"^*y •^•rrg! o^r^-^ CTfOMS v This book is DUE on the last date stamped below STATS HOIMAI. SCHOOL Frontispiece, Blaich's Three Industrial Nations. Opening of the Panama Canal THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS AN INDUSTRIAL GEOGRAPHY OF ENGLAND, GERMANY, AND THE UNITED STATES BY LYDIA R. BLAICH SUPERVISING PRINCIPAL, PUBLIC SCHOOLS INDIANAPOLIS, INDIANA AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY NEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO Copyright, 191 5, by LYDIA R. BLAICH. Copyright, 1915, in Great Britain, three industrial nations. E. P. I HF 35T PREFACE Three Industrial Nations has been prepared for grammar grade pupils whose study of Geography in the intermediate classes has given them a sufficient basis for an understand- ing of the data herein contained. It assumes that man's industrial activity, growing out of his reaction on the earth's natural resources, is the chief subject of study in Geography. The book is, therefore, an elementary indus- trial text. During the last decade the public has asked that the schools lay stress on essentials, and that our courses prune away incidentals, seeing that the limitations of time and of the physical and mental powers of the child preclude the study of everything. Hence, instead of following the time-honored custom of treating all the corners of a conti- nent, important and otherwise, in a single volume, three of the leading nations of the earth have been chosen. The selection of the United States as one of the three is self-evident. England and Germany have been chosen as her companions in this treatment both on account of their industrial efficiency and their close racial and con- tributory relations to our own country. Each has admira- ble characteristics and each has accomplished much to be proud of. Great Britain has excited the wonder of the world by its victorious, service-rendering invasion into every quarter of the globe. Germany has compelled the admiration of the world by its unparalleled reformation of internal industrial and political affairs, and by its sub- VI PREFACE sequent commercial activities in every foreign country. The United States has amazed the world with its unsur- passed development of its rich natural resources. In his " America's Interest in International Conditions," A. T. Mahan says : " The study of international interests is the one basis of sound policy for statesmen. This involves a wide knowledge of contemporary facts as well as power to appreciate them ; but for a nation to exert its full weight in the world, such knowledge and appre- ciation must be widespread among its plain people also." It is hoped that the pupils will be helped to understand the enthusiasm of the distinctive national spirit of each country as it is presented ; and thereby so enlarge their personahties as to become consistently international, catch- ing from each nation the best it has to offer. We are more than citizens of the United States ; we are world citizens. In order that the children may serve their own country best they must receive a broad, intelligent, appre- ciative view of the highest modern spirit of each nation. This volume is presented to the boys and girls not as a memory text, but as a book to set them thinking. It is hoped that the recitations which center around it will be symposiums in which pupils and teacher, in the presence of the open book, will read, question, explain, enlarge, illustrate ; and always look up in the atlas every place mentioned in the text at the time it is under discussion, until by and by these geographical names will become household friends. Furthermore, it is hoped that when the study of this book is finished, the young people will be at least a little better prepared to serve the larger problems and higher ideals of the Greater United States of to-morrow. LYDIA R. BLAICH. MAP OF THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS British Empire, German Empire, United States Their colonial possessions, and the principal commercial routes and telegraph lines of the world. V/ ■^'* Canton //I v^'T'T)h"^>\^ 4 [/7mL,PP,NEP««'»N.& l^- i-^- c 'r I F \ I ■' T ^W f ./M - '~' '■*• CAROLI'^E'IS. _•/_?■ !£ '.cANMiMr, I ^5 / : .V D I A .V A N i^^'^^^- '/jl Auckland'^: •* '■• oS SAMOA* is" „*■ I -, „ WHtB„OES.. Suva =Aji'*-",':vS:u':-*-^"C,£'Tr: •(?•. ^ ,63° L. KOATES CO., 90 Loiifc'itude 120 Eust from 150 Gr 150" Lontjitude 120 MAP OF THE WORLD SHOWING liRITISH EMPIRE, GERMAJ^ EMPIRE AND tiMTED STATES, COLONIES, ETC., PRINCIPAL COMMERCIAL ROUTES AND TELEGRAPH LINES SCALE OF GEOGRAPHICAL MILES On tlie PLquator I ' 1 1 1 p 000 1000 liOO 2000 / On the SOt'h Parallel '• A i 1 1 V /O 600 lOpO l.')00 2000^ On the eOt'h Parallel VIII CONTENTS PART I. THE WORLD'S INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS CHAPTER PAGE I. A Trip around the World in Our Town . . i II The Land, the Arena of Industrial Progress . 7 III. The Ocean, an Important Factor in Industrial Pro(jress 15 IV. Man's Development of the Resources of Land and Water 25 PART II. THE BRITISH EMPIRE V. England, the Foremost Commercial Nation on Earth 35 VI. England, a Leader in the World's Industry . 48 VII. England, the Founder of the World's Greatest Colonial Empire 70 VIII. Political and Social Conditions in the United Kingdom . .101 PART III. THE GERMAN EMPIRE JX. How Germany Cast Off Serfdom and Poverty . 109 X. Modern Germany 122 XI. Political and Social Conditions in Modern Ger- many . .■ . . . . . ." .154 PART IV. THE YOUNG INDUSTRIAL GIANT OF THE WEST XII. Natural Assets of the United States . .176 XIII. Field Crops of the United States . . • 183 CONTENTS XI CHAPTER XIV. Vegetables and Fruits XV. The Forests of the United States XVI. Domestic Animals of the United States XVII. Fisheries of the United States XVIII. Mineral Wealth of the United States. The Metals XIX. Mineral Wealth of the United States. Non metallic Minerals XX. Industrial Miracles of the American Factory XXI. Domestic Exchange of Goods in the United States XXII. The Foreign Commerce of the United States XXIII. Colonial Possessions of the United States XXIV. The Material, Social, and Political Status of THE United States To-day TABLES INDEX .... .... WAGE 223 244 257 274 286 343 353 359 362 LIST OF MAPS PAGE The World, showing British Empire, German Empire, United States, Principal Commercial Routes, and Telegraph Lines . . viii, ix British Isles — Political ......... 36 United Kingdom — Industrial Map 50 India 72 Australia 76 New Zealand 79 Africa 82 Dominion of Canada ......... 88, 89 Germany — Political 120 Agriculture ......... 130 Minerals 134 United States — Political 174,175 Rainfall 180 Distribution of Corn ...... 184 Wheat-growing Areas and Chief Flour-milling Centers 186 Cotton-growing Region and Chief Centers of Cotton Manufacture 191 i Forest Regions 214 National Forests and National Parks . . . 220 Distribution of Cattle and Principal Meat-packing Centers ........ 224 Distribution of Swine ...... 230 Distribution of Sheep ...... 233 Iron Ore Regions ....... 257 Alaska 268 Distribution of Mineral Fuels ..... 274 Transportation Lines ..... 308, 309 Cuba 343 IV -to Rico 345 ama Canal Zone ....... 347 iiian Islands ....... 348 ..xippine Islands . . » . . . . 350 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS THE WORLD'S INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS CHAPTER I A TRIP AROUND THE WORLD IN OUR TOWN The Kinship of the World. — Did it ever occur to you how much akin the whole world is? The familiar articles all around you speak of the service of your far-away, unknown brothers and sisters. The Parlor. — Look about your parlor. The rug on the floor may have come from Turkey. The Japanese print adorning the wall traveled thousands of miles across the Pacific from Yokohama to San Francisco, before it came to your house. The mahogany of the piano came from forests in Mexico or Central America. ' ^■^' " ^- which have grown into the beautiful tulips on , "ift from Holland. 2 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS The Dining Room. — The tablecloth of Irish linen came direct from Belfast. The dishes of Haviland China were made in France. The coffee very likely came from Brazil, for that country produces three fourths of the world's supply ; and the sugar probably was imported from Cuba or Hawaii, for these islands supply much of the world's I Underwood ...=^| v'!-— Khar -g&ilt /-r -V ■■^-oT^^NT^f'i'/ 1 /:6A„ruR 82 ENGLAND, FOUNDER OF CiREATEST COLONIAL EMPIRE 83 trich farming is a profitable business and about 85 per cent of the world's supply of ostrich feathers comes from this region. Gold and diamonds are the most valuable products of the Union. The diamond mines near Kimbcrlcy yield practically all the diamonds of the world's markets. The output of these mines is carefully regulated in order to prevent the overstocking of the market and the reduction of prices. Most of these precious stones are sent to Lon- don. The Transvaal gold fields are sources of enormous income and form one of the leading gold producing districts of the world. The chief exports of the Union of South Africa are gold, diamonds, wool and mohair, ostrich feathers, and hides and skins. The leading imports are food products, cotton cloth, clothing, iron and steel, and machinery. Railway building is receiving much attention. A trunk line extends from Cape Town through Rhodesia, giving transportation facilities to the interior. England hopes to continue this railroad to the Mediterranean Sea. This is the Cape-to-Cairo railroad, which is being built from both ends toward the interior. When completed it will be very helpful in developing Africa. British Colonies in Tropical Africa. — Riches of an entirely different character come from the British colonies in central Africa. This productive tropical region furnishes palm oil, gums, rubber, ebony, ivory, tropical nuts, and hides, in exchange for textiles, tobacco, firearms, beads, metal ware, trinkets, and preserved fruits. Egypt and the Suez Canal. — Although Egypt is a vassal of Turkey yet England is the real governing power. Eng- land's claim to a controlling part in Egypt's financial affairs 84 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS A primitive method of raising water for irrigation, Egypt. lies partly in the fact that she owns the Suez Canal, which is a most important link in the shortest sea route be- tween India and the mother country. Al- most three fourths of the Canal trade is Brit- ish. Under British supervision justice has been established and the people who have been oppressed for centuries now enjoy freedom and prosper- ity. Great irrigation works have been con- structed and thou- sands of acres of desert lands reclaimed. Another evidence of British control is the Cape-to-Cairo railway, which England has constructed along the Nile River. British Guiana. — England does not own much terri- tory in South America. Her only colony there is British Guiana in the north, with an area a little larger than that of Great Britain. The tropical climate interferes with active industrial development in this country. Agricul- ture is not very important because of the small amount of rich soil, merely a narrow strip along the coast. Sugar and rice are the leading crops. The rough hilly interior is covered with virgin forest. There is great mineral ENGLAND, FOUNDER OF GREATEST COLONIAL EMPIRE 85 wealth, chiefly gold and diamonds. This country exports sugar, molasses, rum, timber, rice, gold, and diamonds. It imports flour, tobacco, fish, machinery, hardware, meat, butter, and potatoes. Most of the trade is with the mother country. Canada. — The largest and most prosperous of all Eng- lish possessions is the Dominion of Canada, lying just north of the United States. It covers an area forty-two times that of Great Britain. While Canada is a loyal daughter of the mother country, she has nearly absolute charge of her own affairs. England's power is represented by a Governor-general, appointed by the king. The laws are made by a Parliament which consists of a Senate ap- pointed by the Governor, and a House of Commons elected by the people. The Canadian ParUament has almost as much power as the Congress of the United States. It is limited only in matters relating to foreign affairs. No The Assuan Dam across the Nile. The water' above the dam is diverted into irrigation canals. British soldiers watch over Canada ; its army is composed entirely of Canadians. This colony is not assessed for 86 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS even the smallest sum by England. In short, she has all the independence and privileges which we prize so highly in our country. Then what does England profit by this colony? Canada gives commercial preference to England. The duties levied by Canada on imports from the United Kingdom and other parts of the British Empire are much lower than those from foreign countries. In an industrial age this preferential tariff is a matter of great importance to Great Britain. Area, Surface, and Climate. — Larger than the United States and Alaska together, Canada, lying between 43° and 70° north latitude, extends over nearly as many degrees as Europe. It is made up of immense plains in the east Canadian Houses of Parliament, Ottawa. ENGLAND. FOUNDER OF GREATEST COLONIAL EMPIRE 87 Bridge across the St. Lawrence at Montreal. and central parts, and an extensive stretch of high plateaus and picturesque mountains in the west. While the ex- treme northern part and the adjacent ice-bound Arctic islands He in the frigid zone, by far the larger part of the country is in the temperate belt. Rivers and Lakes. — Almost the entire country has ample rainfall, so there are many rivers, well scattered over the territory. The best known inland waterways are the Yukon, Mackenzie, Saskatchewan, Nelson, and St. Lawrence. Nor is there a scarcity of lakes. Half of four of the Great Lakes on our northern boundary belong to Canada. Then there are Lake Winnipeg, Great Bear Lake, Great Slave Lake, besides scores of smaller ones. Forests. — Canada ranks next to Russia and the United States in its timber resources. Just south of the Arctic circle is a belt of fir, spruce, pine, and hemlock, between 200 and 300 miles wide. The timber will be a great source of income as soon as means of transportation are pushed into this north land. Farther south are hard woods, such as elm, oak, beech, and maple. Hundreds of sawmills are Longitude 90 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS A Canadian forest. ENGLAND, FOUNDER OF GREATEST COLONIAL EMPIRE 91 kept busy in these forests. In addition to the lumber the soft woods produce very valuable pulp for the manufac- ture of paper, which is sent to England and the United States. For a century lumbering has been a leading occupation. Fur Trade. — The earliest industry of Canada, and for a long time practically the only one, was fur trading. The great subarctic forests were, and still are filled with the beaver, bear, marten, muskrat, mink, lynx, sable, otter, and the silver and black fox. Some of these valuable fur bearers are rapidly dying out. The Hudson Bay Fur- Trading Company has trapping stations all over the northern forests, along the waterways, which afford prac- tically the only means of communication in summer. Dog sleds and snowshoes are used in winter. The Company has its office at Winnipeg. Canada is one of the world's largest fur producers. Most of the pelts are sent to Lon- don and the United States. Fisheries. — The fisheries, ranking among the most important in the world, bring in large financial returns. On the Atlantic coast are found valuable fishing grounds, abounding in cod, halibut, herring, mackerel, haddock, oysters, and lobsters. The Great Lakes yield trout and whitefish. Salmon fishing is one of the most profitable occupations on the Pacific coast. Most of the fish exports go to England and the United States. Minerals. — Our northern neighbor is almost as rich in variety and extent of minerals as is the United States. Gold, coal, silver, copper, iron, and nickel are abundant. Petroleum and gas are rather limited. The province of Quebec controls the world's market for asbestos. The Canadian coal fields exceed those of all Europe. Portland 92 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS cement, clay products, and limestone also are plentiful. The United States buys most of Canada's metals. Farm Wealth. — The greatest source of wealth lies as yet in the products of the soil. Wheat, oats, hay, potatoes, barley, corn, turnips, and flax are the chief crops. West of Lake Winnipeg is one of the world's greatest granaries. Those wheat lands cover four times as many acres as the prairies in the Mississippi Valley. While it is very cold in winter, the summer days are hot and from fourteen to eighteen hours long. So much daily sunshine makes prime wheat. It has been predicted that before long Canada will furnish the British Isles with all their bread. Wheat ripens as far north as 56 degrees. That puts Minneapolis, which was formerly regarded as being near the northern limit of the wheat belt, in the middle of it. Lately people of other countries — Germany, England, and even the United States — have migrated into Canada's wheat region. Most of them are energetic and intelhgent ; for great inducements are held out to such. Canada does not want shiftless, ignorant men, or paupers. While the immigration of worthy, reliable men into Canada is very profitable for her, it is unfortunate for our country to lose those who go from the United States to Canada. Apples, peaches, plums, pears, and grapes are raised in eastern Canada. The mild cHmate of southern Ontario, due to the influence of the Great Lakes, makes this region the leading fruit section of the Dominion. Large fruit shipments, especially of apples, find their way to Man- chester, Liverpool, and London. Cattle, horses, sheep, and hogs are the leading farm animals of Canada. The number of cattle is far greater than that of any other kind of domestic animals. In the ENGLAND, FOUNDER OF GREATEST COLONIAL EMPIRE 93 A fruit farm, Canada. grazing sections of western Canada cattle are raised merely for beef ; in eastern Canada they are raised merely for dairy purposes. Ontario and Quebec are the leading dairy provinces, and butter and cheese are among their chief products. Manufactures. — While factories are comparatively few in number, the unhmited supply of minerals, the abundant water power in the rivers, the vast lumber resources, and the rich farm products offer great incentives to manufactur- ing. Lumber, flour, iron and steel products, leather, butter and cheese, dressed meats, and clothing are the leading man- ufactured products. Raw materials, such as wool, rubber, cotton, and raw sugar, are imported and turned into manu- factured products in the eastern cities, notably Montreal. 94 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS Transportation Facilities. — Canada is bountifully sup- plied with water routes, even though ice bound several months each year. She has great continental railroads, and valuable canals, especially along the St. Lawrence. The Yukon, Mackenzie, and Saskatchewan are magnificent commercial highways in summer time. The St. Lawrence system is one of the very best. Engineers have improved this river, deepening and widening it in many places, so that now it carries large vessels 2700 miles into the interior. The Canadians have connected their lakes and rivers with some in the United States so as to provide ice-free winter outlets for their trade. Railroads. — Canada is expending much energy and money in building railroads. The Canadian Pacific Rail- road connects St. John on the Atlantic with Vancouver on the Pacific. Owning several steamship lines on both oceans, it has complete control of the shortest route from Canadian Pacific Railway Station, Winnipeg, Canada. ENGLAND, FOUNDER OF GREATEST COLONIAL EMPIRE 95 London to Yokohama. This railway has brought Montreal and Yokohama within eighteen days of each other. A new transcontinental line, the Grand Trunk Pacific, has just been constructed. It connects Halifax on the Atlantic with Prince Rupert on the Pacific, by way of Quebec, Winnipeg, and Edmonton. It passes through rich agri- cultural, forest, and mineral lands, and with the steamships of the company will form a second short route from Great Britain to Japan. The Canadian Northern is a third transcontinental railroad. Another railroad is contemplated from Winnipeg to Hudson Bay, giving a shorter outlet for the wheat. Since Hudson Bay is open for commerce only three and a half months each year, the wheat shipment would have to be very heavy to make such a road profitable. As the trade between Canada and the United States is very active, many railways have been built connecting the two countries. Cables. — Several cables owned by private companies connect Canada with England across the Atlantic. An all-British cable joins Canada and Australia across the Pacific. Cities. — Ottawa is the capital of Canada. Toronto and Hamilton are im.portant cities on Lake Ontario. Although a thousand miles from the sea, Montreal is the chief sea- port of Canada. Engineers have made it possible for ocean steamers to come up to this inland city on the St. Lawrence. It is three hundred miles nearer England than New York is. Quebec is a manufacturing center. The fact that it is the summer port for the Grand Trunk Pacific railroad will in- crease its commercial importance. Halifax and St. John have the only ice-free harbors of Canada. 96 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS Docks at Montreal. Winnipeg, on the edge of the prairies, is the greatest distributing center of the interior. Edmonton is a meeting place for hunters and trappers, and the headquarters for hunters' and trappers' suppHes. Vancouver is the chief Pacific port. Steamers sail between Vancouver and Japan, China, and Australia. The exports of this great agricultural country are wood products, wheat, cheese, silver, flour, bacon, and other commodities. Its imports consist of manufactured goods. England needs the foods, and is glad to sell to the Canadians cloths, iron and steel goods, and other factory products. Canada and the United States. — The United States is in closer touch with Canada than with any other coun- try, for the two border on each other for 3000 miles. Both have equal rights to four of the greatest lakes in the world. The people in both countries speak the EngHsh language. ENGLAND, FOUNDER OF GREATEST COLONI.AL EMPIRE 97 Canada and the United States vary enough in their products to foster an excellent trade relation. The one is chiefly an agricultural country and therefore has foodstuffs to sell; the other is rapidly becoming a manufacturing nation and could exchange factory products for food. We need Canada's metal ores. Our forest supply is nearing exhaustion. We are fortunate in that the well-stocked Canadian forests are near by. Canada receives most of her imports from the United States. The relations between the two nations are most cordial. Newfoundland. — Newfoundland, an EngUsh island off the coast of British North America, but in no way con- View of Vancouver and harbor. 98 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS nected with the government of Canada, is noted chiefly for its fisheries. Codfish, iron and copper ores, cod-hver oil, sealskins, and canned lobsters are exported. Coaling Stations. — In order to protect these large, widely scattered colonies. Great Britain has secured a number of small islands and towns that encircle the earth and form excellent landing and coaling stations for ships in their journeys from colony to colony. Though small, these are no mean possessions, as they help to secure England's supremacy of the sea. At the west entrance of the Mediterranean she owns Gibraltar, the southern Gibraltar. point of Spain ; midway across the sea, the island of Malta ; at its eastern end the island of Cyprus. Her control of Egypt secures her undisputed sway in the Suez Canal. Where the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean meet, Eng- land owns Aden in southwestern Arabia, also a small ad- joining island. The island of Ceylon, south of British India, and the port of Singapore at the southern extremity ENGLAND, FOUNDER OF GREATEST COLONIAL EMPIRE 99 of the Malay peninsula are other English stepping stones in the Indian Ocean. The island of Hong Kong on the east coast of China is very helpful in getting Chinese trade and watching affairs in east- ern Asia. Many of the swarms of small islands in the Pacific, east and southeast of Australia, also belong to England. The Bermudas are a group of small islands in the Atlantic Ocean, about 600 miles east of North Carolina. The Bahamas, Jamaica, and Trinidad are some of the most important British islands of the West Indies. In the South Atlantic are the Falkland Islands and South Georgia. Near Africa, between the Equator and 20° south latitude, are St. Helena and Ascension Island. A Widely Scattered Empire. — The area of Great Britain's colonies and island possessions is ninety times that of the continent of Europe. About 91 per cent of the British subjects live outside the British Isles. The mother country is very helpful and liberal to her colonies. Where- ever England plants her flag, law, order, and progress soon prevail. Because of the freedom they enjoy, British sub- jects in all parts of the world are loyal to the Empire. Questions and Exercises 1. Follow the courses of the various steamship lines between England's ports and her chief colonial seaports. What exports do they take ? What imports do they bring back ? 