooks, while the anal
legs (Fig. 277 ; a, a portion of the dorsal vessel) terminate in
a single crown of hooks which can be drawn
in out of sight. The worms were found either
creeping over the surface of the weeds, or if
about to pupate, concealed in a rude thin case
or tube, formed of the debris collected on the
weeds. It feeds on sea-weeds and small
worms. It remains in the pupa state (Fig.
276) about two weeks, transforming into a fly
(Fig. 278 male, and head of the female) which
differs from the true Chironomi in having
shorter antennae and smaller palpi, and also in
the venation, and the longer thorax. Tanypus
resembles Culex in its larva and pupa state,
being of similar form. Lyonnet figures a
larva which spins a movable case of silk and
moss. The eggs of T. varius are laid on the a
leaves of aquatic plants, and fastened together Fi s- 277.
with gluten. Some species of Ceratopogon, like the mosquito,
are blood suckers. The larvae are, however, terrestrial, living
in mushrooms, or under the bark of decaying trees.

CECIDOMYID^E Westwood. The group of Gall-flies comprises
minute, delicate, slender-bodied species, whose bodies are
clothed with long hairs. The wings have usually three or
four longitudinal veins, and are folded over the back.
They are gall-flies, the female laying her eggs in the stalk of
cereals, and in the stems, leaves and buds of various plants

Fig. 276.

372

DIPTEEA.

which produce gall-like excrescences inhabited by the larvae.
The Wheat-midge or Hessian-fly does not, however, produce
such an enlargement, while other larvae only produce a folding
of the leaf, swelling of a leaf-rib, or arrest the growth of a
bud or stalk.

Before giving a special account of the Wheat-midge, so de-
structive to wheat crops, let us, with the aid of Baron Osten
Sacken's resume in the Smithsonian Monographs of North
American Diptera, Part 1, take a glance at the habits of the
family. As a rule the species prefer living plants, though sev-
eral species of Epidosis and Diplosis live in decaying wood, and

C. fuscicollis Meigen
(?) has been reared
by Bouche from de-
caying bulbs of tulips
and hyacinths.
Others live under the
bark of trees, in the
cones of pines, or in
fungi. Each species
is, as a rule, confined
to a peculiar species
of plant. Some of
the larvae live as
guests or parasites
in galls formed by other Cecidomyiae. Thus C. acrophila and
C. pavida live socially in the deformed buds of Fraxinus ; and
Diplosis socialis inhabits the gall of Lasioptera rubi. The
larvae of some species of Diplosis are parasitic among the plant-
lice (Aphis) . Some of the larvae live on the surface of leaves,
C. glutinosa having been found by Osten Sacken living on the
surface of hickory leaves.

The rather long, cylindrical eggs laid on the surface of
leaves, etc., are generally hatched in a few days, though this
period may be hastened or retarded by heat or cold. The
young larvae are colorless and transparent, with age becoming
reddish or yellow, or white. They are fourteen-jointed. a
supposed supernumerary joint being placed between the head
and the first thoracic segment. The last abdominal ring is

278 -

CECIDOMYID^E. 373

sometimes provided with bristles or horny splnules, frequently
curved, which aid the larvae in leaping, as they have been
observed by Dufour to do. The head and mouth-parts are
exceedingly rudimentary, consisting of a ring with two pro-
cesses extending backwards ; the soft fleshy labium protrudes
through this ring ; and from the upper part of the ring
arise a pair of two-jointed organs, supposed to be rudimental
antennae. On the under side of the body at the juncture of
the first or prothoracic segment with the supernumerary seg-
ment, is a horny piece called, provisionally, the breast-bone
(Fig. 284, a), and which is present in most of the larvae of this
group. The larvae having no jaws, must suck in the sap and
moisture through the mouth, or absorb it through the skin.
They make no excrement, like the larvae of the Hive bee and
Humble bee. Though their motions are ordinarily slow, just
before pupation they are very active. The larvae are not
known to moult, though probably the larva skin is shed by
gradually peeling off in shreds, in this respect resembling the
thin-skinned larvae of bees.

Some larvae of Cecidomyia before becoming pupae, leave
their galls and descend to the ground, while others remain in
them, where they spin a slight silken cocoon. Dr. Harris has
described the mode of pupation of the larva of C. solids Fitch,
stating that "the approaching change is marked by an altera-
tion of the color of the anterior segments of the larva, which
from orange become red and shining, as if distended by
blood. Soon afterwards, rudimentary legs, wings and antennae
begin, as it were, to bud and put forth, and rapidly grow to
their full pupal dimensions, and thus the transformation to the
pupa is completed." This process is undergone beneath the
larva skin, out of which the pupa does not draw its body, as in
the obtected diptera generally. The larva skin, dried and cy-
lindrical in shape, thus serves as a cocoon to preserve the soft
pupa from harm. The semipupa of C. destructor thus "takes
the form and color of a flax-seed. While this change is going
on externally, the body of the insect gradually cleaves from its
outer dry and brownish skin. When this is carefully opened,
the included insect will be seen to be still in the larva state.*

*This "larva" is probably the semipupa, or "beginning of the pupa state"
(Harris), and may be compared with the semipupa of the Bee. (Fig. 27.)

374

DIPTERA.

It does not change its condition and become a true pupa until
a few days before it discloses the winged insect."

The pupa resembles that of the fungus-eating Tipulids,
such as Sciara. The bases of the antennae are often produced
into horn-like points, which aid the pupa in working its way
out from the gall before assuming the fly state, and for the
same purpose the back of the abdomen is spinose, and often
there are a few bristles at the tip.

According to Dr. Harris, the Cecidomyia destructor Saj^, or
Hessian-fly (Fig. 279), has two broods, as the flies appear in
the spring and autumn. At each of these periods the fly lays

twenty or thirty eggs in a
crease in the leaf of the young
plant. In about four da}'s,
in warm weather, they hatch
and the pale red larvae (a)
"crawl down the leaf, work-
ing their way in between it and
the main stalk, passing down-
w r ards till they come to a joint,
just above which they remain,
a little below the surface
of the ground, with the head towards the root of the plant" (c).
Here they imbibe the sap by suction alone, and by the simple
pressure of their bodies they become embedded in the side of
the stem. Two or three larvae thus embedded serve to weaken
the plant, and cause it to wither and die. The larvae become
full grown in five or six weeks, then measuring about three-
twentieths of an inch in length. About the first of December
their skin hardens, becomes brown and then turns to a
bright chestnut color. This is the so-called flax-seed state, or
puparium. In two or three weeks the "larva" (or more truly
speaking, the semipupa) becomes detached from the old case.
In this puparium the larva remains through the winter. To-
wards the end of April or the beginning of May the pupa (Fig.
279, b) becomes fully formed, and in the middle of May, in New
England, the pupa comes forth from the brown puparium,
"wrapped in a thin white skin," according to Herrick, "which
it soon breaks and is then at liberty." The flies appear just as

- ?79 -

CECIDOMYnXE . 3 75

the wheat is coming up ; they lay their eggs for a period of
three weeks, and then entirely disappear. The maggots hatched
from these eggs take the flax-seed form in June and July, and
are thus found in the harvest time, most of them remaining on
the stubble. Most of the flies appear in the autumn, but others
remain in the puparium until the following spring. By burn-
ing the stubble in the fall, their attacks may best be prevented.
Among the parasites on this species, are the egg-parasites,
Platj^gaster, and Semiotellus (Ceraphron) destructor Say (Fig.
140), the latter of which pierces
the larva through the sheath of the
leaf. Two other Ichneumon para-
sites, according to Herrick, destroy
the fly while in the flax-seed or
semipnpa state. The ravages of the
Hessian-fly have been greatly
checked by these minute insects, so
that it is in many localities not so
destructive as it was formerly. Dr.
Fitch has suggested that the Euro- Fi s- 14 -

pean parasites of this insect and the C. tritici, could be im-
ported and bred in large quantities, so as to stop their ravages.
With proper pecuniary aid from the State this seems feasible,
while our native parasites might perhaps also be bred and
multiplied so as to effectually exterminate these pests.

The Wheat-midge, C. tritici Kirby, attacks the wheat in the
ear. When the wheat is in blossom the females lay their eggs
in the evening by means of the long retractile tube-like extrem-
ity of the body, within the chaffy scales of the flowers, in
clusters of from two to fifteen or more. In eight or ten days
the eggs disclose the transparent maggots, which with age be-
come orange colored, and when fully grown are one-eighth of an
inch long. They crowd around the germ of the wheat, which
by pressure becomes shrivelled and aborted. At the end of
July and in the beginning of August the maggots become
full fed, and in a few days moult their skins, leaving the old
larva skin entire, -except a little rent in one end of it. " Great
numbers of these skins are found in the wheat ears immediately
after the moulting process is completed." Sometimes the

376 DIPTERA.

larva descends to the ground and moults there. Harris states
that "it is shorter, somewhat flattened, and more obtuse
than before, and is of a deeper yellow color, with an oblong
greenish spot in the middle of the body. In this state, which is
intermediate between the larva and pupa states, which has by
Dr. Fitch been termed the u embryo-pupa," and by us "semi-
pupa," the insect spins a minute earthen cocoon, which, ac-
cording to Dr. Fitch, is smaller than a mustard seed and
remains in the ground through the winter, burrowing to the
depth of an inch beneath the surface. In the next June

they are transformed to pupae,
with the limbs free. When about
to assume the adult state the
pupa works its way to the surface
in June and July. Its chief para-
site, the Platygaster error Fitch
(Fig. 135), is allied to P. tipulee,
which in Europe destroys great
numbers of the midge.

It is evident that deep plough-
ing in the fall or spring will destroy many of the insects, and
grain sown after the 15th or 20th of May, in New England,
will generally escape their attacks.

The wings of the Hessian-fly are blackish ; those of the C.
tritici are transparent. This last species is orange colored, with
long, slender, pale yellow legs, and the joints of the antennae
are twenty-four in number in the male, and twelve in the fe-
male.

The Cecidomyia rigidce Osten Sacken (C. salicis Fitch) forms
a gall surrounded by the dry and brittle terminal bud at the
end of the twigs of the willow. The single larva discloses the
fly early in the spring. The bright yellow larva of C. grossu-
larice, Fitch, causes the gooseberry to turn red prematurely and
become putrid. The pupa of C. pini-inopis is supposed by
Osten Sacken to be coarctate, the larva fastening itself to a
pine leaf and remaining motionless until the resinous exuda-
tion resulting from its attacks hardens, forming a cocoon-like
pupa case or puparium.

Mr. Walsh describes in the " American Entomologist," vo\, i>

CECIDOMYID J3 .

377

p. 105, the gall formed by C. strobiloides O. Sacken (Fig. 280 ;
a, natural size ; 6, antenna ; 281, gall) which is simply an en-
larged and deformed bud of Salix cordata.
The fly appears in April, or early in May,
oviposits in a terminal bud, and the gall attains
its full size by the middle of July. The larva
hibernates in a thin cocoon, changing to a pupa
in the spring. (Walsh.) Another willow gall
made by C. salicis-brassicoides Walsh occurs

on the Salix longi-
folia, the galls
forming a mass
(Fig. 282) like
the sprouts on a Fig. 281.
cabbage stalk. Mr. Walsh also
describes the Grape-vine Apple
Gall (Fig. 283, gall of C.? vitis
pomum ; a, natural size ; 6, a
2so. section), the fly of which is

unknown. The gall is divided into numerous cells, each con-
taining a larva. It occurs on the wild Frost grape. The
Grape-vine filbert gall (C.? vitis-cory-
loides Walsh, fig. 284 ; a, head of larva,
showing the clove-shaped breast bone ;
6, a bunch of galls, natural size ; c, sec-
tion of a gall, showing the cell the
larva inhabits) is found on the wild
Frost grape in Illinois.

Walsh has described fourteen addi-
tional species of Cecidomyise inhabiting
eight different species of willow. The
specific character of the insects them-
selves, are in all their stages of the
slightest possible character, but the dif-
ferent galls can be readily distinguished.
These galls, according to Walsh and
other authors, also afford a shelter to so-
called "inquiline," or guest species, such as the larvae of other
species of Cecidomyia and species of Scatopse and Drosophila,

282t

373

DIPTERA,

1 of the Smithsonian
Monographs of Dip-

Curculionidce and minute Lepidoptera, together with
Aphides and species of Thrips, which last are thought by

Mr. Walsh to prey
upon the cecidomyious
larvae.

The subdivisions of
the large genus Ceci-
domyia are noticed by
Osten Sacken in Part
6

Fig. 283.

tera. As the student can refer to that work, we simply intro-
duce the cuts showing the venation of the wing of each genus
without farther characterizing them. (Fig. 285, Cecidomyia
286, Diplosis ; 287, Colpodia ; 288, Epidosis ; 289, Asynapta

290, Spaniocera

291, Lasioptera).
Another group of
this family are
Anarete and its
allies (Fig. 292,
Zygoneura ; 293,
Anarete ; 294, Ca-
tocha ; 295, Cam-
py lomyza ; 296,
Lestremia) which
are also related to
the Mycetophi-
lids.

We have al-
ready referred, on
page 51, to cer-
tain c e c i d o -
myians, which in
the larval condi-
tion produce
Fig. 284. young. We figure

(297) a species whose metamorphosis has been traced by
Nicholas Wagner. The larva is cylindrical in form, like most

CECIDOMYID.E.

379

cecidomyian larvae, with the division between the segments in-
dicated by rows of minute spines. From the germ-balls (a,
nearest the posterior end of the body) the embryo is gradually
formed (as at a in the eighth and ninth rings of the body),
when they assume a cylindrical form like the eggs of the adult
fly of this family. These eggs may be compared with the

Fig. 291.

Fig. 292.

Fig. 293.

Fig. 294. Fig. 205. Fig. 296.

"pseudova" of the Aphis, and are developed from the two
large fatty bodies (corpora adiposa) which are situated one on
each side of the body. These "false eggs" increase in num-
ber and develop until the entire cavity of the mother larva be-
comes distended with young worms like itself, and which are
finally born and may be compared with the wingless broods of
Plant-lice.*

* Grimm thinks that the term "pseudova" is objectionable, as in the paedo-
genetic Chironomus the Aviuter ova, as well as the summer, or false ova, develop
without previous fertilization by the male.

880 DIPTERA.

Several species have been found in Europe under the bark
of apple trees, etc. Loew states "that the species on which
Wagner made his observations is nearly allied
to the genus Heteropeza, but still more closely
to the genus Monodicrana, from the amber of
the Tertiary formation on the shores of the
Baltic. (Zoological Record, 1865.) Meinert de-
scribes a similar species of worm and its imago,
under the name of Miastor metroloas, and charac-
terizes the fly as having very short two-jointed
palpi, and moniliform eleven-jointed antennae.
_ The wings have tlu-ee veins, the middle one of
which does not reach the apex of the wing.

PSYCHODID^E Zetterstedt. The principal genus
in this small family is Psychoda, comprising
small flies with broad, very short, oval whitish
Fig. 297. wings, which, like the body, are very hairy.
They may be seen flying and leaping on the banks of, or on the
surface of pools, and on windows. The larvae live in dung.
The larva of the European P. phalcenoides (so named from its
resemblance to a moth) is "long, subfusiform and depressed,
with a slender, straight cylindrical tail, longer than the pre-
ceding segment. The pupa has two short appendages, thick-
ened at the tips behind the head. The abdomen is tapering."
(Westwood.)

TIPULIDJE Latreille. The Daddy-long-legs or Crane-flies
are well known by their large size and long legs, and from their
close resemblance in form have probably given rise to the
humorous stories of giant mosquitoes, which sometimes appear
in newspapers. They are characterized by their slender an-
tennae and palpi, and their remarkably long legs, while the
abdomen is very slender and cylindrical in shape ; the group
chiefly differs, however, from other flies, according to Baron
Osten Sacken (Monograph of the Diptera of North America,
Part iv), in the presence of a transverse V-shaped suture
across the mesonotum ; by the completeness of the venation,
and the presence of a well developed ovipositor, "with its two

TIPULIDJE. 381

pairs of long, horny, pointed valves." The larvae (Fig. 298,
natural size,. a larva of this family found living under stones
in a running brook at Burkesville Junction, Va. In the
American Naturalist, vol. ii, it was
referred to Tabanus) differ from
those of the neighboring families in
having but a single pair of spiracles Fig. 2cs.

at the anal end of the body. The head is rather large, and
" embedded nearly up to the mouth in the first thoracic seg-
ment ; the mandibles are horny and strong, and forked at the
end." The body is grub-like, of a uniform grayish, brownish,
or whitish color, and consists ^of twelve segments.

"The larvae of Ctenophora, living in wood, have a soft,
white, smooth skin, similar to that of the larvae of longicorn
beetles, or of the As Hi dee, living in similar conditions.
The larva of Tipula living in the soil, or the larvae of those
species of Ctenophora which are found in wood so far de-
composed as to be like soil or vegetable mould, have a much
tougher skin, and are covered with a microscopic, appressed
pubescence. This toughness, as well as some stiff bristles,
scattered over the surface of the skin, is probably useful in
burrowing. Thus the larva of Trichocera, digging in vegeta-
ble mould or in fungi, is covered, according to Ferris, with mi-
croscopic erect bristles. The larva of Ula, living in fungi, has,
according to the same author, still longer bristles. Those larvae
living in water (as some Limnobina) are soft and slimy, of a
dirty greenish color, and with a peculiar clothing of appressed
microscopic hairs, not unlike those of the larvae of Stratiomys.
The most anomalous of all the Tipulideous larvae are those of
the Cylindrotomina. That of Cylindrotoma distinctissima
lives upon the leaves of plants, as Anemone, Viola, Stellaria,
almost like a caterpillar. It is green, with a crest along the
back, consisting of a row of fleshy processes. The larva of
Cylindrotoma (Phalacrocera) replicata, according to Degeer,
lives in the water, on water plants, and is distinguished by nu-
merous filaments, which, although resembling spines, are flexi-
ble and hollow on the inside. Degeer took them for organs of
respiration." (Osten Sacken.)

The larvae move by means of minute stiff bristles arising

382 DIPTERA.

from transverse swellings on the under side of the body.
"The end of the body is truncated, and the two spiracles are
placed upon the truncature," from the edge of which part arise
usually four retractile processes.

In the aquatic larva of Ptychoptera there is a long respira-
tory tube at the end of the body. The pupae (Fig. 299, under
side, enlarged twice, represents a pupa of this family)
have usually on the thorax two horn-like processes,
representing the thoracic spiracles, and in Ptychoptera
one of these processes acquires a great length, in order
to allow the pupa to breath under water.

The Tipulids, like other flies with soft bodies which
contract in drying, should, as Osteu Sacken suggests,
be studied from fresh specimens, especially when the
thorax and abdomen, with the ovipositor, are to be ex-
rig. 299. amined. The Tipulids of the United States, east of the
Mississippi river, closely represent those of Europe, while Os-
ten Sacken states that a few species are found to be common to
both countries ; and he farther states, with regard to the Tip-
uli dee, that "whenever the North American fauna differs from
the European in the occurrence of a peculiar generic form, or in
a marked prevalence of another, this difference is due, either to
an admixture of South American forms, or of forms peculiar

to the amber fauna."

The genus Tipula com-
prises the largest individuals
of the family, and the species
may be seen early in May fly-
ing over grassy fields. The

larvse live in garden mould and under moss in fields and woods.
T. trivtttata Say is one of our most common species.

In the genus Limnobia the body is very slender and delicate,
though stouter than in Dicranomyia, a closely allied genus, the
larvue of which are probably aquatic. "The larvae live in de-
caying vegetable matter, especially in wood and fungi." ' ' Van
Roser discovered the larvae of the European L. annulus (closely
allied to L. cinctipes Say) in decayed wood. They are like an
earth-worm in size, as well as in color, and line their burrows
with a kind of silken web." (Osten Sacken.)

TIPULID^E.

383

Fig. 301.

The genus Styringomyia (Fig. 300, wing) is an anomalous ge-
nus found in gum copal brought from Zanzibar. Of three other
anomalous genera belonging here Osten Sacken
describes Bhcmphidia; of which the rostrum is
long, but shorter than the thorax, with species
common to Europe and America, and also found
in amber ; Toxorrhina which is found both in
North and South America, and Elepliantomyia
which occurs only in North America, and has a
very slender filiform rostrum, almost as long as
the body. E. Westwoodii O. Sacken is found in
the Northern States and Canada.

Erioptera and its allies have two submarginal cells and the
tibiae are without spurs at the tip. In Erioptera the wings are
pubescent along the veins only, giving the whole wing a hairy
appearance. E. venusta O. Sacken has yellowish wings, with
two brown bands, and is a common species in the 'Atlantic
States. According to Osten Sacken Chionea is
closely allied to Erioptera. It is wingless, with six-
jointed antennae of anomalous structure, and stout,
hairy feet, and a short abdomen, which, according to
Harris is provided with a "sword-shaped borer,
resembling that of a grasshopper." "These insects
occur on snow in winter, the larvae live underground,
apparently upon vegetable matter, and have been de-
scribed in detail by Brauer in the Transactions of
the Zoological and Botanical Society of Vienna for
1854." C. valga Harris (Fig. 301, enlarged; fig.
302, larva of the European C. araneoides Dalman)
is reddish brown, with paler legs.

Another section of this large family is represented
by the genus Limnopliila, in which there are two
submarginal cells, usually five posterior cells, and Fig - 302 -
the wings and eyes are smooth, and the antennae sixteen-
jointed. The larvae live in decayed wood. The larva of the
European L. dispar digs longitudinal burrows in the dry stems
of Anglica sylvestris. "It is cylindrical, glabrous, of a livid
gray, with a horny black head." (Osten Sacken.)

The anomalous genus Trichocera has pubescent eyes and

384 DIPTERA.

distinct ocelli on the sides of the frontal tubercle. The species
appear in swarms, flying up and down in their mazy dances,
especially at twilight early in spring, though they may be seen
late in autumn and on warm days in winter. They live in de-
caying vegetable matter. Pedicia
is a gigantic crane-fly, embracing
the largest flies of the family,
-d and with Trichocera is the only
genus of this family having ocelli.
P. albivitta has hyaline wings, with the costa, the fifth longi-
tudinal vein and the central cross veins margined with brown.
The body is 1.4 of an inch in length. The larva of an Euro-
pean species lives in well water.

The genus Cylindrotoma and its allies, resemble Tipula in
the course of the veins lying in the vicinity of the stigma, and
Osten Sacken illustrates the re- a

semblances by the accompanying
drawings, of whieh Fig. 303 rep- ^-
resents the venation near the
stigma of Cylindrotoma; Fig. Fig. 304.

304 that of the European Phalacrocera replicata, closely allied
to the preceding genus, and Fig. 305 that of a genuine Tipula.
Ptychoptera is rather stout-bodied and has a singular mem-
branous spatulate organ, ciliated on the margin, which is
inserted at the base of the halteres. (Osten Sacken.) P. ru-
fodncta O. S. is black with reddish bands on the feet.

The larva of the European P. paludosa has a long respira-
tory tube at the end of the body, which it raises to the surface
a of the water, and in the pupa

"one of the horny processes
which distinguishes the thorax of
all the pupae of the Tipulidce,
is enormously prolonged, like-
Fig. 303. wise, for the purpose of breath-

ing under water. (Osten Sacken.) The very singular genus
Bittacomorpha is an aberrant form, resembling the neu-
ropterous Bittacus. The antennas consist of twenty joints,
and the first joint of the tarsi is very much thickened, while
the abdomen is very long and slender. J3. clavipes Fabr. is

MYCETOPHILIDJE. 385

black with a white stripe on the mesonotum, the metanotum
and flanks being white, and the legs banded with white. It is
a widely diffused species,
and presents a most sin-
gular appearance when fly-
ing, as it moves slowly,
with its feet variegated Fi - 306<

with snow-white, and extending like the radii of a circle. (Os-
ten Sacken.) In the genus Protoplasma (Fig. 306, wing) there
are six posterior cells in the wing. P. Fitcliii O. Sacken is
brownish gray, with brown bands on the wings.

MYCETOPHILIDJS Macquart. This family comprises small
flies, capable of leaping to a considerable height, and provided
with two or three ocelli, but not having a proboscis. While
the antennae are usually simple, as in all other Diptera, those
of Platyroptilon Miersii West wood are forked, having a
branch one-half as long as the antenna itself. The thorax does
not have a transverse suture, and the wings are without a discal
cell, while the coxae are greatly elongated, and the tibiae are all
armed with spurs. The larvae are subcylindrical and smooth,
with locomotive bristles beneath, and eight pairs of stig-
mata ; they are in color white or yellowish. They are gregari-
ous, living in decaying vegetable matter, fungi, or in dung, one
species forming a gall. They shed their skin several times be-
fiore becoming fully grown. Osten Sacken states that the larva
of Sdophila which covers the surface of the fungus it feeds in
.with a web, is long and almost serpentiform, while those of
Bolitopliila and Mycetophila are shorter and stouter, and that
of Sciara is intermediate. The pupae of this family are
smooth, with rounded angles and edges, whereas those of
Tipula are sharp and pointed. They are enclosed in a silken
cocoon. Some species of Sciara do not, however, spin cocoons.
The larva of Mycetophila scatophora Ferris "carries on its
back a sheath formed of its own excrements and moulded by
means of a peculiar undulatory motion of the skin. The
pupae remain within the sheath, but before assuming this state
the larva extends the sheath anteriorly in a short neck, and
tapestries it on the inside with a pellicle, which renders it
25

386 DIPTEKA.

more tough and resisting." The larvae of one genus sometimes
live gregariously with those of other genera. Thus Osten
Sacken found that the "larvae of Sciophila appeared in a de-
caying fungus only after the transformations of Mycetophila
were entirely completed. For two or three weeks the eggs of
the former remained apparently dormant among the bustle of
so many larvae of the other species." (Osten Sacken.) Leja
resembles Sciophila in its habits. The larvae of Sciara have
no bristles on the tubercles of the under side of the body, usu-
ally present in the family. They are more gregarious than
the other genera, and have the singular propensity of sticking
together in dense patches, generally under the bark of trees.
When fully grown they sometimes march in processions in a
dense mass, sometimes several feet long, and two to three
inches broad, and half an inch in thickness, whence the Ger-
mans call them " Army- worms." To the same genus belongs
the S. (Molobrus) mali of Fitch, the apple midge, whose larva
is glassy white and devours the interior of apples.

Professor E. D. Cope describes in the Proceedings of the
Philadelphia Academy, 1867, page 222, a procession of a spe-
cies of Sciara observed in September by William Kite, in Ches-
ter County, Penn., where he had observed this army- worm for
three consecutive years. " This company (consisting by rough
estimation of about 2,400) extended over a length of about
twenty-two inches, with a breadth of from three-fourths of an
inch in the thickest part, to about one-eighth of an inch at the
head, and one-tenth at tail ; five or six worms deep in thicker
parts. They advanced at the rate of four inches in five
minutes, the hinder ones working their way over the top of
the rest." These larvae were about one-half an inch long,
semitransparent, with black heads. Mr. Kite observed another
procession July 8th, which was six feet six inches long. These
trains were attacked by larvae of Staphylinids, ants, dipterous
larvae and other predaceous insects. Seven other persons in
this country have witnessed similar trains, one of which was
observed in Lee, Mass.

The larva of Mycetobia, which agrees closely with that of
Rhyphus, is found li\;ing in putrescent sap under the bark of
the elm tree. We have found, through the summer, great num-

MYCETOPHILIDJE.

387

Fig. 30J.

bers of an undescribed species (Fig. 307 ; a, larva ; 6, pupa,
magnified three times. Fig. 308, head of the larva greatly en-
larged ; a, antenna ; Z, labruin ; m, mandible ; wee, maxillae ?
mp, maxillary palpi? #, gena?) which seems to differ from
Dnfour's figure of the European M. pallipes in the form of the
wings and their venation, as well as in the
form of the pupa. The larvae were first seen
in abundance on the 26th of June in the
crevices of the bark of the elm from which
flowed a sour sap mingled with dust, and in
this putrescent mass the slender white worms
glided swiftly about. The body is long and
slender, scarcely tapering towards either end,
and consists of twelve segments besides the
head. Like the larva of Scenopinus and
Thereva, each abdominal ring is subdivided
by a well defined false suture ; but the hinder
division in this larva is about one-fourth
shorter than the rest of the ring. It is .36
of an inch long. The head is pale honey yellow, and the body
pure white. The three thoracic rings are marked posteriorly
with honey yellow, with a pair of large round pale spots low
down on the side of each ring. It moves with great activity,
keeping its mouth-parts constantly moving, pushing them into
the dirt. The pupae were found sticking
straight out from the bark, being attached
by the spines on the tail. They were
straight, long, cylindrical, the thorax
being but little larger than the base of
the abdomen. The head is square in
front, ending in two lateral horns, and
the abdomen is covered with stout
spines, especially at the tip. It is .20
of an inch long, and is pale honey yel-
low and covered with dirt. The flies appeared June 27th, and
for six weeks after flew about the trees. The head is black,
the thorax and abdomen brown, with a leaden hue ; the abdo-
men is a little paler, being whitish beneath, but darker towards
the tip. The legs are pale, a little darker externally, especially

Fig. 308.

388 DIPTERA.

towards the tips of the joint, and the hind tarsi are a little
dusky. Its length is .10 of an inch, not including the an-
tennae. It may be called the MycetoUa sordida.

PULICID.E Westwood. While this group has been considered
by many writers as forming a distinct " order," or suborder of
insects, equivalent to the Diptera, under the name of Aphanip-
tera, we prefer, with Straus Durckheim, to consider them
as wingless flies, and perhaps scarcely more abnormal than
Nycteribia or Braula. Instead of placing
them at the foot of the suborder, we prefer,
in accordance with a suggestion made by
Haliday (Westwood, Class. Insects, vol.
ii, p. 495, note), who places them near the
Mycetophilids, or "fungivorous Tipulids,"
to consider them as allied to that group.
The body is much compressed; there are
two simple eyes which take the place of the
compound eyes, the epicranial portion of
the head being greatly prolonged, while the
labrum is wanting, and the labium is small and membranous ;
the four-jointed labial palpi, always absent in other diptera,
are long and slender. The form of the larva, including the
shape of the head and its habit of living in dirt, and its way
of moving about, as also its transformations, certainly ally the
flea with the Mycetophilids.

We have received from Dr. G. A. Perkins of Salem, the eggs
and larvae of the species infesting the cat, from which we have
also hatched the young larvae. The eggs (of which, according
to Westwood, eight or ten are laid by one female) were shaken
from the cat's fur, whence they are said to fall upon the floor
and there hatch, the larvae living in the dust and dirt on the
floor, and feeding on decaying vegetable substances. The
egg is oval cylindrical, and one forty-fifth of an inch long.
The larva when hatched is .06 of an inch long (Fig. 309, the
larva four days old ; a, antenna ; 6, end of the body) white,
cylindrical, the .sides of the body being a little expanded,
giving it a slightly flattened appearance when seen from above.
The segments are rather convex, the sutures being deeply in>

PULICIDJ3.

389

pressed. There are four long hairs on the side of each ring,
becoming longer towards the end of the abdomen, where they
are longer than the body is thick. The terminal segment of
the body is considerably smaller than the one preceding it, and
has two long spines arising from the tergal part of the ring ;
these spines seem to assist the larva in moving through the.
hairs and dust in which it lives. The well developed head is
rounded, conical, narrower than the prothoracic ring, pale
honey yellow, and with long three-jointed antennae.

Mr. Emerton, who made the drawings here given, informs
me that the larvae, when fifteen days old, did not differ from
those freshly hatched. I have been unable to discover that it
moults. Westwood states that "when fully grown, which
occurs in summer in about twelve days, the larvae enclose
themselves in a
small cocoon of
silk. Bosel, how-
ever, observed
that some of the
larvae underwent
their transforma-
tions without
forming any co-
coon." "The pu-
pa is quite inac-
tive, with the legs
enclosed in separate cases. The period of the duration of
the pupa state varies from eleven to sixteen days." Our
specimens were hatched early in October, and they probably
pass the winter before changing, as Westwood states that
they pass the winter in the larva state. . The species here rep-
resented (Fig. 310, 6, maxillae, and their palpi, a; d, the man-
dibles, which are minutely serrated ; c, labial palpi, the labium
not being shown in the figure) was found on the person of a
man, though it seems to differ specifically from Westwood's
figure of P. irritans Linn., the human flea; other species live
on the dog, cat, squirrel, and other quadrupeds and various
birds. The antennae are concealed in a small cavity situated
behind the simple eyes and are four-jointed ; in P. musculi

Fig. 310.

390 DIPTERA.

Duges, they are external. Kirby describes a gigantic species two
lines long, from British America. As a preventive measure in
ridding dogs of fleas we would suggest the frequent sweeping
and cleansing of the floors of their kennels, and renewing of
the straw or chips composing their beds chips being the best
material for them to sleep upon. Flea-afflicted dogs should be
washed every few days in strong soapsuds, or weak tobacco, or
petroleum water. A writer in the "Science-Gossip" recom-
mends the use of Persian v lnsect Powder, one package of
which suffices for a good sized dog. The powder should be
well rubbed in all over the skin ; or the dog, if small, can be
put into a bag previously dusted with the powder ; in either
case the dog should be washed soon after."

One of the most serious insect torments of the tropics of
America is the JSarcopsylla (Rynchoprion of Oken) penetrans
Linn., called by the natives, the Jigger, Chigoe, Bicho, Chique,

or Pique. (Fig. 311 much en-
^ larged ; a, the gravid female,
|L j natural size) . The female during
the dry season, bores into the
feet of the natives (though it also
311 - lives in dogs and mice, which

accounts for its presence in houses), the operation requir-
ing but a quarter of an hour, usually penetrating under the
nails, and lives there until her body becomes distended with
eggs ; the abdomen swelling out to the size of a pea. The
presence of the insect often causes distressing sores. The
Chigoe lays about sixty eggs, according to Karsten, deposit-
ing them in a sort of sac on each side of the external opening
of the oviduct. The larvae do not live in the body of the
parent, or of its host, but, like those of Pulex, live free on
the ground. The best preventives against its attacks are
cleanliness and the constant wearing of shoes or slippers when
in the house, and of boots when out of doors.

SIMULID^E Loew. Simulium molestum (Fig. 312 ; a, larva
of this or an allied species, magnified), the Black-fly, represents
this family. Its antennae are eleven-jointed; the palpi are
four-jointed, with long, fine terminal joints, and the ocelli are

BIBIONID^.

391

wanting, while the posterior tibiae, and first joint of the hind
tarsi are dilated. The body is short and thick. The labrum
is free, sharp as a dagger, and the proboscis is well
developed and draws blood profusely. The species
are numerous. The Black-fly, so well known as
the torment of travellers in the North, is black,
with a broad silvery ring on
the legs. We have received a
large species from Mr. E. T.
Cox, called in the West the
Buffalo fly. On the prairies [
of Illinois it has been known
to plague horses to death by
Fig. 312. its bifce> The ^ (Rhagio)

Columbaschense Fabr. in Hungary abounds in im-
mense numbers, often killing cattle. Other species
abound in the American tropics where they are a
great scourge. The cylindrical larva of the Euro- Fi &- 312 "
pean species is furnished with short antennae and two flabelli-
form appendages. On the under side of -the prothorax is a
thick conical and retractile tubercle, and there are several
curved filaments at the end of the body. The pupa has eight
very long lateral filaments on the front of the thorax, and the
posterior end of the body is enclosed in a semioval membra-
nous cocoon, open in front, and posteriorly attached to some
plant. The fly leaves the pupa beneath the water.

BIBIONID^E Macquart. This group is characterized by hav-
ing three ocelli and the prothorax much developed ; the wings
have no discal cell. The coxae are not prolonged and the em-
podium (supplementary cushion) is proportionally long, while
the pulvilli are sometimes wanting. The typical genus, Bibio
of Geoffroy, has short, nine-jointed antennae, five-jointed palpi,
and the eyes of the male are large and contiguous, while those
of the females are small. The larvae are cylindrical, footless,
with ten spiracles, and furnished with transverse rows of short
hairs, being found in dung, but they mostly feed on the roots
of grass, whole patches of which appearing as if winter-killed.
Robins destroy immense numbers of them. Westwood has

392 DIPTERA.

found the pupae enclosed in smooth oval cells ; they are naked,
the thorax gibbous, with the rudiment al wings and legs very
short. Bibio albipennis Say, a white-winged species, is double-
brooded, and flies in swarms in June and October, alighting
slowly on the passer-by.

RHYPHID^E Loew. This family is known by the wings hav-
ing a perfect discal cell, while the empodium resembles a
pulvillus ; the pulvilli being wanting. The single genus
Khyphus has short fourteen-jointed antennae, the second joint
of the palpi swollen, and the legs are not spiny. Rhyplms
alternatus Say, is common on windows.

The succeeding families belong to the Bracliycera, or short-
horned flies.

XYLOPHAGID^E (Macquart). This family is known by the
three basal cells of the wings being very prolonged, the an-
nulated third joint of the antennae always without a style or
terminal bristle, and by the spurred tibiae. Xylophagus has
ten-jointed antennae, with the ovipositor very long. The larva
is cylindrical, with an oblique scaly plate on the tail, while the
head ends in an acute horny point. Loew doubtfully refers
the genus Bolbomyia, found fossil in the Prussian Amber, to
this group.

STRATIOMYIDJE Latreille. The wings in this group have the
three basal cells much prolonged, and the costal vein reaching
only to the middle of the wing. The third joint of the an-
tennae is sometimes subdivided into several portions. The
tibiae are spurless and the pulvilliform empodium is much
developed. The coarctate pupa retains the larva skin nearly
in its original form. The genus Beris is easily distinguished
by having seven, instead of five (the usual number) abdominal
segments visible. In Sargus the eyes of the males approxi-
mate much closer than in the females. They are showy insects,
with bright metallic colors, and are widely distributed over the
earth. The larva lives in the earth, is oval oblong, narrowing
before ; the head is scaly, with two ocelli, and armed with two
hooks, while the body is hairy. Fig. 313 represents a pupa

TABANIDJE. 393

belonging probably to this family. Stratiomys has a broad flat-
tened abdomen, and the scutellum spined. The larvae are
aquatic, being apodal and flattened, and slen-
der especially at the end of the body, which is
elongated and has a simple terminal spiracle
"surrounded by a great number of bearded
hairs, which form a coronet, and which are
capable of being closed up so as to retain a
bubble of air, and by the assistance of which
the insect suspends itself at the surface of the
water for respiration. On assuming the pupa
state, the insect floats at liberty in the water,
the enclosed pupa occupying only the anterior Fig. sis.
portion of its larva skin."

TABANID^E Latreille. In this important family the three
basal cells of the wings are much prolonged ; the third longitu-
dinal vein is furcate, and the tegulae are rather large. The pro-
boscis of the male has four, that of the female six bristles. The
third joint of the antennae is annulate and always without
style or bristle. The eyes are large, and the thorax oblong and
flattened above. The female Horse-flies are troublesome from
their formidable bite. The pupae are obtected, resembling the
adult flies. Pangonia has a proboscis often longer than the
body itself. Chrysops, the Golden-eyed fly, is very trouble-
some, unceasingly flying about one's head, striving to alight
and draw blood. The two basal joint's of the antennae are
prolonged, hairy, the third spindle-shaped. Clirysops niger
Macquart and C. vittatus Wiedemann are the two most abun-
dant species.

Tabanus, the Horse-fly, is known by its large size and
powerful biting and sucking apparatus. Like the mosquito,
the male horse-fly does not bite, but lives on the sweets of
flowers. The accompanying sketch shows the structure of the
proboscis of the female of the Green-head fly, Tabanus lineola
Fabr. (Fig. 314 ; a, five terminal joints of the antennae ; #>,
labrum ; m, mandibles ; m#, maxillae ; mp, the two-jointed,
large, stout, maxillary palpi ; ?, the tongue). Its bite is most
painful and poisonous to many. Mr. Walsh has shown,

394

DIPTERA.

however, that in its larval state the horse-fly is useful to man,
as it feeds on snails and probably the larvae of other root-
eating insects. The larvae of other species are aquatic, living
under submerged objects. Walsh describes
a greenish transparent larva which is cylin-
drical, twelve-jointed, the body being most
slender towards the head, which is small,
truncate, conical, the anterior part capable
of extension, with short, fleshy, exarticulate
antennae and without ocelli. There are six
pairs of dorsal fleshy tubercles. On the un-
rig. 314. der side of the abdominal segments are six
retractile false legs, and a single anal retractile proleg. It
is, when disturbed, vigorous and restless, swimming quickly,
often elevating the anal slit, in which the stigmata are probable
placed, out of the water to take in the air. The pupa is cylin-
drical, obtuse at the head, tapering a little posteriorly, and is
of a pale yellowish brown. There are six
tubercles at the mouth, above which are
the trigonate three or four-jointed antennae.
The abdominal segments are furnished with
a ring of appressed bristles directed back-
Fig. 315. wards, and the anal spine is large, trun-
cated, and terminates in six small, stout spines. T. atratus
Fabr. is a common species ; it is black, covered with a whitish
bloom, and expands nearly two inches, while the Tabanus cinctus
Fabr., or Orange-belted horse-fly, is smaller and less abundant.
Of the smaller species -the Tabanus lineola Fabr. (Fig. 315)
is so named from the whitish line along the abdomen. This
fly is our most common species, thousands of them ap-
pearing during the hotter parts of the summer, when the sun
is shining on our marshes and Western prairies ; horses and
cattle are sometimes worried to death by their harassing bites.
In cloudy weather they do not fly and they perish on the cool
frosty nights of September.

LEPTID^E Meigen. This family is easily distinguished from
the preceding by the simple third joint of the antennae, which
are provided with a simple or thickened styliform bristle.

ASILID.E. 395

The tibiae are spurred ; the larvae slender, cylindrical ; the
body widening posteriorly, terminates in two points, while
the pupa is naked, incomplete, with transverse rows of
spines on the abdomen, becoming largest at the tip. The
larva of Leptis vermileo Fabr. lives at the bottom of holes
which it makes in sand, and thus, like the ant-lion, entraps
other insects.

CYRTID^E Loew. Known by the greatly inflated thorax and
abdomen this family is of but small extent, comprising species
which have the proboscis rather obsolete, or long and bent be-
neath the body. Such are the genera Cyrtus, Acrocera and
Oncodes. The genus Hirmoneura represents the family HIR-

MONEURID^E of LO6W.

MYDASID^E Leach. This family, represented in this country
by the single genus Midas, is easily known by the large size of
the species, and by the long clavate antennae, the fleshy labium,
and the minute empodium. The larva and pupa are
said by Harris to almost exactly resemble those of
the rapacious Asilidae. The larva of Midas davatus
Drury is cylindrical, whitish, tapering before and
almost rounded behind, with two spiracles in the last
segment but one of the abdomen, and is two inches
long. It lives and undergoes its transformations in
decaying logs. (Harris.) The pupa (Fig. 316, drawn
from a specimen in the Harris collection) is about
an inch and a quarter long, brown, nearly cylindrical, Flg ' 316 '
with a forked tail ; there are eight spines on the forepart of
the body. Midas fulvipes Walsh has similar habits and its
transformations are similar ; the larva is insectivorous.

(Asilici) Latreille. These large, stout, Robber-flies,
as the Germans style them, are covered with stiff hairs, and
have long abdomens. The third joint of the antennae is sim-
ple ; the labium forms a horny sheath, and the empodium is
like a horny bristle. They are rapacious, seizing other insects
and flying off with them, like the fossorial hymenoptera. Da-
sypogon (Fig. 271, 3, wing) has the second longitudinal vein

396 DIPTERA.

running into the border of the wing, while the anterior tibiae
end in a hooked spine.

The genus Laphria is large, stout-bodied, very hirsute, the
second longitudinal vein runs into the first, and the style of
the antennas is either thick and stout, and generally wanting, or
entirely obsolete. In their loud buzz, swift, peculiar flight and
general appearance, the species strikingly resemble humble
bees. Laphria thoracica Fabr. is nearly an inch long, and is
black with yellow hairs on the thorax. Asilus is much longer,
with an acutely pointed prolonged abdomen, and the species are
often nearly naked, while the more essential characters lie in
the union of the second longitudinal vein with the first, and the
termination of the antennae in a distinct bristle. The larvae
of Asilus sericeus Say, which feed on roots of the rhubarb
plant, according to Dr. Harris, are yellowish white, about
three-quarters of an inch long, a little flattened and tapering
at each end, with a small brown, retractile head, which is pro-
vided with two little horny brown hooks. The brown pupa is
naked, with a pair of tubercles on the front of the head, three
spines on the side, a forked tail, and a transverse row of fine
teeth across each abdominal segment, by which they are en-
abled to work their way to the surface. The Trupanea apivora
Fitch, or Bee-killer, captures the honey bee on the wing, one
having been known to kill 141 bees in a day. (Riley.)

THERE VID^E Westwood. This small group is characterized
by the wings having the three basal cells much prolonged ; the
third longitudinal vein is furcate, and the antennae have a ter-
minal style of variable form, sometimes wanting. There is no
empodium, and the labium is fleshy. The larva is very long
and slender, the abdominal rings having a double segmented
appearance, with two respiratory tubes at the end of the body.
They are found in garden mould and rotten wood. The pupa is
oblong, with two spines on the front of the head, and three on
the side of the thorax. Westwood states that the larva of a
species of TJiereva, which is like a wire-worm in shape, feeds
on the pupae of some moths.

BOMBYLIID.E Latreille. These pretty flies are very hirsute,

397

with an oval body and long proboscis ; the wings have the
three basal cells much prolonged, with the anterior intercal-
ary vein present almost without exception, the posterior always
wanting. The third joint of the antennae is simple, and the
empodium quite rudimentary. They are exceedingly swift on
the wing and are found in sunny paths and glades early in the
spring and throughout the summer. They can only be cap-
tured when alighted on the ground. The eggs are laid in the
nests of bees, and the half cylindrical, long, fleshy, smooth,
unarmed larvae devour the bee larvae, while the pupa is spiny,
armed on the head with horny lamellae. In the genus Bomby-
lius the body is ovate, with long dense hairs and a small head.
The eyes of the male are grown together, and the legs are very
slender. A species is known in England to lay its eggs at the
opening of. the holes of Andrena, whose larvae and pupae are
devoured by the larvae of the fly. Systropus is very long and
slender, and wasp-like, as in Conops, with the proboscis equal-,
ling the thorax in length. The genus Anthrax is more flattened
and oblong in shape than Bombylius, with a short proboscis ;
the eyes are not connected in the males. The species are
gaily colored, the wings often partially black ; they fly in paths
in the hottest days of summer. The larvae are parasitic on
bees, and in their transformations closely resemble those of
Bombylius. Audouin has found Anthrax morio in the nest of
Anthophora, and Westwood has found the pupa-skin in the
nest of Megachile, while the larva has, in England, more re-
cently been found to be parasitic in the nests of certain An-
drenidae. We have received from Mr. J. Angus the larva and
pupa (Plate 4, figs. 6, 7) of Anthrax sinuosa Wiedemann,
which is parasitic in the nest of Xylocopa Virginica.

SYRPHID^: Leach. These gaily colored flies, so useful to ag-
riculturists from their habit of feeding upon Plant-lice, closely
resemble the wasps in form and coloration, having hemis-
pherical heads, large broad eyes, and rather flattened bodies
ornamented with yellow bands and spots. The wings have the
three basal cells much prolonged, the third longitudinal vein
simple, a spurious longitudinal vein between the third and fourth
longitudinal veins ; while the fourth longitudinal vein is united

398

DIPTERA.

Fig. 317.

at its end with the third, and there is no intercalary vein. The
genital armor of the male is unsymmetrical, and there is no
empodium. They hover in the hot sun
over and -about flowers, resting upon
them to feed on their sweets. The
larvae either live in the water, when the
body ends in a long extensile breathing
tube ; or are terrestrial, living in decay-
ing wood, or parasitically in nests of
bees, or, as in Syrphus, live among plant-
lice. The singular spherical larva of Mi-
crodon globosus (Fig. 317 ; a, puparium ;
s, spiracular tubercles ; v, vent ; 6,
anterior view of the same ; c, larva just
before pupation) is found, according to
Mr. Sanborn, under sticks in company
with shells.

Milesia strikingly resembles, in its style of coloration and
form, the common large yellow wasp. The antennae are short,
drooping, with a stout oval terminal joint, and a subterminal
bristle. M. excentrica Harris, with its yellow spots and bands
resembles a wasp.

Eristalis is well known by its aquatic "rat- tailed" larvae, the
abdomen terminating in a long respiratory tube equalling the
body in length, with two stigmata at the end, which they pro-
trude out of the water. There are seven pairs of prolegs, more
distinct than in any other genus in the entire suborder. The
pupa is found buried in the earth. The body of the larva shor-
tens and hardens, forming the puparium, which is provided
with four horns, serving as organs of respiration.

The species of Eristalis* are seen flying abundantly about

* Jules Kunckel has recently detected a true peritrachial circulation in Eristalis,
thus confirming the discoveries of Blanchard and Agassiz. He saw the blood
imprisoned between the inner air tube and the envelope of the trachea, and pene-
trating into the capillaiy termination of those tracheae, and saw the flow of the
blood globules in the peritracheal space. This peritracheal circulation thus seems
to correspond with the arterial circulation of the vertebrate animals, and the mi-
nute branches of the tracheae are capillaries, and the blood is arterial. "En
rtsum&, the tracheae of insects, air tubes in their central portion, blood vessels in
their peripheral portion [i. e., the space surrounding the air tube] become at their
extremities true arterial capillaries." "The blood in the peritracheal space re-
mains through all its course in contact with the oxygen; it arrives at the capilla-

SYEPHID^E.

399

Fig. 318.

Fig. 319.

flowers in the spring, and are common throughout the spring.
They scoop up the pollen of the flowers with their maxillae.
We have received from Mr. E. T. Cox the
puparium (Fig. 318) of a species which in-
habits the salt vats of the Equality Salt
Works of Gallatin County, 111. The pupa-
rium of a species of Helophilus closely re-
sembling that figured by Westwood (Class. Insects, Fig. 131,
8), has been found living in the salt water canal of the

Naumkeag Factory leading
into Salem Harbor, and is in
the Museum of the Peabody
Academy.

Closely allied to Eristalis is
the genus Merodon, of which
M. bardus Say (Fig. 319 ; a,
puparium, natural size) is fre-
quently met with. Its thorax,
the first abdominal ring and the side of the second are cov-
ered with short yellow hairs ; it is .70 of an inch in length.
The puparium is of the same length, and
is cylindrical, ending suddenly in a re-
spiratory filament a little longer than the
body; it is quite stout, contracting be-
yond its middle into a slender filament.
On each abdominal ring is a pair of small,
low, flattened tubercles crowned by a
number of radiating spinules. Its larva
is undoubtedly aquatic, like that of Eris-
talis. Mr. Sanborn has also reared from the pupa state Jtf.
Narcissi, which probably lives in the soil about
decaying bulbs, as the puparium has no respira-
tory tube, but instead a very short sessile trun-
cated projection, scarcely as long as it is thick,
with a pair of stigmata in the end ; the body is
cylindrical and rounded alike at each end, with a slight con-

ries perfectly vivified; it is a true arterial blood. These capillaries are not in
communication with the venous capillaries ; the blood is taken up by the tissues,
it nourishes them and flows into the venous lacunae, and the lacunar currents
carry it to the dorsal vessel." Annales des Sciences tfaturelles, 1868.

Fig. 320.

Fig. 321.

400 DIPTERA.

traction behind the middle of the head ; its surface is rough-
ened with transverse wrinkles, but no regularly marked sutures,
indicating the divisions between the segments, are apparent.
It has been introduced from Europe, according to Mr. Sanborn,
by the importers of Dutch bulbs.

The well known genus Syrplius (Fig 320, S. politus Say) so
useful in reducing the immense numbers of plant-lice, lays a
single egg in a group of plant-lice, which hatches out a footless,
eyeless, flattened, transversely wrinkled, gaily colored green and
purple maggot (Fig. 321) having a very extensile body, which
enables it to reach up and grasp the Aphis by the peculiar
sucking mouth-parts. When fully grown the larva adheres by
means of a glutinous secretion to a leaf, its body contracts and
hardens, forming a half cylindrical puparium.

The species of Volucella are parasitic in their habits, the
larvae feeding on those of Bombus. They are long, "narrowed
in front, transversely wrinkled, with fine lateral points, and the
tail is armed with six radiating points ; the mouth is armed
with two bifid mandibles, and three pairs of tentacula."
(Westwood.) The pupae are not known. The fly would be
easily mistaken for a bee, nearly attaining the size of the
worker Humble-bee, being remarkably plump and hirsute. J.
Kiinckel states that in Europe two species are known to live
in the nests of Vespa.

CONOPID^E Leach. The species of this family bear some
resemblance to the wasp, Eumenes, from their long, slen-
der, pedicelled abdomen. The three basal cells of the wings
are large, the third closed, more or less remote from the pos-
terior border, and all the longitudinal veins are simple. The
eyes in both sexes are smaller than in the preceding family,
being separated. The proboscis is, with a few exceptions,
much prolonged, and the third joint of the antennae has either
an apical style or a thick dorsal bristle. The male genital
armor is symmetrical and turned beneath the abdomen. The
flask-shaped larva of Conops is " soft, whitish, eleven-jointed,
with a long neck and a mouth armed with lips and hooks (man-
dibles), and two lateral elevated plates supporting the two
spiracles/' It was found by Lachat and Audouin living in the

CONOPID^E.

401

abdomen of Bombus. It is also said by St. Fargeau to live in
the nest of Vespa, and Conops Jlavipes was bred, according to
Curtis, from the body of Osmia.

Mr. S. S. Saunders has observed in Epirus the habits of a
species which lives in the abdomen of Pompilus audax Smith.
The fly lays its eggs in June in the adult Pompilus, probably
ovipositing between the abdominal segments. During August
the larvae become fully grown, probably in ten or fifteen days.
The puparium is oval, of an uniform, deep, piceous hue, and the
fly works its way through the first and second abdominal rings
of the wasp, whose abdomen then breaks in two. Saunders
also found a similar Conops larva in Sphex flavipennis, cap-
tured at the same time and place as the Pompilus ; also a
smaller species of
Conops was bred
from the abdomen
of Odynerus.
We have also
bred a species
from one of two
species of Bom-
bus, either B.
vagans or B. fer-
vidus.

In Myopa the antennal bristle is subterminal, and the probos-
cis is twice elbowed. Westwood has observed Myopa atra fly-
ing about sand-banks in which were the burrows of various bees,
and by other authors the genus is said to be parasitic on bees.

The genus Pipunculus represents a small group in which
the head is almost entirely occupied by the eyes, the front and
face being exceedingly narrow, while the antennae have a basal
bristle.

Loew considers the genus JScenopinus as the type of a dis-
tinct family, hinting at its relationship with the Bombyliidae.
The genus is known by the short antennae, without style or bris-
tle ; and by the short proboscis with its broad fleshy end. The
larvae are long, very slender, much like those of Thereva, and
the pupa is much like that of Leptis. Mr. Sanborn has reared
S.pallipes Say (Fig. 322 ; a, larva). The larva is found under
26

Fig. 322.

402 DIPTERA.

carpets, and is remarkable for the double segmented appearance
of all the abdominal segments, except the last one, so that the
body, exclusive of the head, seems as if twenty-jointed instead
of having but twelve joints. The head is conical, one-third
longer than broad, and of a reddish brown color, while the
body is white. It is .65 of an inch in length. The larva is
also said to live in rotten wood, and is too scarce to be destruc-
tive to carpets. The fly is black, with a metallic hue, and
with pale feet.

The genus Platypeza also represents the Platypezidce of
Meigen, the antennae of which have an apical bristle, with the
male genital armor (hypopygium) turned symmetrically under
the abdomen. The middle tibiae are provided with spurs, and
the empodium is wanting. The larva is flat, with rigid curved
bristles along the side. It lives in rotten mushrooms.

EMPID.E Leach. The species of this family closely resemble
the Asilidse in their long body, incumbent wings, and rapaci-
ous, carnivorous habits. The first joint of the antennae is not
much shortened, and the third joint has an apical or dorsal
bristle, while the empodium is usually membranaceous and of a
linear form. The head is small, spherical, the eyes united in
the male ; the proboscis is horny, without a distinct tongue,
and bent upon the breast. The slender larvae, whose segments
are much constricted, arc found in garden mould. The species
hover in swarms over standing water, flying backwards and for-
wards as if by a common impulse. They appear very early in
the spring, or in autumn. The genera Hybos and Tachydromia
represent small groups which are closely allied to Empis.

DOLICHOPODID^E Latreille. Loew has characterized this
well marked family as generally comprising metallic green,
brisk and restless Diptera of small or medium size, predatory
on other insects, and living principally in damp situations ; the
larvae living under ground or in decaying wood. The head is
hemispherical, the eyes large and hairy, the antennae are
stretched straight out, with a two-jointed bristle. The probos-
cis is short and stout, concealed above by the single jointed,
usually scale-shaped palpi, with a wide opening which can be

CESTIUD2&. 403

shut by the protruding suctorial flaps. The wings do not have
the auxiliary vein running towards the anterior margin ; the an-
terior basal cell is very short ; and the discoidal cell coalescent
with the second basal cell, while the posterior basal cell is very
small. They are mostly "found on the leaves of aquatic plants,
on stones partly overflown with water, on dams and near water-
falls ; some of them are able to run rapidly over the water, even
when it is rippled by the wind (Hydophorus) ; others are fond
of salt or brackish waters (Aphrosylus, Thinophilus and some
Hydrophorus) ; the species of Medetervs prefer dry situations,
and are found on stumps of trees, fences, etc., even in very
dry and hot weather."

Leach. Bot-flies, Breeze-flies. In these flies, so
interesting in their habits, the body is stout, hairy, like the
Humble bees, and they are easily recognized by having the
opening of the mouth very small, with rudimentary oral or-
gans. The middle part of the face is exceedingly narrow, and
the minute antennae are inserted in rounded pits. The eggs
hatch very soon after laying, and Riley (First Annual Report
on the Noxious Insects of Missouri, p. 164) thinks, from the
testimony of three independent witnesses, that the sheep bot-
fly is viviparous, the larvae hatching within the body of the
parent, who deposits in the nostrils of the sheep the "perfectly
formed and living grub."

The larvae are, in general, thick, fleshy, footless grubs, con-
sisting of eleven segments exclusive of the head, which are
spined and tuberculated, the former in rows, which enable them
to move about readily when living under the skin or in the
frontal sinua and thus greatly irritate the animals on which they
live. The stigmata are placed in a scaly plate on the thick-
ened posterior end of the body. The mouth of the cutaneous
larvae consists simply of fleshy tubercles, while in those species
that live in the stomach and frontal sinuses of their hosts, it is
provided with horny hooks. While in this state they moult
twice, and then attain their full size. They feed on the puru-
lent matter originating from the irritation produced by the
movements of their bodies. Just before assuming the pupa
state, the larva leaves its peculiar habitat, descends into the

404

DIPTEKA.

ground, and there becomes a coarctate pupa, enclosed within
the old larva skin, and remaining in connection with it by
means of four tracheae.

The genus Gastrophilus has very small
mouth-parts, the deep lying palpi being
somewhat spherical, and the
proboscis nearly obsolete,
while the abdomen is sessile.
Fig. 323. rpk e S p ec i es are o f medium

size, short and thick, and very hairy. The female
deposits her eggs on the horse's hips and legs,
whence the larvae are introduced into the stomach.
The body of the larva widens posteriorly ; the
mandibles are not visible, and the maxillae con-
stitute the so-called mouth-hooks, by which the
larva grapples and adheres to the walls of the
horse's stomach. The rudimentary antennae are
indicated by an ocellus-like point. The Horse Bot-fly, Gas-
trophilus equi Fabr. (Fig. 323 ; fig. 324, larva), in its perfect
state is pale yellowish, spotted with red, with a grayish yellow
hirsuties; the thorax is banded with black, or sometimes,

Fig. 324.

Fig. 325. a

though rarely, reddish hairs. The hinder trochanters are
hooked in the males, and tuberculated in the females, and the
wings are banded with reddish, with two spots at the apex.
The larvae live from May till October, and when fully grown v
hang by their mouth-hooks on the edge of the rectum, whence

405

they are carried out in the excrement. The pupa state lasts
from thirty to forty days, and the perfect fly appears the next
season from June to October.

In Hypoderma the palpi are entirely wanting. The species are
either \QTJ large, or of medium size, and often quite small, cov-
ered with fine dense hairs. The legs are long and slender. The
Hypoderma bovis Degeer (Fig. 325, a, larva) or Bot-fly of the ox,
is black, densely pilose ; the front of the head is dirty ashen,
with whitish yellow hairs. The naked black thorax is twice
broadly banded with yellow and white ; the scutellum has
slight tubercles ; the abdomen is black, with a basal white or
yellowish band, a mesial black band, and at the end is a reddish
orange band of hairs. The larvae are found during the month
of May and in the summer in the tumors on the backs of cattle,
and when fully grown, which is generally in July, work their
way out and fall to the ground.
They exist in the puparium twen-
ty-six to thirty days, and the fly
appears from June to September.
This species is found over all the
civilized portions of the world.
Hypoderma tarandi Linn, infests,
in like manner, the Reindeer.
The genus (Estromyia is thought
to inhabit the Hare. CEstrus ovis
Linn., the Sheep Bot-fly, is of a
dirty ash color, with a fuscous ashen, banded, and obscurely
spotted thorax. The abdomen is marbled with yellowish and
white flecks, and is hairy at the end. The larva lives, during
April, May and June, in the frontal sinus of the sheep, and also
in the nasal cavity, whence it falls to the ground. It changes
to a pupa in twenty-four hours, and the fly appears during the
summer. Cuterebra has the third joint of the antennae oval or
elliptical and the bristle is dorsal and feathered ; the species
are short, very plump and hairy flies, with a proboscis elbowed
at the base, and with a metallic shining rounded abdomen.
The larvae live in subcutaneous bots beneath the skin of vari-
ous animals. One species (the C. emasculator of Fitch) lives
in the scrotum of the squirrel, which it is known to emasculate.

406

DIPTERA.

Mr. S. S. Rathvon has reared C. buccata Fabr. (Fig. 326, and
side view) from the body of a striped squirrel, the larvae having
emerged from the region of the kidneys." (American Ento-
mologist, p. 116.) Other species live in the Opossum and
.different species of field-mice. Cuterebra Tiorripilum Clark is
found throughout the United States, and C. cuniculi Clark lives
in the hare and rabbit, in the Southern States, and is found,
according to Coquerel, in the bots of horses.

The genus Dermatobia includes the Ver macaque, of Cayenne
and Mexico, found beneath the skin of man in tropical America,
and it is disputed whether it be a true indigenous "CEstrus
hominis," or originally attacks the monkey, dog, or other mam-
mal, In Cayenne the species attacking man is called the Ver
Macaque ; in Brazil (Para) Ura ; in Costa
Rica, Torcel ; in New Grenada, Gusano
peludo, or Muche. The D. noxialis Goudot?
(Fig. 327) Ver moyocuil, lives on the dog,
and is found in Mexico and New Grenada.
The larvae are long, cylindrical, S- shaped,
differing greatly in form from others of this
family. The flies are closely allied to those
of the preceding genus.

Dr. Leidy states in the Proceedings of the
Philadelphia Academy (1859), that several
specimens of the larva of a bot-fly were ob-
rig. 327. tained by Dr. J. L. Leconte in Honduras,

from his travelling companions. They were "usually found be-
neath the skin of the shoulders, breasts, arms, buttocks and
thighs, and were suspected to have been introduced when the
persons were bathing." "Dr. Leconte informs us that his com-
panions were not aware of the time when the eggs of the larvae,
obtained by him, were deposited in their bodies. He also states
that the presence of the larva gave rise to comparatively little
uneasiness."

According to Krefft a species of Batrachomyia is parasitic
upon four species of Australian frogs. The larvae are found
between the skin and the flesh behind the tympanum ; they are
of a yellow color and may be squeezed through a small open-
ing that exists over them. When they quit the frog the latter

MUSCIDJS. 407

dies. The change to the pupa state is usually effected on the
lower surface of a piece of rock in some damp locality. The
perfect insect emerges in thirty-two days. (Giinther's Zoologi-
cal Record, 1864.)

MUSCLDJE Latreille. The common House-fly, the Blue-bottle
fly, and the Flesh-fly, at once recall the appearance of this
family, which is one of great extent, and much subdivided by
entomologists. The antennae are three-jointed, the terminal
joint being flattened and with a plumose bristle in the typical
species. The proboscis ends in a fleshy lobe, with porrect
single-jointed maxillary palpi. The four longitudinal veins of
the wing are simple ; the first of the two vejns on the hinder
edge often approaching that on the apex of the wing ; the tarsi
have two pulvilli, and the abdomen is five-jointed. The larvae
are footless, cylindrico-conic, narrowing in front, with a head
variable in form, and with hook-like mandibles. There are often
two pairs of spiracles, one on the terminal ring of the body,
and the other pair on the prothoracic segment. The pupa is
enclosed in the puparium, generally cylindrical, but sometimes
preserving the original shape of the larva. The celebrated
"Tsetze" fly (Glossina morsitans Westwood) is a member of
this family. It kills cattle by its painful bite, though its in-
jurious nature is said to have been overrated. It is allied to
Stomoxys, the species of which bite very sharply. S. cattricans
has a well developed proboscis, enabling it to bite severely.
It is often found in houses.

The species of the genus Tachina, like the Ichneumonidae, are
parasitic in caterpillars, and others are found in the nests of
bees. They are stout flies, covered with bristles, with the eyes
much larger in the males than in the other sex. The bristle
of the antennae is bare or with a very short pubescence. The
thorax is short, and the first posterior cell is closed, or but
slightly opened, and the legs are short. The abdomen is oval
or cylindrical, and the first segment is much shortened. The
larvae are oval, with the segments much constricted ; they have
no head ; the last segment bears two spiracles. T. (Senomet-
opia) militant Walsh lays its eggs, from one to six in num-
ber, on the Army worm (Leucania unipuncta), "fastening

408

DIPTEEA.

them' by an insoluble cement on the upper surface of the two
or three first rings of the body. The eggs hatch often after
the caterpillar has gone under ground to transform, and in
fifteen to nineteen days, or the last of September, the flies ap-
pear. T. (Lydella) doryphorce Biley (Fig. 328) preys on the

larvae of the Colorado potato
beetle. Other species of gen-
era allied to Tachina, accord-
ing to Dufour, are parasitic on
beetles, etc ; thus, Cassidomyia
preys on Cassida, Hyalomyia
on Brachyderes, and Ocyptera
attacks Pentatoma ; and he
thinks that Cliartophila floralis
feeds either on the food or the

Fig. 328.

young itself of Andrena.

Sarcophaga, the Flesh-fly, has a small head, with the aiitennal
bristle plumose or hairy, naked at the tip ; the first posterior
cell only slightly opened, or closed, with large tegulse and
stout legs. The flesh-fly, Sarcophaga carnaria Linn., is black,
the thorax streaked with gray, and the abdomen checkered
with whitish. The female is viviparous, that is, the
larvae hatch and live within the oviduct. The ova-
ries are large, arranged in a spiral manner and con-
tain sometimes 20,000 eggs. We have reared Sarco-
phaga nudipennis Loew from the cells of Pelopaeus
flavipes, the Mud-dauber, which had been stored with
spiders, the flies making their appearance on the first
of July, a few days before the wasps issued from the
cells. The parent flies had probably laid their eggs
in the spiders before the cells were closed by the
wasps. The nests .were brought from Texas.
Fig. 329. Musca has plumose antennae, while in Stomoxys
they are pectinated. Dufour states that the allied genera,
Echinomyia, Gonia, Dexia and JSiphonia are also viviparous.
Musca (Lucilia) Caesar Linn, the Blue-bottle fly, and Musca
(Calliphora) vomitoria Linn, the Meat-fly, deposit their eggs
(fly-blows) upon meat and decaying animal substances, and
during the late war were grievously tormenting to our soldiers,

MUSCIDJE. 409

laying their eggs in the wounds, especially of those left on the
field over night. The larva of M. Caesar (Fig. 329) is of very
rapid growth. It is of an "elongated conical form, pointed
towards the head, which is furnished with two fleshy horns,"
and horny mouth-parts, and a pair of rudiments of branchiae
on the prothoracic ring. The body is suddenly truncated, the
end being furnished with a pair of stigmata. The pupa trans-
forms in the ground, within a puparium of the usual long, cy-
lindrical form.

Dr. Chapman of Appalachicola, writes to Mr. Sanborn that
this fly, " attracted by the stench of a mass of decaying insects
which have perished in the leaf of Sarracenia, ventures in and
deposits its eggs, and the larvae devour the festering heap.
These in turn, on becoming flies, are
unable to get out of their prison, perish,
and are added to the putrefying mass
that had nourished them."

F. Smith notices in the Transactions
of the Entomological Society of Lon-
don, 1868, the " Warega" fly of Brazil,
which is said to be the "pest of both
man and animals ; it is a species of
Muse a, and is said to lay its eggs in the
skin; large and terrible swellings are
formed. The mode of extracting the

maggot is to cut an opening, and to press it out a most
painful operation. These wounds are very difficult to cure."

The House-fly, Musca domestica Linn., is common in the
warmer parts of the year, and hibernates through the winter. A
study of the proboscis of the fly reveals a wonderful adaptability
of the mouth-parts of this insect to their uses. We have already
noticed the most perfect condition of these parts as seen in the
horse-fly. In the proboscis of the house-fly the hard parts are
obsolete, and instead we have a fleshy tongue-like organ (Fig.
330), bent up underneath the head when at rest. The maxillae
are minute, and the palpi (mp) are single-jointed, and the man-
dibles (m) are comparatively useless, being very short and
small compared with the lancet-like jaws of the mosquito or
horse-fly. But the structure of the tongue itself (labium, I) is

410 DIPTERA.

most curious. When the fly settles upon a lump of sugar or
other sweet object, it unbends its tongue, extends it, and the
broad knob-like end divides into two flat, muscular leaves (7),
which thus present a sucker-like surface, with which the fly laps
up liquid sweets. These two leaves are supported upon a
framework of trachea! 1 tubes, which act as a set of springs
to open and shut the muscular leaves. In the preceding figure,
Mr. Emerton has faithfully represented these modified tracheae,
which end in hairs projecting externally. Thus the inside of
this broad fleshy expansion is rough like a rasp, and as Newport
states, "is easily employed by the insect in scraping or tearing
delicate surfaces. It is by means of this curious structure that
the busy house-fly occasions much mischief to the covers of our
books, by scraping off the albuminous polish, and leaving tra-
A cings of its depredations in the soiled and spotted

M a appearance which it occasions on them. It is
by means of these also that it teases us in the heat
of summer, when it alights on the hand or face
to sip the perspiration as it exudes from, and is
condensed upon, the skin."

Every one notices that house-flies are most
abundant around barns in August and Septem-
ber, and it is in the ordure of stables that the
early stages of this insect are passed. No one
Fig. 331. has traced the transformations of this fly in this
country, but we copy from Bouche's work on the transforma-
tions of insects, the rather rude figures of the larva (Fig. 331),
and puparium (a) of the Musca domestica of Europe, w r hich is
supposed to be our species. Bouche states that the larva is
cylindrical, rounded posteriorly, smooth and shining, fleshy,
and yellowish white, and is four lines long. The puparium is
dark reddish brown, and three lines in length. It remains in
the pupa state from eight to fourteen days. In Europe it is
preyed upon by minute ichneumon flies (Chalcids). Idia
Bigoti, according to Coquerel and Mondiere, produces a disease
in the natives of Senegal, probably by ovipositing on the skin,
thus giving rise to hard red fluctuating tumors, in which the
larva of this fly resides.

The species of the genus Antliomyia, seen about flowers, in

411

the larva state live in decaying vegetable matter and in privies.
They are smaller flies than the foregoing genera, with smaller
alulae, and the fourth longitudinal vein of the wing is straight,
thus leaving the first posterior cell fully open. The larvae are
generally much like those of the meat-fly, but are thicker,
while others, described as belonging to this genus, are said to
be flattened and hairy.

The Radish-fly, Anthomyia raphani Harris, abounds in the
roots of the radish, the fly appearing towards the end of June.
Another species, the Onion-fly, Anthomyia ceparum (Fig. 332),
causes the leaves of the onion to turn yellow and die from
the attacks of the larvae in the roots. The larvae mature in
two weeks, transform in the root, and two weeks later disclose
the flies. Mr. Walsh
suggests that the
larvae may be de-
stroyed by pouring
boiling hot water
over the young
plants, which, with-
out injuring the on-
ions, destroys the

maggots. The Fig. 332.

Seed-corn Maggot, the larva of Antliomyia zece Riley (Fig. 344,
p. 419, a, larva; 6, puparium ; c, kernels eaten), destroys,
in New Jersey, the kernels of sprouted corn before it comes up.
The Cabbage maggot, the larva of A. brassicce Bouche, a com-
mon fly in Europe, has been found in Michigan to be injurious
to the cabbage. (Riley.) The hairy maggots of A. cunicularis
or an allied species, live in rotten turnips. (Harris.) The pu-
parium (Plate 3, fig. 5, 5 a) of another species has been found
by Mr. F. W. Putnam in 'the nests of the humble bee.

In Ortalis the front is quite prominent, the clypeus is greatly
developed, the opening of the mouth wide, and the proboscis
much thickened. This genus comprises variously banded and
spotted flies, which may be seen walking along leaves vibrating
their wings. They feed on the leaves, and afterwards the
pulpy fruit of the cherry, olive and orange. Another Onion-
fly, discovered by Dr. Shinier in Illinois, is the Ortalis flexa

412

DIPTEKA.

of Wiedemann (Fig. 333 ; a, larva). The fly differs from the
Anthomyia ceparum, besides more important respects, in hav-
ing black wings with three broad curved bands. The maggot
feeds in the root thus killing the top of the plant.

A species of Trypeta, according to F. Smith, which in Brazil
is called the "Berna" fly, deposits its eggs in wounds, both
on man and beast. "It is remarkable from having the apical

segment of the ab-
domen elongated
into a long oviposi-
tor. Mr. Peckolt
says the negroes
suffer much from
the attacks of this
fly, which frequent-
a Fig. 333. ty deposits its eggs

in their nostrils whilst they are sleeping, and such are the
effects of its attacks, that, in some cases, death ensues."
(Transactions of the Entomological Society, London, 1868,
p. 135.)

To the genus Lonchcea, Osten Sacken refers, with consider-
able doubt, a fly, which I have found in abundance, raising
blister-like swellings on the twigs of the willow. They were

fully grown in April.
The larva (Fig. 334,
fly ; a, the larva ; 6,
the pupa) is curved,
cylindrical, tapering
nearly alike towards
each extremity,
Fig. 334. though the thoracic

region is the thickest. The rings are thickened upon their pos-
terior edges, so that they appear contracted in the middle. It
is glassy green, with two little elongated tubercles placed near
each other at a little distance from the end, where in the pupa
they are terminal. It is .15 of an inch long when fully ex-
tended. The pupa-case, found late in May, is oval, long, cy-
lindrical and obtuse at both ends ; the anterior end is more
blunt ; the first segment of the body is minute and forms the

MUSCIM3. 413

lid, which opens when the fly makes its exit, and bears two
small slender tubercles which project upwards. The posterior
end bears two terminal spine-like tubercles similar to those on
the head, but projecting horizontally. The puparium is glassy
green, and the limbs of the enclosed pupa can be partially seen
through the skin. The rings are (especially on the thorax)
spinose, being the remnants of the rows of spines around the
hind edge of the larval segments. It is .15 of an inch long.
The pupa lies a short distance from the opening of its burrow,
which is about half an inch long, and is situated between the
wood and the bark.
The larva before pupa-
ting eats away the bark,
leaving a thin outer
scale, or roundish black
space which can be
folded back like a lid,
which the fly pushes
open when it emerges.
Several swellings occur
on the twig in the space Fig - 335-

of six inches. The fly appeared the 25th of June. Dufour
states that in Europe Lonchcea nigra lives in the outer bark of
the oak, and another under the bark of the poplar, while still
another species makes a sort of gall in the dogsgrass.

The genus Spliyracepliala is remarkable for its stalked eyes,
which are placed on long stems going out from the sides of
the head. Some species are found fossil in the Prussian
amber. S. brevicornis Say is rather rare.

The Cheese maggot is the larva of Piopliila casei (Fig. 335)
a shining black fly, three-twentieths of an inch long, with the
four posterior legs yellowish, and with transparent wings.
The whitish larva is cylindrical, and .22 of an inch in length,
and is acutely pointed towards the head and truncated behind,
with two long horny stigmata in the middle of the truncature,
and two longer fleshy filaments on the lower edge. When
moving it extends its mouth-hooks, and pulls itself along by
them. Mr. F. W. Putnam has called my attention to the
power of leaping possessed by the maggot. When about to

414

DIPTEKA.

leap the larva brings the under side of the abdomen towards
the head, while laying on its side, and reaching forward with
\ f===y s ^s head, and at the same time extending its mouth-
/.- ^ hooks, grapples by means of them with the hinder edge
of the truncature and pulling hard, suddenly with-
draws them, jerking itself to a distance of four or
five inches. The Wine-fly (Fig. 336, puparium) also
belongs to the same genus, and with its puparium
may be found floating in old wine and cider.

Several species of the genus Ephydra have been
Fig. 336. found living in salt water. Mr. E. T. Cox has sent
us specimens of Ephydra halophila Pack. (Fig. 337 ; a, wing ;
&, puparium), which in the pupa state lives in great numbers
in the first graduation house of the Equality Salt Works of
Gallatin County, Illinois. The larva itself we have not seen,
but the puparium is cylindrical, half an inch long, the body
ending in a long respiratory tube forked at the end. The fly
a itself is coppery green,

with pale honey yellow
legs, and is .15 of an inch
in length. Another spe-
cies has been found by
Professor B. Silliman liv-
ing in great abundance in
Mono Lake, Cal., and in
the Museum of the Pea-
body Academy are pu-
paria of this genus from
Labrador, and from under
sea-weed on Narragansett
r, and a pool of brack-

ish water at Marblehead ;
Fig. 337. they are noticed by the

author in the "Proceedings of the Essex Institute," vol. vi.

The Apple Fly, or Drosophila, has habits like the apple
midge. Mr. W. C. Fish has described in the "American
Naturalist," the habits of an unknown species (Fig. 338 ; a,
larva) , which he writes me has been very common this year in
Barnstable County, Mass. He says that "it attacks mostly

MUSCID^E. 415

the earlier varieties, seeming to have a particular fondness for
the old fashioned Summer, or High-top Sweet. The larvae en-
ter the apple usually where it has been bored by the Apple-
worm (Carpocapsa) , not uncommonly through the crescent-like
puncture of the curculio, and sometimes through the calyx,
when it has not been troubled by other insects. Many of
them arrive at maturity in August, and the fly soon appears,
and successive generations of the maggots follow until cold
weather. I have frequently found the pupae in the bottom of
barrels in a cellar in the winter, and the flies appear in the
spring. In the early apples, the larvae work about in every
direction. If there are ^y>
several in an apple, they
make it unfit for use.
Apples that appear per-
fectly sound when taken
from the tree, will some-
times, if kept, be all alive
with them in a few Fig. 338.

weeks." Other species are known to inhabit putrescent
vegetable matter, especially fruits. Mr. B. D. Walsh also des-
cribes in his "First Annual Report on the Noxious Insects of
Illinois," another apple fly, Trypeta pomonella Walsh, which
destroys stored apples, and has been found troublesome in va-
rious parts of the country.

In England Oscinis granarius Curtis* lives in the stems of
wheat. The Oscinis vastator Curtis does serious damage to
wheat and barley crops in England, by eating the base of the
stalk. The larvae are fulty grown late in June, and a month
later, the fly appears. Their attacks are restrained by numer-
ous Pteromali, and a minute Proctotrupid (Sigalphus caudatus)
oviposits in the egg of the Oscinis. Other allied species in the
larva state cause the stems of wheat and barley to swell twice
their usual size, which disease is termed in England the gout.

The larvae of Chlorops lineata Fabr. in Europe, destroy the
central leaves and plant itself, the female laying her eggs on
the stems when the wheat begins to show the ear. In a fort-
night the eggs hatch, and the fly appears in September. Curtis
also states that Chlorops Herpinii Guerin, attacks the ears of

416 DIPTEKA.

barley, from six to ten larvae being found in each, and by de-
stroying the flowers render the ear sterile. Oscinis frit Linn,
in Europe inhabits the husks of the barley, and destroys one-
tenth of the grain. Linnaeus calculated the annual loss from
the attacks of this single species at half a million dollars.
Ploughing and harrowing are of no use in guarding against
these insects, as they do not transform in the earth ; the best
remedy lies in the rotation of crops. Many of these small
flies, like the micro-lepidoptera, are leaf-miners, and are not

readily distinguished from
them when in the larva state.
Of the genus Phora, a
European species (P. incras-
sata Fig. 339 ; a, larva ; 6,
puparium) frequents bee
hives, and is thought by some
to produce the disease
which is known among apiarians as "foulbrood."

In the pupiparous Diptera, namely, those flies which are born
as pupae from the body of the parent, the larva state having
been passed within the oviduct, the thorax is more closely
agglutinated than before ; the head is small and sunken in
the thorax, and in the wingless species this consolidation of
the head and thorax is so marked as to cause them to bear a
remarkable resemblance to the spiders. Spider-like in their
looks, they are spider-like in their habits, as the names Spider-
flies, Bat-ticks and Bird-ticks, imply a likeness to the lower
spiders or ticks. The antennae are very deeply inserted and
partially obsolete ; the labrum is ensheathed by the maxillae,
and the thoracic nervous ganglia are, as in the Arachnida,
concentrated into a single mass.

HIPPOBOSCID^E Westwood. The Forest-flies and Sheep
Ticks are characterized by the horny and flattened body, the
horizontal flattened head received into the front edge of the
thorax, the large eyes, the rudimentary papilla-like antennae
placed very near together, and the proboscis is formed by the
labrum and maxillae, whose palpi are wanting ; the labium is
very short ; wings with the veins present only on the costal

HIPPOBOSCID^.

417

edge, the others either aborted or only partially developed.
They resemble the lice in their parasitic habits, living beneath
the hairs of vertebrates, ^opcoially of bats, and are abundant
beneath the feathers
of birds.

These flies differ
from all other insects
in their peculiar mode
of development, which
reminds us of the
intra-uterine life of
the vertebrate foetus.
According to Dufour
and Leu ckart they

Fjg. 340.

have an irregular uterus-like enlargement of the oviduct, which
furnishes a milk-like secretion for the nourishment of the
larvae. The body of the larvae, for each female produces but^
one^ orjbwo y oung^ when first hatched is not divided into rings,
but is smooth, ovate, egg-like, forming a puparium-like case in
which the larvae transform to pupae immediately after birth.

The Forest-fly or Horse-tick, Hippobosca, Latreille, has no
ocelli, with five stout veins on the costal edge of the wing ;
thorax broad, and the proboscis short and
thick. We figure a species* of this genus
(Fig. 340) which was found on the Great
Horned Owl. Its body is much flattened,
adapted for its life under the feathers, where
it gorges itself with the blood of its host.
The genus Lipoptena, which has ocelli, with
only three costal veins, a long slender probos- rig. 341.
cis, and a small thorax, is remarkable for living in its wing-
less state on the Deer, but when the wings are developed it is
found on the Grouse (Tetrao). The Bird-tick, Ornitlwmyia,
has ocelli, a short proboscis and six costal veins, and there
are numerous species, all bird parasites.

* Hippobosca bubonis n. sp. female. Uniform horn color, with a reddish tinge,
and blackish hairs; legs paler, with dark tarsi, body beneath paler; tip of abdo-
men black, with long bristles. Length of body .30 inch; of a wing .34 inch. Dif-
fers from H. equinte in being larger, and in its uniform reddish color. Taken Oct.
5; Museum of the Peabody Academy of Science.

418

DIPTERA.