2. In what ways is Great Britain helpful to the United States? How does the United States help Great Britain? 3. What is England's chief ambition? Is it a good one? Will she realize it ? 4. Find out how England acquired her colonies. Which of them all could she least afford to lose? Which could she lose with the least concern? lOO THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS 5. Collect pictures of views in the various English colonies. Mount them by countries on separate cardboards. 6. Which is more valuable to England : India or the Suez Canal ? 7. Make a comparative tabulated schedule of the chief prod- ucts of England's colonies. 8. Make a tabulated schedule of Great Britain's interests in the Indian Ocean ; in the Mediterranean ; in the Atlantic ; in the Pacific. 9. What good services has England rendered Australia? India ? Egypt ? ID. Show how the size and wealth of an empire depends on the happiness of the subjects. CHAPTER VIII POLITICAL AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM Government. — While the head of the Enghsh govern- ment is a king or queen, yet the government is really a republic, for the people govern themselves as we do in the United States. The legislative department consists of Parliament, which is made up of the House of Lords and the House of Commons. The Lords hold their positions for life, while members of the House of Commons are elected by the people. The term of office of the members of the House of Commons may end at any time that the people wish to be represented by other men. The real governing power of the British nation is the Enghsh cabinet and the Houses of Parliament, London. lOI I02 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS House of Commons. Nearly all bills are introduced by the Cabinet officers, for each is a member either of the House of Commons or of the Lords. The House of Lords has much less power than the Senate of the United States, for it cannot defeat legislation ; it can only delay its passage. The English sovereign has less power than our President. He cannot veto a bill as the President has a right to do. While the English ruler has few constitutional powers, yet because of the feeling of loyalty and respect that the British people have for their sovereign, he has great influence in the social and political affairs of the nation. Suffrage. — In the United Kingdom nearly all male citizens of legal age have the right to vote. Years ago only property owners could vote, but now the right of suffrage belongs not only to owners of property, but also to those who rent land or houses. Owners of property in different localities have the right to vote in each of these localities. Many English women are demanding suffrage, and they expect that this right will soon be granted them. Home of a wealthy landowner. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS 103 Large Estates. — Although there are many small land- owners in the United Kingdom most of the land is held by a few very wealthy landowners, and is farmed by tenants. Laws carefully guard the rights of the tenants and it is quite usual for a farm to be rented by several genera- tions of one family. An English Estate. — Let us visit an English estate. The castle or modern mansion in which the landlord lives is surrounded by a beautiful park, laid out by landscape gardeners, with smooth drives shaded by rows of magnificent trees. Elsewhere, culti- vated shrubbery and flower beds charm the eye. A Httle farther off, upon a hillside, stands a native forest, with An English cottage. its crooked paths and a pretty little stream — here gurgling in the sunshine, there flowing deep and still at the feet of ancient trees. This is an ideal spot for the hunter and the fisherman. On the estate live a colony of people whose business it is to beautify the grounds and keep the property in repair. Foresters care for the trees ; carpenters repair and build fences and farm buildings ; gardeners cultivate vegetables and fruits ; and other laborers trim hedges, build macadamized roads, and construct stone walls. At one edge of the park is a thriving town of several I04 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS thousand inhabitants, mostly tenants of the lord. On the estate are many fertile farms rented to tenants. There is a great difference between English farm Kfe of to-day and that of a hmidred years ago. Better methods and. improved machinery have increased returns and decreased drudgery, so that farm life in England, as in America, is less dull and monotonous. The farmers are more intel- ligent and prosperous than formerly, and therefore happier and more hopeful. Besides the large home estate, the landlord may own houses and lands in London or Liverpool, rich mines, busy factories, and great harbors. An English landlord is usually not a man of leisure. Much of his time is spent in examining the reports and directing the activities of agents who look after the details of his business affairs. In short, the work of an English landlord is much like the manage- ment of a small kingdom and quite as difhcult. Condition of Factory Workers. — Factories brought in many undesirable conditions. They were generally over- heated and poorly ventilated. Many women and young children were employed because they would work for less than men. The hours of labor were too long ; and the close indoor work was unhealthful. The children re- mained uneducated, and they were often injured by machinery and mistreated by the overseers. Parents were frequently as careless of the welfare of their children as the employers were. They kept them from school so that their earnings might bring a little more money into the family treasury. Because of insufhcient pay, the work- ing classes lived in poverty and dirt; food was poor and scant ; and the death rate was very high, which was due largely to frequent epidemics. After some years Parliament POLITICAL AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS 105 provided for better conditions. New factory laws were passed. Night work was prohibited, working hours re- duced, better ventilation of factories secured, and provision was made for educating factory children. About 1850 a Saturday half-hohday was granted. The well-being of the workers, due to individual and government efforts, has steadily advanced. The sanitary conditions in factories have been greatly improved, and the working hours repeatedly shortened. The compulsory education law has from time to time raised the age limit at which children may leave school. The laborer has risen in the social scale. In the gloomy days of the past the laws seemed to be against him. To-day his vote gives him more and more control of living conditions. In no country does the laboring class have a greater voice in legislation than in the United Kingdom. Parliament has done much for the laborer and his family. Old-age Pensions and National Insurance. — In 1908 Parliament passed a law granting a small pension to every person over seventy years old whose annual income is less than $165, provided he has not been an idler or a criminal, and is not receiving relief from some private source. In 191 1 the National Insurance Act was passed. This law provides for medical attendance and the payment of money to persons in time of sickness. It also provides in certain specified trades the payment of money in case of unemployment. The money comes from assessments made upon workers during periods of health and employment, from assessments levied upon employers, and also from government funds. The aim of these laws is the preven- tion of poverty in case of illness, unemployment, or old age. io6 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS The Navy and Army. — In order to protect her commerce and the widely scat- tered countries of the Empire, England maintains the largest navy in the world. The navy calls for thousands of men and an enormous outlay of money. The British army is scattered among all parts of the Empire to maintain peace. The army in the United King- dom is quite small. Great Britain has not been invaded by an enemy for eight and a half centuries, and since the coun- try is an island, it relies upon the navy for protection and does not need a large army. Education. — England has long given much attention to the education of the upper classes. Her leading uni- versities, Oxford and Cambridge, are among the best in the world. For a long time Great Britain gave little thought to public elementary education, but to-day the elementary schools are receiving special attention. The British high schools give thorough training in secondary © Underwood & Underwood. British troops passing Westminster Abbey POLITICAL AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS 107 education. The increased educational advantages are producing finer citizens year by year. Conclusion. — England, the mother country of the largest g,nd most widely scattered empire on the globe, deserves our admiration for her industrial and colonial supremacy. We may well rejoice that our country was colonized and founded by such a progressive nation. We may be glad that so many Americans have an English ancestry. The English language is spoken by more people than any other. Our English inheritance in law, customs, language, and literature plays no small part in the suc- cess of our own country. Questions and Exercises 1. What two houses compose the British Parliament? 2. Compare and contrast the British Parliament and the American Congress. 3. Who is the present British sovereign ? 4. Describe an English countr}^ estate. 5. Find out all you can about the Rhodes Scholarships. 6. Why is it desirable for England and the United States to be on friendly terms ? What factors have contributed to Germany's industrial rise from sluggishness and poverty to a high place among the great nations ? THE GERMAN EMPIRE CHAPTER IX HOW GERMANY CAST OFF SERFDOM AND POVERTY The Early Part of the Nineteenth Century. — During the first fifty years of the nineteenth century, while Eng- land was enjoying her industrial and commercial suprem- acy, Germany was suffering from serfdom and poverty. It consisted of a number of small states or provinces, which were loosely united in a Confederation. Many wars had been fought with neighboring countries, which resulted often in the loss of a province of the Confederation. The state treasuries were empty; the upper classes had lost their wealth ; and the common people had few rights except to pay taxes and be soldiers. When war broke out, they gave their Hves for their country, because they were compelled to do so. Their patriotism was not very great and their services were not cheerfully rendered. Why should they love their country ? It could not do much for them. No wonder then that thousands of Germans iied to the United States. Those who remained behind made a living as best they could. Many a time they longed to be with their 109 no THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS cousins beyond the sea. If at that time the Atlantic could have been crossed in six days instead of six long weary weeks doubtless many more of the people of Germany would have flocked into our country. The expense of the trip, however, kept most of them at home. Let us consider some of the causes that brought about this deplorable condition. Lack of Union among the States. — As has been said, there was no real union among the many small provinces, of which at one time there were a hundred and eighty bound to each other merely as a loose Confederation, with few common interests and no great common cause. And what was still worse they were exceedingly jealous of one an- other. Petty, selfish motives controlled both princes and people. The lords supervised all the industries closely. Scarcely an article was produced without the consent of the rulers, who often behaved as if they thought the country existed solely for their benefit. Farming in olden times. HOW GERMANY CAST OFF SERFDOM AND POVERTY III Primitive Rural Conditions. — At the opening of the century the population was largely rural. In the west there were small peasant holdings. The prevailing poverty prevented progressive methods of agriculture. Coopera- tion and division of labor were practically unknown. Each family had to be self-sufficient ; that is, it had to produce all its necessities of food, clothing, and shelter. The father, mother, and all the children worked at the common task Peasant women spinning and wearving. of making a living. Every family was its own planter, harvester, miller, and baker. It raised and butchered its own stock; cured and smoked its own meat. It was its own mason, carpenter, and repairer. Together the mem- bers of the family planted, reaped, and spun the flax. Then they wove the thread into linen, dyed the cloth, and made the garments. They brewed their drinks, and made by hand their soap and candles. No high degree of skill 112 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS Medieval city wall, Rothenberg. HOW GERMANY CAST OFF SERFDOM AND POVERTY 1 13 could be produced under such circumstances. The best thing about all this was that the people, young and old, learned how to work and to cling to a task until it was done. Landed Estates. — In the eastern provinces large es- tates were held by incompetent landlords. To each of them belonged a community of laborers, who were in effect merely serfs. Each of the peasants at first owned a small tract of land. He was compelled to surrender a part of all harvests to his lord, besides giving him a certain number of days' labor each year free of charge. Heavy taxes were exacted of the bondmen. Their burdens became more and more irksome until at last the master owned everything. The serfs had no personal liberty. They could not hire themselves out as they pleased, for they belonged to the estate. They could not marry whom they pleased without the consent of the lord. Their children also were chattels. Permission to study or learn a trade had to be obtained from the master, who had the further right to apply cor- poral punishment whenever he deemed it necessary. By and by men began to realize the awful injustice of such conditions. One by one the provinces put an end to this serfdom. By 181 6 all German serfs had become freemen. That was a great step toward promoting industrial welfare. Town Life. — About a fourth of the population lived in towns, but in many of them half of the people were engaged in farming or stock raising. There were few cities in those days, and a town of 10,000 was considered very large. In 1800 there were fewer towns with 10,000 inhabitants than there were cities of 100,000 in 1900. Factories were entirely unknown, but the laborers devoted themselves to specific occupations. Some spent all their time spinning or weaving in their own houses. Many men followed a 114 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS given trade ; as baking, butchering,' or tailoring. They did not hire themselves out to one man, but went about, upon call, from house to house; just as physicians and painters do now in our country. The Effect of War upon Germany. — For centuries war was a common occupation in Europe. Germany, situated in the heart of the continent, often became the common battle ground even when she did not have a con- flict of her own. That meant serious loss. Crops were destroyed, homes were burned, animals were stolen, and strong robust young men were killed, or maimed so as to become unfit for successful industry. War, too, always plunged the people deeper and deeper into debt. So there was very little capital to put into industry and when, about the middle of the nineteenth century, manufacturing began to be developed, Germany had to borrow vast sums of money from other nations, mostly from Belgium and England, and had to pay from lo to 30 per cent interest. At the same time Holland could borrow all she wanted at from 3 to 6 per cent, because she had a better industrial standing among nations than Germany. Duties on Interstate Trade. — It is almost impossible to believe that the German states levied customs duties on products carried from state to state, from city to city, and even from the country into the towns. But it is true, because each small community wanted to protect its own industries and to force its people to produce all that their markets called for, no matter how Httle fitted for it they might be. This meant waste of energy and high cost of living. Little by little certain provinces entered into com- pacts with one another to remove the tariff on goods that they exchanged. By 18 18 a tariff union was formed, assur- HOW GERMANY CAST OFF SERFDOM AND POVERTY 1 15 ing free trade among eighteen states. Then goods began to move freely from one to another of these provinces and the increased exchange demanded more production, and better means of transportation. Transportation Facilities. — When the eighteenth century gave place to the nineteenth, German transportation facilities were poor indeed. The wagon roads were deep beds of mud in rainy seasons, heavy masses of dust in summer, and rough frozen ruts in winter. One German prince is reported to have broken twenty-five wheels on one trip, because of the wretched roads. At that time it cost $85 to go from Leipzig to Frankfurt and it required an entire week ; for the only way to travel was by post wagon. The same trip can now be made in a few hours for five or six dollars. The best and practically the only means of sending freight was by sailboat on the rivers, but the rates were^o high that long shipments were out of the question. /The year 181 7 marks a great event in the industrial triumphs of Germany ; for then the first steamboats were tried on the Weser River. Befere long all the rivers were carrying products by steam. [The great- est boon to German^mmerce came with the introduction of the railroad in 1835/ At first only short lines were built, connecting local points ; but soon thousands of miles of railroads connected distant cities. In the meantime Macadam of Scotland had discovered a new method of building substantial wagon roads. Germany immediately adopted the macadamized highways, which formed valuable arteries of trade from outlying districts to railroad centers. Early in the century there were great differences in the prices paid for the same article in the various provinces. By 1840, when free trade between the states was assured Il6 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS and the methods of transportation had been improved, prices became, not merely more nearly uniform, but lower. Now people in each district began to devote themselves to the production of those articles for which their district was best adapted. The consequent increased production helped to meet the greater demands caused by improved shipping ; and yet the supply was insufhcient. Beginning of the Factory System. — Next to food, the greatest demands are for clothing ; hence the spinners and weavers early profited by the improved industrial condi- tions. Community spinning mills were estabHshed at waterfalls in the hills or among the mountains. Weaving companies, formed to supply the necessary exports, engaged individual famiUes to work for them. Spinning and weav- ing machines were run first by hand, then by animal power, and finally by water power. The spinning jenny was in- troduced long after it had come into use in England, but it proved just as great a boon to the Germans as to the Enghsh. By the middle of the century the introduction of steam power made possible a wonderful increase in the manufacture of textiles. This caused the development of the factory, though for a long time much weaving con- tinued to be done in the homes, and some of it is still done there. The Iron Industry. — The two decades between 1850 and 1870 marked the beginning of wholesale manufacture, not only in textiles but also in the metals. Improved methods in mining caused a great increase in the produc- tion of coal, and the iron manufactures were revolutionized in the middle of the century because coal was substituted for charcoal in the smelting of the iron. As a result the country soon entered upon its wonderful machine-making HOW GERMANY OVST OFF SERFDOM AND POVERTY II7 age. Before 1850 not only England, but Belgium and France as well, surpassed Germany in iron output. By 1870 the latter had outstripped both her neighboring rivals, and in the early dawn of the present century she surpassed even England. To-day she ranks second among the world's iron producers. Science Applied to Industry. — About the time that steam came into general use, the Germans began to realize that scientific study applied to production assured greater success than random experimenting. In the universities the laws of nature and the forms of matter were studied as they never had been studied before in any country, to the end that every effort at production should be crowned with success, whether in the paving of a street, the raising of potatoes, or the making of a toy. Nothing was to be left to chance. Seventy per cent success in mining, farming, or manufacturing was not to be any longer accepted. Men were determined that success should equal 100 per cent of the effort expended. No wonder that business expanded. Between 1850 and 1870 insurance companies were organized, which is an evidence that cooperation, mutual helpfulness, and confidence of man in man had taken the place of hatred, jealousy, and mistrust. During the same time many stock companies were organized for the purpose of develop- ing mines, factories, railroads, and banks. Trade grew so fast that it called for and obtained new and uniform laws, removing ancient stumbling blocks and regulating com- merce. Factories Give Rise to New Social Conditions. — The industrial changes brought about new conditions of life. People moved from the country to the towns, from their individual cottages to rented suites in large apartment Il8 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS houses. Cities grew faster than in any other country except the United States. Even some of the farmers, hke their city cousins, left their homes for the factory in the morn- ing and returned at night. Much of the farm work was left to the women. The city streets were thronged with people as never before. Housing problems of sanitation, plumbing, heating, and Hghting presented themselves. Changes of all kinds came thick and fast. Formerly the work of men and of women was the same ; now it became different. Then one man might work at a variety of trades ; now each devoted himself to one. But the wages increased ; the people became thriving and happy. The population grew rapidly. By 1870 great pride was taken in the feeling of German brotherhood. Wisdom, out of Misfortune. — During the many years of serfdom, industrial weakness, and poverty through which Germany passed, there were wise men who kept their brains busy day and night thinking of plans for the betterment of the German people. While some men re- moved the interstate tariffs on commercial products, others introduced steamboats and railroads. Some developed mines, and others built factories. Instead of being com- pletely discouraged over the defeat in a war, they bravely said, " We must free our peasants and give them the right of citizenship. Then they will be more intelligent, and gladly serve our country in her hour of need." When the great Emperor Napoleon defeated the Germans at the battle of Jena in 1806, the most thoughtful men said, " We must educate our children, so that this will never happen again. The nation that has the schools has the future." And then they began the development of their world- famous system of schools. now (GERMANY CAST OI'F SKRI'DOM AND l'()\ i:RTV I 19 The Birth of the German Empire in 1870-1871. — A fortunate thing it was that the t)kl Germans did not lose courage during those dark days, but that they planned for future greatness. For, suddenly one day, while they were still only a confederation of states, war was declared between France and Prussia, the leading German province. The dispute that led to this war was who should own the two pro\inces of Alsace and Lorraine, at that time in possession of the French. Up to 1870 the Rhine sep- arated the French and the German pos- sessions. Prussia de- clared that as the Rhine and a large strip of land along its western bank had formerly belonged to the Germans, there was no reason why those provinces should not belong to them again. The many German states joined in the common cause and fought so vaHantly that the Prussian king captured Paris in January, 187 1, and thus the Germans gained full pos- session of the middle Rhine, two large rich provinces on its west bank, and $1,000,000,000 war indemnity. But w^ fgjk , f^^k. i ^^^^k^kii^^^^^^^E M ' "'" ^' ■ ■" 1 William I and his grandson, William II. HOW GERMANY CAST OFF SERFDOM AND POVERTY 1 21 the greatest victory was that the German states had so far forgotten their jealousies of one another that they were able to unite into one strong country. King William of Prussia became the Emperor of the new Germany. The twenty-three states swore to be loyal to the Fatherland ; and William I, later called Wilham the Great, became the first emperor of modern Germany. Then the people went to work in real earnest, not merely for their various states, but for the nation which bound them together as one great family. Questions and Exercises 1. The United States, too, was once merely a confederation of states. Find out what the conditions of prosperity were at that time. 2. Do you see a reason why there is a friendly relation between Germans and Americans ? 3. What characteristics of the German people have enabled them to become a great commercial nation ? 4. Make a list of the natural resources of Germany. 5. Which had more to do with German progress, — the nat- ural resources or the characteristics of the people ? 6. Do you see any resemblances between the early industrial development of Germany and England ? 7. What manly \nrtues do peace .and industry develop? CHAPTER X MODERN GERMANY The New Industrial Era. — Although much had been accomplished in the industries before 1870, it was only the early dawn of a great era of prosperity. There were still many house industries ; factories were comparatively few. The articles manufactured were often clumsy and crude, but always durable and reliable ; nevertheless they could never compete with the far superior factory products of England. The two French provinces that had been gained in the war taught the Germans many valuable lessons, especially how to improve the quality of their manufactures. Before 187 1 the money used to build up the factories, had to be borrowed at high rates of interest from foreign lands. After 187 1 the war indemnity was invested in manufacturing enterprises which required more and more of the labor of the nation. From Agriculture to Manufacturing. — In the course of time the rapidly increasing population became too large to be supported by the food that could be raised on German soil. People were compelled to turn their attention to the making of articles that could be sold in foreign markets. These factory products had to pay for imported food. Necessity, then, drove this country to manufacturing, and the increasing prosperity promoted the change. The tran- sition from house industry to factory employment caused considerable suffering to the laboring classes in Germany, as it had in England, but it was not so severe, for the change came more gradually. MODERN GERMANY 123 The industrial freedom and activity, together with the new national aims, necessitated a uniform money system, which was finally secured in 1873. The large surplus of factory products compelled the nation to develop inter- national trade, not only with her European neighbors, but with countries far away beyond the seas. The people now began to realize that the future of Germany lies on the ocean. i ^ ^^mti' B '^^M ^H^:' ': il %3 - r p.-^l^ijk ^9 t. ^^^^H 11 |f '^^i WSm PJ \ -y 1 ^.^1x9 S^xo2«i^H H^H ! ^ 'f * E-'^t >■■- ■■■, .t ■ .■ 1 A German forest. ^ Germany's Natural Resources. — While the great indus- trial progress of Germany is largely due to the energy and intelligence of the people, yet the natural advantages of the country have been important factors. Location, surface, climate, soils, minerals, forests, and waterways are the chief geographic influences in the development of Germany. 124 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS Location and Climate. — The location of Germany is both an advantage and a disadvantage. Her position i n the heart of the most highly developed contine nt, where she is su rrounded by seven prominent productive_ jiations, is an asset because it affords excellent trade opportunities. These surrounding countries are good markets for "her prod- ucts and from them she receives articles that she lacks. There is also a good income from the transit trade which crosses her territory from the neighbors on one side to those on the other. On the other hand likelihood of war is in- creased in proportion to the number of neighbors. Again Germany is favored by her two fine water boundaries, the Baltic and the North seas. On the whole, it may be said that the location of the country for trade is excellent. Her position b etween 47° and ^6° north latitude places Germany in the Nort h Temperate Zone , the most favorable to man's progress. But being in the northern half of the zone she has the cool temperate rather than the warm tem- perate climate. The mountains at the south shut out the warm, southern breezes, while the low plains at the north invite the rigorous winter winds ; hence a large part of the year is cold. The weather is tempered considerably by the mild breezes from the Atlantic, but their influence is less felt in eastern Germany, where consequently the contrasts between summer and winter are greater than in the west. The rainfall is ample to make this country compare favor- ably with others in its returns from field, garden, and forest. Surface. — The surface features of Germany consist of every variety of landscape except the very highest moun- tains. In the northern part is a great stretch of lowland, which occupies the larger part of the country. The land MODERN GERMANY 125 gradually rises from the lowlands in the north to the high- lands, ending finally in the majestic snow-covered German Alps of the south. The gr een valleys aff ord fine pastures, which give rise to profitable stock raising. The forests ^ covering mountain slopes, hill sides, and sandy lowlands, are noted the world over for their beauty as well as for their valuable timber. Germany's scenery has attracted many A scene in the Hartz Mountains, Germany. tourists who contribute much to the prosperity of the coun- try, for they need food and shelter, and frequently buy articles to take home. The tourist trade is an important occupation in most European countries. The tourist interests have received attention ever since 1870. Munich alone has more than 500,000 guests annually, almost as many as its inhabitants, and they spend millions of dollars for board and lodging alone, besides hundreds of 126 THREE INDUSTRL\L NATIONS thousands of dollars for souvenirs, to say nothing of the sums paid for theaters, concerts, street-car service, and other incidental expenses. In 1905 the Munich railroad authorities received $4,000,000 for passenger tickets and baggage charges. Railways have been built into the very heart of the mountains; and wayside inns are found at convenient intervals along the many for- est and highland paths. Scenic im- provement societies have been formed to preserve and culti- vate the beauties of nature. Household Indus- tries in the Forests. — The evergreen, beech, maple, wal- nut, and oak forests that grow on barren lowlands and non- productive highland slopes are well scat- A German toy shop. ^^^^^ throughout the German Empire. They are of inestimable value to whole- sa le manufacture rs in large cities: — &esidES7t[iey'givejQse'^ t o many sm all household Industries in the midst of the forests, such as the manufacture of wooden clocks in the Black Forest, and of willow baskets, matches, wood pulp, and celluloid in the forests along the Main River. In other places musical instruments, such as violins and zithers, are I MODERN GERMANY 1 27 made by hand. Toy making, which originated in the forests, is still carried on there to some extent. Dolls, furry animals, boats and ships, wooden soldiers, dominoes, the whole menagerie of Noah's ark, guns, tool chests, and toy music boxes are made of wood. Toy models of houses are made of papier-mache. Many famihes devote themselves to the manufacture of wooden animal toys. The father makes the cattle ; the mother, the sheep ; the older brother, the horses ; the sister makes the horns and tails; and the youngest member of the household pastes them on. Finally the grandfather paints them and then they are ready for the market of the world. Thus the humblest homes in Germany play a part in international trade. It is a poorly paid business ; for all this labor the family receives the sum of four dollars for six thousand toys. This is probably the poorest paid work of modern German industries. Yet we are told that these toy makers are a happy folk, full of the joy of Hfe. German Forest Conservation. — Germany is very proud of her forests, which cover one fourth of the area of the country. One third of them belong to the state govern- ments and the crown ; and one fifth are the property of various communities. The German word " Wald," mean- ing "forest," occurs in the names of many places; for example, " Schwarzwald," the " Black Forest," and " Thuringerwald," the " Thuringian Forest." Wliile they yield abundant timber, the forests do not decrease ; for no waste is allowed. Men, called foresters, are specially trained to supervise and care for the woods. Only mature trees are cut down, and a sapling is planted in the place of each tree removed. Underbrush, which readily catches and spreads fire, is not permitted to grow. No 128 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS people understand forest conservation better than the Germans do. The German Soil. — Nine tenths of the land in Germany is productive. The remaining one tenth comprises marshes, swamps, mountain rocks, and sandy wastes. The area of fertile soil, suitable for field and garden crops, is about one half of the total productive area. The tracts of poor soil and steep slopes are occupied by permanent pastures and forests. Improvement in Agriculture. — For hundreds of years prior to the nineteenth century agriculture in Germany was carried on with almost no improvement. Poor methods of farming were used and the yield of farm products was extremely low. About 1812, one man, who had studied the improvements in English farming, wrote and lectured much about better methods in agriculture. After a time his advice was followed by the large landlords ; and as soon as the small landowners saw the good results of the new methods they too adopted them. Agricultural colleges, which were established during the first half of the nineteenth century did much to improve farming. They introduced modern rotation of crops and better methods of cultivating the soil. The old-fashioned tools were discarded, and be- cause the Germans could not at that time make better ones they imported farm implements from England. In due time the land was more carefully fertilized ; greater pains were exercised in the selection of seed ; new varieties of plants were developed ; and soils were carefully studied in order to determine the crops best adapted to them. As a consequence the farming lands were increased con- siderably in area, from one third of the country in 1800 to almost one half in 1900; and with this increase in MODERN GERMANY 129 I I30 THREE INDUSTRI.'VL NATIONS °o°o° I Sugar Beets , « I Potatoes Leading agricultural products of Germany. acreage came a greater increase in the yield per acre. Agriculture at the Present Time. — Agriculture is a more important industry in Germany than it is in Great Britain, because her territory is more extensive, her conti- nental climate gives her a greater variety of crops, and her sunny harvest season is better adapted to the gathering of the grains and hay than are the foggy summers of Great Britain. The leading crops of Germany are potatoes, rye, oats, hay, barley, wheat, and sugar beets. Grains. — The production of rye and oats is far greater than that of wheat and barley. In the yield of rye and barley Germany ranks second, being excelled only by Russia, which is a much larger country. In the yield of oats Germany ranks third, being outranked by the United MODERN GERMANY 131 States and Russia. While rye is the chief bread cereal of the German people, yet a larger increase in wheat produc- tion over that of rye indicates a growing use of wheat bread. Large quantities of rye from Russia and wheat from Argentina and the United States are imported. Potatoes. — In the production of potatoes Germany excels all other countries. Potatoes are a favorite article of food among the common people. Moreover, they have been much used lately in the manufacture of alcohol. Sugar Beets. — The sugar beet is a fleshy root resembling the common beet and is from one to three inches in diameter across the top. It is white and often gently tapering. It grows in any so il th at produces p ota- toes, and flourish es in~~a cooler cHmate than the sugar ca ne. The amount of sugar in a beet depends more upon the qual- ity of its juice than upon its size, and is increased by prop- erly fertihzing the land. The beet re- quires less tedious labor in planting than the cane but Cultivating sugar beets. the work of cultivation is more arduous. When the roots are harvested they are washed, shced, and put into reser- 132 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS voirs of hot water to extract the juice, which is boiled down and refined into sugar. At present the world produces as much beet sugar as cane sugar. Ge rmany ranks first in the p ^rodiiction of sugar beetsand _in the ma nufacture of beet^ sugar. Great Britain is Germany's best market for this product. Much of the German sugar is sent also to Norway, Canada, Japan, Switzerland, Denmark, Sweden, Uruguay, Nether- lands, and Chile. Five causes explain Germany's lead in beet sugar. They are : suitable climate and soil ; pains- taking cultivation ; the research spirit of the Germans, which discovered the best method of extracting the sugar from the beets ; the tariff on cane sugar imports ; and the government bounties on exported beet sugar. Other Crops. — The other noteworthy crops of Ger- many are hops, tobacco, and fruits. Intensive truck gardening and flower culture receive much attention throughout the country, both to meet the demands for food and to satisfy the sense of beauty. Increasing interest is taken in greenhouse plants which rival the flowers of sunny Italy and France. Fruit trees, especially plums, apples, pears, and cherries, surround the villages and line the country roads. Grapes are raised on the terraced slopes of many hills. Every one has heard of the luscious purple fruit that ripens in the vineyards on the banks of the Rhine. Animal Industries. — Many meadows abound in western and northern Germany, where the sea causes an unusually damp atmosphere, favorable to the growth of grass. They are also found on the plateaus and mountain slopes in the south, where there is a greater condensation of moisture than in the warm lowlands. Sixteen per cent of the area of Germany consists of natural pasture lands. These grazing MODERN GERMANY 1 33 areas and meadows furnish food for large numbers of live stock. The principal cattle and dairying interests are located in the Bavarian Alps and other southern highlands, and in certain sandy limestone districts along the northern coast near Holland. Many cheese and butter factories have been built in the dairy sections. The sheep industry, which was prominent before i860, has fallen off considerably lately on account of the recent competition in wool production by Australia and Argentina. A limited number of sheep and also of horses are raised in the eastern provinces where the rainfall and consequently the grass is less abundant than in the west. Hog raising, in which Germany ranks among the foremost countries on earth, is on the increase, inasmuch as pork forms a large part of the flesh food of the people. Even the poorest peasant fattens one or more hogs a year. Poultry raising on a small scale is quite general, especially in the east ; but wholesale production is practically undeveloped. Conse- quently the imports of live and dressed poultry and eggs are heavy. About one fourth of the honey made in Europe comes from bees cared for in Germany. The fisheries in inland w^aters and on the North Sea employ between thirty and forty thousand men. Still the fish imports amount to twice as much as the value of those caught at home, in spite of the efforts of the government and local fish associations to promote this source of food supply. Although there has been such wonderful progress in late years in the ani- mal industries of tliis country, meat is still a large part of her imports. Mineral Wealth. — Germany is one of the richest coun- tries in the world in minerals. For sixty or seventy years she has lost no time or energy in developing this underground 134 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS Hard Coal Soft Coal Iron Ore z z Zinc c c Copper s s Silver L L Lead N N Nickel Chief minerals of Germany. wealth. Her greatest mineral region lies in the middle belt of the country. Extending eastward to Russia and west- ward to Belgium, and along the Rhine as far north as Hol- land, it occupies fully a third of the area of Germany. Here are unusual deposits of coal, both hard and soft^ and also of iron ore. These form the basis of modern Germany's industrial success. Mines and smelting works employ one fifth of the German laboring classes. Coal, which is everywhere the mainstay of the manufacturing industry, is even more abundant in Germany than in Great Britain, though at present her output is still excelled by the United States and England. It is estimated that the rich mines along the lower Rhine will last 1300 years if 100,000,000 MODERN GERMANY 135 tons are mined annually. A still larger coal field lies in southeastern Germany. Germany has other rich mineral deposits. It is unsur- passed in the production of zinc, potash salts, and litho- graphic stone. Nickel, copper, silver, and lead also yield handsome returns. There are inexhaustible supplies of slate, marble, and fine building stone, as well as of table salt. The potash salts, valuable as a fertilizer, have be- come a leading export. Only one twentieth of the prod- uct is used on the home farms ; while an eighth of it goes to England and half of it to the United States. Modern German Manufactures. — In addition to the marvelous development of production in Germany on farms and in the mines since the beginning of the nineteenth cen- tury wonderful changes have also taken place in manu- factures. In the first place the making of articles merely for personal or family needs has been replaced by wholesale production for the masses. Household industries have given way more and more to factories. However, we must not believe that the factory has robbed the home of all its part in manufactures ; for silks and velvets of superior quality are still woven in private homes ; toys also are made by people in their own dwellings ; pottery products, certain kinds of metal wares, as well as other articles, are even yet, to a limited extent, home manufactures. Division of labor has been pushed so far that no one can become mas- ter of a complete trade. New materials are substituted for old ones ; for example, iron for wood, and cement for stone. Better and better products are turned out faster and faster to meet the demands of an ambitious and energetic people. Iron and Steel Industries. — The German iron and steel industries are the most important in Europe. Much of 136 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS A modern German locomotive. these products is consumed in the making of machinery for mining, smelting, spinning, weaving, and other indus- tries. In late years bridges and buildings have been con- structed largely of iron and steel. Locomotives, street railways, iron steamships, steel furniture, steel rails, fire- arms, skates, saws, files, and cutlery are made in the many cities clustered about the Rhine. As one rides through that part of the country around Essen, where the largest steel mills in the world are located, the cities look like forests of smokestacks, and the noise of machinery fills the air. Textile Industries. — Even before the factories were introduced, Germany had a reputation for her linen and woolen fabrics, which grew out of her sheep industry and the raising of flax. Now she produces fewer sheep and manufactures more woolen cloth, chiefly from the raw material which she receives from Australia. Breslau has large woolen factories. Cotton manufacturing is also extensively carried on, especially at Cologne, Elberfeld, and Chemnitz, the latter sometimes called the Manchester of Germany. Silks and velvets are made in the towns centering around Cologne. Germany depends upon the United States for her raw cotton, upon China and Italy for the raw silk, and partly upon Russia for flax. She is MODERN GERMANY 137 experimenting with cotton culture in her African colonies in the hope of making herself less dependent upon others for this raw material. The Chemical Industry. — The chemical industry ranks third among German manufactures. German chemists imderstand the art of extracting valuable by-products from plants, animals, and minerals. Materials which other nations call waste are taken into, the German laboratories. All kinds of experiments are tried with them until they yield something profitable. In 1827 the first chemical laboratory was established at one of the universities, where Rolling steel plates in a German steel works. men tried many experiments and made some valuable combinations of acids and salts. To-day there are many such laboratories not only in universities but in factories as well. Her early building up of schools and the research habit are now making Germany industrially great. The 138 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS A chemical laboratory. chemical products produced each year are more valuable than all her machinery. Great sums of money are invested in the manufacture of chemicals and they yield large annual dividends. In i860 Germany was compelled to import almost all her dyes. To-day she furnishes the world with four fifths of all the dyestuffs it uses. She imports coal tar from other countries, manufactures it into dyes, and sends them back to those same countries at greatly ad- vanced prices. Another striking case of chemical development is that of indigo. Some years ago the raising of the indigo plant was a flourishing business in India and was controlled by the English. From the coal-tar by-product a German chemist learned to extract indigo. Since 1903 England buys more indigo annually from Germany than she did MODERN GERMANY 139 from India before that date. To-day Germany makes three fourths of the world's indigo. Some of Germany's iron ore contains phosphorus, which lowers the quality of the steel made from the iron. In 1868 a process was discov- ered of separating the phosphorus from the ore. The phosphorus thus obtained is now manufactured into a commercial fertilizer worth $45,000,000 a year. Germany now excels all other countries in the chemical industry. Electrical Industries. — Another of Germany's most profitable sources of income is her electrical industries. Thirty years ago the use of electricity was almost unknown except in telegraphy. To-day it enters into scores of indus- tries; such as electric railways, lighting of houses, tele- phones, electric motors, and wireless telegraphy. Thou- sands of people are employed, and billions of money are A German electrical works. I40 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS invested in these industries. Germany leads all Europe and ranks second in the world in electrical industries. This country has more than a third of the continent's electric rail- ways, and Germans have built many of the roads for other European countries, and some for South America. She manufactures more electrical machinery than any other nation except the United States ; and exports much of it to Great Britain and other nations. Other Manufactures. — While iron and steel goods, tex- tiles, and chemicals are the leading manufactured products, yet there are many other important manufactures. Ger- many is renowned for its book-publishing business, whose chief center is Leipzig. Beet sugar, beer, alcohol, musical instruments, laces, tobacco, leather, furniture, and jute fabrics are a few of the many products that are extensively manufactured. "Made in Germany." — During the last thirty years and more, articles '^ made in Germany " have found their way into every quarter of the earth. While such products are not as a rule noted for their elegance they are gladly accepted for their serviceableness. Germany can make and does make very beautiful things, but most of her manufactures are durable rather than beautiful. This policy has gained for her so much international trade that she ranks second among the nations, next to England, in foreign commerce. Commerce of Germany. — From a deplorable condition of domestic trade and a very limited foreign commerce, Germany has developed into one of the three leading com- mercial nations. The railroads, na\agable rivers, and canals provide efficient means of transportation within the country