In the wingless Sheep-tick, Melophagus ovinus Linn, which
is often very troublesome (Fig. 341, and puparium), the head
is wider than the thorax, the proboscis is as long as the head
itself, the limbs are short and thick, and the bristly abdomen
is broad and not divided into joints.

The genus Carnus, which was placed in the Conopidce by
Nitzsch, seems rather to belong here. C. hemapterus Nitzsch,
is "of the size of a flea, with minute rudi-
ments of wings, and is parasitic on birds
of the genus Sturnus."

NYCTERIBID^: Leach. The Bat-ticks are
remarkably spider-like, with a beaker-like
head, without eyes, having four ocelli,
or else entirely blind. The finger-like,
two-jointed antennae are situated on the
under side of the head. The proboscis is
feather-like, the palpi very large and por-
rect ; the legs are of great size, with the
basal joint of the tarsi of remarkable length, and the hairy
abdomen is composed of six segments. They are very small
parasites, one or two lines in length. Westwood has extracted
the puparium from the body, showing the close relationship
of these strange forms to Hippobosca. Nycteribia Westwoodii
Guerin (Fig. 342) is an East Indian species.

BRAULINA Gerstaecker. The Bee-lice are wingless, minute,
blind insects, with large heads ; the thorax is transverse, ring-
shaped, half as long as
a the head ; the abdomen

is round, five-jointed,
and the legs are thick,
with long claws ena-
bling them to cling to
the hairs of bees.

The genus Braula
may be compared with
3*3. the flea, its body being

flattened vertically, while that of the flea is flattened lat-

BKATJLINA. 419

erally. While the transformations of Braula show it to be
undoubtedly a degraded Muscid, with a true puparium ; those
of the flea, with its worm-like, more highly organized larva,
and the free obtected pupa show that, though wingless, it
occupies a much higher grade in the dipterous series. Braula
coeca Nitzsch (Fig. 343, and larva) is found living parasitically
on the honey bee in Europe, and has not been detected in this
country.

The antennae are short, two-jointed and sunken in deep
pits. It is from one-half to two- thirds of a line long. The
larva is headless, oval, eleven-jointed and white in color. On
the day it hatches from the egg it sheds its skin and changes
to an oval puparium of a dark brown color. It is a body para-
site, one or two of them occurring on the body of the bee,
though sometimes they greatly multiply and are very trouble-
some to the bee.

Fig. 344.

We now take up the second series of suborders of the hexa-
podous insects, in which the different segments of the body
show a strong tendency to remain equal in size, as in the larva
state ; in other words there is less concentration of the parts
towards the head. In all these groups the prothorax is greatly
developed, generally free, while the wings tend to conceal the
two posterior thoracic segments, and the body generally is
elongated, flattened or angulated, not cylindrical as is usually
the case in the preceding and higher series. The degraded
wingless forms resemble the worm-like Myriapods, while, as we
have seen above, the wingless flies resemble the Arachnida.
The imago (especially in the Hemiptera, Orthoptera and cer-
tain Neuroptera) resembles the larva ; that is, the metamor-
phosis is less complete than in the preceding groups.

420

COLEOPTEKA.

IN the highest suborder of this series, the Coleoptera, we
find the most complete metamorphosis and the greatest speci-
alization of parts, with
a more complete con-
centration of them to-
wards the head than in
the lower suborders.
They are at once rec-
ognized by the elytra,
or thickened horny fore
wings, Which are not
actively used in flight
(the hind wings being
especially adapted for
that purpose) , while
they Cover and encase
the two posterior seg-
ments of the thorax
and the abdomen. The
prothoracic ring is
greatly enlarged, often
excavated in front to re-
ceive the head. These
characters are very per-
sistent ; there are few
aberrant forms and the
suborder is remarkably
homogeneous and easily
limited.

The head is free from
Fig. 345. the thorax, but less so

than in the preceding suborders ; it is scarcely narrowed behind,
and its position is usually horizontal. The eyes are usually

FIG. 345, under surface of Harpalus caliginosus. (After Leconte.) a, ligula;
&, paraglossae ; c, supports of labial palpi; d, labial palpus; e, mentum;/, inner
lobe of maxilla; g, outer lobe of maxilla; h, maxillary palpus; i, mandible; &,

COLEOPTEEA.

421

quite large, and there is but a pair of ocelli, when present, or
there may be but a single ocellus. The antennae are generally
inserted just in front of the eyes, and rarely between them as

Fig. 346.

in the previous suborders. They are either filiform where the
joints are cylindrical, as in the Carabidce, not enlarging
towards the end, or serrate, as in the Elateridce, where the

buccal opening; Z, gula or throat; m, m, buccal sutures; n, gular suture; o, pro-
sternum; p, episternum of prothorax; p', epimeron of prothorax; q, q 1 , q", coxae;
r, r', r", trochanters; s,s',s", femora or thighs; tf, t',t", tibiae; v,v a ,?', etc., ventral
abdominal segments ; w, episterna of mesothorax (the epimeron is just behind it) ;
x, mesoternum; y, episterna of rnetathorax; y', epimeron of metathorax; z, meta-
sternum.

FIG. 346, upper surface of Necrophorus Americanus. (After Leconte.) a, man-
dible; 6, maxillary palpus ^c, labrum; d, epistoma; e, antennae; /, front; g, vertex;
ft, occiput; i, neck; k, eye; I, pronotum (usually called prothorax); m, elytron; n t
hind wing; o, scutellum (of mesothorax); />, metanotum (or dorsal surface of meta-
thorax); q, femur or thigh; r, r, r, tergites of the abdomen; s, s 3 , s 3 , spiracles or
stigmata; t, t', t", tibiae; v, tibial spurs; w, tarsi.

422

COLEOPTERA.

joints are triangular and compressed, giving thereby a serrate
outline to the inner edge; or clavate, as in the Silphidce,

Fig. 347.

where the enlarged terminal joints give a rounded club-shaped
termination ; lamellate, when the terminal joints are prolonged

Fig. 348.

internally, forming broad leaf-like expansions, as in the Sca-
rabeidce, while the geniculate antenna is produced when

FIG. 347. Different forms of antennae : 1, serrate ; 2, pectinate; 3, capitate (and
also geniculate); 4, 5, 6, 7, clavate; 8, 9, lamellate; 10, serrate (Dorcatoma); 11, ir-
regular (Gyrinus) ; 12, two-jointed antenna of Adranes caecus.

FIG. 348. 1, bipectinate; 2, flabellate antennae; 3, maxillae of Bembidium; 4, of
Hydrophilus; 5, of Pselaphus; 6, maxillary palpus of Ctenistes; 7, of Tmesipho-
rusj 8, of Tychus. From Leconte.

COLEOPTERA. 423

the second and succeeding joints make an angle with the first.
The mandibles are always well developed as chewing organs,
becoming abnormally enlarged in Lucanus, while in certain
Scarabeidse they are small and membranous.

The maxillae (Fig. 348) are supposed to prepare the food to
be crushed by the mandibles. The body of the maxilla con-
sists of the cardo; a second joint, stipes, to which last are
attached two lobes and a palpus. In certain Cicindelidcv
and Carabidce, the outer lobe is slender and two-jointed like
a palpus. The maxillary palpi are usually four-jointed, some-
times with one joint less, and in but a single instance is there
any additional joint, as in Aleochara.

The mentum is generally square or trapezoidal, varying in
size. The labium bears the ligula, and supports the labial
palpi, and varying much in form, is thus important in classifi-
cation. The labial palpi are usually three-jointed, sometimes
two-jointed, or with no joints apparent, as in certain Stapliy-
linidce, according to Leconte.

The greatly enlarged prothorax is free and very movable,
the pronotum or dorsal piece, considered to be formed origi-
nally of four pieces, is usually very distinct from the pieces
composing the flanks, though sometime they are continuous.
The two hinder rings .of the thorax are covered up by the
wings and do not vary in form so as to be of much use in
classification. They are respectively composed of a praescutum,
scutum and scutellum, and postscutellum, the first and fourth
pieces being more or less aborted. The pieces composing the
flanks are partly concealed by the great enlargement of the
dorsal parts of the segment, much more so than in the prece-
ding suborders, the side pieces being much smaller and more
difficult to trace ; and these flank-pieces (pleurites) help form
the under surface of the body, where in the Hymenoptera,
Lepidoptera and Diptera, they are greatly enlarged, forming
the bulging sides of the body.

The epimera and episterna of both the meso- and metatho-
rax, Leconte states, are of much value in classification, especi-
ally those of the mesothorax, " according as they reach the
middle coxae, or are cut off from them by the junction of the
episterna with the metasternum." The thickened horny an-

424 COLEOPTERA.

terior pair of wings (elytra) , often retain traces of the original
veins, consisting of three or four longitudinal lines. Their
office in flight seems to be to assist the hind wings in sustain-
ing the body, as but rarely when the insect is on the wing do
the elytra remain quiet on the back. The membranous hind
wings are provided with the usual number of principal veins,
but these are not subdivided into veinlets. The wing is long,
naiTOW and pointed, with the costal edge strong, being evi-
dently adapted for a swift and powerful flight.

In the running species, such as many Carabidce, the
hind wings being useless, are aborted, and very rarely in some
tropical Lampyridce and Scarabceidce are both pairs of
wings wanting in both sexes, though, as in the Glow-worm
and some of its allies the females are apterous. The legs
are well developed, as the beetles are among the most power-
ful running insects. The coxae are large and of much use in
distinguishing the families. The trochantine is usually present
in the forelegs, but often absent in the middle pair ; the tro-
chanters, or second joint of the leg, is small, circular, ob-
liquely cut off, and the femur and tibia lying next beyond
are of varying form, correlated with the habits of thQ insect,
the hinder pair becoming oar-like in the swimming Dytiscidce
and some Hydrophilidce , while in m the Gyrinidce both
pairs of hind legs become broad and flat. The number of
tarsal joints varies from the normal number, five, to four and
three joints, the terminal joint as usual being two-clawed.
These claws are only known to be wanting in Phanaeus, a
Scarabseid, and the aberrant family Styl op idee. According
to the number of the tarsal joints the families of Coleoptera
have been grouped into the Pentamera (five-jointed), the Tet-
ramera (four-jointed), the Trimera (three-jointed), and Hete-
romera, which are four-jointed in the hind pair, while the first
and second pairs are five-jointed.

The abdomen, usually partly concealed by the wings, is ses-
sile, its base broad ; in form it is usually somewhat flattened.
The tergal and sternal portion of each ring is connected
usually by the membranous pleura! piece, which represents
the epimera and episterna of the thorax, and on which the stig-
mata are situated. While in the other suborders the typical

COLEOPTEKA. 425

number of abdominal segments is ten, no more than nine have
been traced in the Coleoptera.

A few genera are capable of producing sounds by rubbing
the limbs or elytra over finely wrinkled surfaces, which in
Trox are situated on the side of the basal segments of the ab-
domen, and in Strategus on the tergum of the penultimate seg-
ment of the abdomen, while such a surface is found in Ligyrus
on the surface of. the elytra.

The nervous system is subject to great variation in the Cole-
optera. The ganglia may be fused into three principal mas-
ses, as in the Lamellicorns, Curculionidce and Scolytidm,
where the first mass corresponds to the prothoracic ganglia,
the second and larger to the second and third thoracic ganglia,
usually separated in the other suborders, while the third oblong
mass represents the whole number of abdominal ganglia, from
which radiate the nerves which are distributed to the muscles
of the abdomen and the reproductive system. In the Cistel-
idce, (Edemeridce and Cerambycidce, the abdominal por-
tion of the nervous cord occupies the whole body, and there
are five ganglia in the abdomen. These two types of the ner-
vous cord sometimes run into each, but are always distinct in
the larva state.

The alimentary canal is very simple in the flesh-eating spe-
cies, going directly, without many convolutions to the anus,
but in the vegetable feeders it is very long and greatly con-
voluted. The gizzard is oval in shape, its internal folds being
armed with hooks. There are two salivary glands. The urin-
ary tubes are either four or six in number.

"The phosphorescent organs of the Lampyridce and cer-
tain Elateridce consist of a mass of spherical cells, filled
with a finely granular substance and surrounded by numer-
ous trachean branches. This substance which, by daylight,
appears of a yellow, sulphur-like aspect, fills in the Lam-
pyridce, a portion of the abdominal cavity, and shines on the
ventral surface through the last abdominal segments, which are
covered with a very thin skin ; while with the Elateridce, the
illumination occurs through two transparent spots, situated on
the dorsal surface of the prothorax. The light produced by
these organs, so remarkably rich in tracheae, is undoubtedly the

426 COLEOPTESA.

result of a combustion kept up by the air of these Tessels.
This combustion explains the remission of this phosphores-
cence observed with the brilliant fire-flies, and which coin-
cides, not with the movements of the heart, but with those of
inspiration and expiration." (Siebold.)

The tracheae of the Coleoptera are always highly developed.
In the larva state they arise from two principal trunks. In the
adult, however, they branch out directly near each stigma and
distribute branches which communicate with other main trunks.
In those species which fly most, both the fine and larger
tracheae end in vesicles, which are distributed in great abun-
dance all over the body. In the Lucanidce they are especi-
ally numerous, thus lightening the bulk of the enormously
developed head.

The ovaries are arranged in the form of branches of few or
numerous tri- or multilocular tubes ; the receptaculum seminis
is wedge-shaped and often arcuate, communicating with the
copulatory pouch by a long flexuous spiral seminal duct, and
there is a bursa copulatrix usually present. The testes vaiy in
consisting of two long coeca, or two round or oblong folli-
cles, or pyriform and placed like a bunch of grapes on the
extremity of the vasa deferentia, or as in the Lamellicorns,
Cerambycidce , Curculionidce and Crioceridce , they are
round, flattened, disc-like, and are situated, two to twelve in
number, on each side of the body. The organ of intromission
is very extensible, composed of the terminal segments of the
body, which form a broad flattened, hairy canaliculated piece.

The larvae when active and not permanently enclosed (like
the Curculio) in the substances that form their food, are elon-
gated, flattened, wormlike, myriapodous-looking, with a large
head, well developed mouth-parts, and with three pairs of tho-
racic feet, either horny, or fleshy and retractile, while there is
often a single terminal prop-leg on the terminal segment of the
body and a lateral horny spine. The larvae of the Ceram-
bycidce, are white, soft and more or less cylindrical, while
those of the Curculionidce are footless or nearly so, and
resemble those of the Gall-flies, both hymenopterous and dip-
terous.

The pupae have free limbs, and are either enclosed in cocoons

COLEOPTEEA. 427

of earth, or if wood-borers in rude cocoons of fine chips and
dust, united by threads, or a viscid matter supplied by the in-
sect. None are known to be coarctate, though some Coccin-
ellae transform within the old larva skin, not rejecting it, as
usual in the group, while other pupae are enclosed in the cases
in which the larvae lived. In some Staphylinidce, the pupa
shows a tendency to become obtected, the limbs being soldered
to the body as if it were enclosed in a common sheath. Gen-
erally, however, the antennae are folded on each side of the
clypeus, and the mandibles, maxillae and labial palpi appear as
elongated papillae. The wing-pads being small, are shaped
like those of the adult Meloe, and are laid upon the posterior
femora, thus exposing the meso- and metathorax to view.
The tarsal joints lie parallel on each side of the middle line
of the body, the hinder pair not reaching to the tips of the
abdomen, which ends in a pair of acute prolonged forked in-
curved horny hooks, which must aid the pupa in working its
way to the surface when about to transform into the beetle.

The number of living species is between 60,000 and 80,000,
and over 8,000 species are known to inhabit the United States.
There are about 1,000 fossil species known. They are found
as low down as the Coal Formation, though more abundant in
the Tertiary deposits and especially the Amber of Prussia.

Coleoptera have always been the favorites of entomologists.
They have been studied, when in their perfect state, more than
any other insects, but owing to the difficulty of finding their
larvae, and carrying them through their successive stages of
growth, the early stages of comparatively few species are
known.

The most productive places for the occurrence of beetles are
alluvial loams covered with woods, or with rank vegetation,
where at the roots of plants or upon their flowers, under leaves,
logs and stones, under the bark of decaying trees, and in
ditches and by the banks of streams, the species occur in the
greatest numbers. Grass lands, mosses and fungi, the surfaces
of trees and dead animals, bones, chips, pieces of board and
excrement, should be searched diligently. Many are thrown
ashore in sea-wrack, or occur under the debris of freshets on
river banks. Many Carabidce run on sandy shores. Very

428 COLEOPTERA.

early in spring stones can be upturned, ants' nests searched,
and the muddy waters sifted for species not met with at other
times of the year.

For beating bushes a large strong ring-net should be made,
with a stout bag of cotton cloth fifteen inches deep. This is a
very serviceable net for many purposes. Vials of
alcohol, a few quills stopped with cork, and close
tin boxes for larvae and the fungi, etc., in which
they live, should be provided ; indeed, the collector
should never be without a vial and box. Beetles
should be collected largely in alcohol, and the
rig. 349. colors do not change if pinned soon after being
taken. Coleoptera should be placed high up on the pin, as in-
deed all insects should. The pin should be stuck through the
right elytron (Fig. 349) so that it shall come out beneath or
between the middle and hind pair of legs. Small species
should be pinned with minute pins, which can be afterwards
mounted on higher ones.

CICINDELID^E Leach. The Tiger Beetles have very large
heads, much broader than the prothorax, very long curved jaws
and long, slender legs. The outer lobe of the maxillae is biar-
ticulate, the inner usually terminated by an articulated hook.
The eleven-jointed antennae are inserted on the front above
the base of the mandibles. They are brownish or
greenish with metallic and purplish reflections, marked
with light dots and stripes. They abound in sunny
paths and sandy shores of rivers, ponds and the
ocean, flying and running swiftly, and are thus very
Fig. 350. Difficult to capture. The larvae (Fig. 350) are hideous
in aspect ; the head is very large with long jaws ; the thoracic
rings large and broad, and the ninth ring has two large tuber-
cles each ending in two hooks, by which the hunch-backed
grub can climb up its hole, near the entrance of which it lies
in wait for weaker insects. These holes may always be found
in sandy banks frequented by the beetles.

While all the species living in the United States are ground
beetles, in the tropics there are some which live on trees. H.
W. Bates states that dtenostoma and its" allies have a greater

CICINDELIDJ3.

429

resemblance to ants than to the Cicindelse proper, so much so
that when the insects are seen prowling in search of prey along

Fig. 351. Fig. 352. Fig. 353.

the slender branches of trees, they can scarcely be distinguished
from large ants of the Ponera group.

The genus Ambtychila has the third joint of the maxillary

Fig. 354. Fig. 355. Fig. 356. Fig. 357.

palpi longer than the fourth, and the first joint of the labial
palpi very short, while the epipleurse are wide. Omus differs
in the wider epipleurse ; both genera inhabit the Pacific States,

Fig. 358.

and the former is found as far east as Kansas. Tetracha (Fig.
351, T. Virginica Hope) has the first joint of the labial palpi
elongated. In Cicindela and allies, the third joint of the max-

430

COLEOPTERA.

illary palpi is shorter than the fourth. This country is very
rich in species, among the most common of which are C. gen-
erosa Dejean (Fig. 352) ; C. vulgaris Say (Fig. 353) ; C. pur-
purea Olivier (Fig. 354) ; C. Jiirticollis Say (Fig. 355) ; C.
sexguttcda Fabr. (Fig. 356), a bright green active species with
six golden dots ; and C. punctulata Olivier* (Fig. 357).

CARABID^E Leach. This is a family of very great extent,
and one very difficult to limit. In form the species vary
greatly ; the antennae are inserted behind the base of the man-
dibles under a frontal ridge ; maxillae with the outer lobe pal-
piform, usually biarticulate, while the inner lobe is usually

Fig. 359.

curved, acute and ciliate, with spines. The epimera and epi-
sterna of the prothorax are usually distinct ; the three anterior
segments of the abdomen, usually six, rarely seven or eight in
number, are connate. The legs are slender, formed for run-
ning ; anterior and middle coxae globular, posterior ones dilated
internally, and the tarsi are five-jointed, t

TIG. 358 illustrates the external anatomy of this family : 1, head of Cicindela;
2, maxilla of Cicindela; 3, mentum of Omus; 4, mentum of Tetracha; 5, mentum
of Cicindela; 6, antennae of the same; 7, abdomen of the male of the same; 8, pos-
terior coxa of the same; 9, anterior tarsus of Omus (male); 10, anterior tarsus of
Cicindela. From Leconte.

fFiG. 359 illustrates the external anatomy of the Car abides : 1, extremity of
the anterior tibia of Carabus, inner face ; 2, maxilla? of Cychrus ; 3, head of Cychrus ;
4, head of Carabus ; 5, antenna and part of head of Loricera ; 6, mentum of Carabus ;
7, maxilla of Carabus; 8, under surface of Pasimachus; 9, under surface of meso-
and metathorax of Metrius; 10, anterior tibia of Metrius; 11, under surface of
meso- and metathorax of Physea; 12, antennae of Pasimachus; 13, mentum of
Pasimachus; 14, maxilla of Pasimachus; 15, anterior tibia of Pasimachus; 16,
head of Promecognathus ; 17, mentum of Pseudomorphus, showing the indistinct
gular suture. From Leconte.

CAKABID.E.

431

They are, with few exceptions, predaceous beetles ; they are
runners, the hind wings being often absent. Their colors are
dull metallic or black. They run in grass,

or lurk under stones and sticks, or

under the bark of trees, whence

they go out to hunt in the night-
time. They may be found also

in great numbers under the debris

of freshets and under stones in

the spring.
Fig. 36i. The i arvae are found in much

the same situations as the beetles, and are

generally oblong, broad, with the terminal

ring armed with two horny hooks
or longer filaments, and with a
single false leg beneath.

The genus Omophron, remark-
able for its rounded convex
form, and wanting the scutellum,
is found on the wet sands by
rivers and pools, where also Ela-
plirus occurs, which somewhat
resembles Cicindela. It has
slightly emarginate anterior
i- tibiae, with large prominent eyes,
and rows of large shallow ocel-

late holes on the elytra. The

genus Calosoma is well known,

being common in fields, where it lies

in little holes in the sod, in wait for its

prey. I have seen C. calidum Fabr.

(Fig. 360) attacking the June bug

(Lachnosterna fusca) tearing open

its sides. Its larva (Fig. 361) is

black. C. scrutator Fabr. (Fig. 362)

is a still larger species with bright

green elytra. It is known, accord- a Fi s- 363t

ing to Harris, to ascend trees in search of canker-worms.
Carabus has similar habits, but differs in having the third

432

COLEOPTEKA.

joint of the antennae cylindrical, while that of Calosoma is

greatly compressed. C. serratus Say (Fig. 363 ; , pupa of the
European C. auronitens) is black bordered with
purple. The closely allied species of Cychrus, of
rich purple and blue tints, differ in the longer head,
the deeply bilobate labrum, and in having four of
the antennal joints smooth, with thickly striated
elytra. (We figure some unknown larvae of this
family' which are allied to
Carabus ; Fig. 364, natural ^
size ; Fig. 365, a little en- Jl\
larged; a, mouth parts; 6,
end of the body, and Fig.
366, a larva apparently of the
Fig. 364. same genus.) Pasimachus

elongatus Lee. (Fig. 367) has been

found, according to Walsh, to prey on

the Doryphora, or Potato beetle.
The genus Scarites and its allies have Fig .335.

the anterior toothed palmate tibiae more

Fig. 367.

illae are hooked

or less produced at the apex,
pedunculate abdomen. In Scar-
ites and Pasimachus the basal
joint of the antenna is very long ;
the former having the maxillae
rounded at the tip, and the tho-
rax rounded behind, while in
Pasimachus, the thorax is dis-
tinctly angulated, and the max-

with a

In Clivina the basal joint of the an- Fi #- m -
tennae is short, the mandibles flat and acute, and the clypeus
is not emarginate.

In Harpalus and allies the epimera of the mesotho-
rax do not extend to the coxae, and the mesosternum
is large, widely separating the middle coxae. Of this
group Brachinus (B. fumans Fabr. Fig. 368), the
Bombardier beetle, with its narrow head and cordate
Fig. 368. prothorax, is remarkable for discharging with quite
an explosion from its anal glands a pungent fluid, probably

CARABID^.

433

of use as a protection against its enemies. They are yellow-
ish red, with bluish and greenish elytra. Helluomorpha
(H. ,prseusta Lap. Fig. 369 ; a, mentum) has a
large mentum and much compressed antennae.
Galerita is similar but
much larger, with a red
thorax, and blue or black
elytra. Fig. 370 represents
the larva ; Fig. 371 the pupa Fi s-
of G. Lecontei Dejean, a Southern species.
Casnonia has a rhomboidal head, with
a long narrow neck and a cylindrical tho-
rax. C. Pensylvanica De-
jean (Fig. 372) is not un-
common, being found
under stones. The species
of Lebia are found upon^
flowers, especially the
golden rod, in August and
September. They are gaily
colored, with the head con-
stricted behind and the Fig. 371.
thorax pedunculate. The species of
Platynus (P. cupripenne Say, Fig. 373)
are often of brilliant metallic green and red colors. In Cymin-
dis, which is hairy, the head is not constricted behind, and the
last joint of the labial palpi is dilated. In Pterosti-
chus, which is a genus of great extent, the three basal
joints of the antennae are smooth, the
J anterior tibiae are thickened at the ex-
J tremity, and the dilated tarsal joints are
triangular or cordate. The species are Fig. 372.
black and of common occurrence. Amara differs
in the head not being narrowed behind, the slightly
Fig. 373. emarginate labrum and the elytra being without
the usual punctures. Zimmerman states that the species are
annual, or double brooded annually ; the eggs, which are laid
beneath the surface of the soil, do not mature for several
days after coupling ; the larvae moult once, live six to eight
28

434

COLEOPTEKA.

weeks, and the pupa lives half that time ; the beetles often
hibernate. The larva has the general form of that of Poecilus.

The species of Harpalus are large,
_ with a very square prothorax. H.
caliginosus Say (Fig. 374) is bene-
ficial in eating cut-worms and other
injurious larvae. Fig. 375 represents
a larva supposed to belong to this or JJ
an allied genus. The blind Anoph- f
thalmus Tellkampfii Erichs. from the ~%
Mammoth Cave, has no eyes, while 2
the legs are very long, especially
the narrow fore tibiae ; but in Tre- /
chus, which is closely allied to the blind Cave Beetle,
the eyes are as large as usual, and the legs stouter. Fig. 375.

Bembidium com-

c^/?t\^ , e , prises species of

very small size
and variable in
form, in which the
anterior tibiae are
not dilated at the

base. They are found abundantly under the refuse of
freshets and tides, preying upon dead animal matter
and other insects, and a species of Cillenum,
closely allied to Bembidium, is known to seize
the beach-flea, Gammarus, and devour it.
Pig. 376 (A, a little enlarged; B, head; c,
mandible ; e, antenna ; /, labium and its two-
jointed palpi ; g, maxillae ; ft, *, j, under side
of different abdominal rings) represents the
larva of a Ground beetle, which, according to
Fig. 377. Walsh, preys upon the larva of the Plum cur-
culio while under ground. Fig. 377 represents the Fig. 373.
supposed larva of a European species of Chlcenius, and Fig.
378 what we suppose is the larva of a beetle allied to Cillenum.

AMPHIZOID^E Leconte. The genus Amphizoa (Fig. 379, A.
insolens ; a, antenna ; &, labrum ; c, mandibles ; cZ, maxillae ; e,

Fig. 376.

DYTISCID^E.

435

ligula ; /, mentum ; g, prosternum, front, and 7i, side view ; *,
under side of the rest of the body, showing the six ventral seg-
ments of the abdomen ; J, anterior tarsus : from Horn) found
in Northern California, is the sole representative of this family
and differs from the preceding family in the metasternum be-

Fig. 379.

ing truncate behind, and not reaching the abdomen. A. inso-
lens Lee. is an anomalous form, being subaquatic, and in its
structure and habits connecting the Car abides with the suc-
ceeding family.

DYTISCID.E McLeay. The Diving Beetles, or Water Tigers,
are oval flattened elliptical beetles, which differ from the Car-
ab idee in the form of the hinder coxae, which are very large,
touching each other on the inner edge, and externally reaching
the side of the body, entirely cutting off the abdominal seg-
ments from the metathorax, while the oar-like swimming legs
are covered with long hairs, and the hinder pair are much flat-
tened. The larvae are called "water tigers," being long, cy-
lindrical, with large flattened heads, armed with scissor-like
jaws with which they seize other insects, or snip off the tails
of tadpoles, while they are even known to attack young fishes,
sucking their blood. They are known to moult several times,
four or five days intervening between the first two periods of
moulting, and ten days between the latter. The body ends in
a pair of long respiratory tubes, which they protrude into the
air, though eight pairs of rudimentary spiracles exist. When
about to transform the larva creeps on to the land, constructs
a round cell, and in about five days assumes the pupa state,
and in two or three weeks the beetle appears, if in summer, or

436 COLEOPTEKA.

if in autumn hibernates as a pupa, to transform to a beetle in
the spring.

In Haliplus the antennae are ten-jointed, bristle-shaped, and
the legs are scarcely adapted for swimming, being narrow.
The body is very convex, spotted with black or gray, while
the elytra are covered with rows of punctures. In the remain-
ing genera, the types of the family, the antennae are eleven-
jointed and the hind legs oar-like. "The larvae differ not only
by their dorsal segments being armed with spines, which gives
them a very grotesque appearance, but by their possessing only
one claw, and by their anal segment (which is rudimentary
in all other Dytiscidae) being enormously elongated and forked,
so that the anus is placed on the under side of this pe-
culiar tail, and the spiracles of the eighth pair, which are ter-
minal and tube-like in other Dytiscidce here become lateral
and quite plain." (Schiodte.) In Colymbetes and Agabus the
anterior tarsi of the males are broad, oblong, and covered be-
neath with cups of equal, or nearly equal, size. Agabus differs
in having the thorax as wide at the base as at the middle, or
still wider. In Dytiscus the ovate, not very convex body is
usually broader behind the middle, and the last joint of the
palpi is not elongated, while in Adlius which is usually
banded, the intermediate tarsi of the male are not dilated.
The males of these two genera often have the elytra deeply
furrowed, while those of the females are smooth. Dytiscus
fasdventris Say and Adlius mediatus Say are common in all
our ponds northward.

GTKINID^E Latreille. Whirligigs. These oval bluish black
beetles are easily distinguished by their peculiar form and
habits. They are always seen in groups, gyrating and circling
about on the surface of pools, and when caught, give out a
disagreeable milky fluid. Like the previous family, upon being
disturbed, they suddenly dive to the bottom, holding on by
their claws to submerged objects. They carry down a bubble
of air on the tip of the abdomen, and when the supply is ex-
hausted rise for more.

The cylindrical eggs are placed by the female, end to end,
in parallel rows on the leaves of aquatic plants, and the larvae

HYDROPIJILID^E. 437

are hatched in about eight days. They are myriapodous in
form, with a pair of large, long, lateral respiratory filaments
on each segment, much as in the larva of
Corydalus. They become fully grown in Au-
gust, crawl out of the water and spin an ovai
cocoon, within which the pupa remains a
month, and then appears as a beetle. In Gy-
rinus (Fig. 380, G. borealis Aube ; Fig. 381,
larva of a European species) the scutellum is llg ' 3S
distinct ; the species of Dineutus, of which D. Ameri-
canus is a type, are larger, and lack the scutellum.
Schiodte states that the larvae of Carabidce,
Dytiscidce, and Gyrinidce differ from those of other Coleop-
tera in having double claws, while in the others the tarsus is
undivided and claw-like.

HYDROPHILID^E Leach. Carnivorous as larvae, but when
beetles, vegetable eaters, and living on refuse and decaying
matter, this family unites the habits of the foregoing families
with those of the scavenger Silphids. They are aquatic, small,
convex, oval, or hemispherical beetles, in which the middle and
posterior feet are sometimes adapted for
swimming ; the antennae are short, and the
palpi very long and slender. The females
spin a silken, turnip- shaped nidus for their
eggs, fifty to sixty in number, which ends
in a horny projection, serving as a respira-
tory tube to supply the young larvae with
air as they are hatched. Others carry the
cocoon about with them on the under side
of the body. To spin this large amount of
silk, they are provided with two large silk
glands, with external spinnerets. The larvae
hatch in from two to six weeks, and moult
three times ; when mature they are long, cy-
lindrical, tapering rapidly towards the pos-
terior end, with short legs, while the head is m s- 382 -
flattened above and very convex beneath, with the mandibles
elevated much as in the larva of Cicindela, enabling them to

438 COLEOPTERA.

seize their food by throwing their heads back and extending
the jaws. The larva of the European H. piceus Linn. (Fig.
382) matures in two months, then ascends to the bank, forms
an oval cocoon, and transforms to a beetle in about forty days.
In the genus Spercheus (S. tessellatus Mels.) the middle and
hind tarsal joints are equal in length. Hydropliilus is large,
oval, olive-black and with smooth elytra. In the larva the
lateral appendages of the abdomen are soft, flexible, ciliated,
and assist in buoying up the heavy, fleshy body (for which
purpose the antennae are ciliated) but they do not serve for
respiration as in Berosus, another extensive genus of this
family. (Schiodte.) H. triangularis Say is a large, pitch} r
black species. In Hydrobiu* the last joint of the maxillary
palpi is longer than the preceding. Spliceridium and its allies
are characterized by an ovate, convex or hemispherical form,
with ten rows of punctures or striae, though in Cyclonotum
there are no striae. In Cercyon the mesosternum is not pro-
duced, and the prosternum is keeled over. "In the larvae of
Cercyon and Sphceridium, which represent the Hydrophiline
type modified for life on dry land (though in humid places),
we find neither lateral abdominal appen-
dages, nor even true feet, the animal wrig-
gling its Way through the debris amongst
which it lives, whilst the last abdominal
segment is the largest of all and is often
armed with hooks." (Schiodte.)

PLATTPSYLLID^: Leconte. The only spe-
cies of this family known is a small brown
insect, *16 inch long (Platypsytta castoris
Ritsema, Fig. 382 1 , enlarged), found on
the American beaver. The body is broad, Fi s- 3821 -

flattened, eyeless, with short elytra, and spiny on the legs and
salient parts of the body, as in the flea. Leconte remarks that
its affinities are "very composite, but all in the direction of the
Adephagous and Clavicorn series, though chiefly with the latter.'

SILPHID^E Leach. The Carrion or Sexton beetles are useful
in burying decaying bodies, in which they lay their eggs.

SCYDM^NHXE. 439

The laryse are crustaceous, flattened, with the sides of the
body often serrated, black, and of a fetid odor. They undergo
their transformations in an oval cocoon. In Necroplwrus (Fig.
346, N. Americanus Oliv.) the antennae have ten apparent
joints, and the rounded club is
four-jointed. The genus Silpha, of
which S. Lapponica Herbst (Fig.
383, larva fully grown ; 384, young,
from Labrador) is a common spe-
cies, differs in the third joint of
the antenna being no longer than
the second, but shorter than the
first. In NecropMlus the third joint
is as long as the first. N. Surina-
mensis Fabr. has a yellow thorax
with a central irregular black spot.
Catops and its allies live in fungi,
carrion and ants' nests, and are
small, black, oval insects. The Fig. 383,
rig. 384. eyeless Adelops liirtus Tellk. is blind, wanting the
eyes, and is found in Mammoth Cave. Anisotoma and allies,
with eleven-jointed antennae, are oval and sometimes hemis-
pherical, and capable of being rolled up into a ball.
They are of small size and found in fungi, or under
' the bark of dead trees. Agathidium (Fig. 385, larva
of the European A. seminulum) has the club of the
antennae three-jointed. Clambus and allies comprise
exceedingly minute species, found in decaying vege-
table matter.

An aberrant form is Brathinus, two species of which,
B. nitidus Lee. and B. varicornis Lee., have been M
found from Lake Superior to Nova Scotia, about the Fig - 385<
roots of grass in damp places. According to Leconte, they are
small shiny insects of graceful form, and distinguished by the
prominent middle coxae.

Leach. The species of this small group differ
from the Pselaphidce to which they are closely allied by their
long elytra and distant conical posterior coxae. They are mi-

440 COLEOPTEEA.

nute, oval, brown, shiny insects found under stones nef r water,
under bark and in ants' nests. Scydmcenus is the typical genus.

PSELAPHID^E MacLeay. In this group the labial palpi are
very small, while the four-jointed maxillary palpi are of re-
markable length ; the eyes are composed of large lenses, and
are sometimes wanting ; the elytra are short, truncated, beneath
which the wings, when present, are folded and the legs are
long and the femora are stout, while beyond the leg is usually
slender. "The species are very small, not exceeding one-
eighth of an inch in length, and are of a chestnut-brown color,
usually slightly pubescent ; the head and thorax are most fre-
quently narrower than the elytra and abdomen, which is con-
vex and usually obtuse at tip. Many are found flying in
twilight ; their habits at other times are various, some being
found in ants' nests, while others occur under stones and bark.
North America seems to be rich in this family ; more than fifty
species are known to me, and several of the genera have not
occurred in other countries. This family closely approaches
the Staphylinidce, but the ventral segments are fewer in
number, and not freely moving, and the eyes are composed of
large lenses." (Leconte.) The genus Claviger and its allies
Adranes ccecus Leconte, which is found in ants' nests in North-
ern Georgia, have antennae with less than six joints ; it is
blind, and the antennae have only two joints. Pselaplius and
its allies have eleven-jointed, rarely ten-jointed antennae.

STAPHYLINID^E Leach. The Rove-beetles are easily recog-
nized by their long linear black bodies, with remarkably short
elytra, and seven to eight visible horny abdominal segments.
The maxillae are bilobate, usually ciliated, with four-jointed
palpi, except in Aleochara, when there is an additional joint ;
the antennae, variable in form and insertion, are usually eleven-
jointed, and while the legs are variable in length and form,
the anterior coxae are usually large, conical, prominent and
contiguous. Though sometimes an inch in length, they are
more commonly minute, inhabiting wet places under stones,
manure heaps, fungi, moss, under the bark or leaves of trees.
Many species inhabit ants' nests, and should be carefully

STAPHYLINID^ . 44 1

sought for on dewy mornings under stones and pieces of wood,
which should be taken up and shaken over a white cloth or
paper ; or the whole nest should be sifted through a rather
coarse sieve, when the small beetles will fall through the
meshes. The eggs are very large. The larvae (Fig. 386, un-
der side of a larva probably belonging to this family, from
Maine, enlarged twice) closely resemble the beetles, being
narrow, the segments of very equal size, the terminal ring
forming a long prop-leg, on each side of which there
is a long ciliate seta. In. the pupae the hind wings
are not folded beneath the elytra, but extend below,
meeting upon the breast.

In the true Staphylini the anterior coxae are promi-
nent and their coxal cavities are open behind. Aleo-
chara and its allies are difficult to distinguish, as the
characters separating them are but slightly marked;
they have the maxillary palpi moderate in length, with
the second and third joints also of moderate length,
the fourth small, subulate, distinct, and in Aleochara rig>
itself there is an additional very small fifth joint. In Homa-
lota, numerous in species, the ligula is short and bifid, and the
first to the fourth joints of the hind tarsi decrease in length.
In Tacliyporus and allies the prothoracic spiracles are visible ;
the anterior coxae are large, conical and prominent, with the
trochanters very distinct, while the antennae are inserted under
the lateral margin of the front. The species are
usually convex above, with the thorax always ample,
arched and highly polished, and the abdomen conical,
sometimes* very short. They are found partly in
fungi, partly under bark. Dr. Leconte, whom we
have been quoting, states that the species of Bolito-
bius usually have the head much elongatecl; when,
however, the head is oval, they approach closely to
the genus Quedius of the next tribe, but are recog-
nized by the antennae being inserted at the lateral ri s- 387 -
margin of the front, near the eyes, and not at the anterior
angle of the frontal margin, as in Quedius.

In Stapliylinus the antennae are inserted on the anterior mar-
gin of the front, inside of the base of the mandibles, but dis-

442

COLEOPTERA.

tant from each other ; the thorax is punctured and pubescent,
the middle coxae slightly separate, while the abdomen is nar-
rowed at the tips. Fig. 387 represents the larva of this or a
closely allied genus found in a humble bee's nest. Pliilontlius
differs in having the femora unarmed. The species
live in decaying matters and excrement. The spe-
cies of Pcederus (Fig. 388, the larva of the European
P. tempestivus Erichs.) are found under stones, etc.,
near water.

In Stenus, of which S. stygicus Say and 8. Juno
Fabr. are types, the eyes are large and prominent, so
that the head resembles that of Cicindela and the
Fig. 388. antennae are inserted upon the front between the
eyes ; the labrum is entire and rounded anteriorly, the para-
glossae are dilated, rounded, and the body is coarsely punctured,
while that of its nearest ally Dianous is finely punctured and
^ the paraglossse are connate and indistinct.
J Another small group of genera is repre-
sented by Oxyporus, which is found in fungi,
and which has a large head, with
large long mandibles crossing each

A'y. :-.;:k JH//S other, and five-jointed tarsi ; and

/ISsfl ?' l Oxytelus which is found in wet

places and in dung, and has three-
jointed tarsi, with a row of spines
front tibiae, and the middle coxae
separated.

Anthophagus ccesus?, Harris Correspond-
ed, maxilla), is found in wet ground where
spearmint grows, of which it diffuses a strong odor.

In Omalium the antennae are inserted under the lateral mar-
gin of the front, the elytra are long, and the tibiae finely spi-
nous. Micralymma is closely allied, but differs in the elytra
being very short. The genus Micropeplus is squarish in form
and connects the present family with the one following.

HISTERIDJE Leach. As stated by Leconte, "this is a very
well defined family of insects, moderately numerous, nearly all
of a shining black color, with the elytra variously sculptured

Fig. 389.

ence (Fig. 389

TRICHOPTERYGIDJE. 443

with striae ; some few species of Hister and Saprinus have the
elytra marked with red, and a few of the latter genus are
metallic in color. The form of the body is variable ; those of
the first group are oblong and flat, with prominent mandibles ;
the others are round, oblong oval, globose, some depressed
and some convex. The species live under the bark of trees, in
excrement and in carcasses. When disturbed the insects
retract the antennae and feet, appearing as if dead. The an-
tennae are geniculate, the eighth and following joints forming
a compact annulated, rounded or (rarely) triangular club.
The elytra are truncate behind, leaving two segments of the
abdomen uncovered. The linear flattened larvae have the ter-
minal ring ending in two biarticulated appendages, and a
single anal prop-leg. The larva of the European Hister
merdarius (Fig. 390) lives in cow dung, forming a cell in
which it transforms, and like Anthrenus, the pale brown
pupa retains the larva skin about it. In Hister the head
is retracted and bent downwards, and the club of the
antenna is round and annulated. Hister interruptus Jj\?
Beauv. and A. marginicollis Lee. are common northward. Fig. 390
The genus Hetcerius differs in the antennal club being
obconical, truncate and solid. The species are found only in
ants' nests early in the spring. In Saprinus the antennae are
inserted under the margin of the front ; the antennal cavities
being at the sides of the prosternum proper. The species are
mostly found in carrion.

SCAPHIDIID^E MacLeay. "This family," according to Dr.
Leconte, "contains small oval or rounded oval, convex, very
shining insects, living in fungi. The sides of the thorax are
oblique, and the head small, so as to make the body somewhat
pointed in front; the thorax is very closely applied to the
front, and the elytra are broadly truncate, permitting the tip
of the conical abdomen to appear." In Scaphidium the an-
tennae are clavate, the eyes emarginate, the posterior tibiae are
not spinous, and the first joint of the posterior tarsi longest.

TRICHOPTERYGIDJE (Trichopterygia Erichson). This incon-
siderable family comprises the smallest beetles known. The

444 COLEOPTERA.

eleven-jointed antennae, which are verticillate, with long hairs,

are inserted at the margin of the front, and the club is long
and loosely articulated. The beetles live under the bark
of trees and in ants' nests. The larvae are carnivorous,
being very active, without ocelli, and with cylindrical
bodies, with four-jointed antennae and long four-jointed
legs. Trichopteryx is known by its pubescent body,
and laminate posterior coxae. One species is one-third
of a line long; others are still smaller. The larva

Fig. 391 ot - the European jf m intermedia Gillmeister (Fig. 391,

enlarged) feeds on Podurae.

PHALACRIDJE Erichson. "A small number of oval or
rounded oval, convex, shining insects, constitute this family.
They are found on flowers, and sometimes under bark. The
elytra have sometimes approximate rows of small punctures,
but more usually only a sutural stria. The scutellum is larger
than usual, triangular. One of the four genera (Tolyphus)
of this family is wanting in our fauna. The other three are
separated by the form of the posterior tarsi." (Leconte.) In
Phalacrus the anterior and posterior tarsi are of the same
length. The larvae are vegetable feeders, living in the flowers
of composite plants.

NITIDULARI^E Latreille. This family includes small oval or
elliptical, flattened beetles, which are sometimes almost globu-
lar. The head is suddenly narrowed before the insertion of
the antennae, thus forming a short beak, and the antennae may
be partially retracted into a groove under
the eyes. The larvae are both carnivorous
and vegetable-feeders ; they are elongated,
with two to four-jointed antennae, three ocelli
on each side, with a flattened hairy body,
ending in four small, horny, recurved tuber-
cles. The pupae may be found under the
surface of the ground in earth and sawdust.
Carpophilus has the second and third abdominal segments
short, while the first, fourth and fifth are longer, and the claws
are simple. Carpophilus antiquus Mels. is a well known spe-

COLYDIID^E. 445

cies. Nitidula and its allies are elliptical depressed, often
with a broad margin ; the elytra covers the whole abdomen, or
leaves merely the tips exposed. In Nitidula the last joint of
the labial palpi is not thicker than the preceding, and the
species often have two red spots on the elytra, as in Nitidula,
bipustulata Fabr. In Epurcea, which is found under stones and
bark, the last joint of the palpi is large and thick. Omosita
colon Fabr. is also spotted twice with red ; the genus may be
recognized by the antennal grooves diverging behind, following
the outline of the eyes, while in the males the sixth abdominal
segment is wanting. Ips is much longer and larger, with trun-
cate elytra, and the head is immersed in the thorax to the
eyes. Ips sanguinolentus Say has a broad red band on the
elytra, with two large round dots. Ips fasciatus Say (Fig.
391, and larva ; found in the roots of the squash by Mr. M. C.
Read) has two broad interrupted yellow bands on the elytra ;
both species occur about flowing sap in spring. Ips ferruginea
of Europe lives on the young of Hylesinus ligniperda. Rliizo-
pliagus depresses is known in Europe to attack the larvae of
Hylurgus piniperda, according to Dufour.