itself ; and German ships bring raw materials MODERN GERMANY 141 from all parts of the world and carry away the products of German factories to all lands. The Rivers of Germany. — Germany is rich in navigable rivers. The Rliine, Weser, Elbe, Oder, and Vistula are excellent trade highways connecting the north with the south ; and the Danube is most valuable in connecting Ger- many with southeast Europe. In the last decades Ger- many has steadily extended and improved her waterways. A scene on the Rhine. The channels of the rivers have been deepened, the banks have been walled up with masonry, and ships adapted to the rivers have been built. The Rhine River is the greatest inland commercial water- way_in_the Empire. Within twenty-five years, more than $5,000,000 have been spent on the bed of this stream alone. It is the most beautiful of all European rivers, and has long been far famed for its grim ruined castles and ancient 142 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS towers with their countless echoes of the past. Many legends and stories cluster about the Rhine. Fantastic tales are told of imprisoned princesses, and kings' children turned to stone, of dragons, and whirlpools, and sirens enchanting sailors into destruction. While the Germans love this river for its romantic legends and historical associations, they are to-day putting their best efforts into making old Father Rhine a thoroughly modern waterway. The 10,000 steamers plying up and down the stream, carrying coal, iron, grain, wine, lumber, and factory prod- ucts, pass great national monuments, fruitful vineyards, strong fortresses, and busy wharves of thriving cities. This river has cost the Germans much blood as well as money. No wonder that they prize it so highly and defend it so well. The Rhine and the Elbe carry German goods toward the North Sea, whence the products start upon their ocean journeys toward the west. The Danube transports merchandise from southern Germany, southeast into Austria- Hungary, and through the Balkan states to the Black Sea. Canals. — Natural east and west water routes were not nearly so plentiful as those between the south and the north. So canals were built from river to river, connecting the German waters with those of France, Austria-Hungary, and Russia. The Great Midland Canal unites all the rivers from the Vistula to the Rhine. The Kaiser Wilhelm Canal extends from the mouth of the Elbe in the North Sea to Kiel, an important port on the Baltic. This canal, sixty-one miles long, greatly increases the trade of the Baltic region, for it saves the ships much time and many possible dangers incident to the cold, stormy water route north of Denmark. Including rivers and canals Germany has nearly 9000 miles of navigable waterways. MODERN GERMANY 143 The Kaiser Wilhelm Canal. Modern German Railroads. — In 1835 Germany began the construction of railroads. At first the roads were built with private means. About 1880 the state began to build new railways and to buy old ones ; and to-day the government owns almost all the railroads. No country offers cheaper transportation than Germany. The rail- roads, extending in all directions, rank next to those of the United States in mileage, equipment, and importance. Within this country are many transcontinental railroad lines knitting firmly together all parts of Europe. Thus Germany has become the heart in which the great trade highways center and from which they radiate. It is the midland through which pass the routes that connect Copen- hagen on the north with Rome on the south, Petrograd 144 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS An electric railway in Germany. in the northeast with Lisbon in the southwest, Constanti- nople in the southeast with London in the northwest. Almost any city in Europe can be reached from Berlin within twenty-four hours. Germany's position in the heart of the continent gives her great railroad advantages for European trade over her nearest rivals, England and France. Bagdad Railroad. — Because Germany supported Turkey at a time when she was in trouble, the Sultan gave the Ger- mans the right to build a railroad to the Persian Gulf by way of Bagdad. By means of it German freight cars can reach the Persian Gulf by way of Berlin, Vienna, Constanti- nople, and Bagdad without unloading. This gives ex- traordinary facihties for oriental trade. Postal Service. — Not until after 1830 was any provision made by the government to give mail service to the rural population living in remote villages. The farmers had to MODERN GERMANY 145 carry their mail to and from the nearest post office town. Shortly before i860 letters were delivered daily, except Sunday, to all parts of the country, but the villages had an extra rural delivery assessment to pay. This was abol- ished in 187 1. Since the close of the nineteenth century, mail has been deHvered every day, including Sunday, in every city, town, and hamlet of Germany. Formerly the postage on a letter depended on the distance it traveled. In 1868 this was changed to a uniform cost of about two cents for every ordinary letter. The number of letters delivered increased from an average of three for each person in 1850 to more than seventy in 1905. For many years Germany has had a cheap and excellent parcel post. Foreign Commerce. — The foreign commerce of Germany is greater than that of the United States. Her imports, considerably greater than her exports, are raw cotton and wool, barley and wheat, hides and skins, eggs and butter, petroleum, and precious metals. The chief exports are cloth and clothing, iron and steel goods, machinery and instruments, leather goods, sugar, chemical products, books, and maps. Germany receives more imports from Russia and the United States than from any other two countries, and sends more exports to Great Britain than to any other country. Germany's Continental Trade. — Germany has an ex- tensive trade with her European neighbors. Rich coun- tries, Hke Austria-Hungary and Russia, form a large part of her boundary line. For the most part, plains or low mountain passes give her easy railroad entrance into adja- cent countries. The rivers, too, form trade routes into other lands ; for example, the Rhine into Holland, the Vistula into Russia, and the Danube into Austria-Hungary. 146 THREE INDUSTRI.\L NATIONS Russia sends her rye, wheat, lumber, eggs, oats, flax, live poultry, and furs; from Austria-Hungary she receives soft coal, lumber, cattle, and fruits. In return, Ger- many sends these countries hard coal, coke, paper, woolen and cotton cloth, iron manufactures, machinery, dyestuffs, leather, books, and musical instruments. Germany's Ocean Commerce. — Seventy per cent of Germany's foreign trade passes over the ocean ; and German ships sail on all seas of the globe. A specialty is made of transatlantic business with the Americas and Africa, carried by two of the largest steamship companies in the world, the North German Lloyd with headquarters at Bremen, and the Hamburg-American Line centered at Hamburg. German imports and exports are carried also through the Mediterranean Sea, the Suez Canal, the Indian Ocean, and the Pacific to or from Asia and Australia. German Ships. — German steamships are constantly increasing in size and capacity. Large Rhine steamers carried 400 tons in 1840 ; 800 tons in 1880 ; and 2000 tons in 1900. One modern Lloyd ocean steamer has a greater tonnage than the entire merchant marine of Bremen in 1825. Iron and steel ships are displacing wooden sailing vessels. Nevertheless Germany is still building huge five-mast saiHng ships. One of them carries a tonnage equal to twenty-five trains of thirty-one freight cars each. World-wide German Interests. — Germany is compelled to take the entire world as her commercial field because her large population is increasing nearly 1,000,000 a year. There is not land enough to farm, so the people must make a living by manufacturing and trading. The Germans search every quarter of the globe for opportunities in industry and commerce. They own vast areas in Brazil, MODERN GERMANY 147 and thousands of miles of railway in Turkey and Asia Minor. They do great transportation and electrical busi- ness in South American cities. They own coffee planta- tions in Central America ; mines and railways in China ; tobacco plantations in Sumatra ; cotton plantations in Egypt, and rubber plantations in the Congo. Business houses compete with one another in developing foreign commerce. One firm owns large mining interests, extensive plantations, and ranches in Morocco. Other firms conduct steel mills and iron mines in Scandinavia, Russia, and France. German banks furnish money with which foreign business is developed. One bank is building the Bagdad railway; another has charge of the railways in Venezuela. Even the Kaiser is interested in a trust that spares no efforts to gain industrial opportunities abroad. The Rapid Growth of Cities. — As a result of the mar- velous manufacturing and commercial activity, German cities have had an unusually rapid growth. The old city walls, which formerly protected many a town, have long been unable to hold the increasing numbers of people who have flocked from rural sections. Hundreds of cities have large districts, stretching beyond the original limits. The old buildings, streets, walls, and bridges contrast strangely with the modern sections of these cities. Berlin. — Berlin, the fifth largest city in the world, is one of the most important railroad centers of Europe and one of the chief money markets on the globe. It lies in the northern plain, midway between the coast and the southern highlands, near both the Elbe and the Oder. Rail, river, and canal connections have made it a collector and a distributor of products for the surrounding country. 148 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS MODERN GERMANY 149 Although Berlin is an important manufacturing center, it is a beautiful city. Broad streets, stately palaces, rich shops, magnificent hotels, luxurious houses, and wooded parks stamp it at once as one of the great capitals of the world. In Berhn are a number of museums, containing inter- esting relics from all continents. Art galleries are tilled with hundreds of paintings and sculptures. A dozen opera houses and more theaters provide amusements. Many concert halls furnish excellent musical entertainments. The Thiergarten Park, one of the largest in Europe, is a happy recreation spot for thousands of people from early morning until evening. In it are countless trees, artificial fountains, and many statues and busts of noted rulers, scientists, musicians, artists, and poets. Every kind of school from the kindergarten through the University, trade and professional schools, schools for un- The Reichstag Building, Berlin. 15° THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS The Dresden Museum. fortunates, day schools, night schools, and Sunday schools offer courses of education to all. Dresden and Munich. — The wealthy state capitals Munich and Dresden are important interior trade centers and are noted especially for their art interests. They con- tain fine galleries, visited by thousands of tourists. Many foreigners study art and music in these cities. The most valuable collection of treasures in Europe is to be found in Dresden. It is worth millions of dollars and is composed of marvelously wrought bronzes, finely carved ivory, beautiful pictures, watches, goblets, statues, gold and silver plates, priceless emeralds, rubies, pearls, and diamonds ; rings, swords, and other articles of decoration belonging to former kings. Dresden is also renowned for its beauti- ful china. Munich has one of the finest industrial museums in the world. It contains wonderful exhibits showing industrial processes and products. After one has spent several days MODERN GERMANY 151 in this museum he has a profound respect for the indus- trial accomphshments of man. Hamburg and Bremen. — Quite in contrast with Dresden is the city of Hamburg, the greatest continental port in Europe. In its busy harbor are hundreds of ships, arrived from many foreign ports. The city is on the Elbe, far enough inland to afford a fine shelter for vessels. Hamburg Docks at Hamburg. collects the larger part of the rich industrial products of Germany and sends them out to other European ports, to Asia, Africa, Australia, South America, and the United States. Ships bring in tea and silk from China, wool from Australia, rubber and ivory from Africa, coffee and rubber from Brazil ; cotton, corn, wheat, meat, copper, iron, petroleum from the United States ; and fruits from the Mediterranean countries. After the great steamers have 152 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS come up to the wharves, the bales of cotton are lifted by pulleys, cranes, and derricks directly into the warehouses. Other products are transferred at once into boats and carried up the canals and rivers to interior sections, or they are loaded into freight cars. Bremen, the second port of Germany, handles the bulk of the emigrant traffic. It is also a large tobacco, cotton, and rice market. Leipzig, one of the chief manufacturing cities of Germany, can boast of being the greatest book center of the world. It has excellent printing schools where type-making, illustrat- ing, photography, and engraving are taught. It is also one of the world's chief markets for furs, pelts, and wool. Other Cities. — Dozens of other rich and thriving cities might be mentioned. There is Cologne on the Rhine, with The Cologne Cathedral. MODERN GERMANY 1 53 its famous cathedral and noted perfumes; Nuremberg, with its toys; Mainz, the birthplace of Gutenberg, who invented printing; and ever so many cotton, woolen, iron, and steel centers. In all of them one sees the hurry and bustle of business, and the contentment that blesses men who have found their work. Conclusion. — The industrial revolution in Germany has brought about many benehcial results. The material wealth of individuals has been much increased. Greater freedom of thought has been developed. Even the peasants are daring to think for themselves. Civic pride has been wonderfully promoted. The nation has gained not merely physical prosperity, but also political recognition from the great world powers. American citizens of German descent are proud that their forefathers came from Germany. Questions and Exercises 1. Why is it that more people can be supported by manu- facturing than by agriculture? 2. What are the two greatest industrial resources of Ger- many? 3. Why are there so few cities in northeastern Germany? Why are the manufacturing cities so well distributed ? 4. Make a list of the names of articles on which you find the trade-mark "Made in Germany." 5. Find out all you can about German forest conservation. 6. How does British commerce differ from that of Germany ? 7. Hamburg is the chief seaport of Europe, although it is not on the coast. How has its commercial supremacy been made possible ? CHAPTER XI POLITICAL AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS IN MODERN GERMANY Government of Germany. — Germany is a limited mon- archy. While the nation consists of a number of states, each with its own state government, yet the national government is very strong and exercises large power over the whole country. Affairs of universal interest, such as postage and coinage, are in charge of the national govern- ment instead of the individual states, as formerly they were. Practically all of the railways and telegraphs are owned by the government, and they are well managed. The gov- ernment is untiring in its efforts to develop the German nation. Laws are passed to promote education, manufac- turing, commerce, and every other interest of the people. Germany's government plays the part of a kind, thought- ful father to his children. No wonder the people call the country " Dear Fatherland." The Ruler. — Emperor Wilhelm II is the ruler of this limited monarchy. He inherited the throne from his father in 1888. Kaiser Wilhelm, as he is known in Germany, is an intelligent man of great power and ambition. He is striving with all his power to expand Germany's influence on the ocean. During his reign, his country has made mar- velous progress through his efforts. No wonder the people are proud of their ruler. The Law Makers. — Although the emperor holds his position for life, he is controlled in his actions by the law makers. He cannot pass a single law himself. For that 154 POLITICAL AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS 155 purpose two bodies of men are elected. The Bundesrath has about sixty members, chosen by the governments of the states. The Reichstag, composed of about four hun- dred men, is chosen by the people voting directly, as our Representatives are. Formerly, these law makers very humbly carried out the Kaiser's wishes. But in late years the people of Germany have come to take greater interest in politics and to demand a greater share in solving the affairs of the nation. Care in Making Laws. — German laws are planned and framed with the utmost care by learned men who are masters in the field of knowledge to which the law applies. German legislators are ashamed to make a law without careful previous investigation into all matters pertaining to it. They are frequently assisted by university professors, scientists, and men of large business experience. Public duties are executed with the same care ; and officials take A trading post in German East Africa. 156 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS great pride in their positions of trust. Office holders are usually men of middle life who have had broad experi- ence. Some of them are sufficiently well-to-do to serve the government without salary. German Suffrage. — The right to vote has been greatly extended. Formerly, serfs had no political privileges. The ballot could be used only by freemen. Little by little, one class of society after another acquired at least partial voting power. Univer- sal suffrage was granted to all male adults by the close of the nineteenth century. But even to-day this priv- ilege is not an equal one for all men. The votes of the various classes, with the exception of the highest, have only fractional values. While every man can vote, some ballots are counted as three fifths or two fifths of a vote, while others are worth five fifths. Colonial Possessions. — When in 1884 Germany began to realize her overcrowded condition, she studied the map of the world for unclaimed land. But it was too late. The best places had already been taken by England and France. She, however, acquired colonial possessions in Africa — Togoland, Kamerun, German Southwest Africa, and Ger- man East Africa. These colonies He mostly in the tropical regions, and are not very satisfactory. German colonists accustomed to the temperate zone do not fare well in torrid regions. Nevertheless, the government encourages the development of these colonies as a source of supply for the mother country. The imports from them into Germany A native using tiie tele- phone, German East Africa. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS 157 are rubber, palm oil, cotton, and cattle. The exports from the mother country to her African colonies are textiles, ironware, and tobacco. In 1898, Germany secured a ninety-nine years' lease of Kiauchau Bay on the east Chinese coast, with special com- mercial privileges in the adjoining province. This gives her a valuable trading post on the Asiatic coast of the German soldiers. Pacific. She hopes in time to have it rival the English station, Hong Kong. In recent years Germany has acquired a number of islands in the Pacific which are used as stations for the growing navy and for the benefit of foreign trade. The German Army. — Seven enterprising nations sur- round Germany ; and due to conflicting interests or inter- national ill will, war may easily occur between Germany 158 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS Making cannons, Krupp works, Germany. and one or more of the neighboring countries. In 1871 the Germans took provinces from France. It is doubtful whether the French can entirely forget their former posses- sions. In eastern Germany is a province called Poland which, with a large tract in Russia about the size of the state of New York, was an independent kingdom until Russia and Prussia made war upon it and divided it be- tween themselves. It will be long before the Poles will have forgotten their freedom. Such conditions make it necessary to have a large army, well disciplined and ready to march against any enemy at any time. Germany has over 4000 miles of land boundary, along which there are enormous fortresses and military camps suppHed with ammunition, and guarded by expert soldiers. Men are being trained daily in the art of war. In a very short time 3,000,000 soldiers could be placed in the field. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS 159 Germany makes a scientific business of being prepared for war. Her standing army in time of peace, including infantry, artillery, special railway and train forces, is the second largest in the world, numbering over 600,000. She keeps her army thoroughly trained and looks carefully after their health. In time of war, soldiers can be transported at short notice from any part of the country to the forti- A Zeppelin, a German war balloon. fications by the railroads which are controlled by the government. As soon as there is the least indication of trouble with any country, every officer receives sealed instructions as to just what he is to do in case of a declara- tion of war. All the railway agents receive similar enve- lopes with orders as to the number of trains that must be ready for the soldiers at specified stations. When war is declared, the envelopes are opened and the directions are i6o THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS A Zeppelin in shed. promptly obeyed. Secret underground telegraphs connect Berlin and the various state capitals with the fortresses. Every able-bodied youth must serve one or two years in the regular standing army. In time of war the govern- ment can draft into service every normal man between the ages of seventeen and forty-five. Formerly there was considerable rebellion against this compulsory service, and many fine young men emigrated to America to avoid it. But now most Ger- mans take such pride in the Fatherland that they gladly give a year or two of their young manhood. While the country loses the labor of the standing army in the industries, the protection to them in case of war makes the cost worth while. At least, the Germans think so. The German Navy. — In order to protect her trading interests, which she has in every continent, Germany needs a well-equipped navy, similar to that of England. It has been only a few years since she realized this, but in that short time she has worked vigorously, building three dread- naughts a year. Until recently she occupied the fourth place among the world's navies ; but now her navy ranks second, having surpassed the United States and France since 1910. Home Life. — Probably there is no nation in which home life is so dear to the people as it is in Germany. The happiest hours are those which parents and children spend together. Germany was the first home of the Christmas tree, and the Christmas season is made much of, in giving POLITICAL AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS i6i joy to others. The members of the family remember one another with loving presents. While there are many toys, there are also useful presents. The children usually give their parents the presents which they call gifts of tal- ents. This is a pleasant custom of giving parents pleasure through the use of some new power which the child has gained during the year. Even the smallest member of the family can do something. The little girls play fairy tale tableaus of Cin- derella or Red Rid- ing Hood ; or they give mother a new ironholder which they sewed them- selves, or read an interesting story to father. One of the sons may play a new selection on the piano, another an air on the violin. Perhaps one of the daughters will recite a beautiful poem. These gifts of talent are more appreciated by the parents than presents bought with money. Recreations. — The many art galleries and museums afford profitable recreation on Sundays and holidays. The low priced but excellent plays, operas, and concerts con- tribute to the general enjoyment. In winter the skating ponds are visited by young and old. In spring, summer, A park in Berlin. l62 THREE INDUSTRI.