MONOTOMIDJE Chaudoir. The species of this inconsiderable
group are much like the preceding family in form, but as Le-
conte states, differ from them in the anterior coxa3 being small,
rounded and separated. They occur under the bark of trees.

~~~ !

TROGOSITID^E Kirby. This group, usually united with the
preceding family, is distinguished by the bilobate maxillae, with
the short, four-jointed maxillae and the short undilated tarsi.
They generally live under bark, but some have been trans-
ported over the whole world in grain. In Trogosita, which
comprises long insects, with the thorax narrowed behind, the
ligula is entire, the tibiae are not spinous, and the thorax is
prominently angulated in front.

COLYDIIDJE Erichson. The small globular anterior and
middle coxae, and the four-jointed simple tarsi will enable them,
Leconte states, to be readily distinguished from any of the
neighboring families. The species are of small size, usually

446 COLEOPTERA.

rather long and cylindrical, and occur in fungi, in the earth, or
under the bark of trees. Colydium is slender, with finely
striate elytra, and the anterior tibiae have one spur enlarged
and hooked ; while the first joint of the tarsi is elongated.
C. elongatum is stated by European authors to attack the larvae
of Platypus, a genus allied to Scolytus.

RHYSSODID^E Erichson. This group, by some authors united
with the preceding family, simulates the form of the Carabids.
The antennae are, however, composed of equal globular joints,
and the head is strongly constricted behind into a neck. They
are found under bark. In Rhyssodes the ej^es are placed upon
the side, and in the other genus, Clinidium, upon the upper
surface of the head.

CUCUJID.E Latreille. The species of this family are very
much flattened long insects, with flat, strongly emarginated
elytra, and the abdomen has five full segments, equal in length.
They are found under bark. The larvae are quite transparent,
with the terminal joint ending in two horny curved hooks.
The antennae are four-jointed, the limbs provided with a single
claw, and there are five ocelli on each side of the head. In Syl-
vanus, which is of small size, the nine to eleven-jointed an-
tennae do not have the first joint elongated as usual, while the
terminal ones are enlarged. Sylvanus /Surinamensis Linn, is
one-ninth of an inch long, of a rusty brown color, and covered
with short yellowish hairs. The larva is a flattened yellowish
white grub, with the terminal joint somewhat conical. It breeds
in bran, rice and wheat. Cucujus is a bright scarlet flattened
insect, with punctured elytra, and three faintly marked smooth
lines. The larvae differ from those of Sylvanus by having two
horny tubercles at the end of the abdomen; they are often
found in granaries.

CRTPTOPHAGIDJE Kirby. This family differs from the pre-
ceding group in the greater length of the first abdominal ring,
the thickened body, and in the thorax being as wide as the
elytra. Antherophagus is readily known by its resemblance to
Epuraea among the Nitidulidw, as its head and body is flat,

MYCETOPHAGID^E. 447

the front not prolonged, and in the male is deeply excised at

the tip. The antennae of the female are clubbed as usual, and

the mandibles are prominent and suddenly incurved at

the tips. It is often found on flowers in the perfect

state. We have found the larvae (Fig. 393 ; a, end

of abdomen) of Antherophagus ochraceus Say (Plate

3, fig. 4) in the nests of humble bees during July and

August. They are whitish, and .32 of an inch in

length. The beetles are of a pale honey yellow, with

little darker antennae, legs and elytra, while the ends

of the antennal joints, the base of the coxae and tibiae, Fig. 393.

and tip of the terminal joint of the tarsi are black.

The larva of the European Cryptophagus hirtus Gyll.

(Fig. 394) is found in cellars.

DERODONTIDJE Leconte. In these insects the
transverse form of the anterior and posterior coxae
Fig. 394. (which latter are slightly separated), dilated inter-
nally, forming a small plate to protect the insertion of the
thigh, distinguishes this group from all the preceding
families, and approximates it somewhat to the families
following the Elateridce.

LATHRIDIID^E Redtenbacher. Leconte states that
the insects of this small family are of very small size,
found flying in twilight, and also under bark and
stones ; they are of graceful form, the elytra being
usually wider than the thorax ; the species of Bonvou- vV
loiria and most of the species of Lathridius (Fig. =
395, larva of L. minutus Linn., enlarged) are very Fig> 395 -
remarkably sculptured, with elevated lines on the thorax.

OTHNIID^E Leconte. OtJmius umbrosus Lee. is the type of
this family. It occurred in Nebraska, near the Rocky Moun-
tains.

MYCETOPHAGHXE Leach. The genus Mycetophagus is finely
punctured with closely appressed hairs ; the anterior coxal
cavities are open ; the tarsi are four-jointed and filiform, the

448 COLEOPTERA.

anterior pair in the males having but three joints ; the frontal
suture is always distinct and usually deep ; the eyes are trans-
verse and the antennae gradually enlarged externally.

DERMESTIDJE Leach. These well known insects have the
head small and deflexed, with short mandibles, rounded eyes,
with a single ocellus ; the prothorax is short, sometimes exca-
vated for the reception of the antennae, which are in-
serted in front of the eyes and are usually eleven-jointed,
and the legs are short, somewhat contractile, the tarsi
being five-jointed. In Byturus the mandibles have sev-
eral teeth, and the claws are armed with a large basal
rig. 396- tooth. They are small oval brown beetles found eating
flowers. Mr. J. L. Russell of Salem, has called my attention
to the ravages committed by B. unicolor Say on the raspberry ;
it eats the flowers, being most abundant during June, and for
two or three summers has been very abundant. Hand picking
was found to be the best remedy. Every entomologist dreads
the presence of Dermestes and Anthrenus in his cabinet.
The ugly, bristly, insidious larva, which so skilfully hides
in the body whose interior it consumes, leaving only
the shell ready to fall to pieces at the slightest jar, can
be kept out only with the greatest precautions. Der-
mestes lardarius Linn., the larger of the two, is oblong
oval, with short legs, black, with the base of the elytra
gray buff, covered by two broad lines. It is timid and
F;g. 397. slow in its movements, and when disturbed seeks a
shelter, or mimics death. We have found the larva (Fig.
396) of probably another species of Dermestes, crawling up
the side of an out-house. It was nearly twice the size of
D. lardarius. Attagenus pellio Stephens is another insect
which infests museums. It is shorter than Dermestes, black,
with two dots on the wing covers. The larva (Fig. 397, en-
larged three times) is long and slender, cylindrical, with red-
dish brown hairs closely appressed to the body, giving it a
silky, shining appearance. The abdomen ends in a long pen-
cil of hairs. It has been known to eat holes in carpets.

Anthrenus varius Fabr. (Fig. 398 ; a, larva; 5, pupa) is
rounded oval, with transverse waved lines. Its larva is thick,

GEORYSSID^.

449

Fig. 398.

with long bristles, which are largest on the end of the body.
They are generally destructive in museums, and prey on stuffed
specimens of all sorts. The beetles fly about early in spring
and then lay their eggs. The insect is found in all its stages
through the year. They may be killed like the Clothes-moth,
also found in museums, by saturating the specimen infested
by them with benzine. To pre-
vent their attacks, they should
be kept out of collections by
keeping benzine in constant
evaporation in open vessels.
Camphor and turpentine and
creosote are also very useful.
Insects recently prepared should
be placed in quarantine, so we may be sure none of the mu-
seum pests will be introduced into the drawers or cases of the
cabinet while either in the egg or larva state. Their presence
in cabinets may be detected by. the dust they make falling on
the white surface beneath. Specimens thoroughly impregnated
with carbolic acid, or arsenic, or corrosive sublimate, will not
be attacked by them.

BYRRHIDJE Leach. Pill Beetles. This group has the head
retracted under the thorax, with the parts of the mouth more
or less protected by the prosternum ; the legs are short, stout
and retractile, and the antennae are clavate. The typi-
cal species are "oval or rounded, very convex, dull
black or bronzed insects, covered with a fine, easily
removed pubescence, forming varied patterns." In
Byrrhus all the tarsi are retractile. We have taken
Byrrlms Americanus Lee. in Labrador, on the stems
of the "Labrador tea." They are found in cold
mountainous districts. The larvae (Fig. 399, larva Fig< m
of B. pillula Illiger, a European species found in moss) are
fleshy, cylindrical, with the last two rings of the body larger
than the others.

GEORYSSID.E Heer. This family consists of but a single
genus, characterized by Leconte as comprising small, rounded,
29

450 COLEOPTERA.

convex, roughly sculptured, black insects, found at the mar-
gins of streams, on wet sand ; they cover themselves with a
mass of mud, so that no part of the insect is visible. Georys-
sus pusillus Lee. is our only species.

MacLeay. These are aquatic beetles, having a
retractile head, and are often found clinging to submerged
stones, both in the larval and pupal states. The body of
the beetle is "clothed with a fine pu-
bescence, enabling a film of air to be
preserved beneath the water." The
larvae are hemispherical like a basin.
"The larva of Pseplienus Lecontei
Hald. (Fig. 400, under side, enlarged
three times) is an elliptical object,
Fig. 400. w ith the margins widely extended be- Elg '
yond the body, and is seen on stones under the water of rapid
streams ; it is especially abundant in the rapids of Niagara,
and differs in no important particular from the larva of Heli-
chus of the next subfamily. It respires by branchial fila-
ments." (Leconte.) Elmis (Fig. 401, larva of a European
species) is known by the narrow, elongate scutellum.

HETEROCERIDJE MacLeay. "This family consists of but a
single genus, Heterocerus; it is represented in every portion
of our territory. The species are numerous, but very similar
in form and color, so that care is necessary in distinguishing
them. They are oblong or subelongate, oval, densely clothed
with short, silky pubescence, very finely punctuate, and of a
brown color, with the elytra usually variegated with undulating
bands or spots of a yellow color. They live in galleries
which they excavate in sand or mud at the margin of bodies
of water, and, when disturbed, run from their galleries and take
flight, after the manner of certain species of Bembidium."
(Leconte.)

LUCANID^E Latreille. This family is closely allied to the
next, and is often united with it, as it differs chiefly from
the outer lamellate joints of the antennae not being so closely

451

Fig. 402.

united into a compact club, as in the Scarabeidce, and the

mentum is usually large. The genus Lucanus, called the Stag-

horn beetle, is of large size, with enormously developed jaws

in the male, as in Lucanus

dama Fabr. (Fig. 402,

$). The larva of Lu-

canus dama (Fig. 403, and

cocoon, natural size) is

long, thick, nearly cylin-

drical, and the corneous

rust-colored head is armed

with two large jaws. Liv-

ing in rotten wood, like

the Cerambycidce, it

constructs a cocoon of the

chips it makes. The larva

of the European L. cervus

is stated by Roesel to live

six years. Harris states that they lay their eggs in crevices of

the bark of trees, especially near the roots. The larvae resem-

ble the grubs of the Scarabaeans in color and form, but are

smoother, being less
wrinkled. Dorcas bre-
vis Say (Fig. 404) is
an exceedingly rare in-
sect whose habits are
unknown. In Passalus
cornutus Fabr., belong-
ing to a more aberrant
genus, the body is long
Fig. 403. and flattened with a

short bent hook on the head, and the elytra deeply striate.

Madam Merian describes the larva of Passalus as being a

thick fleshy worm, with a small scaly head, six legs, and

slender posteriorly ; it lives in decaying wood.

Erichson. This family, the LamelUcornia of
Latreille, is one of immense extent, being divided into more
than 700 genera, comprising some 6,000 species, or three-

452

COLEOPTERA.

fourths as many Coleoptera as are known to live in this
country. They comprise the mammoths among insects, and it
is in the tropics that we meet with the most numerous and
bizarre, as well as gigantic forms. Always
readily recognized by their clubbed lamel-
late antennae, the terminal joints being
expanded into broad flat leaves, which, at
the will of the insect, can be closely shut
into a compact club, or loosely expanded
faivlike, and laid under the projecting cly-
peus, so overhanging the mouth-parts as
to give rise to the terms beetle-horned,
and "beetling;" these insects, by their
Fig. 404. robust, thick, often square body, short fos-

sorial legs, with large hooked claws for seizing leaves and
stems, have been well known to all observing persons, however
slight their entomological knowledge. The larvae are thick
and fleshy cylindrical grubs, with a corneous head, and rather
long four-jointed antennae ; the ocelli are generally wanting ;
the legs are stout and long, without claws, and the last ab-
dominal segment is soft and baggy. The body
is often very transparent, the tracheae appear-
ing through. Fig. 405 represents a singular
larva (magnified twice) of this family from
Mr. Sanborn's collection.

The genus Copris and allies are known by
their rounded form, and the broadly expanded
clypeus, which covers in the mouth-parts. In
some species (those of Deltochilum) the anterior
tarsi arc wanting either in the females or both
sexes ; and in some species a stridulating ap-
paratus is found on the upper surface of the
abdomen. In Copris the labial palpi are dilated,
the first joint of the autennal club does not receive the others,
and the claws are distinct. The larva of C. Carolina Fabr.,
while, according to Osten Sacken, having the general appear-
ance of the larvae of the Lamellicorns, is much thicker and
curved up, the back being much swollen and " distended into
a hump-like expansion. It is about two inches long and of a

Fig. 405.

SCAEABJEID^EJ. 453

dirty yellowish white. Each larva was found enclosed in
a globular case of dung or earthy matter, about an inch and a
quarter in diameter." (Proceedings of the Entomological
Society of Philadelphia, vol. i, pi. 1, fig. 1.)

The closely allied Phaneus carnifex MacLeay is common
southward, and easily known by its brilliant copper colored
thorax and bright green elytra, and by the large horn on the
head of the male. These insects are called "Tumble-bugs," as
they enclose their eggs in pellets of manure, holding them be-
tween their hind legs, and rolling them away to a place of safety.
The species of Aplwdius live also in manure ; they are quite
small, nearly cylindrical, with the mouth-parts concealed by
the clypeus ; the antennae are nine-jointed, the club consisting
of three joints, and the lobes of the maxillae are membrana-
ceous, unarmed, while the upper parts of the eyes are visible in
repose. Aphodius fimetarius Linn., which is black with bright
red elytra, has been introduced from Europe, and is abundant
in woods, flying over dung ; it is now common in the carriage
road of Mount Washington. Fig. 406 represents the larva of
the European A. fossor Linn. Chapuis and Candeze
found it in manure in spring. Geotrupes has eleven-
jointed antennae, with the club three-jointed, the mid-
dle coxae are contiguous, and while the club of its
nearest ally, Bolbocerus, a shorter insect, is large
and lenticular in form, that of the present genus
is lamellate, as usual. Geotrupes splendidus Fabr. is Flg * 406>
a common beetle, with a bright shining green body, flying in
paths and wood roads late in the summer. The species of
Trox differ in having slightly fossorial legs ; they are oblong
convex, the surface being very rough and covered with dirt
which is scraped off with difficulty. They live in dried decay-
ing animal matter, and, according to Leconte, "possess a dis-
tinct stridulating organ ; it is an elliptical plate, with pearly
reflections, occupying the upper part of the external face of
the ascending portion of the first ventral segment, and is cov-
ered by the elytra ; on the inner surface of the elytra, near the
margin, about opposite the thorax, is an oval, smooth, polished
space, which has, probably, some connection with the stridu-
lating organ." The larva of " Trox Carolina Dej." (T. scabro-

454

COLEOPTERA,

sus Beauv. Fig. 407), is described by Chapuis and Candeze as
coming from New Orleans.

Melolontha and its allies come next in the series. They feed
exclusively on living plants. The genus Acratus was estab-
lished by Dr. Horn for A. Jlavipennis Horn (Fig.
408 ; a, antenna ; 6, maxilla ; c, mentum ; d, mandi-
ble ; 6, anterior leg and tarsal claw) found in Ari-
zona. The genus Dichelonycha is distinguished by
the front margin of the thorax being narrow and
rig. 107. membranous, with equal claws, cleft at the tip. Di-
chelonycha elongatula Schonh. Is a long green beetle, 'with long
legs, and of a metallic green color ; it is found in June on the

e leaves of the birch.
/^- ? Macrodactylus sub-
*f\ ^^ spinosus Fabricius, the
2^i well known Rose-bug

^=^ or Rose- chafer, is

brown, covered with
ochreous scales ; the
legs, tarsi and claws
are very long and slender. It overruns garden plants, especi-
ally injuring the rose leaves. Dr. Harris has observed the
transformations of this insect. The nearly globular whitish
eggs, about thirty in number, are deposited by the female
from one to four inches beneath the surface of the soil, and are
hatched in about twenty days. The whitish
larva becomes fully grown in the autumn, and
is then three- quarters of an inch long and an
eighth of an inch wide. In October it descends
below the reach of frost, and in the next
May is transformed to a pupa in an oval
earthen cell. The pupa is yellowish white,
somewhat of the form of the beetle, with short wings'; its
antennae and legs folded on its breast, with its white body
surrounded by a thin film. The beetles may be often seen in
clusters on low bushes in partially cleared fields having just
appeared from their cocoons. Dr. Horn has described the
genus Plectrodes for a Californian species, P. pubescens Horn
(Fig. 409 ; a, maxilla and palpus ; 6, tarsal claw). The well

Fig. 408.

SCARAB^EID^E.

455

known June-bug or Dor-bug, Lachnosterna fusca Frohl.(Fig.
410, 411, larva; 412, side view of pupa), lives as a larva on
the roots of grass and is often turned up by the spade or
plough. It is then a large fleshy grub, very com-
monly met with, and is injurious to growing corn
and wheat. The pupa is found in its rude earth-

en cocoon in May. The beetles are very injuri- \
ous to the leaves of fruit trees. They are chest- :
nut brown, with yellowish hairs beneath, and
nearly an inch in length. There are several
smaller, closely allied species. Melolontha (Poly- Fi - 41 -
phylla) variolosa Harris differs in its enormously developed
six-jointed lamellate antennal club, that of the female being
much smaller.

In Anomala the body is small, the an-
tennae nine-jointed, and the mandibles when
at rest do not project beyond the clypeus.
Such is Anomala varians Fabr., which is
very injurious to the vine in June and
July. Pelidnota punctata Linn, has similar
habits. It is oblong oval, very convex
Fig. 411. above, with dull brownish yellow elytra,

with three large black dots on each side. It is often abun-
dant on grape-vines in July and August, and proves very
injurious.

The Cotalpa lanigera Linn. (Fig. 413 ; a, larva) or the Gold-
smith beetle, is nearly an inch long, bright yellow, with long
white, woolly hairs beneath, where it is metallic
green. It often injures fruit and shade trees, and
Mr. S. Lockwood states that in the larva state it
destroys the roots of the strawberry plant. He
remarks that on the 16th of June a pair of Cotal-
pas coupled, and in the evening the female bur-
rowed beneath the dirt, reappearing the next
morning, having meanwhile laid at different
depths, and singly, fourteen white, long, oval eggs ;
on the 13th of July the larvae hatched, being five-sixteenths
of an inch long. (American Naturalist, vol. ii, p. 441.)
In Dynastes the labial palpi are inserted on the sides of the

Fig. 412.

456

COLEOPTERA.

mentum, which is acuminate in front ; the head and thorax are
armed with large horns in the males ; the first joint of the pos-
terior tarsi is not elevated, and there are no stridulating or-
gans. Our only species is Dynastes Tltyus Linn., found in
the Southern States. It is over two inches long, of a greenish
gray color, with black spots scattered irregularly over the ely-
tra. Dynastes Hercules Linn. , one of the giants of the family,
is about six inches long.

The genus Cetonia and its allies are flower beetles ; their
mandibles are feebly develope'd and in part membranous and
concealed with the other oral organs beneath the clypeus ; and
in flying they "do not raise or expand the elytra, as most Cole-
optera do, but pass the wings from the side, under the elytra,

which do not at all
embrace the sides of
the body." (Leconte.)
The immense Go-
liath beetles of the
western coast of
Africa belong to the
genus Goliathus, in
which the clypeus of
the males is generally
Fig - 413 ' forked or armed with

horns. Dr. Harris has proposed the name of Hegemon "for
the subgenus, including the princely Scarabceus Goliathus of
Linnaeus, together with the still more magnificent Goliathus
Drurii of Westwood, and the G. Cacicus of Gory and Per-
cheron." Of Hope's subgenus Mecynorhina, the Scarabaeus
Polyphemus of Fabricius is the type ; it is velvet green above,
with a pale buff head and markings, and is two and a half
inches long, exclusive of the horns. Dr. Harris has also
described as new to science M. Savagii which has a velvet
green thorax, and velvet black elytra, with tawny bands and
spots ; it is about two inches long. The G. Goliathus is per-
haps the largest of all the Coleoptera ; specimens measuring
nearly four inches. Dr. G. A. Perkins of Salem, Mass., who
collected a large part of the fine series of specimens of these
Goliath beetles in the Museum of the Peabody Academy of

SCAKAB^ID^B. 457

Science, informs me that they are found in the tops of trees
where they feed on flowers and on sap exuding from wounds
in the bark, like the Cetonise, and that the natives obtain
them by jarring the trees. Harris states that "it appears,
from the observations of Dr. Savage, that the food of the
Goliath beetles is fluid, like that of the Trichii and Cetoniae,
insects belonging to the same natural family, but the latter live
chiefly on the nectar of flowers, and the former on the sap of
plants. The long brushes on their jaws, and the diverging
rows of hairs that line their lower lips, are admirably fitted for
absorbing liquid food ; while their horny teeth afford these
beetles additional means for obtaining it from the leaves and
juicy stems of plants, when the blossoms have disappeared."
From Cetonia, Lacordaire has separated the genus Euryomia,
distinguished by the untoothed maxillae, by the clypeus being
usually parabolic, sometimes parallel and rarely emarginate in
front. Euryomia Inda Linn, attacks
ripe peaches, spoiling them for the
market. They are found about run-
ning sap in April and flying in fields in
May, and a new brood appears in Sep-
tember. In Osmoderma the elytra are
not sinuate on the sides, the prothorax

is narrower than the elytra and usually rounded on the sides.
Osmoderma scabra Dej. is a large long-legged beetle of a cop-
pery purplish black color. The larva lives in decaying cherry
and apple trees. According to Harris it is a whitish fleshy
grub, with a reddish corneous head, and closely resembles the
grub of the common dor-beetle. In autumn it forms an oval
cocoon by gluing together the chips it makes, and the beetle
appears in July.

BUPRESTIDJE Leach. This very extensive family is known
by the serrated antennae, the outer joints of which are usually
furnished with pores, which are either diffused on the sides,
or concentrated in a cavity (fovea) on the under side or at the
tip. The head is deeply sunken up to the elliptical eyes, and
the labrum is small and prominent, while the mandibles are
short and stout. The legs are short, the tibiae are usually

458

COLEOPTERA.

slender, and the species are generally long, flattened beetles
of very tough thick consistence, and are found on flowers, or
sunning themselves on the bark of trees in midsummer. The
larvae are flattened footless grubs, with the
prothoracic ring greatly enlarged.

In Chalcophora the antennal pores are dif-
fused on the sides of the joints, or only on
the lower margin ; the mesosternal
suture is indistinct ; the antennae are
inserted in small foveae, and the pos-
terior tarsi have the first joint elon-
gated. C. Virginiensis Drury is one
of our most common species, and
may be seen flying about pine trees
in hot days in May and June. Its
larva bores into pines, often proving
very injurious. rig. 415.

Dicerca is noted for having the tips of
the elytra lengthened out and diverging
from each other. Dicerca divaricata Say is
frequently met with ; it is smoother than
usual and highly polished with a
bronzed hue. The elytra are
marked with numerous fine irregu-
lar impressed lines and small ob-
long square elevated black spots.
The larvae attack the wild cherry
and the garden cherry and peach.
Dicerca lurida Fabr. is found on
the trunks and limbs of the
Fig. 416. hickory.

The genus Chrysobothris differs in having the
antennae inserted at the inner extremity of two short
oblique grooves, by which the front is narrowed ;
the anterior femora are strongly toothed, the third
joint of the tarsi is truncate, while in the hind tarsi the first
joint is elongated. The species are rather broad and flattened,
with impressed bands and spots on the elytra. Chrysobothris
femorata Fabr. (Fig. 414 ; a, larva ; Fig. 415, larva of the

Fig. 417.

BUPKESTIM}. 459

same genus, found under bark of oaks) is greenish black above,
with a brassy polish ; it infests the apple and oak, in which it
lives one year. C. Harrisii Hentz inhabits the small limbs of
the white pine. It is also very injurious to apple trees and red
maples. To prevent its attacks Fitch recommends placing a
piece of soap in a fork in the tree so that it will be washed
down by the rains over the bark, while young trees may be
rubbed with soap ; this is an excellent remedy against the
attacks of all kinds of borers.

The genuine species of Buprestis occur in Europe. The
largest species of this family known to us is the JEuchroma
Columbica Mann, which occurs in Central and
South America. It is two and a half inches
long and metallic green. Mr. McNiel has sent
to the Museum of the Peabody Academy sev- J
eral immense white larvae (Fig. 416, natural
size) , from Nicaragua, which are, without much
doubt, the young of this gigantic beetle.

The small, flattened, ovate, angular Brachys Fig. 418.
is probably a leaf miner, as such are the habits of the closely
allied genus Trachys (T. pygmaea, Fig. 417, larva; 418, pupa),
as observed in Europe where it mines the leaves of the Malva
and Alcaea, according to M. Leprieur.

THROSCIDJE Laporte. This small group has been separated
from the succeeding family ; the species differ in not having
the power of leaping, owing to the immovable thorax. In
Throscus the antennae are terminated by a three-jointed club.

ELATERID^E Leach. A very large and easily limited family,
in which the serrate, eleven-jointed antennae, are inserted upon
or under the margin of the front, in grooves, while the head is
retracted, though sometimes free as usual from the prothorax,
between which and the mesothorax is a loose articulation,
enabling the species to leap in the air by a sudden jerking
movement, which Dr. Leconte thus describes: "a few of the
species of the first subfamily (Eucnemidae) and a majority of
those of the third (Elateridae) , possess the singular power
of springing in the air when placed on the back. This is

460 COLEOPTERA.

effected by extending the prothorax so as to bring the proster-
nal spine to the anterior part of the inesosternal cavity, then
suddenly relaxing the muscles so that the spine descends
violently into the cavity, the force given by this sudden move-
ment causes the base of the elytra to strike the supporting
surface, and by their elasticity the whole body is propelled
upward."

The larvae, known by the name of Wire-worms, are vegetable
feeders, living on the roots of grass, wheat, corn, potatoes,
turnips and other garden vegetables. Fig. 419 (enlarged
4$ four times) represents a larva of this family found by
Mr. Sanborn in the roots of the squash vine. The eggs
are laid probably in pastures and fallen ground where
the surface is undisturbed, or in the vicinity of rotten
wood. The larvae moult three times, and some species
are known to live in this state five years. When fully
grown they transform in an earthen cocoon, and may
be seen rising out of the ground during the summer,
Fig. 419. especially in June. The larvae are very long cylin-
drical (whence their name wire-worm), hard -bodied and diffi-
cult to kill, and are generally pale testaceous, or yellowish red
in color. They have only six thoracic legs, and a slight anal
prop-leg ; the body is flattened towards the head and tail.

Eucnemis differs from the true Elaters in the serrate an-
tennae being inserted in approximate grooves at the margin of
the thorax beneath, which makes the clypeus narrow. The

^ _^..^ ^ species do not leap so vigorously as those of

other leaping genera. Fornax differs from
Eucnemis in the antennae being filiform.
In Adelocera (Fig. 420, A. obtecta Say) the
third joint of the antennae is equal to, or
larger than the fourth. In Elater and its
allies, the antennae are widely separated,
being inserted in small cavities (foveae)
under the margin of the front, and before
rig. 420. the eyes. Alaus oculatus Esch. is the largest

Elater we have, the scutellum is oval, and the elytra have a
broad margin. The genus Elater has the front of the head
convex and margined quite broadly, and the thorax is alwaj's

ELATERIDJE. 461

narrowed in' front, with the tarsi ciliate beneath, and entirely
simple. Elater obliquus Say is a small species about a quarter
of an inch long, of a leathery brown color, and yellowish red
on the prothorax and base of the elytra. In
Agriotes and allies the front is very convex,
the edge of which is higher than the labrum ; the
antennse are slender, scarcely serrate, the first /
joint being a little longer than usual. / ;

In Ludius the front is convex, but not mar-
gined behind the labrum, the angle of the hind
coxae are acute and prominent, while the meso- Fi - 42L
sternum is not prominent. Mr. Walsh has found the larva of
L. attenuatus Say (Fig. 421 ; fig. 422, larva) which lived in
decaying wood for two years in his breeding jar. The
genus Agriotes has the margin of the prothorax bent
down in front, while in Dolopius it is straight. Agriotes
mancus Say is a pale reddish brown species, while A.
stabilis, much more abundant northward, is slenderer,
of a darker hue, with a dark shade along the inner
edge of each elytron. D. pauper Lee. is a
small species found northward.

Melanotus includes some of our most com-
mon species, such as M. communis Gyll., which
is of the usual dull brown color. The genus
may be known by the front being moderately
Fig. 422. conveX) margined anteriorly, and the antennse
are serrate, with the first joint of the usual size, while
the prothorax is lobed in front, and the claws are
strongly pectinate. . Fig. 423 represents a larva prob-
ably of this genus.

In Limonlus and Athous the front is margined, the
mouth placed farther forward from the prosternum,
the coxal plates are narrow, gradually dilated inwards,
and the first joint is only moderate in length. In Fi s- 423 '
Limonius the first tarsal joint is scarcely longer than the
second, while in Athous the first tarsal joint is elongated, and
the prosternal lobe is long. Limonius plebeius Lee. and L.
ectypus Say are obscure reddish brown insects, with a slight
fine pubescence.

462

COLEOPTERA.

Fig. 424.

In Corymbites the front is more or less flattened, and the
coxal plates are narrow externally. C. ceripennis Lee. is a
shiny dark greenish species and is found northward. C. viri-
dis Say is dull mahogany brown, mottled with a fine
grayish bloom. C. cylindriformis Germ, is more com-
mon, and of the usual dull reddish brown. C. triun-
dulatus Lee. is frequently found in New England, and
kas three transverse waved bands on the pale elytra ;
it is found on the blossoms of the rhubarb plant. C. hierogty-
pliicus Harris (Fig. 424, elytra) is a similar form.

To the genus Pyrophorus belong the different species of Fire-
flies of Central and South America. P. noctilucus (Fig. 425,
natural size) is dark' rusty brown, and has two large eye- like
luminous spots on the sides of the
thorax, and another at the base of
the abdomen. Dr. G. A. Perkins in
the "American Naturalist," vol. ii,
p. 428, states that "by placing the
luminous parts of one insect quite
near the paper, very fine print can be
|V easily read by its aid, though I can-
not imagine the light, even of a large
number, to be sufficient for any practi-
\ cal illuminating purposes as has been

affirmed by some writers. The Cuban
ladies make a singular use of these
rig. 425. living gems, sewing them in lace
bags, which are disposed as ornaments upon their dresses,
or arranged as a fillet for their hair."

The species of Melanactes are large shining black insects
found under stones, and are known by having the coxal plates
gradually dilated inwards. The larvae (Fig. 426, a luminous
larva of this genus discovered by Mr. Sanborn in Roxbury,
Mass.) are luminous and differ from others of this family, ac-
cording to Osten Sacken, by their small sunken head, and the
presence of a pair of ocelli. The abdomen ends in a prop-leg.

Fig. 426.

CEBRIONID^E Westwood. This family differs from the pre-
ceding group in the greater number (six) of abdominal seg-

SCHIZOPODIDJE.

463

ments, the well developed tibial spurs, the expansion of the
anterior tibiae at the apex, and in the close connection between
the front and the labrum. The females are found at the en-
trance of holes which they excavate in the ground. (Leconte.)
In Cebrio the labrum is separated by suture from the front, and
the anterior tibiae are entire. Cebrio bicolor Fabr. is found in
the Southern States.

RHIPICERIDJS Latreille. In this small group the head is
prominent and the maxillae have usually but a single lobe ; the
eleven- jointed antennae are inserted before and in front of
the eyes, under ridges, and are serrate in the females and
frequently flabellate in the males. The larvae, in their general
appearance, resemble those of the
Elateridce or Tenebrionidce, be-
ing cylindrical, the head almost of the
same breadth as the body, which is
hard and horny, more or less dark
brown, and in Zenoa picea Beauv. is a
little more than an inch in length.
"The eighth segment is punctate all
around, and more densely than the Fig. 427.

others. The posterior part of this segment is obliquely
truncate, and is closed posteriorly by a round, flat, horny
piece, punctate on the outside and which can, to a certain ex-
tent, be opened and closed like a lid, being connected by a
hinge superiorly, and an expanding membrane inferiorly. This
lid is to be considered as the ninth segment of the abdomen."
(Osten Sacken.) The larva, with the adult Zenoa picea, was
found under bark in Southern Illinois by Mr. Walsh. JSan-
dalus (S. petrophya Enoch, and tarsus, Fig. 427), with short
antennae, flabellate in the males, is found in various species
of cedars.

SCHIZOPODIDJE Leconte. This small group is represented
by only a single species, Schizopodus Icetus Leconte. 'It resem-
bles in form a Galleruca ; it is of a metallic green color,
coarsely punctured, with red elytra, and is nearly six-tenths
of an inch long. The head is bent down, closely affixed to

464 , COLEOPTERA.

the prothorax, and the eleven-jointed antennae are inserted
immediately in front of the eyes, under a slight promi-
nence.

DASCYLLID^: Guerin. This group embraces genera differ-
ing much from each other ; the head is usually bent down,
sometimes prominent ; the antennae are eleven-jointed, distant
at their insertion immediately in front of the eyes, being
placed under a slight ridge, and the mandibles are not promi-
nent. They all live on aquatic plants, and the larvae are
either like those of the Scarabceidce, being provided with
short four-jointed antennae, and without ocelli, as in Atopa; or
they are long, ovate, with distinct ocelli, long bristle-like an-
tennae and very well developed limbs, as in Cyplion. The genus
Prionocyplion has the first joint of the antennae much dilated,
and the joint of the labial palpi is inserted on the side of the
second ; in Cyplion the palpi are normal. Baron Osten Sacken
describes the larva of Prionocyplion discoideus Say as being
long, flattened ovate, like a sow-bug (Oniscus) with sharp
lateral edges, the body slightly attenuated before and behind,
of a leathery consistence, dull pale yellowish, and four-tenths
of an inch in length. It was found by Mr. Walsh in the hol-
low of an oak stump filled with water, in which it "vibrated
vigorously up and down a pencil of hairs proceeding from a
horizontal slit in the tail ; this pencil is composed of three
pairs of filaments, each beautifully bipectinate. When at the
surface this larva generally, but not always, swims on its back,
keeping its body slightly below the surface, and striking with
its feet, so as to jerk from point to point, in a curved line. The
pencil of hairs touches the surface all the time. "Occasion-
ally, says Mr. Walsh, "a bubble of air is discharged from the
tail. Generally, when it is beneath the surface, the anal pencil
is retracted entirely. It has the power of jerking its body sud-
denly round, and darting up and down with great vigor. Its
remarkably long antennae are constantly vibrating, like those
of terrestrial insects. The pupa is white, with large black
eyes which are very conspicuous beneath, and two short black
setae on the occiput. The body is covered with a short, white,
erect down or pubescence. The antennae are about two-thirds

LAMPYEID^.

465

the length of the body, placed lengthwise beneath, side by
side. The body is scarcely two-tenths of an inch long.

LAMPYRID^E Leach. The species of the family of Fire-flies
resemble the Elaters, but they are shorter and broader, and
of softer consistence. The head is usually immersed in the
thorax ; the usually eleven-jointed, serrate, rarely pectinate or
flabellate antennae are inserted on the front rather closely
together in the typical genera. The elytra never strongly
embrace the sides of the abdomen, are sometimes short, and
in some foreign genera entirely wanting in the females. The
anterior coxae are contiguous, conical, with a large trochantine ;
the middle coxae are oblique, and the hinder ones transverse ;
while the legs are
slender or com-
pressed and of mod-
erate length. The
larvae are rather
long, flattened,
blackish, with pale
spots on the angles
of each segment.

In Lycus the an-
tennae are inserted
in fro\it of the eyes,
at the base of the
long beak into Fi s- 432 - rig. m Fig. 428.

which the head is prolonged, and the sides of the thorax are
somewhat foliaceous. The female of the Glow-worm, Lam"
pyris, of Europe is wingless. She lays her eggs, which are of
large size, in the earth or upon moss and plants ; the larva
(Fig. 428, female of a species of this genus from Zanzibar),
which feeds on snails, is said to become fully grown in April,
and in fifteen days assumes the imago state. An anonymous
French author states, according to Westwood, that when the
larva is ready to assume the pupa state, instead of slitting
the skin in a line down the back, a slit on each side of the
three thoracic segments is made, separating the upper from
the lower surfaces." While the female is large and larva-
30

466

COLEOPTERA.

Fig. 429.

like, the much smaller male has broad elytra and a rather nar-
row slender body.

In the genus Photinus, of which there are numerous species
in this country, the antennae are compressed, or nearly filiform,

and the species differ
from those of Lampy-
ris, by the females
having wings. Nearly
all have phosphor-
escent glands in the
last abdominal seg-
ments. < .

The editors of the "American Entomologist," p. 19, give
the history of P. pyralis Linn. (Fig. 429 ; a, larva ; e, under-
side of a segment ; /, head ; d, a leg ; 6, pupa in its cocoon of
earth ; c, the adult) . The larva lives in the
ground, feeding on earthworms and soft bodied
insects. When fully grown, or during the latter
part of June, it forms an oval cavity in the earth
and pupates, and in ten days becomes a beetle.
In Plioturis the wings and elytra are complete
in both sexes, while the head is narrowed behind,
and the labrum is distinct. P. Pensylvanica De-
Geer (Fig. 430, and 431, larva) is our most com-
mon species, and the larva figured I regard as
belonging to this species. It is not uncommonly met with in
the evening shining brightly as it crawls along, and is blackish
and crustaceous like a pill bug. Another Photuris
larva (Fig. 432) I have fbund under a stone in
May. It is represented as in the act of walking,
the feet on one side of the body moving alter-
nately with those on the other. This is 'the mode
in which insects usually walk.

Fig. 433 (enlarged three times) represents a
very singular larva, evidently belonging to this
family, and related to the genus Drilus. It was
found by Rev. E. C. Bolles, at Westbrooke, Maine, under
leaves, and it probably, like other larvae of this family, is
carnivorous. Its body is very flat, with the sides of the head

Fig. 433.

MALACHID^. 467

and each ring of the body produced into a remarkably long,
soft, fleshy tubercle, while there are two rows of black spots
along the back.

In the genus Phengodes, the females of which are not yet
known in this country, the third and following joints of the
antennae emit two very long, slender and flexible pubescent
branches from near the base ; the second and third joints are
very short. The elytra are one-third the length of the abdo-
men, and are strongly divergent and subulate. Dr. Leconte
describes Phengodes plumosa Oliv. as being testaceous, with the
antennae, excepting the base, and the narrow tips of the elytra
fuscous, and the sides of the thorax broadly depressed ; it oc-
curs from New York to Texas. In ChauUognathus the antennae
are filiform ; the etytra are as long or nearly as long as the
abdomen and rounded at tip, while
the anterior margin of the thorax is s? A
rounded. C. Pensylvanicus DeGeer ^( ( u
(Fig. 434 ; a, larva ; &, head en-
larged ; c, labium ; d, labrum ; e, a
leg ; /, maxilla ; g, antenna ; 7i, man-
dible), in the larva state devours Fig - 434<
the grubs of the plum curculio. (American Entomologist, i,
p. 35.) In TelepJwrus the head is never concealed by the tho-
rax, and the latter is rounded from the sides along the front
margin, the front of the head is emarginate at tip ; the claws
are toothed, being rarely cleft. The species are found on the
leaves of trees in June. Walsh states that the larva of T.
Carolina Fabr. preys on wood-feeding larvae. Mr. P. S.
Sprague has reared the larva of T. bilineatus Say. He found
it near Boston under stones in spring, when it pupates, and
early in May becomes a beetle. It is found on the leaves of
the birch as soon as they are expanded.

MALACHID.E Redtenbacher. This small group, often united
with the preceding family, is chiefly distinguished by the an-
tennae being inserted on the sides of the front, and by the body
in some genera being furnished with 'soft extensible vesicles,
while the abdominal segments are in part membranous. Mala-
chius and its allies are of small size. Some of them resemble

468

COLEOPTERA.

Fig. 435.

at first sight some Staphylinidae ; they frequent flowers and
the banks of ponds and streams. The females of Microlipus
are apterous.

CLERID^E Kirby. These beautiful flower beetles are known
by the prominent head, the usually emarginate eyes, and
the usually eleven-jointed antennae inserted at the sides of
the front, and either serrate or pectinate, with the outer joints
enlarged, forming a serrate, or rarely a compact club. Their
bodies are slender, with slender legs.
They are rapid in their movements,
and run like ants (which they much
resemble when in motion) over flowers
and trees to feed on the sweets and
sap. The larvae are carnivorous and infest the nests of bees.
They are flattened, hairy grubs, the tip of the abdomen end-
ing in two horny points. Those of the genera
Corynetes and Necrobia live on dead animal
matter.

In Priocera (Fig. 435, P. undulata Say) the eyes
are coarsely granulated ; the antennae are serrate,
and the maxillary palpi are cylindrical. In
Elasmocerus (E. terminatus Say, $ , Fig. 436) the antennae are
ten-jointed, the last joint being very long and flat.

The genus Trichodes is known by the maxillary palpi being
somewhat dilated, otherwise it agrees with the succeeding

genus. T. Nuttallii Kirby is
abundant in August on the
flowers of Spiraea alba ; its larva
is to be looked for in the nests
of bees. In Europe T. apiarius
Linn. (Fig. 437 ; a, larva ; &,
pupa) has long been known to
devour the young bees. In its
perfect state it is found on
flowers.

In Clerus the head is large, the eyes not very prominent,
finely granulated, the antennal club is somewhat triangular;
the maxillary palpi are not dilated, and the posterior tarsi are

Fig. 437.

CUPESID.E. 469

moderate in length and broadly dilated. TJianasimus differs
in the body being hairy, while the posterior tarsi are longer
and scarcely dilated. The long narrow slender pink larvae can
be found under the bark of dead pine trees where they probably
prey upon the larvae of Hylurgus and Hylobius. The larvae
of Clerus are of a beautiful red color. The European Clerus
alvearius infests the nests of the Mason-bees, Osmia and Meg-
achile. "The larva when hatched, first devours the grub of
the bee in the cell in which it is born and then proceeds from
cell to cell, preying upon the inhabitant of each until arrived
at maturity. It is in this situation, also, that it undergoes its
changes in a small cocoon, which it has previously constructed,
making its escape from the nest in the beetle state, where the
hardness of its covering sufficiently defends it from the stings
of the bees." (Westwood.)

LYMEXYLID^E Leach. This small group, chiefly interesting
as containing a genus which has proved of great mischief to
the ship timber of Europe, from its boring habits, is distin-
guished by the head being bent down and
narrowed behind ; by the usually very large
eyes, the two ciliate lobes of the maxillae,
the palpi of which are stout, four-jointed,
and in the male very large and flabellate,
while the mandibles are short and obtusely
bidentate. The body is long and narrow, F] s- 438 -

with slender legs. The genus Lymexylon has five abdominal
segments. The larva is very long and slender, Vith the first
thoracic segment dilated into a large hood, while the terminal
ring is produced into a large obtuse lobe. In Europe it
greatly injures oak trees and ship timber, but our species
(Lymexylon sericeum Harris, Fig. 438, and antennae, legs and
palpi) is too rare to be of any harm at present.

CUPESID.E Lacordaire. Leconte states that "the affinities
of this family are very obscure ; in the form and insertion of
the antennae it is similar to the first genera of the next family,
but other characters, such as the form of the coxae and the re-
tractility of the legs, are at variance. The body is covered

470

COLEOPTERA.

Fig. 439.

with small scales as in the genera alluded to." Cupes capitata
Fabr. is black with the head red ; while Cupes cinerea Say is
pale gray, with darker lines. They are found under the bark
of decaying trees, and also occasionally in houses. (Leconte.)

PTINID^E Leach. These are small beetles, often of an ob-
scure brown color, somewhat oval in shape, and truncated
behind ; the nine-jointed filiform antennae are inserted on the
front, or sides of the front ; the head is retractile, frequently

protected by the prothorax ; the
labrum is distinct ; the maxillae
have two ciliate lobes, and the
maxillary palpi are short and
four-jointed. The legs are slen-
der, contractile, and the insect
when disturbed draws them up
and feigns death. In Ptinus
the antennae are inserted on the
front very close together, the
legs are long, not contractile, with large trochanters ; the teeth
of the mentum are acute, and the labrum is rounded. The
males differ from the short and thickened females in being long
and narrow. The beetles are found about out-houses, the wood
of which they perforate in various directions. Ptinus fur Linn.
(Fig. 439, ; a, larva), the most commonly diffused
species, is known to attac^: museums and collec-
tions of insects. It is .15 of an inch in length,
<ind uniformly chestnut brown in color. The larva
here figured was found eating the dried contents
of a shell in the Museum of the Peabody
Academy of Science.

Sitodrepa panicea Fabr. (Fig. 440, pupa) is a
Fig. 440. sma ii insect like Anobium, of a pale reddish
brown color, with much paler dense hairs. It is .13 of an inch
long. The larva resembles in its form that of Ptinus, but the
body is much thicker, not growing smaller towards the head
as in that genus ; the end of the body is smooth, obtusely
rounded, with fine hairs ; it is .08 of an inch long and un-
doubtedly grows larger. It occurred in all its stages and in

PTINID^E. 471

great abundance in several nests of Vespa in the Museum
of the Peabody Academy, where it undoubtedly eat the dried
remains of the wasps ; it was extensively preyed upon by a
Pteromalus-like Chalcid.

The genus Anobium is cylindrical, the eleven-jointed an-
tennae are distant from each other at base and inserted immedi-
ately in front of the eyes, the mesosternum is flat, and
the anterior coxae are nearly contiguous. The larva
is thick and fleshy, resembling some Scarabaeid larvae
in the fleshy baggy tip of the abdomen, except that
they do not lay on their side when walking. They
construct a silken cocoon interweaving the particles
of dust they make. A. notatum Say is blackish Flg '
above, varied with ashen, and the posterior angles of the pro-
thorax are rather acute. In Europe they are called Death-
ticks, as the ticking made by them in the walls of houses, a
familiar sound in this country, was supposed by the supersti-
tious to announce the death of persons, though it is but a
sexual call. Doubt having been thrown on the statement that
Anobium causes the ticking noise, Mr. H. Doubleday states
in the "Entomologist," vol. iii, p. 66, "I can speak positively
with regard to the Anobium, and I assure you that this little
beetle produces the loud ticking sound by raising itself upon
its legs as high as it can, and then striking the head and under
part of the thorax against the substance upon which
it is standing, generally five or six times in succes-
sion, and it always chooses a substance which pro-
duces the most sound. It is evidently a call note
from one individual to another, as you very rarely
hear one rap without its being immediately answered
by another." Mr. Sanborn has reared the larva (Fig. 441, en-
larged) of Ernobius mollis Fabr., which is a near ally of Ano-
bium.

Bostriclius and its allies are distinguished by their long
bodies, the head being usually bent down and covered by the
hood -like thorax ; the antennae are distant and the anterior
coxae are contiguous. They are found in fungi or under bark.
In Bostriclius the front is margined on the sides. In Amplii-
cerus the front is not so margined. The apple twig borer, A.

472 COLEOPTERA.

bicaudatus Say (Fig. 442) in the valley of the Mississippi, is
very injurious to apple trees, boring under the bark of small
twigs "just above one of the buds, and on cutting into them
it will be noticed that a cylindrical hole, about the size of a
common knitting needle, extends downwards from the perfora-
tion above the bud, through the very heart of the twig, for the
length of an inch and a half." (Walsh.) The larva which I
have received from Dr. Shimer, has much the same form as
that of Lyctus, but the head is more prominent and also the
sides of the body. The anterior half of the body is consider-
ately thicker than behind and the legs are provided with long
hairs ; the end of the body is smooth and much rounded. It
is .30 of an inch long.

Specimens of RMzopertha pusilla have been introduced, Le-
conte states, into wheat distributed from the Patent Office.
In this last genus the eighth and ninth joints of the antennae
are triangular.

In the genus Lyctus the head is prominent, the body long
and narrow, and the club of the antenna is two-jointed, while
the outer apical angle of the anterior
tibiae is prolonged. We have received
from Dr. H. Shimer, L. opaculus Lee.,
in all its stages (Fig. 443; a, larva;
&, pupa). The beetle is chestnut
brown, with short yellowish hairs and
Fig. 443. puiicto-striate elytra ; it is .20 of an

inch in length. The larva is white, its body is cylindrical,
thick and fleshy, with a small head and strong black mandibles ;
the thoracic rings are thickest. It is .17 of inch long. Ac-
cording to Dr. Shimer it eats - the wood of dead grape vines.

CIOID^E Leach. This small group is known by the maxillae
being exposed at the base, the two ciliate lobes of which are
flattened, and the eight to ten-jointed clavate antennae are in-
serted at the anterior margin of the eyes ; the head is protected
by the prothorax, which is cylindrical, rounded in front, with
the lateral margin distinct. The species of the genus (7is,
which have ten-jointed antennae, are very small, cylindrical,
dark colored, gregarious beetles, which live under the bark of

TENEBRIONnXE. 473

trees, and in dry, woody species of fungi. Some males have
the head and anterior margin of the thorax horned.

TENEBRIONID^E Latreille. This is not a very easily limited
family ; the most trenchant characters, however, are stated by
Leconte to be these : the two-lobed maxillae have the smaller
lobe sometimes armed with a terminal corneous hook ; the
palpi four-jointed ; the mandibles are usually short, robust and
furnished with a basal tooth ; the eyes are usually transverse,
and the antennae are generally inserted under the sides of the
head, or at least under a small frontal ridge, and are usually
eleven-jointed, clavate, subserrate 'or very rarely pectinate, as
in Rliipidandrus. The elytra are rounded at tip, covering the
abdomen, and frequently embracing its sides very far down,
while the hind wings are frequently wanting. The legs vary
in length ; the anterior coxae are globose, without any Q
trochantine ; the hind tarsi are four-jointed, and the ab-
domen has five free segments, the first three appearing
more closely united than the others. The larvae are
slender, flattened, horny, resembling the wire-worms ;
from two to five ocelli on each side, or wanting entirely,
and the last ring of the body often has two spines. The
larvae (Fig. 444, larva of an unknown species) moult
several times, and when about to transform make no co- Fig> ***
coon, the beetles appearing in about six weeks. Dr. Leconte
says that the distribution of the genera of this family is very
remarkable. Of those without wings scarcely any are common
to the two continents. With the exception of three, they are
not represented in North America, east of the longitude of
the mouth of the Platte or Nebraska River ; from that point
they increase in number of genera, species and individuals,
until in California they form the characteristic feature of the
insect fauna."

We can only notice a few genera, interesting to the general
reader, and refer the special student, as heretofore, to Dr. Le-
conte's able treatment of the Coleoptera previously cited. -

The genus Blaps, in which the hind wings are obsolete, does
not occur in this country, being represented by numerous spe-
cies of Elodes and Promus. The European Slaps mortisaga is

474

COLEOPTERA.

the Church-yard beetle. Dr. Pickells states, according to West-
wood, that "one of these beetles was immersed repeatedly
in spirits of wine, but revived after remaining therein all
night, and afterwards lived three years." The larvae are eaten
by the women in Egypt, after being roasted.

In Upis the legs are long, with small tibial spurs, while the
tarsi are clothed beneath with a silky, golden pubescence, the

hind tarsi being long, and
the epipleurse are gradually
narrowed towards the base
of the elytra. Upis ceram-
boides Linn, is a fine large,
deep purple black beetle,
with roughly shagreened
elytra, and is found under
the bark of trees. In Tene-
brio the body is long ovate
Fi s- 445 - and winged, the legs are

slender, the femora swollen less than usual, with larger tibial
spurs ; the tarsi are clothed with a rigid pubescence, and the
epipleurse extend to the tip of the elytra. Tenebrio molitor
Linn., the Meal worm, is found in all its stages about corn
and rye meal; it is frequently swallowed with food. "It is
also very destructive to ship-biscuits packed in casks, which
when opened are found eaten through in holes \>y these insects
and their larvae." (Westwood.) The larva is about an inch
long, cylindrical, smooth and glossy, with the terminal seg-
ment semicircular, slightly serrated on the edges, and termi-
nated in a single point. An allied beetle in Brazil is known
to eject a caustic fluid, and in Europe some are known to cover
themselves with this fluid. In Boletophagus the antennae are
eleven-jointed and the eyes are entirely divided. B. cornutus
Panzer (Fig. 445, ?, a, larva ; 6, pupa, <?), as its name im-
plies, lives in those fungi, which, according to Dr. Leconte,
either grow upon trees or under bark, and may be known by the
front of the head being prolonged and margined anteriorly and
on the sides, covering the mouth above, often thus dividing
the eyes, while the dull black body is covered with stout tuber-
cles, it is found in all its stages in fungi, in August. The

MELANDKYIM:. 475

larva is long and narrow, cylindrical, the head free from the
body, rounded, with stout, broad, triangular mandibles ; the
tip of the abdomen is square, with a sharp spine on each
side. It is .80 of an inch in length, and of a dark chestnut
brown color.

Leconte. This family is represented by a sin-
gle species, ^gialites debilis Lee., from Eussian America.

CISTELID^E Latreille. This group, as Leconte states, "ap-
proaches very nearly to the more degraded forms of the Tene-
brionidce, and the degradation of structure is carried still
farther by the anterior coxae becoming conical, prominent, and
contiguous in certain genera. The only characters to be relied
on for isolation in this family are, first, the pectinate claws ;
and second, the anterior coxal cavities being closed behind.
They are found on leaves and flowers, or under bark." Alle-
cula at first sight somewhat resembles an Elater. Cistela dif-
fers from its allies in having the last joint of the maxillary
palpi longer than wide.

Westwood. This inconsiderable family differs
from the Tenebrionidce, in the greater prominence of the
anterior coxae, and the dilated penultimate joint of the tarsi,
though the larvae differ in being rather long, almost as wide as
long, convex above, and with the exception of the large head
are thickly covered with hairs. There are two genera, Artliro-
macra and Statyra, which are found on leaves and under bark.

MONOMMID^E Lacordaire. This little group is a very distinct
one, composed of small, black, oval, flattened beetles. Mbn-
omma is confined to the Eastern Continent, and a species of
Hyporliagus is found, one on the eastern, the other on the
Pacific side of this country.

MELANDRYIDJE Leach. This group comprises a few species
of elongate form, with two basal impressions on the prothorax,
and the first joint of the hind tarsi is always much elongated.
They are found under bark and in fungi. In Melandrya the

476 COLEOPTERA.

head is bent forward, the base of the prothorax is sinuous,
but not distinctly lobed, and the elytra are striate. M. striata
Say is found in the Atlantic States.

PYTHIDJE Lacordaire. This is a small group of mostly
northern species found living under bark and stones. Pytho
and its allies resemble some Tenebrionidce.

CEDEMERID.E Latreille. This group comprises insects of
moderate size, and, according to Leconte, generally found on
plants, though some species of Asclera live on the ground near
water, and Microtonus sericans is a very small brown sericeous
insect, found on leaves in the Atlantic States.

CEPHALOID^:. Leconte places in a distinct family, the single
species, Cephaloon lepturides Newman, which is found on
plants northward.

MORDELLIDJS Leach. These are curious small, wedge-
shaped, glistening, pubescent, black beetles, which occur in
abundance on the flowers of Golden-rods and asters, and when
disturbed leap off like fleas, or slip suddenly to the ground.
Anaspis has the fourth joint of the anterior and middle tarsi
very small, and the body is fusiform, with oval eyes. In Mor-
della the body is wedge-shaped, the eyes are finely granulated,
the scutellum is triangular, and the last joint of the maxil-
lary palpi triangular or securiform. The larvae are said to live
in the pith of plants during autumn, and are long, subcylin-
drical, and the sides of the rings are furnished with fleshy
tubercles. Mordellistena differs in the hind tibiae having sub-
apical and oblique ridges.

Latreille. Of this small group, Notoxus anchora
Hentz is noted for having the head prolonged over the
mouth into a horn ; it is found in marshy places. Leconte
states that Tanarthrus salinus Lee. flies and runs on salt mud
like a Cicindela ; it occurs in the Colorado desert. The nu-
merous species of Anthicus live in sandy places near water.
Formicomus is ant-like, being wingless.

MELOID^E. 477

PYROCHROID^ Latreille. A small group of beetles which
are found under the bark of trees ; they generally have a red-
dish thorax contrasting with the black head and elytra. "The
branches of the pectinate male antennae are rigid in Pyrochroa,
and very slender and flexible in Dendroides; in Schizotus they
are of an intermediate form,, and somewhat flexible." (Le-
conte.) The larva of Dendroides is a very flat whitish grub,
with two large curved spines on the tail; it lives
under the bark of pines and other trees. Two species
of this genus, D. concolor Newman and D. Canadensis
Latr., are equally common in New England. Fig.
446, enlarged, represents the larva of a species of
Pyrochroa, of which P. flabellata Fabr. is a type.

MELOID^E Gyllenhal. This is a family of great in-
terest from the parasitic habits of the larvae, which dif-
fer remarkably from the adult forms. The head is
much bent forwards, and is suddenly constricted far Fi &- 446<
behind the eyes into a small neck ; the eleven-jointed antennae
are inserted at the sides of the front, before the eyes ; the
elytra are variable in form, but when abnormally shortened,
are ovate, rather than square at the tip, and the hind wings are
often absent. The legs are long, the hind tarsi are four-
jointed, the penultimate joint usually cylindrical. They are
soft-bodied, cylindrical, slender beetles, and are always found
on flowers. The larvae are ovate, flattened, often very minute
and then somewhat resembling the Pediculi in habits. Meloe
is a large dark blue beetle found about buttercups and crawl-
ing on grass in May and again late in August. The elytra are
small and short, overlapping each other on the large ovate
full abdomen ; the claws are cleft, the male antennae are
twisted and knotted. The eggs are laid in the ground, prob-
ably near the nests of bees, for in the early spring, the young
larvae recently hatched are found on the bodies of various
bees, such as Bombus, Halictus and Andrena, and also various
Syrphi and Muscae frequenting the flowers of the willow in
April, whence they are conveyed by the agency of the bees.
On these flowers we have found them in abundance. They are
very active in their habits, and difficult to rear in confinement,

478

COLEOPTERA.

which can only be done by confining the bees on which they
are found, and supplying them with flowers. When the bee
becomes exhausted by the loss of fluids drawn out by its para-
site, it is quickly deserted by these minute torments for a
newly introduced and more lively bee. The
length of the larva at this period (Fig. 447)
is .06 of an inch. It differs very remarkably
from those of the neighboring families, which
are generally oval, being long and linear-
oblong, flattened. The three thoracic rings
are of equal size, transversely oblong, the
head being of nearly the same size with one
of the thoracic segments, and provided with
short antennae. The legs have long claws
with an intermediate long pad. From the tip
of the abdomen proceed two pair of setae, the
rig. 447. inner one much longer than the other pair.
It is shorter than that of M. violaceus, figured by Newport, who
has, with great sagacity, cleared up the remarkable history of
this genus. It is undoubtedly the young of our common Meloe
angusticottis Say (Fig. 448). The larvae are conveyed by the
bees themselves into their nests where they prey on the larvae
and bee bread. When full-fed and ready to pass through their
transformations, instead of at once as-
suming the . pupa state, they pass
through what has been called by Fabre
a u hypermetamorphosis." In other
words the changes in form preparatory
to assuming the pupa state are here
more marked than usual, and are al-
most coequal with the larva and pupa
states, so that the Meloe instead of
Fig. 448. passing through only three states (the

egg, larva and pupa) in reality passes through these and two
others in addition which are intermediate. Fabre states that
the larva, soon after entering the nest of its host, changes its
skin and assumes a second larval form (Fig. 449) resembling
a lamellicorn larva. Newport, however, who with Siebold has
carefully described the metamorphosis of Meloe, does not men-

MELOID^E.

479

tion this stage in its development. In this stage the larva is
said to be motionless ; the head is mask-like, without movable
appendages, and the feet are represented by six tubercles.
This is, properly speaking, the "semipupa." This
form, however, according to Fabre, changes its skin
and turns into a third larval form (Fig. 450) . After
some time it assumes its true pupa form (Fig. 451)
and finally moults this skin to appear as a beetle.

In Horia and allies the head is large, square behind, Flg ' M9 '
and the front is not prolonged beyond the base of the antennae .
Horia sanguinipennis Say is now placed by Leconte in the
genus Tricrania, which differs in the last joint of
the maxillary palpi being longer than the third, and
by the triangular head. It is found in the nest of
the humble bee, and in the West Indies a species
of Horia is found in the nests of Xylocopa teredo, a
species of carpenter bee.

SitariSj an European genus, has much the same
Fig. 450. jjgjjftg as jf e . Its eggs are laid near the entrance
of bees' nests, and at the very moment, according
to Fabre, that the bee lays her egg in the honey-
cell, the flattened, oval, Sitaris larva drops from
>the body of the bee upon the egg and feasts upon
its contents. It then feeds on the honey in the
cell of the bee and changes into a white, cylindri-
cal, nearly footless grub, and after it becomes full-
fed, and has assumed the supposed "pupa''
state, the skin, without bursting, encloses a kind
of hard "pupa" skin which is very
similar in outline to the former larva, Fig. 451. ~
and within this skin is found a whitish larva, which
directly changes into the true pupa. These
changes M. Fabre calls a " hypermetamorphosis,"
but it will probably be found that the two so-
called "pupa" states, immediately preceding the
final genuine pupa state he describes, are but
changes of the semipupa, and can be paralleled in some de-
gree by the remarkable changes of the bee and moth noted
by us previously.

Fig. 452.

480

COLEOPTERA.

The Blister beetles, of which Lytta (Cantharis) affords many
species, secrete the substance known as "Cantharadine." The

Spanish-fly is
used in commerce,
and is a bright
shining green spe-
cies. Our native
forms, which as
"well as Meloe,
when dried, can
Fig. 453. "be used for pro-

ducing blisters, are dark colored. Their larvae have the same
form as that of Meloe ; it remains yet to ascertain their
true habits, though Latreille states that they live beneath the
ground feeding on the roots of vegetables. Among
the species of Blister beetles which are especially
injurious to the potato are Lylta vittata Fabr. (Fig.
452), L. cinerea Fabr. (Fig. 453, a), L. murina Lee.
(Fig. 453, 6), and L. marginata Fabr. (Fig. 454).
Phodaga alticeps Lee. (Fig. 455 ; 1 , front of male ;
2, profile of male ; 3, anterior tibia and tarsus ; 4,
Fig. 454. middle tibia ; 5, claw ; from Horn) is a Californian
species, remarkable for the great differences between the 1
sexes, in the form of the legs and tarsi.

RHIPIPHORID^E Gerstaecker. This family is characterized
by Leconte as having a vertical head, with perfect mouth-
parts, affixed to the prothorax by a very slender neck, which
is entirely contained within the prothorax, while the vertex is
5 3 usually elevated. The eleven-jointed
antennae (ten-jointed in the female of
certain species) are pectinate or flabel-
late in the males, and frequently serrate
in the females. The prothorax is as
large as the elytra at base, much narrowed in front, and the
elytra, rarely covering the abdomen, are usually narrowed be-
hind, diverging on the back. The legs are long and slender,
with filiform tarsi, and the claws are pectinate or toothed, be-
ing rarely simple. They are found on flowers. The larval

Fig. 455.

STYLOPIDJE. 481

forms are not yet known. Rliipiphorus is a wedge-shaped
genus, not found in America. R. Finnicus Paykull is said to
be a parasite on Chrysis, the cuckoo wasp. It is here repre-
sented by two genera, Macrosiagon and Emmenadia which are
wedge-shaped, with coarsely punctured and sparsely pubescent
bodies, with the vertex of the head much elevated. In Myo~
dites the elytra are very small. The species are found on Soli-
dago or Golden-rod in August. The genus Metoecus is allied
to Myodites. Metoecus paradoxus Linn, is in Europe a para-
site in the nests of wasps (Vespa) eating the larvae.

In the genus Rliipidius the males have short pointed de-
hiscent elytra, while the females are entirely wingless and
worm-like. It is a parasite on Blatta Germanica. They are
to be looked for in this country, where they have not yet
occurred.

STYLOPID^E Kirby. This most anomalous family, both as
regards the structure and the habits of the few species compos-
ing it, were for a long time excluded from the Coleoptera by
systematists generally, and by Gerstaecker they are even now
placed in the old "order" Strepsiptera. They are minute
forms, and have been characterized thus by Dr. Leconte.
' ' Oral organs atrophied except the mandibles and one pair of
palpi. Head large, transverse, vertical, prolonged at the sides,
forming a stout peduncle, at the end of which are situated the
eyes, which are convex and very coarsely granulated. Antennae
inserted on the front, at the base of the lateral processes of
the head ; forked in one genus. Prothorax exceedingly short.
Mesothorax short, bearing at each side a slender, coriaceous
club-shaped appendage, with the inner margin membranous :
this appendage represents the elytra. Metathorax very large,
greater in bulk than the rest of the body, with the sutures of
the dorsal pieces all distinct. The postscutellum is conical and
prolonged far over the base of the abdomen ; wings very large,
fan-shaped, with a few diverging nervures ; the epimera are
very large, and project behind almost as far as the postscutel-
lum. Abdomen small, with from seven to nine segments.
Legs short ; anterior and middle coxae cylindrical, prominent ;
hind coxae very small, contiguous, quadrate ; tibiae without
31

482

COLEOPTERA.

spurs ; tarsi without claws, joints each with a membranous
lobe beneath." The females are sac-like. They live enclosed
in the body of the bee.

In Stylops the antennae are six-jointed, and in Xenos they
are four-jointed. From the middle of May until late in June
both sexes of Stylops may be found in "stylopized" individu-
als of Andrena and Polistes. The flattened triangular head
of the female may be seen projecting from between the abdomi-
nal segments of the bee, and sometimes there are two or three
of them. On carefully drawing out the whole body of a female

Stylops Children! (Fig. 456 ; a, ab-
domen of bee enclosing the female
Stylops ; 6, top view), which is very
extensible, baggy and full of a thin
fluid, and examining it under a high
power we found multitudes, at
least three hundred, of very minute
Stylops larvae, like particles of dust
issuing in every direction from the
body of the parent. Most of them
escaped from near the head, over
which they ran, as they must do,
when the parent is in its natural
position, in order to get out upon
the surface of the bee. It thus ap-
pears that the young (Plate 3, fig. 6, 6 a) are hatched within
the body of the parent, and are therefore viviparous. The
head of the female is flattened, triangular, nearly equilaterally
so, with the apex or region of the mouth obtuse, and the two
hinder angles each containing a minute simple eye ; the larger
part of the head above consists of the epicranium, which is
narrow in front, with the edge convex ; the mandibles are
obsolete, being two flattened portions lying in front of the
gena and separated from that region by a very distinct
suture ; no clypeus or labrum can be distinguished. The
mouth is transverse and opens on the upper side of the head,
while in front, owing to the position of the mouth, lies the
rather large labium and the rounded papilliform maxillae.
The larva is elliptical in form, the head semioval, while the

Fig. 456.

STYLOPID^. 483

tip of the abdomen is truncate ; the sides of the body are
straight, there being no well denned sutures between the seg-
ments ; seen laterally the larva is thickest at the metathoracic
ring. Two simple eyes are situated near the base of the head.
The body is so transparent that the intestine can be traced
easily to just before the tip, where it ends in a cul de sac. The
two anterior pairs of legs
are much alike ; coxae
short ; femora and tibiae
small, cylindrical ; a slen-
der tibial spur ; the tarsi
consisting of a single
clavate joint equalling
the tibia in length, being
much swollen at the tip,
and without claws. The
hind tarsi are longer, Fi &- 457 -

very slender, two-jointed, the terminal one being bulbous. The
terminal styles, inserted in the tenth abdominal ring, are a little
more than one-half the length of the body, which is covered
with long setose scales. In their movements these infinitesi-
mal larvae were very active, as they scrambled over the body
of the parent, holding their caudal setae nearly erect.

On the last of April we caught a male Stylops Cliildreni West-
wood (Fig. 457, and 458) in the same net with a stylopized
Andrena placida, and as the abdo-
men of the male was long and very
extensile, its tip being provided with
a capacious forceps for seizing the
body of the female, it is most proba-
ble that the female described belonged to the same species, and
that at this time the short-lived male, for this one lived but for
a day in* confinement after capture, unites sexually with the
female. It appears then that the larvae are hatched during
the middle or last of June, from the eggs fertilized in April,
and which are retained within the body of the parent. The
larvoa then crawl on to the body of bees and penetrate within
the abdomen of those that are to hibernate, and live there
through the winter. The entire body of the male is, with the

484 COLEOPTERA.

head and antennae, of a velvety black, the abdomen slightly
brownish, while the legs and anal forceps are pale resinous
brown, and the tips of the tibiae and the tarsal joints pale
testaceous. It is about one-fourth of an inch in length.

The succeeding families comprise the divisions Tetramera
and Trimera of early authors, in which the penultimate joint
of the tarsi is but slightly developed, forming an enlargement
at the base of the last joint, with which it is closely

united.

BRUCHID^E Leach. This small family comprises Curculio-like
beetles of short rounded form which are noted for their activity
and readiness to take flight when disturbed. They differ from
the Curculionidcem the proboscis being folded on the chest,
the antennae being short and straight and inserted in a cavity
next to the eyes. There are 300 species of Bruchus known.
Bruchus pisi Linn., the Pea weevil (Fig. 515), is found in seed
peas in the spring. It appears soon after the pea is in flower,
ovipositing on the young pods (Glover). The young larva
feeds in the growing pod, on the pulp of the pea. Peas infested
with them should be soaked in boiling hot water before sowing.
Bruchus varicornis Lee., in like manner infests the bean.

CURCULIONID^E Latreille. The weevil family may be at once
recognized by the head being lengthened into a long snout or
proboscis (used for boring into objects when about to oviposit),
near the middle of which are situated the long, slender, elbowed
antennae. At the extremity of the snout are situated the
mouth-parts, which are much reduced in size, the palpi having
small rounded joints. Their bodies are hard and generally
round and often very minute. They are very timid and
quickly feign death. The larvae are white, thick, fleshy, foot-
less grubs, with fleshy tubercles instead of legs, and are armed
with thick curved jaws. They feed on nuts, seeds, the roots,
pith and bark of plants, leaves or flowers, and especially
the fruits, while some are leaf-miners and others are said to
make galls. Preparatory to transforming they spin silken
cocoons. The number of species already known is immense,
being not less than from 8,000 to 10,000, and upwards of 630

CURCULIONID^.

485

genera have been already described by Schonherr and others,
of which we can notice but a few of the most important.

Brentlms and its allies differ from the following genera in
their remarkably long and slender bodies, the snout being
stretched straight out, not bent down as usual; while the
slightly clavate antennae are not elbowed. Dr. Har-
ris gives the history of B. septemtrionalis Herbst
(Fig. 459). The female in midsummer punctures
with her long snout the bark of the white oak.
The grub, when hatched, bores into the solid wood ;
it is nearly cylindrical, whitish, except the last seg-
ment, which is dark brown and horny, and is Fi s-
obliquely hollowed at the end, which is dentate, forming a
scoop by which the larva clears its gallery of chips. There
are three pairs of legs and an anal prop-leg. The pupa is

described as being white, with the
head bent on the chest between the
wings and legs. On the back are
rows of sharp teeth, with two larger
thorns at the anal tip.

Harris states that "the different
kinds of Attelabus are said to roll
Fig. 460. Fig. 461. U p the edges of leaves, thereby

forming little nests of the shape and size of thimbles to con-
tain their eggs and to shelter their young, which
afterwards devour the leaves." A. analis Illiger
(Fig. 460) is dull red, with dark blue antennae
and legs. In Rhyncliites the head is not con-
tracted behind into a neck. R. Ucolor Fabr.
injures various roses, wild and cultivated. It
is red above, with the antennae, legs and sides
of the body black.

The little seed weevils, Apion, are pear-shaped
and generally black. Apion Sayi Schonh.
(Fig. 461) lives in the pods of the wild Indigo,
and one-tenth of an inch in length. Balaninus, the nut-
weevil, is oval in shape, with a very slender snout, nearly as
long as the bo$y. B. nasicus Say (Fig. 462) is found on
hazel bushes, and probably infests the nuts. Harris describes

Fig. 462.

It is black

486

COLEOPTERA.

it as being dark brown, and clothed with very short, rust-
yellow, flattened hairs, which are disposed in spots on its

wing covers. It is nearly
three-tenths of an inch long,
exclusive of the snout.

The genus Hylobius has
the antennae inserted before
the middle of the snout, not
far from the sides of the
mouth. The Pine weevil,
Hylobius pales Herbst, is
very destructive to pines, the pitch-pine especially. This
deep chestnut colored weevil is very abundant in May and
June. It has a line on the thortix, and yellowish white dots
scattered over the body, while the thighs are toothed beneath,
and the slender cylindrical snout is nearly as long as the tho-
rax. The larvae are found under the bark. In old trees it
burrows under the bark, its galleries extending irregularly over
the inner surface of the bark and in the sap wood.

The White-pine weevil, Pissodes strobi
Peck (Fig. 463; a, larva; 6, pupa),
equally destructive w r ith the former, is a
smaller beetle, more slender, and oblong
oval in form. It is rust-colored brown,
with two white dots on the thorax", a
white scutellum, and behind the middle
of the elytra, which are punctured in
rig. 464. rows, is a transverse white line. . Harris

states that its eggs are deposited on the leading shoots of
the pine, probably on the outer bark, and the larva when
hatched bores into the shoot, and thus distorts the tree for life.
The pupa is found just under the bark, the beetles appearing
in the autumn, though in much greater numbers in May.

We have found this insect, in all its stages of growth,
under the bark of the white pine the last of April, the
larvae being the most numerous. T^e larva is white, foot-
less, cylindrical, with a pale reddish head. It is .32 of an
inch long, and transforms in a cell. The pupa is white, ihe
tip of the abdomen being, square, with a sharp spine on each

CURCULIONID^. 487

side. It is .30 of an inch long. An insect that would be
readily mistaken for the Hylobius pales is the Otiorhynchus sul-
catus of Fabricius (Fig. 464), which is of much the same color,
but with a thicker body.

The Plum Gouger, Anthonomus pi^unicida Walsh, resembles
the Plum curculio in its habits, and, according to Walsh, is
equally as common in Northern and Central Illinois. It makes
a round puncture in the plum, sometimes five or six, from
which the gum copiously exudes. Instead of living, however,
in the pulp, it devours the kernel and usually transforms inside
the stone of the fruit. "The thorax of the plum gouger is
ochre-yellow ; the head and hinder parts slate-color, the latter
with irregular white and black spots. In common with the
other species of the genus to which it belongs its snout usually
projects forward, whereas that of the Curculio usually hangs
perpendicularly downwards." (Walsh.) A. sycophanta Walsh
is brown-black and was bred by Mr. Walsh from the galls of
various saw- flies found on the willow, and he supposes that this
species, "while in the larva state, must destroy the egg or the
very young larva of the gall-making Nematus, just as A. cra-
tcegi Walsh evidently does ; which was found in an undescribed
Cecidomyian gall on the thorn bush, and just as the larva of
A. scutellatus Schonh. gradually destroys the young plant-lice
among which, it lives ; otherwise the two larvae would exist in
the same gall." Walsh has also bred A. tessellatus Walsh from
the Cecidomyian gall, C. s. brassicoides. It is "a very con-
stant species and easily recognizable by the tessellate appear-
ance of the elytra." A. quadrigibbus Say punctures the apple,
making from one to twenty holes in the fruit.

The Cranberry weevil, as we may call it, or the Anthonomus
suturalis Lee., is a minute reddish brown beetle, with the beak
one-half as long as the body, just beyond the middle of which
the antennae are inserted. The head is darker than the rest
of the bodjr, being brown black. The thorax is a little darker
than the elytra .and covered very sparsely with short whitish
hairs ; the 'scutellum is whitish, and the elytra are shining red-
dish brown, with the striae deeply punctured, the interstices
. being smooth. It is .13 of an inch long including the beak.
Mr. *W. C. Fish writes me that in the middle of July he

488

COLEOPTERA.

Fig. 465.

detected this little weevil laying its eggs in the buds of the
cranberry. "It selects a bud not quite ready to open, and
clinging to it, works its snout deep into the centre of the bud.
An egg is then deposited in the hole made, when the beetle
climbs to the stem and cuts it off near where it joins the bud,
which drops to the ground and there decays ; the egg hatching
and the grub going through its transformations within." The

larva is long and rather
slender, cylindrical, the
body being of uniform
thickness and curved ; the
head is pale honey yel-
low ; the jaws tipped with
black ; the rings are very
convex, especially the pro-
thoracic one ; it is white,
with a few fine pale hairs, and is .08 of an inch in length.

The Magdalinus olyra Herbst (Fig. 465 ; a, larva ; fr, pupa ;
the thorax of the larva is enlarged by the pupa growing be-
neath ; the pupa from which the drawing was made is not fully
developed, since the tip of the fully grown pupa ends in two
spines) may be found in all its stages early in May under the

bark of the oak. The larva is
white, with the head freer from
the body than in Pissodes strobi
(though it is not so represented
in the figure) . The body of the
beetle is black, punctured, and

.^gte^ I -4{j8Bfc' the thorax has a lateral tubercle
ulMB on the front edge, while the tarsi
"^ "CTl* crfiSn are brown with whitish hairs. It

is a quarter of an inch long.

Conotrachelus nenuphar Herbst,
a, larva ; 6, pupa ; c, beetle ; d,
plum stung by the weevil) is a short, stout, thick weevil,
and the snout is curved, rather longer than the thorax,
and bent on the chest when at rest. It is dark brown,
spotted with white, ochre^ellow and black, and the surface is
rough, from which the beetle, as Harris says, looks like a

Fig. 466.

the Plum -weevil (Fig. 466

CURCULIONID^E .

489

dried bud when shaken from the trees. When the fruit is set,
the beetles sting the plums, and sometimes apples and peaches,
with their snouts, making a curved incision, in which a single
egg is deposited. Mr. F. C. Hill shows that the curculio
makes the crescent-shaped cut after the egg is pushed in "so
as to undermine the egg, and leave it in a kind of flap formed
by the little piece of the flesh of the fruit which she has under-
mined. Can her object be to wilt the piece around the egg
and prevent the growing fruit from crushing it?" (Practical
Entomologist, ii, p. 115.) The grub hatched therefrom is a
little footless, fleshy white grub, with a distinct round light
brown head. The irritation set up by these larvae causes
the fruit to drop before it is of full size, with the larva still
within. Now full-fed, it
burrows directly into the
ground and there trans-
forms during the last of
the summer. In three
weeks it becomes a beetle
It also attacks many other
garden fruits, such as the
cherry, peach and quince.
Drs. Harris, Burnett and
others, think the larva is
but a temporary occupant
of the wart on plumb and cherry trees, and not a cause of
the disease. The best remedy is jarring the trees, and catch-
ing the larvae in sheets and burning them. Dr. Hull's "cur-
culio catcher" is an excellent invention for destroying these
insects ; it consists of a large inverted white umbrella, fixed
upon a large wheelbarrow split in front to receive the trunk
of the tree, against which it is driven with force sufficient
to jar the curculios from the tree into the umbrella.

The genus Ceutorhynchus is a small, short, thick curculio,
which attacks the seeds of the radish and allied plants. We
have noticed a pale gray species on the radish, which probably
inhabits the seeds.

The genus Calandra has a slender snout slightly bent down-
wards, a coarsely punctured thorax nearly half as long as the

490

COLEOPTERA,

whole body, while the elytra are furrowed and do not quite
cover the tip of the abdomen. O. palmarum Linn, is a large
black weevil, which lives in the trunks of palms. The Grain
Weevil, Sitophilus granarius Linn. (Fig. 467 ; e, and natural
size; 5, pupa, enlarged), is pitchy red in color
and about an eighth of an inch long, and is im-
mensely prolific. This great pest, both as a
larva and beetle, consumes wheat after it is stored
up, being very abundant in granaries. The larva
devours the inside of the hull, leaving the shell
whole, so that its presence is not readily de-
tected. To prevent its attacks Harris recommends that the
wheat be kept cool, well ventilated, and frequently stirred.

A similar weevil, /Sitophilus oryzce Linn. (Fig. 467 ; e, and
natural size), attacks the grains of rice and also of wheat; it
differs in having two large red spots on each elytron, and it is
abundant in the South, where it is called the * ' black weevil."
The European turnip weevil, Ceutorhynchus assimilis Payk.,
a broad, pale gray insect, has occurred in Maine on the radish.
The Grape Curculio, Codiodes incequalis Say (Fig. 468 ; 469 ;
a, grape disfigured by the larva ; 5, larva), has lately, according
to Walsh, been very destructive to
grapes, stinging the fruit and thus
destroying whole bunches of them.
The presence of the larva in the
grape may be known by a discolora-
tion on one side of the berry as if
prematurely ripening, though it be
the last of June or early in July. Late
in July or early in August the grub may be found fully grown,
when it drops to the ground and descending a little beneath
the surface transforms, and the beetle appears early in Sep-
tember. It is grayish black, the elytra black freckled with
gray spots, and striated, with large punctures. The legs are
dull brick red ; the femora are unarmed, while the four anterior
tibiae have a large rectangular tooth near the base. It is from
.09 to .11 of an inch in length. As a preventative against
their attacks, the vines should be thoroughly shaken each day
in June.

Fig. 469.

SCOLYTID.E.

491

The genus Ptiytobius is closely allied to the preceding ; the
European P. velatus Beck has the habit, as we learn from
Gerstaecker (Handbuch der Zoologie) of living under water.

The Potato-stalk Weevil, Baridius trinotatus Say (Fig. 470 ;
larva and pupa ; 471, adult), is a common species in the Mid-
dle and Western States, where it causes the stalk to wilt and
die, hence all stalks so affected should be burnt. " The beetle
is of a bluish or ash gray color, distinguished as its name im-
plies, by having three shiny black impressed spots at the lower
edge of the thorax. The female deposits a single egg in an
oblong slit about one-eighth of an inch long, which she has pre-
viously formed with her beak in the stalk of the potato. The
larva subsequently hatches out and bores into the heart of the
stalk, always proceeding downward towards the root. When
fully grown it is a little over one-fourth of an inch long, and is
a soft, whitish, legless grub, with a scaly head." (Riley.) The
larva of B. vestitus Sch. (Fig.
472), infests the steins of
the tobacco plant in Mexico.

Mr. Huntington has ob-
served the Grape Cane gall
curculio, Baridius Sesostris
Lee. (Fig. 473) in the larval
state in large bunches near the joints of the Clinton grape on
Kelly's Island, near Sandusky, Ohio, and has also found the
beetle in considerable numbers. The larva closely resembles
that of the Potato Baridius. Riley states that the gall
is formed during the previous autumn while the tender
cane is growing. "It has almost invariably a longitu-
dinal slit or depression on one side, dividing that side
into two cheeks, which generally have a rosy tint."
It pupates late in June, and early in July the adult Fig. 472.
appears. It may be known by its polished elytra and punc-
tured thorax. It is pale reddish, with a stout beak, equalling
the body in length, and each elytron has a swelling on the
outer edge near the base, and another near the tip. It is a
tenth of an inch long. It is the Madams vitis of Riley.

Westwood. These cylindrical bark borers are

492

COLEOPTERA.

rounded beetles of an elongate cylindrical form, truncated be-
fore and behind. They mine under the bark of trees, running
their winding galleries in every direction. They rarely attack
> living healthy trees. They are usually brown
or black in color. The rounded head does not
end in a snout and is deeply sunken in the
thorax ; the clavate antennae are somewhat el-
bowed, while the palpi are very short ; the
elytra are often hollowed at the end, and
the short stout legs are toothed on the under
side of the femora, and the tarsi are slender and
narrow. The eggs are laid in the bark, whence the larvae on
being hatched bore straight into the sap wood, or mine between
the bark and sap wood. They are like those of the preceding
family, fleshy, cylindrical, footless larvae, wrinkled on the back.
When fully grown in the autumn they gnaw
an exit .for the beetle, taking care to leave a
little space closed in front of their burrow to
conceal the pupa. The bark of trees infested
by them should be scraped and whitewashed.
Hylurgus terebrans Oliv. (Fig. 474) is a rather
large red species, very abundant in spring. Fig. 474.
It is found under the bark of pines associated with Pissodes,
though the larva is smaller and more cylindrical. It mines the
inner surface of the bark, slightly grooving the sap wood, and
pupates in April, appearing as a beetle in great numbers on
warm days early in May. Hylurgus dentatus Say
infests the cedar.

The Scolytus destructor of Olivier often does much
injury to old and decaying elm trees in Europe.
Capt. Cox exhibited to the Entomological Society of
London a piece of elm three feet long, which was
scored by the lateral tubes of this insect, which he
Fig. 475. est i mate( j must h ave given birth to 280,000 larvae.
The various species of Scolytus, Tomicus and Xyloterus give
rise to a disease similar to fireblight, by their ravages beneath
the twigs of fruit trees, causing the bark to shrivel and peal
off as if a fire had run through the orchard. The best method
of restraining their attacks is to peal off the affected bark, ex-

CERAMBYCID^J. 493

posing the eggs and larvae to the air, when the birds will soon
destroy them. T. monographus does great damage by drilling
holes in malt-liquor casks in India. It was calculated that
sometimes 134,000 holes were drilled in the staves forming a
single cask. Immersion in boiling water has been found an
effectual remedy. (Morse.)

Also associated with Pissodes, we have found in April the
galleries of Tomicus pini Say branching out from a common
centre. They are filled up with fine chips, and, according to
Fitch, are notched in the sides "in which the eggs have been
placed, where they would remain undisturbed by the
beetle as it crawled backwards and forth through the 1
gallery." These little beetles have not the long snout
of the weevils, hence they cannot bore through the
outer bark, but enter into the burrows made the pre- /
ceding year, and distribute their eggs along the sides.
(Fitch.) T. xylographus Say (Fig. 475) is often a Fig. 476.
most formidable enemy to the white pine in the North, and the
yellow pine in the South. The genus Cryphalus is a slenderer
form. A species, probably the C. materarius of Fitch (Fig.
476), has been found by Mr. Huntington of Kelly's Island, to
bore into empty wine casks and spoil them for use.

CERAMBYCID^: Leach. (Longicornia Latreille). This im-
mense family, numbering already nearly 4,000 known species,
comprises some of the largest, most showy, as well as the most
destructive insects of the suborder. They are readily recog-
nized by their oblong, often cylindrical bodies, the remarkably
long, filiform, recurved antennae, and the powerful incurved
mandibles. Their eggs are introduced into the cracks in the
bark of plants by the long fleshy extensile tip of the abdo-
men. The larvae are long, flattened, cylindrical, fleshy, often
footless whitish grubs^ with very convex rings, the prothoracic
segment being much larger and broader than the succeeding,
while the head is small and armed with strong sharp mandi-
bles adapted for boring like an auger in the hardest woods.

These borers live from one to three years before transform-
ing, at the end of which time they construct a cocoon of chips
at the end of their burrows, the head of the pupa lying next

494 COLEOPTEKA.

to the thin portion of bark left to conceal the hole. As quoted
by Baron Osten Sacken in an interesting article on the larval
forms of some of our native beetles, Erichson states that "not-
withstanding the great similitude between the larvae of Longi-
corns, some important differences in the structure of those
belonging to the four subdivisions of this family may be no-
ticed. The larvae of the Lamiidse differ more than the others,
on account of the total absence of feet, and the position of the
first pair of stigmata which is placed in the fold between
the pro- and mesothoracic segments, less abruptly separated
than the others. The other larvae have this first pair on the
sides of the mesothorax, and have feet,
which, however, are sometimes so small
as to be perceptible only when magni-
fied, even in large sized larvae. The
Cerambycidae (Cerambyx, Callidium and
allies) have, on the posterior side of the
prothorax, above and below, a fleshy,
transverse fold, separated by a furrow
from the horny disc of this segment.
In the Prionidae and Lepturidae, the
same fold is visible only on the under
side. The Lepturce have a large flattened
head, as broad as the prothorax, whereas
Fig. 477. in the other Longicorn larvae the head is

small and much narrower than the thorax. The larvae of the
Prionidae show the least differences from those of the Lep-
turidae ; and that of Spondylis is remarkably allied to the lat-
ter." " The pupa is at first soft and whitish, and it exhibits
all the par-ts of the future beetle under a filmy veil which in-
wraps every limb. The wings and legs are folded upon the
breast ; the long antennae are turned back against the sides of
the body, and then bent forwards between the legs." (Har-
ris.) The beetles mostly hide by day and fly by night.

Parandra brunnea Fabr. is much unlike the remaining genera,
being Tenebrio-like in form, with abroad head and short an-
tennae, and shining red in color. The larva is described by
Osten Sacken as having a yellowish cordate head, with a large
prothorax and fleshy tubercles on the upper and under side of

CERAMBYCIDJE.

495

the segments, with the first pair of stigmata placed on the
sides of the mesothorax. It is found in dead beach trees.

The Orthosoma unicolor Drury (Fig. 477) is a light bay col-
ored beetle found flying from the middle of July until Septem-
ber. We have found the larva (Fig. 478) in the rot-
ten stumps of the pine, and in the Western States
Riley states that a larva (Fig. 479, head and tho-
rax seen from beneath), probably of this species,
eats the roots of the grape-vine, hollowing out and
sometimes severing the root and killing the vine.

Prionus brevicornis Fabr. is a very large, not un-
common beetle, of an ovate shape and pitchy black
color, with short, thick jaws, and
antennae about half as long as
the body. The larvae, Harris
states, are as thick as a man's
thumb, and are found in the
trunks and roots of the Balm of
Gilead and Lombardy poplar. Fig - 478 -

Crossidius pulclirior Bland (Fig. 480),
from Nebraska, is a pale reddish beetle, with the antennas,
head, base and the large mark on the disk of the elytra and
legs black. An allied form is Eburia? Ulkei Bland
(Fig. 481, showing the sculpturing of the head) which is
described as coming from Cape St. Lucas, Lower Cali-
fornia.

The larva of Stenocorus putator Peck (Fig. 482 ; a,
larva, just about transforming; 6, pupa) nearly ampu- Flgl480 *
tates the branches of the black and white oaks. After becoming
mature in the trunk, and just before undergo-
ing its transformations, it gnaws off a branch
which falls to the ground, containing the larva,
which changes to a beetle in midsummer, and
lays its egg near the axilla of a leaf stalk or
The beetle is a very slender one, with antennae
longer than the body in the males, the third and fourth joints
of which are tipped with a small spine or thorn. It is dull
brown, with gray spots. The Banded hickory borer, Chion
(Cerasphorus) tinctus Drury, makes long galleries in the

Fig. 479.

Fig. 481.

small stem

496

COLEOPTERA.

trunks of hickory trees, the worm often working its way out of
the wood after it has been made into articles of furniture or

carriages. The Ase-
mum moestum Halde-
man (Fig. 483 ; a, a,
larva; 6, pupa), we
have found in all its
stages under the bark
of oaks, early in May.
The larva is footless,
white ; the head is
rather large, white,
with strong black jaws*

convex on the outer side; the body is uniform, gradually
diminishing in width posteriorly ; it is .60 of an inch long.
The pupa is .44 of an inch long. The beetle is about half an
inch long and is dark brown, with very thick femora, na
It flies the last of May. I have received a larva of this g
species from Dr. Shimer, Which was found by him boring H
in the grape-vine. The genus Callidium has antennae Fig. 484
of moderate length, a broad rounded prothorax, and a flattened
body behind. The larvae are unusually flattened, with a broad

horny head, small stout man-
dibles, and six small legs, and
they are said to live in this
state two years. Callidium
antennatum Newman is en-
tirely blue ; it bores in pine
wood and in red cedar, min-
ing under the bark. C. semi-
circularis Bland (Fig. 484) is
reddish brown, with a white
band on each elytron, enclosing a rather large, semicircular,
black spot. It was discovered in Pennsylvania.

Clytus has a more cylindrical body, and spherical prothorax,
besides being beautifully banded with golden, on a dark
ground. Clytus speciosus Say injures the maple. We have
taken the beetle on the summit of Mount Katahdin in Maine.
The beetle lays its eggs in July and August, and the larvae

Fig. 483.

CEKAMBYCID.E,

497

Fig. 485.

bore in all directions through the tree. Osten Sacken de-
scribes the larva of C. pictus Drury, the Hickory-tree borer
(Fig. 485; a, larva; 6, pupa), as being u six to seven-tenths
of an inch in length, being rather long, somewhat flattened
club-shaped, the thoracic segments being considerably broader
than the abdominal ones, but at
the same time distinctly flattened
above and below." The pupa has a
numerous pointed granulations
on the prothorax, and similar
sharp spines on the abdominal
segments. " On the penultimate
segments, these projections are larger and recurved anteriorly
at the tip ; there are six in a row near the posterior margin,,
and two others more anteriorly. The last segment has four
similar projections in a row." The male of the
Locust tree borer, C. robinice Forster (Fig. 486,
<), according to Walsh, differs from that of C.
pictus "in having much longer and stouter an-
tennae and in having its body tapered behind to
a blunt point," while the females "are not dis-
tinguishable at all." It does great injury to the
Locust tree, and appears in the beetle state in September,
while C. pictus, the Hickory tree borer, appears in June. 0.
araneiformis Oliv. (Fig. 487) has been detected on a wharf in
Philadelphia ; it was first described as coming from
St. Domingo.

The Long- handed Acrocinus, A. longimanus Fabr.
(Fig. 488, larva, natural size), is a gigantic insect,
allied to Prionus, but with enormously developed fore
legs, the whole body, including the fore legs, when out-
stretched measuring ten inches ; it is brown, beautifully
banded with red and buff. M. Salle has found the larva Fig-
at Cordova, Mexico, under the bark of a Ficus. It grows
larger in Brazil. Leiopus is a diminutive ally of Lamia. Dr.
Shimer has detected the larva of L. xanthoxyli Shimer, under-
mining the bark of the prickly-ash, when the wood has recently
died. It is a footless borer, "of whitish and pink orange
colors, about one-fourth of an inch long." In the burrows
32

Fig. 486.

498

COLEOPTERA.

formed by the larvae he found May 25th, several pink-orange
pupae, "invariably lying with their heads outwards ; their long
antennae folded over the wing-cases obliquely down on the
sides, passing beneath the posterior pair
of legs, a little beyond them and then
curving up over the breast, reach the
head." The beetle is related to L. alpha
Say, and is gray, with bands and spots of
blackish pubescence ; it is .25 of an inch
long. Two species of ichneumons were
found by Shimer to prey upon the beetle.
In Monohammus the antennae are of
great length. M. titillator Fabr. is brown
mottled with gray ; while a slenderer spe-
cies, M. scutettatus Say, of a peculiar dark
olive green, with a whitish scutellum, bores
in the white pine.

The singular habits of the Girdler, Onci-
deres cingulatus Say (Fig. 489), have thus
been described by Professor Haldeman
in the Pennsylvania Farm Journal, vol. i,
p. 34. "This insect was first described
by Say in the Journal of the Academy of
Natural Sciences, vol. v, p. 272, 1825, and its
habits were discovered by us and published in
our 'Materials towards a History of the Col-
eoptera longicornia of the United States ;' Am.
Phil. Trans., vol. x. p. 52, 1837.

"In our walks through the forest our atten-
tion was frequently drawn to the branches and
main shoots of young hickory trees (Carya
alba), which were girdled with a deep notch in
such a manner as to induce an observer to be-
lieve that the object in view was to kill the
branch beyond the notch, and extraordinary as
it may appear, this is actually the fact, and the rig. 489.
operator is an insect whose instinct was implanted by the
Almighty power who created it, and under such circumstances
that it could never have been acquired as a habit. The effect

Fig. 488.

CEKAMBYCID^. 499

of girdling is unknown to the insect, whose life is too short
to foresee the necessities of its progeny during the succeeding
season.

" This insect may be seen in Pennsylvania during the two
last weeks in August and the first week in September feeding
upon the bark of the tender branches of the young hickories.
Both sexes are rather rare, particularly the male, which is rather
smaller than the female, but with longer antennae. The female
makes perforations in the branches of the tree upon which she
lives (which are from half an inch to less than a quarter of an
inch thick) , in which she deposits her eggs ; she then proceeds
to gnaw a groove of about a tenth of an inch wide and deep
around the branch, and below the place where the eggs are
deposited, so that the exterior portion dies and the larva feeds
upon the dead wood and food which is essential to many
insects, although but few have the means of providing it for
themselves or their progeny by an instinct so remarkable.

"Where this insect is abundant, it must cause much damage
to young forests of hop-poles by the destruction of the prin-
cipal shoot. We have known insects which, from
their rarity, could hardly be regarded as ' noxious,'
increase to such an extent as to be very destructive,
and the locust trees (Robinia pseudacacia) have had
their foliage withered during the few last summers
from such a cause (Cecidomyia robinise Hald.) which
has caused these trees to wither since that period,
particularly in August, 1868." The Tridentate
Compsidea, C. tridentata Oliv. (Fig. 490, larva, en-
larged three times), is a dark brown beetle, with a
rusty red curved line behind the eyes, two stripes on Fi &- 49 -
the thorax, and a three-toothed stripe on the outer edge of
each wing-cover, and is about half an inch long. It lives under
the bark of elms, occasionally doing much damage. (Harris.)

The larva ofPsenocerus supernotatus (described by Say) which
burrows in the stem of a climbing plant, supposed to be
the grape, Osten Sacken describes as being three-tenths of an
inch long, subcylindrical or prismatical, the pro- and meso-
thorax being a little broader than the other segments, and the
whole body sparsely beset with fine golden hairs.

500 COLEOP1ERA.

This insect, according to Fitch, also does much injury to the
currant, eating the pith "through the whole length of the
stalk and leaving it filled with a fine powder. It is about
the first of June that the parent insect deposits her eggs upon
the currant stalks, and the worms get their growth by the
close of the season. They repose in their cells through the
winter, changing to pupae with the warmth of the following
spring, and begin to appear abroad in their perfect
state as early as the middle of May, the sexes pairing
immediately after they come out." (Fitch.) In August,
1868, I received from Dr. P. A. Chadbourne, President
of Madison University, several branches of the apple
containing larvae, which in the next spring changed to
this beetle. They were very injurious to orchards in
Fig. 491. hjg vicinity, and this seems to be 'the first instance
of its occurrence in the apple. The larva (Fig. 491, en-
larged thrice) is nearly half an inch long; it is footless,
white, with the head scarcely half as wide as the body and con-
siderably flattened ; the segments are rather convex, each hav-
ing two rows of minute warts, and the tip is rather blunt, with
a few fine golden hairs. It devoured the sap wood and under
side of the bark and also the pith, thus locally killing the
terminal twigs, and causing the bark to
shrivel and peel off, leaving a distinct line
of demarcation between the dead and living
portions of the twig. Each larva seemed to
live in a space one and one-half inches long,
there being five holes through the bark within
the space of as many inches. On the 16th
of August the grubs seemed to have accom-
plished their work of destruction, as they
rigt 492 ' were fully grown. The beetle is from .13 to

.20 of an inch long, and may be known by- its dark, reddish
brown, cylindrical body, with a high tubercle at the base
of the elytron, an oblique yellowish white line on the basal
third, and a broad curved white line on the outer third of the
elytron, or wing-cover.

Saperda Candida Fabr. (bivittata Say, Fig. 492) the well
known Apple tree borer, flies about orchards in July in New

501

England, in May and June in the Western States, usually at
night, but we once observed it flying in the hottest part of the
day. At this time the female lays her eggs in the bark near
the roots. The nearly cylindrical larvae are whitish fleshy
grubs, with a small horny head, while the prothoracic ring,
as usual, is much larger than the others, the two preceding
ones being very short, and from thence the body narrows to
the tip. It bores upward into the wood, where it lives two or
three years, finally making a cocoon eight or ten inches from
its starting point, in a burrow next to the bark, whence it
leaves the pupa state (which begins early in June) in midsum-
mer. It also infests the wild apple, quince, pear, June-berry,
mountain-ash and hawthorn. Riley advises soaping the trunk
of the tree to prevent the beetle from laying its eggs, and
when the tree is infested with them to cut through the bark at
the upper end of thejr borings and pour in hot water, while in
the autumn the bark should be examined and the young worms
that had been hatched through the summer may be dug out
and destroyed.

We have found what we supposed to be the young larvae of
Desmocerus cyaneus Fabr. in. the stems of the elder ; the beetle
is a handsome purple and white Longicorn. We have found
Rliagium lineatum Olivier living in old trunks of pine trees.
The antennae are no longer than the breadth of the body. It
makes a cocoon of chips, and the beetle appears in the autumn,
not, however, leaving the tree until the spring.

CHRYSOMELID^E Latreille. The Leaf-beetles are oval or
oblong, often very thick and convex above, with short an-
tennae, round prominent eyes, with a narrow cylindrical
thorax, and the hinder thighs often much thickened in the
middle, while the abdomen has five free segments. The larvae
are short, rounded, cylindrical or flattened, generally of soft
consistence, usually gaily colored, and beset with thick flat-
tened tubercles or branching spines, and well developed tho-
racic feet. There are estimated to be from 8,000 to 10,000
species. They are found feeding, both in the larva and adult
stages, on leaves, either on the surface, or, as in Hispa and
several species of Haltica, their larvae are leaf-miners.

502

COLEOPTERA.

Fig. 493.

The genus Donacia connects this family with the preceding.
It has a rather long body and unusually long antennae. D.
proximo, Kirby is dark blue, and Donacia Kirbyi Lacordaire
is of a shining coppery hue. The larvae live in the stems of
water plants, and make a leathery cocoon in the earth before
transforming.

The Grape-vine Fidia (F. viticida Walsh, Fig. 493) is very
injurious to the grape in the Western States, from its habit of
"cutting straight elongated holes of about an eighth of an
inch in diameter in the leaves, and when numer-
ous so riddling the leaves as to reduce them to
mere shreds." It is chestnut brown, and cov-
ered with short whitish hairs, giving it a hoary
appearance. Riley states that it is very abun-
dant in the vineyards in Missouri, where it pre-
fers Concord and Norton's Virginia grapes,
while it occurs on the wild grape-vine and 011 the leaves of
the Cercis Canadensis. "It makes its appearance during the
month of June, and by the end of July has generally disap-
peared, from which fact we may infer that there is but one
brood each year." The vines should be often shaken and
chickens turned in to feed upon them when it is possible.

Crioceris is
known by its
rather long
body, and the
prothorax be-
ing narrower
than the ely-
tra. The an-
tennae are
Fig. 494. rather long,

the fore coxae are swollen, pressed together, and the claws
are either free or united at the base. We have no native
species, but Crioceris asparagi Linn, has been introduced
into gardens about New York, doing much injury to the
asparagus. Fitch describes it as being about a quarter of an
inch long, with a tawny red prothorax and three bright lemon
yellow spots on each elytron. The larva is soft-bodied, twice

CHRYSOMELIMJ. 503

as long as thick, the body thickening posteriorly, and of a
dull ash gray or obscure olive, with a black head and legs.

Lema trilineata Olivier (Fig. 494 ; a, larva ; 6, terminal joints
of abdomen; c, pupa; d, eggs) occurs in great abundance
on the leaves of the potato. The dirty yellowish larvae are
found on it abundantly, and hide themselves by covering their
bodies with their own excrement. They mature in about two
weeks, transform in earthen cells cemented with a gummy
exudation discharged from the mouth, and in a fortnight,
being about the first of August, the beautiful yellow and black
striped beetle, with a reddish head and prothorax, appears.

Hispa is also a miner in the larva state. Hispa (Uroplata)
rosea Harris (Fig. 495) is supposed by Harris to mine the
leaves of the apple tree. Harris describes it as being "of a
deep or a tawny reddish yellow color above,
marked with little deep red lines and spots.
There are three smooth, longitudinal ribs on each
elytron, spotted with blood-red, and the space
between these lines are deeply punctured in
double rows ; the under side of the body is black,
and the legs are short and reddish. They meas- Fi s- 495.
ure about one-fifth of an inch in length." "The larvaa burrow
under the skin of the leaves of plants, and eat the pulpy
substance within, so that the skin over and under the place
of their operations, turns brown and dies, having somewhat
of a blistered appearance, and within these blistered spots
the larvae or grubs, the pupse or the beetles, may often be
found. The eggs of these insects are little rough, blackish
grains, and are glued to the surface of the leaves, sometimes
singly, and sometimes in clusters of four or five together. The
grubs of our common species are about one-fifth of an inch in
length, when fully grown. The body is oblong, flattened, rather
broader before than behind, soft, and of a whitish color, ex-
cept the head and the top of the first ring, which are brown,
or blackish, and of a horny consistence. It has a pair of legs
to each of the first three rings ; the other rings are provided
with small fleshy warts at the sides, and transverse rows of
little rasp-like points above and beneath. The pupa state lasts
only about one week, soon after which the beetles come out of

504 COLEOPTERA.

their burrows." Hispa (Uroplata) suturalis Fabr. mines the
Locust tree, and often proves very destructive in the Middle
and Western States. They are flat, the body behind being
broad and square, and the elytra are generally ridged and
furrowed.

Cassida aurichalcea Fabr., the yellow Helmet beetle, is hem-
ispherical, flattened, so that the edges of the wings are very
thin ; and the larva is broad, oval,
flattened, and by means of two spines
terminating its upturned abdomen,
holds its old cast larva skin over its
body as a means of protection. Dur-
ing the last week in July we have
found the larvae in all stages of
growth very abundant on the Morn-
ing-glory in our garden, eating holes in the leaves. In the
young the head and legs are more prominent than in the old.
It pupates the last of July and early in August.

The Chetymorpha cribraria Fabr. (Fig. 496 ; a, pupa) we
have found in all its stages on the leaves of the silk-weed late
in July and early in August, and in one instance in Salem it
occurred in abundance on the leaves of the raspbeny. The
larva differs from that of Cassida aurichalcea, not only in its
greater size, but the body is thicker and narrower ; the head is
freer from the thorax, and the spines are simple, not spinula-
ted. The body is yellow and less protected by the cast skin.
When about to transform, the larva attaches itself to the leaf
by a silken thread, a few segments from the end where the
end of the body of the future pupa is situated.
It is .45 of an inch long. The pupa is broad
and rather flattened, dark and spotted with
Fig. 497. yellow and covered with a whitish powder,

causing the yellow portions to appear more prominently ; along
each side of the abdomen is a row of five spines, and there are
four spines on the anterior edge of the prothorax ; it is .40 of
an inch in length.

Fig. 497 represents, according to Harris, "the larva, nearly
full size, of Galeruca gelatinarice Fabr. or an allied species,
found abundantly on Ambrosia elatior, July 30th. They

CHRYSOMELID2E .

505

Fi s- 498 -

live on the upper surface of the leaves and devour the cuticle

and parenchyma above, leaving the lower cuticle untouched.

It is of a dirty yellowish white color, with black tubercles

bearing white bristles. Length one-fourth of an inch." (Har-

ris Correspondence, p. 267.)

We have found Galeruca marginella Kirby (Fig. 498 ; a,

larva ; 5, pupa) in all its stages of growth on Myrica gale,

during the middle of August,

in Northern Maine. The

larva is shining black, coria-

ceous above, and the body

is elongated, flattened, with

a small orbicular black head.

The upper side of the body

is hard, from the close prox-

imity of the black flattened

tubercles. Beneath, whitish ; on the side is a row of small

black brown tubercles, and along the middle of the body is a
row f transversely linear brown tu-
bercles, on each side of which is a
minute dot-like tubercle. It is not
hairy, and measures .25 of an inch in
length. When about to transform it
fastens itself by its tail to the surface
of a leaf. The pupa is brown-black.
The beetle is umber brown, testaceous

on the edges of the elytra, the legs being also testaceous,

while the prothorax is pale, with three dark brown spots,

of which the central one is T-shaped.
The Striped Squash beetle, Diabrotica

mttata Fabr. (Fig. 499, a, larva ; &, pupa , .,

seen from underneath; Fig. 500, adult) ap- / <

pears on squash vines as soon a's they are

up, and at once devours them unless their attacks are pre-

vented. Covering the vines with cotton or a box covered with

muslin or millinet is the only sure remedy, while on a large

scale powdered charcoal, or lime is used, to be sprinkled on the

leaves. Mr. Gregory, says the "American Agriculturist," re-

lies upon plaster, or oyster- shell lime, which may be shaken

Fig. 499.

soi.

Fig. 500.

506 COLEOPTERA.

from a small sieve while the leaves are wet with dew or rain ;
to be applied as soon as the plants are up. He objects to the
use of air-slacked stove lime, as it is apt to be too caustic and
injure the plant. Dr. H. Shimer has given an account of the
habits of this insect in the "Prairie Farmer," and has sent me
specimens of the insect in its different stages. He states that
the grub in June and July " eats the bark and often perforates
and hollows out the lower part of the stem which is beneath the
ground, and the upper portion of the root, and occasionally
when the supply below fails, we find them in the vine just
above the ground." It hibernates in the pupa state. u The
larva arrives at maturity in about a month after the egg is laid ;
it remains in the pupa state about two weeks, and the beetle
probably lives several days before depositing her eggs,
so that one generation is in existence about two months,
and we can only have two, never more than three
broods in one season." He has found them boring in
5021 the squash and muskmelon vines as late as October 1st.
The larva is a long, slender, white, cylindrical grub, with a small
brownish head. The prothorax is a little corneous. The tho-
racic legs are very slender, pale brown ; the end of the body is
suddenly truncated, with a small prop-leg beneath. Above is
an orbicular brown space, growing black posteriorly and ending
in a pair of upcurved, vertical, slender black spines. It is .40
of an inch long. It will be seen that both in its boring habits
and its corresponding, remarkable, elongated, C3 T lindrical, soft
white body, that this larva varies widely from that of Galleruca,
to which the beetle is closely allied. The pupa is .17 of an
inch long, white, with the tip of the abdomen ending in two
long acute spines arising from a common base. The Twelve-
spotted Diabrothica (Fig. 501, D. duodecim-punctata Fabr.)
is injurious to the leaves of the Dahlia.

The genus Haltica, to which the little blackish Flea-beetles
belong, is well known. The larvae mine the leaves of the
plants on which they afterwards feed. Haltica (Crepidodera)
cucumeris Harris (Fig. 502) infests the cucumber. Harris de-
scribes it as being "only one-sixteenth of an inch long, of a
black color, with clay-yellow antennae and legs, except the
hindmost thighs, which are brown. The upper side of the body

CHRYSOMELIDJ2,

507

is covered with punctures, which are arranged in rows on the
wing-cases, and there is a deep transverse furrow across the
hinder part of the thorax." It not only kills young cucumber-
vines, eating the seed leaves, but is found
all through the summer eating holes in the
leaves of various garden vegetables.

The Grape-leaf Flea Beetle, H. (Grapto-
dera) chalybea Illiger, eats the buds and
leaves of the grape. It is a steel blue in-
sect, often varying in its shades of color-
ing, sometimes becoming greenish. It is Fi s- 503<
a little over three-twentieths of an inch in length. In Ohio,
Mr. M. C. Reed noticed the sexes of this species, which Dr.
Leconte considers as probably the Graptodera exapta of Say
(Fig. 503), pairing May 6th. The larvse appeared the last of
the month, and by the first week in June, and on the 30th of the
same month, the beetles appeared. I have received specimens
of the larva from Mr. Read. It is a yellowish white, cylindrical
worm, with a jet black head and black tubercles, from each of
which proceed several fine hairs. The prothorax is brown black
above ; on each succeeding ring of the
body are ten tergal black tubercles, the
two inner ones being long and narrow,
and transverse, the others forming
round dots. On each ring is a single
black dot just between the two lower a b Fig 504 '
larger tubercles. On the sides are two rows of black tubercles,
and along the middle of the under side a row of transverse
tubercles, on each side of which is a row of dot-like tubercles.
It is .35 of an inch in length.

The Striped Turnip Flea beetle, H. (Phyllotreta) striolata
Fabr. (Fig. 504 ; a, larva ; 6, pupa), is black, with a waved yel-
lowish stripe on each wing-cover, and is less than a tenth of an
inch long. Dr. Shinier describes the larva as being white ; the
head is of a pale brown color, and near the end of the body is a
brown spot equal to the head in size ; besides the thoracic legs
there is a single anal prop-leg. It is .35 of an inch long. It
feeds upon roots beneath the ground. The pupa is naked,
white, and transforms in an earthen cocoon. In seventeen

508

COLEOPTEKA.

days from the time the larva ceases eating the beetle appeared.
It then feeds on the seed leaves of cabbages and turnips and
other garden vegetables, when it proves very injurious,
while afterwards in June, when the plants have at-
tained their growth, they sicken and die from the
attacks of the larva in their roots. (American
rig. 505. -^aturalist, V ol. ii, p. 514.)

The Silk-weed Labidomera, L. trimaculata Fabr. (Fig. 505,
larva) is found in its larval stage on the Silk-weed about the
first of August. It is a thick hemispherical beetle, with a dark
blue head and prothorax, and orange elytra, with three large
blue spots on each wing-cover. It is one-half of an inch long.

Fig. 506.

The Colorado potato beetle, Doryphora decem-Hneata Say
(Fig. 506 ; a, eggs ; &, the larvae in different stages of growth ;
c, the pupa ; d, beetle ; e, elytron, magnified ; /, leg, magnified)
has gradually spread eastward as far as Indiana, from its
original habitat in Colorado, having become very destructive
to the potato-vine. It becomes a beetle within a month after
hatching from the yellowish eggs ; the larva is pale yellow
with a reddish tinge and a lateral row of black dots. Messrs.
"Walsh and Riley state that "there are three broods of larvae
every year in North Illinois and Central Missouri, each of
which goes under ground to pass into the pupa state, the first
two broods coming out of the ground in the beetle state about

CHRYSOMELID^.

509

ten or twelve days afterwards, while the last one stays under
ground all winter, and only emerges in the beetle state in the
following spring, just
in time to lay its eggs
upon the young po-
tato leaves," which it
devours to such an ex-
tent as to sometimes
almost cut off the en.
tire crop in certain lo-
calities. The Editors

of the ' ' American En-

Fig. 5061.

tomologist," from whom we have quoted, enumerate and
figure various beetles, hemiptera, and a species of Tachina fly
(Lydella doryphorse Riley) which mostly prey upon the larvae.
Dr. H. Shimer shows, in the "American Naturalist," vol. iii,
p. 91, that a dry and hot summer is very unfavorable to the
development of this insect, the pupse dying for want of suffi-
cient moisture in the soil. The best remedy against its attacks
is hand picking.

A very closely allied species or variety, the D. juncta Ger-
mar (Fig. 506 1 ), may be easily confounded with the other spe-
cies, but differs, according to Walsh, in the head
of the larva being paler, while in the beetle the third
and fourth stripe from the outside are united, where
they are distinct in the D. 10-lineata, and the legs
are entirely pale yellow, with a dark spot on the
femora. It feeds on the wild potato, not eating Fi s- 506 2 .
the cultivated species, and has always been an inhabitant of the
Western and Southern States.

Ohrysomela is an oval oblong genus, and its ally, Calligrapha,
is very convex, hemispherical ; the species are gaily spotted and
banded ; Cattigrapha scalaris Lee. is abundant on the alder.
The larvae (Fig. 506 2 , larva of C. Philadelphia Linn.) are
thick and fleshy, with a row of black spiracles along the side
of the body, and a dark prothoracic shield.

Eumolpus auratus Fabr. is a shining, rich golden green bee-
tle, found on the dog's-bane.

Chlamys is a little oblong, cubical, roughly shagreened,

510 COLEOPTEKA.

metallic greenish beetle, found in abundance on leaves south-
ward. The larva of Chlamys plicata Olivier, according to
Mr. S. H. Scudder, who has reared it from the sweet-fern, is a
sac bearer, drawing after it a rounded, flask-shaped, blackish
sac, within which it withdraws when disturbed. Larvae appar-
ently belonging to this species were found by Mr. Emerton on
grass in pastures in July. They are interesting as being true
sac-bearers, recalling Psyche helix and other sac-bearing moths,
and the Phryganeids. Fig. 507 represents the larva in the act
of walking, the head and thoracic segments protruding from
the case. The case is a quarter of an inch long and one-half
as thick, being oval cylindrical. It is
black and appears to be formed of
little pellets of vegetable matter
chewed by the larva and applied to the
Fig. 507. edge, with a seam along the middle of

the under side, which readily spreads open when the sac is
pressed. The case is a little contracted before the mouth,
where the pellets are a little larger than elsewhere. The larva
is of the form of those of others of the family, but the body is
slenderer in front of the abdomen, and the legs are longer
than usual. The abdomen is suddenly thickened and curved
at right angles, the tip being rather pointed. The body is
white, with a brown-black head and dark brown legs, and a
prothoracic corneous piece, with a corneous piece at the inser-
tion of each leg. It is, in its natural curved posture, .25 of
an inch long. In the Museum of the Peabody Academy are
several minute chalcid parasites reared from C. plicata.

Cryptocephalus is a short, cylindrical genus, numbering nearly
800 species.

EROTYLID^E Westwood. This family is very largely devel-
oped in tropical America, and is known by the large, flattened
antennal club, which consists of three joints. Most of them
are supposed to be leaf insects, while the more northern spe-
cies live in fungi.

ENDOMYCHID^: Leach. In this small group are genera whose
bodies are oval, with antennae longer than the head, which with

COCCINELLIDJE. 511

the -trapeziform prothorax, distinguish them from the allied
families. An interesting form from New Hampshire, the Phy-
maphora pulcliella of Newman (Fig. 508), is described by
Harris (Correspondence, p. 256) as being rust-red, with paler
feet and antennae, the head being black ; there is a broad

black band across the middle of the elytra, and

the tips are black.

COCCINELLID^: Latreille. The characteristic form
Fig. SOB. of the " Lady-birds" is well known. They are
hemispherical, generally red or yellow, with round or
lunate black spots. The species are difficult to dis-
criminate, and number upwards of 1,000. Some in-
dividuals belonging to different species have been
known to unite sexually, but producing sterile eggs. Fi s- 509 -
The yellow long oval eggs are laid in patches, often in a group
of plant-lice, which the larvae greedily devour. They are rather
long, oval, soft-bodied, pointed behind, with the prothorax
larger than the other rings, often gaily colored and beset with
tubercles or spines, and when about to turn to a pupa, the larva
attaches itself by the end of the body to a
leaf, and either throws off the larva skin,
which remains around its tail, or the old
dried skin is retained, loosely folded about
the pupa as a protection, thus simulating the
coarctate pupa of the flies. The Spotted Fi s- 51 -

Hippodamia, H. maculata DeGeer (Fig. 509) is pale red, with
thirteen black spots on the body, and is quite common, while
the H. convergens Guerin (Fig. 510, with larva and pupa) is
common southwards. In Coccinella the body is smooth, hemi-
spherical, with the hind angle of the prothorax acute.

The eggs of the common Two- spotted Coccinella, C. bipunc-
tata Linn., are laid in May on the bark of trees, and those
of another brood are laid in June and hatched July 1st. They
are oval, cylindrical, orange yellow, and are attached in a bunch
of about twenty-five, by one end to the bark. They hatch
out when the leaves and their natural article of diet, the Aphis,
appear, a*nd may be found running about over the leaves of
various garden shrubs and trees. The body is black with flat-

512 COLEOPTERA.

tened tubercles spinulated above ; on each side of the first
abdominal segment is a yellowish spot, and there is a broad
yellowish spot in the middle of the fourth segment, and one
on each side. On June 28th we found several fully grown
larvae a quarter of an inch long, transforming into pupae,
with a freshly transformed beetle. The larva begins the opera-
tion by attaching very firmly, with a sort of silky gum, its tail
to the leaf, the point of attachment not being the extreme tip,
but just before it, where the tip of the abdomen of the pupa is
situated. Meanwhile the body contracts in length and widens,
the head is bent upon the breast, and in about twenty-four
hours the skin splits open and discloses the pupa. The body

Vof the pupa is black ; the head is also black, and
the prothorax is black and yellowish pink, with
a black dot on each side, and a smaller black
dot on each edge ; the mesothorax, wing-covers,
scutellum and legs, are shining black. The ab-
dominal rings are pale flesh-colored, with two
rig. 511. rows O f i ar ge black spots on each side, the spots
being transverse ; the terga of the fourth to the seventh seg-
ments are separated, the body being arched and leaving
a deep furrow between. The beetle is orange yellow,
with a black head and prothorax ; the side of the pro-
thorax is whitish, with a central diamond-shaped white Fig - 512t
spot, and behind it a much longer whitish spot. The beetle
derives its specific name from the two black dots on the elytra.
It hibernates, and might be used to clear house-plants of plant-
lice. The Nine-spotted Coccinella, (7. novemnotata Herbst
(Fig. 511, and pupa), and the Three-banded Coccinella, <7. tri~
fasdata Linn. (Fig. 512), are also not uncommon species.

The Fifteen-spotted Lady-bird, Mysia 15-punctata Olivier,
is black on the head and prothorax, with seven black spots on
the brownish red elytra, and a black spot on the scutellum ; it
is seven-twentieths of an inch in length. The larva closely re-
sembles that of Coccinella, but along the body are six rows of
stout spinulated spines ; the upper surface of the body is black,
with a pale spot on the hinder edge of the prothoracic ring ;
the body is pale beneath. It is half an inch long. The pupa
is pale, not black like that of the Coccinellse known to us, and

COCCINELLID^E. 513

is sixteen-spotted, with three additional rows of dark spots
on the abdomen. The body is broad and flat, with a row of
three spines on each side of the abdomen, and is .40 of an
inch long.

In Chilocorus the margin of the elytra is dilated, and the
lunate prothorax is rounded behind. C. bivulnerulus Mulsant
(Fig. 513) is black, with two yellow spots.

The genus Scymnus is hemispherical, pubescent, with short,
abruptly clavate antennae. I have received from
Dr. H. Shimer the larva and adult of Scymnus cer-
vicalis Muls. which he found in the holes of insects
boring in the Prickly-ash. The body is subcylin-
drical, pale whitish, much longer and slenderer and Fi - 513t
narrower than in Coccinella, with a small black round head ; the
legs are long and slender, more so than in Coccinella. The
rings are rather convex, not tuberculated above,
though provided with a few hairs. It is .12 of an inch
long. The beetle is reddish brown, with very dark
Fig. 514. p russ ian blue elytra, and is .10 of an inch long.

Epilaclma borealis Thunberg (Fig. 514) is yellowish, with
seven large black patches on each elytron. "The larvae,
according to Osten Sacken, are common on the leaves of the
pumpkin. -It is yellow, with long, brown, branched spines,
arranged in rows of six on each segment, except the first tho-
racic segment, which has only four. The pupa instead of
spines has short bristles, especially on the thorax."

Fig. 515.
The Pea Weevil (enlarged),

514 HEMIPTERA.

In the remaining suborders, the metamorphosis is, with the
exception of most of the Neuroptera, generally "incomplete,"
the active larva and pupa closely resembling the adult, and
often scarcely distinguishable from it except in being wingless.
This similarity of the adult condition to the larval and pupal
forms, as well as the equality in size of the different segments
of the body, the aquatic habits of many of the species, and
the numerous genuine parasites found among them, are indica-
tive of their low rank.

HEMIPTERA.

THIS suborder, including the true "bugs," plant-lice, bed-
bug and body-lice, may be briefly characterized by the beak- x
like sucking jnouth-ff art s , composed of the mandibles and
maxillae, which are ensheathed by the large expanded labium,
while the labrum is small and short ; by the free, large protho-
rax, the usually angular short body, and the iiTegUlarly~Temed
wings, the veins being but few in number, while the fore wings
are often half cor4aceous and opake. The metamorphosis is
incomplete. There are many wingless parasitic forms, and
many aquatic species.

The triangular head is nearly always sunken into the pro-
thorax, and is small in proportion to the rest of the body ; the
eyes are small, nearly globular and very prominent, and
the three ocelli are set far back, while the short, bristle-like, or
filiform antennae, composed of from five to nine joints, are in-
serted below and far in advance of the eyes, so that the front
is broad and flat. The parts of the mouth form a four-jointed
solid hard beak. The mandibles and maxillae are long and
style-like, the latter without palpi; they are ensheathed at
their base by the canaliculate labium, which has obsolete
palpi, while the lingua is short, but slightly developed, its
function of tasting the food, owing to the peculiar habits of
the suborder, being thrown into disuse. The labrum is well
developed, being generally acutely triangular. The thorax is
constructed on the coleopterous type, the prothorax being
broad above, and the wings, when folded, concealing the rest

HEMIPTEKA. 515

of the body, while the side pieces (the epimera and episterna)
are large and of much the same form as in the Coleoptera, and
the legs are situated close together, with coxae and trochanters
very similar to those of the Coleoptera. The body is usually
very flat above, or, in the more or less cylindrical species,
somewhat broad and flat. The body is less concentrated
headwards than in the Coleoptera, though much more so than
in the Orthoptera, and in this respect, as well as in other
essential characters, the group is intermediate between these
two suborders. Both pairs of wings are very equal in size
and alike in shape, except in the higher families where they
are very unequal, the hinder pair being very small. They are
generally very regularly ovate in shape, the costal edge being
much curved and rounded towards the obtusely rounded apex ;
the outer edge is long and very oblique, and the inner edge
short, though often longer than the outer edge in the lower
families. The type of venation is rather peculiar in this sub-
order, as the costal veins are large and stout, while, as seen in
the wings of Aphis, the median veins are sent out from the
costa ; indeed there is no central powerful vein in the middle
of the wing ; in other words the wing is scarcely differentiated
into its three special regions, so well seen in the Hymenoptera
and Lepidoptera, and especially the Orthoptera. The surface
is net-veined rather than parallel-veined, but there are few
veinlets, and the interspaces are large and few in number,
and in this respect most Hemiptera show their superiority
to the Orthoptera and Neuroptera. In the lower section of
the suborder, the Heteropterous Hemiptera, the thickening of
the basal half of the wing tends to obliterate all traces of the
veins, and especially the veinlets.

The legs are slender, and often very long, owing to the great
length of the femora and tibiae, while the tarsi, like those of
the lowest Coleoptera, are two or three-jointed.

The abdomen has six to nine segments apparent, though
the typical number is eleven, according to Lacaze-Duthiers.
The stigmata are very distinct, being often raised on a tubercle.
On the basal ring of the abdomen are two cavities in which
are sometimes seated vocal organs, as in the male Cicada, and
in the metathorax of some species are glands for secreting a

516 HEMIPTERA.

foul odorous fluid. Lacaze-Duthiers has given a sectional view
of Ranatra (Fig. 516 ; v, dorsal vessel ; i, intestine ; N, ner-
vous cord) which shows the relation of the elements of an
abdominal segment. T, is the tergum ; EM, the epimerum ;
ES, the episternum, and s, the sternum.

The ovipositor and the genital armature are generally con-
cealed within the tip of the abdomen, being rarely exserted so
as to form a prominent part of the body. It differs greatly in
its development, and is difficult to reduce to a common, type.
Lacaze-Duthiers states that we may consider the abdomen of
the Hemiptera as consisting of ten or eleven segments, accord-
ing as we consider the horny ring, lying between the abdomen
and thorax as the basal ring of the abdomen, or not. He re-
gards the former view as the true one. This author contends
that in Ploa the tergum of the first and second abdominal
v segments (proto and dentotergites) are coal-
< esced, and that the original sutures are marked
by simple striae, while at the opposite end of
the abdomen the genital and anal outlets are
separated by three rings, i.e., the eighth,
ninth and tenth.

In the Cicadidce and Phytocoris the ovipositor is per-
fect and much as described in the Hymenoptera. In the
Fulgoridce, Naucoris, Ploa and Notonecta, the eighth
segment is complete, while the ovipositor is more or less in-
complete, and it often happens that a reunion of secondary
pieces represents a principal piece, and that the elements of
the two postgenital rings are articulated together by overlap-
ping each other.

In Ranatra, Nepa and Gerris is a third modification of the
ovipositor, where the postgenital segment is incomplete, and
the sternal appendages and sternum of the segment bearing
the ovipositor only remain, the other parts being aborted. In
the Pentatomids and Cimex there is no ovipositor, but the
aborted elements are more or less developed, so as to be
identifiable.

The nervous system consists, besides those of the head, of
two thoracic ganglia, of which the anterior is the smaller, which
send off two main trunks to the abdomen.

HEMIPTEKA. 517

The oesophagus is usjaally small and short, while the much
convoluted stomach is very long and subdivided, first into a
large, straight, glandular portion ; second, into the convoluted
smaller part, and third, in some Pentatomids and Coreidce
there is a third stomach "consisting of a very narrow, slightly
flexuous canal, on which are inserted two or four rows of
closely aggregated glandular tubes." (Siebold.) The Cicad-
idce, and most Heteropterous Hemiptera, have very large lobu-
lated salivary glands, divided into two unequal portions, and
often with long digitiform processes.

In the aquatic species of the Naucoridce and Nepidce
there are only two stigmata at the end of the abdomen. In
Nepa and Ranatra the stigmata are situated at the base of a
long tube. There are four long urinary tubes. The ovaries
are formed of from four to eight tubes arranged in a verti-
cillate manner about the end of the short oviduct. In the
Psyllidce and Cicadidce, however, they are composed, in
the first family, of from ten to thirty unilocular tubes, and in
the second, of from twenty to seventy bilocular tubes. The
receptaculum seminis consists of one or two small caeca, and the
Cicadidce are the only Hemiptera which have a copulatory
pouch, this consisting of a pyriform vesicle. "The viviparous
Aphidce differ from those which are oviparous, in that their
eight ovarian tubes are multilocular and their oviducts entirely
without appendages, while with the second, or oviparous, these
eight tubes are unilocular, and there is a seminal receptacle
and two sebaceous glands." (Siebold.) The testes vary
greatly in number and form, consisting of from one to five
tubuliform or rounded glands.

The active larvae of the Hemiptera, like those of the Orthop.
tera, resemble closely the imago, differing mainly in possessing
the rudiments of wings, which are acquired after the first
moulting. After two or more changes of skin they pass into
the pupa state, which differs mainly from that of the larva in
having larger wing-pads. While the development of the imago
ordinarily occupies the summer months, in the Aphides it
takes but a comparatively few days, but in the Seventeen-year
Locust as many years as its name indicates. An exception
to this mode of development is seen in the larva of the male

518 HEMIPTERA.

Coccus, which, as in the higher suborders, spins a silken co-
coon, and changes into an inactive pupa.

Apterous individuals, especially females, sometimes occur,
especially in the aquatic Hydrometra, Yelia and Limnobates,
and in many other genera the hind pair of wings are often
absent.

The embryological development of such Hemiptera as have
been observed (Hydrometra, Corixa, Aphidce, Cocci dm,
Pediculina and Ma llopliaga) corresponds very closely with
that of certain Neuroptera (Libellulidce and Hemerobidce.

There are about 12,000 species living and fossil. Some
species are of great size, especially the Hydrocores, a division
containing the aquatic genera, Yelia, Nepa, Belostoma and
Notonecta, and which first appeared in the Jurassic formation.

Latreille divided the Hemiptera into the Heteroptera and
Homoptera. The latter are the higher in rank, as the body is
more cephalized, the parts of the body more specialized, and
in the Aphid ce, which top the series, we have a greater sex-
ual differentiation, the females being both sexual and asexual,
the latter by a budding process, and without the interposition
of the male producing immense numbers of young, which feed
in colonies. The species are smaller than in the Heteroptera,
and are all terrestrial. The Heteropterous Hemiptera, on the
other hand, are larger, the body is less compactly put together,
the abdomen and thorax are elongated, the head is small com-
pared with the rest of the body, and the species are large,
some of great size (a sign of degradation among insects) , and
several families are aquatic, indicating a lower grade of devel-
opment, while representatives of these were the first of the
suborder to appear in geological times. Their affinities are
with the Orthoptera and Neuroptera, while the Aphid OB and
Homoptera generally, on the other hand, whose bodies are
more cylindrical, ally themselves with the first and higher se-
ries of suborders.

In the Homopterous Hemiptera the fore pair of wings are
generally transparent and usually net-veined, lying with the
hind pair, which are considerably smaller, roof-like upon the
body, and the head is held vertically, where in most Heterop-
tera it is horizontal and flattened.

APHID^E. 519

APHID^E Latreille. The Plant-lice have antennae with from
five to seven joints, and generally longer than the body. The
ocelli are wanting, and the beak is three-jointed and developed
in both sexes. The legs are long and slender, with two-jointed
tarsi. The males and females are winged, and also the last
brood of asexual individuals, but the early summer broods
are wingless. Their bodies are flask-shaped, being cylind-
rical, the abdomen thick and rounded, and in Aphis and
Lachnus is provided with two tubes on the sixth segment for
the passage of a sweet fluid secreted from the stomach. The
wings are not net-veined, having few veins, which pass out-
wards from the costa. They are usually green in color, with
a soft powdery bloom which exudes from their bodies.

Bonnet first discovered that the summer brood of wingless
individuals were born of virgin parents, hatched from eggs
laid in the autumn, and that the true winged sexes composed
the last generation, which united sexually, and that the female
laid eggs in the autumn which produced the spring brood of
asexual wingless individuals.

Dr. W. I. Burnett gives the following brief summary of the
mode of development in this group. In the early autumn
the colonies of plant-lice are composed of both male and
female individuals ; these pair, the males then die, and the
females begin to deposit their eggs, after which they die also.
Early in the spring, as soon as the sap begins to flow, these
eggs are hatched, and the young lice immediately begin to
pump up sap from the tender leaves and shoots, increase rap-
idly in size, and in a short time come to maturity. In this
state it is found that the whole brood, without a single excep-
tion, consists solely of females, or rather, and more properly,
of individuals which are capable of reproducing their kind.
This reproduction takes place by a viviparous generation, there
being found in the individuals in question, young lice, which,
when capable of entering upon individual life, escape from
their progenitors, and form a new and greatly increased col-
ony. This second generation pursues the same course as the
first, the individuals of which it is composed being, like those
of the first, sexless, or at least without any trace of the male
sex throughout. These same conditions are then repeated, and

520

HEMIPTERA.

so on almost indefinitely, experiments having shown that the
power of reproduction under such circumstances may be exer-
cised, according to Bonnet, at least through nine generations,
while Duval obtained thus eleven generations in seven months,
his generations being curtailed at this stage not by a failure
of the reproductive power but by the approach of winter,
which killed his specimens ; and Kyber even observed that a
colony of Aphis dianthi, which had been brought into a con-
stantly heated room, continued to propagate for four years in
this manner, without the intervention of males, and even in this
instance it remains to be proved how much longer these phe-
nomena might have
been continued." Dr.
Burnett, from whom
we quote, considers
this anomalous mode
of increase of indi-
viduals as a process
of budding, and that
the whole series, like
the leaves of a tree,
constitutes but a sin-
gle generation, which
results from the union
of the sexes in the
previous fall. It has
517 - always been sup-

posed that the final autumnal set of individuals were males
and females alone. But Dr. Burnett states: "The terminal
brood has hitherto been considered, as far as I am aware, to be
composed exclusively of males and females, or, in other words,
of perfect insects of both sexes. I was surprised, therefore, on
examining the internal organs of the non-winged individuals,
to find that many of these last were not females proper, but
simply the ordinary gemmiparous form. Moreover so great
was the similarity of appearance between these two forms
true females and gemmiparous individuals that they could
be distinguished only by an examination of their internal
genitalia."

APHIDES. 521

MM. Balbiani and Signoret have discovered that the com-
mon European Aphis aceris produces, besides young of the
normal form, a singular dimorphous form (Fig. 517), first de-
scribed in 1852 by Mr. J. Thornton, under the name of Phyl-
lophorus testudinatus, and afterwards called Peripliyllus testudo
by M. Van der Hoeven. The chief characteristic of this re-
markable form, which is flattened, scale-like, is the series of
leaf-like scales surrounding the body and bordering the appen-
dages, while the upper side of the abdomen is covered with
hexagonal figures. The generative apparatus is also very ru-
dimentary. It does not produce young, and the insects them-
selves do not increase in size after birth, being scarcely one
millimetre in length. "They undergo no change of skin,
never acquire wings like the reproductive individuals, and their
antennae always retain the
five joints which they pre-
sent in all young Aphides
before the first moult."
(Science Gossip, 1867, p.
204.)

Aphides are found upon
every part of plants.
Some species which are Fig. 518.

wingless, are found on the roots of plants, others on the stems
of twigs, others roll up leaves, or form gall-like swellings on
leaves ; the grain Aphis sucks the sap of the kernel. Ants are
fond of the sweet excretions from the abdominal tubes, and
often keep them captive in their nests like herds of cattle.
Syrphus flies, Coccinellse, etc., keep them within proper limits
in nature. Various species of Aphidius kill larger numbers
than we imagine. "When an Aphis has received an egg from
one of these parasites it quits its companions and fastens itself
by its ungues to the under side of a leaf, when it swells into a
globular form, its skin stretched out and dried up, and in a
short time the perfect parasite escapes by a circular hole, the
mouth of which sometimes remains like a trap door." In
the Museum of the Peabody Academy is an apple twig almost
covered with dead Aphides, each perforated by a hole from
which an Aphidius had escaped.

522 HEMIPTERA.

In Aphis the seven-jointed antennae are longer than the body,
the two basal joints short and thick, the seventh the longest,
and near the end of the abdomen there are two long honey
tubes. Aphis avence Fabr. is abundant and very injurious to
the ears of wheat, sucking out the sap and greatly reducing the
bulk of the corn. In certain years it has spread over the
country in immense numbers. Aphis mail Fabr. (Fig. 518,
winged female; Fig. 519, asexual female), and A. malifolice
Fitch are found on the apple ; A. cerasi Fabr. on the cherry ;
A. persicce Sulzer on the peach, and A. brassicce Linn, on the
cabbage. There are about thirty species known in this
country.

In Laclinus the sixth joint of the antennae is shorter than
the seventh, and the honey tubes are very short. Laclinus
strobi is found on the white pine bushes often in great numbers.
Jjachnus caryce Harris is a very large species
which lives on the Hickory. Mr. Walsh states
that he has "noticed in the autumn, numerous
apterous females on the same tree, which lived
Fig. 519. many daj r s and laid their eggs in confinement,
but died without assuming wings." The genus Eriosoma differs
in having no honey tubes, and in having only two median (dis-
coidal) cells. The species are covered with a woolly flocculent
substance, secreted from the abdomen, though no special
glands for this purpose have yet been discovered, while but lit-
tle "honey" is exuded from the orifices of the aborted honey-
tubes. Eriosoma lanigera Hausmann, the Apple -blight, is
black, with the abdomen honey yellow. The eggs are laid in
the axils of the branches, especially near the roots of the tree,
if there are any suckers present, and are enveloped in the pow-
dery substance of the abdomen of the female. By their stings
in the bark numerous warts and excresences are produced,
the leaves turn yellow and drop off, and the tree often dies.
Professor Verrill has found, about the middle of October,
among the wingless individuals, " a large number of both males
and females having well formed and rather large wings, but in
other respects closely resembling the rest."

The genus Adelges was proposed by Vallot for certain broad,
flattened plant-lice, which attack coniferous trees > often raising

APHID^E. 523

swellings on twigs like pine and spruce cones. The antennae
are short, five-jointed and slender; there are three straight
veinlets arising from the main subcostal vein and directed out-
wards, and there are no honey tubes ; otherwise these insects
closely resemble the Aphides. A species (Fig. 520 ; a, pupa
seen from beneath) closely related to the European Adelges
(Chermes) cocdneus of Ratzburg, and the A. strobilobius of
Kaltenbach, which have similar habits, we have found in abun-
dance on the spruce in Maine, where it produces swellings at
the end of the twigs,
resembling in size
and form the cones
of the same tree.

Under the name
of Hormaphis Osten
Sacken describes
Horm. hamamelidis a Fi s- 52 -

(Fig. 521, wings), which inhabits " obliquely conical or horn-
like galls on the upper side of the leaf of Hamamelis Virgin-
ica, the Witch Hazel, opening on the under side of the leaf."
In this genus the "wings are laid flat on the back in repose,
extending much beyond the body," while the honey tubes are
either small or obsolete, and the antennae are short, being from
three to five-jointed. (Shinier)

The genus Thelaxes differs in the wings being folded flat
on the back, and there are but two veins in the hind wings,
one subcostal, the other median. Thelaxes ulmicola Walsh
inhabits galls on the leaves of the elm. Mr.
Walsh states that the winged females are black
and more or less pruinose. In Byrsocrypta the
wings are steeply roofed, according to Walsh,
and in the six-jointed antennae "the sixth Fig. 521.
joint is nearly as long as the fourth and fifth together." This
genus also consists of several gall-inhabiting species. In the
species of Pemphigus, which produce gall-like excresences on
plants, the fourth to the sixth antennal joints are nearly equal
in length, and, as in Byrsocrypta, there are two median veins,
the third vein of the wing being simple, while in Eriosoma it is
forked. Mr. Walsh has "ascertained from repeated observa-

524

HEMIPTERA,

tions the very curious fact, that the ants fetch the larvae of
Pemphigus formicetorum Walsh home to their nests from the
roots on which they feed, and place them in little clusters of
fifty or sixty individuals, where they soon elaborate such a
dense mass of white cottony matter as to entirely conceal
them." (Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Phila-
delphia, i, p. 307.)

Pemphigus formicarius is attended by Formica aphidicola.
Mr. Walsh, who describes it, states that u two kinds of larvae

occurred in company ; the
first, when recent, scarcely
twice as long as wide and
whitish ; the second, when

, j-^- recent, three times as long

Fig. 522. as wide and cinereous. From

the latter I bred five winged individuals."

Another species, the Vagabond Pemphigus, P. vagabundus
Walsh (Fig. 522), so-called from its habit of wandering to
very great distances in its native forests, raises large galls
(Fig. 523) on the tops of the cotton-wood and balsam pop-
lars ; and the "old blackened galls hang on to the twigs for
several seasons, giving the tree a singular appearance when

the leaves are
off in the winter
time." A sin-
gle female be-
gins the gall,
whose young
soon multiply,
leaving the gall
in September.
Mr. Walsh has
also described
Fig. 523. the Sumac gall

(Fig. 524) caused by a smaller species, the Pemphigus rhois of
Fitch, and also the Cockscomb-elm gall (Fig. 525) made by
the P. ulmicola of Fitch, which infests young white elm trees,
often densely covering the leaves. "By the end of June or
the beginning of July, the gall becomes full of winged plant-

525

lice, when the slit on the upper side of the leaf, through which
the mother plant-louse built up the gall early in the spring,
gapes open and allows
the insects to escape
into the open air."
(American Entomolo-
gist, p. 108.)

The Editors of the
"American Entomolo-
gist" describe and fig-
ure the Apple root
plant-louse, Eriosoma
(Pemphigus) pyri of
Fitch (Fig. 526 ; a, the
gall ; 5, larva ; c, fe-
male ; d, leg ; e, beak ;

/, antenna of female ; Fig. 52 1.

#, of larva), which occurs sometimes in great abundance, form-
ing, in October, galls like potatoes, and two to three inches in
diameter, on the roots of apple trees, just beneath the surface
of the ground.

The European
Chermes (Pemphi-
gus) abietis has two
sorts of females,
and is parthenogen-
ous, according to
Leuckart.

Fig. 525.

Fallen.
The Bark-lice have
six or. more joints
to the antennae ; the

tarsi are two-jointed, the beak wanting in the males, in which
the hind wings are usually wanting, while the scales made by
the females are usually flattened, scale-like, or rounded hemi-
spherical. The wingless, scale-like, adult females, by a retro-
grade development, in which the legs and rings of the body
become aborted, remind us of the Barnacles and allies among

526

HEMIPTERA.

Oustacea, and like them, they can scarcely be referred to the
type of Articulates at all, while other forms, such as C. cacti
in its larval state, resemble Glomeris, or the Isopods, among
Crustacea. On the other hand the males have been mistaken
for some Neuroptera, and the male Coccus, with its long anal
stylets and the single pair of fore wings, may be likened to
an Ephemera. The genera Aspidiotus and Lecanium are par-
thenogenous, as in the Aphid ce .

In Aleurodes both sexes are winged and of similar form, the
antennae are six-jointed, with the second joint lengthened, and

in the fore wings,
which are spread out
as in Lepidoptera,
there is but a single
vein, the median. We
have received from
Mr. J. L: Russell
specimens of A. va-
c ^^ porarium which oc-

X\\ curred in great num-
j, X^- bers on his house-

plants and especially
Fig. 526. on the tomato leaves.

The winged forms appeared early in September. The larvae
are green and scale-like, rounded oval, and the pupae retain the
same form and are smooth beneath, but with minute hairs
above and on the edges. The adult is yellowish white, with
snow-white wings, and is about .04 of an inch in length.
The body of the imago nearly formed,
with black eyes, can be seen through the
thin pupa skin. In Dorthesia the males
only are provided with wings ; the an-
tennae are long, nine-jointed, and the
abdomen is oval, ending in a bushy mass
of threads. The genus Coccus differs in
that the two-winged males have ten-
Fig. 527. jointed antennae and two anal bristles.
The females have nine-jointed antennae, and are covered with a
flattened, hemispherical scale. The Cochineal insect, Coccus

COCCID^E.

527

(Pseudococcus) cacti (Fig. 527, male, with wingless female,
natural size and enlarged) secretes masses of Cochineal from
its body. The males are carmine red, with light brown wings,
and the anal setae, or bristles, are two and one-half times
longer than the body, which is three-fourths of a line long,
while the female is one line in length, rounded in form,
and covered with a heavy bloom. It lives in Mexico on the
Cactus coccinellifer, and has been introduced into Spain and
Algiers and the Madeira islands. Coccus manniparus of
Ehrenberg is found at Sanai
growing on the Tamarix, and pro-
duces by its attacks the gum-like
secretion called "manna." Coc-
cus lacca Kerr lives in the East
Indies on the Ficus religiosa, and
produces the lac of commerce.
When found on the twigs it is
called stick lac, but after it has been pounded, and the
greater part of the coloring matter extracted by water, it is
called seed lac ; when melted clown into cakes after it has
been strained and formed into thin scales, lump lac and shell
lac.

Mr. Glover has figured three species of Aspidiotus found by
him living on the orange in Florida, and all seem to be new to
science. The first we may call Aspidiotus Gloverii (Fig. 528, a,
male ; 5, female ; d, linear scale, enlarged) which differs from
the others by not having, according to Glover's drawing, the
usual pair of caudal filaments. It occurs on the bark and
leaves, especially on the outer edge, and
along the midrib. Another species is
represented at Fig. 528, c. The third
species may be called the Aspidiotus
citricola, which has been very injurious
to the orange in the Maritime Alps in
Northern Italy. It has, besides a linear
scale like that represented in Fig. 528,
529, a, male; 6, female, enlarged; c, oval scale), and the
female has two long caudal filaments. The hymenopterous
parasite, Coccophagus, preys on this genus.

Pig. 529.
an oval scale

(Fig.

528

HEMIPTERA.

Other bark- lice belonging to another genus, Lecanium, are
found in hot-houses ; they differ from the preceding in being
flat, scale-like, without any traces of rings, and have eight-
jointed antennae, while the males have nine joints to the an-
tennae, and are two-winged. L. hesperidum Linn, is found on
the orange.

The Editors of the American Entomologist (p. 14) describe
the Lecanium Maclurce (Fig. 530, b) which lives on the twigs
and leaves of the Osage orange. ' ' The dark part is the scale
covering the insect, and this scale, as usual in the genus to
which the insect belongs, is of a blood brown color. The pale
part is snowy white, and is composed of a fine cottony down
enveloping the eggs and young larvae." A similar species, L.

acericola (Fig.
530, a) "infests
the bark as well
as leaves of the
common maple."
The common
bark-louse of the
Apple tree be-
longs to the genus
Aspidiotus (A.
conchiformis) and
does more injury
to that tree than
any other insect
known. It is also
found on the cur-
rant, plum and
pear. (R i 1 e y . )
The female is
shaped like an

Fi *- 530 -

oyster shell. There are from ten to one hundred eggs laid
by the female. Westwood states that the males of this genus
are very broad, with broad wings, and a central anal appen-
dage, but without the usual caudal filaments. The puparium
has a double shield.
Mr. Kiley has studied the habits of the A. conchiformis

COCCIDJ3.

529

Gmelin (Figs. 531, 532) in Illinois, and states that June 6th
most of the eggs were hatched, though the young had not left
the scales ; on the 9th the weather being " exceedingly warm,"
the young (Fig. 532, 2) were found running all over the twigs ;
on the llth they all became fixed, and the day after a white
waxy secretion began to issue from the body in the shape of
very fine, delicate threads (3). On the 22d they had increased
materially in size, the waxy secretion vanished soon
after tue last date, leaving what appeared to be the
body of a yellowish brown color, though in reality
the body is underneath and separate, and has lost all
trace of members. On the 6th of July the secretion
rapidly increased and assumed an oval form, and
the insect was of the form indicated at 5. On the
10th the scale presented the appearance indicated at
4. Two days after a third plate began to be secreted
from the posterior end of the insect, and enlarged \
rapidly, becoming of the same color as the back. By I
the first of August their growth was to all appearance
completed, the scale measuring .12, while the insect
is only .05 of an inch long, thus occupying about
half the space within (7). On the 12th of August Fig. 531.
they began to lay eggs, and by the 28th all had ceased egg-lay-
ing, while the body shrivelled up. There is but a single brood,

Fig. 632.

the eggs laid late in summer, hatching in the following spring.
Thus it appears, according to Riley's observations, and as Har-
ris supposed, that the shell-like scale is secreted from the sur-
34

530 HEMIPTERA.

face of the body, and is identical with the flocculent matter, or
down, that exudes from certain Aphides and the shell lac insect
and related forms. On the other hand, Dr. Shimer, who has
given the fullest history of this insect, and was the first to
make observations for the most part similar to those recorded
above, considers that the scale consists of the several (three)
cast skins of the larva, "cemented by some kind of an exuda-
tion to the bark." This insect can be best exterminated by
scraping the bark, and then washing the trees with soapsuds a
few days after the trees blossom, just as the young are about
hatching. Dr. Shimer has discovered a mite
(Acarus? malus Shimer) which sucks the
eggs in autumn.

Another species, which is native, the As-
pidiotus Harrisii of Walsh (Figs. 533, 534,
A, B, showing the two kinds of scales) dif-
fers in the scale being oval, "almost entirely
flat, and of a pure milk white color," with
red eggs, while those of the Oyster shell
bark-louse are milk white, and the larvae
are at first blood red. It occurs on the apple
and pear, and is far less injurious than the
other species.

Fig. 533. PSYLLID^E Latreille. These small Leaf-

hoppers are found hopping over the surface of leaves and often
raising galls. They are flattened and provided with short legs
and a broad head, and covered with a white cottony mass in
the larva state. In the mature insect the forked antennae are
eight to ten-jointed, with two slender terminal bristles forming
the fork. There are three remote ocelli; the beak is three-
jointed, reaching to the
middle of the chest, and
the epimera of the meta-
thorax terminate behind in
an acute spine on each
side. The limbs are short,

with thickened shanks, and two-jointed tarsi. The wings are
thickened and folded roof-like over the body, and the three

CICADELLINA. 531

veins, costal, median and submedian, are usually each di-
vided but once.

The genus Psylla has the bristle-shaped antennae as long as
the body, and a distinct pterostigma. The species are very
numerous, each species of tree having its peculiar leaf-hopper,
but scarcely any have been yet described. Psylla pyri is
brownish orange, with a greenish abdomen. It is very injuri-
ous to the pear tree.

In Lima the antennae are shorter than the body, with a very
large and thick basal joint, and flattened eyes. Lima vernalis
Fitch is bright ferruginous ; the breast and tips of the antennae
are black, while the legs are pale rust-red. It is .15 of an inch
in length, and is found in vessels of sap of the sugar maple,
according to Dr. Fitch.

CICADELLINA Burmeister. The true Leaf-hoppers have a
broad, triangular head obtusely pointed in front, with a large
triangular scutellum not concealed by the wings when at rest,
and the ocelli are either two in number or entirely wanting.
The short, two-jointed antennas end in a bristle, being inserted
on the upper edge of the front, just before the eyes. The large
prothorax is broad and flattened and transversely oblong. The
fore wings are thickened, and the hind legs are long, being
fitted for leaping.

Many species inhabiting grasses, such as Helochara and
Aphrophora, while in the larva state suck the sap of grasses
and emit a great quantity of froth, or in some cases a clear
liquid, which in the former case envelops the body, and thus
conceals it from sight. It is then vulgarly called "toad's
spittle." In Typhlocyba, which comprises many small species,
there are no ocelli ; the scutellum is rounded, and the front is
slightly concave. The species of this and the following genera
by their attacks on various vines and fruit trees often kill
them. They are among the greatest pests of gardeners. The
injury is produced by their beaks in feeding, and by the ovi-
positor in puncturing the leaves, in which they lay their eggs.

In Erythroneura the head is crescentiform, about as broad
as the thorax, with the vertex rounded down to the front, with-
out an angular edge ; the ocelli. are situated between the vertex

532 HEMIPTEKA.

and the front, and almost as near each other as the eyes, while
the fore wings are without closed cells in the disk. The spe-
cies most injurious to the grape-vine is the Erythroneura vitis
Harris (Fig. 535). It is pale yellow, with two red lines on
the head, while the hinder edge of the thorax, including the
scutellum, the base of the fore wings, with a broad band across
their middle, are scarlet, and the wings are tipped with black.
In Jassus the species are larger than the foregoing, with
stouter bodies. The head is very broad and short, concave at
base, and the ocelli are placed between the e} T es on the front,
which is broader than long, and the ovipositor is recurved.
Jassus irroratus Say is not uncommonly seen on herbage.

The common Heleochara communis Fitch, a grass green spe-
cies, is found in great abundance in damp, grassy places, in
company with the yellow-legged, closely allied, Auladzes mol-
lipes Say and the Proconia quadrivittata Say, which has the
vertex flattened and four scarlet stripes on the wings. In Tet-
tigoma the antennae are half as long as the body. T. bifida,

Say is common in
grass. In Cercopis the
prothorax is large and
hexagonal.

The Clastoptera pro-

ras of Fitch is a

common insect in blue-
berry fields and cran-
berry pastures. It is

short and thick, with a bright yellow head, with a black band
on the front margin of the vertex, and a broader one on the
front, and a black dot near the apex of the elytra, while the
legs are yellowish white, and the tarsi are black. It varies
greatly in its colors. In Aphrophora the head is of moderate
size, with two ocelli approximate on the crown of the head ;
the prothorax is trapezoidal and the posterior tibiaB have two
teeth. A. quadrinotata Say is found, on grape-vines.

FULGORID^: Leach. This family, as stated by Westwopd, is
at once known by having only three distinct joints in the an-
tennae, and the two ocelli are placed beneath the eyes. The

head is very large ; the body is high and convex, often com-
pressed laterally. The hind legs are thickened and enlarged,
adapted for leaping purposes. Some of the strangest shapes
among insects are found in this group. This is due to the great
development of the forehead, or vertex of the head, which is pro-
longed either angularly, or into a long snout-like process, as in
Fulgora, while in other species it is as long as the entire body.

"The species of some genera, such as Plata Mmbata, Phenax
variegata, Lystra auricoma and L. lanata, emit a waxy white
secretion, made into a fine white wax, which is much esteemed
in China and the East Indies." (Westwood.)

The Lantern-fly, Fulgora, attains an immense size when
compared with other Hemiptera, being between two and three
inches long. The head is large with a prolongation much
longer than the head, which is said by novices and some nat-
uralists, though doubted by others, to be luminous at night,
whence its name. The Fulgora lanternaria Linn, occurs in
Surinam, and F. (Hotinus) candelaria Linn, is found in China.
Mr. Caleb Cooke of Salem, who resided several years in Zan-
zibar, Africa, informs me that the Lantern-fly is said by the
natives to be luminous. They state that the long snout lights
up in the night, and in describing it, say "its head is like a
lamp." (Keetchua Jcana-tah.)

In Flata the base of the head is concealed by the front edge
of the prothorax, the front of the head is long and* slender,
without any middle keel ; the wings are very broad and rounded.

Anotia Bonnetii Kirby is found, according to Fitch, on wil-
lows about the middle of September. Otiocerus Coquebertii
Kirby is found on beech and oak trees, and sometimes on the
grape-vine, according to Fitch.

The genus Delphax has a very broad front, with sharp edges
and a forked keel along the middle ; the antennae are two-
jointed, the articulations long and thickened at the end. Del-
phax arvensis Fitch is pale yellow, unspotted, with the elytra
and wings nearly pellucid. It is common in fields of wheat
early in June.

CICADARI^E Latreille. These interesting insects, commonly
called "locusts," are large and wedge-shaped, with a large

534

HEMIPTERA.

broad head and prominent eyes. The males have a musical
apparatus beneath the wings on the basal ring of the abdomen,

which acts like a ket-
tle drum, producing
a loud, penetrating,
shrill sound. Cicada
rimosa of Say, our
smallest species, be-
gins to be heard a
little before the mid-
dle of June. The
C. pruinosa Say is
larger and appears
later, being an au-

ci -A ^f^ ' tumnal species. Pro-

Fig. 536. fessor A. E. Verrill

has observed this species in Norway, Me., laying its eggs in
the stems of Solidago or Golden-rod. It made a longitudinal
incision with ragged edges into the pith of the plant, then with

its oviposi-
tor forced its
eggs a little
distance
down in the
pith below
the external
opening ;
there were
two rows of
eggs suc-
ceeding the
first single
one, each
pair diverg-
ing o u t -
wards, the
Fig. 537. lower ends

of each pair nearly touching each other, and all placed very
near together. The habits of the Seventeen year locust, Cicada

535

septendedm Linn. (Fig. 536, A ; #, drum ; c, d, male genital
hooks ; B, C. Cassinii Fisher ; #, drum ; e, /, genital hooks.
Fig. 537, c, with expanded wings) which does not in-
habit Northern New England, are well described by
Harris and Fitch. The young larvae feed on the roots
of the oak and apple, clustering upon the roots and suck-
ing the sap with their beak-like mouths. They live
seventeen years. Different broods appear in different
localities, so that each year they are seen in some part
of the country.

The Editors of the American Entomologist, p. 63, give
additional information regarding its habits. It appears
during the last half of May, and disappears about the
fourth of July, and the eggs hatch between the twentieth
of July and the first of August. The eggs (Fig.
537 ; d, e, enlarged) are deposited in pairs in
the terminal twigs of different species of decidu-
ous trees, especially the oak (Fig. 538, punc-
tured twig ; Fig. 539, a twig which has been Fi - 538 -
punctured and then healed over). The larvae hatch
out in about six weeks after they are laid, and (Fig.
540, newly hatched larva) drop to the ground in
which they live feeding on roots of trees for nearly
seventeen years, the pupa state (Fig. 537 ; a, 6, cast
pupa and skin ; c, adult) lasting but a few days.
When about to transform into the winged state they
ascend to the surface, making cylindrical burrows,
"firmly cemented and varnished so as to be water-
Fig. 539. proof." Mr. S. S. Rathvon has observed that in low
and wet localities the pupae extend these "galleries from four
to six inches above ground (Fig. 541 ; a, full view ; 6, section)
leaving an orifice of egress even
with the surface (e). In the
upper end of these chambers
(c) the pupae would be found
awaiting their approaching
time of change. They would
then back down to below the level of the earth, as at d, and
issuing forth from the orifice would attach themselves to

536

HEMIPTERA.

the first object at hand, and undergo their transformations
in the usual manner." (American Entomologist, p. 64.)

The ovipositor of Cicada, as we have observed it in a rudi-
mentary state in the pupa, closely resembles that of ^Eschna
(Fig. 21), and essentially agrees with that of Bombus, the
basal pair of blades arising from the eighth segment of the ab-
domen, as in the humble bee, and the two succeeding pairs
forming the ovipositor itself (the outer pair forming a sheath)
arising from the ninth segment.

NOTONECTID^: Latreille. The Water Boatmen somewhat
resemble the Tettigonise, but their habits are aquatic ; their

hind legs are very long,
ciliated, and formed for
swimming. The body
is convex above, but flat
beneath ; the head is
large and nearly as wide
as the rest of the body,
with a broad and round-
ed front ; the antennae
are four-jointed, c o 11 -
cealed beneath the eyes,
and the ocelli are want-
ing. The different spe-
cies of Corixa 'are com-
mon in every pool. Their

motions are rapid, diving when disturbed rapidly to the bot-
tom and seizing hold of submerged objects. They fly well, but
walk with difficulty. The genus is characterized by the
single-jointed fore tarsi, which are flattened and strongly
ciliated ; the prothorax is large, covering the mesotho-
rax. C. interrupta Say is not uncommon in pools, a
In Notonecta the body is somewhat prismatic in form,
and hairy beneath, where in Corixa it is smooth. The
fore tarsi are three-jointed, and the hind legs are very
Fig.542. | ong> R oese i states that "the eggs (which are attached
to the stems and leaves of aquatic plants, and are of an oval
form) are hatched in fifteen days ; the young make their ap-

NEPIDJE. 537

pearance at the beginning of the spring, and the parent sur-
vives until they have arrived at maturity." (Westwood.) The
recently hatched young are broad, oval and flattened. Noto-
necta undulata Say (Fig. 542) and N. irrorata Say are our more
common forms. The genus Ploa differs from the preceding,
in the fore wings being coriaceous, and "united together by
a straight suture."

Leach. These insects have very flat bodies which
are either oval or very long and linear. The head is sunken
into the thorax, with large eyes, but no ocelli. The antennae
are short, three or four-jointed, and concealed in a cavity under
the eyes ; the beak is three-jointed. The fore wings are mem-
branous, and the fore feet are raptorial, while the hind limbs
are formed for swimming. In Nepa and Ranatra the body
terminates in a long breathing tube, and the tracheary system
in these two genera is very peculiar, being very largely devel-
oped on the under side of the body. There is a large air-
bladder within the metathorax, leading from the spiracle, which
evidently lightens the insect during its flight. In the abdomen
the spiracles are only present on the third to the fifth rings ;
they are not, however, simple clefts in the walls of the body
but are closed by a sieve-like membrane, so that they perform
the function of tracheal gills. (Gerstaecker.)

The genus Belostoma comprises the most gigantic forms of
the suborder, some species being from three to four and a half
inches long. The body is oval, elliptical, flattened ; the eyes
are large and the second to the fourth antennal joints provided
with hook-like expansions. The fore tarsi are two-jointed, with
a single claw, and the hinder limbs are broad, flat, and well
fringed. The larvae are provided with two claws on the fore
tarsi. "The females of some species of Belostomse carry their
eggs upon their backs, arranging them in a single layer with
great symmetry." (Westwood.) Belostoma Haldimanum Leidy
is not uncommon in our waters. It is three inches and a half
in length, and has black patches on the under side of the body,
while in B. grisea Say, which is of the same size, the under
side is unspotted. Professor A. E. Verrill has sent me the
eggs and freshly hatched young of one of our New England

538

HEMIPTERA.

species of Belostoma, the former of which he found in the
spring "under an old log just at, but above, the edge of the
water. On the 18th of June they hatched out a most amusing
flock of young bugs, nearly as large as squash bugs, and light
yellowish green in color, which soon changed to dark gray."
The young, two days old and previous to moulting, were .35
of an inch long. The eggs are smooth, cylindrical, .16 of an
inch long, and are deposited in a mass of about ninety eggs,
attached by the posterior end to a mass of silk-gum. They
partially overlap each other, and the young escape by a round
lid, indicated by a semicircular white line.

The genus Eanatra is remarkable for its long linear body,
terminating in the long respiratory tube. The prothorax is

greatly elongated, while the
mesoscutellum is short. "The
eggs of the genus Ranatra are
more elongated than in Nepa,
and are furnished above with
two slender setae. According to
Rosel, they are deposited at
random in tne water, but Geoffrey
states that they are introduced
into the stems of aquatic plants,
the elongated filaments being
alone exposed. Our most com-
mon form is Ranatra fusca Beau-
vois (Fig. 543).

The genus Nepa has very short
three-jointed antennae, the two
last joints being expanded later-
ally. The body is flat, oval,
with two long respiratory tubes,
while the thorax is trapezoidal,
and the mesoscutellum is very
large ; the thighs are dilated,
with a notch to receive the tibia,
which is curved and soldered to the tarsus. The genus is very
predaceous, feeding like Ranatra and others on the larvae of
Ephemerae. "The eggs are deposited in the water ; they are

Fig. 543.

PLOTEKES. 539

oval, and surmounted by seven elongated filaments, which
serve, while the egg is in the oviduct, to form a kind of cup
for the reception of the succeeding egg, but which are recurved
when the egg is discharged." (Westwood. )

GALGULID^: (Galgudini) Burmeister. This small group con-
sists of a few species which have the hind legs formed for
running. The body is short, broad, flattened, and the head is
broad with pedunculated eyes, and the four-jointed antennae
are concealed beneath the eyes, while the ocelli are present.
These insects are said to live on the edge of the water, "bury-
ing themselves in the sand, especially in the larva state."
The group is interesting as forming a connecting link between
the aquatic and terrestrial plant-eating species.

In Oalgulus the third antennal joint is small, the fourth
minute and rounded. G. oculatus Fabr. is uniformly brown,
the upper surface granulated, and beneath blackish.

PLOTERES Latreille. These insects are long, narrowing
alike towards both ends, being shaped like a wherry, and with
their long legs they course over the surface of ponds and
streams, moving backwards and forwards with great facility.
They are among the earliest spring insects. The body beneath
is furnished with a coating of plush, to repel the water. The
four-jointed antennae are long and slen-
der, and the fore legs are partially rap-
torial for seizing their prey. Wingless
insects (evidently mature as they are
found coupling) occur in this family, as
among the Cimicidce. Thus, there
are apterous forms in the genera Gerris,
Hydrometra and Velia, while in Pyrrlio-
coris apterus and Prostemma guttula
there are individuals partially winged,

"which no one regards otherwise than as specifically identical
with the full- winged specimens of the same species, . . . but
must be compelled to regard them as imagines with peculiar
characters of their own, somewhat analogous to the neuters,
or undeveloped females of the bee ; but yet more perfect than

540 HEMIPTEKA.

that kind of imago, being capable of reproduction." (West-
wood.)

In Velia the triangular head is sunken in the thorax up to
the eyes ; the ocelli are wanting ; the thorax is large, and the
wings are present.

The well known genus Gerris has the ocelli present, the ab-
domen long and slender, while the prothorax is very large, cov-
ering the mesothorax. The eggs of a European species are
preyed upon by a species of Teleas, according to Mecznikow.
Gerris paludum Fabr. (Fig. 544) and G. rufoscutellattis Fabr.
a reddish species, are abundant on our streams. The larvae
are much shorter and with broader bodies than the adults.
1 The genus Hylobates has the first antennal joint as long as
the two following ones together; both ocelli and wings are
wanting ; the mesothorax is very large, and elongated posteri-
orly, and the fore legs are short, outstretched, with thickened
femora, while the middle pair of limbs is the longest. The
species are found swimming on the surface of the ocean in the
tropics far from.land.

REDUVIIDJE (Reduvini) Latreille. The characters of this
family are these : head free from the thorax, elongated, nearly
cylindrical, with prominent eyes and two ocelli ; the antennae
are of moderate length, slender towards the end, and the beak
is stout and incurved ; the tarsi are three-jointed and the legs
are long and fitted for running. These insects are among the
most predaceous of the Hemiptera.

The group begins with an aquatic genus Limnobates, which
connects this family with the preceding one ; it runs over the
surface of pools like Gerris. The body is linear ; the protho-
rax is as long as the rest of the thorax, and the hind wings
are wanting.

Ploiaria is a remarkably slender, thread-like insect, with long
hair-like posterior legs, reminding us of Tipula. The species
are raptorial and are frequent in gardens. P. brevipennis
Say is reddish, with wings, and the feet are ringed near the
knees. Its ally, Emesa, resembles "the thinnest bits of sticks
fastened together," according to Westwood. The body is long
and thin, hair-like, and the antennae are long and delicate ; the

REDUVIID^.

541

fore legs are raptorial, with long and thin coxae. The wings
are either wanting, or they reach only to the middle of the ab-
domen. Emesa longipes DeGeer has a white head,
with a brown band under the eyes ; the femora are
annulated with brown, and tipped with white.

In Soldo, the body is small, elliptical and flat ; the
antennae are long and thread-like, half as long ks
the body. The beak reaches to the end of the breast,
the second joint being at least six times as long as Fig. 545.
the first, and the legs are short and slender. The species are
found mostly in Europe along the shores of the ocean and
inland waters.

The genus Nabis is known by the anterior tibiae having an
apical cushion ; the beak is slender, extending to the hind legs.
Nabis ferus Linn, is abundant in gardens, feeding on insects.
An allied and common form is the Pirates picipes of Herrich
Schaeffer (Fig. 545). The P. Ugnttatus Say has been found
between the mattrasses of a bug-infested bed in south Illinois,
and probably feeds on the bed-bug. (American Entomolgist,
p. 37.)

The allied genera Prostemma (P.
guttata), and Coranus (C. subap-
terus) "are interesting on account
of their being generally found in an
undeveloped imago state ; the latter
being either entirely apterous or with
the fore wings rudimental, although
occasionally met with having the four
wings completely developed." Mr.