\L NATIONS and autumn every one goes walking and spends many half holidays with nature. Countless happy hours are spent in city parks. The German parks serve as models for study by interested Americans. For a long time Germany has been noted for her poetry and music. Many of her poems and songs have been translated into other languages, and appear in our readers and song books. Such names as Schubert, Beethoven, Wagner, Goethe, and Schiller are familiar to most of us. Few nations love singing as do the Germans. They seem to be in their glory when they sing their patriotic songs. It is no uncommon thing for men who happen to meet at an inn or a restaurant to while away the evening by singing for an hour or more. Goethe, the German poet, once said that one should read a beautiful poem, sing a fine song, look at a good picture, or Hsten to sweet music every day. Many of his countrymen follow his advice. Perhaps that is one reason why Germans have so great an apprecia- tion of pure, simple enjoyments ; and why there is a certain quiet contentedness among them. Goethe and Schiller statue. J POLITICAL AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS 163 Material Welfare of the People. — The industrial prog- ress in Germany has brought great improvement in the material conditions of the German people. Men are free to choose the occupations they desire. There is more wealth, and the people enjoy greater physical comforts than ever before. Sanitary regulations have made cities, factories, and houses more healthful ; and labor laws care- fully protect the life and strength of the toilers. Freedom of Occupation. — Each person can choose the occupation for which he is best adapted. Instead of being bound by iron-clad laws to serve a given master for a fixed period at a fitted wage, men can go wherever the demands for labor promise the best rewards. They move not only from the country to the city, but from one city to another, in response to the call of industry. This has brought about increased restlessness and higher wages. Owing to the mov- ing spirit, the German races of the various parts of the em- pire have become mixed in marriage, which, in turn, has helped to strengthen the feeling of national brotherhood. The spirit of change has taken such a hold upon the people that labor now is in danger of becoming too restless. To counteract the moving habit, some firms are granting short annual vacations with pay to those workingmen who have been in their employ for a certain number of 3Tars. Accumulated Capital. — Industrial progress has given Germany great accumulated capital. In 1850 she had to borrow money to develop home industries. To-day, she has great sums invested in foreign securities and enterprises. Factories, farms, mines, warehouses, and schools under German control are scattered widely in many foreign lands. Wages. — The wages of German workers have increased more rapidly than the cost of living has risen. As a result 164 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS there has been greater comfort and less emigration. All classes in Germany, including the lowliest laborers, enjoy daily comforts which years ago were not even dreamed of as luxuries. The homes are far more comfortable. Sub- stantial brick or stone houses, well lighted and heated, are taking the place of poorly ventilated wooden structures German workingmen's cottages. of by-gone days. The wages among the working classes are rather evenly distributed ; hence, even the most pros- perous among them are -not as well-to-do as the same class of people are in England or America. Germany might be called the land of average well-being ; for, generally speak- ing, both the very poor and the very rich are missing. Working Hours and Workingmen's Insurance. — The German laborers work ten hours a day, while those of the POLITICAL AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS 165 United States work only eight ; but the former work more slowly, have a longer noon intermission, besides a short rest in the middle of each half day. Machinery is not run at such high pressure or so continuously as with us. The work is less tense and more steady. Insurance laws pro- tect the working classes in sickness, accidents, and old age. Every wage earner must carry an insurance as soon as he begins to earn a living. He pays a part of the pre- miums, the government gives some aid, and the employers are compelled to meet part of the insurance expenses. Factory Conditions. — Every employer must run his factory strictly according to the law, which requires clean- liness and sanitary conditions, good light, and pure air. Oftentimes shower baths are provided, or at least basins where the face and hands may be washed before the work- man leaves for home. Where very dirty work is required, opportunity is given to change the clothing mornings and evenings. Every factory must post the rules of the house in a conspicuous place where the factory inspector who comes around at regular intervals can see them. This schedule includes among other things the hours of labor, the mealtimes, time and manner of paying wages, punish- ments, and fines. The inspector must see to it that these rules are according to the law and that they are properly obeyed. The Labor of Women and Children. — The health of a nation depends so much upon the women and children that special provisions are made for them. For example, no woman is allowed to work in a factory at night. Children less than thirteen cannot be employed at all ; and after that, only for a limited number of hours, ranging from six to ten per day, according to the age. 1 66 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS Public Provisions for General Welfare. — The state and city authorities give the greatest attention to good water supply, the proper disposal of garbage and sewage, the cleaning and lighting of streets, and the checking of disease. Many provisions are made for the comfort of the helpless and defectives. Pubhc parks and museums are agencies for promoting the health and happiness of the people. The crowding of many famiUes into the tenement houses of the factory towns is detrimental to public welfare. To overcome this difficulty, various government authorities have, within recent years, helped to build good sanitary houses for workingmen. These are sold at reasonable prices, on long-time payments, and at low interest rates. Provisions are also made to loan money on very easy terms to capable young farmers that they may get proper tools, animals, and fertilizers. All these things help to produce a happier and better race of people. Education. — For over a hundred years this nation has given much attention to educating her people. After a serious defeat of Prussia by the French in 1806, King Fred- erick Wilhelm said : " The state must regain by intellectual power what she has lost in material power, and to this end I desire that everything may be done to extend and perfect the education of the people." Great statesmen, philoso- phers, and educators labored unceasingly during the dark hours of Germany's history to impress the people with the fact that their future success could only be assured through a thorough training of the youth of all classes. After the victory of 187 1, the nation again put its best energies into educating the young people in the arts of peace. Besides the common and high schools, and the universities, schools were established for the teaching of almost every trade. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS 167 Buildings of the University of Berlin. The boys and girls who leave school at fourteen years of age must attend a continuation school several hours a week, usually after working hours ; that is, after supper or on Sunday morning, to learn more about German composi- tion, reading, arithmetic, and mechanical drawing. They also study physics, chemistry, simple mechanics, civics, hygiene, and a little about the laws relating to the various industries. In commercial schools they learn business correspondence, how to write checks, postal money orders, receipts, bills of lading, and telegrams. Bookkeeping and commercial geography are also studied. Some of the special trade schools are those for printers, metal and leather workers, builders, tailors, farmers, and dentists. Cooking, stenog- raphy, bookkeeping, sewing, and millinery are taught in girls' schools. Besides the textile or cloth-weaving schools there are those that teach knitting, engineering, mining, navigation, and shipbuilding. Advanced high schools 1 68 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS educate the managers of factories and steamship com- panies, the heads of museums, wholesale merchants, and representatives to foreign countries ; in short, all captains of industry. The highest type of school trains the ablest men to discover new chemical products, or improved methods in industry. Commercial Geography. — The study of commercial geography receives much attention. The Germans know all about the products of other nations and their needs. They investigate the possibilities of opening up trade rela- tions with foreigners, and are quick to seize the opportunity of increasing their own business. Museums of the prod- ucts and other material wealth of foreign countries are scattered all over Germany. Other museums contain exhibits of the highest class of workmanship in metals, wood, clay, cloth, and glass found anywhere in the world. These are really schools of instruction to all who care to learn. Study of Foreign Languages. — German students learn three or four languages. Traveling salesmen make a point of offering their goods to foreigners in the native tongue of the customers. This pleases buyers and increases sales. Another advantage of a knowledge of foreign languages is that it enables Germans to read the trade papers of their rivals. Conclusion. — The industrial progress of Germany since the formation of the nation in 187 1 has attracted the atten- tion of the whole world. The Greater Germany of to-day is the result of many successful struggles against enormous diflficulties, and of the intelligent use of every resource. An increasing population compelled the nation to turn to manufacturing and commerce. Rich mines of iron and POLITICAL AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS 169 coal have made possible the great manufacturing indus- tries, and German ships have carried German commerce to all parts of the world. Their methods of scientific re- search and their industry have made them great manufac- turers. Their success is due also to their physical vigor. They have great power of endurance. A rather severe cHmate and a stubborn soil have taught them to toil hard One of the largest German passenger ships. lyo THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS and patiently. The long struggle with nature for an exist- ence has given them a hardihood that is of great advantage in industries that demand both physical and mental vigor. German ships carry German products to all countries, and bring back raw material for the factories of Germany. These ships carry not only German exports and imports, but also do a large amount of ocean commerce for many other countries. The German Emperor has said : " The future of Germany lies on the ocean ; " and it is the ambi- tion of this powerful nation to secure a still larger part of the world's commerce. Questions and Exercises 1. Germany is anxious to maintain her present friendly rela- tions with the United States. What bearing has American friendship on her manufactures and commerce? Of what advantage is Germany's friendship to us? 2. The Germans think that a ten- hour working day, with three intermissions and especially a long noon rest, is better for promoting health than an eight-hour day, with only one short midday recess. What do you think about it? 3. What does the home life have to do with the greatness of a nation? 4. In what way is the love of outdoor life among a people a national advantage? 5. Germany withdraws several hundred thousand young men annually from the industrial ranks in order to have a large standing army. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of such an arrangement to the nation and to the individuals. 6. In what ways is the government of Germany like that of the United States? In what ways is it different? 7. What to your mind is the greatest cause of Germany's remarkable progress in the last fifty years ? POLITICAL AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS 171 8. What have the wages of workingmen to do with the conservation of human life? 9. Germany has gained possessions in Africa and Asia. Why not in Australia ? In North America and South America ? ID. Why do the Germans not settle extensively in the colonial possessions of Germany ? 11. How does Germany prepare her young men for a com- mercial career ? 12. Name some of the regulations that provide for the well- being of the German workingmen. The United States is the industrial peer of the German and British Empires : What causes have contributed to her rapid development, and along what lines has this advance- ment been made ? 172 THE YOUNG INDUSTRIAL GIANT OF THE WEST OUR OWN NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT Within four centuries the United States has been changed from an unknown wilderness into one of the three leading powers, holding an honorable place by the side of much older nations. After the discovery of America more than a century elapsed before a permanent settlement was made. More than another hundred years passed after that before the last of the original thirteen colonies was established. Not until 1776 did the United States come into being. Hence our wonderful development has been achieved in less than one hundred fifty years of national existence. We have accomplished much in a short time. But we must not forget that we owe no little part of this rapid devel- opment to our inheritance from older nations. The expe- rience of their European ancestors served to guide our forefathers in the formation and establishment of our government. Our schools and churches are offshoots of tried systems. The inventions of the Old World were early applied to American industries. .Our language, the most powerful factor in welding our national unity, came from beyond the Atlantic. Ours has been the combined heri- tage of all the civilizations that have preceded us. 173 L.L, POATES CO., N.V 174 -.-/-. A Tampa c, '"X i V "^^ °^ KKxroo t^\l^^^^^ POLITICAL MAP \V Jl f „ ,,. S OK THE 511- UNITED STATES Ke.^^C-:>l ^A ,;.,.V SCALE OF MILES JMoT jjl-----*' \ 100 200 300 too 500 ^ ---I--- 7 ^/i CHAPTER XII NATURAL ASSETS OF THE UNITED STATES Favorable geographic conditions have had much to do with the growth and prosperity of the United States. Some of the chief geographic factors are advantageous location, fertile soil, rich mineral supply, favorable climate, excellent waterways, and extensive forests. Position and Size. — An important factor in the progress of the United States is its position directly opposite the most highly developed continent, separated from it by only 3000 miles of the Atlantic. Our country is much nearer to Europe than to any other continent of the Old World. When the United States became independent in 1776 it extended from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mississippi River and from Canada to Florida. Strip after strip was added to it until to-day it extends from the Atlantic to the Pacific and covers 3,686,785 square miles. It is larger than Aus- tralia and little smaller than Europe. It is so broad from north to south that the fastest trains require about thirty- six hours to cover the distance. It is so long from the Atlantic to the Pacific that the speediest trains cannot cross it in less than eighty-four hours. Coastline. — North America ranks next to Europe in irregularity of coast, and the United States has over 3000 miles of coasthne. There are many excellent harbors. Most of them border on the Atlantic, which is the greatest highway of trade. Others are on the Pacific, which may some day rival the Atlantic in commerce. Fortunately all our seaports are ice-free the year round. 176 NATURAL ASSETS OF THE UNITED STATES 177 Surface. — From east to west, the United States is divided into four great natural regions. Along the Atlantic is a belt of lowland called the Atlantic Coast Plain. Farther west is the Appalachian Highland, and in the central part of the country is the Central Plain. The western third of the United States is the Cordilleran Highland. Farm land in the Atlantic Coast Plain. Atlantic Coast Plain. — The Atlantic Coast Plain begins at Cape Cod and extends to Florida. At the northern end it is only a few miles wide, but it widens southward so that in Georgia it is about 300 miles wide. The coast plain bordering the Gulf of Mexico is called the Gulf Coast Plain. Appalachian Highland. — The Appalachian Highland extends from Newfoundland and the St. Lawrence River to northern Alabama and Georgia. The New England Plateau is part of this highland region. Just west of the Atlantic Coast Plain is a plateau belt called the Piedmont Plateau. This is the southeastern part of the Appalachian Highland. At the eastern edge of the Piedmont belt the surface slopes steeply down to the Atlantic Coast Plain, and because of the falls and rapids in the streams this 178 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS steep slope is called the Fall Line. West of the Piedmont Plateau is the belt of Appalachian ridges and inter- vening valleys. The western slope of the Appalachian Highland is called the Appalachian Plateau, which is divided into a northern portion, called the Allegheny Plateau, and a southern part, called the Cumberland Plateau. Central Plain. — The broad lowland between the Appa- lachian and Cordilleran highlands is the Central Plain. This extensive region is divided into the Glacial Drift Plain in the northern part, the Gulf Coast Plain in the southern part, and the Great Plains, or High Plains, in the western part. The greatest river system and the largest lakes in the world are found in the Central Plain. Cordilleran Highland. — The Cordilleran Highland is divided into three main divisions. The eastern part is the Rocky Mountains ; the western part is the Pacific Ranges, which include the Coast Ranges, Sierra Nevada, and Cascade Mountains ; the middle part, lying between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Ranges, is a wide belt of high plateaus. Beginning at the north, these are the Columbia Plateau, the Great Basin, which is really a high plateau, and the Colorado Plateau. The Coast Ranges lie so near the Pacific Ocean that there is scarcely a plain along the coast. Between the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Mountains on the east and the Coast Ranges on the west is a narrow belt of lowland that is almost con- tinuous from Mexico to Canada. The southern part, called the Great Valley of California, is made up of the valleys of the San Joaquin and Sacramento rivers. The northern part of this lowland is the Willamette valley and the basin of Puget Sound. NATURAI. ASSETS OF THE UNITED STATES 1 79 A view of Pikes Peak, Colorado. i8o THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS Climate. — The United States lies in the warm part of the temperate zone. In the southern part of the country, the summers are long and hot, and the winters are short, with only a very few days of freezing weather. In the northern part of the United States, the winters are long and very cold. The east and west coasts have a niilder climate than the central part of the country, where the winters are quite cold and the summers hot. The eastern half of the United States has ample rain, which comes from the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic '^'mmm-m^^^^ m^ ^ . W0 Uvcr M) To RAINFALL CF THE UNITED STATES 100 ;go HOP 4110 o -\, Ocean. The greater portion of the western half does not have sufficient rain, and is either arid or semiarid. Narrow belts on the western slopes of the Pacific Ranges have abundant rainfall ; and the region of greatest rainfall in the United States is the western slope of the Coast Ranges in Washington and Oregon. As the moist air of the pre- vailing winds from the Pacific strike the mountain ranges NATURAL ASSETS OF THE UNITED STATES l8l much of the moisture falls as rain or snow. The eastern slopes of these mountains and the plateau belt to the east are quite dry. Although the Rocky Mountains are far from the Pacific, yet considerable moisture falls upon their windward slopes, thus forming another rainfall belt. The eastern slopes of the Rockies and the High Plains arc semi- arid, for they are cut off from the moisture coming from the Pacific, and they are too far from the sources of the rain that falls in eastern United States to profit therefrom. Natural Resources. — The soil is by far our greatest natural resource. The large areas of fertile land with enough warmth and rain for crops make the United States one of the most productive nations. The Atlantic Coast Plain, the Gulf Coast Plain, and the Glacial Drift Plain are the most extensive agricultural sections of the country. Not only the deep soil, but the climate and level surface give them their agricultural prominence. The mountainous regions of the United States are the chief mining districts. In the Appalachians are great deposits of coal, iron, and building stone. The richest mines of iron, however, are in the hilly district south and west of Lake Superior ; and there are extensive deposits of coal in the Central Plain. In the Cordilleran Highland are rich mines of gold, silver, and copper. Great forest areas exist in the Appalachian Mountains, Rocky Mountains, and Pacific Ranges. Our most valu- able forests are on the rainy slopes of the Coast Ranges, the Cascade Mountains, and the Sierra Nevada. These slopes have also the largest amount of water power for manufacturing purposes. Another valuable forest region is in the Gulf Coast Plain. The coniferous forests near Lake Superior still furnish large quantities of lumber. 1 82 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS Conclusion. — No country is blessed with greater natural wealth than the United States. The extensive plains, with favorable soil and climate ; the great mineral wealth, especially the abundance of coal and iron ; the deep water- ways and swift streams that furnish power; and the valu- able forests of mountains and plains all form the physical basis for the great wealth and industrial progress of the United States. Questions and Exercises 1. Sketch an outline map of the United States, showing the irregular coasts. Name at least a dozen indentations. Indi- cate the four great natural regions. On your sketch name all the parts of each that are mentioned in this chapter. In which region do you live ? 2. Why have the coasts milder climate than the interior ? 3. What is the annual rainfall in your part of the country ? 4. Make a careful study of a daily weather map of the United States. 5. What are the chief natural resources of your state? 6. On your own map indicate the sections where the prin- cipal natural resources of the country are found. CHAPTER XITI FIELD CROPS OF THE UNITED STATES General Agricultural Conditions. — Because of the natural advantages of soil, surface, and climate, together with the good management of farms, agriculture is a source of more wealth to the United States than any other industry. The extensive areas of fertile land with ample heat and rainfall make possible large acreage of crops and high yields per acre. Improved machinery is greatly reducing human labor on the farm and better methods of farming are pro- ducing larger crops and at the same time keeping up the fer- tility of the soil. We raise a great variety of crops, yet the three leading ones, corn, cotton, and wheat, are worth about one half of the total value of all crops. In the production of these three, the United States leads all other countries. Field Crops. — The crops that are generally raised in fields, as distinct from orchards, gardens, and forests, are called field crops. These crops far exceed all the others in acreage and value. The most important field crops are corn, cotton, hay and other forage, wheat, oats, tobacco, barley, flax, sugar cane, rye, sugar beets, and rice. Corn. — To-day corn easily leads as our largest and most valuable crop. No country rivals the United States in its production. It produces four fifths of the world's supply. The belt of highest corn yield is in the Central States, including Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, Missouri, Oklahoma, Texas, Indiana, Ohio, and Kentucky. At the present time the average yield per acre is nearly thirty 183 1 84 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS bushels. Great attention is being given to soils, seed selec- tion, and methods of cultivation in order to increase this yield. It is possible to double the average production per acre with but little extra work and expense. Distribution of com in the United States. One dot equals 100,000 bushels. Rainfall and temperature have much to do with the yield of corn. It is planted in the spring just as soon as danger of frost is over, and it usually matures before a killing frost of autumn. Sometimes, however, an early frost damages the corn. The most common cause of a low 3deld is a scarcity of rain during the months of June, July, and August. The growing crop is cultivated several times to loosen the ground, kill the weeds, and to make a mulch of fine soil that prevents the rapid evaporation of soil moisture. Much of the corn is harvested by cutting the stalks, either by hand or by a com harvester, and placing them in shocks in the field until the grain is dry and hard. FIELD CROPS OF THE UNITED STATES 185 Then the shocks are hauled to the barn yard, where a corn shredder husks the ears of corn and cuts the stalks and leaves into small lengths for fodder. Most of the corn, however, is husked from the standing stalks whose leaves and husks furnish winter pasture for cattle and horses. Corn is used as food by man and animals. In the United States the greater part is fed to horses, cattle, hogs, and poultry on the farms where this grain is grown. Corn meal, breakfast foods, hominy, canned corn, corn- starch, and glucose are important foods made from the grain. Corn oil, made from the germs of the grains, is used for lubricants, and in the manufacture of soap. The cobs are used mainly for fuel. In addition to these, a B "I"- "5 Husking com. 1 86 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS number of other products are obtained from the corn plant. Wheat. — Next to corn, wheat is our most valuable food crop. So much attention has been given to the rais- ing of wheat here that the United States ranks as the greatest producer of this cereal. The slightly rolling land and the fertile soil of the North Central section, as well as the rich valleys of Cahfornia and the Columbia River region, are well adapted to its production. The leading wheat states are : North Dakota, Kansas, Minnesota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Illinois, Washington, Indiana, Missouri, and Ohio. Wheat requires a cooler cHmate than corn, therefore it does not grow so far south as the latter, and its northern limit reaches far beyond the corn belt. The enormous acreage and yield of wheat has been made possible by the improvement of farm machinery. The Wheat-growing areas and chief flour-milHng centers of the United States. FIELD CROPS OF THE UNITED STATES 187 Harvesting wheat. harvester, which cuts and binds the wheat, and the thresher, which separates the grain from the chaff and straw, are the most important machines. In regions where farms are measured by thousands of acres the ground is plowed by large plows drawn by traction engines. The old-time farmer stored his few bushels of wheat in his bins, and had it ground into flour at the Httle neighborhood mill, as he needed it for family use. The modern farmer raises for commercial purposes far more than he can conveniently house. After the harvests vast quantities of grain are transported to immense elevators to wait for shipment. Instead of sacking wheat, as formerly, it is stored and shipped in bulk. This saves time, labor, and expense. A large amount of wheat finds its way to the mills of Minneapolis, Chicago, and St. Louis, where it is ground into flour and shipped to many domestic and foreign markets. Thousands of bushels of American wheat take a voyage down the Great Lakes through the Erie Canal and Hudson 1 88 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS River, across the Atlantic into Europe. Since wheat bread is the staff of Hfe among nearly all the white race in Europe, Africa, Australia, and America, we are fortunate in being able to produce so much of the world's supply. Wheat has other products besides flour. Some of the grain is turned into starch, macaroni, and breakfast foods. The straw is used for rough feed, stable bedding, manu- factured into paper, or braided into hats, mattings, and baskets. The average yield of wheat per acre in the United States is only about sixteen bushels, while Germany and Great Britain have about twice this yield. The cause of this great difference is that the American has given more atten- tion to large acreage of wheat rather than to high yield per acre. These European countries with limited area cultivate the crop with the greatest skill and are careful to maintain the fertility of the soil. We are just beginning to realize the need of intensive cultivation. Oats, Barley, and Rye. — Of the grain crops, oats rank next to wheat in value. Corn lands are well adapted to oats, and the two leading corn states lead also in the pro- duction of oats. The leading wheat states also rank high in yield of oats. Although oatmeal is a good breakfast food, most of the oats is fed to stock. Barley and rye are far less important than wheat and oats. The North Central and Pacific states lead in the production of barley, Minnesota and California being the two leading states. In the West, barley largely takes the place of corn for feed- ing stock. With the exception of rice, rye is our smallest grain crop. The chief rye states are Wisconsin, Pennsyl- vania, Michigan, and Minnesota. FIELD CROPS OF THE UNITED STATES 189 Rice. — Rice grows in the low river valleys and coastal plains of the Southern States, where the land can be easily flooded. Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, and South Carolina lead in its production. Hay and Forage. — The combined value of the hay and forage crops is surpassed only by that of corn and cotton. In the New England, Middle Atlantic, and Rocky Moun- tain states, hay and forage are the leading crops. This is due mainly to the fact that grass and other forage plants grow well on hilly and mountainous lands where grain crops cannot be- successfully raised. The Central States, however, are the greatest pro- ducers of hay and forage, although in this section these crops are not so im- portant as the grain s. Timothy is the most valuable hay for feeding horses and brings the highest price in the market. The acreage of timothy exceeds that of any other hay plants, although the acreage of timothy and clover mixed is greater than that of pure timothy. Clover is grown not only for hay and pasture, but also to enrich the ground. Alfalfa promises to become one of the most profitable forage plants. At present, nearly all of the alfalfa is grown Hoeing rice, South Carolina. 190 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS kLU» ■^ ilP^ ..'^WMMFyl m^ Hr ^H^,... 'ijjaSjisstei^''-. ^ Mowing a field of alfalfa. in the states west of the Mississippi. It thrives best where there is abundant sunshine and good soil, and is one of the leading crops in the irrigation districts of the West. It grows readily on high mountain slopes as well as in low valleys. Its long roots enable it to thrive even in dry regions. Montana produces three harvests of alfalfa a year, while Cahfornia grows fiVe per year. Alfalfa is of special value to Western stockmen because of its great feed- ing value to cattle and sheep. The stacks of this hay furnish an abundance of food through the winter, and also during summer droughts. Alfalfa, Hke clover, increases the fertility of the soil. This enrichment of the soil in which they grow, makes these two hay crops doubly valu- able to the farmers. Cotton. — Fibers that are used in manufacturing cloth are obtained from hemp, sisal, jute, flax, cotton, and other FIELD CROPS OF THE UNITED STATES 191 plants. But the cotton surpasses all others in desirable qualities ; and it is becoming more and more important. Because it can be so easily cleansed cotton cloth is taking the place of wool, even in winter. Savage tribes of remote and little-known warm parts of the earth, who were form- erly almost unclad, are gradually adopting cotton dress. Cotton cloth is one of the most important manufactured products of the world. Production and Export of American Cotton. — While cotton grows in most tropical and subtropical countries, two thirds of the world's crop is harvested in our own Southern States, where the summers are warm and long, and the climate is moderately moist. The annual cotton production of these states is worth more than the world's combined gold and silver output. The leading cotton states are Texas, Georgia, Alabama, South Carolina, and Arkansas. Not only the most cotton but the best quaUty Cotton- growing region and chief centers of cotton manufacture. 192 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS is produced in the United States. This is the sea-island cotton of South Carolina and Georgia, whose long, satin- like fibers make the line threads, laces, and fabrics. Cotton bolls. Cotton is planted in March or April. By the middle of June the field is covered with green plants containing many beautiful flowers. The cotton ripens and the pick- ing begins in July. The work continues until Christmas. The seeds are removed by gins, and the fiber is pressed into 500-pound bales, which are shipped to factories in the North and South and to foreign countries. Beginning with August and continuing to January, cotton is constantly being loaded on cars and sent to distributing centers, where it starts on long rail and water journeys. More than one FIELD CROPS OF THE UNITED STATES 193 third of the crop remains in the United States. A third goes to Great Britain, and the rest to Germany and other North Sea countries. Northwest Europe, where no cotton is raised at all, is the great receiving market for American cotton ; but India, Egypt, and Brazil also help to supply the busy European mills with raw cotton. The large cotton-collecting stations of the west half of the cotton belt are Memphis, Montgomery, Shrevcport, Vicksburg, Houston, and New Orleans. Galveston, with its fine harbor, and surrounded by the immense plantations of Texas, is the leading cotton port. Charleston, Savannah, Mobile, and Pensacola are important eastern points of export. Our total crop averages about 12,000,000 bales of 500 pounds each. Bales of cotton. 194 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS The Enemies of Cotton. — The cotton plant has a num- ber of enemies that cause an annual loss of millions of dollars. Due largely to pests and fungous diseases, the average yield per acre has been slightly reduced in recent years. The most important pest is the boll weevil. This weevil came into Texas from Mexico several years ago. It spread inland at the rate of about fifty miles per year, and has now reached Oklahoma and Alabama. This insect passes through four stages, — egg, worm, pupa, and adult weevil. The adult female, less than an inch long, lays during a season from three hundred to three thousand eggs on the foliage and in the bolls. The worms which hatch from the eggs eat the leaves and bolls, and the cotton within the infected bolls is destroyed. Pulling up the cotton plant in the fall and burning the roots and stalks is the most effective means of killing the weevils. A fungous disease, called cotton wilt, does considerable damage. The fungus enters the roots and causes a wilting and final death of the plants. No satisfactory method of preventing this disease has yet been discovered. Harvesting Cotton. — The cotton bolls do not all ripen at the same time and the harvesting of cotton extends from July to December. This is the most expensive part of cotton raising, since the laborers must go over a field several times during the ripening period. Machines for picking cotton have been tried, but they have not proved very successful, hence the crop is practically all picked by hand. After the cotton is picked it is hauled to ginning mills, where the fiber and seeds are separated. The fiber is then baled for shipment. Before the invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney the separation of fiber and seed was FIELD CROPS OF THE UNITED STATES IQ5 such a slow process that onl}^ a very httle cotton could be raised, as it took one man an entire day to seed one pound of cotton fiber. The cotton gin revolutionized the cotton industry and made it possible for the Southern States to help clothe men, women, and children in every quarter of the globe. Weighing the day's picking. Cotton Products. — When the cotton reaches the mill it is first cleaned from dirt and leaves. Then it is combed and twisted into threads and yarns. The yarns are woven into cotton cloth. Mixed goods are made by weaving cot- ton yarns v\^ith threads of wool or silk. The shortest bits of cotton are manufactured into wadding, cotton bat- ting used in comforters, and absorbent cotton used for medicinal purposes. Cotton treated with acids is used to make substitutes for silk, also celluloid and certain 196 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS explosives. From the seed we get cottonseed oil and oil cake. The seeds are hulled, the kernels are ground, and the oil is pressed out by heavy machinery. The oil is used in the manufacture of soaps and candles, for lubri- cating purposes, and as a substitute for olive oil. The hulls are used as paper stock, cattle food, fuel, and fer- tilizer. Cotton Rivals of the United States. — Next to the United States, India and Egypt are the largest producers of cotton. England is doing much to encourage the grow- ing of cotton in these two countries and in other parts of the British Empire. Brazil and Peru raise large quantities of the long staple cotton. Good fiber is raised in central Asia and sent to Russian mills. China raises cotton and uses all of it in her own cotton mills. Germany and France are working out the problem of cotton raising in their tropical colonies. Flax. — Flax was introduced into this country by the early settlers of New England, who used the fiber for making clothing. About 1800, when cotton came into general use, flax began to be cultivated for the seed also. From the flaxseed is obtained the linseed oil which is used in making paints and varnishes. To-day in the United States flax is raised almost entirely for the seed. Argen- tina and the United States are the leading countries in the production of flaxseed. In Europe flax is raised mainly for the fiber, which is woven into linen. North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, and Minnesota grow nearly all the flaxseed produced in our country. Man has not succeeded in producing good seed and good fiber in the same plant. Flax for fiber must be harvested before the seed is ripe, which, of course, makes the seed of poor quality. FIELD CROPS OF THE UNITED STATES 197 If the seed is permitted to mature, the fiber is too coarse for the weaving of good linen, and can be used only in the manufacture of binding twine, insulating material for refrigerator cars, and very heavy paper such as is used in cement bags. i A field of flax. Sugar. — A few generations ago sugar was a luxury. To-day it is considered a necessity in all civilized countries. At present the world's crop amounts to about 16,000,000 tons, two thirds of which is produced and consumed in 1 98 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS Europe and North America. The people of Great Britain and the United States are the greatest consumers of sugar. The former use each year 86 pounds per capita and the latter 82 pounds. In spite of the fact that we produce a large amount, our greatest import is sugar. Sugar Cane. — Sugar cane grows in the Southern States. More than two thirds of this crop is grown in Louisiana, in the delta of the Mississippi. Some of the Louisiana sugar plantations contain several thousand acres each. The cane, which resembles corn, grows as high as fifteen feet, in rows six or seven feet apart. It grows from buds at the joints of the stalks, which are laid end to end in furrows, three rows being placed side by side. This must be done by hand ; then soil is thrown over the cane by a plow. One planting lasts two or three years. In October Sugar cane in Louisiana. FIELD CROPS OF THE UNITED STATES 199 the laborers cut the cane stalks by hand, as near the ground as possible. The leaves contain very little sugar, so they are stripped off. The stalks are carried on cars to the factories. There huge rollers crush them and squeeze out the juice. In the sugar mill this juice is boiled and crystallized into raw sugar. Then it is shipped to the refineries, usually found in distant states. The crude sugar is boiled and filtered, and finally placed in barrels as pure sugar. The machinery required for these final processes is so expensive that there are very few refineries in the United States, although our country ranks first in this business. We import raw sugar from the East and West Indies, Hawaii, South America, and Europe ; and turn it into snow-white granulated, loaf, or powdered sugar. Beet Sugar. — About half of the world's sugar is made from the sugar beet. In its fleshy root is stored the sweet substance, which man extracts by mangling and boiling. The juice is manufactured into sugar in much the same way as that of the sugar cane. The beet sugar industry has thrived in Europe since 1850, when a German chemist discovered a method of extracting the sugar. For many years it has been an important occupation in Germany, Russia, Austria-Hungary, and France. During the last decade of the nineteenth century considerable attention was given it in our country, and it is now yielding large crops in Colorado, California, Michigan, Utah, Idaho, and Wisconsin. Cane and beet sugar are competing with each other in supplying the world's demand. Cane has the advantage in ease of cultivation. While the task of planting it is irksome, it is not so tiresome as the work required by the 200 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS Irrigating a field of sugar beets. beet. The sugar beet has the advantage of a larger area of possible cultivation than sugar cane has. It grows in temperate climates, while the cane is confined to warm belts. To promote sugar beet production some European countries pay bounties to the producers. Tobacco. — One of the most important plants found in America is tobacco. Before our country had a money system of its own, tobacco was the " coin of the realm " in some of the colonies. We are told that the early Vir- ginia planters even purchased a shipment of wives with this product of their fields. The leading tobacco states are Kentucky, North Carolina, Virginia, Ohio, Tennessee, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, South Carolina, Maryland, West Virginia, and Connecticut. The United States is the great- FIELD CROPS OF THE UNITED STATES 20I est exporter of tobacco, large quantities being sent to Europe, Asia, Africa, and South America. An extract of tobacco is a destroyer of certain plant pests in nursery gardens. When sprinkled on the most delicate flowering plants, the blossoms remain uninjured while the insects are soon killed. This extract is of great value in the vineyards of Germany, France, and Italy, where it is used to destroy grape parasites. Used as a sheep dip it destroys ticks which bury themselves in the wool and damage the fleece. Educational Work. — The national government has a Department of Agriculture whose business is to study soils, crops, and farm animals, and to do many other things that will benefit the farmers of this country. This department Cutting tobacco, Kentucky. employs hundreds of scientific experts, who are engaged in many lines of investigation. The Bureau of Soils is the 202 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS branch of the department that studies the soils of the United States. Other leading branches of the department are Bureau of Plant Industry, Bureau of Animal Industry, Bureau of Chemistry, Weather Bureau, and Forest Service. Each state has a college of agriculture and an experi- ment station in which scientific agriculture is taught and agricultural experiments are carried on. As a result of this study, great improvements have been made in farm methods and in the general welfare of the farming popula- tion. Worn-out sections in the East and West have been almost made over. Wide-awake, public-spirited men have set up model farms where scientific methods are put into practice, and they share their knowledge with the farmers of the neighborhood. Thus the whole community is benefited by the practical agricultural teaching of scientific men. Questions and Exercises 1. Make a collection of grains and other farm products. Collect good pictures of agricultural activities, such as wheat harvesting, haying, cotton picking, and corn harvesting. 2. Visit a wheat field, a cotton field, a sugar plantation, a hay field, or an agricultural college. 3. Find the present market prices of the products mentioned in this chapter. Are the prices rising or falling? Why? 4. On the map of the world point out every continent, country, and city spoken of in this chapter. 5. Is wheat or corn more valuable to us ? Give reasons for your answer. 6. Which of the leading field crops do not grow in your sec- tion ? Why ? CHAPTER XIV VEGETABLES AND FRUITS The pioneers, after coming to America, introduced many European fruits and also began to cultivate some of the native wild fruits. For a long time only enough for im- mediate local consumption was produced. But when ex- press trains and fast steamers came into use, the large cities were supplied with fruits and vegetables that grew hundreds of miles away. Refrigerator cars have made long shipments of perishable goods profitable, hence large sums are realized from orchards and gardens. Vegetables. — In many parts of the country people de- vote themselves to the growing of vegetables instead of field crops. This is especially the case in the vicinity of the large cities and in the warm South. Celery, lettuce, radishes, beets, beans, peas, cabbage, cucumbers, .and pota- toes are raised. The most important vegetable grown in the United States is the potato. The New England, Middle Atlantic, and North Central States raise three fourths of this crop. The leading states in the yield of potatoes are New York, Michigan, Wisconsin, Maine, and Pennsylvania. Most of the sweet potatoes are grown in the South. Abundance and Variety of Fruits. — The United States has a greater abundance and variety of fruits than any other country. Because of good soil and wide range of climate nearly all kinds can be produced, — tropical fruits, such as oranges, lemons, dates, figs, and pineapples, as well as the deciduous fruits of the temperate zone, such as apples and pears. The leading fruits, in order of value, are apples, 203 204 THREE INDUSTRI.\L NATIONS peaches, strawberries, oranges, grapes, plums, pears, cherries, raspberries, blackberries, lemons, apricots, and cranberries. Among those of less importance are pineapples, figs, dates, gooseberries, and currants. The only fruit that is exten- sively imported into the United States is the banana. There has been a remarkable increase in the quantity of fruits grown, consumed, and exported in the United States within the last decade. Our climate is sufficiently varied to enable us to have fresh fruit on our tables the year round. While the North is still covered with ice and snow in late winter, the markets offer ripe strawberries from the South. Week by week the ripening crop moves northward, so that the season lasts until July. Pineapples may be bought from the middle of April to the middle of July. Cherries last from May to August. Due to their excellent keeping qualities, apples and oranges are in the market all the year round. Diseases and Insect Pests. — Millions of dollars' worth of fruit are lost every -year through diseases and insects. Fungus diseases cause the bhght of pear trees, the bitter- rot of apples, and the mildew of grapes. Common insect pests are the San Jose scale of citrus fruits and the codhng moth of the apple tree. Birds destroy many of the injurious insects, but they cannot keep them under control ; so the spraying of fruit trees to kill insects and disease-producing fungi is necessary in order to secure large crops of good fruit. Apples. — The most important fruit crop of the United States is apples. In general, they are more easily culti- vated and shipped than other fruits. The trees are hardy and require httle care. The fruit keeps easily and so can be transported at comparatively little cost. The greatest apple-producing states are New York, Michigan, Penn- VEGETABLES AND FRUITS 205 sylvania, Missouri, Iowa, Colorado, Virginia, Kentucky, Ohio, Washington, and CaKfornia. Peaches. — In quantity and value peaches rank second among the fruits of this country. The main peach-growing sections are southern Michigan, the Lake Plains south of Lakes Erie and Ontario, the Atlantic Plain from Connecti- cut to Chesapeake Bay, the Southern States particularly ^^ ^p-i-''^' '^Em^^^^ ^-n.m : WtMi 'si^^^^^^ ^r^. K^^jjt ™*^^^^i l^^M^i^^p ^Mh f^ t'^ ■ ■» 7.';- •';" , ■-■*■ '■';' Picking apples. 2o6 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS Georgia, and the Pacific States. The peaches are picked before they are quite ripe, then carefully packed, and shipped in refrigerator cars to the large cities. Plums. — Plums enter the market in the natural state for immediate use, and in canned and dried forms. Prunes are dried plums. The Pacific States are the great prune- producing section of our country. After the ripe plums are shaken from the trees, they are washed, assorted, treated with lye to soften the skins, and placed in shallow trays to dry in the sun. Then they are put in storage bins in which they undergo a " sweating " process. Finally the prunes are packed in boxes for shipment. Look at the can of plums on the shelf of a grocery store. Does the label show where they are grown and canned? Grapes. — In yield of grapes California ranks far ahead of any other state. Other grape-growing districts are 1 .-* )*J m «> t ^ W' Kl Ik f^'-i ^ i^ Hn 1 Underwood it- Underwood. A vineyard near Lake Erie. VEGETABLES AND FRUITS 207 Michigan and the Lake Plains in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York. The most famous grape-growing section in the East is Chautauqua county, New York, on Lake Erie. Most of California's enormous yield of one million tons is made into raisins, wine, and grape juice. About one fifth is sent away as fresh grapes. The packing is done in crushed cork and redwood sawdust to prevent damage to the fruit. To turn grapes into raisins, the fruit is placed in shallow trays in the open air and the sunlight for from ten to twenty days. In order to prevent the loss that would be caused by occasional rains, some raisin firms have built drying houses in which the grapes are cured. When the drying is completed, the raisins are packed and shipped to other parts of the country. To make wine, the juice is pressed out of the grapes, fermented, and then strained. The manufacture of grape juice is done on a large scale in California and New York. Small Fruits. — The strawberry is the most important of all the small fruits. It grows in all parts of the United States. Raspberries and blackberries grow wild, but are also cultivated ; and several million dollars' worth are grown each year. These berries are produced mainly for immediate use. They must reach our tables soon after they are picked. Cranberries, so necessary to a Thanks- giving dinner, grow in moist peat bogs. The loose black soil is often covered with a layer of sand to prevent the growth of weeds. The berries grow on creeping or trailing shrubs, which are covered with water all winter and into the spring. The water protects the plants from the severe cold of winter, and delays blossoming until most of the danger from frosts is past. Nearly all of our cranberries are grown in Massachusetts, New Jersey, and Wisconsin. 2o8 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS Citrous Fruits. — Oranges, lemons, limes, and grape- fruit are called citrous fruits. Most of the oranges of the United States are grown in CaHfomia, Florida, Arizona, and Louisiana. The greatest orange district is southern Cali- fornia. The orange trees have glossy, evergreen leaves. Fragrant blossoms and green and yellow fruit may be seen on the trees at the same time. Most of the oranges ripen from December to July. After picking, the fruit is washed, assorted, packed, and shipped to all parts of the country and to foreign lands. Much care is taken to prevent in- jury to the oranges in picking and shipping. Fancy fruit is often protected by thin wrapping paper. The lemon grows in the same sections as the orange. Lemon trees bear constantly and the fruit may be found on the same tree in all stages from the blossom to the ripe Gathering lemons. VEGETABLES AND FRUITS 209 2IO THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS lemon. When the lemons reach the desired size, they are picked, whether ripe or green. The ripe ones are shipped at once, while the green ones are kept in storage to ripen. The care of lemon and orange orchards is much the same. The trees must be irrigated during the dry season. The soil of the orchards is cultivated during the spring and summer. Frosts sometimes damage the citrous orchards, hence frost protection is one problem of the fruit growers. Some orchards are equipped with hundreds of iron coal- baskets or small oil burners, which are lighted when the temperature drops to near the freezing point. Olives. — Olives are a semitropical fruit. It has been only a short time since the United States realized that in California and Arizona the soil and climate are as well adapted to such fruits as in Italy and Spain. The largest olive orchard in the world, near Los Angeles, contains 1 200 acres, each with 100 trees. The chief products are pickled olives and olive oil. The oil is made by crushing ripe olives between rollers. Olives for pickling are picked while green, soaked in lye for several days to remove the bitter flavor, then treated with water to re- move all traces of the lye. After that they are placed in casks of brine and finally bottled. Figs and Pineapples. — These tropical or semitropical Packing figs. VEGETABLES AND FRUITS fruits are grown somewhat extensively in the warmest sec- tions of the United States. California and the Gulf coast are the chief fig- growing regions. The raising of pine- apples is confined to Florida. The Leading Fruit State. — CaHfornia is by far the lead- ing fruit state. It is first in the yield of oranges, lemons, plums and prunes, cherries, grapes, and olives. Large quan- ' tities of peaches, ap- ricots, apples, figs, and many other fruits are grown. Until recently the land now occupied by the great fruit ranches of the state was desert. Fruit Growing in Arid Regions. — Not only in California, but in other Western States, large orchards are now growing on lands that formerly were deserts. Large sections of the desert regions have soil that is very fertile, and all that it needs to become highly productive is the magic touch of water. The adjoining mountains are covered each winter with deep snows which, in summer, melt and produce great floods in the desert streams. In a short time after the snow disappears the water is all gone, and the stream beds are dry. In many places engineers have built great dams of masonry which hold back the flood water in huge reservoirs. From them, canals are built to conduct An irrigated orange orchard. 212 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS the water to fertile fields below. Orchard lands which formerly were worthless now sell for $2000 per acre. The orange groves of California and the apple orchards of Washington and Oregon give handsome returns. In the Yakima valley of Washington apple orchards frequently yield $1700 worth of fruit per acre in one year. Shipment of Fruit. — The railroad plays an important part in the fruit business. By the use of refrigerator cars, Underwood d: Underwood. Packing oranges in a refrigerator car. fruits can be shipped long distances, and thus very exten- sive markets are within the reach of fruit growers. In the refrigerator cars, which are kept cool by ice, some of the fruit in the center of boxes and baskets does not become sufhciently cool to retard ripening and check decay. To remove this difhculty, precooling of fruit was adopted a few years ago. This process originated in the peach dis- trict of Georgia, and it has been quite generally adopted VEGETABLES AND FRUITS 213 in the citrous belt of California. The fruit is chilled to 35°, 40°, or 50° either in a warehouse before it is loaded or in cars after loading. After the fruit has been thoroughly precooled, the iced refrigerator cars can keep it cool during shipment. When fruit arrives at its destination, it is kept in cold storage until it enters the market. Conclusion. — For many years Americans gave little attention to the raising of fruit. Farmers generally had orchards merely to supply the home needs. Having set out the trees, they felt they had done their duty, and left the outcome to nature. Now orcharding in many localities has become an independent business. Many men devote all their time, energy, and capital to it. Fruit growers have formed horticultural societies in order to promote the work of improving fruits and to make each vine, bush, and tree bear more abundantly. New varieties of apples, peaches, pears, oranges, and other fruits are being created, and many foreign fruits are being successfully introduced into our country. Questions and Exercises 1. Make as large a list of fruits as you can. Which of them are raised in your vicinity? 2. Examine a refrigerator car. How does it dififer from others ? 3. Describe a canning factory which you have visited. 4. Did you ever raise fruit of any kind ? If so, tell the class about your experience. 5. Observe with special care all fruit packing cases, such as boxes, barrels, cartons, crates, crushed cork, and excelsior. 6. Define deciduous fruits ; citrous fruits. CHAPTER XV THE FORESTS OF THE UNITED STATES Former Extent of Our Forests. — Originally our country had forests unequaled by those of any other country. From the Atlantic Coast to the Mississippi River the coun- try was practically one vast forest area ; and in the Rocky Mountains and the mountain ranges near the Pacific there were large forests. In all there were about 850,000,000 acres of forest land. So rapidly have the forests been cleared in order to make farms or have been cut down for lumber that to-day we have only about 60 per cent of the former area, and much of the present timber land has been cut over and the best trees removed. Although greatly Forest regions of the United States. 214 THE FORESTS OF THE UNITED STATES 215 depleted, our forests constitute an enormous source of wealth, and we still lead all other countries in the pro- duction of lumber. River transportation of logs. Forest Regions of the United States. — The forest areas of the United States are grouped into five large forest re- gions, — Northern, Southern, Central Hardwood, Rocky Mountain, and Pacific Coast forests. Northern Forest. — The main body of the Northern Forest lies in Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, New York, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. A southward exten- sion follows the Appalachian Mountains to their southern border. The most important trees of' the Northern Forest are pine, spruce, hemlock, white cedar, and fir. By far the most valuable species of this forest is the white pine which has been so extensivelv used for lumber. The greater part 2l6 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS of the Northern Forest has been cleared, but in northern Maine, the White Mountains of New Hampshire, the Green Mountains of Vermont, the Adirondacks of New York, the northern parts of the Lake States, and the Appalachians there are still large forest tracts. Central Hardwood Forest. — The greater part of the Central Hardwood Forest occupies the drainage basin of the Ohio River. Part of it lies west of the Mississippi, in the states of Missouri, Arkansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. The chief trees of this hardwood forest are oak, hickory, poplar, beech, walnut, ash, and elm. North of the Ohio nearly all of this forest has been cut down to make way for farms. In West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Arkansas there are still great forests that supply very large quantities of lumber. Much of the hardwood lumber is used in the manufacture of furniture, flooring and interior finish of houses, and agricultural implements. Southern Forest. — The Southern Forest lies mainly in the Atlantic Coast Plain and Gulf Coast Plain of the South- ern States. This forest consists mainly of pines that have a hard, yellow, resinous wood. These yellow pines, as they are called, are valuable not only for lumber, but they also yield turpentine and tar. The cypress, growing in swamps, is another tree of great value. Its wood is so durable in con- tact with moisture that it is in great demand for shingles, boats, and tanks. The Southern Forest furnishes enormous quantities of lumber and other timber products. Louisiana is the leading lumber state of the Southern Forest and ranks second among the states of the Union. Rocky Mountain Forest. — The Rocky Mountain Forest occupies the slopes of the Rocky Mountains. The most dense tracts of timber are upon the western slopes, which THE FORESTS OF THE UNITED STATES 217 Making a trail through a western forest. have sufficient rainfall for tree growth. Western pines and other cone-bearing trees constitute most of the trees of this forest. Pacific Coast Forest. — Upon the western slopes of the Coast Ranges, Cascade Mountains, and Sierra Nevada are the great forest areas of the Pacific Coast Forest. The most important tree of this forest is the Douglas fir. Other valuable trees are cedar, spruce, hemlock, western white pine, and redwood. The densest forests are in Washington, upon the well-watered slopes facing the Pacific. This state leads all others in the production of lumber. The most wonderful trees in the world are the redwoods and " big trees " of California, many of which are over 300 feet 21 8 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS high and between 2000 and 3000 years old. Several forest tracts containing these mammoth trees have been made into national parks. Forest Products. — Most of the forest trees are cut down and sawed into logs which are hauled to mills, where they are sawed into boards or other forms of lumber. Many other trees are cut down to furnish mine timbers, railroad ties, telegraph poles, and firewood. Spruce and hemlock are largely used to make wood pulp from which paper is manufactured. Other forest products are charcoal, turpen- tine, tar, tanning extracts, and wood alcohol. Game and fish in the forests of our country furnish several million dollars' worth of food, and milhons of dollars are realized also from the raw furs of forest animals. In the West fnilHons of cattle and sheep graze upon the national forests. Forest Influences. — Forests exert considerable influence over the flow of streams whose drainage basins are wholly or partly within the forested area. A large amount of the rain is held in the thick leaf mold on the forest floor. This gradually soaks into the ground and appears again in springs several weeks later. Thus forests prevent extreme floods in time of heavy rain and very low water in times of drought. In order to keep some of the rivers navigable even in dry seasons the Federal government is buying wooded tracts near the headwaters of the streams so that the forests may be kept permanently to regulate stream flow. In the irri- gation regions of the West forests are maintained at the headwaters of the streams that furnish water for irrigation in order to keep up the flow of water throughout the whole year. In the prairie regions of the United States the farmers plant groves of trees on the windward side of their houses to protect them against destructive storms of summer THE FORESTS OF THE UNITED STATES 219 Wooded slopes bordering Seaghton Lake, Maine. 220 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS and cold winds of winter. The soil on steep wooded slopes is held in place by the roots of the trees. When the trees are cut down, the soil is washed away, and the slopes are left too barren to support plant life. Such slopes should be kept permanently in forest. National Forests. — The United States had such an abundance of standing timber that for many years no one dreamed that it could be exhausted. By and by, however, people saw the end of the supply would soon come if forest destruction was not checked. To insure a permanent supply of timber, Congress in 1891 passed a law that forests on the public lands could be reserved from settlement and made into national forests. To-day the United States has about 140,000,000 acres in national forests, an area equal to that of Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, and Missouri. Nearly all of these national forests are in the Western States ; some of the smaller ones, however, are in the eastern part of the country. forests Natioaal parks 100 200 300 -too JOO National forests and national parks of the United States. THE FORESTS OF THE UNITED STATES 221 The Forest Service. — The Forest Service, a branch of the Department of Agriculture, has charge of the national forests. The trained foresters of the Serv- ice supervise lum- bering operations in these forests, re- move dead and dis- eased trees, plant new trees, guard the forests against fires, and regulate the grazing of live stock within the forest. The Forest Service, in addition to its care of the national forests, con- ducts a campaign of education in for- estry. It gives in- struction in such Ranger looking for fires. subjects as prevention of waste in lumbering and manufac- ture of wood products, increasing the productivity of forests, uses of commercial woods, methods of fighting destructive insects and diseases, fire prevention, and the preservation of wood by chemical treatment. Conclusion. — Although large areas of forests have been cut down in order to furnish lumber and to make way for farms, yet we still have enormous areas of woodlands. Lumbering and the manufacture of wood products is one of our leading industries. The American people are extensive 22 2 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS users of lumber and other timber products, but the present forests will be ample to meet future needs if they are brought up to their maximum yield and if all avoidable wastes are prevented and the fullest possible utilization made of all timber. Questions and Exercises 1. Name and locate the five forest regions of the United States. 2. Which are the two leading lumber states? 3. What are national forests? 4. What influences do forests exert over floods ? 5. Make a list of the chief forest products. 6. Visit some factory where wood products are manufac- tured. 7. Make a collection of difi"erent kinds of wood. Learn the chief uses of each. CHAPTER XVI DOMESTIC ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES Importance ot Domestic Animals. — While j)lants are very useful in supplying man with the necessities of life, animals are scarcely less important. They furnish meat for food, and skins for clothing and shelter. By affording means of transportation they greatly promoted civilization in the early stages of man's development. The North American Indian was acquainted only with the wild life of the forest, and knew nothing of the care and value of domesticated fowls, sheep, cattle, and horses. As long as the game in the forest, together with wild roots, herbs, and berries, were plentiful, the Red Man knew no want, for hunting was his greatest joy. But when the long cold winters made game scarce, famine stared him in the face. Longfellow gives us a vivid picture of the suffering at such times : O the long and dreary winter ! O the cold and cruel winter ! Ever thicker, thicker, thicker Froze the ice on lake and river; Ever deeper, deeper, deeper, Fell the snow o'er all the landscape. Fell the covering snow, and drifted Through the forest, round the village. Hardly from his buried wigwam Could the hunter force a passage ; With his mittens and his snowshoes Vainly walked he through the forest. Sought for bird or beast and found none. Saw no track of deer or rabbit, In the snow beheld no footprints ; In the ghastly, gleaming forest Fell, and could not rise from weakness, Perished there from cold and hunger. 223 224 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS When the white men arrived, they used the bison, deer, and other wild animals for food, but with their advanced notions of living they could not go back to that primitive condition of depending on game alone ; and so from the start they introduced European animals, — chickens, geese, cows, horses, swine, and sheep into this New World. Present Rank of the United States in Meat Production. — The three greatest meat-producing regions in the world are Australia, Argentina, and the United States. Because of her excellent sheep pastures, Australia exports large quantities of mutton. The boundless pampas of Argen- tina, where the population is still scarce, afford excellent feeding grounds for both sheep and cattle ; therefore that country supphes the world with much beef as well as mutton. Because of its enormous corn crop, our own country ranks first of all in the production of meat animals, especially in hogs and beef cattle. Densely populated Europe, tVi©Wh» •t^,^i,,^ v.: [:achsmai/ dofr, Distribution of cattle and principal meat-packing centers of the United States, DOMESTIC ANIM.VLS OF THE UNITED STATES 225 where there are Umited pastures and but Httle corn, depends largely upon these three countries for its meat. I Detroil Pliotogrupliic Co A cattle ranch, Texas. Cattle Industry. — In 1910 in the United States there were more than 60,000,000 cattle. Texas, Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, Wisconsin, Missouri, Illinois, New York, Min- nesota, and California are the ten leading cattle states. This shows that the industry is very widely distributed, but that the South is not well represented. The largest cattle markets are Chicago, St. Louis, Omaha, Kansas City, Sioux City, and Cheyenne. Cattle Ranches on the Plains. — In the western moun- tains and plains where the population is not dense, and where the rainfall is too scant for profitable agriculture, but sufficient to produce good pasturage, there are large cattle ranches, sometimes thousands of acres in extent. 226 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS The most noted ranch states are Texas, Montana, Wyo- ming, and Colorado. Formerly when much of " the plains " was still public land, the animals were turned loose to wan- der at will over wide ranges of territory. This is still true in a few places. They practically take care of themselves, summer and winter. These roaming cattle require about twenty-five acres each for a year's support. Now that public land is becoming scarce in many places and farms are becoming more numerous, men have to fence in their stock, and raise alfalfa or other feed for the winter store. Cattle in the Corn Belt. — The cattle in the corn belt, including Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, Nebraska, Indiana, Kansas, Ohio, Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan, fare even better than those on ranches, for corn is a very nutri- tious cattle food. So this is the greatest cattle-raising sec- tion. Much of the corn is fed to the cattle as silage. The corn is cut while green, and the stalks, leaves, and ears are stored in large air-tight wooden or concrete structures called silos. Kept from contact with the air silage remains green and nutritious, and is fed as needed during the winter. Dairy Products. — About one third of our cattle are raised chiefly for milk. The production of milk is largest near the great centers of population ; and the majority of these at present are in the eastern and north central parts of the country. New York, Wisconsin, and Iowa have the largest dairy interests. Minnesota, Illinois, Texas, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Missouri, and Michigan also carry on considerable dairy business. Since 1900, this industry has been making great progress in the Pacific States, especially in the Willamette valley. Pure Milk Supply. — Great interest is taken in the question of pure milk supply. Formerly a dairyman and DOMESTIC ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 227 his family cared for their cows as best they could, milked them mornings and evenings, and put the milk into three- or four-gallon cans. In the early morning one of the men peddled it among town customers, pouring a pint or a quart into each buyer's bucket or pitcher. To some houses he came before the people had risen. There he placed the uncovered milk on the doorstep, where it absorbed foul air, dust, and even flies. At other houses he arrived long after breakfast. These families either had no milk for the morning meal or they used what was left from the previous day. No one complained, because people knew of no better way. At the present time, dairies are kept in much better sanitary condition than in the past. Now both animals and barn look as if they had a daily bath. In many places the cows pass through clear water to clean their feet before entering their stalls to be milked. The single stalls are well partitioned from neighboring ones, so that the creatures may not molest each other. The barn is frequently whitewashed ; the stalls are cleaned daily, and the milkers do their work in clean white trousers and jackets. Then the milk is bottled, chilled, and delivered at a regular hour. Where farmers have only a few gallons to sell, they make arrangements with the milk station to collect the milk twice daily. The collector gathers all he can from a given A well-kept dairy barn. 228 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS territory, takes it to the railroad, on which it is carried by steam or electric cars to the milk station, which pays for it not by the gallon, but by the amount of butter fat it contains. There is often great difference in the size of the cream collars in various bottles of milk. This is due to the difference of fat in the milk given by cows. A gallon of milk from one cow may be worth twice as much as the same amount from another. When the milk from a number of farmers arrives at the milk station, it is all poured into large vats, where it is pasteurized and standardized. In pasteurization, the bac- teria injurious to health are destroyed. The standardiz- ing process thoroughly mixes the milk from the various farms so that it is uniform in quality. Some of the em- ployees are kept busy scalding the bottles in hot lye solutions and rinsing them with clear water so that they are perfectly clean. After the milk has been stand- ardized, the bottles are filled, and sealed by machinery with a little circular pasteboard cap. Then they are stored in the refrigerating rooms until the delivery men load them shortly after midnight and make their lonely trips through the A milk separator. quict streets while we DOMESTIC ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 229 are sleeping. The bottle of milk appears at our doorstep in time for breakfast every morning of the year. Butter and Cheese. — Much butter is manufactured in large creameries. The milk gathered from the various farms is poured into a machine called a separator, which separates the cream fat from the thin milk. In a re\'olving churn driven by an engine several hun- dred pounds of cream are whipped and kneaded into butter, which is then salted, packed, and shipped to near-by points. Most of the cheese is also machine-made. It is produced by cooking, draining, and kneading the curds of sour milk. About one fourth of the world's supply of butter and cheese is manufactured in the United States. While our country ranks as the greatest producer of dairy products, it exports very little butter and cheese. Cooperative Dairying. — Prosperous dairying does not always depend upon natural advantages alone. In some ways the prairies of Kansas and Nebraska are better fitted for this business than Minnesota and Wisconsin. The latter, however, make greater progress because they have formed cooperative creameries. That means that the farmers themselves own and help manage the factories and so make all the profits ; while in the states farther west the farmers sell to large private creameries that pay much less per pound for butter fat than the cooperative Churning butter. 