Westwood thinks that, especially in hot seasons, these apterous
insects acquire full sized wings, in accordance with the same
opinion of Spinola, whom he quotes.

The type of the family is the genus Reduvius of Fabricius,
which may be recognized by its second and third antennal
joints being much longer than the first, while the fourth is
hair-like. The limbs are densely hirsute, and the beak is short
and stout. Reduvius personatus Linn., a black species, is said
to feed upon the bed-bug. "The larva and pupa have the in-
stinct to envelope themselves in a thick coating of particles of

542 HEMIPTEKA.

dust (DeGeer) and so completely do they exercise this habit
that a specimen shut up by M. Brulle, and which had under-
gone one of its moultings during its imprisonment, divested,
its old skin of its coat of dust, in order to recover itself there-
with." (Westwood.) The Evagoras viridis Uhler MS. is said,
by the Editors of the "American Entomologist," to devour the
plum curculio.

In Harpactor the head is convex behind the e}^es ; the ocelli
are distant, knobbed, and the first antennal joint is as long
as, and stouter than, the two succeeding ones together. Har-
pactor cinctus Fabr. (Fig. 546 ; &, beak) attacks the larva of
the Colorado Potato-beetle. Another member of this family,
the Conorhinus sanguisuga of Leconte, is said to occur in
beds, its bite being very painful. (American Entomologist,
p. 87.)

CORISI^E Latreille. In this very extensive family, which is
especially rich in species in the tropics, where they are gaily
colored, the head is flat, extended horizontally, and sunken up
to the eyes within the prothorax. The antennae are long, fili-
form, often clavate at the tip, and from three to five-jointed.
The two ocelli are almost always present, while the beak- sheath
(labium) is four-jointed. The tarsi are generally three-jointed,
and the claws are provided with two suctorial pads. The
membranous wing-covers have distinct, often forked, longitu-
dinal veins.

"We follow Gerstaecker in retaining Latreille's family Cor-
isiae, which includes the "Lygaeidse," "Coreidae" and "Penta-
tomidae" of recent authors, as they all agree in the general
form of the body, and, as stated by Gerstaecker, in the struc-
ture of the antennae, the uniform presence of two ocelli, the
longitudinal veins of the fore wings, and the hardness of
the crust of the body ; these characters separate them from
the preceding groups.

In Lygaaus and allies (Lygaeidse) the scutellum is of the
normal size ; the antennae are four-jointed, and are attached to
the under side of the head, and the beak is tolerably long. In
Lygceus the head is elongated acutely, the eyes globular, the
ocelli distinct, and the antennae are slender, scarcely half as

543

long as the body, and slightly clavate. Lygceus turcicus Fabr.
is a typical form. Pyrrhocoris apterus Linn, is usually apter-
ous ; occasionally specimens are found with wings. It inhabits
Europe.

The Chinch bug, Rliyparocliromus leucopterus Say (Fig. 547)
is a great enemy of our wheat crops, and, as its specific name
indicates, it may be known by the white fore wings, contrasting
well with a black spot on the middle of the edge of the wing.
It is about three-twentieths of an inch in length. Harris also
states that "the young and wingless individuals are at first
bright red, changing with age to brown and black, and are
always marked with a white band across the back." Shinier
says the female is ' ' occupied about twenty days in laying her
eggs, about 500 in number. The larva hatches in fifteen days
and there are two broods in a season, the first brood maturing,
in Illinois, from the middle of July to the middle of August,
and the second late in autumn." According to Harris, the
"eggs of the chinch bug are laid in the ground, in which
the young have been found, in great abundance, at the depth
of an inch or more.
They make their
appearance on
wheat about the
middle of June,
and may be seen
in their various
stages of growth
on all kinds of
grain, on corn,
and on herds- 1

grass, during the rig. 547. Fig. 548.

whole summer. Some of them continue alive through the win-
ter in their places of concealment." They also attack every
description of garden vegetables, attacking principally "the
buds, terminal shoots, and most succulent growing parts of
these and other herbaceous plants, puncturing them with their
beaks, drawing off the sap, and from the effects subsequently
visible, apparently poisoning the part attacked." This species
is widely diffused. I hav taken it frequently in Maine, and

544 HEMIPTERA.

even on the extreme summit of Mount Washington, in
August.

Dr. Shimer in his "Notes" on the chinch bug, says that it
"attained the maximum of its development in the summer of
1864, in the extensive wheat and corn fields of the valley of the
Mississippi ; and in that single year three-fourths of the wheat
and one-half of the corn crop were destroyed throughout many
extensive districts, comprising almost the entire North-west,
with an estimated loss of more than one hundred millions of
dollars in the currency that then prevailed," while Mr. Walsh
estimates the loss, from the ravages of this insect in Illinois
alone, in 1850, to have been four millions of dollars.

In the summer of 1865, the progeny of the broods of the
preceding year were almost entirely swept off by an epidemic
disease, so few being left that on the 22d of August, Dr.
Shimer found it "almost impossible to find even a few cabinet
specimens of chinch bugs alive " where they were so abundant
the year before. " During the summer of 1866 the chinch bugs
were very scarce in all the early spring, and up to near the
harvest I was not able, with the most diligent search, to find
one. At harvest I did succeed in finding a few in some locali-
ties." "This disease among the chinch bugs was associated
with the long-continued wet, cloudy, cool weather that pre-
vailed during a greater portion of the period of their develop-
ment, and doubtless was in a measure produced by deficient
light, heat and electricity, combined with an excessive humidity
of the atmosphere." In 1868 it again, according to the Edi-
tors of the "American Entomologist," "did considerable dam-
age in certain counties in Southern Illinois and especially
in South-west Missouri." Fig. 548 represents the Anthocoris
insidiosus Say, called the False Chinch bug ; it is often mis-
taken for the chinch bug, with which it is sometimes found
associated.

In the "Coreidse" the scutellum is still of the usual size;
the antennae are four-jointed ; while the basal joint of the beak
is generally the longest.

Westwood states that the Coreus marginatus of Europe "in
flight makes a humming noise as loud as the hive bee," and
the eggs of this species have been observed by Audouin to be

CORISI^. 545

"of a splendid golden appearance." The larvae and pupae of
several species of Coreus have been observed by Westwood
to "differ from the imago in wanting ocelli, possessing only
two joints in the tarsi (although there is a slight indication
of an articulation in the middle of the terminal joint) ; their
antennae also are much thicker, especially the intermediate
joint. The pupa of C. scapha differs also from the imago in
having the margins of the abdomen notched." Several adult
forms of this group are known to be partially wingless.

The Squash-bug, Coreus (Gonocerus) tristis DeGeer (Fig.
549) is very destructive to squash-vines, collecting in great
numbers around the stem near the ground, and sucking the
sap with its stout beak. It is a large, blackish brown insect,
six-tenths of an inch long, and dirty yellowish beneath. It
hibernates, leaving the plant in October. About
the last of June the sexes meet, and the females
"lay their eggs in little patches, fastening them
with a gummy substance to the under side of the
leaves. The eggs are round, and flattened on
two sides, and are soon hatched. The young
bugs are proportionally shorter and more rounded
than the perfect insects, are of a pale ash color, Figl 549>
and have quite large antennae, the joints of which are some-
what flattened. As they grow older and increase in size, after
moulting their skins a few times, they become more oval in
form, and the under side of their bodies gradually acquires a
dull ochre-yellow color." (Harris.) The young attack the
leaves, causing them to wither up. Successive broods are
said to appear through the summer. Professor Verrill has
found, with the assistance of Professor S. W. Johnson, of Yale
College, that the odor of this and other hemipterous insects
bears the most resemblance to that of the formate of oxide of
amyl, or the formate of amylic ether. It is probable that this
substance is its most essential and active ingredient. (Pro-
ceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, xi, p.
160.)

In Neides the body is remarkably thin and slender, repeat-
ing the form of Ploiaria, or of Spectrum among the Orthoptera.

In Alydus the body is small, slender, the head prolonged,
35

546 HEMIPTERA.

while the ocelli are very near together, and the last antennal
joint is often twice as long as the two preceding ones together.
Alydus eurinus Say is a widely diffused species. An allied
genus is Rlwpalus. Another species of this group is the
Metapodius nasalus of Say, which, in the Western States,
injures cherries by sucking them.

In the last group (Pentatomidae, which we place next to the
Membranacei, because they are less allied to the Homoptera,
and are more nearly related to Cimex) the scutellum is very
large, often covering more than one-half the abdomen, and in
this respect they at least remind us of those Orthopterous
genera in which the same character prevails.

This is a group of great extent, with bright colors and often
of large size. The head is received into the large broad, short
prothorax, and the body is generally ovate. The second joint
of the beak is the longest.

The various species are found on shrubs, sucking the leaves
or often transfixing caterpillars on their beaks and carry-
ing them off to suck their blood at leisure. DeGeer describes
the eggs as being generally of an oval form, attached to leaves
at one end by a glutinous secretion, the other being furnished
with a cap, which the larva bursts off when it hatches out.
The larvae are iribre convex and less flattened than the adults.
" DeGeer has made an interesting observation relative to the
care with which the females of a species of this family (Acan-
thosoma grisea) , found on the birch, defend their young. In
the month of July he observed many females accompanied by
their respective broods, each consisting of from twenty to forty
young, which they attended with as much care as a hen does
her brood of chickens." (Westwood.)

In Pentatoma the antennae are five-jointed ; the beak is slen-
der, reaching to the end of the breast, with its first joint lying
in the furrow on the throat. The scutellum is two-thirds the
length of the abdomen. Pentatoma tristigma Harris has a
series of three or four black dots on the under side of the
abdomen, of which the posterior one is largest. It is seven-
twentieths of an inch long. Pentatoma ligata Harris is a large
green species, widely edged all around, except the head, with
pale red.

THRIPIMJ. 547

In Pliloea the body is much flattened, and expanded laterally
into leaf-like flaps. The antennae are three-jointed, the first
joint of which is longest. P. corticata Drury is a peculiar
form, which occurs in Brazil.

Arma spinosa Dallas (Fig. 550, b ; a, beak, seen from be-
neath ; c, beak of Euschistus punctipes Say) is useful since it
preys on the larva of the Doryphora.
Another bug of this group, the Stiretrus
jimbriatus Say (Fig. 551) has similar
habits.

In Tliyreocoris the wing-covers are
nearly covered by the scutellum, which
is wider behind than before. The body
is short and transverse, being broader than long, and scale-like
or semicircular in shape. Tliyreocoris Jiisteroides Harris re-
sembles a Hister beetle, and is greenish black, with dull honey
yellow antennae. The species of Corimelcena are of much the
same form, and usually shining black. (7. pulicaria Germar,
according to Riley, injures strawberry- vines and grape-vines in
Illinois. In the genus Tetyra the scutellum covers nearly the
whole abdomen, but leaves the side of the wing-covers exposed.
The antennas are slender ; the first joint is longer than the
second, the third being the shortest, and the fifth is twice
as long as the fourth. Tetyra marmorata Say is a variegated
species, the costal margin of the wing being
provided with transverse fuscous lines.

The genus Scutellera is remarkable for the
great size of the scutellum, whence its name is
derived. This piece, which is elongated trian- ;
gular, covers not only the entire abdomen, but
also the wings ; the antennas are five-jointed, *
the two first joints small, the three last ones
long, quite large. The species are adorned with gay metallic
colors, and are especially abundant in the Island of Sunda.
(Gerstaecker.) Scutellera viridipunctata Say is piceous, with
green impressed punctures. It is seven-twentieths of an inch
long, and is found in Florida.

(Thripsides) Fallen. This interesting group

548

HEMIPTERA.

bears much the same relation to the C or i sice as the lice do to
the Membranacei (Cimex), or Podura and Lepisma to the
Keuropterous families above them. A comparison with the
Mallopliaga is still better, for in Thrips (Fig. 552) we find,
as in the last named group, free, biting mouth-parts, accom-
panied by a general degradation of the body. Though the spe-
cies are winged, yet the wings are partially aborted ; they are
long, narrow, linear, both pairs of equal size, as in the typical
Neuroptera, and by the frequent absence of any veins, either
longitudinal or transverse, and the long delicate silky fringe,
remind us strikingly of some minute degraded hymenopterous
Proctrotrypidce, Pteratomus (Plate 3, fig. 8), for example.
The mandibles are bristle-like ; the maxillae are flat, triangular,
bearing two to three-jointed palpi, and the labial palpi are

present, but very short,
and composed of but two
or three joints.

Chiefly on account of
these characters these in-
sects were placed in a dis-
tinct order, termed Thy-
sanoptera by Haliday, and
by many recent authors
they have been widely
separated from what seem to us their nearest allies. Latreille,
however, recognized their affinities to the Homoptera, while
stating that in their free biting mouth-parts they resembled
the Orthoptera, to which Geoffrey referred them. To us they
appear to be, as it were, degraded Lygaeids, and to preserve
the general form of that group, in the long head, the stout,
thickened fore limbs, and the large, square prothorax. They
have both compound and simple eyes, the latter three in
number.

The antennae are long and slender, with from five to nine
joints. In some species the fore wings are comparatively
well developed, or, as Haliday states, they are "transformed
into broadish elytra, ciliated only behind, and with longitudinal
and transverse nerves. In some species the wings are want-
ing, at least in the males." (Westwood.) "The abdomen is

Fig. 552.

THRIPID^. 549

terminated in the male by a long attenuated joint, by a four-
valved borer in the female."

The eggs of Phlaeothrips have been compared to those of
Culex, by Haliday, "being cylindric, rounded at one end, and
crowned with a knob at the other." Both the larva
(Fig. 554) and pupa are active, being found in the
same situations as the adult. The larvae are of softer
consistence, pale, or reddish, and the thoracic rings are
similar to each other, while in the pupa "the articula-
tions of the limbs are obscured by a film, and the wings
enclosed in short fixed sheaths. The antennae are Flg<554>
turned back on the head, and the insect, though it moves
about, is much more sluggish than in the other states." (Hali-
day in Westwood's "Introduction," etc.)

The different species occur under the bark of trees, and are
very injurious to grain and flowers, eating holes in the leaves
or corollas, and sucking the sap from the flowers of wheat, in
the bottom of which they hide.

In Phlceothrips and allies (Fig. 552, P. coriacea Halida}^?)
both sexes have the abdomen terminating in an acute point,
being either the ovipositor of the female, or the slender termi-
nal tube-like joint of the male. The wings are almost with-
out veins, with long ciliae, and at rest folded one upon the other.
The antennae are eight-jointed. Three ocelli are present in the
winged species, but in the wingless forms they are absent.

The Phlceothrips mail of Fitch appears "in a roundish cavity
near the tip end of the young fruit." Dr. Fitch describes
another species (P. caryae) which is found in singularly shaped
galls on the hickory, "which resemble a long, slender pod
thrust half-way through the leaf." This author doubts, how-
ever, whether these galls are made by these insects. He also
states that "the insect within, when disturbed, turns its tail
upward over its back in a menacing manner, the same as the
rove beetles (Staphylinidse) do, and when the point of a needle,
which had been pressed upon one of these insects, is touched
to the tip of the tongue, unless my imagination greatly de-
ceives me, it will frequently be found to impart a peculiar acid
biting sensation."

A second group (Terebrantia Haliday) includes the genus

550 HEMIPTERA.

Thrips, in which the females are provided with a four-valved
compressed ovipositor which lies in a furrow in the two last
abdominal segments. The fore wings are thickened, elytri-
form, with two longitudinal continuous veins. The antennae
are, for the most part, nine-jointed. Tlirips cerealium Haliday
is dark reddish brown, and very injurious to wheat.

CAPSINI Burmeister. The species of this family are very
numerous and very active in their habits, running swiftly
and easily rising on the wing. They are fond of fruits, and it
is the little Capsi which give such a nauseous taste to the rasp-
berry, which they feed upon. The females are distinguished
from the males "by having the ovipositor nearly half the
length of the body, somewhat sabre-shaped, and received into
a slit on the under side of the abdomen." The bod} 7 in this
group is convex, oval, and of a soft consistence, and "distin-
guished by the elongated antennae having the second joint
often thickened at the tip, and the terminal joints very slen-
der, the rostrum long and four-jointed, while the ocelli are
wanting. The pupa of Capsus Danicus is clothed with short
and somewhat clavate hairs." (Westwood.)

In Capsus the bod}' is elliptical or oval ; the head is triangu-
lar, convex. Capsus quadrivittatus Harris is yellow, with four
black bands. Phytocoris differs from Capsus, according to Har-
ris, in having a smaller head, while the thorax is wider behind
and narrower in front. P. linearis Beauv. is a fifth of an inch
long ; the head is yellowish with three narrow, longitudinal,
reddish stripes ; the thorax has a yellow margin, with five longi-
tudinal yellow lines upon it. The male is much darker colored.
It is excessively common on all kinds of plants. It appears
early in April, but is most abundant in summer. In the genus
Miris the head is elongated triangular ; the basal joint of the
antennae is thickest, whereas in the preceding genus the second
joint is the stoutest. Miris dorsalis Say is pale yellowish
rufous, immaculate, and the antennae are rather stout, tapering,
and rufous.

MEMBRANACEI Latreille. This family includes the Bed-bug,
and it is from this insect that the name "bug" has been ex-

MEMBRANACEI. 551

tended to the entire suborder. The antennae are four-jointed,
with the tip clavate or knobbed. The ocelli are, for the most
part, wanting; the beak is gutter-like, with a three-jointed
sheath (labium). The tarsi are three-jointed, without any
foot-pads. In Cimex the beak reaches, when laid upon the
breast, as far as the fore coxae ; the legs and antennae are cov-
ered with fine hairs ; the second antennal joint is longest.
The prothorax is elliptical, and the metathorax is nearly as
broad as the circular abdomen ; the wings are wanting.

The habits of Cimex lectularius Linn., the bed-bug (Fig.
555), are too well known to require any farther mention here.
It is exceedingly tenacious of life, and ordi-
nary bug-powders and other applications are
useless unless the most scrupulous cleanliness is
exercised besides. The eggs are oval, white, i
and the young bugs escape by pushing off a lid
at one end of the shell. They are white trans-
parent, differing from the perfect insect in hav- Fig. 555.
ing a broad triangular head, and short and thick antennae.
Indeed, this is the general form of the louse, to which the larva
of Cimex has a very close affinity. Some Cimices are para-
sites, infesting pigeons, swallows, etc., in this way also show-
ing their near relation to the lice.

The bed-bug is rust-red, with brown hairs, and is two
and a half lines in length. It lives as a parasite on the do-
mestic birds, such as the dove. Mr. James McDonald writes
me that he has found a nest of swallows on a court house in
Iowa, swarming with bed-bugs. In Europe the Cimex Mrun-
dinis Herr. Schaeff. lives on the swallow ; Cimex pipistrelli
Jenyns lives on the bat ; and Cimex columbarius is found in
pigeon houses.

Westwood states that the bed-bug is eleven weeks in attain-
ing its full size. DeGeer has kept full sized individuals in a
sealed bottle for more than a year without food. The Cock-
roach is the natural enenry of the bed-bug, and destroys large
numbers. Houses have been cleaned of them after being
thoroughly fumigated with brimstone.

Bed-bugs, as well as other bugs, plant-lice, etc., may be de-
stroyed by a preparation consisting of thirty parts of unpuri-

552

HEMIPTERA,

fied cheap petroleum, mixed with 1,000 parts of water. It
can be introduced into holes and cracks in houses, and sprin-
kled on plants. The cracks of bedsteads may be
filled with mercury ; and benzine will also effectually
dislodge them, as well as boiling water. The benzine
may be applied by means of a surgical instrument
Fig. 556. called the Atomizer.

In Syrtis the head is small, compressed laterally, and the
fore legs are raptorial, thus allying the genus with Reduvius.
Syrtis (Phymata) erosa Fabr. (Fig. 556) has swollen fore legs,
and a deep groove on the head ; it is useful in devouring
Aphides.

Fig. 557.

In Tingis the beak reaches to the end of the breast, and the
fore legs are simple, the thorax and wing-covers are spread
out leaf-like, and the species are of small size. T. liyalina
Herrich-Schaefier is abundant on the willow. T. liystricellus
Richter (Fig. 557, upper and under side, magnified twenty
diameters) is a Ceylonese species. It "sticks close to the
under side of the Bringall leaf, and there undergoes all its
changes, from the larval to the perfect state. The larvae are
black." (Science-Gossip, p. 84, 1869.)

PEDICULINA. 553

In Aradus the beak is longer than the head, the prothorax
is widely expanded, while the wing-covers are rounded at the
base. A. crenatus of Say has the cylindrical edge of the abdo-
men obtusely crenated. The species are found under the bark
of trees.

PEDICULINA Burmeister. Lice. In these low degraded Hem-
iptera, which stand in the same relation to the rest of the
Hemiptera as the Flea does to the more perfectly organized
Diptera, the body is wingless, with a small indistinctly jointed
thorax, while the abdomen is large, oval, with nine segments.
The antennae are filiform, five-jointed, and the eyes are minute,
not faceted. The tarsi are two-jointed, with a large hook-like
terminal joint, which is bent back towards the basal joint.
The mouth-parts still preserve the form of a beak-like sucker,
but it is fleshy and retractile, and the body is white, and of
minute size. The species of Pediculus are blood-suckers, and
parasitic on man and various species of Mammalia ; different
species being found on different regions of the
body. Different varieties, according to Dr. W. I.
Burnett, are found living on the bodies of different
races of men.

Two species live on man ; Pediculus humanus
capitis DeGeer (Fig. 558) inhabits the head, while
the Body Louse, P. corporis of DeGeer (P. vesti-
menti Nitzsch) is found elsewhere. These two
species are difficult to distinguish, they are so Fig.'" sss.
closely allied. Professor J. C. Schiodte, a Scandinavian
naturalist, has recently published an elaborate treatise on this
genus, and describes the mode of attack used by these disgust-
ing creatures. It thrusts its minute beak into the skin, and
sucks in the blood by means of its large sucking stomach or
"pumping ventricle." Schiodte placed one of these insects
on his hand, and observed its movements through a glass.
After the creature had fixed its beak or haustellum into his
hand this naturalist noticed that " at the top of the head, under
the transparent skin, between and a little in advance of the
eyes, a triangular blood-red point appears, which is in contin-
ual movement, expansion and contraction alternating with

554 HEMIPTERA.

increased rapidity. Soon this pulsation becomes so rapid that
several contractions may be counted in a second. However,
we must turn our attention elsewhere, for the whole digestive
tube is now in the most lively peristaltic movement, filling it-
self rapidly with blood, as is easily observed ; the long oesopha-
gus is particularly agitating, throwing itself from one side to
another inside the neck, bending itself so violently as to re-
mind one of the coiling of a rope when being shipped on deck."
Schiodte states that the sucking organ or beak is a "dark
brown protruding haustellum, provided with hooks at each ex-
tremity, out of which an excessively delicate membranaceous
tube, of varying length, is hanging. This pumping "ventri-
cle" (which is undoubtedly homologous with the pumping
stomach of most sucking insects, such as the Diptera, Lepiclop-
tera and Hymenoptera) Schiodte has discovered in "those
Coleopterous larvae which have powerful organs for biting,
placed at a distance round a very minute
mouth-opening, such as the larvae of Carabi,
Hydrophili, and Hister, as well as in the
larvae of Dytisci, which suck through the
mandibles."

The same author also shows that the mouth
Fig. 559. of Pediculus differs from that of Hemiptera

generally in the circumstance that the labium is capable of
being retracted into the upper part of the head, which there-
fore presents a little fold, which is extended when the labium
is protruded. He also shows that those parts which were, by
mistake, thought to be palpi and mandibles by Erichson,
Jurine and Landois, are simply lobes on the under side of a
chitinous band.

In Pediculus the thorax is a little smaller than the elongated
abdomen, and all the tarsi are two-jointed. The genus PJitJii-
rius has a very small thorax, with the abdomen much wider
than the head, and the fore tarsi have but a single joint.
Plitliirius pubis Linn. (Fig. 559), the Crab louse, is found on
the pubic region of man and also on the head.

MALLOPHAGA Nitzsch. The Bird-lice live on the hair of
Mammalia and feathers of birds. In this group there are dis-

MALLOPHAGA. 555

tinct jaws. The flattened body is corneous, hard above, and
the head is horizontal, with three to five-jointed antennae ; the
eyes are small and simple ; the mandibles are small, like a
hook, and the maxillary palpi, when present, for they are some-
times wanting, are four-jointed, while the labial palpi are two-
jointed. The thorax is small and but two-jointed apparently,
as the meso- and metathorax are united together. The abdo-
men is from nine to ten-jointed, while the short thick limbs
have two-jointed tarsi and one or two claws.

These insects are considered by Burmeister as forming a
passage from the Hemiptera into the Orthoptera, as they pos-
sess free biting mouth-parts, especially free mandibles, which
are not as in the rest of the suborder fused together with the
other parts to form a sucking tube. DocopJiorus buteonis Pack,
(pi. 9,* fig. 3) lives on the Red Shouldered Hawk; and D.
hamatus Pack. (PI. 9, fig. 7) is found on the Snow Bunting.

Goniocotes Burnettii Pack. (Fig. 560) infests the domestic
fowl. Lipeurus corvi Pack. (PL 9, fig. 2) is a parasite of the
crow ; L. elongatus Pack. (PI. 9, fig.
4), and L. gracilis Pack. (PL 9, fig.
6) are long and slender forms. . In
the genus Philopterus of Nitzsch the
antennae are filiform, five-jointed, and
the labial palpi are wanting. Nir-
mus is an allied genus ; both live on
birds. JV. thoracicus Pack. (PL 9,
fig. 5) lives on the Snow Bunting.

Trichodectes canis DeGeer lives on
the dog, and has three-jointed an-
tennae. The females have two mov-
able hooks on the penultimate ring of

Fig. 560.

the abdomen. T. subrostratus is a

parasite of the cat. T. caprce Pack., lives on the goat. The
Saddle-back Gull is inhabited by Colpocephalum lari Pack. (PL
9, fig. 1). Gyropus has no labial palpi. G. porcelli Schrank is
a third of an inch long and lives on the Porpoise. Mr. C.
Cooke has found G. ovalis on the Guinea pig in this country.

* EXPLANATION OF PLATE 9. Fig. 1, Colpocephalum lari Pack.; 1, antenna;
Fig. 2, Lipeurus corvi P.ack. ; 2a, antenna; Fig. 3, Docophorus buteonis Pack.; 3a,
autenna; Fig. 4, Lipeurus elongatus Pack. ; 4a, antennae; Fig. 5, Nirmus thoracicus
Pack. ; Fig. 6, Lipeurus gracilis Pack. ; Fig. 7, Docophorus hamatus Pack.

556 ORTHOPTEKA.

ORTHOPTERA.

THIS suborder may be briefly characterized as having free
biting mouth-parts, with highly developed organs of nutrition
and digestion. The first pair of wings are somewhat thickened
to protect the broad net-veined hinder pair, which fold up like
a fan upon the abdomen, and the hind legs are large and
adapted for leaping. The transformations are less complete
than in the previous groups, the larvae and pupae being both
active and closely resembling the imago. All the species are
terrestrial, the more typical forms having remarkable powers
of flight, besides leaping powerfully.

The grasshopper is the type of the group, the other families
bearing more or less resemblance to the allied suborders,
especially the Neuroptera. The head is very large, and much
more bulky than in the Coleoptera or Hemiptera, the mouth-
parts being so large, requiring large and broad pieces to sup-
port the muscles of the head ; its position is vertical, rarely
becoming horizontal. The ocelli are two or three in number,
while often obsolete. The eyes are small, very convex, and
placed far apart. The antennae are filiform, often of great
length, and exceeding the length of the body several times, the
joints being very numerous and much alike in size and shape.
The clypeus is large, the suture very distinctly separating the
base, and the labrum is large, with the edge rounded, slightly
bilobate, and partially concealing the mandibles, which are
strong and large, and toothed within. They are more perfect
than in other insects, presenting both cutting and grinding
surfaces. The maxillae are very distinctly lobed, the outer lobe
(galea) somewhat dilated and (in the Blattariae) ensheathing
the long, sharp-toothed inner lobe, and the palpi are five-
jointed. The mentum is large and transverse, while the labium
is divided into four lobes like the maxillae, the outer pair (para-
glossse) resembling those of the maxillae, and in the true grass-
hoppers (Acrydium), being expanded into a broad, flattened,
smooth, concave plate. The labial palpi are from three to four-
jointed. The lingua is large, fleshy and channelled above.

PI. 9.

OKTHOPTERA. 557

As in the Coleoptera, the prothorax is greatly developed
over the other segments, and the mesothorax is rather smaller
than the metathoracic ring. The pronotum is very large,
broad and flattened above, while the other two segments are
concealed by the wings when at rest, and the parts are soft
and membranous. The sternum of each ring is very large,
broad and flat, resembling that of Libellula, while the two
fore pairs of legs are normal in size, though the fore legs are
often raptorial, as in Mantis ; or fossorial, as in Gryllotalpa.
The hinder pair are enormously developed for leaping purposes.

The fore wings are generally long and narrow, somewhat
thickened, like parchment, or thin, transparent, and more or
less rounded, while the hind pair are broad and large,
folding in longitudinal plaits on the back. Both wings are
net- veined, but not so much so as in the Neuroptera, as the
longitudinal veins are larger and more regular, while innumer-
able cross veins, still more regular than in the Neuroptera,
though more numerous, give a characteristic facies peculiar to
the Orthopterous wing. There are also numerous wingless,
degraded genera, which resemble the young of other genera.
The body is usually much compressed, or greatly flattened
(Blattarias), or long and cylindrical, as in the Walking Stick.
The abdomen consists of eight or nine distinct segments, while
the tenth forms part of the ovipositor, being somewhat abor-
ted, the tergite only in some cases remaining, and there is in
addition in the Locustarice, according to the views of La-
caze-Duthiers, the tergite of an eleventh abdominal ring. We
will notice more fully than usual the structure of the ovipositor,
as it is of great systematic value. The genital armature is
more complex than in the Hymenoptera, and is generally very
large and exserted, so as to form- a conspicuous part of the
body. In its simplest form, in Forficula, it is represented
only by a single tergite, all the other appendages being absent.
In the Locus tar ice, however, the typical form is seen, consist-
ing of a tergite and the epimera supporting the tergo-rhabdite,
while the episternum supports the sterno-rhabdites, and the
oviduct opens out under the sternite. There are thus four
pieces attached to the single ninth ring ; the oviduct opening
between the eighth and ninth segments, while the anal opening

558 ORTHOPTERA.

is under the eleventh ring in all the Orthoptera, according to
Lacaze-Duthiers' researches. The female genital armature is
farther complicated, in the Locustarice especially. The
eleventh segment is composed of five parts, which surround
the anus.

Two of these are lateral filaments which are, in one case, as
in Mantis tessellata (Fig. 23), multi-articulate, and are proper,
sensory organs, like the antennae, and must be regarded, in our
view, as homologous with the anal prop-legs of Lepidoptera and
other insects, and as true-jointed appendages like the thoracic
legs, and jointed appendages of the head, such as the palpi
and antennae. They also form the anal stylets of the Gryl-
liclce, etc. These anal stylets are articulated to the posterior
edge of the tenth tergite, as Lacaze-Duthiers states, and thus
seem to us to be properly appendages of that ring, which, as
this author affirms, "presents two articulating teeth for this
purpose." The two other elements are "triangular, surround-
ing the anus with three valves, which, by their union, form a
sort of pyramidal body," which he calls the " subgenital or pre-
genital plate." There are then, two systems of appendages,
as we have before stated ; i. e., the genital armature, consist-
ing of two pairs of non-articulated stylets, and the single pair
of anal articulated stylets, which are the homologues of the
thoracic legs, together with the pre-anal plate.

The same parts are present in the male, being converted into
large, clasping, hook-shaped stylets, for retaining a firm hold
of the female during sexual union.

The eggs as they pass from the oviduct between the valves
are deposited in a hole in the ground, made by the powerful
ovipositor. Certain Locustarice imitate the Cicada in laying
them methodically in the stems of plants, which are drilled out
by the valves of the ovipositor, which are slightly toothed on
the outer sides and easily move on one another, somewhat as
in the Saw-fly and Cicada. "The eggs of the Gryllidce are
laid either singly in the ground, in irregular clusters in subter-
ranean passages, or uniformly in a single row, in the pith
of twigs; those of the Locustarice are never laid singly,
but either in the pith of plants, in regular clusters in the
ground, or in regular rows on stems of plants ; those of the

ORTHOPTEEA. 559

Acrydii are always laid in rudely regular clusters, in the
ground." (Scudder.)

The nervous system closely resembles that of the Neurop-
tera ; it is in all three stages composed of three thoracic, and
six or seven abdominal ganglia, extending the whole length of
the body, and united by double commissures. The splanchnic
system, or analogue of the great sympathetic nerve in verte-
brates, is highly developed in the Acridii and in Gryllotalpa,
having in front two pairs of ganglia, and posteriorly one or
two, while in the Blattarice and Phasmida the single
nerve is most developed.

Organs of hearing are stated by Siebold to occur in the
Acridii, consisting of two fossae or conchs, surrounded by a
projecting horny ring, and at the base of which is stretched
a membrane resembling a tympanum. On the internal surface
of this membrane are two horny processes, to which is attached
an extremely delicate vesicle filled with a transparent fluid,
and representing a membranous labyrinth. This vesicle is in
connection with an auditory nerve, which arises from the third
thoracic ganglion, forms a ganglion upon the tympanum, and
terminates in the immediate neighborhood of the labyrinth by
a collection of cuneiform, staff-like bodies, with very finely
pointed extremities (primitive nerve-fibres?), which are sur-
rounded by loosely aggregated, ganglionic globules. The
Locustarice and Gryllidce have a similar organ, situated
in the fore legs directly below the coxo-femoral articulation.
M. Hensen confirms the accuracy of this description in
the " Zeitschrift fur Wissenschaftliche Zoologie," vol. xvi,
1867.

The highly developed alimentary canal has the crop (pro-
ventriculus) separated by a deep constriction from the oesoph-
agus, and the gizzard is provided internally with from six to
eight rows of horny denticulated plates situated on ridges,
with numerous smaller teeth between, so that the whole num
ber of teeth amount to 270. The stomach is of even width,
not usually making more than one-half of a turn, or one turn ;
its cardiac extremity is provided with from two to eight caeca.
The salivary glands are highly developed, "consisting of two,
four, or six botryoidal masses, situated in the thorax, and hav-

560 OKTHOPTERA.

ing long excretory ducts, besides, also, often having long
pedunculated reservoirs.

The number of chambers in the dorsal vessel is usually
eight. The respiratory system does not differ essentially from
that of other insects, though in the Acridii most of the trans-
verse anastomosing tracheae have large air-reservoirs, greatly
assisting in lightening the body for their long-sustained
flight.

The urinary tubules are short and very numerous, from
twenty to one hundred and fifty and over, surrounding the
pylorus. The ovaries, two in number, consist of numerous
inultilocular tubes, while the seminal receptacle consists of a
pedunculated vesicle, whose closed extremity is dilated into
a pea-shaped vesicle, forming the capsula seminis. In most
Orthoptera the testes consist of long fasciculated follicles sur-
rounded by a common envelope, and many have in addition
highly developed accessory glands, surrounding a short ductus
ejaculatorius.

The larvae of the Orthpptera materially differ only in size
from the adult, and the pupae are distinguished from them by
having the rudiments of wings. They attain the adult state
by simple moultings. Several cases are on record of pupae
of grasshoppers being found sexually united. In 1867 Mr.
Trimen exhibited to the Entomological Society of London " a
grasshopper of the genus Poecilocerus, of which he had found
the pupae in copula ; it was not an isolated case, for he had
seen hundreds of pairs of the nymphs at Natal."

Some of the largest insects are included in this suborder, in
fact the majority are larger than those of other suborders, and
it will probably be found that many large grasshoifpers and
Mantidce will weigh nearly as much as any Goliath or Her-
cules beetle, the largest of insects.

The Orthoptera range, in time, from the Carboniferous for-
mation ; and among the earliest forms are certain species of
Blattarice, which are next to the group of the Neuroptera^
the earliest known forms of insect life. In the Carboniferous
rocks they have rarely occurred, but the forma are most nu-
merous and best preserved in the Tertiary formation, espe-
cially in the Amber of Prussia.

ORTHOPTEEA. 561

There are about 5,000 species known, which attain their
greatest development in size and numbers in tropical countries.

In studying these insects, the proportions of the head, of
the prothorax, of the wings, of the hind legs, and the external
genital parts, should especially be taken into account. The
ornamentation varies greatly even in the same species, and
therefore large numbers of individuals are necessary to ensure
a proper knowledge of any species.

The different sounds produced by Orthoptera should be care-
fully studied ; every species can be distinguished by its pecu-
liar note, and as in different families the musical apparatus
varies, so each family has a characteristic chirrup, or shrilling,
consisting of a harsh, grating, rasping noise.

Mr. Scudder has contributed to the "American Naturalist,"
ii, p. 113, an interesting article on the sounds produced by
some of our native species of Grasshoppers, and has even
reduced their notes to a written music. He states that grass-
hoppers stridulate in four different ways: " first, by rubbing
the base of one wing-cover upon the other, using, for that pur-
pose, the veins running through the middle portion of the
wing ; second, by a similar method, but using the veins of the
inner part of the wing ; third, by rubbing the inner surface of
the hind legs against the outer surface of the wing-covers ; and
fourth, by rubbing together the upper surface of the front edge
of the wings and the under surface of the wing-covers. The
insects which employ the fourth method stridulate during flight,
the others while at rest. To the first group belong the
Crickets (Gryllidae) ; to the second the Green or Long-horned
Grasshoppers (Locustarise) ; to the third and fourth, certain
kinds of Short-horned or Jumping Grasshoppers (Acrydii)."

The transformations of grasshoppers need careful study.
For this purpose their eggs should be sought for, and the de-
velopment of the embryo in the egg be noted ; also the follow-
ing facts should be ascertained : the date of deposition of the
eggs ; the manner of laying them ; how long before the embryo
is hatched ; the date of hatching ; how many days the pupa
lives ; so also of the pupa and of the imago, while the inter-
vening changes should be carefully observed. Crows and
blackbirds feed on their eggs and larvae, and hens and turkeys
36

562 ORTHOPTEKA.

feed greedily upon young and old. Ichneumon parasites prey
upon them, and also the lower worms, such as Filaria, Grega-
rina and Gordius, and the red mites attack them. Mud wasps
provision their nests with the young.

Orthoptera can be easily preserved in strong alcohol, and
may afterwards be taken out and pinned and set at leisure.
They can be killed with cyanide of potassium, or ether, with-
out losing their colors, as they would do after remaining long
in alcohol. They should be pinned through a little triangu-
lar spot between the bases of the elytra, or fore wings, when
the wings can be spread to advantage. They are also often
pinned through the prothorax, or through the right elytron, as
in Coleoptera. In pinning these insects for transportation care
should be taken to put in additional pins crossing each other
on each side of the abdomen, and in like manner to steady the
hind legs, which are very apt to fall off if too much jarred.

GRYLLID^E Latreille. The Crickets have a somewhat cylin-
drical body, a large vertical head, with elliptical eyes ; the
ocelli are often wanting, and the long filiform antennae arise
from in front of and between the eyes. The wings are of mod-
erate size, net-veined, lying flat on the back ; the fore pair are
ovate, the costal edge of the fore wings being bent abruptly
down on the sides of the body, while the hinder pair are trian-
gular. They, like the succeeding families, leap actively, the
hind femora being enlarged. The genital armature is largely
developed, forming long and slender stylets, often nearly as
long as the body. "The subgenital plate is formed by the
seventh sternite. The eighth abdominal segment is rudimen-
tary and concealed beneath the seventh segment. The ninth
segment, situated beyond the outlet of the ovipositor is incom-
plete. Its elements, appearing to be four in number, are devel-
oped into a large solid borer. The ninth sternite is bifid, its
episternite not being developed." (L. Duthiers.) A second
type is observed in Gryllotalpa, where the subgenital plate is
formed by the eighth sternite, instead of the seventh, and the
incomplete sternite and tergite of the ninth segment are pres-
ent, much like those of the other abdominal rings. The oviposi-
tor is very short, while the hairy stylets arise from the eleventh

GKYLLIM;. 563

abdominal ring and are very long. In the male the long anal
hairy stylets are retained, while the parts representing the ovi-
positor are aborted. The shrilling of the male is a sexual call,
made by raising the fore wings and rubbing them on the hind
wings. The noise is due to the peculiar structure of the fore
wings, the middle portion of which forms, by its transparent
elastic surface, on which there are but few veinlets, a resonant
drum, increasing the volume of sound emitted by the rubbing
of the file on the upper surface of the hind pair of wings.
This file is the modified internal vein, the surface of which is
greatly thickened, rounded and covered closely with fine teeth.
In the females the wings are not thus modified, and they are
silent. They have been known to lay 300 eggs, glued together
in a common mass. In July the larvae appear, and by the last
of August the grass is alive with fully grown crickets, their
loud chirruping resounding through the warm days and nights
of autumn. The species are generally dull black or brownish,
and in the tropics attain to a large size.

In the genus Tridactylus the males have the anterior tibiae
three-fingered, i. e., the tibia has a lateral hooked appendage
to which the tarsus is attached, while a long hooked projec-
tion takes the place of the feet. The species are minute,
the largest known, T. apicalis Say, being one-fifth of an inch
long. It is found in the Southern States, while Tridactylus
terminalis Uhler is found northward. The Mole-cricket, Gryl-
lotalpa, so-called from the enlarged fossorial fore feet, lives in
wet, swampy soil, by ponds and streams, where it raises ridges
while constructing its subterranean galleries in search of
insects. Its fore legs are adapted like those of the mole
for digging, and are remarkably short and stout, much flat-
tened and armed with solid tooth-like projections. Their eggs,
from 300 to 400 in number, are laid in the spring in tough
sacks, in galleries. Very rare northward, they are more com-
mon in the Middle and Southern States.

Gryllotalpa borealis Burmeister is found in New England,
burrowing in moist earth near ponds. The Southern species is
Gryllotalpa longipennis Scudder, and in the West Indies an-
other species ravages the Sugar-cane. The genus Gryllus in-
cludes the common crickets. The European House- cricket,

564 ORTHOPTERA.

G. domesticus Linn., has been introduced into the vicinity of
New York, as stated by Mr. James Angus. Our two largest
species are the Gryllus luctuosus Serville, known by the great
length of the fore wings, which project beyond the abdomen ;
and Gryllus abbreviatus Serville, which is found in the Middle
States. The most common New England species is the Gryllus
neglectus of Scudder, from which Gryllus niger Harris differs
in its much shorter ovipositor. The small
cricket so abundant in our fields is Nemobius
vittatus Harris, a brownish striped species ;
the genus differs from Gryllus in the last joint
of the maxillary palpi being double the length
of the penultimate, while in Gryllus, it is of
the same length. In (Ecanthus niveus Serville
(Fig. 561, male ; fig. 562, female ; fig. 30,hind
Fig. 561. wings of male and female, showing the broad
thin portion between b and c, used in producing the shrilling
noise) the wings are broad and very transparent, narrower in
the female, the hind legs very long and slender, and the male
is ivory white. The males make a loud shrilling noise, and
both sexes are found on plants, especially' the grape-vine.

Mr. W. Saunders states that the
female does considerable injury
to the raspberry and plum twigs
Fi s- 562 - by boring into the branches for

the purpose of laying its eggs, and the Editors of the "Ameri-
can Entomologist" state that it severs grapes from the
branches. This genus leads to the next family.

Mr. Scudder has described in the "Proceedings of the Bos-
ton Society of Natural History," Archegogryllus priscus, a fossil
cricket from the coal formation of Ohio. "One broken hind
leg and a fragment of a wing were found ; the leg was notice-
able in having the tibia furnished with several large promi-
nences, while the femur was smooth."

LOCUSTARIVE Latreille. The large green Locusts are easily
distinguished by their large heads, and their compressed
bodies. The front from being vertical often inclines inwards,
owing to the greatly enlarged vertex, which is often produced

LOCUSTARDE. 565

into a horn. The ocelli are either present or obsolete, and the
eyes are globular in shape. The antennae are of great length,
as are the legs, which are long and slender. The prothorax is
saddle- shaped, and the wings are thin, the anterior pair slightly
thickened, while the hinder pair are broad, these insects taking
long flights. The base of the upper wings is transparent, form-
ing a drum by which the males produce a loud shrill noise ;
they do not rub the hind legs against the wings as do the
Acrydii. Scudder states that "the day song of some Locus-
tarians differs from that of the night." The abdomen is not
of great length, while the ovipositor and male claspers are
greatly developed, and are of much importance in classifica-
tion. Lacaze-Duthiers describes the typical form as having
the subgenital plate formed by the eighth sternite, while the
ninth ring is complete. Its elements form the ovipositor,
composed of six pieces, which are large and long, for boring
into the earth and twigs in laying the eggs. The ninth ster-
nite is bifid. Similar parts in the males are formed for clasp-
ing the body of the female, and are large and long. The eggs
are laid in the autumn, and the young hatch in the spring.
The wingless genera have curved, cylindrical bodies, with
long antennae, and are very active, leaping very vigorously ;
they are brown in color, and inhabit caves or live under stones.
Ceutliopliilus is a wingless genus, in which the pronotum does
not extend over the mesonotum. C.maculatus Say has the pos-
terior tibiae of the male waved. It is common under 'stones.
C. stygius Scudder is found in the caves of Kentucky, and Ha-
denoecus subterraneus Scudder is found in Mammoth Cave. It
is a slender form, the antennae exceeding the length of the
body several times. Udeopsylla differs from the following
genus, Daihinia, according to Scudder, "in the longer, more
slender, less robust, and less spiny legs, in the somewhat more
slender body and smaller head, in the shorter maxillary palpi,
and in the structure of the tarsal joints," the first and fourth
being equal in length, while the two middle ones are small,
the second joint overlapping the third above. U. robusta
Haldeman is found in Nebraska. In the interesting genus
Daihinia, the "tarsal joints of the anterior and posterior pair
are only three in number, the first and last being of nearly

566 ORTHOPTEKA.

equal length, with a single small joint between them, a very
interesting exception to the almost universal rule among the
Locustarice." The Katydid, Cyrtopliyllus concavus Say
(Fig. 563), has the fore wings concave, much produced in the
middle. The eggs, according to Harris, are "slate colored, and
are rather more than one-eighth of an inch in length. They
resemble tiny, oval, bivalve shells in shape. The insect lays
them in two contiguous rows along the surface of a twig, the
bark of which is previously shaved off, or made rough with her
piercer. Each row consists of eight or nine eggs, placed some-
what obliquely, and overlapping each other a little, and they

are fastened to the twig with a
gummy substance. In hatching
the egg splits open at one end,
and the young insect creeps
through the cleft." In Phyllop-
tera the wings are narrower, but
still concave, and the ovipositor
is of moderate size, while in
Microcentrum it is very small.
P. oblongifolia Burmeister is
abundant in September, in New
England, being found farther
northward than the Katydid, and
when it flies it makes a whizzing
noise, compared by Harris to
Fig. 563. that of a weaver's shuttle. He

also states that "the females lay their eggs in the autumn
on the twigs of trees and shrubs, in double rows, of seven or
eight eggs in each row." These eggs in form, size and color,
and in their arrangement on the twig, are very different from
those of the Katydid. Phaneroptera has still narrower wings
than the genera hitherto noticed, and the ovipositor is more
sharply turned upwards. The P. curvicauda of DeGeer (P.
angustifolia Harris) is very abundant, being the most common
species in Northern New England.

In Conocephalus the front of the head is produced into a
cone. The species, generally pea green, often present brown
individuals. C. ensiger Harris is a commonly distributed spe-

ACRYDII. 567

cies. Mr. S. I. Smith has observed a female of this species
"with the ovipositor forced down between the root-leaves and
the stalk of a species of Andropogon, where the eggs are
probably deposited."

Xiphidium is a genus of smaller size, with the ovipositor
nearly straight. X. fasciatum Serville is g|reen, with a brown
stripe on the head and thorax. It is common in gardens.
According to Hagen and Scudder an undescribed species of
Xiphidium makes longitudinal punctures in the pith of the
Cotton plant.

In Orchelimum the ovipositor is large, ensiform, and up-
curved. 0. vulgare Harris is very common northward ; it is
pale green, with two brown stripes on the head and thorax. It
has a large transparent shrilling organ, and is a more robust
form than the preceding species. Locusta viridissima Linn, is
a common form in Europe. Westwood states that "Hyperho-
mala virescens Boisd. from New Guinea, is distinguished by the
prothorax extending completely over the abdomen like a pair
of elytra," and that Condylodera tricondyloides from Java, in
the elongated, constricted prothorax and fine blue colors, ex-
actly imitates the Cicindelous genus Tricondyla.

ACRYDII Latreille. Grasshoppers have the body much com-
pressed, the head large, the front vertical, the ocelli generally
present, while the antennae are short, the greatest number of
joints being twenty-four. The prothorax is very large, some-
times reaching beyond the abdomen, and the wings are
deflexed ; the hind legs are enlarged for leaping, and the tarsi
are three-jointed. The stridulating noise is produced by rub-
bing the thighs against the fore wings, which are long and
narrow, while the hind wings are broadly triangular. The ovi-
positor, with its accessory pieces, consists of a subgenital
plate formed by the seventh sternite ; the ninth segment is
complete, and the blades (tergo-rhabdites) composing the ovi-
positor consist of three secondary pieces united together be-
tween them. These rhabdites are short, thick, somewhat
conical, and corneous. The eggs are laid in a cocoon-shaped
mass covered with a tough glutinous secretion, and containing
from fifty to one hundred eggs. The pupae are distinguished

568 ORTHOPTEEA.

from the larvae in having large wing-pads. On the basal joints
of the abdomen are two cavities covered each with a mem-
brane, and containing a vesicle filled with liquid, which is sup-
plied by a nerve sent from the third thoracic ganglion. They
were considered by Latreille and Burmeister to be vocal or-
gans, but more correctly it would seem, by J. Miiller and von
Siebold as organs of hearing.

This family embraces insects of gigantic proportions. The
migratory locust (Acrydium migratorium) is a most destructive
insect from its voracity and immense numbers. Swarms of
grasshoppers are common in the far West where they commit
great havoc in crops. Our Caloptenus femur-rubrum has at
times, though not of late years, gone in immense swarms.
The larvae of many species live through the winter, and appear
often in March on unusually warm days.

In the genus Opomala the acute antennae are broad and
flattened at base. In 0. brachyptera Scudder the fore wings
are but little more than one-half the length of the body. In
Chloedltis the hinder edge of the pronotum is square or
rounded; there are no foveolae on the vertex, and the lateral
carinae of the pronotum is parallel, or quite nearly so.

Chloedltis conspersa Harris is light bay, sprinkled with black
spots, with a black line on the head behind each eye, and ex-
tending upon the thorax. The front wings are pale yellowish
brown, and the hind shanks are pale red, with the spines tipped
with black. Mr. S. I. Smith states that the structure of the
ovipositor of this species is "beautifully adapted to a remark-
able habit in the manner of depositing the eggs, which seems
not to have been noticed before among Orthoptera. The eggs
are deposited in old logs, in the under sides of boards, or in
any soft wood lying among the grass which these insects
inhabit. By means of the anal appendages the female exca-
vates in the wood a smooth round hole about an eighth of an
inch in diameter. This hole is at first almost perpendicular
but is turned rapidly off in the direction of the grain of the
wood, and runs nearly parallel with, and about three-eighths
of an inch from the surface ; the whole length of the hole
being an inch or an inch and a fourth. A single hole noticed
in the end of a log was straight. The eggs, which are about

ACRYDII. 569

a fourth of an inch in length, quite slender and light brownish
yellow, are placed in two rows, one on each side, and inclined
so that, beginning at the end of the hole, each egg overlies the
next in the same row by about half its length. The aperture
is closed by a little disk of a hard gummy substance. I have
seen many of the females engaged in excavating the holes,
and they always stood with the body in the direction of the
grain of the wood, and apparently did not change their posi-
tion during the operation. When one was just beginning a
hole it was very easy to see the upper appendages rise and
open, and each time scrape away a little of the wood. During
this operation a frothy fluid is emitted from some part of the
abdomen, but whether it serves to soften the wood or to
lubricate the appendages and the sides of the hole I did not
determine." The genus Stenobothrus differs in having foveolse
on the vertex. S. curtipennis Harris is a very common species,
and at once recognized by its very short wings.

In the genus Tragocephala the vertex of the head is promi-
nent, the front rather oblique, sloping inwards, and the pro-
thorax is acutely angulated posteriorly. T. infuscata Harris
and T. viridifasdata Harris are common species ; the former
is dusky brown, the hind wings transparent, pale greenish
yellow next to the body, with a large dusky cloud near the
middle of the hind margin, and a black line on the front
margin ; while the latter is green, with dusky fore wings
broadly banded with green.

Pezzotettix closely resembles Caloptenus, except that in
some of the species it is wingless. P. borealis Scudder is
found in British America, and also on the tops of the moun-
tains of New Hampshire and Maine. In the P. alpinus Kollar
of Europe there are short wings. The genus Caloptenus has
but a slight mesial ridge on the prothorax ; the lateral ridges
vary in size, and the sternal tubercle is very large, while the
tip of the male abdomen is much swollen. Caloptenus femur-
rubrum Harris (Fig. 564, b) is the common Red-legged grass-
hopper. It varies greatly and has been so abundant in New
England and Canada, though not of late years, as to become a
public calamity. It has been seen very rarely on the Labrador
coast, and it is a very widely distributed species, ranging from

570 ORTHOPTEKA.

Labrador to the Mississippi. The Caloptenus spretus Uhler
(Fig. 564, a), appears in immense numbers in the country be-
tween the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains, and extending
from the Saskatchewan river on the north to Texas. Mr. Scud-
der states that "a third, whether belonging to the same species
or not is still uncertain, has invaded at different times, nearly
all the country lying within the boundaries of the United
States, between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Ocean."
Dr. Lincecum thus describes the ravages of C. spretus in
Texas: "Last spring the young were hatched from the egg
in the early days of March ; by the middle of the month they
had destroyed half the vegetation, although the insects were
wingless and not larger than a house-fly. The first winged

specimens were seen high in
the air at about three in the
afternoon ; as a light northerly
breeze sprang up, millions
dropped to the earth, cover-
ing the ground in an hour,
and destroying every green
thing with avidity. During
the night they were quiet, but
Fig. 564. at daybreak commenced to

eat, and continued until ten in the morning, when they all flew
southward. At about three o'clock in the afternoon of the
same day another swarm arrived, ten times as numerous as
the first ; these again took flight the following day ; and thus
they continued, coming and going, day after day, devouring
the foliage and depositing their eggs. At first they selected
bare spots for this purpose, but finally the whole surface of
the earth was so broken up by their borings that every inch
of ground contained several patches of eggs. This visitation
was spread over many hundreds of miles." 0. bivittatus Say
is a large dull green, or olive colored species, with red legs,
and is very abundant in gardens.

Romalea microptem, called the "Lubber grasshopper" in
Florida, feeds on the leaves of the orange. (Glover.) It is
nearly three inches long; the prothorax is keeled, and the
wings only cover half of the abdomen. The larva is reddish,

ACRYDII.

571

while the adult is yellowish brown with dark patches and
spots.

In Acrydium the spine on the chest is very prominent, and
the mesial crest above is well marked, while the tip of the
male abdomen is not swollen. Acrydium alutaceum Harris is
nearly two inches long, and expands over three inches. It is
brownish yellow, with a paler yellow stripe on the top of the
head and thorax.

To the genus Tropidacris, separated from Acrydium by Mr.
Scudder, belongs certain gigantic grasshoppers nearly four
inches in length and expanding some eight inches, with gaily
colored hind wings. T. cristata Linn, has pale, greenish blue
hind wings ; it is
reported from Asia
and Africa, and is
widely distributed
through tropical
South America. T.
dux Drury has brick
red hind wings and
expands nearly sev-
en inches ; its range
is from Texas to
Panama.

(Edipoda is a large
and well known ge-
nus, in which there is no spine between the fore legs, and the
front of the head is vertical and swollen. (Edipoda Carolina
Linn, is pale yellowish brown, the wings black with a broad yel-
low hind margin, and it expands over three and a half inches.
It is abundant everywhere. (E. sulphur ea Fabr. has deep yel-
low wings, with a broad dusky band beyond the middle, while
(E. corallina Harris has hind wings of a rich coral red. (E.
xanthoptera Germar (Fig. 565) ranges from New England to
the Mississippi. It is reddish brown ; the prothorax has a high
rounded unbroken ridge ; the fore wings are necked with small
dusky spots ; the hind wings are yellow at the base, fuscous
beyond and clouded at the tip ; the hind shanks are dusky,
with a pale band below the knee. The wings of the male ex-

572 ORTHOPTERA.

pand two and a quarter inches ; those of the female three
inches. Mr. Scudder has discovered a chalcid parasite in the
eggs of (Edipoda Carolina.

In Tettix the pronotum is prolonged beyond the abdomen,
and the antennae are thirteen to fourteen-jointed, while Tetti-
gidea differs from it by having twenty-two-jointed antennae, and
a thicker, shorter body. Tettix granulata Kirby has a very
prominent vertex, with the front border angulated.

Tettigidea lateralis Say is a common species, and may be
found, like all the other allied species, in the spring and au-
tumn. It is pale brown, with the sides of the body blackish ;
the prothorax is yellowish clay colored, and the fore wings
have a small white spot at the tips.

Batrachidea has but twelve joints to the antennae, and other-
wise differs from Tettix in its more compact shorter body, and
more distant eyes, while the mesial crest on the prothorax is
very high. In B. cristata Harris the crest is high, regularly
arched, and on each side of the prothorax are two shallow
grooves ; the surface is rough, with a dark squarish spot on
each side above the terminal half of the fore wings. Saussure
describes an aquatic Tettix from Ceylon.

The genus Proscopia is wingless, with the front produced
into a long slender cone, while the whole body is long and
cylindrical, somewhat as in Diapheromera. The antennae are
very minute, six to eight-jointed, and the legs are long and
slender. P. gigantea Klug is six inches long, and occurs in
Brazil *at Para.

PHASMIDA Leach. The Walking-sticks, or Spectres, are slug-
gish insects found on twigs and leaves, to which they bear a
strong resemblance, and are neither raptorial as regards their
fore legs, nor leapers, like the grasshoppers. Their bodies are
remarkably long and linear, and the wings either aborted and
very small, or strikingly leaf-like. The head is horizontal,
long, while the antennae are rather short, and the abdomen is
nearly twice as long as the rest of the body.

The subgenital plate is formed by the largely developed
eighth sternite, while the ninth segment is incomplete, the
sternum consisting of a membranous fold. According to L.

PHASMIDA. 573

Duthiers there are eleven abdominal segments, and the anal
stylets are not articulated as in the Mantidce, but are long
corneous claspers, and in some cases, very much like those of
Libellula, as in Acropliylla, while the eleventh ring is a little
triangular tergite, situated between the anal claspers. The
egg- sac in Diapheromera femorata Say (Fig. 566, J), our com-
monly diffused species, is flattened elliptical, with a lid in
front which can be pushed open by the embryo when about to
hatch, and is deposited in the autumn.
The young when hatched are linear, and
much like the adults except that they
are wingless. The male is considerably,
smaller than the female, and much more
slender. In PJiasma, a tropical genus,
the two sexes are winged, the antennse
are about as long as the body, and the
limbs are slender. P. 4:-guttatum Bur-
meister is between two and three inches
in length, and green on the costal border
of the hind wing, and rose colored be-
hind. It lives in Borneo. The genus
Prisopus differs from the other two
genera in the shortened mesothorax;
the legs are much flattened and leaf-
like ; the abdomen is longer than the
thorax, flattened beneath, and widened
on the sides posteriorly. P. spiniceps
Burmeister is a Brazilian species, and is Fig. 563.

two and a half inches long. P. flabellicornis Stoll, according to
A. Murray, spends the whole of the day under water adhering
to stones in the mountain streams of Brazil, and towards dusk
flies about ; it is the only truly aquatic Orthopteran known.

The genus Phyllium, found only in the East Indies, most re-
markably imitates various leaves, one species having its fore
wings so veined and colored as to resemble most strikingly a
dried and withered leaf. The wings are often very large and
broad, and as if to aid in carrying out the analogy the legs
have broad leaf-like expansions. The antennae of the males are
twenty-four-jointed, while in the females they are much shorter,

574 ORTHOPTERA.

consisting of but nine joints. The P. siccifolium Linn, is green,
and about three inches long. It lives in the East Indies.

MANTID^E Latreille. These raptorial Orthoptera are easily
recognized by their large size, the enormous spinous fore legs,

Fig. 567.

adapted for seizing other insects like the raptorial Hemiptera,
and which has given them the name of Soothsa3 T ers and
Prophets, from their devotional attitude when
watching for their prey. They are worshipped
by the Hottentots as tutelary divinities. The
head is horizontal, triangular in front, with
long filiform antennae ; the prothorax is very
long, and the broad wings are thin, net-veined,
with long parallel veins, more strongly resem-
bling the Neuroptera in this respect than any
other family. The abdomen is long, linear
oval. "The subgenital plate is formed by the
eighth sternite, the oviduct opening between
the seventh and eighth segments. The ninth
segment is complete. The elements of this
ring are but little developed, scarcely surpass-
ing the subgenital plate ; the two episternites
are distinct, and between them is the small
ninth sternite." The stylets are concealed by
the broad expanded sternum of the seventh
segment, while the antenna-like appendage (or
anal style, Fig. 23) is sometimes many jointed,
and is said by Lacaze-Duthiers to be appended
rig. 568. to the eleventh segment of the abdomen. The
mass of eggs laid by the female is attached to twigs, and
enclosed in a flattened subovate case (ootheca) of hardened
silk. The eggs are infested to some extent by chalcid para-

BLATTARI^E. . 575

sites. The young are long and linear. The Race-horse, Man-
tis Carolina Linn. (Fig. 567; fig. 568, eggs, natural size),
occurs in the Southern and Western States, and in the tropics
occur the allied genera Vates, Empusa, Harpax and Schizoce-
phala. According to Mr. T. Glover the eggs of Mantis
Carolina are laid in a packet about an inch long attached to
leaf-stalks and twigs. The body of the recently hatched young
is linear and turned up at each end, and it devours caterpillars
and insects, holding them in the fore legs with a firm grasp
by applying the spined tibiae and tarsi against the more stoutly
spined femora, and then sucking their blood at its leisure. Pro-
fessor Sanborn Tenney tells me he has observed the female
after sexual union devour the male. Burmeister says that
Mantis argentina Burm., of Buenos Ayres, seizes and eats
small birds. The genus Eremophila (E. Ehrenbergi of Burm-
eister) inhabits the deserts of Northern Africa, where it re-
sembles the sand in color.

BLATTARI^E Latreille. The Cockroaches are flattened ovate,
with the head rounded and partially concealed by the expanded
pro thorax. The fore wings are large, ovate, not much smaller
than the hind wings ; the antennae are long and filiform, many
jointed. The bilobate subgenital plate is formed by the eighth
sternite ; the ninth abdominal ring is complete, the sternite
being small and lodged between the two episternites which are
soldered into a single annular piece. The anal stylets are
short. The species, which are almost invariably reddish
brown, or paler, are nocturnal, hiding by day, and are found
under stones. They are fond of heat, the house cockroaches
frequenting heated rooms. While the common species are
troublesome from eating garments, etc., they do great service
in clearing houses and ships of bed-bugs, which they greedily
devour. The eggs are laid in a bean-shaped capsule (ootheca)
which is divided into two apartments, each containing a row
of separate chambers, about thirty in number, each of which
encloses an egg. Many days are required for oviposition, and
the female may be seen running about with the capsule par-
tially protruding from her body. During this period embryos
are forming within the capsule, and very soon after it is

576 . ORTHOPTERA.

dropped the larvae are hatched. The common cockroach,
Blatta (Stylopyga) orientalis Linn, has rudimentary wings in
the female, while in the male they are shorter than the body.
In Periplaneta the wings are longer than the body, and the
supraanal plate is deeply fissured and the abdomen much
swollen. Periplaneta Americana Linn, is a commonly dis-
tributed species. The genus Platymodes differs from the pre-
'ceding one in its narrower and longer body, and the supraanal
plate is not fissured ; the anal stylets are much shorter and
turned down, while the wings extend beyond the abdomen, the
anterior pair being well rounded at the tips. Platamodes Pen-
sylvanica DeGeer is pale, shining, reddish brown, and the an-
tennae reach back to the tips of the fore wings. It is found in

woods under stones, entering
houses by night.

In EctoUa the wings are well
developed, and the basal joints of
the tarsi are shorter than the
others. The Ectobia Gennanica
Stephens (Fig. 569, male and fe-
male) is a pale species, and is
very abundant in houses in and
about Boston, where it is called
the u Croton bug." Ectobia lithophila Harris is very common
in woods under stones in New England. The third joint of
its antennae is as long as the next five, collectively.

In Cryptocercus both sexes are wingless ; the antennae are
half as long as the whole body, and the abdominal appendages
are not exserted, being veiy short. C. punctulatus Scudder is
known by its thickly punctured body and dark mahogany
brown color, with reddish beneath. It is found southwards.
In Pycnoscelus the males are wingless ; no females have yet
been found. It differs from Cryptocercus in having a larger
head ; the eyes are placed closer together, and the stylets are
slender, cylindrical, of about the same length as the cerci and
inserted just within them. Plate 1, fig. 2 represents the wing
of an extinct species of cockroach (Blattina?) discovered by
Mr. Barnes in the coal formation of Nova Scotia. While most
of the remains of cockroaches found in the Carboniferous rocks

FORFICULARI^E.

577

of this country and Europe have been referred to the genus
Blattina, Mr. Scudder describes, in the "Palaeontology of Illi-
nois," a form under the name of Mylacris anthracophila (Fig.
570, upper wing; Fig. 571,
prothorax) which was found in
the lower part of the true coal
measures at Morris, Illinois.

FORFICULARI^E Latreille.
The Earwigs are very unlike
other Orthoptera, and are
readily distinguished by their narrow flattened bodies, with
short wing-covers, like the Staphylinidaz among beetles, on
which account Linnaeus placed them among the Coleoptera.
The head is free, flat, horizontal ; the ocelli are wanting, and
the eyes round ; the antennae arise from under the eyes, and are
filiform and twelve to forty-jointed. The elytra are short and
thick, while the rounded, broad, hind wings are folded under-
neath so as to be almost entirely concealed by the anterior pair.
The female genital armature is described by Lacaze-Duthiers
as composed of a subgenital plate formed by the eighth ster-
nite, while the eighth and ninth abdominal rings
are partly aborted, and only represented by two
horny arcs closely soldered to the tergite of the
tenth ring. The rhabdites of the eleventh ring are
greatly developed, forming the immense forceps,
which are often as long as the whole body. This family was
ranked as a separate order by Leach and Kirby, under the name
of Dermaptem, and were called Euplexoptera by Westwood.

They are nocturnal insects, hiding in the day time between
leaves and in flowers, flying about at dark. They feed on the
corollas of flowers and on fruit, and will eat bread and meat.
They are rare insects in this country, though troublesome in
Europe from their great numbers. An Alpine species lives
under stones in Europe. In Forficula the antennae are fifteen-
jointed. Spongophora bipunctata Scudder has two pale spots
on the elytra. In Labia the antennae are less than twelve-
jointed. Labia minuta Scudder is yellowish brown, with the
sides of the abdomen and the head reddish brown.
37

Fig. 571.

578 NEUROPTEKA.

NEUROPTERA.

THESE insects have the body, as a whole, more elongated
than in other insects, with large broad, net-veined, thin, mem-
branous wings, both pairs being very equal in size, the anterior
pair being sometimes smaller than the hind wings, while in
some genera the hind ones are either diminished in size or
obsolete. The mouth-parts are free, the mandibles being well
developed, and the abdomen is long and slender, with the
genital armor always present, but made on the simplest plan,
not forming a sting. The metamorphosis is either incomplete
or complete ; accordingly the pupa is either active or inactive
and when inactive resides in a cocoon. The greater number
of species are aquatic ; and several degraded forms (Lepisma,
etc.) bear a strong resemblance to the Myriapods.

The description of the head and mouth-parts of the Orthop-
tera applies well to the Neuroptera, but the head is horizontal,
flatter, and the mouth-parts are less symmetrical, certain parts
being greatly developed over others. As a general rule that
part of the head situated behind the mouth is larger, in propor-
tion to the rest of the head, than usual in the Iarva3 of the
higher insects, and also the mouth-parts are much larger and
less compact. Thus the head of a Neuropterous larva may be
actually larger than the entire thorax of the same insect ; in
the Hymenopterous and Lepidopterous larvsa it is the reverse,
the head is often smaller than even the prothoracic ring.

The mouth-parts are inclined to become very large, and in
the larva of Libellula the labium is enormously developed,
masking the jaws and other parts when at rest, and capable
of great extension, while it is armed with powerful hooks,
being modified palpi, for seizing other insects.

The thorax is large, the segments being well developed, and
the prgthorax is usually large and square, but in what in many
respects are the most typical insects of the group, the Ephe-
meridce and Libellulidce, the prothorax is very small, as in
the highest insects, and in the latter group the greatly enlarged
flanks of the mesothorax seem to take its place.

NEUROPTERA; 579

The wings are large, and in the Libellulidce they are in
constant use. The legs are generally of simple structure,
these insects neither walking nor leaping much. Rarely, -as in
Mantispa, are they adapted for seizing their prey, as they are
in many Hemiptera and Orthoptera.

The abdomen of the Neuroptera is composed, according to
Lacaze-Duthiers, of eleven segments (arthromeres) , and the
ovipositor is constructed on the same plan as in the Hymen-
optera, Hemiptera and Orthoptera, though in the different
families the characters vary much more than in the higher sub-
orders, in this respect perfectly according with the anatomy
of the other parts of the body in the different groups. He
states, however, as observation has taught us, that in its
structure the ovipositer is simpler than in other insects, and
the farthest removed from that of the Hymenoptera.

Lacaze-Duthiers, whose work is necessarily incomplete from
treating of the female ovipositor alone, not regarding the
analogous parts in the other sex, considers the Neuropterous
ovipositor (tariere) as having three types of structure. The
simplest is found in Libellula, in the abdomen of which there
are ten segments much alike; "the eleventh is more complex
than the others ; it has the same structure as in ^Eschna. It
is especially in the division of [the family containing] Libellula
and its allies that the two appendages take the form and the
function of pincers, and that the special word forcipate,' has
been used. These forceps serve, as is well known, for clasping
organs, and to enable them to perform the very long prelimi-
naries to fecundation." The outlet of the oviduct lies between
the eighth and ninth segments.

The nervous system of the Neuroptera consists of the cere-
brellum, with its lateral productions, the optic nerves, forming
a cylinder extending between the eyes and presenting four
swellings. (Leidy.) There are three thoracic and eight ab-
dominal ganglia which are of very uniform size, and connected
by double commissures. (See Fig. 43.) The nervous cord is
very equably developed and the brain portion is relatively
smaller than in the higher suborders.

Professor Leidy has described the digestive organs of Cory-
dalus cornutus, which may serve as a type for the rest of the

580 KEUROPTERA.

suborder. It agrees with most other genera of the group in
having a long oesophagus, which is dilated posteriorly into a
spacious proventriculus, which extends as far back as the fifth
abdominal segment. The large intestine presents a large con-
volution, and abruptly dilates into an oval or fusiform ccecum
in its lower third, which latter opens into the rectum. In
some genera there is a long sucking stomach inserted on one
of the sides. In Corydalus this is only present in the pupa,
and is aborted in the imago ; so also in the larva the "proven
triculus, with its apparatus of stomachal teeth," is adapted to
the carnivorous habits of the insect, but in the pupa the teeth
disappear, u while in the imago we find the oesophagus again
lengthened, still contracted at its commencement, but gradu-
ally dilating until it forms a capacious Florence flask-shaped
proventriculus, or gizzard." (See Fig. 45.)

"With the Perli doe the gizzard is wanting, but the upper
extremity of the stomach has from four to eight coeca point-
ing forwards. With the Libellulidce the oesophagus is long
and large, and protrudes somewhat into the straight, oblong,
constricted stomach, which is without coeca, and is succeeded
by a very short ileum and colon. The digestive tube of the
EphemeridoR, which in their perfect state take no food, is
feebly developed. Its walls are very thin throughout, and the
oesophagus is directly continuous with the stomach, which is a
bladder-like dilation, and succeeded by a short, straight intes-
tine. The predatory Panorpidce, which are rapacious, differ
notably from the other Neuroptera, and resemble rather the
preceding order (Orthoptera) . The oesophagus is short and
straight, and in the thorax is succeeded by a spherical muscu-
lar gizzard which is lined internally witli a brown chitinous
membrane covered with stiff hairs. The stomach is tubular
and straight ; the ileum makes two convolutions before pass-
ing into the long colon." (Siebold.) In Lepisma the oesoph-
agus terminates in a "kind of crop, which is succeeded by a
globular gizzard provided with six teeth."

There are two simple, short, salivary glands in the Sialidce,
while in the Phryganeidce and Hemerobidce "they'are
ramified and highly developed. It is quite remarkable that
there is, in this respect, a sexual difference with the Pan or-

NEUROPTERA. 581

pi dce^ the males have three pairs of very long, tortuous tubes,
while with the females the only vestiges of this apparatus are
two indistinct vesicles." (Siebold.)

In their larval state the aquatic Neuroptera breathe by
false gills, or branchial tracheae ; these generally consist of
slender filaments situated on the sides of the abdominal seg-
ments. These filaments are fleshy, and penetrated by tracheae,
which take up the oxygen from the water. In the larvae of the
Phryganeidce these false gills are simple, "rarely ramified,
and united in groups of from two to five, which stand out to-
wards the back." Siebold also states that "with those of the
EpJiemeridce each of the anterior abdominal segments has
a pair of these branchiae which are sometimes ramified in the
most varied manner, and sometimes consist of two kinds,
some being lamelliform and alternating with the others which
are fasciculate. With all the Ep Jiemeridce these organs have
movements which are sometimes slow and rhythmical, and
sometimes rapid and oscillatory. . . . The trachean branchiae
of JEschna, Libellula and the other Libellulidce are formed
upon a wholly different plan. They are situated in the very
large rectum, and consist of numerous epithelial folds which
are traversed by a great number of very fine branches of many
large trachean trunks. (Fig. 62, x.) The rectum is, moreover,
invested by a very highly developed muscular tunic, and its
orifice has three pyramidal valves which regulate the entrance
and the escape of the water required for respiration."

In the larval and adult insect there are four main trunks to
the tracheary system, two on each side, and much less com-
plicated than in other insects.

There are generally six or eight long, flexuous urinary or
Malpighian vessels. In the Neuroptera the ovaries "consist
always of multilocular tubes," and the two testes are, in the
Perlidce, EpJiemeridce and Libellulidce, composed of " a
multitude of round follicles, disposed botryoidally around
a long dilated portion of each of the deferent canals. . .
With Panorpa the two testicles are very simple and ovoid ;
but with the other species they consist of two tufts of long or
round follicles. With Myrmeleon and Hemerobius they are
oval and surrounded by a distinct envelope. The two deferent

582 NEUKOPTEKA.

canals are short, and always have on their lower extremity two
long or ovoid accessory follicles." (Siebold.)

The classification of the Neuroptera is difficult from the
lowness of the type, which presents an unusual number of deg-
radational forms, such as are indicated beyond, and because
the different families vary so much among themselves, and
contain forms which mimic the higher groups of insects.
Though the type is the lowest among hexapodous insects, yet
there constantly recur characters which are found only in the
highest insects. For example the Phryganeidce are Neu-
ropterous throughout, yet there are many of the less impor-
tant characters which ally them most intimately with the
Lepidoptera, especially the Tin ei dee.

However all Neuroptera agree in the lax composition of
the body, inducing a worm-like, elongated form. The meta-
morphoses are, in the more typical families, less complete than
in other insects, except the Hemiptera and Orthoptera, and
upon the whole the organs of vegetative life are largely devel-
oped over those of animal life, making them generally very
sluggish in their motions (though the adult Libellulidae are an
exception) , and inducing an abnormal size of the body, as this
suborder contains many of the largest and most monstrous of
insects. The researches of Professor Dana and Messrs. Hartt
and Scudder show that the Neuroptera shared with the Orthop-
tera the possession of the low marshy lands of Devonian and
Carboniferous times, and the forms discovered in the rocks of
those periods indicate that they were often of gigantic propor-
tions, and among the most degraded of their type.

Dr. Anton Dohrn has described, under the name of Euge-
reon Bockingi (Fig. 572), perhaps the most remarkable fossil
insect yet discovered. It occurred in the Permian formation
in Germany. He considered it as combining Hemipterous and
Neuropterous characters, though more closely allied to the
Neuroptera. Dr. Hagen writes me that "Eugereon belongs to
Dictyoneura, Goldenberg, and is perhaps identical with one of
the species described and figured by Goldenberg." Dictyo-
neura is said by Goldenberg to resemble the Neuropterous
genus Semblis. Dr. Hagen also informs me that Gerstaecker,
after an examination of Booking's specimen, "thinks Eugereon

NEUROPTEKA.

583

is next related to the Ephemerina. The parts of the mouth
have nothing of the Hemiptera about them and they are even
more related to
the Diptera."
While we would
defer to the
judgment of
these distin-
guished ento-
mologists who
have actually
studied the fos-
sil itself, yet
judging from
Dohrn' s draw-
ing we would
refer the insect
to the Neurop-
tera, and would
suggest that in
certain charac-

Fig. 572.

ters we are strongly reminded of certain more abnormal genera
of Hemerobidce and the Panorpidce. The wings while
closely resembling the Ephemerids, as Dr. Hagen has sug-
gested to us, also, in our opinion, recall those of an African
species of Palpares, and of the fore wings of Nemoptera, and
the antennae and beak-like mouth-parts seem analogous to
those of Panorpa and Boreus.*

FIG. 572. Eugereon Bockingi Dohrn, enlarged three diameters; A, a, lab-
rum; &, first pair of jaws (mandibles); c, second pair (maxillae) ; e, labial palpi;
/, fragments of antennae; m, portion of legs; n, middle tibiae. C, a, 6, antennas; D,
a, head ; b, fore femora ; c, prothorax ; d, prosternum ( ?) ; E, tarsus and end of the
tibia of the left fore leg. After Dohrn.

*Erichsonand Siebold have grouped the Termitidce, P$ocidce, Embidce,
Ephemeridcs and Lib ellulidce under the name'of "false ""Neuroptera, and con-
sidered them as Orthoptera, restricting the Neuroptera to the Sialidce, Hemer o-
bidce,Panorpidce and Phryganeidce,ar\A this classification has been adopted
by most continental entomologists. Now while believing in the unity of the Neu-
ropterous type, and that the so called " false Neuroptera (especially the May-flies
and the dragon-flies) are really the most typical of the suborder, being the most
unlike other insects, do not we have many characters in these palaeozoic net-
veined insects, which unite more intimately the so called false and true Neurop-
ters ? We would not forget the analogies shown in these fossil net-veined insects

584 NEUKOPTEKA.

It is a rather large insect, the head and mouth- parts measur-
ing thirty-nine millimetres, the three thoracic rings twenty-
eight millimetres, and the part preserved of the right upper
wing forty-four millimetres, and of the right under w T ing fifty-
one millimetres. The antennae are long and thread-like, as in
Panorpa, and the venation of the wings are of the Neuropter-
ous type, while the elongated mouth-parts are Hemipterous in
appearance, though the labial palpi (Ae) are well developed,
being usually absent in the Hemiptera. It is the most puz-
zling form yet brought to light, and has been compared by
Dr. I)ohrn to the fossil Archseopteryx of the Solenhofen slates,
referred by some naturalists to the birds, and by others to the
reptiles.

We have shown elsewhere* that the Neuropterous families,
except the most typical, i.e., the Ephemeridce and Libellu-
lidce, mimic every other suborder of insects. They are in
fact comprehensive or synthetic types, combining, as do all
decephalized, embryonic forms, the structures of the other sub-
orders of insects, and thus presenting, in advance, features
which remind us of characters more fully wrought out in higher
and more compactly finished groups of insects.

As regards the preservation of the dragon-flies, Mr. Uhler
states that "the large, brilliant green dragon-flies (Cordu-
lina), as well as the yellow, brown-striped Gomphina, having
the eyes wide apart, will furnish new species in almost all parts
of the country. In order to preserve specimens in the neatest
manner it is well to slip them immediately, when caught, into
paper bags of suitable size ; first taking care to lay back the
wings so that they will be applied together, to prevent mutila-
tion. These paper bags may be placed loosely in a box carried
for the purpose. They can thus be taken out at leisure, killed
by applying a camel's hair pencil, dipped in sulphuric ether,
chloroform, or benzine, to the under side of the body, and then
have the wings spread by placing them upon the setting

to the Orthoptera, and which serve to unite the two suborders more intimately
than ever. Indeed entomologists in the future may unite the Orthoptera and
Neuroptera (in the Linnaean sense) into a single suborder equivalent to the Coleop-
tera or Hymenoptera, and these two groups may stand as two subordinate divi-
sions just as the "Homoptera" and "Hemiptera" are subdivisions of the Lin-
naean group of Hemiptera.

* Journal of the Boston Society of Natural History, viii, p. 590.

TERMITIDJE. 585

boards. In most species the colors change after death, hence
it is important to make short descriptions of the colors before
killing the specimens." The smaller, more slender and deli-
cate Neuroptera should be pinned directly in the collecting
box. Many species are caught by a light in the night time,
such as Polystoechotes nebulosus and the Phryganeidce;
and a bright light placed in damp situations by streams, etc.,
will attract large numbers, the smaller species, like moths, be-
ing attracted a great distance by light. For the proper study
of the genera of these insects, and often of the species, they
should be collected in alcohol, so as to be studied in a flexible
state. Dr. J. L. Leconte has published in the "American
Naturalist," iii, p. 307, some new directions for the preserva-
tion of insects which will apply to these as well as other
insects. " Surgical art has given to us an instrument by which
a poisonous liquid can be rapidly and most effectively applied
to the entire surface of large numbers of specimens as they
stand in the cabinet boxes, without the trouble of moving
them. I refer to the ' Atomizer.'

"Opinions may vary as to the nature of the liquid poison to
be used, but after several trials I have found the following
formula to be quite satisfactory ; it produces no efflorescence,
even on the most highly polished species, while the odor is
quite strong, and persistent enough to destroy any larvae or
eggs that may be already in the box : Saturated alcoholic
solution of arsenious acid, eight fluid ounces ; Strychnine,
twelve grains ; Crystallized carbolic acid, one drachm ; Mineral
naphtha (or heavy benzine) and strong alcohol, enough to
make one quart. I have not stated the quantity of naphtha,
since there are some varieties of light petroleum in commerce
which dissolve in alcohol only to a slight extent. These should
not be used. The heavier oils which mix indefinitely with alco-
hol are the proper ones, and for the two pints of mixture ten
to twelve fluid ounces of the naphtha will be sufficient. Care
should be taken to test the naphtha on a piece of paper. If it
leaves a greasy stain which does not disappear after a few
hours it is not suitable for this purpose.

"The best form of atomizer is the long, plated, reversible
tube ; it should be worked with a gum elastic pipe, having two

586 NBUEOPTEKA.

bulbs to secure uniformity in the current. The atomizing glass
tubes and the bottle which usually accompany the apparatus
are unnecessary: a common narrow-necked two ounce bottle
will serve perfectly to hold the fluid."

The aquatic larvae and pupae can easily be reared in aquaria
in jars and tumblers, taking care that the weaker species are
separated from those more powerful and bloodthirsty. The
little Entomostraca, or water-fleas, serve as food for many of
the smaller species. With very little care many species can be
raised in this way, and so little is known of their transforma-
tions that figures and descriptions would be of great value.
The interesting and varied habits of the different families can
be also easily noted. They can be called summer insects, since
few are found late in the fall or early in the spring, though
several Per li dee, Hemerobius, Boreus and several species of
Phryganeids are found ere the snow has gone in the spring,
and a few species of the latter family are found in November.

TERMITID^E Leach. The White Ants in the different grades
of individuals, and their complex economy, foreshadow the for-
micaries of the ant and the hive of the bee. The bodies of the
winged individuals are shaped somewhat like that of the ant,
but they differ in the long, narrow, straight, finely net-veined
wings, the costa of which is remarkably straight, while both
wings are equal in shape and size, with the veins arranged in
the same manner in both. The head is of moderate size, hori-
zontal ; the eyes are rather small, globose, and between them
are two ocelli, the third and more anterior one being nearly
obsolete. The antennae are short, with about twenty joints,
and the mandibles are small triangular, with fine teeth on the
cutting, or inner edge. The abdomen is ovate and shorter
than in the Neuroptera generally. In all these points, as well
as in their habits, the white ants are the most perfectly organ-
ized of the Neuroptera. They are more cephalized, their
bodies are developed more headwards, and their intelligence
and remarkable instincts ally them also, intellectually, with the
most perfect of insects, the Bees, Wasps and Ants. Thus in
the lowest suborder of insects we find features which strikingly
remind us of the highest insects. Nature constantly repeat-

TERMITIM:. 587

ing the same idea in different groups, here leaps over as it
were whole groups of insects, as if by prophecy pointing out
the advent of still more perfect forms and higher intelligences.
Geology teaches us that the white ant and other Neuroptera
preceded in time, as they do in structure, their higher ana-
logues.

The genus Calotermes differs from Termes in its small head,
the large, transverse, oblong prothorax, the veined costal area,
and in the tarsi being furnished with an apical plantula (or
foot-pad situated between the claws). C. castaneus Burmeis-
ter is almost cosmopolitan, occurring in Western and tropical
America. In. Termopsis the head is large, the ocelli are ab-
sent, and the prothorax is small, otherwise it agrees with Calo-
termes. T. angusticollis Linn, is found in the Pacific States.
The type of the family, Termes, has a large rounded head,
with two ocelli, and a small heart-shaped prothorax ; the costal
area is free, while the foot-pad (plantula) is absent. Our com-
mon white ant, Termes flavipes Kollar is found from Massachu-
setts southward, under stones, sticks and in stumps. It is of
a chestnut color, head and prothorax black brown, with brown-
ish antennae ringed with a paler hue, with white, very delicate
wings, and the mouth, tibiaB and tarsi are yellow. The work-
ers are white, with honey yellow heads. The white ants of
Africa live together like ants in colonies of vast extent.
The males and females are winged and closely resemble
each other as usual. There are two wingless forms ; the
soldiers, which have large square heads, and long powerful
mandibles, with a large prothorax, and the workers which
have small rounded heads and minute, nearly obsolete mandi-
bles. There also occur among the workers certain individuals
(Nasuti) which have the front of the head prolonged into a
horn. All these wingless individuals are asexual, the organs
of reproduction being undeveloped. They have been consid-
ered to be larvae by eminent authorities, but they are found in
the nest in abundance when the males and females have arrived
at maturity. They must, therefore, be considered like the
workers among bees and ants, as individuals specialized, or set
apart for the performance of certain duties involving the in-
crease and preservation of the entire colony. Thus the sol-

588 NEUROPTERA.

diers, as they are termed by Srneathman, with their warlike
aspect, act as "sentinels and soldiers, making their appearance
when the nest is invaded, attacking the intruders and inciting
the laborers to work. The more peaceful and laborious
workers are estimated to be one hundred times more numerous
than the soldiers." "They collect food, form covered wa} T s,
guard the males and females and take care of the eggs and
young." (Westwood.) While most of the species burrow in
wood, or under ground, others, as in the Termes fatale Linn.
(T. bellicosus Smeathman) , raise conical hillocks of remarkable
strength and firmness, often ten or twelve feet high. After
impregnation the females, as in the case of the ants, lose their
wings. They are then conducted into the interior of the nest
by the workers. Here the body of the female gradually be-
comes enormously distended with eggs, being over two inches
in length, and it is known to lay 80,000 in the course of a day.
The pupa of Termes lucifugus, a French species, was found
by Latreille in the spring, with four white tubercles, or wing
pads. Other pupae are described and figured by Westwood,
which by their long wing-pads, prolonged beyond the abdomen,
closely resemble the Homopterous adult Cercopidce. Fossil
Termites occur in the coal formation of Germany.

EMBIDJE Burmeister. These are small insects, forming a
connecting link between the white ants and Psocus ; they are
characterized by the linear depressed body, with the head free
from the thorax, the wings equal in size, with few veins, and
triarticulate tarsi. The larvae are found under stones and are
protected by a cocoon which they renew at each moulting of
the skin. (Gerstaecker.) EmUa Savigni Westwood is found
in Egypt.

A species of Olyntlm? the only genus of this family found
in North America, is stated by Hagen to occur in Cuba.

Leach. These minute insects would be easily mis-
taken for Aphides, both the wingless as well as the winged
individuals. Their bodies are oval, the head free from the
prothorax, which is small and partially concealed by the wings.
The wings are unequal in size, and with few veins, thus depart-

PSOCID^E .

589

ing widely from the usual Neuropterous type of venation, and
closely resembling that of the plant-lice. Mr. R. McLachlan
states (Entomologist's Monthly Magazine) that "the eggs are
laid in patches on leaves, bark, or other objects, and the fe-
males cover them with a
web. The larvae and pupae
greatly resemble the per-
fect insects." The larvae
closely resemble the pupae ;
the ocelli in these states
are absent, and the tarsi are
two or three-jointed, accord-
ing to the species. He has
observed individuals with
but partially developed
wings. " In all their states
they probably feed on dry
vegetable substances and
lichens. They are univer-
sally common, living more
or less in societies on tree trunks and palings, and amongst
the herbage of trees, especially firs, larches and yews, and
some species in houses and warehouses. I believe that both
sexes possess the power of spinning a web, not distinguishable
from that of spiders. They are exceedingly active and diffi-
cult of capture." (McLachlan.)

In the nearly wingless genus Clothilla, from California, there
are no ocelli, the wings are incomplete, and the tarsi three-
jointed. Clotliilla picea Motschulsky is but .04 of an inch long
and pitchy black in color, with a brassy reflection. In the
nearly wingless Atropos the ocelli are wanting and the tarsi
are three-jointed, while the rudimentary wings form minute
square pads. The A. divinatorius of Otho Fabricius is a little
pale, louse-like insect, seen running over books and in insect
cases, where it does considerable injury to specimens. The
Atropos is in England called the "death-watch," and is sup-
posed to make the ticking sound heard in spring. Mr. E.
Newman (Entomologist, iii, p. 66) has bred " Psocus pulicarius,
or some allied species, from Clothilla pulsatoria" (Fig. 573.)

Pisr. 573.

590 NEUROPTERA.

The genus Psocws, which closely resembles in its appear-
ance and habits the Aphides, though the species are not suck-
ing insects, has three ocelli, two or three-jointed tarsi, and well
developed wings. The species are very numerous, and abound
during the close of summer. Psocus venosus Burm. is said by
Fitch to live on the maple, while P. salicis he describes as
being found on the willow.

PERLID^E Leach. This group comprises those Neuroptera
with long flattened bodies, the sides of which are parallel, while
the prothorax is large ; the antennae are long and thread-like,
and the wings are unequal in -size, the posterior ones being
broad, triangular. The labial palpi are present, while the
mandibles exist ordinarily in a rudimentary state. The wings
are usually charged with many irregular transverse veins, and
when folded flat on the back, extend beyond the abdomen.
The tarsi are three-jointed, and there are, in the typical genera,
two terminal setae on the abdomen. The pupae are active, with
prominent wing-pads. They are found in rivers under stones,
while the adults are found resting on leaves and in low damp
places. The larvae resemble the adult, except in being wing-
less, and bear a general resemblance to the larvae of certain
Ephemerids, showing the near relationship of the two families.

The genus Pteronarcys is remarkable for retaining in the
adult state external gill-like filaments attached to the under
side of the prothorax. It consequently lives in exceedingly
moist places, much nearer the water than Perla. P. regalis
Newman is fuscous, the head is no broader than the thorax,
while in P. proteus Newman the head is broader than the pro-
thorax and the abdomen is yellowish beneath.

In Perla the wings are veiny, the transverse veins few and
very regular, while the hind wings have a large, plicated anal
space. The palpi are thread-like, and there are two abdominal
setae. Westwood remarks that " there is a very great diversity
in the sexes of the typical genus Perla, the males being much
smaller than the females, with very short wings." Perla ab-
normis Newman is yellowish fuscous, and the wings are sub-
hyaline with the veins clay-yellow.

The genus Isopteryx is characterized by the wings having

PERLID^E. 591

the transverse veins few in number, almost absent, and there
is no basal space in the posterior wings. The palpi are seta-
ceous, the last joint being shortest. Isopteryx Cydippe New-
man is pale yellow and immaculate.

Capnia is known by the wings being veiny, with the trans-
verse veins very few and regular ; the anal area of the posterior .
wings is large, plicate, and the palpi are filiform, with the last
joint ovate, longer than the preceding one, and there are two
setae. Capnia pygmcea Burm. is shining black, with gray hairs.
It is common in New York in February, according to Dr. Fitch.
The species of Tceniopteryx have the wings inrolled and veined,
with the transverse veins very scarce, rather regular ; the anal
area of the posterior wings is large and plicated ; the palpi are
filiform, with the last joint ovate. There are no abdominal
setae, and the tarsi are divided into three long equal joints.
They fly early in spring and late in the autumn, and south-
wards, during the winter. T. frigida Hagen is black, with
grayish hairs, with a gray band on the middle and another at
the apex of the nearly transparent wings. In Nemoura the
wings are veiny, flat, and the transverse veins are few, very
regular, the veins of the pterostigma forming an X. The anal
area of the posterior wings is large and plicate, and there are
no caudal setae. The males are smaller than the females, with
shorter wings. N. alUdipennis Walker is piceous, shining,
with whitish wings. The genus Leuctra differs from Nernoura
in the wings being rolled in when at rest. L. tennis Pictet is
fuscous, with three elevated lines on the disk of the thorax.

Under the name Palceopterlna, Scudder has described a
group considered by him as a distinct family which comprises
but three fossil species discovered in the Carboniferous forma-
tion at Morris, Illinois. The fragments of the first species
found were described by Professor J. D. Dana in 1864, under
the name of Miamia Bronsoni (Plate 1, fig. 1, the dotted lines
represent the parts restored by Mr. Scudder). He states
that this insect "while Neuropterous in wings, closely ap-
proaching the Semblids, has broad costate femurs, and even a
large spinous joint to the anterior legs, peculiarities which
seem to be almost inconsistent with the Neuropterous type,

592

NEUROPTERA.

although in part characterizing the Mantispids, and which are
in complete harmony with the Orthopterous type." (American
Journal of Science and Arts, 1864, p. 33.)

Professor Dana farther states "that in the
broad costate femurs of the second pair of
legs and the form of the prothorax, it ap-
proaches the Orthopters of the Phyllium
family, and is very unlike any known Neu-
ropters. The anterior legs are peculiar in
having a large and broad femur armed above
with very slender spines as long as the joint,
three of which, though mutilated, are seen in
the specimen. But something of this kind
is observed under Neuropters in the Mantis-
pids. It is quite probable that these anterior
Fig. 574. legs were prehensile, as in Mantispa, and the
fact that the tibia and tarsus are not in sight in the specimen,
favors this conclusion. . . . There appears to have been a pair
of short obtuse appendages at the extremity of the abdomen,

much as in Phyllium. The
head is mostly obliterated."
Mr. S. H. Scudder in the
"Memoirs of the Boston So-
ciety of Natural History" for
1867, shows that the vena-
tion of this genus recalls fea-
tures of several other Keu-
ropterous families, such as the
Termitidce, the Hemero-
bidce and Sialidce.

Mr. Scudder, w r ho has given
a restoration of this remark-
able insect, states that the
head is somewhat like that of
Perla, being oval, depressed, with long oval lateral eyes.
These two authors disagree as to the "fore legs" (Dana), Mr.
Scudder calling the parts so designated by Professor Dana,
the head. Gerstaecker states his opinion that Miamia is
"without doubt a Perlarian."

- 575 -

EPHEMERIDJE. 593

Mr. Scudder has more recently described in the "Palaeon-
tology of the Illinois Geological Survey," iii, p. 566, two other
forms of this group. He remarks, "the two specimens before
me, with wings better preserved than in the individual of Mia-
mia Bronsoni, prove that my delineation of the conjectural
parts of the wing structure of the Palcvopterina was in part
erroneous, and give evidence of a closer relationship of the
Palaeopterina to the ancient Termitina than I had supposed
possible." A second species of Miamia from Morris, Illinois,
he calls M. Dance (Fig. 574 ; all the specimens occurred in
balls of iron stone). It is four- fifths smaller than M. Bron-
soni. He also remarks, "the other fossil which I would refer
to the Palceopterina is Chrestotes lapidea (Fig. 575). The
genus differs from Miamia in the shortness and rotundity of
the wings," and in the venation, some points of which remind
him of the Blattarice.

EPHEMERID.E Leach. The May-flies, or Ephemerids, as
their name implies, are, when fully grown, very short-lived
insects, the adult living but a few hours. The body is slender
and weak, being very long ; the prothorax is of moderate size ;
the antennae are subulate, or awl-like, being very small, as in
the Libellulidce, while the parts of the mouth are rudimen-
tary, the insect taking no food in the adult or imago state.
The wings are very unequal in size, the hinder pair being much
smaller, or in some instances (Cloe and Caenis) entirely
aborted ; the transverse veins are either few or numerous ; the
tarsi are four or five-jointed, and appended to the long, slender
abdomen are two or three long caudal filaments.

The sexes unite while on the upper surface of the water, and
after a short union the female drops in the water her eggs "in
two long, cylindrical yellow masses, each consisting of numer-
ous minute eggs." Walsh states that he possesses a "sub-
imago of Palingenia bilineata, which oviposited in that
state." The larvae live in running water and prey on small
aquatic insects, the body being long and flat, with long hair-
like antennae, and small eyes situated on the side of the head,
the ocelli not usually being present, and long sickle-shaped
jaws, while along each side of the abdomen are leaf-like or
38

594 NEUROPTERA.

bushy false gills, and the body ends in long feathered anal
hairs. They live, it is stated, two or three years, and reside
in burrows in the mud, under stones, or among grass and
weeds, where they may be taken with the water-net in great
abundance, and are beautiful objects for the aquarium. Lub-
bock states that Chloeon passes through twenty-one moultings
of the skin before it assumes the imago state ; the pupae are
active and have, as a general rule, the rudiments of wings.
After leaving the pupa skin the insect (subimago), when its
wings are expanded, takes a short flight, and then casts an-
other skin before reaching the final imago state. They often
fly in immense numbers, and become stranded in winrows
along the borders of lakes. The perfect insects should be
preserved in alcohol for study, as they shrivel up when pinned.
They should be described when alive if possible.

The genus Ephemera of Linnaeus has three long and equal
caudal setae ; the fore wings are present, with very numerous
transverse veins, while the eyes are remote, and in the males
simple. Ephemera decora Walker is luteous, with the end of
the antennae black and a reddish band on the side of the body.

The remains of a gigantic form described by Mr. Scudder
under the name of Platephemera antiqua (Plate 1, fig. 3) has
been discovered by Mr. C. F. Hartt in the Devonian formation
of New Brunswick. Another fossil wing, Haplophlebium
Barnesii (Plate 1, fig. 8), accompanying the preceding, has
been doubtfully referred to the May-flies by Mr. Scudder. It
indicates a very large species. Mr. Scudder also figures, in
the Palaeontology of the Illinois Geological Survey, certain fos-
sils from lower Carboniferous strata, which "appear to be the
wings of insects, and, being probably more nearly allied (p.
571) to the Ephemeridce than to other Neuroptera, should
be grouped under the generic name Ephemerites."

In Palingenia there are three caudal setae, the middle one
being short, and sometimes almost absent in the males. There
are four wings with very numerous transverse veins, and the
eyes are remote and simple. P. bilineata Say is a common
species and one of the largest of the family ; it is found floating
on the surface of lakes. It is greenish yellow, with a reddish
stripe on the side of the prothorax. The genus Baetis has but

EPHEMERID^E.

595

two abdominal setae, while the four wings are provided with
numerous cross-veins. The eyes are simple, and in the males
of large size and placed very near each other. Baetis inter-
punctata Say is a yellowish white species tinged with green,
with an arcuate black line on the front, and a lateral black
point, while the prothorax has one black stripe on the side.

The singular genus Bcetisca is very thick-bodied, and differs
from the other Ephemerids in the fifth abdominal joints being
twice as long as any of the others.
The pupa (Fig. 576, i ; a, lateral
tooth ; u, antenna ; in, section of
the abdomen, the numerals indicat-
ing the segments ; a, branchiae,
above which is a flap, b) "differs,"
according to Wtflsh, * * from all de-
scribed Ephemerinous pupae in the
antennae being eight-jointed or there-
abouts, not multiarticulate, and also
in the branchiae being internal and
not used for locomotive purposes,
and from all larvae and pupae, and indeed from all known
hexapbd insects in any of their states, in the pro-, meso- and
metanotum being connate and confluent, and extending over
one-half of the abdomen in the form of a large, dilated, convex
carapace, or shield, thus giving the in-
sect a very Crustacean appearance."
The larva, early in its life, has rudi-
mentary wings, as in many grasshoppers,
but in the pupa state they are not
present.

Near Baetis comes Potamanthus, which
has three caudal setae and four wings
provided with numerous cross- veins ; the
eyes in the males are double, large and Fi s- 577 -

approximate. The Potamanthus cupidus of Say is black, with
a broad dorsal stripe and a lateral impressed line on each side
Of the thorax. P. marginatus Zetterstedt (Fig. 577), a boreal
European species, we have found in abundance in Labrador fly-
ing over pools in July.

Fig. 576.

596 NEUROPTERA.

In CloZ there are but two caudal setae, and though there are
usually four wings, yet the hinder pair are sometimes wanting,
and there are few transverse veins. The eyes in the males
are double, large and approximate. Cloe pygmcea Hagen is

brownish gray, with the feet and
setae white, and the wings hya-
line. It is a Canadian species.
Ccenis differs in having three
caudal setae, with no hind wings
developed, and few cross-veins,
and the eyes in the males are
very simple and remote. Ccenis
hilaris Say is small and whitish,
with black eyes, and the thorax is
pale fulvous, with short obscure
Fig. 578. lines beneath and on the sides.
Hagen states that the most abnormal Ephemerid is Oligoneu-
na, distinguished by the abortive condition of the legs, the
large size of the longitudinal veins of the wings, the rarity of
the transverse veinlets, and by a long bristle-like appendage
at the base of the fore wing. A closely allied genus has been
described by Dr. Hagen under the name Lachlania. It has
two caudal filaments, where Oligoneuria has three, and there
are three strong transverse veins in the fore wings. L. abnor-
mis Hagen (Fig. 578, enlarged) is a Cuban species.

Mr. Scudder regards as the type of a distinct family, which
he calls the Hemeristina, a single form, the Hemeristia
occidentalis of Dana, which occurred with Miarnia Bronsoni in
the Lower Carboniferous rocks of Illinois. Mr. Scudder de-
fines this family as consisting of "Neuroptera of large size.
The prothorax is quadrangular, narrower than the meso- and
metathorax, though not proportionally so much so as in the
Palceopterina; the femora (probably the front pair) are as
in the Palceopterina, but proportionally broader. Wings
large, long, about twice as broad beyond the middle as near
the base, the costal border convex in its outer half, with nu-
merous and prominent cross-veins but no reticulations ; when
at rest, overlapping quite completely, even close to the base,

LIBELLULHXE. 597

much as in the Perlarice, and probably with the sides pro-
tected near the base by the deflected marginal and scapular
(subcostal) areas." Scudder shows that while the venation is
much the same as in Hemerobius, as stated by Professor Dana,
it also resembles that of the Sialidm and Ephemertdce and
Libellulidce. Gerstaecker thinks that Hemeristia "at least
stands nearer to the Epliemeridce than to any other family."
(Bronn's Klassen und Ordnungen des Thier-Reichs, vol. v.)

LIBELLULIDCE Latreille. Dragon-flies, Devil' s-darning-nee-
dles, or Mosquito Hawks, are readily known by the enormous
head and thorax, with the remarkably long, slender, cylindrical
abdomen. The head is large and globular, with immense eyes
often encircling the head. The large square thorax is remark-

able for the small size of the tergal parts, while the pieces
composing the flanks are greatly enlarged, rising up especially
in front, taking the place of the prothorax, which is usually
very large in the Neuroptera generally, but is in this family
greatly aborted, as these insects scarcely ever walk. As in
the Ephemeridce the antennae are short and setiform, and
the mouth is not furnished with palpi. The wings * are large,

* FIG. 579. Venation of a fore wing of Gomphus. Veins. a, a, costal vein; b,
subcostal vein ; c, c, median vein ; d, submedian vein ; e, postcostal vein. Sectors
(branches springing from areas, veins, cross-veins, or other sectors). Jf/, princi-
pal sector; g, nodal sector; h, subnodal sector; k, median sector; mm, short sec-
tor; n, upper sector of the triangle (normally a prolongation of d); o, lower
sector of the triangle (normally a prolongation of e); o', o", its branches. (The
figure gives an angle where o' bifurcates from o, which should have been a flow-
ing curve. Both n and o should have been engraved as springing from the lower
angle of the triangle, t.") Cross-reins. p, nodus; q, arc or arculus; rrr, - - - ant^-
cubitals. (The basal antecubital is wrongly engraved as dislocated with that of

598 NEUROPTERA.

densely reticulated, very equal in size, and in some cases the
hind wings are a little larger than the fore wings. The tarsi
are three-jointed, and the second abdominal segment of the
males is furnished with accessory genital organs.

4 ' Landois notices a peculiar sound-producing organ in this
family, and figures that of .ZEschna juncea. It is situated in
the prothoracic stigmata, which are placed quite at the front
of the thorax, and concealed by the head. These stigmata are
large elongated slits, one margin of which is simple, whilst
the other bears a sort of chitinous comb of about twenty teeth,
between which an exceedingly delicate membrane is extended.
The metathoracic stigmata, which in general are the chief or-
gans of sound in this part of the body, are smaller, and bear
on one side a semilunar valve with stiff hairs." (Giinther's
Zoological Record for 1867.)

"During the pairing of the sexes, which takes place during
flight, the male seizes the neck of the female with his anal
claspers ; the female then curves the end of its abdomen to
the second abdominal ring of the male, which has a swollen
expansion of the under surface, containing in a longitudinal
cleft the intromittent organ, which conveys the seminal fluid
from the bladder-like cavity into the body of the female. But
since the outlet of the testicle opens on the ninth segment
of the abdomen, the males previous to union with the other
sex, must fill the copulating sac with the seminal fluid, by
curving its abdomen upon itself. After the union has been
effected the females generally let go of the males. In many

the second or subcostal series); sss, postcubitals. Areas and Angles. t, the

triangle (discoidal) ; u, internal triangle ; V, anal triangle ; W, basal area (or space) ;
xx, median area (or space); y, membranule ; z, anal angle in the male, the dotted
line z' showing the form of the anal corner of the wing in the female Gomphu;.
(The angle z ought to have been engi-aved as much more acute and salient.) A A,
discoidal areolets (in the figure two ranges of them commencing with three).
B, pterostigma; C, its basal (or internal) side prolonged in the normal manner; D,
" quadrangle," " quadrilateral," or " area above the triangle," bounded above by
m, below by d, basally by g, and terminally by an unnamed cross-vein; EEE,
postcostal area (or space).

Of the above pterological parts, q and its sectors, r, s, t, W, y, B, and in the
Calopterygina and Agrionina "the quadrilateral" (D), and " the postcostal area"
(E), are the most important in classification. From Hagen with modifications by
Walsh. Following the nomenclature adopted in this work, aa would indicate
the marginal vein; b, the costal; c, the subcostal; d, probably the median, and e,
the submedian vein.

LIBELLULIM:. 599

species of Libellula, however, during oviposition, the male
retains his hold on the neck of the female, and both fly over
the surface of standing water, the female touching the surface
of the pool with the tip of her abdomen, and letting the eggs
fall into the water.

"In some genera (Libellula, Agrion) the two sexes of a spe-
cies differ greatly in color, the males having bright variegated
colors, while the females are dusky, being more of one color.
The males of many species have, on the abdomen, several days
after exclusion from the pupa case, a bluish powdery exuda-
tion. The genus Calopteryx and allies differ sexually in the
color of the wings." (Gerstaecker.)

"Brauer indicates the occurrence of dimorphism in the fe-
males of some species of the genus Neurothemis, some of
them having the wings very richly veined, as in the males,
whilst others have widely netted veins like those of the ordi-
nary Libellulae." (Gimther's Zoological Record for 1867.)

During July and August the various species of Libellula and
its allies most abound. The eggs are attached loosely in
bunches to the stems of rushes and other water-plants. In
laying them, the dragon-fly, according to Mr. P. R. Uhler's
observations, "alights upon water-plants, and, pushing the
end of her body below the surface of the water, glues a bunch
of eggs to the submerged stern or leaf. Libellula auripennis
I have often seen laying eggs, and I think I was not deceived
in my observation that she dropped a bunch of eggs into the
open ditch while balancing herself just a little way above the
surface of the water. I have also seen her settled upon
the reeds in brackish water with her abdomen submerged in
part, and there attaching a cluster of eggs. I feel pretty sure
that L. auripennis does not always deposit the whole of her
eggs at one time, as I have seen her attach a cluster of not
more than a dozen small yellow eggs. There must be more
than one hundred eggs in one of the large bunches. The eggs
of some of the Agrions are bright apple-green, but I cannot
be sure that I have ever seen them in the very act of oviposi-
tion. They have curious habits of settling upon leaves and
grass growing in the water, and often allow their abdomens to
fall below the surface of the water. Sometimes they fly against

600

NEUROPTERA.

the surface, but I never saw what I could assert to be the pro-
jecting of the eggs from the body upon plants or into the
water. The English entomologists assert that the female
Agrion goes below the surface to a depth of several inches to
deposit eggs upon the submerged stems of plants." The
Agrions, however, according to Lacaze-Duthiers, a
French anatomist, make with the ovipositor a little
notch in the plant upon which they lay their eggs.

These eggs hatch during the middle of the sum-
mer, and the young larva (Fig. 62) when first hatched
differs from the more mature larva (Fig. 580), in not
Fig. 580. Caving the rudiments of wings, and in the long,
spider-like legs. The larva is very active in its habits, being
provided with six legs attached to the thorax, on the back of
which, after the first one or two moults, are the little wing-
pads, or rudimentary wings. The large head is provided

with enormous eyes, while a pair of
simple, minute eyelets (ocelli) are
placed near the origin of the small
bristle-like feelers, or antennae.
Seen from beneath, instead of the
formidable array of jaws and ac-
cessory organs commonly observed
in most carnivorous larvae, we see
nothing but a broad, smooth mask
covering the lower part of the face,
but when some unwary insect comes
within striking distance the battery
of jaws is unmasked, and opens
upon the victim. This mask (Fig.
581, under side of head of a dragon-
fly larva, with the labium fully ex-
tended ; a?, a?', a", the three subdivi-
sions ; y\ maxillae. For other details
of the head of the larva of Diplax,
see p. 60) is peculiar to the young,
or larva and pupa, of the dragon-fly. It is the labium, or under
lip greatly enlarged, and armed at the broad spoon-shaped
extremity (x) with two sharp hooks, adapted for seizing and

581.

LIBELLULUXE.

601

retaining its prey. At rest, the terminal half is so bent up
as to conceal the face, and thus the creature crawls about, to
all appearance, the most innocent and harmless of insects.

Not only does the immature dragon-fly walk over the bottom
of the pool or stream it inhabits but it can also leap for a con-
siderable distance, and by a most curious con-
trivance. By a syringe- like apparatus lodged
in the end of the body, it discharges a stream
of water for a distance of two or three inches
behind it, thus propelling the insect forwards.
This apparatus combines the functions of loco-
motion and respiration. There are, as usual,
two breathing pores (stigmata) on each side of Fi s- 582 -
the thorax. But the process of breathing seems to be mostly
carried on in the tail. The tracheae are here
collected in a large mass, sending their
branches into folds of membrane lining the
end of the alimentary canal, and which act like
a piston to force out the water. The entrance
to the canal is protected by three to five tri-
angular horny valves (Fig. 582, 9, 10 ; Fig.
583, side view), which open and shut at will. When open
the water flows in, bathing the internal gill-like organs which
extract the air from the water. This is then
suddenly expelled by a strong muscular effort.

In the smaller genera, Agrion (Fig. 584, side
view of false-gill, showing but one leaf), Lestes
and Ccdopteryx, the respiratory leaves, called the
tracheary, or false-gills, are not enclosed within
the body, but form three broad leaves, permeated
by tracheae, or air-vessels. They are not true
gills, however, as the blood is not aerated in
them. They only absorb air to supply the tra-
cheae, which aerate the blood only within the
general cavity of the body. These false gills also
act as rudders to aid the insect in swimming.

It is easy to watch the dragon-flies through their
transformations, as they can easily be kept in Fi s- 584 -
aquaria. Little, almost nothing, is known regarding their

Fig. 583.

602

NEUROPTERA.

habits, and any one who can spend the necessary time and
patience in rearing them, so as to trace up the different stages
from the larva to the adult fly, and describe and figure them
accurately, will do good service to science. Mr. Uhler states
that we know but little of the young stages of our species,
but "the larva and pupa of the Libellulce may be always known
from those of the ^Eschnce by their shorter, deeper, and more
robust form, and generally by their thick clothing of hair."
The pupa (Fig. 585, pupa probably either of ^Eschna con-
stricta or JE. clepsydra) scarcely differs from the larva, except
in having larger wing-pads. It is still active, and preys on
other insects. When the insect is about to assume the pupa
state the body, having outgrown the larva
skin, by a strong muscular effort opens a
rent along the back of the thorax, and
the insect having fastened its claws into
some object at the bottom of the pool,
the pupa gradually works its way out of
the larva skin. It is now considerably
larger than before. Immediately after
this tedious operation its body is soft,
but the crust soon hardens. This change,
with most species, probably occurs early
in summer.

When about to change into the adult
fly the pupa climbs up some plant near
Fig. 585. t^ sur f ace o f the water. Again its back

yawns' wide open, and from the rent our dragon-fly slowly
emerges. For an hour or more it remains torpid and listless,
with its flabby, soft wings remaining motionless. The fluids
leave the surface, the crust hardens and dries, rich and varied
tints appear, and the dragon-fly rises into its new world of
light and sunshine.

In Agrion and its allies (Agrionina) the antennae are four-
jointed, the eyes are small compared with those of Libellula,
and distinct ; the wings are equal, while the abdomen is cylin-
drical and long and slender. In Calopteryx the wings are
very broad and densely reticulated ; the pterostigma is absent
in the males, that of the females irregular and areolate ; the

, LIBELLULID^E. 603

basal space has no transverse veins, and the male appendages
are forcipate. (Hagen.) Calopteryx apicalis Burm. is shining
brassy green, with long black feet.

In Lestes there are two antecubital transverse venules ; the
fourth apical sector is broken ; the postcostal space is simple ;
and the quadrangular space is trapezoidal,
with the exterior inferior angle acute ;
the pterostigma is large, oblong, and the
appendages in the male are forcipated.
Lestes eurina Say is blue, varied with
green and violet. The beautiful genus
Agrion has the apical sector straight, the
postcostal space simple, the quadrangular
space trapezoidal, with the exterior inferior angle acute ; the
pterostigma small, rhomboidal, while the male abdominal ap-
pendages are short. Agrion civile Hagen is brassy-black,
varied with blue or green, with a hairy head and thorax. A.
saucium Burm. (Fig. 586) is red, variegated with black, and is
a common species.

In the group ^Eschnina the wings are unequal, and all the
triangles of the wing are of the same form. In Gomphus and
its allies the
wings are un-
equal, the
hinder ones be-
ing broader,
and the trian-
gles of both
pairs of wings
have no trans-
verse veins.
Gomphus fra-
ternus Say is
yellow spotted Fi s- 587 -

with black, with black feet. The genus Anax differs in the
anal angle of the posterior wings being rounded in the male,
and the abdomen has a lateral interrupted ridge. Anax Junius
Drury is a large and widely spread species ; it is green, spot-
ted with blue and fuscous, with a yellow head. ^Eschna differs

604

NEUROPTERA.

in having the anal angle of the posterior wings of the male
acute. ^Eschna heros Fabr. is one of our largest and most
abundant dragon-flies. It is fuscous, marked with yellowish
green, and with two oblique green stripes on the side of the
thorax.

In the third group of this. immense family, the Libellulina,
the wings are unequal, and the triangle of the anterior wings

Fig. 588.

is dissimilar, while the anterior genital hamule of the male is
free. In Cordulia the anal angle of the posterior wings of the
male is acute, and the body is brassy green. C. tenebrosa Say

is found in the Western
States.

The genus Libellula is
characterized by the short,
rather flattened abdomen,
narrowing rapidly towards
the tip, and the male clasp-
ing organs are scarcely visi-
ble. Libellula trimaculata
DeGeer (Fig. 587, male) is
so called from the three

dark clouds on the wings of the female. The male differs in
having a dark patch at the front edge of the wings, and a sin-
gle broad cloud just beyond the middle of the wing. Libel-

SIALID^E.

605

Fi s-

lula quadrimaculata Linn. (Fig. 588) is reddish yellow, with
four dark clouds on the wings which are yellow anteriorly on
the base. In Diplax the abdomen is a little shorter than the
wings, and is slender,
flattened, compressed at
the base, while the feet
are long and slender.
Diplax rubicundula Fabr.
is a very abundant spe-
cies, being yellowish red.
Diplax Berenice Drury
(Fig. 589, male; fig. 590,
female) is black, with the
head blue in front, spotted with yellow, while the thorax and
abdomen are striped with yellow. There are fewer stripes on
the body of the male. D. Elisa Hagen (Fig. 591) is black,

with the head yellowish and
with greenish yellow spots
on the sides of the thorax
and base of the abdomen.
The Nannopliya bella of
Uhler (Fig. 592) is a smaller
form, with an unusually
short abdomen, and the
reticulations of the wings
are large and simple. It is
black, while the male is frosted over with a whitish powder.

SIALID^E Leach. This family is not a numerous one, but the
species are interesting as comprising some of the largest of in-
sects. Hagen defines the group briefly
as having the body short and thick,
while the prothorax is large and square.
The antennae are long and setaceous ;
the wings are large, reticulated, the pos-
terior ones with the anal .space plicated,
and the tarsi are five-jointed. Fi s- 592 -

"The female of Sialis," according to "Westwood, "deposits
an immense quantity of eggs, which she attaches one by one

606 KEUROPTERA.

to rushes or other aquatic plants. They are of a cylindrical
form, terminating at the top in a sudden point ; they are at-
tached side by side with the greatest regularity." The larvae,
as in those of Corydaltis, are broad and flattened, with a pair
of long, thick, respiratory filaments attached to the side of
each ring of the abdomen. The body of the pupa is curved,
with the wings laid along the breast, much as in the Phry-
ganeid pupae. The larva is active and predaceous, being
armed with strong jaws. When full-fed it leaves the pools or
streams in which it has been living and makes an earthern cell
in the bank, in which the inactive pupa undergoes its remain-
ing transformations.

In Sialis the prothorax is large and square, almost equal in
size to the head ; there are no ocelli ; the antennae are filiform,
and the wings irregularly net-veined, the veins being stout.

The fourth joint of the tarsi is

T^\ lifc KM jfaydt dilated and twice lobed. The
W ^ ^JP^^r a * arva i mucn like that of Cory-
/*-- d, p- d dalus, but differs in having the
abdomen terminating in a
Fig - 593 ' ."long and slender setose tail."

Sialis infumata Newman (Fig. 593, caudal appendages of the
male, from Walsh) is black, with the head not narrower be-
hind, while S. Americana Rambur is rust-red, and the head is
narrower behind. The wings expand about an inch.

Chauliodes is a much larger insect, with a quadrangular pro-
thorax nearly as large as the head. There are three ocelli
placed close together, and the antennae are either pectinated or
serrated. The wings are veiny, the transverse veins slender.
The joints of the tarsi are cylindrical, and the caudal appen-
dages of the male are conical and simple. Walsh describes the
larva of C. rastricornis Rambur as resembling that of Cory-
dalus, but being much smaller, measuring 1.60 of an inch, and
the abdomen has one segment less, with no caudal setae, "so
that Chauliodes forms a connecting link in this respect between
Corydalus and Sialis, the larva of which is said to have 'one
long, slender, setose tail/" and the under side of the abdomen
is "entirely destitute of the remarkable paddle-like branchiae
found in Corydalus." The pupa resembles that of Corydalus.

SIALID2E.

607

Chauliodes pectinicornis Linn., our most common species., is
yellowish ashen, with reddish pectinated antennae. In C. ser-
ricornis Say the antennae are serrate. In Corydalus, the largest
form known, the pro-
thorax is square but
narrower than the head
and the antennae are
stout but filiform. The
male of C. cornutus
Linn. (Fig. 594, fe-
male ; fig. 595, male ;
fig. 596, pupa; fig. 597,
larva), has very long
mandibles, about twice
as long as the head,
whence its specific
name. According to
the Editors of the
" American Entomol-
ogist," the eggs of
this insect (Fig. 598)
are "oval, about the
size of a radish seed,
and of a pale color,
with some dark mark-
ings. They are usu-
ally deposited in a
squarish mass upon
reeds or other aquatic
plants overhanging the
water." Hagen does
not " think that the
lateral filamentous ap-
pendages are connect-
ed with respiration ;
the little sponges at rig. 594.

the base of the filaments and a little behind them are the true
branchiae." "The reason that the larva of Corydalus has both
branchiae and spiracles is, that it lives, like Sialis, some weeks
out of the water before its transformation." (Hagen.)

608

NEUROPTERA.

The genus Raphidia is not aquatic in its habits as it is found
under the bark of trees pursuing small insects. The adult has
a long neck (prothorax), which is much narrower than the head,
and the antennae are short and filiform, while the ovipositor of
the female is long and ensiform, probably enabling it to deposit
its eggs in the chinks in the bark. The larva is long and

slender; before
transforming it
makes no cocoon.
At first the pupa
is inactive, but
according to Mr.
Waterhouse
(Westwood's In-
troduction), it be-
comes active
while the imago
skin is develop-
ing, and walks
about, as the pu-
pa skin is exceed-
ingly thin. The
genus is only
found on the Pa-
cific coast of this
continent, anoth-
er proof of the
analogy of the in-
sect fauna of the
"Western shores
of this country
to that of Europe,
where this genus
also abounds.

Fig. 595.

In their form and habits, including both those of the larva,
and of the partially active pupa, which wiggles violently and
even leaps, as the larva does, as stated by Percheron, whom
Mr. Westwood quotes ( jouit de la meme faculte de contorsion et
de sauts, que la larve execute a un si haut degre), have we not
brought forcibly before us the Thysanura?

HEMEROBID^:.

609

HEMEKOBID^: Leach. The Aphis Lions and Lace-winged
flies, which are included in this family, have long, slender, cy-
lindrical bodies. The wings are large, with numerous veins,
the posterior ones with no anal space ; the ocelli are usually
absent, and the tarsi are five-jointed.

The larvae vary considerably in form, but are usually flat-
tened or short, thick, ovate and fleshy, with large sickle-like
mandibles ; "the under side of these organs is deeply grooved,
and the maxillae, which are nearly equal to
them in size, and of a similar form, play in
this groove." (Westwood.) With these they
pierce the bodies of their victims and suck
out their juices. The sides of the abdominal
segments are fringed and have lateral tuber-
cles bearing a thin tuft of radiating hairs.

The body of the pupa is more cylindrical,
being curved, and with the limbs and wings
folded to the breast. The larva spins a silken
cocoon, and the pupa is inactive.

In Aleuronia the body is covered 1 with a
whitish powder ; the eyes are reniform, and
the antennae are moniliform. The wings are
ciliated ; the longitudinal veins are few in
number, while the transverse ones are almost
absent. Aleuronia Westwoodii of Fitch is a Fi - 596 -
very small insect, being black, covered with a whitish pow-
der, with a pale abdomen and feet. The singular genus
Coniopteryx, whose larva somewhat resembles a Smynthurus,
one of the Thysanura, showing the close relationship of
these aberrant forms, is characterized by Hagen as being
powdered with whitish scales, having globose eyes and monili-
form antennae. The wings are not ciliated, the longitudinal
veins are few, and there are some transverse veins. The pos-
terior wings of the males are small. Coniopteryx vicina Hagen
is black, covered with grayish powder, and the wings have
eight longitudinal veins, all joined together by a single trans-
verse vein. It is about one-seventh of an inch in length.
Haliday (in Westwood' s Introduction) thinks that the larva of
the European C. tineiformis preys on plant-lice. When about

610

ISTEUKOPTERA.

to transform it spins an "orbicular pouch of fine white silk
of close texture, generally on the trunk of a tree, in chinks of
the bark, or among moss. The pupa is quiescent."

The singular genus Nemoptera is at once recognized by the
remarkably long, narrow, linear hind wings which reach far
beyond the abdomen. The larva has a remarkably long,

almost filiform thorax, and was de-
scribed under the name of Necro-
philus. The species are found in
Western Asia and in Northern
Africa.

The genus Hemerobius has mo-
niliform antennae, the wings having
the subcostal and median veins
joined together at the apex, and the
costal space of the anterior wings
is broader at the base, with a re-
current forked vein ; the transverse
series of venules are gradate (like
a pair of steps) . We have found in
Maine a larva (Fig. 599, tergal and
side view) of this genus on the bark
of a birch tree in October, where it
was seen preying on Aphides, and
had covered its abdomen with the
empty skins of its victims, forming
a thkk mantle as seen in the figure.
Hemerobius alternatus Fitch is white
or yellowish, varied with fuscous,
with tawny hairs. According to
Fig. 597. Fitch it is found upon pine and

hemlock bushes. H. occidentalis Fitch has hyaline wings, not
mottled as usual with smoky dots or clouds, but adorned with
two faint parallel lines ; it expands .38 of an inch. I have
raised specimens, referred -to this species by Dr. Hagen,
which occurred in the pupa state (Fig. 600), in considerable
numbers under a cloth wrapped around a pear tree in a
garden in Salem. The cocoon is oval, cylindrical, dense, and
surrounded by a much thinner mass of silk more globular

HEMEROBID^.

611

598 -

in form. The partially active pupae crawled out of the co-
coons, and were found scattered about in the paper containing
them.

The genus Polystoechotes is of much larger size than Heme-
robius or Chrysopa, and Hagen suggests that the larva is
aquatic. P. punctatus Fabr. is widely distributed,
flying lazily at night-fall. The aberrant genus Man-
tispa is a most interesting form, from the great length
of the prothorax, which with other characters remind
us strikingly of the Orthopterous genus Mantis. The
fore legs are, like those of Mantis, adapted for seizing
other insects. Mantispa brunnea Say is our most
common species, occurring in the Middle and Western
States and southwards to Central America.

Chrysopa (Fig. 601, eggs, larva, and adult of C.
perla of Europe), the Lace-winged
Fly, is abundant and of great use, as
in the larva state it preys on plant-
lice. Its body is slender, with deli-
cate gauze -like wings, and is generally green,
with golden eyes. When disturbed it often
emits a foetid odor. Their eggs, supported by
long pedicels, are often laid in a group of
Aphides or in plants infested by them. When
hatched the voracious larva finds its food
ready at hand, and destroys immense numbers
of plant-lice, whence its name, Aphis-lion. It
turns to a pupa late in summer, and thus passes the winter
within a very dense, round, whitish cocoon situated
in the crevices of bark, etc.

In Europe gardeners search for these Aphis-lions
and place them on fruit trees overrun with lice,
which they soon depopulate. The Chrysopa ocu-
lata of Say (Fig. 602, and eggs) is our most abun-
dant form. It gives out a foul smell when handled.
By this genus we are led to the Ant-lion, or Myrme-
leon. It is a larger insect than any of the fore- Fig. GOO.
going genera, and reminds us in many respects of the dragon-
flies. The antennae are short and stout, clavate, while the body

Fig. 599.

612

NEUKOPTEKA.

is very long and slender, and the wings are long, narrow and
densely veined. The larva (Fig. 603) bears a close resemblance
to that of Chrysopa. It makes a pitfall in fine sand at the bot-
tom of which it hides, leaving only the tips of its mandibles in

sight, which are extended
and ready to seize any
insect which may fall
into them. The pupa re-
tains the large mandibles
and uses them in cutting
601 - its way out of its cocoon.

Myrmeleon obsoletus Say (Fig. 604) is not rare in the warmer
parts of the country, and has been found at Salem, Mass., by
Dr. E. P. Colby. M. abdominalis Say has also been found as

far north as Milton, Mass., by
Mr. J. Schoneld. Mr. R. Tri-
men, speaking of the Entomo-
Fig. 602. logy of Natal, South Africa

(Entomological Monthly Magazine) , notes the habits
of a "huge Myrmeleon, of the genus Palpares, the
spotted and variegated aspect of whose wings will
cause you to mistake them for moths. . . . These
great insects are very unlike Libellulidce in their
flight, flapping wildly and irregularly about, as if their Fi -
muscular apparatus were too weak to wield their stretch of
wings. In repose the wings are folded above each other so as
to form an acute-angled roof above the abdomen. They differ
in this respect from the long-horned Ascalaplii, which deflect

the wings on either side,
and hold the abdomen
erect or nearly so."

Ascalaphus with its
long filiform ^nobbed
antennae, and broad
wings and gay colors is
Fi s- 604. the butterfly among Neu-

roptera. It flies in the heat of the day, seeking the hottest
places and is abundant in the deserts of the East. The body
and feet are short and the large wings are less densely veined

PANORPIDJE. 613

than in Myrmeleon. The eggs when laid are hedged around
by^little pales like a fence "and are so placed that nothing can
approach the brood ; nor can the young ramble abroad till they
have acquired strength to resist the ants and other insect ene-
mies. The abdomen of the larva is depressed and oval, with
ten pectinations on each side." (Westwood.) It closely re-
sembles that of Myrmeleon. McLachlan states that the eggs
of Ascalaphus macaronius were observed by Kollar deposited
on a grass stem. Ascalaphus hyalinus Latr. is found in the
Southern States and Mexico.

PANORPID^E Leach. This family is interesting as affording
a passage from the winged Neuroptera to the degraded wing-
less forms which are often excluded from the suborder by
writers, and placed apart by themselves under the title of
Thysanura. Hagen thus defines the group: "body cylindri-
cal or conical ; head exserted ; antennae shorter than the wings ;
mouth rostrated ; lateral palpi biarticulated ; prothorax small ;
wings either almost absent or narrow, equal, longer than the
body, narrowed at base ; the posterior wings with no anal
space ; tarsi of five joints."

In Panorpa, the Scorpion Fly, so called from the long for-
ceps-like tip of the male abdomen, there are three ocelli and
the wings are narrow. The genital organs of the male are
greatly lengthened out, and are forcipated, with the last seg-
ment inflated ; the two tarsal Hooks are serrated, and the an-
tennae are bristle-like.

Lacaze-Duthiers selects the ovipositor of Panorpa as being
an intermediate type, as regards complexity, between Libellula
and J^schna. "When disturbed, the female of Panorpa Ger-
manica or communis, darts out a long slender tube towards
the disturbing object. Soon a little drop of a whitish liquid
appears at its extremity ; it is a means of defence. While at
rest the conical abdomen, terminating in a point, appears to
be composed of a less number of segments." At first sight
there seems to be but two, though in reality there are three
segments between the oviduct and the anal outlet, since the
ninth ring is very small and partly aborted, being concealed
beneath the others. The eleventh segment consists of five

614 NEUROPTEKA.

pieces, a tergite, two sternal scales, and two appendages articu-
lated to the tergal piece. * .

M. Lacaze-Duthiers does not extend the comparison of the
ovipositor of Panorpa to those of Podura and Smynthnrus, but
we can see how easy the transition is. Only let the long flexi-
ble ovipositor of Panorpa be permanently extended, which in
insects usually involves its being bent and appressed to the
under side of the abdomen, and with a few other slight modifi-
cations we have the leaping ovipositor of the Podura and its
allies !

The larva is terrestrial, as Stein has found the pupa buried an
inch deep in moist earth, at the foot of an alder stump. (West-
wood.) Brauer states that the larva is long, cylindrical, with
long filaments arising from tubercles
on the body. In its general appear-
ance it resembles certain caterpillars,
and also Ph^ganeid larvae. P. ru-
fescens Rambur (Fig. 605, enlarged)
is the most common form in New
England. It is of a yellowish red
color, with the antennae black, except the three or four basal
joints which are reddish. It is about half an inch long and
the wings expand an inch.

The Tipula-like genus Bittacus, though it has four wings, is,
in its remarkably slender body and long legs, much like the
Crane-flies. There are seven species in this country, one of
which, B. pilicornis Westwood, has been found in Canada and
New York. The winter insect, Boreus, is wingless in the fe-
male sex, and in its habits and form as well as its minute size,
reminds us strikingly of Podura and Lepisma, though the re-
semblance has not to our knowledge been specially noticed by
entomologists. In this genus the ocelli are absent, and the
males have very imperfect style-like wings, while the females
are entirely wingless. "The abdomen of the female is termi-
nated by a three-jointed ovipositor, the under side of which is
defended by a produced valve-like bilobed plate arising from
the under side of the seventh segment. The male has the
abdomen terminated by two short, recurved, attenuated, pilose
styles." (Westwood.) In this description we are reminded of

PHRYGANEIDJE. 615

the Spring-tails (Podura) , which leap by means of the long ovi-
positor, and corresponding male organs, bent beneath the body.

Dr. Fitch has described two forms of these winter insects
which, like Podura, occur in moss and are found leaping on the
snow, Boreus nivoriundus. is about one-seventh of an inch
long, and is reddish, with a bronze tinge, while B. brumalis is
entirely brassy-black, and is a still smaller species.

We must not pass over the singular genus Merope, which is
interesting in this connection. It has no ocelli, while the
compound eyes are large, reniform and united on the top of
the head. The antennae are short and thick, narrowed at the
apex, while the wings are broad, with numerous transverse
veins, and the male abdomen has large forceps. The Merope
tuber of Newman is very rare. It is clay yellow (luteous), and
expands nearly an inch. Hagen remarks that "the genus and
species are very singular and abnormal ; perhaps the most re-
markable of all hitherto known Neuroptera. It certainly be-
longs to the Panorpina."

PHRYGANEID^E Latreille. Some of the members of this
family bear a striking resemblance to the smaller moths, such
as the Tineidce. As characterized briefly by Dr. Hagen,
their bodies are compressed, cylindrical ; the head is free, an-
tennae long, thread-like, the mouth is imperfectly developed,
and the labial palpi are triarticulate. The prothorax is small ;
the wings longer than the body, with few transverse veins,
while the posterior wings have the anal space large, plicated
(rarely absent), and the tarsi are five-jointed. In all these
characteristics, together with the cylindrical form of the larva,
the quiescent pupa which is very much like that of a moth with
its wings and limbs free, instead of being soldered together,
and in the habits of the larva, which in some genera resemble
those of the Sialidce, this family stands above the Neurop-
tera to be hereafter mentioned, and in a serial arrangement,
such as we are forced -to make in our books, this seems to us
to be their proper place, while in nature they appear to us to
stand off by themselves parallel with the Si all dee and
HemerobidcB, certain genera of which, in the imago state
(such as Coniopteryx) , they closely resemble, while they seem

616 NEUROPTERA.

to rank higher than the Panorpidce, which next to the
Thysanura are in our view the lowest family among the Neu-
roptera.

The larvae are more or less cylindrical, with well developed
thoracic feet, and a pair of feet on the end of the abdomen,
varying in length. The head is small, and like that of a Tor-
tricid larva, which the Caddis or Case-worm, as the larva is
called, greatly resembles, not only in form, but in its habit of
rolling up submerged leaves. They also construct cases of bits
of sticks, sawdust, or grains of sand, which they drag over the
bottom of quiet pools, retreating within when disturbed. They
live on vegetable matter, and on water-fleas (Entomostraca)
and small aquatic larvae. When about to pupate they close
up the mouth of the case with a grating, or as in the case of
Helicopsyche by a dense silken lid with a single slit, and in
some instances spin a slight, thin, silken cocoon, within which
the pupa state is passed. The pupa is much like that of the
smaller moths, except that the wings and limbs are free from
the body. Dr. Hagen informs me that after leaving its case
it makes its way over the surface of the water to the shore,
sometimes going a long distance. "Westwood states that
"the females deposit their eggs in a double gelatinous mass,
which is of a green color, and is retained for a considerable
time at the extremity of the body ; the mass is subsequently
attached to the surface of some aquatic plant, and Mr. Hyde-
man has observed the female of Phryganea grandis creep down
the stems of aquatic plants under the water, very nearly a foqt
deep, for the purpose of oviposition." A. Meyer mentions
.several instances of the union of the sexes of different species
of this family, with the production of fertile eggs. (Giinther's
Zoological Record for 1867.)

Only one exception to the aquatic habits of this famity is
the Enoicyla pusilla Burmeister which, according to Mc-
Lachlan, in Europe u lives out of the water amongst moss at
the roots of trees. The larva is destitute of the external
respiratory filaments common to almost all caddis- worms, but
the spiracles are not very evident. E. pusilla is also remark-
able, inasmuch as the female is wingless, and little resembling
the male." Von Siebold discovered that an Ichneumon (Agrio-

PHEYGANEID^.

617

typus armatus) attacks the fully grown larva of a Phryganea
( Aspatherium) , which inhabits a smooth 'cylindrical case,
which the Ichneumon converts into a pupa case by spinning
a long broad band of silk around the anterior opening. (Ger-
staecker.)

In Neuronia and Phryganea the maxillary palpi differ in the
two sexes, and there are two spurs on each of the fore legs,
and four on the middle and hind legs. The maxil-
lary palpi in the males are four-jointed, in the females
five-jointed, and there "are three ocelli. Neuroma
differs from Phryganea in having its
antennae a little shorter than the wings,
whereas in the latter they are longer,
jnd the fore wings are hairy. Neu-
ronia semffasciata Say is fulvous, with
the fore wings transversely flecked with
brownish-black, a small basal spot, and an abrupt,
median streak at the hinder margin of the wing, while
the disk has two yellowish spots, and there is a short
fuscous subapical band on the hind wings. Fig. 606 Fig. 606.
represents the case of the European Phryganea grandis Linn.
In the group Limnopliilides the maxillary palpi of the males
are three, those of the fe-
males five-jointed ; ocelli
three ; anterior wings rather
narrow, the apex obliquely
truncated or rounded. In
Limnopliilus the tibial spurs of the three pairs
of legs are arranged thus, 1, 3, 4 (i. e., one
spur on the front pair of tibiae ;
three on the middle, and four
on the hinder pair), and the
apex of the anterior wings is
truncated. L. perpusittus
Walker is a boreal species, oc- "'WiMiiffllir
curring at Hudson's Bay. Limnopliilus rhom-
bicus Linn. (Fig. 607, case made of bits of moss) Fig ' 610<
is an ochreous species, with luteous hairs. Fig. 608, a, case,
represents a case-worm which we have found in great abund-

Fig.

Fig. 608.

618

NEUROPTERA.

ance in Labrador. Though we have not reared the imago we
suppose it to be the Limnopliilus subpunctulatus of Zetterstedt,
the most abundant species we met in Labrador. The case
is straight, cylindrical, and built of coarse gravel, and the
larva is a thick, cylindrical, whitish worm. Fig. 609 repre-
sents the case of L. flavicornis Fabr., a European species,
which is often constructed of small shells. Fig.
610 illustrates the case of the European L.pellu-
cidus Olivier, which is formed of large pieces of
Fig. en. leaves laid flat over each other.

In Sericostoma the ocelli are wanting, and the palpi are
pilose, the maxillary palpi of the males are four-jointed, cover-
ing the face like a mask. S. Americanum Walker is black
with black hairs ; the antennae are twice the length of the
body, while the anterior wings are much longer than the hind
ones. Fig. 611 represents the tube of a European species of
this genus.

In Helicopsyclie the spurs are arranged thus : 2, 2, 4, and
the maxillary palpi of the males mask the face, being recurved.
We have found the larvae of Helicopsyclie glabra Hagen (Fig.

6 Fig. 612.

612, a, lunate patch on the basal abdominal ring; a, front
view of the head, enlarged ; m, mandible ; e, eye ; 6, vertical
view of the end of the abdomen, enlarged), about changing
to pupae, the middle of July, in Wenham Lake, Mass. One
had spun its operculum and lay with its head just behind

PHRYGANEID^.

619

it. The body of the larva is curved, though not spirally, and
when out of the case it is cylindrical, thickest on the basal
ring of the abdomen, and is pale greenish, while the head,
thorax and legs are brownish ; it is .25 of an inch in length/
The head is hairy and is smaller than usual, a little narrower
than the thorax, with black, acute unidentate mandibles.
The thoracic rings are horny above, somewhat hairy, and
the legs are slender and hairy. The abdomen
ends rather abruptly, with two short tubercles
ending in a hook; both sides being alike, the
body throughout as symmetrical as other larvae Fig. 613.
of this family, though living in a helicoid case. On each side
of the basal segment of the abdomen is a lunate, corneous,
hairy spot, by which the larva probably retains its hold in the
case when the head and thorax are protruded. The case is
usually very regularly helix-like in form, though the umbilicus
varies in size. It is composed of fine grains of sand so
arranged that the outer
surface is smooth. It is
closed during the pupa
state by a dense, silken
concave, suborbicular
operculum, with concen-
tric lines, rounded on the
side, and but slightly con-
vex on the other, with a
slightly curved slit for the
passage of water situated
on the less convex side,
each side of the slit be-
ing provided with slender
straight teeth which near-
ly touch each other, thus
forming an imperfect
grate. The larva does
not spin a cocoon. Fig. Fi s- 614.

613 represents the case of H. arenifera Lea, from Indiana.
Mr. J. A. McNiel has brought from Pulvon, west coast of
Nicaragua, similar larvae, belonging to a species very closely

620 NEUROPTERA.

allied to that described above. They differ in being a little
larger and more hairy. The case is similar, though with a
rough exterior. The pupa (Fig. 614, a, antennae, curved back
behind the eyes ; Z, labrum ; m, mandibles ; mp, maxillary palpi ;
to, wings) of this Nicaraguan larva is curved in a slightly
spiral manner, the antennae are curved over and behind the
eyes, reaching to the seventh abdominal ring ; the maxillary
palpi are laid backwards on the side of the thorax, and the
labial palpi lie between them, though diverging from each
other. The wings are pressed to the body under the legs,
the latter being fringed with long hairs. On the end of the
abdomen are two slender tubercles ending in fine hairs, and
alike on both sides, the pupa, like the larva, being symmetri-
cal throughout. The larvae seem to live in clear water on a
sandy bottom, often attached to submerged sticks,
unio shells, etc.

In Leptocerus the antennae of the males are ex-
tremely long ; tibial spurs thus : 2, 2, 2. L. niger
Linn, is black, shining, with black hair ; the antennae
are black, the basal half annulated with snow-white,
while the basal joint is reddish ; the feet are luteous,
the intermediate ones being snow-white, while the
Fig. 615. anterior wings are steel-blue black, and the hind
wings blackish. It is found in Europe and the United States.
Fig. 615 represents, Dr. Hagen informs me, a case of either
this species or L. sepulchralis Walker, or else a similar species.
The larva builds a thin, long, conical, sandy tube supported
between two needles of the pine. The specimens figured were
found by Rev. E. C. Bolles at Westbrook, Maine.

In Setodes the species are snow-white ; the spurs are ar-
ranged thus : 0, 2, 2. S. Candida Hagen is pale j^ellow, with
the anterior wings snowy white. It occurs in the Southern
States. McLachlan states that "some species
of Setodes make delicate little tubes, entirely
formed of a silky secretion, without any mix-
Fig. GIG. ture of extraneous matters." Fig. 616 repre-
sents a tube of a European species of Setodes formed of sand.
In Hydropsyche and allies the ocelli are three in number, or
entirely wanting, while the last division of the maxillary palpi

PHRYGANEID^E.

621

is very long, filiform and multiarticulate. In Hydropsyclie the
spurs are arranged thus : 2, 4, 4. The antennae are rather
long and slender, the ocelli are absent, and the intermediate
feet of the female are dilated. H. scalaris Hagen is black
gray, with white hairs, and the antennae are yellowish, and
obliquely striated with black at the base ; the first joint is
covered with snow-white hairs. Philopotamus has three ocelli,
and the tibial spurs are arranged thus : 2, 4, 4.

In Rliyacopliila the maxillary palpi have the last joint entire,
straight, shorter than the rest ; while there are three ocelli, and
the tibial spurs are arranged thus : 3, 4, 4. R. fuscula Walker
is rust-red, with some black hairs and a subfuscous spot on
each side of the thorax. It comes from Hudson's Bay.

Another curious Neuropterous insect found in the iron-stone
concretions of Morris, 111., is the Megathentomum pustulatum
of Scudder (Fig. 617, natural size), described and figured by
him in the "Palaeon-
tology of the Illinois
State Geological Sur-
vey." "The fragment
represents a wing (ap-
parently an upper one)
of a Neuropterous in~
sect. It is gigantic in
size, very broad, with
distant nervures, sim-
ple infrequent divarica-
tions, and in the outer
half of the wing, which
alone is presented, a

cross neuration, composed solely of most delicate and irregu-
lar veinlets. The wing is also furnished with a great number
of larger and smaller discolored spots, the surfaces of the
larger ones irregularly elevated." Mr. Scudder thinks the
wing is allied to that of Coniopteryx, adding "it appears to
belong to a family hitherto undescribed. I do not know of a
single insect, living or fossil, which approaches it in the struc-
ture of the wings."

622 NETJROPTERA.

The two succeeding families were by Latreille placed in a
group by themselves (Thysanura), which was considered
equivalent to the Neuroptera, or Diptera, for example. More
recently they have been placed among the Neuroptera, though
Burmeister considered them as Orthopterous, by the close re-
semblance of the mouth-parts of Lepisma, especially the la-
bium, to those of the Blattarice. But in descending through
the last three families thysanurous characters have constantly
revealed themselves, as we have shown above, and the tran-
sition from some Sialidan, Hemerobid and Panorpid forms is
not so abrupt as it might seem. Indeed these low, apterous
insects stand hi the same relation to the rest of the Neurop-
tera as the Flea does to the rest of the Diptera, or the Lice
and Thrips to the* higher Hemiptera. In all these degraded
forms the metamorphosis is but slightly marked. The pupa
is active and closely resembles the larva, where in the higher
insects, such as the butterfly or bee, the pupa bears a close
resemblance to the adult, winged form.

These interesting, minute, wingless forms, also afford a pas-
sage from the true winged insects to the Myriapods, by the uni-
form size of the rings of the bod}^, which form a continuous
series from the head to the opposite extremity, as in the genus
Lepisma and allies, without showing the usual well marked
division into head, thorax and abdomen. Even the place of
abdominal legs is supplied in Lepisma by the rows of small
stylets which prop up the long slender abdomen.

LEPISMATID^ Burmeister. Bristle-tails. These agile crea-
tures, which are revealed by turning over stones and sticks in
damp situations, and are often seen about houses, have a long
flattened body, with metallic scales, in form somewhat like
those of butterflies. The antennae are very long, setiform,
many-jointed ; the mouth-parts are free, with long palpi ; the
maxillary palpi being seven-jointed and the labial palpi four-
jointed. The mandibles are stout, sunken in the head, and
armed with teeth for gnawing. The prothorax is very large,
and all the rings of the body are of much the same size, so
that the insect bears a general resemblance to the Myriapods.
The anal stylets are long and large, which with the smaller

CAMPODEuE. 623

ones inserted on the subterminal rings of the abdomen aid
greatly in locomotion, though these insects run with great ra-
pidity and do not leap like the Poduridce, and thus remind
us, as well as in their general appearance, of cer-
tain wingless cockroaches.

In Lepisma (Fig. 618) the eyes are minute, con-
sisting of twelve simple eyes, with short bristles
on the tip of the abdomen, of which three are
longest, while Machilis differs in having compound
eyes, and longer abdominal bristles. Lepisma
saccharina Linn., or an allied species, is often very
common in houses, where it eats holes, in silks and
silken tapestry, devours the paste and mutilates
the leaves of books. L. domestica Pack., is a beau-
tiful white hairy species, spotted with black, and is Fig - 618>
common about fire places in Salem. Machilis variabilis Say
(PL 10, figs. 8, 9), is dark brown, with long caudal stylets. It
is common all over the middle and southern states, and occurs
as far north as Salem, Mass.

CAMPODE^E Meinert. Under this name Dr. Meinert has
established a family consisting of two but little known genera,
which haf e flat and elongated bodies and no springing appara-
tus, nor eyes, and though the author excludes the Lepismae from
the Thysanura, we would suggest that the Campodese seem
intermediate between the running Lepismse and the springing
Podurae. The antennae are setaceous or filiform, and the feet
are adapted for running, with distinct, elongated, two-clawed
tarsi. There are two anal cerci arising from the tenth and last
abdominal segment. There are six thoracic spiracles, the
Podurse having none (Meinert). The genus Japyx of Haliday
has short, inarticulate, horny anal cerci. J. solifugus Haliday
lays few eggs, but those very large. It lives under stones and
when disturbed resembles "a Lithobius in the character of its
movements," and bears a remarkable resemblance to a young
Forficula. J. Saussurii Humbert lives in Mexico. The other
genus, Campodea, has many- jointed anal cerci. C. staphylinus
Westw. of Europe lives under stones. C. Americana Pack,
has similar habits. C. Codkei Pack, lives in Mammoth Cave.

624 NEUROPTERA.

PODURID^E Burmeister. The Spring-tails are the typical
Thysanura, as they differ more than Lepisma and allies from
all other insects. The anal bristles, which are free in Lepisma,
are here united and bent beneath the body, forming the
"spring" by which they leap to a prodigious height for such
minute insects. The body is cylindrical, not flattened, and is
covered either with hairs or scales. The four or six-jointed
antennae are short and thick, and the eyes are simple, usually
four to eight on each side. The mouth-parts are not well de-
veloped, though mostly present, the mandibles being small,
with minute teeth, and the maxillary palpi entirely wanting
(Gerstaecker), though Lubbock states that the "second pair
of maxillae [labium] are membranous and delicate." The pro-
thorax is small, convex, while the two hinder thoracic rings
are large and similar to each other. The legs are stout, with
tarsi consisting of but a single joint. The abdomen consists
of six, sometimes only three segments, with a long anal stylet
forming the forked tail, or "spring," beneath. (Gerstaecker.)
They are found in gardens, or hot-beds, on manure heaps in
winter, and on the snow ; they may also be seen leaping on the
surface of the water in quiet pools. According to Nicolet
these insects are very prolific, as he found 1360 eggs in a sin-
gle individual. The embryo is developed in twelve days.
They moult often, and at periods of fourteen days each.

The intestinal canal consists in great part of a long and
voluminous chyle-making stomach, into the lower end of which
six free Malpighian tubes pour their contents. (Nicolet.) In
Papirius Saundersii, as in many other apterous Articulata, the
testis is formed on the same type as the ovary. On each side
of the body is a simple tube opening into a triangular reser-
voir with its base in front. The nervous system of Smynthurus
consists, according to Nicolet, of four ganglia, with a double
connecting cord. Two of these ganglia occupy the head and
form the cesophageal collar. The two others consist of a tho-
racic and one abdominal ganglion. There are in Podura four
pairs of stigmata in the four basal rings of the abdomen. Next
to the two main tracheae are six pairs of rather long vesicles
united with them by loops. (Gerstaecker.)

Lubbock states that in Smynthurus there are but two spira-

PODLTRID^.

625

cles, adding that "it is very unusual for an articulate animal

to have only two spiracles, and their position is still more ex-

traordinary, for they open on the under side of the head,

immediately below the antennae, ... on the*

inner side of the basis of the mandibles."

"In the manner of subdivisions the tracheae

of Smynthurus differ from those of the true in-

sects, and agree more closely with the Myrio-

poda and tracheal Arachnida, in the fact that

they do not often give off branches nor form

tufts, but generally divide dichotomously, and

run considerable distances without a separa-

tion." (Mr. Lubbock, whom we have just

quoted, states that Papirius has no tracheae.)

In Smynthurus the ovaries consist, according

to Lubbock, of a single egg-tube. On the un-

derside of the abdomen is a sucking tube, slen- Fig. 619.

der and forked in Smynthurus, but
short in Podura, etc., by which the
animal adheres to smooth surfaces.
In the genus Podura the body is
long, with four-jointed antennae, and
the flexible spring-tail is short, while
in Desoria, which is found in the
Alps, the tail is long. The. genus
Degeeria is known v by the ovate body,
and basal half of the spring equal-
ling the fork in
length. A species
(Fig. 619) closely

resembling the European D. nivalis Nicolet,

we have found in summer resting on the

leaves of the Clematis. The Lepidocyrtus al-

binos Nic. (Fig. 620) is a minute pearly white

species found in Europe ; its scales (Fig.

621) are thin and with distinct markings.
Smynthurus is short, differing greatly in

form from Podura, and bears a striking resemblance to the

larva of Coniopteryx. The body is short, nearly spherical, and
40

620-

626 AEACHNIDA.

in its form approaches the spiders, as noticed by Latreille.
The four-jointed antennae are long and elbowed, while there
are eight simple eyes on each side of the head. The species
are found on tlte leaves of garden plants. In Papirius of
Lubbock, the antennae are said to be " four-jointed, but with-
out a well marked elbow, and with a short terminal segment,
offering the appearance of being many-jointed. *

ORDER II. ARACHNIDA.

THE typical forms of this order have the body divided into
two regions, the head-thorax (cephalothorax) and abdomen.
The head is sometimes quite distinct, but is generally sunken
into the thorax, which bears four pairs of legs, while the abdo-
men has no organs of locomotion, though the abdomen is pro-
vided with three pairs of jointed appendages (the spinnerets) ,
which are, however, homologous with the legs. The metamor-
phosis is very incomplete in the lower forms, while in the
spiders there is none at all after the animal leaves the egg.
The head is without antennae, pr compound eyes. The order
shows its close relationship with the Dipterous insects, especi-
ally when compared with the wingless Chionea and Nycteribia,
and its lowest forms (certain mites) bear a close resemblance
to some of the lower Crustacea, as the young stages and em-
bryonic development are remarkably similar. The typical
forms of the order homologize too closely with the apterous
insects to allow them to be separated as a distinct class. We
shall see below that the rank here assigned to the group ac-
cords well with their anatomical characters and habits.

In some genera there is a decided line of demarcation
between the head and the thorax, which is, however, very
distinct during embryonic life, and we do not perceive that
gradual transition from mouth-parts to swimming legs which
obtains in the Crustacea. The order, however, has much
lower, more degraded forms than the Myriopods even, as
the genus Demodex testifies, which may recall readily certain
intestinal worms. This we would consider as but an example

* EXPLANATION OF PLATE 10. Fig. 1, Lepisma saccharina Linn?; Fig. 2, 3
Degeeria flavocincta Pack.; Fig. 4, 5, D, purpurascens Pack.; Fig. 6, 7, Isotomi
plumbea Pack.; Fig. 8, 9, Machilis variabilis Say.

PI. 10.

THYSANURA.

ARACHNIDA. 627

of what often occurs among all degraded forms, of a recur-
rence to the archetypal form of the articulate type, and not for
this reason, as some authors have done, would we place the
Arachnids of Latreille in a class by themselves, below the
Myriapods ; nor on recurring to the spiders alone, with their
high organization and wonderful instincts, would we follow
Professor Owen and others in placing them even above the
true insects.

We must look upon the Spider as a hexapodous insect, de-
graded, wingless, and partially decephalized. A part of the
elements, constituting the head in insects, have been, as it
were, withheld from the head and detained in the thorax, which
has thus an increase in one pair of limbs. On the other hand,
the sensorial, or pre-oral, region of the head, is wanting in two
most important members, i. e., the compound eyes and the an-
tennae. Both Zaddach and Claparede state that there are no
organs in the spiders homologous with the antennae of insects.
The simple fact that the homology of the organs generally is
so close between the two groups shows that they must fall into
the same class. The same can be said of the Myriapods.

The circulatory system is very perfect in the spiders and
scorpions, but in most of the lower mites there is no dorsal
vessel, or vascular system at all, the fluids being supposed to
circulate in the general cavity of the body, "and by the aid
of the muscular movements and the contractions of the intesti-
nal canal, transferred in an irregular manner hither and thither
in the visceral cavity and in the extremities." (Siebold.) In
the Phalangidce there is a distinct, three-chambered dorsal
vessel, or heart. In the spiders and scorpions, however, the
vascular system is highly organized, as shown by Newport (in
the Scorpions), and Claparede (in Lycosa). Here then, is, as
in Sphinx, a dorsal and ventral vessel with lateral veins, or ve-
nous sinuses, performing the functions of true veins. The main
dorsal vessel is mostly situate in the abdomen, as the lungs
have their seat in that region, where the most important respi-
ratory function, that of supplying the blood with fresh oxygen,
is performed. Claparede has shown that in Lycosa the blood
flows through the dorsal vessel from the head, instead of towards
the head, as in the six-footed insects.

628

ARACHNID A.

The nervous system consists of a small brain, a group of
thoracic ganglia and a few abdominal ganglia, which, however,
are aborted in the spiders. The cerebral ganglia, or brain, lie
just above the oesophagus, and send down two cords embrac-
ing the throat, and also distribute nerves to the ocelli and
mouth-parts.

In the mites (Acarina), where 'the body is oval, and not
divided into the two distinct regions, there is no brain, and
but a single ganglion lodged in the abdomen, from which are
distributed the nerves supplying the head and the peripheral
parts. In the spiders the brain is of considerable size, and the
thoracic ganglia or u suboesophageal ganglia," are large, send-
ing off on each side four large
processes from which proceed
the nerves supplying the feet.

In the scorpion (Pedipalpi)
the nervous system is still more
highly organized. The brain is
not large ; it is composed of
the two spherical superoesopha-
geal ganglia fused together,
sending off the usual nerves to
the mouth-parts. This brain-
like organ is connected by two
filaments with the ventral gan-
glionic mass, formed by the
probable union of several gan-
glia, and situated in the middle
of the false cephalothorax. The
continuation of the nervous cord consists of seven abdominal
ganglia, with the commissures united into a single cord.

The maxillary palpi, functionally, take the place of antennae,
showing how one organ may perform the office of another in a
different group of animals. It is also evident that the spider
combines in the same organ the senses of taste, smell and feel-
ing, which are supposed in insects to reside in the two pairs of
palpi and the antennae.

The alimentary canal is formed, according to Siebold, on two
types. In the mites and spiders, the stomach is produced lat-

Pig. 622.

ARACHNIDA. 629

erally into large ccecal appendages (Fig. 622, alimentary canal
of Tegenaria civilis ; a, stomach, with coeca ; c, liver ; d, renal
organ ; e, fat body) , and then passes into a short, small intes-
tine, going straight to the end of the body. In the Pedipalpes
(Phrynidae and Scorpions) the intestinal canal is more simple,
not having any coecal dilatations to the very small stomach.

The salivary glands are often of large size, especially in
Ixodes, and are thus adapted to their blood-sucking habits,
much saliva being needed to mix with their food. In the
spiders and scorpions the liver is well developed and distinct
from the intestinal tube, being in the spiders a brown or dirty
yellow mass filling a large part of the abdominal cavity and
enveloping most of the other viscera.

As during the growth of the young spider the head is thrown
back on top of the thorax to which it is thus most closely uni-
ted, it follows that the simple eyes, from two to twelve in
number, are situated on the upper surface of the cephalo-
thorax, while no other sensory organs, i. 'e.,the compound eyes
and antennae, are ever developed. Thus in the adult spider
the mandibles seem to be pushed far in front of the ocelli, and
to occupy what is originally the proper or normal site of the
ocelli, and in insects of the antennae, which no doubt has led
most authors to homologize them with the antennae of hexa-
podous insects. Claparede says "all the appendages are post-
oral, hence there are no organs homologous with the antennae."
Thus the mouth-opening is brought far forward ; it is flanked on
each side by a mandible (Plate 10, fig. 3, c, a, movable claw, or
fang), a large, powerful limb, which does not move horizontally
but vertically; behind are the large, well developed maxillae
(Plate 10, fig. 2, b ; 7, maxillary palpus ; 8, male palpus), with
their long, leg-like palpus. Thus the function of the insectean
antennae must, in the spiders, reside in the maxillary palpi.
Claparede's researches on the embryology of the spiders and
mites have demonstrated that the front pair of legs of Arach-
nids are homologous with the labial palpi of insects, which,
as we have previously stated (p. 59), in the latter, are late in
embryonic life thrown forwards, and associated with the max-
illae and other mouth-parts, while in the Arachnids they retain
their embryonic position and are grouped with the legs (see

630 AKACHNIDA.

fig. 59, 4) and are usually of the same form. Thus one cepha-
lic segment of insects is permanently retained in the thorax
among the Arachnids, whereas we have seen in the embryo of
the dragon-fly (Figs. 59, 61, 4) it assumes an intermediate
position between the head and thorax, the remaining anterior
part of the head being clearly separated by a deep suture. In
Fig. 59, we see the labial palpi (4) grouped with the three pairs
of legs ; a position permanent in the Arachnida. The dragon-
fly, at the period represented by Fig. 59, p. 57, may be legiti-
mately compared with the scorpion, especially Cyclopthalrnus,
from the coal measures.

While, as Black wall states, nothing is known with certainty
concerning the organs of smell and hearing in spiders, Mr.
R. Beck " suggests that spiders are capable of distinguishing
sounds to some extent by means of very delicate waving hairs
which are found on the upper surfaces of their legs. During
life they move at their peculiarly cup-shaped bases, with the
least motion of the atmosphere, but are immovable after
death. It is well known that sound is due to vibrations which
are generally conveyed by undulations of the air ; now I am
perfectly satisfied that if these undulations are of a certain
character the hairs I am alluding to, upon the spider's leg, will
move, and I wish you particularly to notice that they are of
different lengths, so that some might move whilst others would
not, and also that the longest is at the extremity of the leg,
and therefore can receive an undulation which might die away
higher up. I may just mention that there is a group of these
peculiar hairs on the flea. The legs of a spider are most sen-
sitive organs of feeling, if they do not also embrace those of
hearing." (Entomologist, London, 1866, iii, p. 246.)

The four thoracic feet have seven joints, and it is probable
that the two basal joints homologize with the coxa and tro-
chantine of insects, in which the two joints are retracted, side
by side, and closely fused together. The tergal part of the
thoracic segments is large, overlapping the pleural, while the
sternum is a rather large, broad breast-plate. The abdomen
is generally somewhat spherical, and in but few instances is it
drawn out and the rings well developed, as in the scorpion.
In the mites it is fused closely with the cephalothorax.

ARACHNIDA. 631

In the genus Hersilla we see clearly that the three pairs of
spinnerets are but modified legs. The second and inner pair
are generally the smallest, while the third and largest pair are
the most posterior. Their office is to reel out the silk from the
silk-glands. The tip of the articulated spinnerets ends in a
cone, perforated by myriads of little tubes (over 1,000 in
Epeiira, about 300 in Lycosa, and a less number in the smaller
species) through which the silk escapes in excessively delicate
threads, which unite to form the common thread visible to the
naked eye. (Plate 10, fig. 4, spinnerets of Epe'ira vulgaris en-
larged twenty-five diameters ; fig. 5, a spinning tube.)

The Acarina are supposed to have glands analogous to the
silk glands, whose product, like silk, hardens on exposure to
the air, and by which certain parasitic genera, such as Uro-
poda, fix themselves solidly to their host. Siebold states also,
that "many species of Hydrachna fix, by a kind of glue, the
anterior portion of their body on aquatic plants, and in this
position await the completion of their moulting. The organs
secreting this substance have not yet been discovered. It is
well known that the European Tetraiiychus telarius spins
large webs on the leaves of trees and on house-plants.

The reproductive system is much as described in insects, ex-
cept that the external appendages are rarely developed in
either sex. The genital armor is situated at the base of the
abdomen ; it is concealed when present under the skin.

In the Acarina the two ovaries open on the middle of the
abdomen, or on the under side of the thorax, either between
or behind the last pair of legs. In Hydrachna the oviduct
opens into an ovipositor by which the insect is enabled to lay
its eggs under the skin of the fresh-water mussel on which it is
parasitic, and other mites oviposit in a similar way under the
epidermis of plants.

In most spiders the two ovaries have their outlet in an ori-
fice situated between the two lung-sacs. They have a distinct
receptaculum seminis, especially marked in Epeira. "The
Scorpionidce have three ovaries, consisting of as many lon-
gitudinal ones, united by four pairs of transverse one's." The
outer two of the former are oviducts, leading out at the base
of the abdomen.

632 AKACHNIDA.

The testes of Ixodes consist of four or five pairs of unequal
follicles, opening out near the base of the abdomen." The
males are distinguished from the females by their larger "cheli-
ceres " (maxillary palpi) and larger pair of clasping legs. In
the spiders the testes are "two long, simple, interlaced caeca,
concealed beneath the hepatic lobes," which lead by two def-
erent canals to the base of the abdomen, through a simple
fissure, which, however, is not applied to the vulva. The com-
plicated hollow spoon- shaped palpi are supposed to be the in-
tromittent organs. u They are filled with sperm and applied to
the entrance of .the vulva. For this purpose the last joint of
the palpi, which is always hollow and much enlarged, contains
a soft spiral body, terminated by a curved, gutter-like, horny
process. Beside this there is an arched, horny filament, and
several hooks and other appendages of the most varied forms.
These appendages are protractile and serve, some to seize the
female, and others as conductors of the sperm." (Siebold.)
While the majority of the Arachnida are developed as usual
after the laying of the eggs, a few, such as the scorpions and
Oribatidce and other mites, are known to be viviparous,
and it is probable that an alternation of generations occurs in
some of the lower mites. The Tardigrades are hermaphro-
dites.

The Arachnida breathe both by tracheae and lung-like organs.
The mites, the false scorpions, the harvest-men and Solpu-
gidce are provided with tracheae, communicating externally
by means of spiracles, generally two in number, and concealed
between the anterior feet. In Hydrachna, which lives con-
stantly beneath the water, the tracheae "possess probably, the
power to extract from the water, the air necessary for respira-
tion." (Siebold.) In the false scorpions a pair of lateral stig-
mata are situated on each of the two basal rings of the
abdomen. From these spring "four short, but large trachean
trunks from which arise numerous unbranched tracheae spread-
ing through the entire body." In the Solpugidce there are
three pairs of stigmata and the tracheae ramify and are distrib-
buted much as in insects, and in the Phalangidoe, the tra-
cheary S3 7 stem is well developed, arising from two stigmata
opening between the insertion of the posterior legs.

AKACHNIDA. 633

In most of the spiders (such as Segestria, Dysdera and Ar-
gyroneta) there are both a tracheary system and lungs. The
two stigmata, from which these tracheae lead, open near the
pulmonary opening. In two other genera, Salticus and Micro-
phantes, there are two stigmata situated at the posterior end of
the abdomen. Siebold calls attention to a tracheary system
in many Aranese opening by a transverse fissure placed near
the spinnerets. From this opening a main trunk leads in,
soon dividing into four simple tracheae, which are not round as
usual, "but are flattened, riband-like, and without the trace
of a spiral filament ; these extend, with a gradual attenuation,