230 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS establishments in the North. This lesson of cooperation was learned from little Denmark, which exports more butter than any other country in the world. Butter Substitutes. — Oleomargarine and butterine are butter substitutes made of the softer animal fats that are pressed out of beef tallow and suet. After these are churned with sweet milk and cottonseed oil, they are kneaded and salted just as butter is. Oleomargarine so closely resembles butter that it is sometimes sold as butter. When substitutes are sold as butter, a great injury is done to the dairy industry. To protect it and the consumer, Congress has passed a law requiring honest labeling of certain food articles, and prohibiting the coloring of oleo- margarine to make it resemble butter. The Swine Industry. — The United States produces more swine than any other country; indeed, the American Distribution of swine in the United States. One dot represents 2,500 swine. DOMESTIC ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 231 A herd of swine. farmers raise more hogs than Russia, Germany, and Austria combined, the next largest producers. We are able to supply one third of the world's pork because of our large corn crop, fifty per cent of which is fed to hogs. Live animals are not exported in great numbers, but flesh goes into foreign lands in the form of cured, canned, or fresh meat, or as lard and other packing-house products. Hogs are raised in every part of the country, but the great swine region is in the corn belt of the North Central States, in the very heart of the continent. The leading states in 1913 were Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Nebraska, Kansas, Indiana, and Ohio. Omaha, Kansas City, Chicago, St. Louis, Milwaukee, Indianapolis, Cleve- land, Buffalo, and Cincinnati carry on a large pork-pack- ing business. Sheep Raising and the Wool Industry. — Sheep yield fiber for clothing and mutton for food ; but man has not yet learned how to produce a sheep that will yield both 232 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS ©Fair it- Thompson. A sheep range, Idaho. excellent meat and first-class wool. Argentina and Aus- tralia lead in mutton sheep ; but the United States raises the sheep chiefly for its wool. Our earliest imported sheep were not good wool producers, so 26,000 merino sheep were brought from Spain in 1810, and scattered in various sec- tions. This breed produces a very strong fiber, and thrives well on the coarsest food. In general sheep can get a living on land that will not support other animals, so they are well adapted to mountainous regions. They do well even on pastures that have been cropped almost to starvation point by cattle. For these reasons sheep raising has followed close DOMESTIC ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 233 upon the heel of the cattle ranches in the semiarid western plains, and the western mountains have taken the lead in sheep production. The American Wool Clip. — The wool clip of the United States meets only two thirds of the home needs. The remaining third, of a finer quality than our own and used for a better grade of goods, comes from foreign lands. Ohio and Michigan lead among the wool- producing states of the East. Montana, Wyoming, New Mexico, Idaho, Oregon, California, Utah, and Colorado rank first in the West. The greatest profit from sheep raising comes from the wool which is clipped from them. Once a year, after the warm weather of summer is as- sured, the sheep are sheared. Long ago this was done by hand. Now they are shorn of their warm fleeces in a few minutes by machinery. The wool is baled into Distribution of sheep in the United States. sheep. One dot represents 2,500 234 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS bundles of several hundred pounds each and shipped to various manufacturing centers. Manufacturing Woolen Cloth. — Most of the wool is sent to eastern cities, especially to Boston, the largest wool market in the United States and the second in the world. From Boston the fleeces are distributed to various cities to be manufactured into cloth. Providence, Lowell, Manchester, New York, and Philadel- phia have the great- est woolen factories in the country. The last-named city and the surrounding towns of Camden and Chester weave fine carpets. To- day the United States manufactures more carpets than any other country. When the fleeces reach the factory, they are sorted ac- cording to quahty and length of fiber. Then they are washed with soap to remove the grease and dirt. In this process the very greasy fleeces lose from one half to four fifths of their weight. The grease, which sometimes amounts to three fifths of the entire weight, is converted into soap. The scoured wool is treated with acid to de- stroy all vegetable matter that may have been left after the washing. Next it is combed and spun into yarn which Wool sorting. DOMESTIC ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 235 is woven into cloth. Woolen fabrics have many different names ; such as, worsted, flannel, serge, broadcloth, cheviot, cassimere, velvet, and plush. Often wool threads are woven with cotton and silk, thus producing mixed goods. Before the cloth comes to us in the form of a garment it is steamed, shrunk, pressed, measured, and carefully wrapped around a board, in lengths of forty or fifty yards. The bundle is then incased in paper. A number of such packages are placed in a box and shipped to the tailors. Value of our Sheep Products. — The annual wool clip of the United States is worth nearly 100 milHon dollars. Manufacturing raises its value to between 300 and 400 million dollars. The mutton product is worth about 50 million. The skins are made into leather ; the tallow into candles ; the bones into fertilizer. These products, added to the meat and wool, make the sheep a profitable part of our animal industry. The Goat Industry. — Goat raising is not an important industry in the United States, although widely scattered throughout the country. Over a third of the goats are Angoras, many of which are descended from nine Angoras introduced from Turkey in 1849. About that time an American was sent to Turkey , upon the Sultan's request, to do some experimenting in cotton raising. The ruler was so pleased with the results, that he gave the nine goats as a present to the man who showed him how to raise cotton. The fleece, called mohair, of the Angora is sometimes nineteen inches long. This fiber is woven into cloth and carpets and also a high grade of plush, much used in railway car upholstery. Goats also yield rich milk, fine pelts for rugs and robes, and excellent skins for leather. 236 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS They can be easily raised on land that is practically valueless for farming. Through their browsing, goats help to clean out shrubs and seedling trees from wooded localities. Poultry and Eggs. — Last but not least of the domestic animals that are raised for food are fowls — chickens, geese, ducks, and turkeys. The rapidly increasing popu- lation has created a large demand for poultry and eggs. A poultry farm. While almost every farmer raises poultry, yet many people devote themselves entirely to this industry. Since corn is well adapted to egg production as well as for fattening fowls, the corn belt exceeds all other regions in the number of poultry. The leading states are Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Ohio, Kansas, and Indiana. Ostrich Farming. — Ostrich farming is a young industry in the United States. The first birds were imported in 1882 ; and it took a long time for men to learn how they DOMESTIC ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 237 can best be raised in this climate. In 1910 they numbered a little over 6000. They are produced in Arizona, Cali- fornia, Arkansas, Florida, and Texas. Dry sandy soil with good drainage and irrigation facilities, well adapted to the raising of alfalfa, is best suited to successful ostrich production. As the demand for ostrich feathers increases, the future prospects for this industry seem good. The average annual yield of feathers per bird is a pound and a quarter, worth about twenty-five dollars. A pair of breed- ing ostriches is worth about eight hundred dollars ; a chick six months old brings a hundred dollars. Horses. — The remaining domestic animals raised for profit in the United States are horses and mules. They are valuable for draft and farm use. While raised in all the states, horses are most numerous in the North and West. The finest light saddle horses are produced in the Ken- tucky blue-grass districts ; therefore Lexington is the chief race-horse market in the country. For some time our work horses did not compare favorably with those of Europe. But recently they have been improved by the importation of high-grade European stock. It has not been long since the countries of Europe have been willing to buy our horses. Omaha and Kansas City, in the midst of the corn and grazing districts, are the leading centers for work horses. Mules. — Since horses cannot stand so warm a climate as mules, the latter are in greater demand in the South. At the last census there were twelve times as many horses as mules in the North, while in the South there were only one and a half times as many. The value of mules consists in their enduring quality and their ability to stand hard usage, such as railroad construction work. The mule is 238 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS irf#»^.»«rf«c«5SJi^»'Bw*«i« I Underwood & Underwood Stockyards, Chicago. also receiving increased favor for farm use. One reason for his popularity is that the expense of keeping him is less than for the horse. Stockyards and Packing Houses. — Cattle, hogs, and sheep raised for meat are shipped in stock cars to the cities where the great packing houses are located. On their arrival the trains stop alongside stockyards, which may cover many acres and look like cities laid out in pens, separated by board fences. Each pen has a gate leading into the long passageways that form the streets of the yards. As soon as the door of the car is opened, the ani- mals walk down inclined gangways into the narrow roads. Men and boys with long wooden staffs guide them to their various pens, where the animals are fed, and inspected by DOMESTIC ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 239 prospective purchasers. Those remaining are soon taken to the packing houses, where they are quickly killed./ Within a few minutes after the operation they hang as dressed beef, pork, or mutton in the refrigerators of the abattoirs. After the meat has been suflfiiciently chilled, it is placed on the market. To promote the health of employees and consumers, much attention is given to the sanitary conditions of pack- ing establishments. They must be well lighted, have an abundant supply of pvire water, a perfect system of im- mediate sewage removal and the very best system of ven- tilation. The ceilings, walls, columns, and floors should always be perfectly clean. Well-lighted and thoroughly ventilated dressing rooms for employees are a necessity. Exports of Animal Products. — While our foreign ship- ments of animal products have been very large in the past and are still an important part of our exports, there has been an annual decrease for several years. This is due to a number of causes. Our growing population has decreased the surplus supply. Argentina, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa have come in as competitors. Great Britain is reducing her purchases from us because she is so well supplied by her colonies. However, she still buys about half our meat exports. Refrigeration of Meat. — The exportation of meat, fish, oysters, fruit, dairy products, and other perishable food would be out of the question if we had no means of pre- serving them while on the journey. The world's trade has been greatly increased since 1875 by cold storage devices used in cars and steamers. The first meat carried in a refrigerator car was sent from Chicago to Jersey City, when our country was a hmidred years old. Before the 240 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS days of cold storage live animals for meat were exported on cattle ships. Preserved Meats and Extract Products. — There are other means whereby meat products may be transported long distances and stored many months. Beef, pork, fish, and mutton may be salted, dried, canned, or smoked. The fat of cattle and hogs is rendered into lards and cook- ing oils. Part of the meat is ground up, seasoned, and pressed into sau- sages, which can be smoked and pre- served for months. We even extract the juice from the meat and seal it in small jars, or compress it into broth tablets. Animal By-prod- ucts. — The dis- covery of uses for every part of cattle, hogs, sheep, goats, and poultry has added millions to our wealth and many conveniences to our daily living. Our great cattle and sheep industries have given the United States the lead in the manu- facture of leather footwear. Millions of boots and shoes are made in Brockton, Lynn, and other Massachusetts towns, and also in New York, Rochester, Philadelphia, Cincinnati, © Underwood & Underwood. Meat packing. DOMESTIC ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 24 1 Chicago, and St. Louis. Rawhide is made into ropes, ma- chinery belts, and whips. A writing parchment and a book- binding material are made of the skins of calves, goats, and sheep. Dressed sheepskins also make fine rugs. Pig- skins are made into saddles and satchels. Horse flesh is eaten in several European countries, France and Germany, Loading a refrigerator car with meats. for example. Horsehide is manufactured into shoe leather, saddles, and razor strops. Gloves are made of the skins of lambs, goats, and other animals. From the tallow are produced oleomargarine, lubricants, leather dressing, soap, and candles. The feet, hide cuttings, and sinews are turned into gelatin and sizing. Combs, buttons, chemicals, handles for knives, toothbrushes, and umbrellas are manufactured from the bones, horns, and hoofs. Bones are also converted into glue, charcoal filter, and boneblack. The long tail hairs of cows and horses are used for haircloth and bowstrings for musical instru- ments. Pepsin is prepared from the lining of the stomachs, 242 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS sausage casings are made of the intestines, and fertilizer is obtained from the refuse parts of all domestic animals. The short body hair is made into roofing felt and is mixed with lime to form plaster. Feathers are made into pillows, and wool makes the most serviceable winter clothing. Is there any doubt that animals play a valuable part in the civiUzation and advancement of man? Improving American Animals. — Man has made great improvements in domestic animals. The colonists brought their stock with them from England, Holland, and other European countries. The greater number of American cattle have descended from these. Not until the nineteenth century was any interest taken in purity of breed, but since then animal breeding has received considerable atten- tion. Men especially interested in this field have formed cattle, swine, sheep, and poultry associations which hold annual conventions for the discussion of vital questions. There are more than 100,000 stock raisers who produce only pure-bred animals. In recent years good breeds have been imported from Europe, where stock raising is studied with great care. By intelligent experimenting, men have learned how to breed sheep for mutton or wool, horses for speed or hard work, and cows for milk or beef. Greater profits have resulted from feeding to stock the food best adapted to produce desired qualities of flesh, wool, or milk. Bureau of Animal Industry. — The most progressive nations are making careful studies of the diseases of domes- tic animals, in the hope of eventually stamping them out. The United States Department of Agriculture has a Bureau of Animal Industry which is giving much attention to all matters pertaining to animal welfare. They publish the DOMESTIC ANIM.\LS OF THE UNITED STATES 243 results of their investigations and experiments in bulletins, which are distributed among farmers and stockmen. An important work of the Bureau is the inspection of meat in packing houses. All meat for export and for interstate trade must be examined by the Federal inspectors. Thus consumers are protected from diseased meat. Questions and Exercises 1. Explain how the development of the cattle industry de- pended upon inventions. 2. What animal serves man most in supplying material for clothing ? 3. Make as complete a wool exhibit as possible. 4. Color an outline map of the United States, showing the chief districts in which cattle are raised. In which sheep are raised. In which horses are raised. 5. Make a list of the names of canned and preserved meats that you find on the market or in advertisements. 6. Prepare an exhibit of pictures of domestic animals, their food, shelter, and by-products. 7. Tell how you would ship a load of hogs from an Iowa farm to Chicago. A cargo of meat from Chicago to Liverpool. To Hamburar. CHAPTER XVII FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES A discussion of the animal wealth of our country would be incomplete if we overlooked fish. This country first entered its commercial career by the export of fish in ad- dition to lumber and tobacco. To-day the United States has fishery resources valued at $55,000,000 a year, which give employment to 150,000 fishermen, and 10,000 wage- earners in canning and preserving establishments. Fishing Grounds of the United States. — The fishing grounds adjoining the United States are well distributed along the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific coasts. The Great Lakes and the Mississippi and many other rivers afford excellent inland fishing facilities. To these must be added the large resources of Alaskan waters. New England Fisheries. — The largest ocean harvests of this country are landed at Gloucester, Massachusetts. The earhest New England settlers were happy when they found that the coasts were teeming with the finest of cod, halibut, shad, mackerel, and herring. These fish are a great source of food and of wealth to the people, even to this day. Owing to the shallow waters of the many inlets of , the North Atlantic section, which form fine feeding and spawn- ing grounds, many fish are caught directly off the coast by the shore-line fishermen, who are usually independent workers, each the sole master of his boat. The deep-sea fishing carried on in some cases as far as two hundred miles from shore, or as far north as New- 244 FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES 245 foundland, a thousand miles away, is done by large fast- sailing schooners having the best of outfits. There are comfortable quarters and stores of good food for the men ; and water tanks and all sorts of contrivances for cleaning and salting the fish as fast as they are caught. While the boats are usually owned by rich com- panies whose head- quarters are in Gloucester, Boston, or Provincetown, the fishermen take the keenest interest in their work, for this is a cooperative busi- ness in which the employees share in the profits of the re- turns. The captains of the ships know the fishing grounds and understand the weather conditions for fishing as well as the gardener under- stands his soil, drain- age, and the climatic conditions that will lead to certain suc- cess. The fishing is usually done not from the schooner, but from small dories that are let down into the water from the deck of the larger vessel. A large crew can thus be scattered over a considerable area with several men in each boat. The dories are emptied into the schooner as soon as they are Fishing boats in Boston harbor. 246 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS filled ; and when the latter is loaded, it returns to the port from which it started. There the fish are sold in the markets, or dried, or canned, and shipped to other inland cities. Massachusetts surpasses all other New England states in its sea products, especially in cod ; Connecticut ranks second, leading in oysters ; and Maine, with its many in- dentations, islands, and rocky shores, ranks third and leads in lobsters. Risks and Hardships of Fishing. — While this free life on the sea is alluring, there are many serious hardships connected with it, especially for the deep-sea fishermen. The " banks " off Newfoundland are often enveloped in dense fogs, which hide approaching steamers and icebergs, that without a moment's notice dash into and shatter the helpless dories, and sometimes even the large schooners. Lobster hatchery, Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts. FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES 247 Sudden violent storms drive the frail boats ruthlessly about on the wild waves and sometimes capsize them. Occa- sionally a boat is driven so far away from all the others that it is impossible to get back to the food supply in time to save the men from starvation. While the men are out struggling with untamed nature, their families are worry- ing and praying for them at home, sometimes only to learn in the end that the head of a household will never return. (£) Dttruil J'ltuluuiatJhic Cu. Oyster dredging. Fisheries of the Middle Atlantic States. — The greatest commercial returns of our country from the fishing industry are netted in the Middle Atlantic group, where New York and New Jersey are the foremost producers. This is the most densely populated region in the United States, which fact, together with transportation facilities, and the adja- cent inlets and estuaries well stocked with oysters, shad, 248 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS crabs, and menhaden, accounts for the extensive fishing industry. The oyster fisheries centered about Long Island Sound, Chesapeake Bay, and Delaware Bay yield a third of the entire oyster output of the United States and are the most noted oyster beds in the world. This is by far the most important sea product of the Middle Atlantic States. One of the chief industries of Baltimore is the canning and preserving of oysters. The United States sends annually thousands of barrels of oysters to Europe. So great has been the demand for this food that there is danger of exhausting the supply. Therefore, oyster farms are cultivated with as much care as grain fields. To in- crease the supply, countless young oysters are planted in the bays and estuaries along the Atlantic. Fishing Industries of the South. — The chief fishing in- dustries of the South Atlantic and Gulf States are those of oysters, shrimps, and large green Florida turtles. Florida is also renowned for its sponges, of which it markets over half a million dollars' worth annually. Sponges are the fibrous skeletons of large masses of jelly-like animals, which grow on rocks about a hundred feet below sea level They are torn from their bed by three-pronged forks. The living matter soon decays and leaves the framework. This is the sponge of commerce. Fisheries of the Great Lakes. — Whitefish, lake trout, sturgeon, herring, blue pike, and yellow perch are the chief products of the Great Lakes, most of them being taken from the waters west of Niagara Falls. Formerly more than a million pounds of fish were obtained annually from the lakes, but the small-meshed nets, used by the fishermen, caught countless young fish, which being unfit for use were left to die on the shores. Thus