to the base of the abdomen. . . . The air received into these
organs is separated into as fine portions as that of the lungs.*

The so called lungs of the spiders are little round sacs open-
ing by transverse fissures on the under side of the base of the
abdomen. The inner surface is divided into thin lamellae,
connected together like the leaves of a book. Each of these
is formed by a membranous fold, between the two leaves of
which the air enters from the general cavity of the lung, and
is divided into very minute portions. No traces of blood ves-
sels have been found in these pulmonary lamellae." (Siebold.)

Among the organs of special secretion the poison and silk
glands require description. There are two poison glands
emptying into the throat, and thence opening out through hol-
lows in the jaws. (Plate 10, fig. 3, a, b.) In the scorpion the
poison gland is lodged in the last abdominal segment at the
base of the sting.

The silk, as contained in the glands, is a viscid transparent
fluid, which on exposure to the air hardens into silk ; it is drawn
out by the legs through three, rarely two pairs of spinnerets.
There are usually five of these glands lodged in the abdomen,
and the "threads probably have different qualities, according
to the glands from which they are secreted." (Siebold.)

" To form the thread this liquid is drawn through the tubes,

* According to Dr. Burnett, Blanchard regards these anomalous tracheae as
only elongated pulmonary sacs. Leuckart, however, considers that these organs
are only a sort of trachese deprived of the usual spiral filament to keep their walls
from collapsing, and he considers that the pulmonary sacs of the spider afe sim-
ply modifier! tracheae. Dr. W. L Burnett's Translation of Siebolds's Anatomy of
the Invertebrata.

634 ARACHNIDA.

which divide it into such small fibres that it dries almost im-
mediately on coming in contact with the air. The spicier has
the power of uniting these fibres into one or several threads,
according to the purpose for which they are to be used. The
thread commonly used for the web is composed of hundreds
of simple fibres, each spun through a separate tube. As the
thread runs from the body it is guided by the hind feet, which
hold it off from contact with surrounding objects, until the
desired point is reached, when a touch of the spinners fastens
it securely." (Emerton, American Naturalist, ii, p. 478.)

The eggs are laid but once a year in June. The evolution
of the embryo begins immediately, and goes on with a rapidity
according with the temperature. The egg consists, as Herold
observed, simply of a vitelline membrane, but no chorion ; it
is perfectly homogeneous, and has no micropyle. The contents
are an emulsion of fatty globules suspended in a scant}''
amount of liquid, which should not be confounded with the al-
bumen (or white) of the eggs of vertebrates. No trace of the
" germinative vesicle" has as yet been traced in the eggs of
insects, though perhaps it has been overlooked from its trans-
parency.

The first stages in the egg after they are laid, are the follow-
ing : at the surface of the vitellus appear, here and there,
small, very clear and perfectly circular spots ; they are the
nucleus of the future blastoderm (primitive skin, from which
the organs of the embryo successively originate or "bud"
out). These nuclei act as centres of attraction on the mole-
cules of the vitellus for the formation of the cellules. The
unmodified vitellus diminishes in the same proportion as the
peripheric layer of granules increases. The granules multiply
rapidly, and soon the surface of the egg appears to be divided
into a certain number of areas, each of which is occupied in
the centre by a circular and transparent space surrounded with
small opake granules, which become less and less dense as we
go to the outer surface. These hexagonal cellules form an uni-
form layer over the entire surface of the egg ; it is the blasto-
derm. Up to this time the changes precisely accord with those
observed in the hexapodous insects.

The next stage is the formation of ventral tubercles, the ru-

ARACHN1DA.

635

diments of the limbs of the embryo. The first change is the
formation of the "primitive streak," or the splitting of the
blastoderm, which is due to a local multiplication of the cel-
lules along the median line of the egg.

These tubercles result from a simple thickening of the blas-
toderm, and what is ultimately destined to be the back (tergum)
of the animal, arises from a similar thickening of the blasto-
derm, which he calls the "primitive cumulus." This mass,
easily distinguished by its whiteness, always floats on the top
of the yolk of the egg, keeping its position next the eye of
the observer. The "cumulus," at first almost hemispherical,
elongates over the surface of the blastoderm, becoming pyri-
form. This region is the posterior, or anal, pole of the egg.

Tig. 624.

Fig. 623.

Fig. 625.

We see the "cumulus" spreading from the anal pole over the
surface like a veil, but it is less white than the polar region.
This veil continues to spread over the entire surface to a pole
opposing the anal, which Claparede terms the cephalic pole.
Each pole forms a very prominent projection. At this stage
the body of the embryo becomes well marked and subdivided,
worm-like, into rings. (Fig. 623.) The extent of the dorsal
region is greatly limited, while that of the ventral side is
greatly increased.

The entire ventral region, occupying most of the whole egg,
is homologous with the primitive ventral streak. It is at this
time that the formation of the protozoonites (elemental rings,

636 ARACKNTDA.

or primordial segments) takes place. Six of these zones or
segments arise between the cephalic and anal poles ; these
zones represent the ventral arcs. The two anterior rings bear
the mouth-parts, the mandibles and maxillae ; while the others
form rings corresponding to the four pair of feet. These pro-
tozoonites are very transitory, only existing for a short period ;
they gradually retreat towards the ventral side, enlarge and
nearly touch each other.

The embryo (Fig. 624) now grows much longer, and new em-
bryonal segments are formed in the abdomen just as they grow
out in the worms, and Myriapods, and also in the Crustacea, ac-
cording to Rathke's researches. Thus while the cephalothora-
cic rings appear simultaneously the abdominal segments appear
one after the other. The first one appears between the last tho-
racic ring and the anal " hood," or pole. Meanwhile the lateral
extremities of the protozoonites have become enlarged ; these
enlargements form the appendages. These tubercles, or rudi-
mentary limbs, appear on the abdominal as well as on the tho-
racic rings (Fig. 625). This fact is one of great interest, as
showing a resemblance to the Crustacean with its abdominal
legs, and more especially to the abdominal footed Myriapods,
and the larvae of many true six-footed insects. Thus the
young spider is at first like a caterpillar, having "false," de-
ciduous, abdominal legs. Five abdominal rings are present in
Pholcus.

Next follows the development of the "post-abdomen," or
tail, which being differentiated from the anal pole or "hood,"
becomes detached from the yolk mass, and is folded back upon
the embiyo, just as the abdomen of a crab is folded in an op-
posite way to the ventral side of the body.*

This "post-abdomen," after dividing into three segments,
disappears completely during the growth of the embryo. This
is the more interesting, as the "post-abdomen" of the scor-
pion is retained permanent^. Meanwhile the two cephalic

* And in like manner the cephalic lobes, containing the ocelli, are seen in the
author's figures folded back upon the base of the head, so that the antennae are
never developed, and the mandibles of the spider take their place, in advance of
the eyes. The structure and succession of the rings of the insectean head are
most readily explained, and some clue is given to their number and succession
by comparison with the embiyo of spiders.

ARACHNIDA. 637

lobes have developed, and the blastoderm has divided into a
dermal, or outer layer, and a muscular, or inner layer of
cells. The outer layer forms the chitinous body-wall, or crust,
while from the inner layer are developed the digestive, vascu-
lar and other organs besides the muscles.

After the rudiments of the appendages are formed the epi-
mera appear. At this period we are struck with the perfect
identity between all the appendages of the body at their first
origin. In the Arachnida the formation of the primitive seg-
ments takes place much sooner than in most other articulates,
where they often do not appear until after the rudiments of the
limbs are developed.

Another characteristic of the evolution of the spiders is
the tardy appearance of the rudiments of the .legs. The ven-
tral arcs, or protozoonites, subdivide into ventral and pleural
parts, which signalize the formation of the permanent rings
of the body. The author's figures
and statement show, though he
does not state the fact clearly,
that development progresses from
each end of the body towards the
centre, as we have shown* to be
the case in insects. Thus the
posterior half of the body repeats
the mode of development and
general form of the anterior, or
cephalic pole.

The third period in the life of
the embryo dates from the forma- Fig. 626.

tion of the ventral rudiments to the exclusion of the spider.
The first change consists in the lengthening and meeting
of the rudimentary legs. The mouth-parts develop first.
At this period the limb-bearing (pleural) region of the
body separates and the sternal piece or breast-plate appears
as a "slower, later formation." Now the thoracic legs grow
much more rapidly than the mouth-parts and lie interlocked
upon the breast. (Fig. 626. f) When the first pair of legs are

* Proceedings Boston Society of Natural History, Feb. 7, 1866.
. 626, m, mandibles; mx, maxillae; I, fourth pair of legs; p, postabdomen.

638 ARACHNIDA.

long enough to cross each other the jointed structure of the
limbs disappears, and they soon become divided into their
usual number of joints, though the tarsal joints are the last to
be perfected. At this time the maxillae become differentiated,
or split up, into the basal lobe and its appendage, or palpus.
Claparede compares the basal lobe to the coxa of the legs,
though it is formed long before the coxae of the feet them-
selves. The anterior pair of appendages form the mandibles.

The formation of the head is next in order. The "cephalic
lobe" is divided into what the author calls two "procephalic
lobes," separated by a deep incision, and at this period the
head appears very distinct from the thorax. Afterwards the
anterior or ante-oral part of the head is, as in the case of the
"post- abdomen," folded back on the top, and then closely sol-
dered to the thorax, thus forming the so called "cephalo-
thorax." These procephalic lobes are separated by a third
lobe or "triangular plate" which grows up between them,
forming the epicliile. The mouth first appears as a longitu-
dinal furrow in this triangle, the posterior border of which
becomes the so called labium ("glossoide" of Latreille). The
labium thus originates in the spiders in an entirely different
way from the appendages, and is not formed, as Brulle sup-
posed, by the soldering of the maxillae, hence we shall adopt
Latreille's term "glossoide" for this piece.

The two procephalic lobes afterwards unite, and are soldered
together on the median line, to form the anterior face of the
head. This approach takes place from above, over the buccal
frame (epichile). The mandibles are thus in advance of the
mouth, though primitively behind it. "The head is then in
the embryo of the spider very distinct from the thorax. Only
towards the end of embryonic life does the soldering of the
; cranium ' and of the prothorax become so intimate that their
limits become indistinct. It is only from this moment that
there exists a true cephalothorax." (Claparede.)

Towards the end of embryonic life the simple eyes appear,
arising from four little furrows, called the "ophthalmic fur-
rows." They are colored by the deposition of a small quantity
of pigment. They appear at an earlier period in the Acarina.

Formation of the heart and viscera. After the walls of the

AEACHNIDA. 639

body and its appendages have been formed the dorsal vessel
appears. It is formed thus : when the division of the blasto-
derm into its muscular and outer layers takes place the cells
multiply and are heaped up along the median line of the body,
so as to form a sort of cordon (cord), not only in the abdomi-
nal, but in the thoracic region of the body. The vessel prob-
ably originates in the spaces between the cells, but the author
has been unable to trace either its origin or that of the blood-
corpuscles. But the rudimentary heart soon presents rhyth-
mic pulsations, and in the limbs we see the arteries filled
with a homogeneous fluid, in which can be detected the pres-
ence of small corpuscles, moving by impulses synchronous with
the sj^stole of the dorsal vessel, showing that this fluid is the
blood. The heart already presents several dilatations (cham-
bers) corresponding to the abdominal segments.

,The nervous system does not appear to be formed when the
embryo assumes the ventral instead of the dorsal position.
The digestive system is very rudimentary when the embryo
quits the egg. The alimentary canal is probably hollowed out
of the middle of the vitelline mass, being a membranous tube
formed around the remaining yolk mass. The lungs and spin-
nerets are well formed when the embryo is hatched, while the
e} f es appear later.

The same processes of development go on in the scorpions,
the " post-abdomen " of the Araneina (which we have- seen
folded back on the base of the abdomen and finally to disap-
pear) in them being retained, forming the long, articulated
"tail;" thus the distinction into abdomen and post- abdomen
is very artificial as the two parts merge into each other, especi-
ally in Solpuga, Chelifer and Phrynus.

In the mites the arrest of development is still more marked,
as the three regions of the body are in the adult not differen-
tiated, and the entire body assumes an oval form, the abdomi-
nal parts being short, thus strikingly resembling the embryo
of Pholcus, and the spiders generally, as seen in Claparede's
figures.

In the Acarina there is a true metamorphosis, the larvae
of some forms when first hatched being worm-like ; then there
is an oval stage when the young mite has but three pairs of

640 ARACHNIDA.

feet (though in others at this stage there are four pairs), and
after another moulting the fourth pair of limbs appear. The
young mite is analogous to the "Nauplius" stage of many
low Crustacea.

Claparede* has observed in Atax Bonzi, which is a parasite
on the gills of fresh-water mussels, that out of the originally
laid egg (Plate 11 fig. 3, embryo of Atax Bonzi ; ?c, head-plate ;
ag, infolding of the belly ; dm, intermediate skin ; mo, outer
shell of the egg ; md, mandibles ; mo;, maxillae ; p l -p 3 , legs ;
vt, yolk. Fig. 4, front view of the same) ; not a larva, but
an egg-shaped form hatches, which he calls a "deutovum."
(PL 11 fig. 1, bursting of the egg-shell into two halves, mo, on
the day that the deutovum, dm, hatches out ; md, mandibles ;
ma;, maxillae ; jt? 3 , third pair of legs ; Z/i, body cavity ; sp, com-
mon beginning of the alimentary canal and nervous system ;
am&, haemaboeba, amoeba-like bodies, which represent the blo^d
corpuscles ; there being no circulation of the blood, the move-
ments of the haemaboeba constitute a vicarious circulation.
Fig. 2, the deutovum free from the first egg-shell ; lettering
same as in Fig. 1, oc, rudiments of the simple eyes ; R, beak;
h, 7i', rudimentary stomach and liver). From this deutovum
(which is not the "amnion" of insects) is developed a six-
footed larva. This larva passes into an eight-footed form, the
"second larva," (the "nymph" or pupa, of Dnjardin and
Robin) which transforms into the adult mite. The pupa dif-
fers from the adult in having longer feet, and four instead of
ten genital cups, the latter being the usual number in the adult.

The larvae are elongated oval, with six long legs and four
ocelli. They swarm for a short time over the gills of the mus-
sel they are living on and then bore into the substance of
the gill to undergo their next transformation. Here the young
mite increases in size and becomes round. The tissues soften,
those of the different organs not being so well marked as in
the first larval stage. The limbs are short and much larger

*The development of spiders and of the Arachnids generally, has been traced
by Rathke, Herold, and more especially by Claparede, in a -work of great ability,
from which we have drawn the preceding account, often using the aiTthor's own
words. His observations were made on various genera of spiders (Pholcus, etc.)
His "Studies on Mites," from which Plate 11 is copied, appeared in Siebold's and
Kolliker's Journal of Scientific Zoology, 1868, part iv.

METAMORPHOSIS OF TSCITES 1 .

':"'' ; "*; ''/I- *

ARACHNIDA. 641

than before, the whole animal assuming an embryo-like appear-
ance, and moving about like a rounded mass in its enclosure.
Indeed is this process not (though Claparede does not say so)
a histolysis of the former larval tissues, and the formation of a
new body, as in the change of the six-footed insect beneath the
larva skin, where the pupa is formed ? A new set of limbs
grow out, this time there being four instead of three pairs of
legs, while the old larval skin is still embraced within the
membrane containing the second larval rounded mass. Soon
the body is perfected, and the pupa, as we may properly call it,
slips out of the larval membrane.

The "second larva" after some time undergoes another
change ; the limbs grow much shorter and are folded beneath
the body, the animal being immovable, while the whole body
assumes a broadly ovate form, and looks like an embryo just
before hatching, but still lying within the egg. This may also
be comparable with the formation of the adult fly within the
puparium. (Compare Weismann's account of this process in
Musca, pp. 63, 64.) This period seems to be an exact repeti-
tion of the histolysis, and the formation of new tissues for the
building up of a new body which preceded the pupal stage,
while the adult mite slips out of its pupal membrane just as
the pupa threw off its larval membrane. This process, again,
may be compared to an adult butterfly, or fly, emerging from
its pupal membrane.

Thus the mites, at least several species, pass through a series
of metamorphoses similar to those of such insects as have a
complete metamorphosis (except that the Acarian pupa is
active), while the absence of such a metamorphosis in the
spiders is paralleled by the incomplete metamorphosis of the
Orthoptera and many Neuroptera, which reach adult life by
simple moultings of the skin.

In the genus Myobia there is not only a deutovum, besides
the original egg, but also a tritovum-stage. The eggs of this
mite are long, oval and conical at the posterior end. The em-
bryo, with the rudiments of limbs, is represented by Fig. 5 of
Plate 11. The little tubercles md and m#, represent the man-
dibles and maxillae, while the three pair of legs, p l -p s , bud
out from the middle of the body ; Ic represents the head-plate.
41

642 ARACHNIDA.

The maxillae and mandibles finally unite to form a beak (R
Fig. 6) and the three pairs of feet (p l -p 3 ) are folded along
the median line of the body. The farther development of the
embryo is now for a time arrested, and a peculiar tooth-like
process (Fig. 7, d) is developed. Claparede thinks that by
means of this the anterior end of the egg-shell is cut off, and
the embryo protrudes through, when, as in Fig. 7, it is seen
to be surrounded by a new membrane, the deutovum (eft),
equivalent to that of Atax. The front pair of legs (p 1 ) have
grown larger and stand out in front and on each side of the
beak (R). The growing embryo again forces off the anterior
end of its deutovum, and the oval end of the egg protrudes
through, and is surrounded by another membrane. This is the
tritovum. The embryo is now surrounded by the membrane
of the tritovum, and also by the deutovular membrane and the
original egg-shell, the last two having lost a small portion of
their anterior ends. During the tritovum-stage the fore pair
of feet become curved in like claws, and the beak sinks down
into the body.

Now the six-footed larva (Fig. 8) breaks through the shell
and closely resembles the adult (Plate 11. fig. 9). The first
pair of feet, modified for grasping the hairs of the field-mouse,
on which it is a parasite, take the place of the maxillne, which
have been arrested in their development, and the mandibles
(pr) assume a style-like form. After one or more moultings of
the skin a fourth pair of feet (p 4 ) are acquired, and the adult
form results, which the author considers as the type of a new
family of Acarina. Claparede also suggests the affinity of
Myobia to the Tardigrades (Echiniscus and Lydella), especially
from the study of the structure of the style-like mandibles and
their supports. We feel convinced, after examining Clapa-
rede's figures and descriptions that this comparison is very
significant, and this has led us to consider the Tardigrades
as a family of true mites, related to Myobia and Demodex.

A French naturalist, C. Robin, has recently observed in cer-
tain bird sarcoptids, to which the parasite of the Downy
Woodpecker noticed above is allied, "that the males pass
through four, and the females through five stages, indicated as
follows : (1) the egg, on issuing from which the animal has the

ARACHNIDA. 643

form of (2) a hexapod larva, followed by the stage of (3) octo-
pod nymphse [four-footed pupae], without sexual organs. (4)
From some of these nymphse issue : a, sexual males, after a
moult which is final for them; 6, from others issue females
without external sexual organs, resembling the nymphse, but
larger, and in some species furnished with special copulatory
organs. Finally, after a last moult following copulation, these
females produce (5) the sexual and fecundated females, which
do not copulate, and in the ovary of which eggs are to be seen.
No moult follows that which produces males or females fur-
nished with sexual organs ; but previously to this the moults
are more numerous than the changes of condition." " The larvse
undergo from two to three moults before passing to the state
of nymphse." These latter also undergo two or three moults.
(Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 1868, p. 78.)

In some other species of mites no males have been found,
and the females have been isolated after being hatched, and
yet have been known to lay eggs, which produced young with-
out the interposition of the males. This parthenogenesis has
been noticed in several species. But few fossil Arachnids
have been yet discovered. Roemer has described a spider
from the coal formation of Germany under the name of Proto-
lycosa, while two species of scorpions, and a Phalangium-like
spider have been detected in the same formation in this
country.

In studying spiders, of which we have several hundred spe-
cies, the number and relative situation of the eyes, and the
relative length of the different pairs of legs, should be noticed ;
their webs and the manner of constructing them ; their habi-
tats, whether spreading their webs upon or in the ground, or
in trees, or on herbage, or whether the species are aquatic, or
erratic, and pursue their prey without building webs to entrap
them, should be observed. So, also, how they deposit their
eggs, and the form and appearance of the silken nidus, and
whether the female bears her eggs about her, and how this is
done, whether holding on to the egg-sac by her fore or hind
legs, should all be carefully noticed. Care must be taken not
to mistake the young for full-grown, mature species, and de-
scribe them as such. Spiders can be reared in boxes as

644 AEACHNIDA.

insects. The only way to preserve them is to throw them into
alcohol; when pinned they shrivel up and lose their colors,
which keep well in spirits.

The colors of spiders vary much at different seasons of the
year, especially during the frosts of autumn, when the changes
produced are greatest. All spiders are directly beneficial
to agriculture by their carnivorous habits, as they all prey
upon insects, and do no harm to vegetation. Their instincts
are wonderful, and their habits and organization worthy of
more study than has yet been paid them in this country. We
have no species poisonous to man, except when the state of
health renders the constitution open to receive injury from
their bite, just as mosquitoes and black flies often cause
serious harm to some persons.

The Arachnids are divided into three groups, or suborders,
the Araneina, the Pedipalpi, and the Acarina.

ARANEINA.

THE Spiders are distinguished from other Arachnids by hav-
ing mandibles used exclusively for biting, a spherical, sac-like
abdomen, not divided into segments, and attached to the head-
thorax by a slender pedicel. The maxillae resemble the tho-
racic feet. They breathe both by lungs and tracheae, and do
not undergo a metamorphosis, the young on being hatched hav-
ing four pairs of legs.

The mandibles (Plate 12, fig. 3, front view, with the eight
ocelli above) are vertical and end in a powerful hook, in the
end of which opens a duct (Plate 12, 3 a, b) connected with the
poison gland situated in the head. The maxillae, represented
by the so called palpi, though in reality the maxillae themselves,
with a flattened coxal lobe at the base (Plate 12, fig. 2, 6, palpi
of female ; fig. 8, do. of male) are simple in the female, but in
the male the terminal joint is enlarged and modified greatly as
an accessory genital organ. The cephalothorax is not jointed,
and there are usually eight, rarely six, simple eyes (ocelli).
In the genus Nops from Cuba there are, however, only two,
while in certain cave-inhabiting species, according to Menge,

ARANEINA. 645

such as the Anthrobia Mammothia of Tellkampf from Mam-
moth Cave, and other spiders inhabiting European caves, there
are none.

We quote an interesting account of the habits of spiders,
especially the mode of spinning their webs, published by Mr.
J. H. Emerton in the "American Naturalist" (ii, p. 478), who
has studied our native species with much care.

" The feet of spiders are wonderfully adapted for walking on
the web. Each foot 'is furnished with three claws (Plate 12,
Fig. 6, a, 6, 6), the middle one of which (a) is bent over at the
end, forming a long finger for clinging to the web, or for guid-
ing the thread in spinning. The outer claws (e, e) are curved
and toothed like a comb. Opposite the claws are several stiff
hairs (c) which are toothed like the claws, and serve as a
thumb for the latter to shut against."

" When a spider wishes to build a web she usually selects a
corner, so that the structure may be attached on several sides.
She then runs a few threads along the objects to which the web
is fastened, to facilitate her passage from point to point. The
web is commenced by a line or two across the point where the
centre is to be, which is not usually the geometric centre, but
nearer the top than the bottom. Radiating lines (Plate 12, fig.
1, 6, &, 6) are then spun from the centre in all directions. In
doing this the spider often crosses from one side of the web
to the opposite, so that the finished portion is always tightly
drawn, and the tension of the completed web is the same in
every part."

" Having finished the framework, the spider begins near the
centre and spins a thread (Fig. 1, c, c, c) spirally, around
the web to the circumference, fastening it to each radius as it
crosses. The distance between the spirals varies with the size
of the spiders, being about as far as they can reach. This
spiral thread serves to keep the parts of the web in place dur-
ing the rest of the process, and is removed as fast as the web
is finished. It also furnishes a ready means of crossing from
one radius to another where they are farthest apart. All the
thread spun up to this stage of the process is smooth when
dry, and will not adhere if touched with a smooth object/'

"The spider, having thus formed the web, begins to put in

646 ARANEINA.

the final circles at the outside, walking around on the scaffold-
ing previously prepared, which she gradually destroys as she
proceeds, until in the finished web only a few turns in the cen-
tre are left. The thread of the circles last spun is covered with
viscid globules, strung upon it like beads at short distances.
If an insect comes in contact with the thread, it immediately
adheres, and its struggles only bring a larger part of its body
into contact with the web. Dust and seeds also stick to the
web, so that in a single day it is often so clogged as to be of
no farther use. The web also becomes torn by the struggles
of the prey, and by wind and rain, so that it requires repair
or renewal every night. In mending a web the spider usually
removes all except the outside threads, biting them off and
rolling them into a hard ball between her jaws, so that when
released it will drop quickly to the ground. This probably
gave rise to the opinion, sometimes advanced, that the old web
is eaten by the spider.

"When the web is finished she stations herself in the centre,
where a small circle is left free of the adhesive threads. Her
usual position is head downward, with each foot on one of the
radii of the web, and the spinners ready to fasten themselves
by a thread at the least alarm. She often remains in her hole
with one foot out, and resting on a tight thread connected with
the centre of the web, so that any vibration is quickly detected.
If the web be gently touched the spider will rush into the cen-
tre, and face towards the^disturbed part. She will then jerk
smartly several of the radii leading in that direction, to see if
the intruder is a living animal. If this test is followed by the
expected struggle she runs out towards the victim, stepping as
little as possible on the adhesive threads, seizes it in her jaws,
and as soon as it begins to feel the effects of the bite, envelops
it in a silken covering, and hangs it up to suck at her leisure.
In spinning this envelope the insect is held and turned around
mainly by the short third pair of feet, while a flat band of
threads is drawn from the spinners by the hind pair working
alternately like the hands in pulling a rope, and wound over it
in every direction, so that in a few seconds it is so covered as
to be unable to move a limb. When a web is shaken by the
wind the spider will sometimes draw in all her feet towards her

Plate 12,

THE COMMON GARDEN SPIDER.

.
TETRAPNEUMONES. 647

body, thereby tightening the web in every direction so that the
vibration is prevented.

" The construction of nets for catching food is not the only
use of the thread made by these spiders. They seldom move
from place to place without spinning a line after them as they
go. They are able by its use to drop safely from any height,
and when suspended by it are carried by the wind across wide
spaces without any exertion on their part, except to let out the
thread. The crevices in which they pass the winter and the
leisure hours of summer, are partly lined and enclosed by a
coating of silk resembling that used for confining captured in-
sects. The eggs are enclosed in a cocoon of the same mate-
rial, and there the young remain until they are strong enough
to shift for themselves, growing to nearly double their size
without apparent nourishment.

"Several hundred young are produced by a single female,
but probably it is seldom that one-tenth of this number ever
reach adult size. Nearly all the spiders which we see in webs
are females or young. They spend most of their time in the
vicinity of their webs, and many doubtless pass their lives
within a few yards of the place of their birfh. The adult males
are seldom seen building or occupying webs : they remain con-
cealed during the day, and at night wander about from web to
web. When young there is no obvious difference between the
sexes, but as the time for the last moult approaches, the ends
of the palpi of the male swell to several times their former
size. When the time for the final moult arrives, both sexes
retire to their holes and cast off the skins of their entire bodies,
even to the claws. This process obliges them to remain con-
cealed until the new skin has acquired sufficient strength and
firmness, when they again return to their webs. The females
still resemble the young, except in size, but the males are
distinguished from them by the greater length of their limbs,
the diminished size of the posterior half of the body, and the
large and complicated joints of the palpi (Plate 12, fig. 8)."

TETRAPNEUMONES Latreille. The large hairy species of
Mygale differ from other spiders in having four lung-sacs and
as many stigmata, and only two pairs of spinnerets, of which

648

,
ARANEINA.

one pair is very small, while there are eight ocelli. The differ-
ent species make cylindrical holes in the earth ; that of M.
nidulans of the West Indies is closed by a lid of earth covered
beneath with silk. My gale avicularia Linn., the Bird spider,
seizes small birds and sucks their blood. M. Hentzii (Fig.
627, natural size) ranges from Missouri southward.

DIPNETJMONES Latreille. In the remaining genera of spiders
there are two lung-sacs, two or four stigmata, and three pairs

Fig. 627.

of spinnerets. They are divided into two groups, the "Sed-
entary" and "Wandering" spiders. The sedentary species
have the ocelli usually arranged in two transverse rows ; they
spin webs in which they remain and seize their prey. In the

DIPNEUMONES. 649

genus Dysdera there are six ocelli, of which four lie in the front
row ; the cephalothorax is small, long, oval, and the first pair
of legs are the longest. The species dwell in silken tubes,
under stones or in crevices. D. interrita Hentz is a New
England species. In Drassus there are eight ocelli, and the
hindermost pair of feet are the longest.

Clubione includes those species which have eight ocelli, the
four hinder ones, with the two outer ones on the front row,
forming almost a ^semicircle ; the fore legs are the longest.
They construct under the bark of trees, under leaves or be-
neath stones, tubes of very white silk, from which they make
nocturnal expeditions for food. C. tranquilla Hentz is com-
mon in the United States. C. medicinalis Walkenaer has been
used as a vesicant. The
Water spider of Europe,
Argyroneta aquatica Linn.,
lives beneath the water,
where it makes its nest and
cocoon, which is filled with
air.

The genus Tegenaria has
the ocelli arranged in two
slightly curved rows, the
third pair of feet are shorter
than the others, and the ab-
domen is oval. The species
are " sedentary, making in Mg. 628.

obscure corners a horizontal web, at the upper part of which
is a tubular habitation, where the spider remains motionless
till some insect be entangled in the threads." (Hentz.)
T. medicinalis Hentz is "pale brown, turning to bluish black ;
cephalothorax with a blackish band on each side ; abdomen
varied with black, or plumbeous and brown ; feet varied with
blackish." It "is found in every cellar or dark place in the
country. For some time the use of its web as a narcotic, in
cases of fever, was recommended by many physicians."
(Hentz.) Fig. 628 (enlarged) represents T. atrica, a European
species.

Filistata is a closely allied genus. F. hibernalis Hentz

650 ARANEINA.

"makes a tubular habitation of silk in crevices on old walls or
rocks, throwing out an irregular web which is spread on the
wall or stone around the aperture. ... In walking it uses
the palpi like feet, and these organs are very long, particularly
in the male." According to Hentz it is found in South Caro-
lina and Alabama.

The two genera Pholcus and Theridion belong to Latreille's
group, " Inaequitelae," comprising those forms in which the
first pair of limbs are usually the longest. % In Pholcus the legs
are very long and slender. According to Hentz the species
are " sedentary, making in dark corners a very loose web of
slender threads, crossed in all directions. The eggs are col-
lected together without a silk covering, which the mother car-
ries with her cheliceres" (maxillary palpi). This genus "by
the extreme length of its legs resembles Phalangium. The
species belonging to it may be found in apartments seldom
visited, particularly churches and caves. They shake their
body when threatened by an enemy, but seem to have very
weak means of offence, and to feed on the very smallest prey."
P. Ailanticus Hentz inhabits the Southern States.

In Theridion the four inner ocelli are larger than the four
outer ones, and the first and last pair of limbs are the longest.
Hentz states that the species are sedentary, forming a web
made of threads crossed in all directions, while the cocoons
are of various shapes. A majority of the species are very
small, and their webs made on the tops of weeds, in bushes,
or in retired corners, are familiar to every one. T. vulgar e
Hentz varies "from a cream white to a livid brown, or plum-
beous color. The cephalothorax is dull rufous, the abdomen
with various undulating lines, and the feet have more or less
distinct, dark or plumbeous rings." Hentz says that "there
is probably no spider so abundant in the United States. It
makes an irregular web in somewhat retired corners, and usu-
ally in dark situations, but occasionally also in the open air."
It catches large insects and hangs them up to its nest. Hentz
says of the T. studiosum which he has described, that ".when
its web is destroyed it does not abandon its cocoon, which is
orbicular and whitish, and is placed in the central part of the
web. The mother then grasps it with her cheliceres, and de-

DIPNEUMONES.

651

fends her progeny while life endures. She also takes care of
her young, making a tent like that of social caterpillars for
their shelter, and remaining near them till they can protect
themselves." It occurs in South Carolina and Alabama.
Hentz says of T. verecundum Hentz, a jet black species found
in the Southern States, that "it is very common under stones,
logs, or clods of earth, where it makes a web, the threads of
which are so powerful as to arrest the largest Hymenopterous
insects, such as humble bees. Its bite, if I can rely on the
vague description of
physicians unac-
quainted with ento-
mology, is somewhat
dangerous, producing
alarming nervous dis-
orders. "Fig. 629 rep-
resents TJieridion ri-
parium (lower figure,
male ; upper, female,
enlarged), of Europe.
JEpeira is readily
known by the large
globular abdomen.
The species are "sed-
entary, forming a web
composed of spiral
threads crossed by
other threads depart-
ing from the centre ; they often dwell in a tent constructed
above the web ; the cocoons are of various forms. E. vulgaris
Hentz (Plate 12, fig. .,.12) is pale gray, with a pitchy black ab-
domen, with various winding white marks, and a middle one in
the form of a cross. It spins a regular geometrical web, and
is almost domesticated, being found about the outside of
houses and in gardens.. E. domiciliorum Hentz is a gray or
brownish species, and is found in dark rooms.

The genus Nepliila comprises large spiders, with long cylin-
drical abdomens. N.plumipes (Fig. 630, natural size) is found
in the Southern States. Dr. B. G. Wilder has given an ac-

652 ARANEINA.

count of its habits, and considers its silk, if the spider could be
reared in sufficient quantities, as of commercial value. The
males (upper figure) are minute in size, compared with the
females.

The genus Thomisus is characterized by the small size of the
cheliceres, and the first and second pair of feet are either the
longest, or the second alone are longest. The species " wander

Fig. 630.

after their prey, making no web, but casting irregular threads,
with a flattened cocoon, usually placed under leaves, and
watched by the mother till the young are hatched." (Hentz.)
T. vulgaris Hentz is u pale gray, with four impressed dots on
the abdomen ; the body is flat, and the legs are covered with
indistinct darker rings. This spider, commonly seen on fenc-

DIPNEUMONES. 653

ing or prostrate timber, like those of the same genus, moves
side wise and backwards, but it is much more active than T.
celer. When pursued by an enemy, like Attus and Epei'ra, it
leaps and hangs by a thread, which supports it in the air."
It is a widely diffused species. T. celer Hentz is also a widely
distributed species, and is "found usually on blossoms, where
it remains patiently waiting for Diptera, other small insects,
and even butterflies, which it secures with amazing muscular
power."

The three remaining genera belong to Latreille's group of
"Wanderers," as they spin no web. The species of Dolomedes

Fig. 631.

(Fig. 631, from Harris' Correspondence) wander after their
prey, making no web, except while rearing their young, and
hiding under stones, sometimes diving under water ; the cocoon
is usually orbicular, and is carried by the mother. D. lanceo-
latus Hentz "is always found near or on water, running on it
with surprising agility, preying often on large aquatic insects.
A female of Dolomedes was twice found on high bushes by my
friend, T. W. Harris, in Milton, Mass., 'on a large, irregular

654 AKANEINA.

loose, horizontal web, at one extremity of which was situated
her follicle, or egg-bag, covered with young. The parent ap-
peared watching them at some distance.' This spider can
dive and stay a considerable time under water, to avoid its
enemies. It was found in March, in Alabama, under stones
near a stream of water." It ranges northwards to Massachu-
setts.

The Tarantula belongs to the genus Lycosa , which comprises
large stout hairy spiders, with large cheliceres and moderately
sized fangs, with the fourth pair 6f feet the longest and the
third pair shortest. The species make no web, wandering for
their prey, and hiding under stones. They frequently make
holes in the ground in which they dwell, spinning at the orifice
a ring of silk which forms a consolidated entrance like a trap
door. The cocoon is usually orbicular, and is often carried
about by the mother, while the young are borne about on the
back of her abdomen. (Hentz.) L. : tarantula Linn, is the cele-
brated Tarantula of Italy and Spain. Its bite is commonly
supposed to produce the effects termed "tarantism," but Dr.
Bergsoe has proved that tarantism is rarely due to the bite of
the tarantula, which is comparatively harmless.

The Lycosa fatifera of Hentz is said by him to be bluish
black, with the cephalothorax deeper in color at the sides ; the
cheliceres are covered with rufous hairs, and have a red eleva-
tion on their outer side near their base. It is one of the largest
species of the genus. "This formidable species dwells in
holes, ten or twelve inches in depth, in light soil, which it digs
itself; for the cavity is always proportionate to the size of the
spider. The orifice of the hole has a ring made chiefly of silk,
which prevents the soil from falling in when it rains. This
Lycosa, probably as large as the Tarantula of the south of
Europe, is common in Massachusetts, but we have not heard
of serious accidents produced by its bite. Its poison, how-
ever, must be of the same nature and as virulent." (Hentz.)

In the leaping spiders, Salticus, the cephalothorax is usually
large, square, and the abdomen is oval cylindrical. Hentz
says that they wander after their prey, making no web, but
concealing themselves in a silken valve, for the purpose of
casting their skin, or for hibernation. The Salticus (Attus)

PEDIPALPI. 655

familiaris of Hentz is a common species throughout the United
States. It is pale gray, hairy, and the abdomen is blackish,
with a grayish angular band edged with whitish. Hentz says
that it is almost domesticated in our houses, and dwells in
cracks around sashes, between clapboards, etc., and may be
seen on the sunny side of the house, and in the hottest places,
wandering in search of prey. It moves with agility and ease,
but usually with a certain leaping gait. . . . Before leaping
this Attus always fixes a thread on the point from which it
departs ; by this it is suspended in the air, if it miss its aim,
and it is secure against falling far from its hunting grounds.
These spiders, and probably all other species, a day or two
before they change their skin, make a tube of white silk, open
at both ends ; there they remain motionless till the moulting
time arrives, and even some days after are seen there still,
probably remaining in a secure place, for the purpose of re-
gaining strength and activity."

PEDIPALPI.

UNDER the term Pedipalpi we would embrace besides the
Pedipalps of Latreille, the Solpugids and Phalangids. They
all agree in having the maxillary palpi greatly enlarged and
usually ending in a forceps, and the abdomen distinctly
jointed, with the end, sometimes, as in the scorpions, pro-
longed into a tail. In the retention of the tail in some of the
forms, the abnormally enlarged maxillae, the jointed cephalo-
thorax and abdomen, which in the scorpions reminds us of the
Myriopods, we have characters which place the Pedipalps be-
low the true spiders.

SOLPUGIDS Gervais. In this group, the species of which
are large, hairy, spider-like animals, the cephalothorax is
clearly jointed, and the abdomen is elongated ; respiration
is carried on by tracheae. Solpuga may at once be known by
the enormous, though not very long, maxillary palpi. S.
araneoides Pallas inhabits Southern Russia. $. (Galeodes)
Americana Say inhabits the Southern States.

656

PEDIPALPI.

PHALANGID^E Gervais. In the group of Harvest-men the
cephalothorax is not jointed ; the abdomen is short and thick,
and the maxillary palpi end in a simple claw ; the mandibles
are well developed and end in a forceps. The legs are
extremely long. They breathe through tracheae. They occur
about houses, especially in shady places and in woods and

Fig. 632.

fields. "They are carnivorous, feeding on small insects, and
are said to be especially addicted to Aphis-eating." (Wood.)
The genus Phalangium has no spines on the palpi, and has
two simple eyes. The species have been well described by
Dr. H. C. Wood, jr. (Proceedings of the Essex Institute, vol.
vi), some of whose illustrations appear here, so that the spe-
cies here mentioned can be easily identified. P. dorsatum Say

PHRYNID^.

657

(Fig. 632, a, female, natural size ; 6, male, natural size ; c,
penis, anterior and lateral view, enlarged) has been found from
northern New York to Washington.
When handled it emits a drop of
an odorous clear fluid. We have
found it frequently in Salem.

P. ventricosum Wood (Fig. 633,
a, trochanter ; 6, femora ; c, mandi-
bles ; d, maxillary palpus, male?
natural size) is widely distributed
in the United States. Acanthocheir
is an eyeless genus with spiny palpi.
A. armata Tellkampf is found in
Mammoth Cave. In Gonyleptes the
cephalothorax is much enlarged,
and overhangs the abdomen. #.
ornatum Say (Fig. 634, male, a,
under surface ; 6, upper surface,
natural size ; c, penis) is found in

the Southern States ; the species are quite numerous in South
America.

Under the name of Archetarbus rotundatus (Fig. 635) Mr.

Scudder describes a fossil Pedipalp, which seems to be "allied
a to the Phalangidce and to the
Phrynidce. In its fragmentary
state one can scarcely judge with
certainty of its exact relationship.
The arrangement of the legs ac-
cords well with both families. The
broad attachment of the thorax to
the abdomen is a Phalangidan char-
acteristic, while the size and shape
of the abdomen, the number of the
abdominal segments and the crowd-
ed state of the central portions of

the basal ones, indicate closer affinities to the Phrynidce."

PHKTNID^E Sundeval. Whip- scorpions. In this group the
42

Fig. 634.

658

PEDIPALPI.

anterior pair of legs are very long and slender, being much
smaller than the others, while the maxillary palpi are very
large ; there are eight simple eyes, and the abdomen is eleven
to twelve-jointed, while there are two pairs of
stigmata, and they also breathe by lungs. PJiry-
nus is at once known by the excessively long,
whip-like, multiarticulate fore legs, which ap-
parently perform the office of antennae ; the body
is short and broad, and has no appendage to the
abdomen. P. reniformis Fabr. is fourteen lines
long, and is found in Brazil. P. asperatipes Wood
Fig. 635. occurs in Lower California. No species occur
in the United States. The genus Thetyphonus is known by
the oblong body, ending usually in a slender many-jointed
filament. T. caudatus Fabr. is fifteen lines long, and inhabits
Java. T. giganteus Lucas occurs in the South-western States
and in Mexico.

CHERNETID.E Menge. (Pseudo-scorpiones Latreille.) The
False-scorpions are at once known by their large maxillary
palpi like the scorpion's claw. The abdomen is eleven-jointed,
flattened, without any appendage, and
the living forms are minute ; they
breathe by tracheae. They are found
running about dusty books and in dark
places and feed on mites and Psoci.
They are often found attached to the
leg of some fly or other insect by which
they are transported about. "The fe-
male chelifer bears the eggs, seventeen
in number, in a little bunch under her
Fig. 636. abdomen near the opening of her sex-

ual organs. Menge has observed the Pseudo-scorpions cast
their skin in a light web made for that purpose. The little
animal remained five days in the web after its metamorphosis,
and did not assume its dark colors for four weeks. Three
months after it returned to the same web for hibernation.
Menge describes eight species from the Prussian Amber, be-
longing to genera still living, and Corda one (Microlabris

SCORPIONID.E.

659

Sternbergi) from the coal formation in Bohemia, one inch long.
Schioclte has found a curious blind species in the caves of
Adelsburg, and it is very probable that a closer examination
of the Kentucky caves will give a similar American species."
(Hagen.) In Chernes there are no eyes. C. Sanborni Hagen
is found in Massachusetts.

In Chelifer there are two eyes. C. cancroides Linn. (Fig.
636, enlarged) is dark brown, with many short spines on the
thorax. It occurs in Massachusetts and Illinois.

SCORPIONID.E Latreille. The Scorpions are well known by
the immense forceps-like maxillae, and the long tail continu-
ous with the thorax, and end-
ing in a powerful sting, in which
is lodged a poison sac. The body
is more distinctly divided into seg-
ments than any other Arachnids,
and hence the scorpions bear, as
Gerstaecker suggests, a strong
analogy to the Myriapods. The
genus Scorpio is restricted to those
species which have six ocelli. JS.
Allenii Wood is our only North
American species and is found in
Lower California. Our other spe-
cies are mostly comprised in the
genus Butlius, which has eight
ocelli. B. Carolinianus Beauvois
(Fig. 637) ranges from the South-
ern Atlantic States through Texas Fi s- 637 -
northward into Southern Kansas. " Scorpions are dangerous
in proportion to their size, their age, the state of irritation they
may be in, and the temperature of the climate in which they
reside. The wounds, however, even of the largest species are
rarely fatal." (Moquin Tandon.)

Messrs. Meek and Worthen have described (Palaeontology
of the Illinois Geological Survey, iii, p. 560) two fossil scor-
pions from the lower part of the coal measures of Illinois,
which are as highly developed, and bear a very close resem-

660 ACARINA.

blance to the living species. The Eoscorpion carbonarius of
Meek and "Worthen is said by them to resemble closely Buthus
- hirsutus from California. The other fossil scorpion is the Ma-
zonia Wbodiana M. and W., which differs from any known
living forms in not having any lateral eyes. Very different
and belonging to a much more degraded and embryonic type
is the Cydophthalmus Bucklandi from the Coal Measures of
Bohemia, in which the tail is continuous with the body, being
unusually thick.

ACARINA.

THE Mites differ from other Arachnids by their oval or
rounded bodies, which are not articulated, the cephalothorax
being merged with the abdomen ; the mouth-parts are adapted
either for biting or sucking, and they breathe by tracheae.
They are usually minute in size ; the ticks, which are some-
times half an inch in length, comprising the largest forms.
They appear first in geological history in the Prussian Amber,
where species of Trombidium and Hydrachna occur.

BDELLID^E Duges. This inconsiderable family is represented
by small mites with long, five-jointed maxillary palpi, and from
two to six ocelli, which are sometimes wanting. The limbs
are long and thick. The young closely resemble the adults.
The genus Bdella has legs of nearly equal length. B. longi-
cornis Linn., an European species, is scarlet red, and half a
line in length. B. marina Pack, lives between tide marks.

TROMBIDID.E Leach. The species of this family are red
mites, with either claw-like or style-like maxillary palpi, and
short mandibles, with the terminal joints scissor-like and op-
posed to each other. The genus Tetranychus has slender style-
like maxillae, and two ocelli. The two fore pair of legs arise
at a long distance from the hind ones, the first pair being the
longest. T. telarius Linn, the little red mites of our hot-
houses spin webs on rose leaves. It is yellowish, with two red-
dish yellow spots on the sides, and is one-half a line long.

IXODIDJE. 661

It may be killed by showering sulphur over the leaves. In
Europe it is found on the linden tree. The young of this spe-
cies, according to Claparede, passes through an Ixodes-like
stage, as regards the niouth-parts, for this reason we place the
Ixodidce below them.

HYDRACHNID/E Sundeval. The Water-mites are known by
! laving the maxillary palpi five-jointed, with terminal hooks, or
bristles, at the end. The legs gradually increase in length, the
hindermost pair being longest ; they are ciliated, with two
claws. There are two ocelli. These mites swim in fresh and
sometimes salt water, and are seen running over water-plants.
The young differ so much from the adults that they were de-
scribed by Audouin under the name of Achlysia. In Hy-
drachna the mandibles are needle-shaped, and the third joint
of the maxillae is the longest. The body is oval, with the
limbs adapted for swimming, and there are two eyes. Hy-
drachna concharum is parasitic throughout life on the gills of
fresh water mussels. Others are parasitic during early life on
fresh water Hemiptera and Coleoptera.

In Atax the body is oval, sqlid and corneous. The mandi-
bles end in a stout curved claw, and the five-jointed maxillary
palpi end in an acute point. The species are red in color and
live in flowing streams ; when in their early, and in some cases
their adult stages, they are parasitic in the gills of mussels.

Leach. The Ticks are mites of gigantic size, with
bodies of a leathery consistence. The three to four-jointed
maxillae are small, not reaching beyond the beak. The man-
dibles are saw-like, being covered towards the end with teeth,
with from two to four terminal hooks, and, with the large
spatulate, dentate "glossoide" of the maxillae, form a beak
which the tick pushes into the skin of its host. The ocelli are
often wanting, and the legs are slender, with two claws,
and in the young a distinct membranous foot-pad. The
recently hatched young (Fig. 638, a, glossoide ; 6, mandibles ;
c, maxillary palpi ; e, adult gorged with blood) is six-footed,
the legs being very long, and the head and mouth -parts are
much larger in proportion to the rest of the body than in the

662

ACARINA,

adult, while the tripartite division of the body is very distinct,
the thorax being distinct from the head and abdomen.

The genus Argas closely resembles Ixodes. Gerstaecker
states that the Argas Persicus Fisher is very annoying to trav-
ellers in Persia. Travellers in the tropics speak of the in-
tolerable torment occasioned by wood ticks, Ixodes, which,
occurring ordinarily on shrubs and trees, attach themselves to
all sorts of reptiles, beasts and cattle, and even man himself
as he passes by within their reach. Sometimes cases fall
within the practice of the physician who is called to remove
the tick, which is found sometimes literally buried under the
skin. Mr. J. Stauffer writes me, that "on June 23d the daugh-
ter of Abraham Jackson (colored) , pla3 7 ing among the leaves

in a wood, near Springville,
Lancaster County, Penn., on
her return home complained
of pain in the arm. No at-
tention was paid to it till the
next day, when a raised tu-
mor was noticed, a small
portion protruding through
the skin, apparently like a
splinter of wood. The child
was taken to a physician
who applied the forceps, and
after considerable pain to the
child, and labor to himself, extracted a species of Ixodes,
nearly one-quarter of an inch long, of an oval form, and brown
mahogany color, with a metallic spot, like silver bronze, cen-
trally situated on the dorsal region." This tick proved, from
Mr. Stauffer's figures, to be without doubt, Ixodes unipunctata
Pack. (Plate 13, fig. 11, enlarged). It has also been found in
Massachusetts by Mr. F. G. Sanborn. The Ixodes albipictus
Pack. (Fig. 638, adult gorged with blood, and the six-footed
young, with the mouth-parts of the young enlarged, and 5, a
foot showing the claws and sucking disc), was discovered by
Mr. W. J. Hays in great numbers on a moose which had been
partially domesticated. The females lay their eggs from the
first of May until the 25th of June, the "eggs being forced 6ut

Fig. 638.

ORIBATID^E. 663

in large masses." "On the 3d of July the entire mass of eggs
seemed to hatch out at once, the shell opening like a clam and
releasing a six-legged insect." (Hays.) The opening of the
oviduct is just behind the head, between the anterior pair of
feet, so that the eggs appear as if ejected from the mouth.

Another species is the Ixodes bovis (Plate 13, fig. 10), the
common cattle tick of the Western States and Central America,
which is allied to the European /. ricinus. It is very annoying
to horned cattle, gorging itself with their blood, though by no
means confined to them alone, as it lives indifferently upon the
rattlesnake, the iguana, small mammals, and undoubtedly any
sort of animal that brushes by its lurking-place in the forest.
It is a reddish, coriaceous, flattened, seed-like creature, with
the body oblong oval, and contracted just behind the middle.
When fully grown it measures from a quarter to half an inch
in length. We have received it from Missouri, at the hands
of Mr. Riley ; and Mr. J. A. McNiel has found it very abun-
dantly on horned cattle, on the western coast of Nicaragua.

GAMASID^E Leach. These mites have scissor-like mandibles,
free maxillae, with joints of equal length, and hairy legs of
similar size and form, while the ocelli are obsolete. They live
parasitically on the bodies of other animals. The genus Gam-
asus has long mandibles, with curved, five-jointed, acutely
pointed maxillary palpi ; the body is oval, flattened, the skin
dense, and the first and last pair of legs are somewhat longer
than the middle ones. G. coleoptratorum Linn, is clear, red-
dish yellow, and about a third of a line long. It occurs in
Europe on beetles, especially species of Geotrupes and Necro-
phorus. The same, or a closely allied species, is found in this
country. Uropoda vegetans DeGeer, a similar form, also lives
on beetles. The genus Dermanyssus has shorter jointed max-
illary palpi than in Gamasus. D. avium Duges lives on birds,
and D. pipistrellce Qervais on bats. In Pteroptus the terminal
joint of the maxillae is very long. Pt. vespertilionis Dufour is
a parasite of the bat.

ORIBATID^E Nicolet. In these mites the body is very hard
and horny. The four-jointed maxillary palpi are short, with

664

ACAKINA.

the first joint very large, forming a toothed eating surface.
The ocelli are nearly obsolete, and the legs have from one to
three claws. The cephalothorax has generally two wing-like
projections, and two or three cup-shaped
pedicellated stigmata on the edge. They
generally live on vegetable matter. In
Oribates the side of the cephalothorax is
produced often into wing-like processes,
with the abdomen orbicular, flattened,
sometimes emarginate. The European
O. alatus Hermann is smooth, blackish
Fig. 639. brown, and lives under moss. In Notlirus

the body is elongated, somewhat quadrangular, and has no
lateral expansions, while the legs are stout, with tripartite
claws. We have observed an undescribed species of this genus
sucking the eggs of the canker-worm in Salem. It may be
called Notlirus ovivorus (Fig. 639). It is reddish brown, with
a dense hard body, with the edge of the abdomen expanded

evenly, and with three
slender capitate processes
on the cephalothorax.

This family

comprises the true mites,
which have soft, thin-
skinned bodies, with
either scissor or style-like
mandibles, the latter form-
ing a retractile horny
tube. The maxillae are
obsolete, as well as the
ocelli. The claws are
sometimes provided with

a sucker. The members of this, and the. following groups,
are among the most lowly organized of articulates, and are
found living parasitically on the skin of other animals, or
buried within their integuments, while certain acari have
been detected within the lungs and air passages, the bloodves-
sels and the intestinal canals of vertebrate animals. The

ACARIDJB. 665

genus Cheyletus is remarkable for having the maxillae very large,
and like a pair of legs, with the ends tripartite, the outer
division being curved and clawlike, while the two innermost
are slender lobes pectinated on the inner side ; the mandibles
are style-like. A European species (Fig. 640) feeds on Cheese-
mites. It is thought by Mr. R. Beck that another species of
Cheyletus is parthenogenous, as "he obtained several genera-
tions from the first individual, without the intervention of a
male." (Science-Gossip, 1869, p. 7.) Mr. J. H. Gregory, of
Marblehead, Mass., has found a species of this genus, which we
may call Cheyletus seminivorus (Plate 13, fig. 6). It injured the
seeds of the cabbage stored up during the winter by sucking
them dry. The genus Tyroglyplms is known l>y the body being
elongated oval, with scissor-like mandibles, and outstretched
four-jointed feet, with a long stalked sucking disc at the end.
T. domesticus DeGeer is in Europe common in houses.

Many people have been startled by statements in newspapers
and more authoritative sources, as to the immense numbers of
sugar mites, T. sacchari (Fig. 641), found
in unrefined or raw sugar. According to
Professor Cameron, of Dublin, as quoted
in the "Journal of the Franklin Insti-
tute," for November, 1868, "Dr. Hassel
(who was the first to notice their general
occurrence in the raw sugar sold in Lon-
don) found them in a living state in no
fewer than sixty-nine out of seventy-two
samples. He did not detect them in a
single specimen of refined sugar. In an Flg> 641>

inferior sample of raw sugar, examined in Dublin by Mr.
Cameron, he reports finding five hundred mites in ten grains
of sugar, so that in a pound's weight occurred one hundred
thousand. They appear as white specks in the sugar. The
disease known as grocer's itch is, undoubtedly, due to the
presence of this mite, which, like its ally the Sarcoptes, works
its way under the skin of the hand, in this case, however, of
cleanly persons.

Closely allied to the preceding is the Cheese-mite, T. siro
Linn., which often abounds in newly made cheese. Lyonnet

666 ACARINA.

states that during summer this mite is viviparous. T. farince
DeGeer, as its name indicates, is found in flour. Other species
have been known to occur in ulcers.

We figure the larva of the European Typhlodromus pyri
(Plate 13, fig. 4) the adult of which, according to A. Scheuten,
is allied to Tyroglyphus, and lives under the epidermis of the
leaves of the pear. There are but two pairs of legs present,
and the body is long, cylindrical and worm-like. Fig. 5, plate
13, represents the four -legged larva of another species of
Typhloclromus.

The Itch mite belongs to the genus Sarcoptes, in which the
body is rounded ovate, with needle-like mandibles, and with
short three-jointed legs. The female differs from the male in
having the two hinder pairs of legs only partially developed,
and ending in a long bristle. S. scabiei Linn. (Plate 13, fig.
7, female) was first recognized by an Arabian author of the
twelfth century as the cause of the disease which results from
its attacks. It buries itself in the skin on the more protected
parts of the body, forming minute galleries, by which its pres-
ence is detected, and by its punctures maintains a constant
irritation.

Other species are known to infest the cat, dog and swine.
They are best destroyed b}^ the faithful use of sulphur oint-
ment. Various species of an allied genus, Dermatodectes, live
in galleries on different species of domestic animals ; thus D.
equi lives in the skin of the horse, D. bovis in cattle, and D.
ovis in sheep. Various Sarcoptids occur on birds ; among
them are species of Dermaleichus. On March 6th, Mr. G.
Cooke called my attention to certain female mites (Plate 13,
fig. 1) which were situated on the narrow groove between the
main stem of the barb and the outer edge of the barbules of
the feathers of the Downy Woodpecker, and subsequently we
found the other forms indicated in Plate 13, figs. 2 and 3, in
the down under the feathers. These long worm-like mites are
probably the females of the singular male Sarcoptes-like mite,
represented by Figs. 2 and 3 of the plate, as they were found
on the same specimen of woodpecker at about the same date.

The female (though there is probably a still earlier hexapo-
dous stage) of this Sarcoptid, which we may call Dermaleichus

ACAEID^. 667

pici-pubescentis, has an elongated, oblong, flattened body, with
four short legs, provided with a few bristle-like hairs, and end-
ing in a stalked sucker, by aid of which the mite is enabled to
walk over smooth, hard surfaces. The body is square at the
end, with a slight median indentation, and four long bristles of
equal length. They remained motionless in the groove on the
barb of the feather, and when removed seemed very inert and
sluggish. The male (Plate 13, fig. 3) is a most singular form,
its body being rudely ovate, with the head sunken between the
fore legs, which are considerably smaller than the second pair,
while the third pair are twice as large as the second pair, and
directed backwards, and the fourth pair are very small, not
reaching the extremity of the body, which is deeply cleft, and
supports four long bristles on each side of the cleft, while other
bristles are attached to the legs and body, giving the creature
a haggard, unkempt appearance. The genital armature is
situated between the largest or third pair of legs. A preced-
ing stage of this mite, which may be called the pupa, is repre-
sented on Plate 13, fig. 2. It (all the figures of this sarcoptid
being drawn to one scale by Prof. A. M. Edwards,
and magnified one hundred and fifteen diameters)
looks somewhat like the adult, the body being shorter
and broader, but without any genital armature.

We figure on Plate 13, figs. 8 and 9, greatly en-
larged, a most remarkable mite, discovered by New-
port on the body of a larva of a wild bee, and
described by him under the name of Heteropus ven-
tricosus. Fig. 8, in the plate, represents the body
of the fully formed female. In this stage it reminds us F te- 642.
of Demodex and the Tardigrades. After attaining this form
its small abdomen begins to enlarge until it assumes a globu-
lar form (Plate 13, fig. 9) and the mass of mites look like little
beads. Mr. Newport was unable to discover the male, and
thought that this mite was parthenogenous. Another singular
mite is the Demodex folliculorum (Fig. 642), which was dis-
covered by Dr. Simon, of Berlin, buried in the diseased folli-
cles of the wings of the nose in man. It is a long, slender,
worm-like form, with eight short legs, and in the larval state
has six legs. This singular form is among the lowest and

668

ACARINA.

most degraded of the order of Arachnids. It will be seen that
the adult Demodex retains the elongated, worm-like appear-
ance of the larvae of the higher mites, such as Typhlodromus.
This is an indication of its low rank, and hints of a close rela-
tionship to the Tardigrades.

TARDIGRADA Doyere. (Arctisca). The Tardigrades, or
Bear animalcules, referred by some to the worms, were consid-
ered as mites by O. F. Muller in 1785, and a species was de-
scribed by him under the name of
Acarus ursellus. They have also been
referred to the Rotatoria by Dujardin,
and were, by Schultze, considered as
parasitic Entomostraca allied to Ler-
nsea. With Muller we would consider
them as insects belonging to the Aca-

r * na ' an( * venture ' after studying Clapa-
rede's admirable work, "Studien an
Acariden," containing an account of
the genus Myobia, to consider the Tar-
digrades as a family of mites. In
form, as indicated by the accompanying
figures, copied from Doyere's valuable
memoir, they are essentially mites, and
allied in form to Demodex and He-
teropus, though in their internal organi-
zation differing from all other insects
in being true hermaphrodites. Muller observed that they
moulted their skins. The mouth is adapted for sucking,
with style-like mandibles like those of Myobia. There are two
ocelli, and the worm-like body is cylindrical, consisting of four
thoracic segments behind the head, bearing four pairs of short,
thick legs, ending in three or four claws (in these characters
reminding us of the Peripatus, a worni with a large, fleshy

EXPLANATION OF PLATE 13. FIG. 1, Z>ermaZeic7ms pici-pubescentis Pack., fe-
male. FIG. 2, young male. FIG. 3, adult male. FIG. 4, larva of Typhlodromus
pyri Scheuten (after Scheuten). FIG. 5, larva of another species of Typhlodromus
(after Scheuten). FIG. 6, Cheyletus seminivorus Pack. FIG. 7, Sarcoptes scabiei
DeGeer (after Gervais). FIG. 8, Hetqropus ventricosus Ne\vport, tally formed fe-
male. FIG. 9, gravid female of the same (after Newport). FIG. 10, Ixodes bovis
Kiley. FIG. 11, Ixodes unipunctata Pack. All the figures are enlarged.

Fig. 643.

MITES AND TICKS.

LINGUATULINA.

Fig. 644

leg- like process attached to the sides of each ring of the body
and ending in a pair of claws) . In size they are microscopic
and live in standing water among
plants and like the Rotatoria revive
after being apparently dead and dried
up. They were called Tardigrades
from their excessively slow motions.
The eggs are very large and are laid
by the parent after the last moult ; the
young is born with its full comple-
ment of legs, and moults several
times before arriving at maturity.
The eggs of some genera are smooth,
while those of Macrobiotus are spher-
ical and covered with little knob-like
projections.

Milnesium tardigradum Schrank
(Fig. 643, 7, mouth-parts ; 6, alimen-
tary canal ; ov, ovary) is a fifth of a
line long ; while Emydium testudo Doyere (Fig. 644, magnified
one hundred and twenty times) is another European species.

None have yet been noticed as occurring in this

country.

LINGUATULINA. V. Ben. These remarkably worm-
like mites in the adult state inhabit the nostrils and
frontal sinuses of dogs and wolves, and more rarely
of horses and sheep. The larvae, which are like
low mites in form, are provided with boring horny
jaws and two pairs of small feet armed with sharp,
retractile claws. They live in the liver of various
animals, where they become encysted, passing
through a sort of pupa state. The most common
species is here represented (Fig. 644a, Pentastoma
tcenioides Rudolphi, from Verrill). The male is
.08 inch, and the female, which is oviparous, three
or four inches long. It sometimes infests man,
living in the early stages encysted in the liver and lungs. In
Egypt P. constrictum Siebold is occasionally fatal.

670 MYRIOPODA.

ORDER III. MYRIOPODA.

THE Myriopods are readily known by their long, cylindrical
or somewhat flattened bodies, which are composed of from ten
(counting the head as one) to over two hundred rings. The
head is free from the rest of the body, and is much like that
of insects, while the thoracic rings are scarcely distinguishable,
either in form or the character of their appendages, from the
numerous abdominal rings, so that the head, instead of being
soldered to the thorax as in the spiders, is here free, while
the thorax is merged in the abdomen.

The head of Cermatia shows how closely the highest Myrio-
pod agrees with the insects. The few (sixteen) segments
composing the body (counting the head as one) ; the large
compound eyes, the long filiform antennae, and well developed
palpi, farther show the close relationship of this form to the
insects. The habits of this genus also remind us of the spi-
ders, as they are predaceous and are said to leap after their
prey.

In the Myriopods generally the mouth-parts are of the same
number, and follow each other in the same order as in the
insects. Thus in advance of the mouth there are first the
ocelli, and immediately behind them the antennae ; behind
the mouth are the mandibles, the maxillae with their palpi, and
the labial palpi. As each of these jointed organs is repre-
sented by an elemental ring we have four segments in the head.

In the embryo of Julus the rudiments of the first pair of
legs are soon aborted, and thus the first thoracic ring bears
no legs in adult life. The legs are composed of a coxa, a
femur, a tibia and a tarsus, as in the higher insects.

As shown by Newport the nervous, digestive, respiratory
and reproductive systems very closely resemble those of the
larvae of insects, as does the external form of these animals.

Newport states that the nervous system of Myriopods ap-
proaches nearer, in the simplicity of its formation, to that of
the Annelids than that of the larvae of insects. "In the
Chilopoda it has the form of a double cord connected by large

MYRIAPODA. 671

ganglia in each segment, as in most of the Annelida, Crusta-
cea and Insecta; but in the vermiform Chilognatha, which
former researches have proved to me are most nearly con-
nected to the Annelida, the two parts of this double cord, are
so closely united laterally as to appear like a single cord that
gives off a multitude of small nervous trunks at its sides
throughout its whole length, but without distinct ganglionic
enlargements at their origin." The brain is " composed of at
least four pairs of ganglia."

The digestive system comprises the long, tubular salivary
glands, of which two are found on each side of the oesophagus
and stomach, opening by a long excretory duct into the mouth ;
and Professor Leidy has described two others which are
placed on each side of the oesophagus, and are pyriform, con-
glomerate, and cellular in structure. Also the long intestinal
canal which is much as described in the higher insects ; while,
as in Julus, according to Leidy, "at the termination of the
proventriculus, there open two biliary tubes, and from it, sur-
rounding the commencement of the ventriculus, is suspended
a broad, white, opaque, reticulated band, apparently composed
like the reta adiposa of insects."

The circulatory system is of a much lower type than in
insects, and in Julus it approaches, according to Newport, by
its rudimentary development that of the worms. The vascular
system consists of a dorsal vessel, or heart, with very numerous
separate chambers, almost equal to the segments of the body,
which connects with another system of vessels lying on the
under side of the body between the alimentary canal and the
nervous cord. This plexus of vessels thus forms " a vascular
collar around the anterior part of the alimentary canal." "At
each constriction of the heart in the Julidce, between two
chambers, there are two transverse lateral orifices, as in In-
sects," which Newport supposes to be either the terminations
of delicate veins, or simple apertures admitting the blood from
the venous sinuses in the body.

The tracheary system is much as in the six-footed insects,
and the stigmata have the same relative position, but are
placed on the alternate segments of the body.

In the Chilopoda the sexual system is much as in the six-

672 CHILOPODA.

footed insects, and the orifices are placed at the end of the
body. The ovary is a long single tube, which opens in the last
ring of the body ; while in the lower suborder, Chilognatha,
there is only a single long ovarian tube, provided with two
short oviducts which open on the third segment of the body
from the head. The male organs in the Chilopods are much
more complicated than in the other Myriopods, and the two or
three, or even the single testicular tube, open on the end of
the body, while in the Chilognaths, such as Julus, there are
two testes which lead out by a vas deferens to the orifice situ-
ated on the third thoracic ring. The order is divided into two
suborders, i. e. , the Chilopoda and Chilognatha of Latreille.

CHILOPODA.

THIS group is characterized by each ring being simple and
not divided into subsegments, and bearing but a single pair of
feet, while the head is divided into two regions, one placed
before the mouth, the other behind the mouth. The sexual
outlet is situated at the end of the body.

This suborder is the highest, as it contains those Myriopods
which have the fewest segments to the body*, thus approaching
the six-footed insects and spiders. They are active, rapacious
in their habits, and by the division of the head into the two
regions, movable on each other, they can almost emulate the
insects in their powers of seizing their prej T . As stated by
Professor Wood , their highly organized muscular and nervous
system, the compactness of their intestinal apparatus, and the
length and power of their legs, all betoken habits of great
activity ; whilst the formidable nature of their mandibles, and
the sharp spines, both lateral and terminal, with which their
feet are armed, fit them for predatory warfare. Thus it will
be seen that the Chilopods are the more animal, while the
Chilognaths are the more vegetative ; this is due to the greater
concentration of the body head wards, and the more compact
build of the body behind the head.

* The larvae of this group may have as many as six or eight pairs of legs when
they leave the egg, while the young Chilognaths have only three. (Rolleston.)

LITHOBIID^E. 673

It is probable that the Centipedes and their allies appeared
at a much later period in the earth's history than the Chilog-
naths, as the earliest form of the present suborder known to us
is the Geophilus proavus * of Germar, from the Jurassic rocks,
whilst the oldest Myriopod, one of the Julidce, is, according
to Dawson, found in the lower Carboniferous rocks of Nova
Scotia, and Dr. Anton Dohrn has recently described a Julus
from the coal formation of Germany.

CERMATID^E Leach. This group is characterized by having
only sixteen rings to the body, while the legs and antennae have
more numerous joints than usual. The head is large, very free
from the body, with compound eyes, as in the six-footed in-
sects, and long spiny palpi, while the tergites, or scuta, are
but eight in number, and there are nine pairs of spiracles.
The female ovipositor is forceps-like, while the corresponding
male appendages are style-like. The species are the
most gaily colored of the order, being striped along
the body and banded on the legs. Cermatia for-
ceps Rafinesque is greenish-brown, with three longi-
tudinal stripes of deep green.

LITHOBIID^E Newport. In this and the remain-
ing families of this suborder the antennae are short,
and the eyes simple and sometimes wanting. In
the present family there are fifteen tergites, and the
antennae are longer than in the succeeding group.
In Lithobius the antennae are forty- jointed, and Fig. 645.
the head is broad and flat. The species of this genus attack
earth-worms, grappling with them for several hours, and after
killing them, suck their blood. They will, in confinement, de-
stroy each other. Their bite is poisonous to small articulates.
The European L. forficatus, according to Newman ("Ento-
mologist" 1866, iii, p. 342) is preyed upon by Proctotrupes
calcar of Haliday. Lithobius Americanus Newport (Fig. 645)
is a widely diffused species, and erroneously passes by the
name of Ear-wig. It is found everywhere, under sticks and
about manure-heaps, where it feeds upon insects and worms.

* Since shown by Prof. Marsh to be an Annelid (Ischyracanthus).
43

674

CHTLOPODA.

The genus Bothropotys of Wood, differs in having small,
almost round punctiform excoriations arranged in three or
four series on the coxa. The B. multidentatus of Newport is
found in the Eastern United States, and is recognized by
having from thirty-two to thirty-seven ocelli on each side of
the head.

SCOLOPENDRID^E Leach. The Centipede is the type of this
family. There are from twenty-one to twenty-three feet-bear-
ing segments, with few or no ocelli, while the last pair of feet
are thickened and generally spinous. This genus comprises
the most gigantic of all Myriapods, Scolopendra
giga.ntea Linn, from the East Indies, being nine
inches long. S. heros Girard is our largest
species, and is found in the Southern States.
The bite of the Centipede is dangerous ; the
poison is conveyed from two glands in the
throat, along a canal in the jaws.

The genus Scolopocryptops differs in having
.no ocelli, and twenty- three feet-bearing seg-
ments, while the antennae are seventeen-jointed.
S. sexspinosa Say (Fig. 646) is common about
Philadelphia, and is found in Iowa ; it is deep
orange, with yellow, somewhat compressed feet,
with three spines on each of the last pair of
feet. Wood describes the manner of moulting
in this species. The skin had been crowded back
so as to cover only the last two or three rings. The cast skin
contains the skin of the head and all its appendages, even to
the maxillae and maxillary palpi. The anterior portion of the
skin was so torn as to show that the process of shedding proba-
bly began by the creature's withdrawing its head from its case,
and then thrusting it out between some of the anterior sterna,
completing the process by pushing the skin back with its legs,
jj; and aiding them by a peculiar wriggling motion. The exuvia
had most of the posterior segments entire, showing that the
occupant had been withdrawn from it like a hand from a glove."
Wood also states that the female guards her young by laying
on her side, and then coiling her body passes them along by a

Fig. 646.

PAUROPODIDJE.

675

" rapid cilia- like action of her feet ; " thus arranging them sat-
isfactorily to herself.

GEOPHILID^E Leach. These Myriapods are very long and
slender, with from thirty to two hundred segments, each
formed of two complete, but unequal subsegments, and bearing
but a single pair of feet. There are no ocelli ; the antennae
are fourteen-jointed, and the anal feet are short and style-like.

In Mecistocephalus the "cephalic segment," or anterior part
of the head is more than twice as long as broad, while in
GeopJiilus the same region of the head is square.
M. fulvus Wood is fulvous, polished, with a light
orange head ; according to Wood it is most often
found under the inner bark of decaying logs of
the locust tree. * GeopJiilus cepJialicus is an unu-
sually broad species found near Philadelphia. G.
bipuncticeps Wood (Fig. 647) is found in the
Western States and Sonora.

In Strigamia the cephalic segment is small,
short, and generally somewhat triangular. S.
botJiriopus Wood is a bright red robust species, and
inhabits Philadelphia. S. cJiionopJiila Wood is a
diminutive species, being only three-fourths of an
inch' long ; it is found far north, at Fort Simpson,
on the Red River of the North. The largest spe-
cies known is S. epileptica Wood from Oregon,
which is five and a half inches long. The last pair of male
feet are represented by Wood to be antenniform, those of the
female being small, short, and preserving the usual shape of
the leg. This is an interesting instance of the antero-
posterior symmetry of these animals, here more strongly
marked than usual.

PAUROPODID^E Lubbock. The sole member of this family is
the Pauropus, which Sir John Lubbock discovered in England
living among decaying leaves. "The body is composed often
segments, including the head, and is convex, with scattered
hairs ; there are nine pairs of legs, and the antennae are five-
jointed, bifid at the extremity and bearing three long jointed

Fig. 647.

676 CHILOGNATHA.

appendages." The two species, P. Huxleyi and P. peduncula-
tus of Lubbock are white, and about one-twentieth of an inch
in length. Lubbock regards this remarkable form as a "con-
necting link between the Chilopods and Chilog-
naths, and also as bridging over to a certain
extent the great chasm which separates them
from other articulata." No tracheae could be
detected. The six-footed young (Fig. 648) had
the first pair of legs attached to the first seg-
ment behind the head, the two other pairs to
the following one. The resemblance of Pain-o-
pus to those Podurae, such as Achorutes, in
which the "spring" is very short, is certainly
Fig. 648. remarkable. We may, therefore, consider the
Pauropus as a connecting link between the Myriopods and
the Neuroptera. P. LMbbockii Pack., was found at Salem, Mass.

CHILOGNATHA.

IN this division of the Myriopods the body is divided into
numerous segments, each furnished with two pairs of short
legs, and the antennae are short, with but few joints.

They are the lowest insects, and in Julus, with its large
number of rings of the same form, we have a good illustration
of the vegetative repetition of the zoological elements, or
segments, composing the body, which is the reverse of what
obtains in the cephalized honey bee, for instance, and reminds
us strikingly of the Worms. In the genus Brachycybe, a remote
ally of Polydesmus, we are strongly reminded of some crus-
taceans, such as the Isopods, and the posterior end of the
body of this Myriopod, in the broad lateral expansions of
the segments, even recalls the tail of a trilobite.

Wood states that the eyes are frequently absent, and when
present they are generally numerous and collected in patches
near the base of the antennae. The long, cylindrical-bodied
Julus is the typical form of the suborder, while the flattened
dilated Polydesmus is a more aberrant form.

The mouth-parts are either, as in Julus, formed for feeding

POLYDESMID^E. 677

on decaying vegetable matter, or tube-like, as in Brachycybe
and allies, the parts being converted into a tube or beak.

Leach. *In this group the eyes are arranged in
a linear series, and the antennae are placed on the front of the
head. The body is half-cylindrical, short and plump, with from
twelve to thirteen segments. The head is large and free, with
the first thoracic ring small, while the last abdominal ring is
large and shield-shaped. The genital openings in both sexes
are situated just behind the insertion of the second pair of
limbs. In Glomeris the body consists of twelve rings and
seventeen pairs of limbs, while in /Sphcerotherium the body is
made up of thirteen rings and twenty-one pairs of feet. The
species are exotic, Glomeris marginata Latreille being found
in Europe, and the Sphaerotheria in the tropics.

POLYDESMID^; Leach. In this group the body is much flat-
tened, the sterna overarching the scuta, to which they are
closely cemented, and the scuta are furnished with lateral
laminae. "The head is large and massive, the absence of eyes
and the small antennae point to a state of low development of
the special senses. The female genitalia are placed in the
third segment, just posterior to the second pair of legs. They
are generally more or less hidden within the body ;
the male organs are situated in the seventh segment,
replacing the eighth pair of legs. They generally
project very prominently from the body/' Tne young
have three pairs of legs, on the 2d, 4th and 5th rings.

In Polydesmus the body is much flattened, with broad
lateral expansions to the rings. Polydesmus Cana-
densis Newport is deep brown, with pubescent scarcely
clavate antennae ; each of the scuta has eight scales,
arranged in a double series. The male appendages Fig. 649.
are hairy, with a curved terminal spine of moderate length.
The female appendages "consist of a pair of bodies shaped
somewhat like the crest of a helmet. Along their free margin
is an opening surmounted by a double series of teeth-like pro-
cesses. It is found in the Northern and Middle States. P.
erythropygus Brandt (Fig. 649) inhabits the Middle and

678 CHILOGNATHA.

Western States. In Polyxenus the body is short, clothed with
short penicillate scales, and there are thirteen pairs of feet.
(These scales, or hairs, as has been remarked to us by Mr.
Sanborn, are remarkably like the hairs "of Dermestes, and this
homology is another proof that the Myriapods are an order of
the class Insecta.) P. fasciculatus Say is about a tenth of an
inch in length. It has been detected by Mr. Sanborn under
the bark of trees near Boston, and I have found it in Salem in
the same situations, and also at Nantucket.

JULIDJS Leach. Thousand Legs. Millepedes. This group
embraces the typical species of this suborder. The body is
almost perfectly cylindrical, with the sternum greatly reduced
in size, those of the posterior subsegments being almost
absent, while the tergurn is greatly in excess. The head is
large, with often rather long and filiform antennae, and simple
eyes arranged in variously shaped patches near the base of
the antennae. ,

In Julus the bod}^ is slender and seldom more than three
inches long ; the sides of the first scutum are produced in
the female, while the antennas are long and filiform. Wood
says the males are "farther distinguished by a peculiar altera-
tion of the first pair of feet, which are transformed into a pair
of very large, thick organs," which probably serve as clasping
appendages. Julus is found commonty under sticks, etc. It
is long, cjdindrical, hard, with numerous feet, short and weak,
attached to the under surface of the body nearly in the middle
of the abdomen. The antennas are short and filiform. They
crawl rather slowly, and at rest curve the body into a ring.
They live on vegetable substances, or eat dead earth-worms or
snails. "In the spring the female deposits her eggs in masses
of sixty or seventy, in a hole excavated for the purpose under
the ground ; after three weeks or more the young make their
appearance." (Van der Hoeven.) Newport states that when
hatched the young Julus consists of eight rings, including the
head. The body of the embryo, seen from above, is com-
pressed and wedge-shaped, being broadest at the second and
third segments. For many days (seventeen) after hatching,
the embryo is surrounded by a membrane which Newport re-

JULID^E.

679

gards as the analogue of the amnion, or vitelline membrane,
of the vertebrates. This membrane is at the end of the body
connected with another, which in the unburst shell is external
to the "amnion," and lines the interior of the shell. New-
port compares this with the chorion of vertebrates. Before the
amnion is thrown off the embryo moults,
and six new segments appear (Fig. 650, 6),
and minute tubercles bud put on the under
surface of the six and seventh rings, as at a.
The new segments are always developed be-
tween the last and penultimate ones,* as has
been observed in the worms, the Crustacea,
the spiders, and as I have observed in the em-
bryo of the Dragon-fly. In the young Julus
no legs grow out on the third segment from
the head, but the outlet of the oviduct of
the female is placed on this segment. The Fig - 65 -
male organs find their outlet on the sixth ring from the head.

Julus Canadensis Newp. is brownish chestnut, ornamented
with a black dorsal line, and a lateral row of black dots. The
body consists of fifty-three segments. It is found
in the Northern States and Canada.

J. multistriatus Walsh (Fig. 651) inhabits the
Western States. The genus Spirobolus has a much
larger, thicker body, and a rather small head, with
short antennae, often lying partially hidden in a
groove in the side of the head. Spirobolus margi-
natus Say is deep brown, annulated with red, and
consists of from fifty-three to fifty-seven segments.
The male appendages are described by Wood as
formed of two outer parts, and a connecting yoke-like
piece.

To this family without much doubt, as Dr. Dawson
states, belongs the Xylobius sigillarice of Dawson
(Plate 1, fig. 4) from the Lower Carboniferous rocks Fi - G5L
of Nova Scotia. This, in 'its short, thick antennae, and small
head, rather approaches Spirobolus than Julus, though the
antennae are shorter, while the twelve ocelli represented in Dr.
Dawson's figure (Air-Breathers of the Coal Period. Montreal,

*In the Chilopoda the new segments are intercalated between the old ones.

680 CHILOGNATHA.

1863. Plate vi, fig. 58-61) are arranged much as in S. margi-
natus. It differs remarkably, however, in the raised posterior
margin of the segments, giving a serrate outline to the body,
while the body tapers more rapidly towards each end than
any recent form known to us. In this respect it seems to
combine the characters of the present family and that of
Spirosbrephon, a genus in many respects intermediate between
the Polydesmidce and the Siphonantia, or sucking Myri-
opods. Four spiracles are represented on the tenth to the
thirteenth segments from the head.

The genus Spirostreplion is in many respects intermediate
between this and the succeeding family. The head is free, as
in Polydesmus, but the sterna are soft, as in the Siplionantia.
S. Gopei Pack., was found by Mr. C. Cooke in Mammoth Cave.

SIPHONANTIA Brandt. In the sucking Myriopods (Sugantia
of Brandt) we meet with the lowest, most vegetative, worm-
like forms of the order. According to Wood the head is very
mall and concealed beneath the prothoracic ring. The parts
of the mouth are fused and united into a sucking tube for the
imbibition of fluids. The eyes are either present or absent,
and the scuta, or tergites, may be prolonged laterally into
laminae which afford protection only to the back and flanks,
the central part of the abdomen being soft. The feet are
small and hidden beneath the broad body, while the male ap-
pendages are placed on the seventh segment.

In the genus Octoglena the eyes are eight in number,
arranged in two converging rows. 0. bivirgata Wood is
brown, with a reddish stripe on each side, with about forty-
five segments to the body.

In Brachycybe the rostrum is acute, much shorter than the
antennae, while the body is broad and flattened. The male
appendages, or clasping organs, are, as sho\vn in Dr. Wood's
figures, simply modified feet adapted for clasping purposes,
as they are in Polydesmus, and are, therefore, not homologous
with the male appendages of insects, which are differently de-
veloped and grow out from a different portion of the segment.
The Brachycybe Lecontei of Wood is from Georgia, and has
long lateral expansions to the tergites.

ENTOMOLOGICAL CALENDAR.

THIS calendar applies mostly to the New England states, where the appearances
of the insects here enumerated have been recorded. It should be borne in mind that
the season of New York city is about two weeks in advance of that of Boston,
and that of Virginia and Illinois about a month or six weeks earlier. It is designed
to be of special use to farmers and gardeners as indicating the times of appear-
ance of injurious insects. When only the generic name is given several species
appear simultaneously. The reader in noticing an insect mentioned here can turn
to the index and find in the body of the work an account of its habits.

Bombtis, queens; a few Ichneumons and Chalcids; Vanessa; Grapta; a few
specimens of Noctuidse, Tortricidse and Tineidae; Ephippophora caryana; Canker
worm, females and males; Anthomyia; Tachina; Chironomus; Anophiles; Bibio;
Chionea; Valga, on the snow; Trichocera hiemalis; Cicindelsa and Carabidae;
Dytiscidae, and other water beetles; Aquatic Hemiptera; Capnia and Taeniopteryx ;
Boreus.

lst-15th. Formica; Brephos; Adela, on willows; Aphodius; Ptinus fur; Der-
mestes; Anthrenus; Attagenus; Epuraea; Ips; Ellychnia; Larva and female of
Meloe on bodies of wild bees and wasps ; Ceuthophilus.

16th-30th. Polyommatus; Lycaena; Thecla; Coddling moth (Carpocapsa) ; mos-
quitoes and larvae ; Bombylius; Burying beetles; Euryomia Inda; Buprestids;
Chalcophora Virginica; Castings of Saperda Candida; Cylindrical bark borers
(Tomicus, Xylographa); Hylurgus; Pissodes strobi; Hylobius pales; Phytocoris.

lst-15th. Xylocopa, Ceratina, Osmia, Andrena and Halictus nesting; Colias;
Argynnis Bellone; Melitaea Myrina; Chrysophanus Phlseas; Clisiocampa larva
hatching out; Scolioptery x ; Drasteria; Coremia; Gooseberry Pempelia ; Tipulidae;
Hessian-fly and Wheat-midge; Cecidomyia; Syrphus; Eristalis; Squash beetle;
Plum weevil; Hister; Clerus; Elater; Limonius; Cratonychus; Meloe; Calli-
grapha; CEdipoda corallina; Tragocephala infuscata, viridifasciata ; Libellula;
Hemerobius.

18th-31st. Cynips; Selandria rosse and cerasi, laying eggs; Strawberry Emphy-
tus larva; Papilio Tumus; Pontia oleracea; Melitaea Phaeton, larva; Argynnis;
Thanaos; Hesperia; Alypia octomaculata; Sphinx; Ceratomia 4-cornis; Sesia;
Hyphantria textor; Arctia; Leucarctia; Agrotis and cut- worms; Hypena humuli,
hop-vine worm ; Grapholitha and other leaf- rolling larvse on apple and pear; Vine
Penthina larva; Carpet moth; Chrysops; Geotrupes; Haltica on turnip, toma^
cucumbers, etc ; Apion ; Asemum moestum ; Gastrophysa coeruleipennls ; Galleruca

(681)

682 ENTOMOLOGICAL CALENDAR.

JUNE.

lst-15th. Pristophora identidem, cranberry fly larva; Nematus ventricosus,
larva; Cynips; Eurytoma hordei in straw; Pteromalus; Abia, larva; Papilio As-
terias; Eudamus Tityrus; Smerinthus; Abraxas ribearia; Scotosia undulata;
Antithesia pruniana, larva; larvae of LithocoUetis salieifoliella, juglandiella; Nep-
ticula villosella; Cranberry Anchylopera larva; Strawberry Anchylopera larva;
Grape Pterophorus larva; Anisota pellucida; Icthyura; Tabanus; Tephritis;
Oscinis; Laphria; Asilus; Bot-flies; June beetle, Lachno sterna; Areodes lani-
gera; Pelidnota punctata; Serica sericea; Apion Sayi; Macrodactylus subspin-
osus, Rose chafer; Dicerca divaricata; Chrysobothris fulvoguttata and Harrisii;
Alaus oculatus; Attelabus analis and bipunctulatus ; Rhynchites bicolor; Arrhen-
odes septentrionis; Telephorus; Corymbites; various fireflies, Photinus and
Photuris; Colorado potato beetle; CoccineUa; Pemphigus vitifolire; Apple bark
louse, Aspidiotus conchiformis; Cicada rimosa; (Edipoda Carolina; Panorpa.

18th-30th. Megachile nesting; Pristiphora grossulariae, larva; Neonympha Eury-
tris; Grapta Progne, larva; Cynthia cardui, larva, Atalanta larva; Limeiiitis
Missippus; Nymphalis Ephestion; Melitaea Phaeton, Pharos, Harrisii; Satyrus
Nephele ; Actias Luna; Eudryas grata, larva; Trochilium tipuliforme; ^Egeria exit-
iosa ; Platysamia Cecropia ; Telea Polyphemus ; Hypena humuli ; Desmia maculalis ;
Crainbus; Asopia costalis; Gooseberry Pempelia larva; Philampelus; Chaero-
campa; Halesidota; Datana ministra; Eacles impei'ialis; Citheronia regalis;
Hyperchiria lo; Loxotaenia rosaceana; Carpocapsa pomonella, larva; Limacodes;
Locust Depressaria larva; Strobisia levipedella; Coleophora; Tinea, clothes-rnoth ;
Cerura borealis; Bryophila; Pterophorus larvae; Sarcophaga; Anthomyia raphani,
radish fly; Scolytus pyri ; Cerasphorus cinctus ; Monoham.mus titillator; Anomala
varians; Fidia viticida; Desmocerus palliatus; Hispa siituralis; Lytta cinerea;
Grape Coeliodes larva; Squash bug, Coreus tristis; Lecanium quercifex; Chinch
bug ;Thrips; Cicada 17-decim; Tettigoaia rosae; Chrysopa, Phryganea; Neuronia.

lst-15th. Wasps nesting; Pine Lophyrus larvae; Melitaea Harrisii; Hesperia
Hobomoc; Satyrus Alope; Deilephila; Darapsa; Harrisina Americana; Alypia
octomaculata ; Phragmatobia rubricosa; Pyrrharctia Isabella; Euphanessa; Ha-
dena arctica; Catocala; Dahlia Gortyna larva, boring the stems; Phlox worm;
Ennomos subsignaria, Angerona crotataria and many other Phalaenidse: Phycita
nebulo, and many other Pyralidae and Tortricidae; Simulium; (Estrus; Ortalis
flexa; Acinia; Limnobia; Monohammus scutellatus ; Trichodes humeralis; Lep-
tura Canadensis ; Buprestis fasciatus ; Grape Baridius ; Reduvius ; many Libel-

Iul33.

16th-31st. Pristiphora grossulariae; Tremex Columba; Heteropterus margin-
atus; Polyommatus Comyntas; Thecla falacer; Danais, larva; Argynnis Idalia
and Aphrodite; ^Egeria cucurbitae; Sphinx larvae; Utetheisa bella; Lithosia casta;
Ichthyura albosigma; Clisiocampa; Lagoa crispata; Xyleutes robiniae; Apatela
Americana; Agrotis telifera, devastator; Hypena humuli, 2d brood of larvae; Bra-
chytaenia malana; Antithesia pruniana; Pterophorus; Coleophora; Nepticula;
Gracilaria; Elachista; Lema trilineata; Anthonomus prunicida ; Eumolpus aura-
tus; Prionus laticollis; Orthosoma unicolor; Leptostylus; Monohammus marmo-
ratus; Lucanus capreolus, dama; Clytus; Saperda; Osmoderma scabra; Cran-
beny Anthonomus ; Tettigonia fabae ; Clastoptera.

AUGUST.

lst-15th. Many bees and wasps; Crabronidae; Nyssonidae; Bembecidae; Lar-
ridae; Sphex, Pompilus and other fossorial wasps; Cimbex larva; Pelecinus and
various Chalcids and Proctotrypidae ; CEceticus makes its cocoon; Gortyna zeae;
Agrotis subgothica; Plusia; Heliothis; Northern Army worm (Leucania); Nepti-

ENTOMOLOGICAL CALENDAR. 683

cula; Gelechia; Lyonetia; Phalaenidae and Noctuidas; Cranberry Antithesia;
Saperda calcarata; Clytus; Tettigoniaa and many other Hemiptera, Grain Aphis
and other Aphides; Coccidae; Phymata erosa; CEcanthus niveus; Chloiialtis;
Acheta; Neraobius, and other grasshoppers.

16th-3 1st. Orgy ia; larvae of many moths and butterflies; Lycomorpha pholus;
Apple Lithocolletis larva; Sac-bearing Lyonetia larva; Tomicus and other bark
boring beetles ; Girdler Oncideres; Psocidae; second brood of Chrysopa.

SEPTEMBER.

Ants swarm; Males and females of Bombus ; Nymphalis Disippe; Gastropacha
Americana, larva; Limacodes, larva; Boll worm (larva); Zerene catenaria; Larvae
of various Lithocolletis, Bucculatrix and other Tineids ; Sciara larva; Carabidae;
Clytus pictus oviposits on locust; Meloe; Membracis bimaculata; Pemphigus rais-
ing galls ; Lachnus strobi.

OCTOBER.

CEceticus, and larvae of various Tineids; ^Egeria pyri; Canker worm moth;
Anisopteryx; Hibernia tiliaria ; Bdellia somnulentella ; Rhagium lineatum matures,
but hibernates in its cell; Hemerobius, and larva.

The Driver Ant, see p. 181.

GLOSSAKY.

Acuminate. Ending in a prolonged point.

Anastomosing. Inosculating or running
into each other like veins.

Annulate. When a leg, antenna, etc., is
surrounded by narrow rings of a dif-
ferent color.

Apodous. Footless.

Areolate. Furnished with small areas;
like a net work.

Aristate. Furnished with a hair.

Aurelia. Ancient term for pupa.

Blastoderm. The primitive skin of the

embryo.
Blastodermic cells. The cells forming

the blastoderm.
Bullate. Blistered.

Calcarated. Armed with spurs.

Cancellate. Crossed by lines going at
right angles to each other.

Capitate. Ending in a knob.

Carina. An elevated keel-like ridge.

Carpus. The pter >stigma. ,

Cellule. A little space surrounded by
veins on the wing.

Chela. Terminal portion of a foot, with
a movable lateral toe, like the claw of
a crab or mandibles of arachnids.

Chrysalis. The pupa of Lepidoptera.

Concolorous. Of the same color with
another part.

Ciliate. Fringed. [ashes.

Cinereous. Ash color; color of wood

Cine/ilia. A colored band.

Clavate. Club-shaped.

Coarctate. Contracted; compact.

Confluent. Running into each other.

Connate. United.

Cordate. Heart shaped.

Coriaceous. Leather-like, thick, tough,
and somewhat rigid.

Corneous. Of a horny substance; re-
sembling horn.

Crenate. Scalloped, with rounded teeth.

Cupreous. Coppery in color.

Dentated. Furnished with teeth.
Depressed. Flattened down.
Dilated. Widened, expanded.
Dimidiate. Half round.
Discal. Relating to the disk; discoidal.

Edentulous. Destitute of teeth.

Emarginate. Notched; terminating in an
acute notch at tip.

Entire. (Wings) with a simple, not in-
dented, edge.

Epistoma. That part of the face between
the front and labrum.

Eruca. The larva.

Excurved. Curved outwards.
Exserted. Protruded; opposed to in-
closed.
Exuvia. Cast-off skin.

Fades. Appearance, aspect.
Falcate. Sickle-shaped.
Fascia. A stripe broader than a line.
Fauna. An assemblage of animals peo-

Fenestrated. Marked with transparent
spots surrounded by a darker color,
like window panes.

Ferruginous. Rust-colored.

Filiform. Thread-like.

Flavescent. Somewhat yellow.

Flexuous. Almost zigzag.

Foliaceous. Leaf-like.

Forcipated. Forceps-like.

Fovea. A more or less rounded depres-
sion.

Free. Unrestrained in articulated move-
ment; not soldered at the points of
contact.

Front. The fore-face, bounded by the
eyes, the vertex, and often beneath by
the epistoma, or clypeus.

Fuliginous. Of the color of dark smoke.

Fulvo-ceneous. Brazen, with a tinge of
brownish yellow. [deer.

Fulvous. Tawny ; color of the common

Furcated. Forked.

Fusco-testaceous. Dull reddish brown.

Fuscous. Dark brown; approaching
black.

Fusiform. Spindle-shaped; gradually
tapering at each end.

Ganglion. A centre of the nervous sys-
tem, containing nerve cells, and re-
ceiving and giving out impressions.

Geminate. Arranged in pairs ; twin.

Gemmiparous. Asexual generation by
new individuals arising as buds from
the body of the parent.

Glabrous. Smooth; opposed to hairy,
downy, villous.

Glaucous. Gray; bluish green.

Hamule. A little hook.

Hastate. Halberd shaped.

Haustellate. Furnished with a proboscis

or tongue-like mouth. \

Hexapodous. Provided with six feet.
Hirsute. Clothed with shaggy hairs.
Hyaline. Transparent; of the color of

water.
Hypostoma. The clypeus in diptera.

Incrassated. Thickened; swelled out on
some particular part.

(685)

686

GLOSSARY.

Infamated. Clouded.

Infuscated. Darkened with a blackish

tinge.

Interrupted. Suddenly stopped.
Involuted. Rolled inwards spirally.
Irrorated. Freckled; sprinkled with

atoms.

Lamelliform. Sheet or leaf-like.
Limbate. When a disk is surrounded by

a margin of a different color.
Lamina. A plate or sheet-like piece.
Linear. Like a line.
Lineated. Provided with line-like marks.

Mandibulate. Furnished with mandi-
bles ; opposed to haustellate.

Marginated. Surrounded by an elevated
or attenuated margin.

Membranaceous. Thin; skinny, and
semi-transparent like parchment.

Mucronate. Ending in a sharp point.

Mutic. Unarmed.

Nymph. Old name for pupa.

Obcordate. Inversely heart-shaped.

Obovate. Inversely ovate; the smaller
end turned towards the base.

Obsolete. Not distinct; or almost lost to
view.

Obtected. Covered.

Ochreous. Of a more or less deep ochre
color.

Olivaceous. Olive colored.

Operculum. A lid; a small valvular ap-
pendage.

Oval. Egg-shaped.

Ovate. More or less oval.

Oviposition. The act of depositing eggs.

P 'etiolated. Supported on a stem.
Piceous. Pitchy, color of pitch; shining

reddish black.
Pilose. Clothed with pile, or dense

down.

Process. A projection.
Produced. Drawn out; prolonged.
Pruinose. Frosty.
Pseudova. Unimpregnated eggs, which

produce young, as in those laid by

virgin Aphides.
Pubescent. Coated with very fine hairs,

or down.

Pulverulent. Dusty.
Punctured. Marked with numerous

small impressed dots.

Raptorial. Adapted for seizing prey.
Recurved. Curved backwards.
Reniform. Kidney shaped.

Reticulated. Marked like net work.
Revolute. Rolled backwards.
Rostrum. The beak or sucking moiith-

parts in Hemiptera.
Rufescent. Somewhat reddish.
Rufous. Reddish.
Rugose. Wrinkled.

Sanguineous. Blood-red.

Scabrous. Rough like a file ; with small
raised dots.

Scalloped. Edge marked by rounded
hollows, without intervening angles.

Sericeous. Having the surface with a
silk-like gloss, usually from the pres-
ence of minute, dense hairs.

Serrated. Like saw-teeth.

Setaceous. Bristle-like.

Sessile. Not stalked.

Sinuated. Scooped out.

Spinous. Armed with spines.

Spurs. Stiff bristles, or spines, on the
tibise.

Stria. Aline usually depressed; some-
times composed of punctures.

Subaduncate. Somewhat hooked or
curved.

Subulate, Shaped like an awl.

Sulcate. With groove-like excavations.

Suture. A seam, or impressed line;
usually between segments.

Tawny. Fulvous; a pale dirty yellow.
Teneral. A state of the imago "(Nenrop-

tera) after exclusion from the pupa, in

which it has not fully completed its

coloring, clothing, etc.
Tessellate. Spotted like a checker-board.
Testaceous. Dull red ; brick color.
Tomentose. Covered with fine matted

hairs.

Truncated. Cut squarely off.
Tuberculose. Covered with tubercle-like

prominences.

Uncinate. Hooked at the end.
Unequal. Differing in size, or length.
Unguiculate. Armed with a hook or nail.

Valrule. A small valve-like process.

Ventral. Relating to the under surface
of the abdomen.

Verticillate, Placed in whirls.

Verriculate. With thickset tufts of par-
allel hairs.

Verrucose. Covered with wart-like
prominences.

Vulose. Clothed with soft, rather long
hairs.

Vulva. Orifice of the oviduct.

ABBREVIATIONS.

Beauv., Beauvois. Boisd., Boisduval. Burm., Burmeister. Clem., Clemens.
Dahlb., Dahlbom. Deu., Dennis. Dej., Dejean. Erich., Erichson. Esch., Esch-
oltz. Fabr., Fabricius. Frohl., Frohling. Grav., Gravenhorst. G. and R., Grote
and Robinson. Guen., Guene"e. Gyll., Gyllenhal. Hald., Haldeman. H. Sch.,
Herrich-Schaeffer. Hiibn., HUbner. Latr., Latreille. Lee., Leconte. Linn., Lin-
nams. Mann., Mannerheim. Mels.,Melsheimer. Oliv., Olivier. Pack., Packard.
Sauss., Saussure. Schief., Schiefermuller. Schonh., Schonherr. St. Farg., St,
Fargeau. Tellk , Tellkampf. Walk., Walker. <^,male; ?, female; ?, worker.

Abdomen, 14.

Abdominal legs, 21.

Abia caprifolium, 216. A. cerasi, 217.

Abraxas ribearia, 321.

Acanthocheir armata, 657.

Acanthosoma grisea, 546.

Acaridae, 664.

Acarina, 628, 631, 638, 639, 642, 644, 660, 6G8.

Acavus ursellus, 368.

Achlysia, 631.

Achorutes, 676.

Achatodes zeae, 311.

Acidalia enucleata, 323. A. nivosaria, 323.

Acilius mediatus, 436.

Acoloithtis Americana, 282.

Acraea violae, 251.

Acratus flavipennis, 454.

Ac ro sera, 395.

Acrocinus longimanus, 497.

Acronycta aceris, 305. A. oblinita, 304.

Acrophylla, 573.

Acrydii, 559, 567.

Acrydiura aleutaceum, 571.

Aftias Azteca, 298. A. Luna, 234, 298.

Adela Ridingsella, 348.

Adelges coccineus, 523.

Adelocera obtecta, 460.

Adelops hirtus, 439.

Adranes csecus, 422, 440.

uEgeriadae,277. JSgeria caudata, 278. JE.

exitiosa, 277. M. polistiformis, 278.

M. pyri, 278. M. quinque-caudata, 279.

JE. tipuliforme, 279.
./Egialites debilis, 475.
./Egialitidaa, 475.

schna, ovipositor of, 16. ^Eschna, 579,

581. JE. clepsydra, 602. M. constricta,

602. M. heros, 604. M. juncea, 598.
Agabus, 436.

Agamic reproduction, 49.
Agathidium seminulum, 439.
Agenia acceptus, 173. A. brevis, 173.

A. congruus, 173.
Aglossa cuprealis, 329. A. pinguinalis,

329.
Agrion, 599, 601, 602. Ovipositor of. 16.

A. civile, 603. A. saucium, 603.
Agrionina, 598, 603.
Agriotes, 461. A. mancus, 461.
Agriotypus armatus, 616.
Agrotis, 243. A. Cochrani, 306, 308. A.

devastator, 306. A. subgothica, 306.

A. suffusa, 306. A. telifera, 306. A.

tessellata, 306.
Air-breathers, 679.
Air vesicles, 42.
Alans octilatus, 460.
Aleochara, 423, 440, 441.
Aleurodes, 526.
Aleuronia Westwoodii, 609.

Alimentary canal, 34.

Allantus basilaris, 224.

Allecula, 475.

Allotria, 213.

Alucita, 202. A. polydactyla, 357.

Alydus eurinus, 546.

Alypia octo-maculata, 281.

Alyson oppositus, 162.

Amara, 433.

Amblychila, 429.

Amblynotus, 212.

American Silk-worm, 195.

American Tent Caterpillar, 343.

Ammophila arenaria, 171. A. cementa-

ria, 171. A. hirsuta, 171. A. luctuosa,

171. A. sabulosa, 170, 171. A. urnaria,

171.

Amnion, 678, 679.
Amphicerus bicaudatus, 471.
Amphidasys cognataria, 322.
Amphizoa insolens, 435.
Amphizoidae, 434.
Ampulex Sibirica, 166.
Anagrus, 202.
Anal cerci, 22.
Anal forceps, 21.
Anal plate, 30.
Anaphes, 202.
Anarete, 378.
Anarta algida, 316.
Anaspis, 476.
Anax Junius, 603.
Anchylopera fragariae, 340. A. medlo-

fasciana, 338. A. nubeculana, 338. A.

ocellana, 338. A. spireaefoliana, 338.

A. vacciniana, 338.
Andrena, 141, 142, 143, 145, 146, 408. A.

vicina, 144.
Andrenetae, 142.
Andrenus marginicollis, 443.
Angerona crocataria, 319.
Angoumois Grain-moth, 350.
Anisopteryx, 231. A. pometaria, 324.

A. vernata, 200, 324, 325.
Anisota rubicunda, 300. A. senatoria,

300.

Anisotoma, 439.

Anobium notatum, 47. A. paniceum, 131.
Anomala varians, 455.
Anomalon vesparnm, 127, 150, 195.
Anomis xylina, 313.
Anomma arcens, 181. A. Burmeisteri,

181, 683.

Anopheles quadrimaculatus, 370.
Anophthalmus Tellkampfli, 434.
Anotia Bonnetii, 533.
Antennae, 26.

Antennary segments, 20, 58.
Antheraea Yama-ma'i, 296. [447.

Antherophagus, 446. A. ochraceus, 131,

(687)

688

INDEX.

Anthicidas, 476.

Anthicus, 476.

Anthidium, 135.

Anthocharis cardamines, hermaphro-
dite, 46.

Anthocoris insidiosus, 544.

Anthomyia, 131. A. brassicae, 411. A.
ceparum, 411. A. cunicularis, 411. A
raphani, 411. A. urcana, 150. A. zeae
411, 419.

Anthonomus crataegi, 487. A. prunicida,
487. A. quadrigibbus, 487. A. scutel-
latus, 487. A. suturalis, 487. A. syco
phanta, 487. A. tessellatus, 487.

Anthophagus caesus ? 442.

Anthophora, 29, 141 206, 397. A. abrupta,
136. A. megachilis, 206. A. taurea,
136.

Anthophorabia, 114, 135, 136, 202, 206. A.
megachilis, 131, 137.

Anthrax, 131. A. morio, 397. A. sinu-
osa, 132, 140, 397.

Anthrenus varius, 448.

Anthribidae, 53.

Anthrobia Mammothia, 645.

Antispila, 342. [333.

Antithesia bipartitana, 333. A. pruniana,

Ant lion, 611.

Apatela Americana, 304.

Apathus, 131, 142. A. Ashtonii, 131.

Aphidaa, 112, 517, 519.

Aphides, 48, 50, 54, 161, 202, 378.

Aphidius, 198, 203, 521. A. avenaphis, 198.
A. triticaphis, 198.

Aphis, 69, 198, 203, 213, 372, 379. A. aceris,

521. A. avenae, 522. A. brassicse, 522.
A. cerasi, 522. A. dianthi, 520. A. mali,

522. A. malifoliae, 522. A. persicae, 522.
Aphis lion, 609, 611.

Aphodius fimetarius, 453. A. fossor, 453.

Aphomia colonella, 329.

Aphrophora quadrmotata, 532.

Aphrosylus, 403.

Apiariae, 115, 147.

Apion Sayi, 485.

Apis melliflca, 117.

Apochrysa. 79.

Apoica pallida, 154, 156.

Apophyllus, 50, 211.

Aporus fasciatus, 174.

Apple fly, 380, 414.

Apple leaf crumpler, 331.

Apple tree borer, 500.

Arachnida, 104, 625, 632.

Arachnids, 629, 630, 640, 643, 660.

Aradus crenatus, 553.

Aranea diadema, 193.

Araneae, 633.

Araneina, 639, 644.

ArchegogryUus priscus, 564.

Archetarbus rotundatus, 657.

Archimulacris Acadica, 78.

Archyptera, 24.

Arctia, 239. A. Anna, 286. A. caja, 63.

A. pudica, 284. A. virgo, 286.
Arctians, 280.
Arctisca, 667.
Argas Persicus, 6(?2.
Argynnis Aphrodite, 253. A. Atlantis,

252. A. Bellona, 253. A. Diana, 253.

A. Idalia, 252. A. Montinus, 253. A.

Myrina, 253.

Argyromiges quercifoliella, 353.
Argyroneta, 633. A. aquatica, 649.
Arma spinosa, 547.

Army worm, 77, 196, 197, 203, 305, 383, 407.

Arthromacra, 475.

Arthromere, 9, 16.

Articulata, 1, 3, 6.

Ascalaphus, 54, 612. A. hyalinus, 613.

A. macaronius, 613.
Asclera, 476.
Asemum moestum, 496.
Asexual forms, 49.
Ash, mountain, slug, 222.
Asilidaa. 395.

Asilus 362. A. sericeus, 396.
Asopia costalis, 328.
Asparagus beetle, 76, 502.
Aspatherium, 617.
Aspidiotus, 50. A. conchiformis, 528. A.

Harrisii, 530.
Astata unicolor, 165.
Asynapta, 378.

Atax, 642,661. A. Bonzi, 640.
Athalia centifoliae, 44.
Athous, 461.
Atopa, 464.
Atropos divinatorius, 589. A. pulsato-

rius, 589.
Attaci, 234.
Atta clypeata, 186.
Attagenus pellio, 448.
Attacus, 235. A. Atlas, 296. A. Aurota,

297. A. Mylitta, 296. A. Pernyi, 296.

A. Yfima-mai,296.
Attelabus analis, 485.
Attus, 194, 655.
Augochlora purus, 143, 156.
Aulacizes mollipes, 532.
Aulacodes nigriventris, 195.
Aulax, 212.

Baetisca, 595.

Baetis interpunctata, 595.

Balanmus nasicus, 485.

Baridius trinotatus, 491. B. sesostris,

491. B. vestitus, 491.
Bark lice, 11.

Batrachedra salicipomonella, 352.
Batrachidea cristata, 572.
Batrachomyia, 406.
Bat-ticks, 416, 418.
Bdella longicornis, 660.
Bdellidae, 660.
Bear" animalcules, 668.
Bed bug, 551.
Bee killer, 396.
Bee louse, 418.
Bee moth, 332.
Bee, venation of, 23.
Belostoma, 80, 518. B. grisea, 537. B. '

Haldimanum, 537.
Bembecidae, 164.
Bembex fasciata, 164. B. rostrata, 164.

B. tarsata, 164.
Bembidium, 422, 434.
Beris, 392.

Bernafly, 412.
Berosus, 438.
Bethylus fuscicornis, 201.
Bibio albipennis, 392.
Bibionidae, 391.
Bicho. 390.
Biorhiza nigra, 211.
Bird lice, 554.
Bird earcoptids, 642.
Bird ticks, 416, 417.
Bite of insects, 43.
Bittacomorpha, 54. B. clavipes, 884.

INDEX.

689

Bittacus, 54. B. pilicornis, 614.

Black fly, 390.

Blaps mortisaga, 473.

Blastoderm, 55.

Blast ophaga grossorum, 207.

Blatta, 194. B. Germanica, 481. B. ori-

entalis, 576.
Blattariae, 575.
Blattina, 576, 577.
Blood, 37.

Blue-bottle fly, 407, 408.
Boarmia gnopharia, 322.
Bolbocerus, 453.
Bolbomyia, 392.
Boletophagus cornutus, 474.
Bolitobius, 441.
Bolitophila, 385.
Bombardier beetle, 432.
Bombus, 53, 54, 65, 130, 132, 135, 146, 400.
B. fervidus, 401.
Bombus, head of, 30.
Bombycidae, 200, 234, 238, 283.
Bombyliidae, 395.
Bombylius, 54, 164, 397.
Bombyx Huttoni, 295. B. mori, 293, 294,

295. B. neustria, 300. B.phoedima,384.
Bonvouloiria, 447.
Boreus, 493, 583, 586, 614. B. brumalis,

615. B. nivoriundus, 615.
Bostrichus, 471.
Bot fly, 25, 403.

Bothropolys multidentatus, 674.
Botys citrma, 330. B. verticalis, 330.
Brachinus fumans, 432.
Brachyara, 392.

Brachycybe, 676. B. Lecontei, 680.
Brachyrleres, 408.
Brachys, 459.
Bracon, 197, 198.
Braconidae, 197.
Branchiae, 41.
Brathinus nitidus, 439. B. varicornis,

439.

Braula, 46, 360, 388.
Braula caeca, 127, 419.
Braulina, 418.
Breeze-flies, 403.
Brent hus septentrionalis, 485.
Brephos infans, 316.
Bristle tails, 622.
Bruchidas, 484.

Bruchus fabi, 484. B. pisi, 484, 513.
Buprestidae, 159, 457.
Buthus Carolinianus, 659. B. hirsutus,

660.

Butterflies, hermaphroditism in, 238.
Butterfly, venation of, 23.
Butternut saw-fly, 224.
Button-wood Tremex, 228.
Byrrhidae, 449.

Byrrhus Americanus, 449. B. pillula, 449.
Byrsocrypta, 523.
Byturus unicolor, 448.

Cabbage butterfly, 249.
Cabbage maggot, 411.
Caberodes metrocamparia, 320.
Caddis or case-worm, 6, 615.
Caddis-flies, 236.
Caenis, 593. C. hilaris, 596.
Calandra, 489.
Callalucia vermiculata, 283.
Callidium antennatum, 496.
Calligrapha Philadelphica, 509. C. scal-
aris, 509.

Callimome, 212.

Callimorpha Lecontei, 286. C. interrup-

to-marginata, 286.
Callimosema scintillana, 337.
Callochlora chloris, 290.
Callosamia Promethea, 237, 298.
Calosoma calidum, 431. C. scrutator,

431.
Caloptenus bivittatus, 570. C. femur-

ruber, 569. C. spretus,570.
Calopterygina, 598.

Calopteryx, 599, 601, 602. C. apicalis, 603.
Calotermes castaneus, 587.
Campodea fragilis, 623.
Campodeae, 623.
Campylomyza, 378.
Canker worm, 70, 324.
Canker-worm moth, 200.
Capnia pygmsea, 591.
Capsini, 550. [550.

Capsus Danicus, 550. C. quadrivittatus,
Carabidae, 421, 423, 424, 427, 430, 435, 437,

446.

Carabus auronitens, 432. C. serratus, 432.
Cardo, 28.

Carnus hemapterus, 418.
Carpenter-bee, 132.
Carpet moth, 347.
Carpocapsa pomonella, 341.
Carpophilus antiquus, 444.
Carrion or Sexton Beetle, 438.
Caryborus, 79, 80.
Case-fly, 6.

Casnonia Pensylvanica, 433.
Cassida, 408. C. aurichalcea, 504.
Cassidomyia, 408.
Castnia, 280.
Cataclysta fulicalis, 330.
Catocala, 302. C. piatrix, 317. C. ultro-

nia, 317.
Catocha, 378.
Catops, 439.
Cebrio bicolor, 463.
Cebrionidae, 462.
Cecidomyiae, 202, 205.
Cecidomyia acrophila, 372. C. aTtemisias,

199. C. destructor, 373, 374. C. fusci-

collis, 372. C. glutinosa, 372. C. gros-

sulariae, 376. C. pavida, 372. C. pini-

inopis, 376. C. rigid*, 376. C.robmiae,

499. C. salicis, 364, 373, 376. C. salici-

brassicoides, 377. C. strobiloides, 377.

C. tritici, 375, 376. C ? vitis-coryloides,

377.

Cecidomyidae, 371.
Cecropia moth, 27, 234, 298.
Cells of the Honey bee, 120.
Cemonus inornatus, 161.
Centipedes, 10, 673, 674.
Cephalization, 9.
Cephaloidae, 476.
Cephaloon lepturides, 476.
Cephalothorax, 8.
Cephus, 215. C. abbreviatus, 227. C. trl-

maculatus, 227.
Cerambycidae, 425, 426, 493.
Ceraphron, 199. C. armatum, 200.
Cerasphorus cinctus, 495.
Ceratma, 143, 219. C. dupla, 134, 140.
Ceratocampadae, 299.
Ceratomia Amyntor, 274.
Ceratopogon, 371.
Cerceris, 146. C. bupresticida, 159. C.

deserta, 159. C. tricmcta, 159. C. tuber-

culata, 159.

690

INDEX.

Cercopidae, 588.

Cercopis, 532.

Cercyon, 438.

Cermatia, 070. C. forceps, 673.

CermatidcB, 673.

Ceropalus bipunctata, 174. C. Robin-

souii, 175.
Cetouia, 453, 457.
Ceuthophilus maculatus, 565. C. stygius,

565.

Ceutorhynchus, 189.
Chalcididse, 202.
Chalcids, 161, 207, 410.
Chalcis albifrons, 203. C. bracata, 203.
Chalcophora Virginiensis, 458.
Chalicodoma micraria, 192.
Chartergus chartarius, 154.
Chartophila floralis, 408.
Chauliodes pectinicornis, 607. C. rastri-

cornis, 60:>. C. serricornis, 607.
Chauliognathus Pensylvanicus, 467.
Cheese maggot, 413.
Chelil'er, 63 1 J. C. cancroides, 659.
Chelymorpha cribaria, 504.
Chermes, 50, 523. C. abietis, 525.
Chernes. C. Sanborui, 659.
Chernetidae, 658.
Cherry slug, 222.

Cheyletus, 665. C. semenivorus, 668.
Chigoe, 390.

Chilocorus bivulneruhis, 513.
Chilognatha, 671, 676.
Chilopoda, 670, 672.
Chilopods, 672, 676.
Chinch bug, 543.
Chion cinctus, 495.
Chionea, 358, 55J. C. araneoides, 383. C.

valga, 383.
Chionobas, 75, 262. C. Bore, 263. C.

Calais, 263. C. Chrixus, 263. C. Jutta,

283. C. (Eno, 263. C. semidea, 263.
Chigue, 390.
Chironomtdae, 370.
Chironomus oceanicus, 370.
Chironomus larva, 21.
Chitine, 1, 9.
Chlamius, 434.
Chlamys plicata, 510.
Chloealtis conspersa, 568.
Chloeon, 594.
Chlorion cyaneum, 167.
Chlorops Herpinii, 415. C. lineata, 415.
Choerodes transversata, 319.
Chrestotes lapidea, 593.
Chrysididoe, 190, 199.
Chrysis, 157, 191, 192. C. hilaris, 192.
Chrysobothris lemorata, 458. C. Harrisii,

459.

Chrysomelidae, 501.
Chrysopa, 47, 79. C. perla, 611. C. ocu-

lata, 611. ,

Chrysophanus Americanus,264. C.Thoe,

264, 357.

Chrysops niger, 393. C. vittatus, 393.
Cicada canicularis, 163. C. Cassinii, 535.

C. pruinosa, 534. C. rimosa, 534. C.

septendecim, 535.
Cicadellina, 531.
Cicadidae, 516.
Cicindela generosa, 430. C. hirticollis,

430. C. punctata, 430. C. purpurea,

430. C. sexguttata, 430. C. vulgaris,

430.

Cicindelidae, 423, 428.
Cidaria diversilineata, 325.

Cillenum, 434.

Cimbex Americana, 215.

Cimex, 516. C. columbarius, 551. C.

hirundinis, 551. C. lectularius, 551. C.

pipistrelli, 551.
Cioidse, 472.
Circulatory system, 37.
Cis, 472.
Cistela, 475.
Cistelidse, 425, 475.
Citheronia Mexicana, 299. 'C. regalis,

299. C. sepulcralis, 299.
Cladius isomera, 226.
Cladomacra macropus, 114.
Cladura indivisa, 360.
Clambus, 439.

Classification of insects, 104.
Clastoptera proteus, 532.
Claviger, 440.
Clavola, 26.

Cleptes semiaurata, 192.
Cleridae, 4G8;

). alvearius, 469.

156, 196, 343. C. Ameri-
8, 301. C. disstria, 301.

Clerus, 468.
Clinidmm, 44
Clisiocampa,

cana, 207, 2
Clivina, 432.
Cloaca, 35.
Cloe, 593. C. pygmaea, 596.
Clothes moth, 346.
Clothilla picea, 589O
Clover worm, 328.
Clubione holosericea, 193. C. medicin-

ahs, 649. C. tranquilla, 649.
Clypeiis, 29.
Clytus, 159. C. araneiformis, 497. C. pic-

tus, 497. C. robiniae, 497. C. speciosus,

496.
Coccus cacti, 527. C. citri, 527. C. lacca,

527. C. manniparus, 527. C. Gloverii, 5^7.
Coccidae, 112, 525.
Coccinella bipunctata, 511. C. novem-

notata, 512. C. trifasciata, 512.
Coccinellidae, 511.
Coccophagus, 527.
Coccus cacti, 526.
Cochlidiae, 288.
Cockchafer, 71.
Cockroach, 194, 575.
Cocoons of Silk Worms, 240.
Coddling moth, 341.
Coeliodes inaequalis, 490.
Coelioxys octodentata, 141.
Coelodasys (Notodonta) unicornis, 292.
Coleophora coruscipennella, 351. C.

rosacella, 351. C. rosaefoliella, 351.
Coleoptera, 420, 421. Antennae of, 422.

Number of species of, 427.
Colias, 244. C. interior, 251. C. Labra-

dorensis, 250. C. occidentalis, 251. C.

Philodice, 250.
Collecting insects, 84.\
Colletes, 141, 143, 147.
Colon, 36.

Colorado potato beetle, 408, 508.
Colpodia, 378.
Colydidae, 445.
Colydium elongatum, 446.
Colymbetes, 436.
Common fly, 361.
Comprehensive types, 54.
Compsidea tridentata, 499.
Condylodera tricondyloides, 567.
Coniopteryx, 625. C.tineiformis,609. C.

vicina, 609.

INDEX.

691

Conocephalus ensiger, 563.

Conopidse, 400, 418.

Conops, 131, 3tJ3. C. flavipes, 401.

Conorhinus sanguisuga, 542.

Conotrachelus nenuphar, 488.

Copris, 47. C. Carolina, 451.

Coptera, 201. C. polita, 201.

Coranus subapterus, 541.

Covdulia tenebrosa, G04.

Cordulina, 584.

Coreidse, 542.

Corethra, 65, 370.

Coreus marginatus, 544. C. scapha, 545.

C. tristis, 515.
Corimelaena pulicaria, 547.
Corisiae, 512.
Corixa iuterrupta, 536.
Cora, insects injurious to, 306, 311, 350.
Cornea, 25.

Corydalus, 79. C. cornutus, 33, 579, 607.
Corymbites aeripennis, 462. C. viridis,

462. C. cylindi-iformis, 462. C. triun-

dulatus, 462. C. hieroglyphicus, 4[>2.
Corynetes, 468.
Costa, 23.

Cotalpa lanigera, 455.
Cotton Anomis, 313.
Cotton Boarmia, 322.
Cotton Heliothis, 315.
Cotton Leaf roller, 335.
Cotton Plusia, 312.
Coxa, 20.
Crabro, 146, 197. C. sex-maculatus, 159.

C. singulars, 158, 160. C. stirpicola,

158.

Crabronidae, 149, 155, 157, 195.
Crambidia pallida, 285.
Crambus, 23S. C. mutabilis, 332.
Cranberry Anchylopera, 338.
Cranberry Cidaria, 325.
Cranberry Pristiphora, 217.
Cranberry Tortrix, 334.
Cranberry weevil, 487.
Crane-flies, 380.
Crepidodera cucumeris, 506.
Cressonia juglandis, 274.
Crickets, 562.
Crioceridaj, 426.
Crioceris asparagi, 502.
Crocota ferruginosa, 285.
Crossidius pulchrior, 495.
Croton bug, 576.
Crustacea, 636.
Crustaceans, typical, 5, 7, 8.
Cryphalus materarius, 493.
Cryptocephalus, 510.
Cryptocercus punctulatus, 576. C. mul-

tispinosus, 190.
Cryptophagidae, 446.
Cryptophagus hirtus, 447.
Cryptus, 193, 197, 395. C ? ornatipennis,

197.

Ctenistes, 422.
Ctenocerus, 114.
Ctenophora, 381.
Ctenostoma, 428.
Ctenucha, 239, 280. C. Virginica, 234,

Cuckoo bee, 141, 147. Cuckoo flies, 191.

Cucujidae, 446.

Cucujus, 446.

Cucumber flea beetle, 506.

Culex pipiens, 369.

Culicidae, 368.

Cupes capitata, 470. C. cinerea, 470.

Cupesidae, 469.

Curculionidae, 159, 378, 425, 426, 484.

Currant Abraxas, 321.

Currant Borers, 279, 500.

Currant Pristiphora, 217.

Cuterebra buccata, 406. C. cuniculi, 406.
C. emasculator, 405. C. horripilum,
406.

Cut-worms, Remedies for, 308.

Cychrus, 432.

Cyclonotum, 438.

Cyclopthalmus, 630. C. Bucklandi, 660.

Cylindrotoma, 384. C. distincttssima,
381. C. (Phalacrocera) replicata, 381.

Cymatophora caniplaga, 304.

Cymindis, 433.

Cynipidae, 205, 208.

Cynips, 50, 202. C. confluens, 209, 211.
C. divisa, 209. C. folii, 209. C. gallae-
tinctoriae, 211. C. quercus-aciculata,
208. C. quercus-futilis, 210, 211. C.
quercus globulus, 210. C. quercus-pa-
lustris, 211. C. quercus-papillata, 210.

C. seminator, 210. C. tubicola, 210.
Cynthia, 244.

Cyphon, 464.
Cyrtidje, 395.
Cyrtophyllum concavnm, 566.

Daddy-long-legs, 380.

Daihinia, 565.

Danais, 245. D. archippus, 251.

Dascyllida?, 464.

Dasypogon, 361, 395.

Death's head Sphinx, 284.

Deciduous legs, 21.

Deformities of Insects, 83.

Degeeria nivalis, 625.

Deilephila lineata, 275. D. chamoeneril,
276.

Delphax arvensis, 533.

Demodex, 626, 642. D. folliculorum, 69,
667.

Dendroides Canadensis, 477. D. con-
color, 477.

Depressaria atrodorsella, 34U. D. later-
ella, 349. D. robiniella, 349.

Dermaleichus pici-pubescentis, 666.

Dermanyssus avium, 663. D. pipistrel-

Dermaptera, 577.

Dermatobia moyocuil, 406. D. noxialis,

406.
Dermatodectes bovis, 666. D. equi, 666.

D. ovis, 666.

Dermestes lardarius, 448.
Dermestidaa, 448.
Derodontidae, 447.
Desmia maculalis, 330.
Desmocerus cyaneus, 506.
Desoria, 625.

Development of Insects, 54.
Devil's darning needles, 597.
Dexia, 408.

Diabrotica duodecim-punctata, 506. D.

yittata, 505.
Dianous, 442.

Diapheromera femorata, 573.
Diapria cecidomyiarum, 199.
Diaetrophus, 212.

Dicerca divaricata, 458. D. lurida, 458.
Dichelonycha elongatula, 454.
Dictyoneura, 582.
Dimorphism, 52.
Dineutea, 79, 80. D. Americanus, 437.

692

INDEX.

Diplax, 55, 60, 600. D. Berenice, 605. D.

Elisa, 005. D. rubicundula, 605.
Diplolepariae, 208.
Diplolepis confluens, 155. D. confluen-

tus, 140.

Diplonychus, 80.
Diplosis, 378. D. socialis, 372.
Dipnemnones, 648.
Diptera, 358. Number of species of, 267.

Venation of, 360.
Diseases of insects, 81, 344.
Diving Beetles, 435.
Dolerus arvensis, 222.
Dolichopodidoe, 402.
Dolomedes lanceolatus, 653.
Dolopius stabilis, 461. D. pauper, 461.
Donacia lurbyi, 502. D. proxima, 502.
Dor bug, 455.
Dorcas brevis, 451.
Dorcatomma, 422.
Dorsal vessel, 37.
Dorthesia, 526.
Dorylus, 181.
Doryphora decem-lineata, 508. D. juncta,

509.

Dragon-flies, 584, 597, 630, 679.
Drassus, 649.
Drasteria erechtea, 317.
Drilus, 466.
Drop-worms, 318.
Drosophila, 377, 414.
Dryopteris rosea, 293.
Ductus ejaculatorius, 44.
Dynastes, 455. D. Hercules, 456. D.

Tityus, 456.

Dysdera, 633. D. interrita, 649.
Dytiscidje, 424, 435, 436, 487.
Dytiscus, 53. D. fasciventris, 436.

Eacles imperialis, 300.

Earwigs, 577.

Eburia ? Ulkei, 495.

Echiniscus, 642.

Echinomyia, 408.

Eciton Mexicana, 186. E. Sumichrasti,

183.

Ectatomma femiginea, 184.
Ectobia Germanica, 576. E. lithophila,

576.

Edema albifrons, 292.
Eggs, 46.

Egg-parasites, 198.
Eiphosoma annulatum, 195.
Elachista ? orichalcella, 352.
Elaphrus, 431.

Elasmocerus terminates, 468.
Elater, 460. E. obliquus, 461.
Elateridae, 421, 425, 459.
Elephantomyia Westwoodii. 383.
Elis costaUs, 177.
Ellema HaiTisii, 271.
Ellopia,318. E. fasciaria, 320. E.flagit-

iaria, 320.
Elm butterfly, 260.
Elm Ennomos, 321.
Elm Tremex, 228.
Elmis, 450.
Elodes, 473.
Embia Savigni, 588.
Embidae, 583, 588.
Emesa longipes, 541.
Emmenadia, 481.
Emphytus maculatus, 220.
Empidse, 402.
Empis, 361.

Empretia stimulea, 289.

Empusa, 575.

Emydium testudo, 669.

Encyrtus, 223. E. Botus, 207. E. Eeate,

207. E. varicornis, 207.
Endomychidae, 510.
Endropia tigrinaria, 320.
Ennomos magnaria, 321. E. subsignaria,

321.

Enoicyla pusilla, 616.
Entomological journal, 103.
Entomological systems, 106.
Entomological works, 97.
Entomostraca, 616.
Eoscorpion carbonarius, 660.
Epe'ira domiciliorum, (551. E. vulgaris.

631, 651.

Epeolus, 141. E. variegatus, 147.
Ephemera decora, 594.
Ephemerida?. 578, 580, 581, 583, 593.
Ephemerkls, 583, 593.
Ephemerina, 583.
Ephemerites, 594.
Ephydra halophila, 414.
Epicranium, 29.
Epidosis, 372, 378.
Epilachna borealis, 513.
Epimera, 9.
Epipharyx, 20, 29.
Epipone nitidulans, 203.
Epirus, 401.
Episternum, 9.
Epurzea, 445,446.
Erastria carneola, 316.
Erebus Agrippina, 318. E. odora, 318.
Eremophila Ehrenbergi, 575.
Erioptera venusta, 383.
Eriosoma lanigera, 522. E. pyri, 525.
Eristalis, 398.
Ernobius mollis, 471.
Erotylida3, 510.
Erythroneura vitis,532.
Eucera, 141. E. maculata, 136.
Eucerceris zonatus, 159.
Eucheira socialis, 244.
Euchroma Columbica, 459.
Euclea Monitor, 289.
Euchronia Maia, 299.
Eucnemis, 460.

Eudamus BathylJus, 269. E. Tityrus, 269.
Eudryas, 280. E. grata, 281. E. unio, 282.
Eugereon Boeckingi, 54, 78, 582.
Eulophus ba sails, 207.
Eumenes, 147, 155, 156. E. coarctata, 207.

E. fraterna, 156. E. tinctor, 192.
Eumolpus auratus, 509.
Euphanessa mendica, 285.
Eupithecia miserulata, 325.
Euplexoptera, 577.
Eupyrrhoglossum Sagra, 277.
Euremia, 280.
Euryomia In da, 457.
Euryptychia saligneana, 337.
Eurytoma, 203, 205, 212. E. flavipes, 205.

E. hordei, 203, 205. E. secalis, 205.
Euscirrhopterus Poeyi, 282.
Euura orbitalis, 218. E. perturbans, 218.

E. salicis-ovum, 218.
Evagoras viridis, 542.
Evagorus, 80.

Evania, 194, 195. E. laevigata, 194.
Evaniidae, 194.
Eyes, 25.

Facets of eye, 25.

INDEX.

693

False legs, 17.

False Scorpions, 632.

Fatty body, 37.

Fauna, 71.

Femur, 21r

Fidia viticida, 502. *

Fidonia piniaria, hermaphrodite, 43.

Figites, 212. F. (Diplolepis) 5-lineatus

208.

Figitidae, 212.
Filaria, 83.

Filistata hibernalis, 649.
Fire fly, 462, 465.
Fire-worms, 339.
Fir saw fly, 224.
Flagellum, 26.
Flata, 112. F. limbata, 533.
Flea, 11, 360, 388.
Flesh fly, 407, 408.
Flight of Insects, 32.
FCBIIUS, 194, 195. F. jaculator, 195.
Forest-flies, 416.
Forlicula, 5i, 577.
Forficularite, 577.
Formica flava, 183. F. fulvacea, 183. F.

fusca, 180. F. herculanea, 183. F. Pen-

sylvanica, 183. F. rubra, 183. F. san-

guinea, 180, 182, 183.
FormiiianjB, 179.
Formicomus, 476.
Fornax, 4 >0.
Fossil Diptera, 368.
Front of the head, 31.
Fruit-worm, (Cranberry) 340.
Fulgora candelaria, 533. F. lanternaria,

Fulgoridae, 532.
Fungus eating-flies, 199.

Galea, 28 V

Galerita Lfecontei, 433.

Galeruca gelatinariaa, 504. G. margiii-

ella, 505.
Gales us, 201.
Galgudini, 539.
Galgulus oculatus, 539.
Galleria cereana, 332.
Gall-flies, 109,208,371.
Gall-midges, 199.
Gamasidae, 683.
Gamasus coleoptratorum, 663.
Gastropacha Americana, 300.
Gastrophilus equi, 404.
Gelechia cerealella, 350. G. fungivorella,

350. G. roseosuffusella, 350.
Gena, 28.

Generation, organs of, 43.
Genital organs, 16.
Geographical Distribution, 71.
Geological Distribution, 77.
Geometra iridaria, 323.
Geometridae, 303.
Geophilidae, 675.
Geophilus bipuncticeps, 675. G. cephal-

icus, 675. G. proavus, 673.
Georyssidaa, 449.
Georyssus pusillus, 450
Geotrupes, 663. G. splendidus, 453. G.

stercorarius, 32.

Gerris, 516, 539. G. paludum, 540.
G. rufoscutellatus, 540.
Gills, 41.
Girdler, 498.
Gizzard, 35.
Glaucopis, 280, 283.

GlomeridJB, 677.

Glomeris marginata, 677.

Glossina morsitans, 407.

Glow-worm, 424.

Glyphe, 203.

Golden-eyed fly, 393.

Goldsmith beetle, 455.

Goliathus cacicus, 456. G. Drurii, 456. G.

Goliathus, 456.
Gomphina, 584.

Gomphus, 597. G. fraternus, 603.
Gonatopus lunatus, 199.
Gonia, 408.
Gonocerus, 545.
Gonyleptes ornatum, 657.
Gooseberry Midge, 376.
Gooseberry Pempelia, 331.
Gooseberry Pristiphora, 217.
Gooseberry saw-fly, 217, 219.
Gooseberry worm, 331.
Gordius, 82.
Gortyna flavago, 310. G. nitela,310. G.

leucostigma, 310.
Gorytes flavicornis, 163.
Gracilaria, 342. ^
Grain moth, 347, 350.
Grain weevil, 490.
Gramatophora trisignata, 304.
Grape Acoloithus, 282.
Grape Alypia, 281.
Grape Anomala, 455.
Grape Baridius, 491.
Grape Borer, 278.
Grape Cidaria, 325.
Grape Desmia, 330.
Grape Eudryas, 281.
Grape Fidia, 502.
Grape-leaf Flea beetle, 507.
Grape-leaf folder, 330.
Grape Penthina, 336.
Grape Philampelus, 275.
Grape Pterophorus, 356.
Grapte Thyreus, 276.
Grape weevil, 490.
Grapholitha, 337.
Grapta c-argenteum, 260. G. comma, 260.

G. Faunus, 260. G. interrogationis, 259.
Graptodera chalybea, 507. G. exapta, 507.
Grasshoppers, 556.
Grease moth, 329.
Green-head fly, 393.
Grotea anguina, 197.
Gryllidae, 558, 562.
Gryllotalpa borealis, 563. G. longipennis,

563.
Gryllus abbreviatus, 564. G. campestris,

60. G. domesticus, 533. G. luctuosus

564. G. neglectus, 564. G. niger, 564.
Guest gall-flies, 212.
Gyrinidae, 424, 436, 437.
Gyrinus, 422., G. borealis, 437.
Gyropiis porcelli, 555.

Hadena chenopodii, 309.
Hadenoecus snbterraneus, 565.
Hafesidota caryas, 287. H. maculata, 287.

H. tessellaris, 287.
Halictus, 141. 142, 144, 145. H. paralellus,

145.

Haliplus, 436.
Halonota simulana, 337.
Haltica chalybea, 507. H. cucumeris,

506. H. striolata, 507.
Hamamelistes cornu, 523.
Haplophlebium, 594.

694

INDEX.

Harpactopus, 167.

Harpactor cinctus, 542.

Harpalus, 542. H. caliginosus, 420, 434.

Harpax, 575.

Harvest-men, 032, 656.

Hatching of the larva, 61.

Head, appendages of, 24. Segments of,

20. Structure of, 18.
Hearing, organs of, 559. Sense of, 26.
Heart, 37. Development of, 42.
Hedychrum bidentulum, 191. H. dimidi-

aturn, 192. H. lucidulum, 191. H. re-

gium, 1'Jl.
Hegemon, 453.
Heliciius, 450.
Heliconia Melpomone, 251.
Helicop-syche, 616. H. arenifera, 619. H.

glabra, 61'.).

Heliocheilus paradoxus, 315.
Heliothis armigcra, 315.
Helluomorpha praeusta, 433.
Helochara communis, 532.
Helophilus, 399.
Hemeristia occidentalis, 77, 598.
Hemeristina, 596.

Hemerobiidse, 237, 580, 583, 609, 622.
Hemerobius, 581, 586. H. alternatus, 610.

H. occidentalis, 610.
Hemiptera, 514.
Hemiteles, 193.
Hepiali, 301.
Hepialus, 11, 233, 236. H. humuli, 302.

H. mustelinus, 302.
Hermaphrodites, 45.
Herminia jucchusialis, 328.
Hersilla, 631.
Hesperia Hobomoc, 269. H. Mystic, 270.

H. Wamsutta, 270.
Hesperians, 269.
^Hessian-fly, 200, 202, 207, 372.
Hetaerms, 443:
Heteroceridae, 450.
Heteromera, 424.
Heterometabolia, iii.
Heteropus ventricosus, 136, 667, 668.
Hexapoda, 21.
Hibernation, 42.
Hickory girdler, 498.
Hickory saw-fly, 224.
Hickory tree borer, 495, 497.
Hipparchia, 262.
Hippobosca, 333, 364. H. bubonis, 417.

H. equinae, 417.
Hippoboscidae, 416.
Hippodamia convergens, 511. H. macu-

lata, 511.

Hirmoneura, 395.

Hispa rosea, 503. H. suturalis, 504.
Histeridae, 442.
Hister interruptus, 443. H. merdarius,

443.

Hockeria, 203.
Homolota, 441.
Homoptera lunata, 318.
Homothetus fossilis, 77.
Honey-ant, 184.

Honey bees, 45, 50, 52, 116, 141, 361.
Honevsuckle saw fly, 216.
Hop butterflies, 259,' 260, 265.
Hop Hepialus, 302.
Hop Hypena, 327.
Hop-vine moth, 327.
Horia sansruinipennis, 479.
Hornet, 150.

Horntails, 227.

Horse bot fly, 404.

Horse fly, 393.

Horse tick, 417.

House fly, 407, 409.

Humble bee, 130, 131, 194, 198, 329. Sting

of, 15.

Hyalomyia, 404.
Hybernia tiliaria, 325.
Hybos, 402.

Hybridity, 54. [CC1.

Hydrachna, G31, 632, 660. H. concharum,
Hydrachnidae, 661.
Hydrobius, 438.
Hydrocampa, 329, 330.
Hydrocoris, 518.
Hydrometra, 539.

Hydrophilidae, 424, 437. H. piceus, 438.
Hydrophilus, 422. H. triangularis, 438.
Hydrophorus, 403.
Hydropsyche scalaris, 621.
Hylobates, 540.
Hylobius pales, 486.
Hylotoma McLeayi, 217.
Hylurgus dentatus, 492. H. piniperda,

445. H. terebrans, 492.
Hymenoptera, 107.
Hypena humuli, 327.
Hyperchiria varia, 299.
Hyperhomala virescens, 567.
Hypermetamorphosis, 67.
Hyphautria cuuea, 287. H. textor, 286.
Hypoderma bovis, 405. H. tarandi, 405.
Hypodermis, 63.

Hyponomeuta millepunctatella, 348.
Hypoprepia fucosa, 284, 285.
Hyporhagus, 475.
Hypselonotus, 80.

Ibalia, 213.

Icaria guttatipennis 121, 155, 156.

Ichneumonidae, 1S2.

Ichneumon, 135, 146. I. oviilorum, 200.

I. paratus, 197. I. suturalis, 196.
IdiaBigoti,410.
Idioptera, 360.
Imago, 70.
Inaequitelae, 650,
Inostemma inserens, 201.
Inquilinae, 212.
Insects bisexual, 45.
Insect Criist, composition of, 9.
Insect years, 76.
Intestine, 35.
Introduced species, 76.
loplocama formosana, 338.
Ips fasdatus, 445. I. ferrugineus, 445. 1.

sanguinolentus, 4-45.
Isopteryx Cydippe, 591.
Itch mite, 666.
Ithomia, 251.
Ixodidae, 601.
Ixodes, 629, 632. I. albipictus, 662. I.

bovis, 663, 668. I. ricinus, 663. I. uni-

punctata, 662, 668.

Japyx solifugus, 623.

Jassus irroratus, 532.

Jigger, 390.

Joint-worm, 203, 204, 205.

Juglans squamosa, 224.

Jnlidae, 671,673, 678.

Julus, 62, 671, 673, 676, 678. J. Canaden-

sis, 679. J. multistriatus, 679.
June beetle, 27, 455.
Junonla coeuia, 261.

INDEX.

695

Katydid, 586.

Killing insects for the Cabinet, 87.

Labellum, 29.

Labia minuta, 577.

Labidomera trimaculata, 508.

Labidus, 186.

Labium, 28. -

Labrum, 29.

Lace winged flies, 609, 611.

Lachlauia abnormis, 596.

Lachneides, 300.

Lacbnosterna, 27. L. fusca, 455.

Lachnus carya3, 522. L. strobi, 522.

Lacinia, 28.

Lady bird, 511.

Laemophloms adustus, figure of, 555.

Lagoa crispata, 288.

Lagriidas, 475.

Lamellicornia, 451.

Lamellicorns, 425, 426.

Lamprocolletes, 114.

Lampyridae, 42i, 425, 465.

Lampyris, 465.

Laphvia, 54. L. thoracica, 396.

Large BlaclrCut-worm, 306.

Larrada argentata, 165.

Larra unicincta, 164.

Larridae, 164. [95.

Larvae, preservation of, 95. Rearing of,

Larva state, 62.

Lasioptera, 378. L. rubi, 372.

Lathridiidae, 447.

Lathridius minutus, 447.

Leaf beetles, 501.

Leaf cutter bee, 135, 136.

Leaf rollers, 332.

Lebia, 433. L. (Dromius) linearis, 149.

Lecanium, 50, 526. L. acericola, 528. L.

hesperidum, 528. L. McClurae, 528.
Legs, false, 17, 21. Joints of, 20.
Leiopus alpha, 497. L. xanthoxyli, 497.
Lema trilineata, 503.
Lepidocyrtus albinos, 425.
Lepidoptera, 229. Digestive system of,

237. Nervous system of, 237.
Lepisesia flavofasciata, 277.
Lepisma, 578, 583, 622. L. saccharina, 623.
Lepismatidae, 622.
Leptidae, 394.
Leptis vermilio, 395.
Leptocerus niger, 620. L. sepulchralis,

620.

Leptoris breviornatana, 334.
Leptura?, 494.

Lestes, 601. L. eurina, 603.
Lestremia, 378.

Leucania unipuncta, 196, 203, 305, 313.
Leucarctia acraea, 286.
Leucosomus ophthalmicus, 159.
Leucospis amni, 203. L. Poeyi, 203.
Leuctra tennis, 591.
Libellula, 578, 579, 581, 599, 602. L. auri-

peunis,599. L. luctuosa, 84. L. quad-

rimacnlata, 604. L. trimaculata, 004.
Libellulidae, 578, 579, 580, 581, 583 597
Libellulina, 60t.
Libythea Bachmanii, 264.
Lice, 553.
Ligula, 28.
Ligyrtis, 425.

Limacodes, 228. L. scapha, 290.
Limenitis Arthemis, 262. L. Ephestion,

262. L. Misippus, 261.
Limnobates, 540.

Limnobia annulus, 382.

Limiiobina, 381.

Limnophiladispar, 383.

Limnophilides, 617.

Limnophilus flavicornis, 618. L. pellu-
cidus, 618. L. perpusillus, G17. L.
rhombicus, 617. L. subpunctulatus,
618.

Limonius ectypus, 461. L. plebeius, 461.

Linden slug, 222.

Lingua, 29.

Liotheum anseris, 555.

Lipoptena, 417.

Lithacodes fasciola, 290.

Lithentomum Harttii, 77.

Lithobiid*, 673.

Lithobius Americanus, 673. L. forfica-
tus, 673.

Lithocolletis, 342. L. curvilineatella, 354.
L. Fitchella, 353. L. geminatella, 353,
354. L. juglandiella, 353. L. nidifican-
sella, 354. L. salicifoliella, 353.

Lithosia argillacea, 284. L. casta, 284.

Lithosians, 280.

Livia vernalis, 531.

Locustariae, 557, 564.

Locusta viridissima, 48, 567.

Locusts, 564.

Locust Depressaria, 349.

Locust Eudamus, 269.

Locust gall midge, 499.

Locust tree borer, 497.

Lonchaea nigra, 413.

Lonchoptera, 68.

Longicornia, 493.

Lophyrus, 114, 219. L. Abbotii, 226. L.
abdominalis, 226. L. abietis, 224, 226.
L. Americana, 226. L. compar, 226. L.
Fabricii, 226. L. insularis, 226. L. Le-
contei, 22(5. L. pinetum, 226. L. pini-
rigidae, 225, 226.

Louse, 11.

Lozotasnia fragariana, 335. L. gossypi-
ana, 335. L. rosaceana, 335, 336.

Lubber grasshopper, 570.

Lucanidae, 426, 450.

Lucanus dama, 451. L. cervus, 32, 451.

Ludius attenuatus, 461.

Lycaena comyntas, 265. L. neglecta, 265.

Lycomorpha Pholus, 2aS.

Lycosa, 627, 631. L. fatigera, 654. L. ta-
rantula, 654.

Lyctus opaculus, 472.

Lycus, 465.

Lyda inanita, 215. L. scripta, 226.

Lydella, 642.

Lygaeida?, 512.

Lyga3us, 542. L. turcicus, 543.

Lymexylidae, 469.

Lymexylon sericeum, 469.

Lyonetia saccatella, 355.

Lystra auricoma, 533. L. lanata, 533.

Lytta vittata, 480. L. cinerea, 480. L.
mtirina, 480. L. marginata, 480.

Macaria granitata, 323.

Machilis, 623.

Macrobiotus, 669.

Macrodactylus subspinosus, 454.

Macroglossa stellatarum, 277.

Macrolepidoptera, 242.

Macrosiagon, 481.

Macrosila Carolina, 274. M. cingulata,

272. M. cluentius, 274. M. quinque-

niaculata, 272.

696

INDEX.

Madams vitis, 491.
Magdalinus olyra, 488.
Malachidae, 467.
Malachius, 467.
Male genital organs, 16.
Mallophaga, 554.

Mamestra arctica, 311. M. picta, 312.
Mandibles, 27.

Mandibular segments, 20, 58.
Mantidae, 574.

Mantis, 54. M. argentina, 575. M. Caro-
lina, 575.

Mantispa, 54, 579. M. brunnea, 611.
Mantispids, 592.

Mantis tessellata, ovipositor of, 17.
Masaris vespoides, 157.
Mason bee, 138, 207.
Maxillae, 27.

Maxillary segments, 20, 58.
May flies, 593.
Mazonia Woodiana, 660.
Meat fly, 408.
Mechanitis, 251.
Mecistocephalus fulvus, 675.
Mecynorhina Savagei, 456.
Medeterus, 403.
Megachile, 206, 397. M. brevis, 137. M.

centuncularis, 136, 138. M. integer, 137.

M. muraria, 191. M. Poeyi, 203.
Megathentomum pustulatum, 621.
Melanactes, 462.
Melandrya striata, 476.
Melandryidae, 475.
Melanism, 76.
Melanotus communis, 461.
Melecta, 136, 141.
Melipona, 128. M. fulvipes, 129.
Melitaea Anicia, 258. M. Chalcedon, 258.

M. Harrisii, 257. M. CEnone, 257. M.

Packardii, 256. M. Phaeton, 255. M.

Texana, 258. M. Tharos, 256.
Melittia cucurbitas, 279.
Mellinus bimaculatus, 162.
Meloe, 6, 131, 427. M. angusticollis, 478.

M. violaceus. 478.
Meloidaa, 477.

Melolontha, 454. M. variolosa, 455.
Melophagus, 46. M. ovinus, 418.
Membranacei, 550.
Mentum, 27, 28.
Mermis albicans, 127.
Merodon bardus, 399. M. narcissi, 399.
Merope tuber, 615.
Mesochorus, 193.
Metabolia, iii.
Metapodius nasalus, 546.
Methoca Canadensis, 178.
Metoecus paradoxus, 481.
Metrocanipa, 318. M. margaritata, 320.
, Miamia Bronsoni, 77, 591. M. Danae, 593.
Miastor, 25. M. metroloas, 51, 380.
Micoceras, 53.
Micralymma, 442.
Microceutrum, 558.
Microdon globosns, 398.
Microgaster, 193, 198, 203. M. nephopte-

ricis, 131, 198.

Microlabris Sternbergi, 659.
Microlepidoptera, 242.
Microlipus, 468.
Micropeplns, 442.
Microphantes, 633.
Micropya, 47.
Microtonus sericans, 476.
Midas clavatus, 395. M. fulvipes, 395.

Milesia excentrica, 398.

Millepedes, 678.

Milnesium tardigradum, 669.

Miltogramma punctata, 147.

Mimesa, 162.

Mimetic forms, 53.

Miris dorsalis, 550.

Mischocyttarus labiatus, 155, 156.

Mites, 628, 632, 639. Transformations of,

643.

Mole cricket, 563.
Monedula Carolina, 164. M. 4-fasciata,

164.

Monodontomerus, 136, 205.
Monohammus scutellatus. 498. M. titil-

lator, 498.
Monomma, 475.
Monommidae, 475.
Monotomidae, 445.
Mordella, 207, 476.
Mordellidae, 476.
Mordellistena, 476.
Morpho Epistrophis, 262. M. Menelaus,

2(52. M. Polyphemus, 262.
Mosquito hawks, 597.
Motions of Insects, 32.
Musca, 641. M. (Calliphora) vomitoria,

408. M. domestica, 409, 410. M. (Lu-

cilia) Caesar, 408, 409. M. vomitoria, 64.
Muscardine, 82.
MuscidB, 164, 407.
Muscles, 31.
Muscular power, 32.
Music of insects, 362, 561, 563.
Mutilla, 176, 177. M. Europaea, 179. M.

ferrugata, 179. M. occidentalis, 179.
Mutillariae, 177, 181.

Mycetobia pallipes, 387. M. sordida, 388.
AJycetophagidae, 447.
Mycetophagus, 447.
Mycetophila scatophora, 385.
Mycetophilidae, 385.
Mydasidae, 395.
Mygale avicularia, 648. M. Hentzii, 172,

648. M. nidulans, 648.
Mygnimia Mexicana, 175. M. ustulata,

Mylacris anthracophila, 577.
Mymar pulchellus, 201.
Myobia, 641, 642.
Myodites, 481.
Myopa atra, 401.
Mynapoda, 10, 104, 625, 670.
MyriapodS, 626, 627, 636, 670.
Myrmecocystus Mexicanus, 184.
Myrmeleon, 581, 611. M. abdominalis,

612. M. obsoletus, 612.
Myrmica molefaciens, 185. M. molesta,

Myrmicariae, 181.

Myrmosa, 177. M. unicolor, 178.

Mysia 15-punctata, 512.

Mystacides, 6.

Myzine sexcincta, 177.

Nabis ferus, 541.

Nannophya bella, 605.

Nautocoris, 516.

Necrobia, 468.

Necrophilus Surinamensis, 439.

Necrophoms, 663. N. Americamis, 421,

439.

Nectarina, 153. N. melliflca, 154.
Neides, 545.
Nematocampa filamentaria, 390.

INDEX.

697

Nematus, 217. N. conjugatus, 214. N.

grossulariae, 214. N.trilineatus,220. N.

vertebratus, 219. N. ventricosus, 50,

219.

Nemobius vittatus, 564.
Nemoptera, 610.
Nemoura albidipennis, 591.
Neonvmpha, 2(J2. N. Eurytris, 264.
Nepa^ 516, 518, 537, 538. N. cinerea, 47.
Nephila plumipes, 651.
Nephopteryx Edmaudsii, 131, 198, 331.
Nepidas, 537.
Nepticula, 342. N. amelanchierella, 356.

N. corylifoliella, 356. N. microtheriella,

355. N. platanella, 356.
Nerice bidentata, 292.
Nervous system, 33.
Neuronia semifasciata, 617.
Neuroptera, 578.
Neuroterus, 50.
Neurotherius, 599.
Nirrnus, 555.

Nitidula bipustulata, 445.
Nitidnlariae, 444.
Nitidulidae, 446.
Noctua, 243.
Noctuaelitae, 302.
Noctuidae, 238, 303.
Noctuids, 292.
Nomada, 131, 141, 212. N. imbricata, 142.

N. pulchella, 142.
Nops, 644.

Nochrna ovivorus, 664.
Notocyphus, 173.
Notodonta, 292.
Notonecta, 516, 518. N. irrorata, 537. N.

undulata, 537.
Notoneetidae, 536.
Notoxus anchova, 476.
Nudavia mundana, 285.
Nycteribia, 358, 388, 626. N. "Westwoodii,

418.

Nycteribidas, 418.
Nymphes, 79.

Nyssia, 322. N. hispidaria, 54.
Nysson lateralis, 163.
Nyssonidse, 162.

Oak Biorhiza, 211.
O.ik Cynips, 210.
Oak gull flies, 210.
Oat-louse Aphidius, 198.
Occiput, 29, 30.
Osellary segments, 20, 58.
Ooelli, 19, 25.
Osinari, 295.

Octoglena bivirgata, 680.
O,;yptera, 408.
> O Joutomachus clarus, 182.
Odor of buars, 545.
Odynerus, 147, 154, 162, 203, 211, 401. O.

albophaleratus, 155, 156. O. leucome-

las, 153, 218.

CEcanthus, 24. CE. niveus, 564.
CEceticus, 231, 291.
CEcodoma, 177. CE. cephalotes, 188, 189.

CE. Mexicana, 187, 188. CE. sexdentata,

189. CE. Texana, 189.
CEcophylla smaragdina, 184.
CEdemeridse, 425, 476.
CEdipoda Carolina, 571. CE. corallina,

571. CE. xanthoptera, 571.
CEsophagus, 35.
CEstridae, 403.
CEstromyia, 405.

CEstrus, 363. CE. hominis, 406. CE. ovis,

405.

Oil beetle, 478.
Oligarces paradoxus, 51.
Oligoneuria, 596.
Olyntha ? 588.
Omaliurn, 442.
Omophron, 431.
Omosita colon, 445.
Omus, 429.

Oncideres cingulatus, 498.
Oncodes, 395.
Onion fly, 411.
Oniscus, 2.

Ophion, 195. O. macrurum, 195.
Opomalea brachyptera, 568.
Ophthalmic ring, 19, 58.
Orange belted horse-fly, 394.
Orchehmum gracile, 168. O. vulgare. 24,

168, 567.
Orgyia, 70, 231. O. antiqua, 288. O. leu-

costigma, 288.
Oribates alatus, 664.
Oribatidse, 632, 663.
Ormyrus, 212.
Ornithomyia, 417.
Ornithoptera Priamus, 245.
Ortalis, 360. O. flexa, 411.
Orthoptera, 556.
Orthosia, 243.
Orthosoma unicolor, 495.
Oryctes nasicornis, 176. O. simia, 176.
Oscinis frit, 416. O. granarius, 415. O.

vastator, 415.
Osmia, 155, 206, 401. O. leucomelana, 138.

O. lignaria, 139. O. lignivora, 139. O.

paciflca, 141, 156. O. paretina, 138. O.

simillima, 140.
Osmoderma scabra, 457.
Othniidse, 447.
Othnius umbrosus, 447.
Otiocerus Coquebertii, 533.
Otiorhynchus sulcatus, 487.
Ovary, 35, 44.
Oviduct, 35, 44.
Ovipositor, 15.
Ox Bot fly, 405.
Oxybelus emarginatus, 163.
Oxyporus, 442.
Oxytelus, 442.

Paederus, 442.

Palaeopterina, 591, 593, 596.

Pale cut-worm, 310.

Palingenia bilineata, 593, 594.

Palpares, 583, 612.

Palpifer, 28.

Pangonia, 393.

Panorpa, 54, 581, 583.

Panorpa Germanica, 613. P. communis,

613. P. rufescens, 614.
Panopea carnea, 164.
Panorpid, 622.
Panorpidse, 580, 583, 613.
Pampina, 615.
Panurgus, 141.
Paper Avasp, 148.
Papilio, 54, 236, 237, 245. P. Asterias, 196,

239, 245, 247. P. brevicauda, 245, 246,

247. P. Daunus, 247. P. Glancns, 53,

247. P. Memnon, 53. P. Ormenus, 53.

P. Pammon, 53. P. Philenor, 248. P.

Romulus, 53. P. Troilus, 247. P. Tor-

nns, 53, 240, 247.
Papilionidae, 75, 244.

698

INDEX.

Papirius, 625, 626. P. Saundersii, 624.

Paraglossa, 29.

Parandra brunnea, 494.

Paraponyx, 330.

Parnassius Smintheus, 248.

Parnidse, 450.

Parnopes, 192.

Parthenogenesis, 48.

Pasimachus elongatus, 432.

Passalaecus mandibnlaris, 161.

Passalus cornutus, 451.

Patagia, 13.

Pauropodidae, 675.

Pauropus Huxleyi, 675. P. peduncula-

tua, 675.

Pea weevil, 484; figure of, 513.
Peach tree borer, 277.
Pear slug, 222.
'Pear Tremex, 228.
Pebrine, 82.
Pedicia albivitta, 384.
Pedicil, 2(5.
Pediculina, 553.
Pediculus corporis, 553. P. humanus

capitis, 553. P. vestimenti, 553.
Pedipalpi, 6-28, (544, 655.
Pedipalps, 655, 657.
Pelecinus polycerator, 195.
Pelidnota punctate, 455.
Pelopaeus, 174. P. caeruleus, 169. P.

flavipes, 156, 169, 170, 408.
Pempelia grossulariae, 331. P. semiru-

bella, 331.
Pemphigus formicarius, 524. P. formi-

cetorum, 524. P. rhois, 524. P. ulmi-

cola, 524. P. vagabundus, 524.
Pentamera, 424.
Pentatoma, 408. P. tristigma, 546. P.

ligata, 546.

Pentatomidae, 516, 542.
Penthina vitivorana, 336.
Pepsis cyanea, 175. P. elegans, 175. P.

formosa, 175. P. heros, 175.
Perga Lewisii, 215.
Perilampus platygaster, 206. P. triarigu-

laris, 20f>.

Periplaneta, 194. P. Americana, 195, 576.
Periphyllus testudo, 521.
Peritracheal circulation, 39.
Peritreme, 13.
Perla abnormis, 590,
Perlida?, 580, 581, 586, 590.
Postabdornen, 56.
Perophora Melsheimerii, 21&.
Pezomachus, 70, 193, 194, 197, 203.
Pezzotettix alpinus, 569. P. borealis,

539.

Phalacrocera replicata, 384.
Phalacridae, 444.
Phalacrus, 444.
Phalsenidse, 23t, 318.
Phalangidae, (!27, 632, 656, 657.
Phalangids, 655.
Phalangium dorsatum, 656. P. ventri-

cosum, 657.

Phanaeus, 424. P. carnifex, 453.
Phaneroptera curvicauda, 560.
Pharynx, 35.
Phasma 4-guttatum, 573.
Phasmida, 572.
Pheidole notabilis, 185. P. providens,

185.

Phenax variegata, 533.
Phengodes plumosa, 467.
Phigalia pilosaria, 54.

Philampelus vitis, 275.

Philanthinae, 157, 158.

Philanthus, 146, 442. P. apivorus, 158.

P. ventilabris, 8, 158.
Philopotamus, 621.
Philopterus, 555.
Phloea corticata, 547.
Phloeothrips caryae, 549. P. mali, 549.
Phlox worm, 315.

Phobetrum, 289. P. pithecium, 290.
Phodaga alticeps, 480.
Pholcus, 636, 639. P. Atlanticus, 650.
Phoi-a incrassata, 127, 416.
Photinus pyralis, 466.
Photuris Pensylvanica, 466.
Phryganea grandis, 616, 617.
Phryganeidae, 236, 580, 581, 582, 583, 615.
Phryganeids, 290, 586.
Phryganidae, 193,
Phryganidia, 290.
Phrynidae, (529, 657.
Phrynus, 639. P. asperatipes, 658. P.

reniformis, 655.
Phthirius pubis, 554.
Phycita nebulo, 331.
Phyllium siccifolium, 574.
Phyllophorus tettudinatus, 521.
Phylloptera oblongifolium, 566.
Phyllotreta striolata, 507.
Phymaphora pulchella, 511.
Phymata, 552.

Phytocoris, 516. P. linearis, 550.
Piens, 54, 237, 361. P. oleracea, 249. P.

Protodice, 249. P. rapse, 76, 249.
Pill beetles, 449.
Pimpla, 193, 196. P. Fairmairii, 193. P.

ovivora, 193. P. pedalis, 196. P. ru-

fata, 193.

Pine Lophyrus, 226.
Pine saw-fly, 224.
Pinning ins'ects, 88.
Piophila casei, 413.
Pipunculus, 401.
Pique, 390.

Pirates biguttatus, 541. P. picipes, 541.
Pissodes strobi, 486. .
Planiceps niger, 174.
Plant-lice, 198, 397, 400, 519.
Platephemera antiqua, 77, 594.
Platoeceticus Gloverii, 291.
Platygaster, 200, 325, 375. P. error, 201,

37(5. P. tipulae, 201, 376.
Platymodes Pensylvanica, 576.
Platynus cupripenne, 433.
Platypeza, 402.
Platypteryx geniculata, 293.
Platypus, 440.
Platyroptilon Miersii, 385.
Platysamia, 29J5. P. Cecropia, 234, 298.

P/Euryale, 298.
Plecia, 80.

Plectrodes pubescens, 454.
Pleurite, 9.
Ploa, 516, 537.
Ploiaria brevipennis, 540.
Ploteres, 539.
Plume moths, 353.
Plum gouger, 487.
Plum slug, 222.
Plum weevil, 488.
Plusia alticola, 313. P. divergens, 313.

P. ignea, 313. P. montana, 313. P.

precationis, 312.
Podura, 11. 615, 624.
Podurae, 623, 625.

INDEX.

699

Podurida?, 623. 624.

Poecilocerus, 560.

Poison glands, 43.

Poison of insects, 43.

Polistes, 121, 147, 149. P. annularis, 151,

156. P. Cauadensis, 151, 152, 153. P.

lanio, 153.

Polybia, 153, 154, 155.
Polydesmidae, 677.
Polydesmus, 676. P. Canadensis, 677. P.

erythropygus, 677.
Polyergus rufescens, 182.
Polynema ovulorum, 202.
Polyphemus. 240.
Polyphylla, 455.
Polyrhachis arboricola, 184.
Polystoechotes, 12, 236. P. nebulosus,

585. P. punctatus, 611.
Polyxenus fasciculatus, 678.
Pompilidse, 114, 171.
Pompilus, 25. P. arctus, 173. P. audax,

401. P. cylindricus, 173. P.formosus,

172. P. funereus, 174. P. Mariae, 173.
Ponera, 179. P. ferruginea, 182.
Postscutellum, 11.
Potamanthus cupidus, 595. P. margina-

tus, 595.

Potato beetle, 503, 508.
Potato-stalk weevil, 49.
Praescutum, 11.
Preservative fluids, 89.
Preserving insects, 84.
Prestwichia, 114.
Priocera undulata, 468.
Priocuemis unifasciatus, 173.
Prionidae, 494.

Prionocyphon discoideus, 464.
Priononyx Thomae, 167.
Prionus brevicornis, 495.
Prisopus flabellicornis, 573. P. spini-

ceps, 573.
Prisiiphora grossulariae, 217. P. identi-

dem, 217. P. idiota, 217. P. syco-

phanta, 218.
Procephalic lobes, 55.
Proconia quadrivittata, 532.
Proctotrupes, 199.

Proctotrupid fly, 131.
Proctotrupii, 198.

Proctotrypidae, 198.

Promus, 473.

Prophets, 574.

Propodeum, 66.

Prop-legs, 21.

Proscopia gigantea, 572.

Prosopis alfinis, 143. P. elliptica, 143,

Prostemma guttata, 541. P. guttula, 539.

Protolycosa, 643.

Protoplasma Fitchii, 385.

Proventriculus, 35.

Psammotherma, 114.

Pselaphidae, 439, 440.

Pselaphus, 422, 440.

Psen caliginosus, 191. P. leucopus, 162.

Psenides. 211.

Psenocerus pini, 399. P. supernotatus,

499.

Psephenus Lecontei, 450.
Pseudomyrma bicolor, 187. P. flavidula,

187.

Pseudoscorpiones, 658.
Psexidovarium, 49.
Pseudovura, 49.
Psoci, 658.
Psocidae, 583, 588.

Psocus, 54, 69. P. pulicarius, 589. P.

salicis, 590. P. venosus, 590.
Psyche helix, 290.
Psychinae, 290.
Psychoda phalaenoides, 380.
Psychomorpha epimenis, 281.
Psylla pyri, 531.
Psyllidae, 530.
Pteratomus, 110 114. P. Putnamii, 131.

202.

Pteromali, 415.
Pteromalus, 193, 202, 205, 206. P. apium,

207. P. clisiocampae, 206. P. vanessae,

206.

Pteronarcys proteus, 590. P. regalis, 590.
Pterophondae, 356.
Pterophorus, 202. P. periscelidactylus,

356.

Pteroptus vespertilionis, 663.
Pterostichus, 433.
Ptilodontes, 292.
Ptinidae, 197, 470.
Ptinus fur, 470.

Ptycholoma ? semifuscana, 334.
Ptychoptera, 382. P. paludosa, 384. P.

rufocincta, 384.

Pulex irritans, 389. P. musculi, 389.
Pulicidae, 588.
Pulvillus, 21.
Pycnoscelus, 576.
Pyralidae, 326.

Pyralis, 195. P. fariualis, 328.
Pyrameis Atalanta, 261. P. cardui, 261

P. Huntera, 261.
Pyrochroaflabellata, 477.
Pyrochroidae, 477.
Pyvomorpha dimidiata, 283.
Pyrophorus noctilucus, 462.
Pyrrharctia Isabella, 239, 286.
Pyrrhocoris apterus, 48, 539, 543.
Pythidffi, 476.
Pytho, 476.

Quedius, 441.

Race horse, 573.

Radish fly, 411.

Rapnidia, 608.

Raphiglossa odyneroides, 157.

Ranatra, 516, 537. R. fusca, 538.

Ranatra, abdomen of, 17.

Raspberry slug, 222.

Rectum, 35.

Red-legged Grasshopper, 569.

Reduvmi, 540.

Reduvius personatus, 541.

Respiration, 42.

Respiration, organs of, 40.

Rhabdites, 15.

Rhagium lineatum, 501,

Rhamphidia, 383.

Rhipidandrus, 473.

Rhipidius, 48.

RhipiceridaB, 463.

Rhipiphoridae, 480.

Rhipiphorus Finnicus, 481.

Rhipiphorus paradoxus, 149.

Rhizopertha pusilla, 472.

Rhizophagus depressus, 445.

Rhodices dichlocerus, 212. R. rosae, 212

Rhopalosoma Poeyi, 197.
Rhopalum pedicellatum,
Rhopalus, 540.
Rhyacophila fuscula, 621.
Rhynchites bicolor, 485.

158,161.

700

INDEX.

Rhyparochromus leucopterus, 543.

Ehyphidae, 392.

Rhyphus alternatus, 392.

Rhyssa atrata, 196, 228.

Rhyssa lunator, 196, 228.

Rhyssa persuasoria, 193.

Rhyssodes, 446.

Rhyssodidaj. 446.

Rice weevil, 490.

Robber-flies, 395.

Romalea microptera, 570.

Rose bug, 454.

Rose chafer, 454.

Rose gall fly, 212.

Rose slug, 222.

Rotatoria, 668.

Rove-beetles, 440.

Salda, 541.

Salivary glands, 36.

Salix cordata, 218.

Salticus, 633. S. (Attus) familiaris, 654.

Samia, 298. S. Cynthia, 296.

Sandalus petrophya, 463.

Sand wasps, 157.

Saperda bivittata, 500. S. Candida, 500.

Saprinus, 443.

Sapyga, 178. S. Martinii, 176. S. repanda,

134.
Sarcophaga, 213. S. carnaria, 408. S.

nudipennis, 170, 408.
Sarcopsylla penetrans, 390.
Sarcoptes scabiei, 666, 668.
Sargus, 392.

Satumia Promethea, 239.
Satyrus, 262. S. Alope, 263. S. Nephele,

263.

Saw-flies, 213.
Scape, 26.
Scaphidiidae, 443.
Scaphidium, 443.
Scarabaeidae, 422, 424, 451.
Scarites, 432. S. Pyrachmon, 83.
Scatopse, 377.

Scenopinus, 1. S. pallipes, 401.
Schizocephala, 575.
Schizopodidae, 463.
Sohizopodus laetus, 463.
Schizotus, 477.

Sciara, 374. S. (Molobrus) mali, 386.
Sciophila, 385.
Scleroderma contracta, 178.
Scolia, 231. S. Azteca, 176. S. bicincta,

176. S.flavifrons, 176. S. oryctophaga,

176. S. quadrimaculata, 176.
Scoliadae, 175.

Scolopendra gigantea, 674. S. heros, 674.
Scolopocryptops sexspinosa, 674.
Scolytidaj, 49, 425.
Scolytus, 446. S. destructor, 492.
Scorpio Allenii, 659.
Scorpion fly, 613.
Scorpionidae, 631, 659.
Scorpions, 627, 629, 643, 659.
Scutellera viridipunctata, 547.
Scydmaenus, 440.
Scydma3nidae, 439.
Scymnus cervicalis, 513.
Secretion, organs of, 43.
Sedentary spiders, 648.
Seed-corn maggot, 411.
Segestria, 638.
Selandria caryae, 224. S. cerasi, 222. S.

rosae, 223. S. rubi, 222. S. tiliae, 222.

S. vitis, 222.

Semblis, 582.

Semiotellus (Ceruphron) destructor, 207,

375.

Semi-pupa, 67.

Sericostoma Americanuni, 618.
Series of insects, 104.
Sesia, 54. S. diflfinis, 277. S. Thysbe, 277
Setina aurita, 284.
Setodes Candida, 620.
Sheep bot-fly, 405.
Sheeptick, 360, 416, 418.
Sialidae, 237, 580, 583, 605.
Sialis Americana, 60(5. S. infumata, 60u.
Siderea? nubilana, 333.
Sigalphus caudatus, 415.
Silk moth, 50.

Silk weed Labidomera, 508.
Silpha Lapponica, 439.
Silphidae, 422, 438.
Simulidse, 390.
Simulium molestum, 390. S. (Rhagio)

Columbaschense, 391.
Siphonantia, 680.
Siphonia, 408.
Siphonura, 207.
Sirex, 193.
Sitaris, 479.

Sitodrepa panicea, 470.
Sitophilus granarius, 490. S. oryzae, 490.
Size of insects, normal, 107.
Skippers, 269.
Smell, organs of, 26.
Smerinthus excaecatus, 275. S. gemina-

tus, 275. S. modestus, 275.
Sinynthurus, 624, 625.
Snout-moths, 326.
Solenobia ? Walshella, 346.
Solpuga, 639. S. araneoides, 655. S.

(Galeodes) Americana, 655.
Solpugidae, 632, 655.
Solpugids, 655.
Soothsayers, 574.

Sounds produced by insects, 362, 561, 563.
Spaniocera, 378.
Spanish fly, 480.

Species of insects, number of, 103.
Specific names, 345.
Spectres, 572.
Spercheus tessellatus, 438.
Sperm, 44.
Sphaerotherium, 677.
Sphecodes, 142, 143. S. dichroa, 143.
Sphegidae, 142, 149, 165, 166.
Sphex, 142. S. flavipennis, 401. S. ich-

neumonea, 167. S. Lanierii, 169. S.

tibialis, 168.
Sphinges, 236.
Sphingidae, 238, 27.
Sphinx, 627. S. chersis, 272. S. drupi-

ferarum, 272. S. gordius, 272. S. kal-

miae, 272. S. ligustri, 63, 237.
Sphinx ligustri, anatomy of, 35.
SpiKBridium, 438.
Sphyracephala brevicornis, 413.
Spider fly, 358, 416.
Spiders, 643, 644.
Spiders, evolution of, 637, 638.
Spider's web, method of spinning, 645.
Spilosoma Virginica, 287.
Spinnerets, 21.
Spiracle, 40.

Spirobolus marginatus, 679.
Spirostrephon, 680.
Spondylis, 494.
Spongophora bipunctata, 577.

INDEX.

701

Spring beetles, 459.

Spring-tails, 615, 624.

Squash beetle, 505.

Squash vine borer, 279.

Stag beetle, 32.

Staphylinidse, 181, 423, 427, 440,,577.

Staphylinus, 54, 441,

Statyra, 475.

Steganoptycha ? ochreana, 337.

Stemma, 25.

Stenobothrns curtipennis, 569.

Stenocerus, 53. S. putator,. 495.

Stenopoda, 80.

Stenus Juno, 442. S. stygicus, 442.

Sternite, 9.

Stemo-rhabdites, 15. [lata, 302.

Sfchenopis, 236, 237. S. argenteomacu-

Stignms, 142. S. fraternus, 158, 161.

Stilbum splendidum, 192.

Sting, 14.

Stipes, 28.

Stiretrus fimbriatus, 547.

Stizus speciosus, 163.

Stomach, sucking, 35.

Stomoxys caltricans, 407.

Strategus, 425.

Stratiomyidae, 392.

Stratiomys, 393.

Strawberry Corimelrena, 547.

Strawberry Ernn^vtus, 221.

Strawberry saw nv, 221.

Strawberry leaf roller, 34.0.

Strawberry Lozotoenia, 335.

Strepsiptera, 481.

Strigamia bothrioms,675. S. chionophi-

la, 675. S. epileptica, 675.
Stylopidae, 424, 481.
Stylops, 34, 131, 143, 146, 149, 194, 691. S.

Childrenii, 131, 482.
Stylopyga, 576.
Styringomyia, 383.
Submentum, 28.
Sucking myriapods, 680.
Sugantia, 680.
Sugar mite, 665.
Sylvanus Surinamensis, 446.
Symmetry, antero-posterior, 2, 21.
Symmetry, bilateral, 2.
Synerges, 212.

Synoeca, 153. S. cyanea, 154.
Synophrus, 212.
Syrphidae, 164, 397.
Syrphus, 54, 363, 398, 400.
Syrtis erosa, 552.
Systropus, 397.

Tabanidae, 393.

Tabanus atratus, 394. T. cinctus, 394.

T. liueola, 393, 394.

Tachina, 325. T. (Lydella) doryphorae,

408. T. (Senometopia) militaris, 407.
Tachina-like fly, 131, 147.
Tachydromia, 402.
Tachyporus, 441.
Tachytes aurulentus, 165.
Taeniopteryx frigida, 591.
Tanarthrus salinus, 476.
Tanypus varius, 371.
Tapinoma tomentosa, 183.
Tardigrada, 668.
Tardigrades, 45, 69, 632,642.
Tarsus, 21.

Tatua, 153. T. morio, 122, 154, 156.
Tegenaria atrica, 649. T. civilis, 629. T.

medicinalis, 649.

Telea Polyphemus, 11, 195, 243, 297.
Teleas, 199, 200. T. Linnaei, 200.
Telephorus Carolina, 467. T. bilineatus

467.

Tenebrio molitor, 474.
Tenebrionidae, 473.
Tent-caterpillar, 207.
Tenthredinidae, 213.
Tergite, 9, 14.

Terms Delia, 251. T. Lisa, 251.
Termes, 54. T. bellicosus, 588. T. fatale,

588. T. llavipes, 587. T. lucifugus, 588.
Termites, 588.
Termitidae, 5j3.58L-5Q3.
Termopsis angtrsTicollis, 587.
Testis, 35, 44.
Tetracha Virginica, 429.
Tetralonia, 114.
Tetramera, 424, 484.
Tetranychus telarius, 631, 660.
Tetrapneumones, 647.
Tettigidea lateralis, 572.
Tettigonia bifida, 532.
Tettigoniae, 163.
Tettix granulata, 572.
Tetyra marmorata, 547.
Thaumatosoma, ]14.
Thecla Acadica, 265. T. humull, 265. T.

Mopsus, 266. T. Niphon, 265. T. stri-

gosa, 267.

Thelaxes ulmicola, 523.
Thelyphonus caudatus, 658. T. gigan-

teus, 658.
Thereva, 396.
Therevidae, 395.
Theridion stndiosum, 650. T. verecun-

dum, C51. T. vulgare, 650.
Thinophilus, 403.
Thomisus celer, 652, 653. T. vulgaris,

652.

Thorax, structure of, 11.
Thousand Legs, 678.
Thripidae, 547.

Thrips, 69, 80, 378. T. cerealium, 550.
Throscidas, 459.
Thyatira, 304.

Thyreocoris histeroides, 547.
Thyreopus, 159. T. latipes, 160.
Thyreus Abbotii, 276.
Thyridopteryx, 290. T. ephemeraeformis,

289,291. T. nigricans, 289.
Thvsanoptera, 548.
Thysanura, 608, 609, 613, 622, 623.
Ticks, 661.
Tiger Beetles, 428.
Tinagma, 342.
Tinea, 201. T. flavifrons, 346. T. gran-

ella, 347. T. tapetzella, 347.
Tineidse, 303, 234, 342, 582.
Tineidae, transformation of, 67.
Tineids, 236, 237.

Tingis hyalina, 552. T. hystricellus.
Tiphia inornata, 177.
Tipula, 360, 381. T. trivittata, 382.
Tipulidse, 199, 381.
Tmesiphonis, 422.
Tobacco worm, 274.
Tolype Velleda, 300.
Tolyphus, 444.
Tomfcus monographus, 493. T. pini, 498,

T. xylographus, 493.
Tortricidae, 332.
Tortricodes, 290.
Tortrix gelidana, 334. T. oxycoccana

334.

702

INDEX.

Torymus Har 5.

Touch, sense of, 26.

Toxophora fasciata, 164.

Toxorhina, 383.

Trachea, 40.

Trachys pygmaBa, 459.

Tragocephala infuscata, 569. T. viridi-

fasciata, 569.

Transformations of insects, 561.
Transportation of insects, 94.
Trechus, 434.
Tremex, 196. T. Columba, 228. T. lati-

tarsus, 228.
Trichii, 457.
Trichiosoma bicolor, 216. T. triangulum,

216.

Trichocera, 381, 383.
Trichodectes canis, 555.
Trichodes apiarius, 127, 468. T. NuttaUii,

468.

Trichopterygidae, 443.
Trichopteryx intermedia, 444.
Tricondyla, 567.
Tricrania, 479.

Tridactylus apicalis, T. terminalis, 563.
Tri&ona, 128, 129. T. carbonaria, 229.
Trigo'nalys bipustulatus, 153.
Trilocha, 295.
Trimera, 424, 484.
Trochanter, 21.,.
Trochantine, 21.
Trogosita, 445.
Trogositidae, 445,
Trogus exesorius, 196.
Trombididaa, 660.
Trombidiiim, 660. "
Tropidacris cristata, 571. T. dux, 571.
Trox, 425. T. Carolina, 453. T. scabro-

sus, 453.

Trupanea apivora, 396.
Trypeta, 412. T. pomonella, 415.
Trypoxylon, 195. T. frigidum, 162. T.

politum, 162.
Tsetze fly, 407.
Tumble bug, 47.
Turnip flea beetle, 507.
Tychus, 422.
Typhlocyba, 69, 531.
Typhlodromus pyri, 666, 668.
Typhlopone, 179. T. pallipes, 181.
Tyroglyphus domesticus, 665. T. farinae,

666. T. sacchari, 665. T. siro. 640,

665.

Udeopsylla robusta, 565.

Ula, 381.

Upis ceramboides, 474.

Urania Leilus, 319.

Urapteryx politia, 319. U. sambucaria,

319.

Urinary tubes, 43.
Urinary vessels, 35.
Urite, 14.
Uroceridae, 227.
Uiocerus albicomis, 227.
CJroplata rosea, 503. U. suturalis, 504.
Uropoda, 631. U. vegetans, 663.
Utetheisa bella, 285.

Vanessa Antiopa, 206, 244. 258. V. Cali-
fornica, 259. V. Milbertii, 259. V. ur-
ticae, 237

Variety breeding, 75.

Vas deferens, 35.

Vasa deferentia, 44.

Vates, 575.

Velia, 518, 538, 540.

Venation, 22.

Venation of Lepidoptera, 229.

Ventriculus, 35.

Ver macaque, 406.

Ver moyocuil, 40(5.

Vertex of the head, 31.

Vesiculae seminales, 45.

Vespa, 147, 195, 400. V. arenaria, 148, 149.

V. crabro, 150. V. maculata, 148. V.

orientalis, 148. V. rufa, 123. V.vulgA-

ris,123.
Vespariae, 147,
Vine slug, 222.
Volucella, 131, 149, 400.

Wandering spiders, 648,

Walking sticks, 572.

Warega fly, 409.

Wasp, 8.

Water boatmen, 536.

Water fleas, 616.

Water mites, 661.

Water tigers, 435.

Wax, 111.

Weeping willow saw-fly 220.

Weevils, 484.

Wheat beetles, 446.

Wheat-fly, 199.

Wheat joint worm, 203.

Wheat-louse Aphidius. 198.

Wheat-midge, 201, 372.

Wheat moths, 347, 350.

Whip scorpions. 657.

Whirligigs, 536.

White ant, 130, 586.

White-pine, saw-fly, 225.

Willow Cecidomyia, 364,

Wine-cask borer, 493.

Wine-fly, 414.

Wings, 22.

Wire worms, 460.

W-marked cut- worm, 309.

Wood ticks, 662.

Wood wasp, 8, 157.

Xanthia, 243.

Xanthoptera semicrocea, 316.

Xenoneura antiquorum, 77.

Xenos, 482.

Jiphidium fasciatnm, 567.

Xiphidria albicornis, 227.

Xyela infuscata, 226.

Xyleutes robiniae, 301. X. crepera, 302.

Xylobius sigillariae, 679.

Xylocopa, 139. X. violacea, 134. X.Vir

ginica, 168, 397.
Xylophagidze, 392.
Xylophagus, 392.

Yellow-legged Barley-fly, 205.

Zenoa piceae, 46_3.
Zerene catenaria, 323.
ZoOnule, zoonite, 9.
Zygaena exulans, 280.
Zygamida3, 234, 237, 279.
Zygoneura, 378.

APPENDIX.

THE EARLY STAGES OF ICHNEUMON PARASITES. Ganin has
shown that certain Proctotrypidce (Platygaster, Polynema,
Teleas and Ophioneurus) , the larvae of which live in the eggs
as well as the larvae of other insects, pass through a series of
remarkable changes, heretofore unsuspected, before assuming
the final and more normal larval state. He compares these

Fig. 652.

Development of Platygaster.

changes to the hyper-metamorphosis of Meloe and Sitaris (see
p. 478). The ovary of Platygaster differs from that of other
insects in that it is a closed tube or sac. Hence it follows

(703)

704

APPENDIX.

that at every time an egg is laid, the egg tube is ruptured.
This was also observed in the sheep tick (Melophagus} by
Lenckart, and in certain flies (Limnobia, Psychoda, and My-
cetobia) by Ganin himself.

The earliest stage observed after the egg is laid, is that in
which the egg contains a single cell with a nucleus and nucle-
olus. Out of this cell (Fig. 652 A, a) arise two other cells.
The central cell (a) gives origin to the embryo. The two

outer ones multiply by subdivision
and form an embryonal membrane,
or "amnion," which is a provisional
envelope and does not assist in
building up the body of the germ,
which however is accomplished by
the cells resulting from the subdivi-
sion of the central single cell. Fig.
652 B, g, shows the germ just form-
ing out of the nucleus (a) ; and 6,
the peripheral cells of the blasto-
derm skin, or "amnion." Fig. C
shows the yolk transformed into the
embryo (g) with the outer layer of
blastodermic cells (b). The body
of the germ is bent upon itself.
Fig. 652 D shows the embryo much
further advanced with the two pairs
of lobes (md, rudimentary mandi-
bles, d, rudimentary pad-like or-
gans, seen in a more advanced stage
in E) and the bilobate tail (st).
Fig. 653 shows the first larval stage
after leaving the egg (m, mouth ; a,
rudimentary antennae ; md, mandibles ; d, tongue-like appen-
dages ; st, anal stylets ; the subject of this figure belongs to a
distinct species from Fig. 652 E). This strange form would
scarcely be thought an insect, were not its origin and further
development known, but rather a parasitic Copepodous Crus-
acean, whence he calls this the Cyclops-like stage. In this
condition it clings to the inside of its host by means of its

First larva of Platygaster.

APPENDIX.

705

Fig. 654.

temporary hook-like jaws (md) , moving about like a Cestodes
embryo with its well known six hooks. The tail moves up and
down, but is scarcely used in
locomotion. The nervous and
vascular systems and tracheae
are wanting, while the alimen- ng
tary canal is simply a blind
sac, remaining in an unorgan-
ized state.

The second larval state
(Fig. 654, o>, oesophagus ; iig,
supracesophageal ganglion;
ft, nervous cord ; ga and g,
genital organs ; ms, bands of
muscles) is attained by means
of a moult, as usual in the
metamorphoses of insects. ffa
The cells of the inner layer of g

Fig. G55.

the skin
( hypoclcr-

Second larva of Platygaster.

mis) now multiply greatly, and give rise to
what corresponds to the primitive band of
the embryos of other insects. The third
larval form is of the usual shape of ich-
neumon larvae.

In Polynema the larva in its first stage
is very small and motionless, and with
scarcely a trace of organization, being a
mere flask-shaped sac of cells. After five
or six days, it passes into a worm-like stage
and subsequently into a third stage (Fig.
655, tg, three pairs of abdominal tubercles
destined to form the ovipositor ; /, rudiments
of the legs ; /&, portion of the fatty body ;
at, rudiments of the antennae, jfl, imaginal
discs, or rudiments of the wings).

The larva of Ophioneurus is at first of
the form indicated by Fig. 656 E. It differs from the genera
already mentioned, in remaining within its egg membrane and

Third larva of Polynema.

706

APPENDIX.

not assuming their strange forms. From the non-segmented,
sac-like larva it passes directly into the pupa state.

The development of Teleas is like that of Platygaster.
Fig. 656 A, represents the egg ; B, C, and Z>, the first stage
Fig. 656. of the larva, the ab-

domen (or posterior
division of the body)
being furnished with
a series of bristles
on each side. B
represents the ven-
tral, C the dorsal,
and D the profile
view ; at, antennae ;
md, hook-like man-
dibles ; mo, mouth ;
6, bristles ; m, intes-
tine ; sw, the tail,
and ul, under lip, or
labium. In the sec-
ond larval stage,

Development of Egg-parasites. "~

which is oval in form, and non-segmented, the primitive band
is formed.

THE EMBRYONAL MEMBRANES OF INSECTS. After the forma-
tion of the germinal layer or blastoderm, the outer layer of
blastodermic cells peels off or moults, forming the so-called "am-
nion" ("parietal membrane" of Brandt, Fig. 657, am). This
skin is a moult from the blastoderm. At a later period, after
the formation of the primitive band, a second membrane (Fig.
657, db "faltenblatt" of Weismann ; visceral layer of Brandt)
separates from the primitive band. It surrounds the embryo
in the Hymenoptera, Diptera and Coleoptera, enveloping the
limbs, and is shed as a thin pellicle when the embryo leaves
the egg. Melnikow (Archiv fur Naturgeschichte, 1869, p. 136)
from whose article the accompanying figure is taken, shows
that in the lice, however, both the amnion and visceral mem-
brane share in building up the body of the embryo, and pass
upon the dorsal side of the embryo. Brandt (Memoirs of the

APPENDIX.

707

Fig. 657.

d&J

St. Petersburg Academy, 1869) also shows that the visceral
layer in the Libellulidae enters, together with the " amnion,"
into the formation of the yolk sac.
Melnikow remarks that u it appears
from these facts that the differences
which we see in the embryonal mem-
branes of insects, are in direct rela-
tion to the mode in which the prim-
itive band is formed. It seems,
therefore, that the mode of origin of
the primitive band, or its position in
relation to the yolk, is concerned in
the above mentioned differences of
the embryonal membranes.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE LOUSE.
After the budding out of the limbs
from the primitive band, the germ
appears as seen in Fig. 657. We
now see the amnion (am) surround-
ing the yolk mass, and the visceral
membrane (db) within partially envel-
oping the embryo. The head (vie, procephalic lobes, or anten-
nal segment,) besides the antennae (as), bears three pairs of short
tubercles, which are the rudiments of the mandibles, maxillae,
and labium or second maxillae. Behind the mouth-parts arise
six long slender tubercles forming the rudimentary legs, while
the primitive streak rudely marks out the ventral walls of the
thorax and abdomen. Fig. 658 represents the head and mouth-
parts of the embryo of the same louse ; vk is the forehead, or
clypeus ; ant, the antennae ; mad, the mandibles ; max 1 , the first
pair of maxillae, and max*, the second pair of maxillae, or
labium. Fig. 659 represents the mouth-parts of the same
insect a little farther advanced, with the jaws and labium
elongated and closely folded together. Fig. 660 represents the
same still farther advanced ; the mandibles are sharp, and
resemble the jaws of the Mallophaga or biting lice ; and the
maxillae (max 1 ) and labium (max 2 ) are still large, while after-
wards the labium becomes nearly obsolete. Fig. 661 repre-

Embryo of louse.

708

APPENDIX,

Fig. 658.

Fig. 631.

Fig. 659.

tfk-

Fig. 660.

max

Fig. 662.

DEVELOPMENT OF MOUTH-PABTS OF THE LOUSE.

APPENDIX. 709

sents the mouth-parts of one of the Mallophaga, Goniodes, to
compare with the rudimentary mouth-part of Pediculus ; ib is
the upper lip, or labrum, situated under the clypeus ; mad", the
mandibles ; max, the maxillae ; Z, the lyre-formed piece ; pZ, the
" plate", and o, the beak or tongue. (This and figs. 658-661
are from Melnikow's memoir.) Fig. 662 represents the mouth
of Pediculus vestimenti (copied from Schiodte) with the parts
entirely protruding, and seen from above, magnified one hun-
dred and sixty times ; aa, the summit of the head, with four
bristles on each side ; 6&, the chitinous band, and c, the hind
part of the lower lip ; dd, the foremost protruding part of the
lip (the haustellum) ; ee the hooks turned outwards ; /, the
inner tube of suction slightly bent and twisted ; the two pairs
of jaws are perceived on the outside of these lines ; a few blood
globules are seen in the interior of the tube.

FORMATION OP THE WINGS. As has already been remarked
on p. 64, the genital glands and the muscles of the adult insect
were found by Weismann to exist in a rudimentary state in the
embryo, while the imaginal discs (which are minute scales, or
isolated portions of the inner layer of skin, attached either to
a nerve or trachea, and which are readily seen on dissection
in the young larva) , which are destined to grow and spread so
as to form the skin of the adult, even exist, though in an ex-
tremely rudimentary condition, in the embryo. Weismann has
also satisfactorily shown that in the Diptera the wings arise
from similar discs in connection with what he doubtfully re-
garded as a nerve.

More recently, however, Landois has published in Siebold
and Kolliker's " Zeitschrift " a fuller account of the formation
of the wings in the butterflies. They are found to exist in the
caterpillar, soon after leaving the egg, in the form of minute
expansions of the peritoneal membrane surrounding a trachea.
This forms a microscopic sac filled with fat cells, some of which
transform into elongated nucleated cells, in which trachese are
developed. As the bag grows larger, the trachese enlarge, and
project towards what is destined to be the outer edge of the
wing, until when the larva is ready to transform into the pupa,

710 APPENDIX.

the wings appear as little bags hanging down the sides, just
under the skin. The number of main tracheae in the wing
appears from one of Landois' figures to be six. Hence, as we
have before suspected, this is probably the typical number of
veins in the wings of all insects, though usually but five are
readily made out.

A NEW FOSSIL CARBONIFEROUS INSECT. Mr. S. I. Smith
contributes to the "American Journal of Science" a descrip-
tion of the fore wing of Paolia vetusta from near Paoli, Indi-
ana. The wing (Fig. 663) is 2.54 inches in length and about
.85 inch wide. The venation is remarkable for the number of
slender branchlets which the veins throw off towards the poste-
rior border and the tip of the wing. The great care with
which the specimen has been drawn and engraved obviates the
necessity of farther description. Mr. Smith remarks that

Fig. 663.

Wing of Paolia vetusta.

"this wing differs so much in neuration from any family of
recent insects, that it is difficult to point out any near affinity
with living forms, although it shows some points of resem-
blance to several families of Neuroptera, and especially to the
Ephemerids." To Hemeristia and Miamia, he adds, " it shows
more resemblance, but still differs more from either of these
genera, which are considered distinct families by Mr. Scudder,
than they do from each other. It seems still more allied to
Dictyoneura libelluloides of Goldenberg, Prof. Hagen consider-
ing it, with Eugereon Bockingii Dohrn, as a species of this
genus. " In both Dictyoneura and Eugereon, as figured, the
wings have considerable resemblance to the specimen from
Indiana, but in neither o them are the nervures so numerously

7J>

INJURIOUS INSECTS.

APPENDIX 711

branched towards the posterior border of the wing, and in
Eugereon the spaces between the first three nervures next
the anterior border are connected by straight cross-nervures.
There are also important differences in the branching of the
main nervures."

ABDOMINAL SENSE ORGANS. On p. 17 the remarkable
antenniform abdominal appendages of Mantis tessellata are fig-
ured as an illustration of what we have called " sensorio-geni-
ital" organs. Dr. Dohrn has shown that the jointed abdominal
appendages of Gryllotalpa are true sensory organs. More
recently we have observed sense organs (probably of smell)
in the anal stylets of the cockroach (Periplaneta Americana),
consisting of about ninety minute sacs, situated in single rows
on the upper side of each joint of the stylets. They are like
similar organs in the antennae of the same insect. Similar
organs are situated on the female anal stylets of Chrysopila, a
Leptis-like fly. These also are like the single sacs situated on
the ends of the labial and maxillarj" palpi of Perla. American
Naturalist, IV. p. 690.

INJURIOUS AND BENEFICIAL INSECTS. Explanation of Plate 14. Of
much interest to gardeners is the bean weevil (Bruchus varicornis of
Leconte, fig. 8, bean containing several grubs; 8a, pupa). This
is the well known and very destructive bean weevil of Europe, con-
cerning which Mr. Angus writes from West Farms, N. Y., to the
author : " I send you a sample of beans which I think will startle you
if you have not seen such before. I discovered this beetle in the kid-
ney or bush bean a few years ago, and they have been greatly on the
increase every year since. I might say much on the gloomy prospect
before us in the cultivation of this important garden and farm pro-
duct if the work of this insect is not cut short by some means or
other. The pea Bruchus is bad enough, but this is worse."

Another insect recently brought to the notice of farmers, is the
corn Sphenophorus ($. sece Walsh, fig. 11), of which Mr. R. Howell,
of Tiago County, New York, writes, June 14, 1869: "This is the
fourth year they have infested the newly planted corn in this vicinity.
The enclosed specimens were taken on the llth instant. I presume
that they have been in every hill of corn in my field. They pierce the
young corn in numerous places, so that each blade has from one to
six or eight holes of the size of a pin, or larger, and I found a num-
ber last Friday about an inch under ground hanging to young stalks

712

APPENDIX,

Fig. 664.

Larva of Leiopus xanthoxyli.

with much tenacity. When very numerous every stalk is killed.
Some fields two or three years ago were wholly destroyed by this in-
sect. Among plant house insects may be noticed the white scale bark

louse (Aspidiotus bromelice
Bouche, fig. 6, magnified ; 4,
young magnified; 4, end
of body still more enlarged).
It is often destroyed by a
minute chalchid fly, Cocco-
phagus(?). Boisduval's fern
bark louse (Lecanium fili( um
Boi-;d., fig. 7a, scale enlarged
seen from above; 7&, the
same, seen from beneath,
and showing the form of the
body surrounded by the
broad, flat edge of the scale ;
7c, an antenna, enlarged ;
7d, a leg, enlarged ; 7e, end of the body, showing the flattened hairs
fringing the edge), is common on hot-house plants, as also the Platy-
cerium bark louse (Lecanium platycerii Pack., fig. 5, magnified; 5a,
an antenna, enlarged), and the plant house Coccus (C. adonidum
Linn., fig. 3, magnified). The plant house Aleurodes (.4. vaporarium of
Westwood, fig. 9, enlarged; 9a, pupa enlarged), is more common per-
haps than one would suppose. It lives out of doors on tomato leaves
and we found it not uncommon, in September, on strawberry plants on
the grounds of the State Agricultural College, at Amherst. The list of
hot-house insects is completed by one of the most injurious of all, the
mi mte Thrips (Heliothrips hcemorrhoidalis Haliday), from Europe, fig.
2, greatly magnified, which by

, , Fig. 665.

its punctures, causes the sur-
face of the leaf affected to turn
red or white, while at times
the entire leaf withers.

Fig. 10 represents the Cran-
berry weevil, Anthonomus su- T
turalis Leconte ; 10a, its larva, I
mentioned on p. 487. Fig. 12 1
represents the Byturus uni-
color Say (enlarged) which
feeds on the flowers of the
raspberry.

Explanation of Plate 15.
Fig. 1, Leiopus facetus Say, the

larva of which bores in the branches of the apple tree. Fig. 2, Leiopus
xanthoxyli Shimer. which bores under the bark of the prickly ash.

Larva of Callidium amcenum.

Plate 15.

No. 1.

No. 2.

No. 10.

NO. e.

INJURIOUS AND BENEFICIAL 'iNSECf

APPENDIX.

713

Fig. 664, a, represents the larva; b, upper side, c, under side of
the head, greatly enlarged. Fig. 3, Callidium amcenum Say, Fig.
665, a, larva ; &, upper, c, under side of head enlarged. Fig. 5, Drep-

Fig. 666.

Head of larva of Telephorus bilineatus.

anodes varus Gr. and Rob. Fig. 4, the larva and pupa, the former
closely resembling the twigs of the juniper, on which it feeds. Fig.

Fig. 667.

6, BuccMlatrix th niello,
Pack., enlarged ; (a, cocoon,
natural size,) which feeds
on the cedar. Fig. 7, Tel-
ephorus bilineatus Say ; Fig.
8, larva enlarged. Fig. 666,
a, upper; 6, under side of
the head, much enlarged.
The larva of this species
was identified by Mr. P. S.
Sprague, who found it near
Boston, under stones in
spring, where it changes to
a pupa and early in May
becomes a beetle, when it
eats the newly expanded
leaves of the birch. Fig. 9,
Galerita janus Fabr. Fig.
667, larva; a, upper, &, un-
der side of head, a little
enlarged. The specimen
here figured was discovered
by Mr. J. H. Emerton, under stones July 1st. Fig. 10, Larva of Cor-
dulia lateralis Burm. Fig. 11, larva of Macromia transversa Say.

Larva of Galerita Janus.

714 APPENDIX.

NEW CLASSIFICATION OF THE HEMIPTERA. Prof. Schiodte
has proposed the following classification of the Hemiptera,
which is probably the best yet suggested, and is based on a
more profound study of their external anatomy than has been
previously made. It will be noticed, however, that the lice
(Pediculina) are not included, though he regards them as
forming a separate division (Siphunculata Latr.) of equal value
with the Heteroptera and Homoptera. He does not seem to
include the Mallophaga among the Hemiptera. The families
of the Homoptera are not characterized.

I. Genae (cheeks) hollowed out, to receive the first pair of coxae.
[Posterior pair of coxae hinged, provided with femoral grooves.]

Suborder HOMOPTERA.

II. Genae entire, remote from the coxae.

Suborder HETEROPTERA.
A Posterior coxae acetabulate, rotating, with no femoral grooves. Trochalopoda.

a. Metathoracic epimera laminate, nearly concealing the first ventral segment

[of the abdomen.

1. Antennae covered at the base. Fam. 1. Cimices.

2. Antennae entirely uncovered.

*. Antennae inserted before the eyes. Tarn. 2. Corel.
**. Antennae inserted below the eyes. Fam. 3 Lygcei.

b. Metathoracic epimera without the ventral lamina. [metrce.
1: Claws superposed (inserted before the end of the joint). Fam. 4. Hydro-
2. Claws terminal.

*. Metathoracic epimera almost covered by the mesothoracic epimera.

Last pair of abdominal spiracles forming a short tube. Fam. 5. Nepce.

**. Metathoracic epimera wholly uncovered. Abdominal spiracles equal.

[Fam. 6. Reduvii.

B. Posterior coxae hinged, provided with femoral grooves. Pagiopoda.
a. Antennae uncovered. Fam. 7. Acanthice.
b Antennae partially covered.

1. Body depressed, prone,
a. Beak free.

f. Metathoracic epimera uncovered.
*. Feet cursorial. Fam. 8. Pelegoni.
**. Feet natatory. Fam. 9. Naucorides.

tf. Mesothoracic epimera almost covered by the metathoracic epimera.

[Fam. 10. Belostomata.

/3. Beak free. [Metathoracic epimera uncovered, appendiculated.] Fam.

[11. Corixce.

2. Body boat-shaped, supinate. [Metathoracic epimera uncovered. Beak

free.] Fam. 12. Notonectce.

NEW CLASSIFICATION OF THE SPIDERS. The arrangement
of the groups of spiders given by me is very imperfect. I
therefore present the following classification of Dr. T. Thorell
(On European Spiders. Part I, 1869-70) as the most satisfac-
tory. While I have considered the Araneina as forming a sub-

APPENDIX.

715

order of the order Arachnida, it will be noticed that Thorell
regards the Araneina as an order, dividing it into the seven
suborders and twenty-two families indicated below. The ar-
rangement of these groups is like the branches of a tree, and
this represents well the relations of the groups of articulates,
as well as other sub-kingdoms. As Thorell remarks : " As
regards the larger groups of spiders, the suborders and the
families, the reasons for the order of arrangement we have
chosen will, we hope, easily be seen if one casts one's eye on
the accompanying diagram, which gives a view of the con-
nection founded on real affinity, which the families of the
spiders adopted by us, according to our opinion, have to each
other."

Fig. (JC8.

I. Orbitelariae.

1. Epeiroidae.
II. Retitelariae.

2. Theridioidse.

3. Scytodoidje.

4. Enyoidae.
III. Tubitelarise.

5. Urocteoidae.

6. Omanoidae.

7. Hersilionidae.

Phrynoidae.

Opiliones.

8. Agalenoidae.

9. Drassoidae.

10. Dysderoidae.

11. Filostatoidae.
IV. Territelariae.

12. Theraphqsoidae.

13. Liphistioida9.

14. Catadysoidae.
V. Laterigradae.

15. Tnomisoidae,

vi. Citigradae.

16. Lycosoidae.

17. Oxyopoidae.
ni. Saltigradze.

18. Myrmecionidae.

19. OtiothopoidaB.

20. Dinopoidae.

21. Eresoidae.

22. Attoidas.

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25 1933

1233

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B 2 1974

\NTER-LIBR

FfB ~ 7

LD 21-50771-8,

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY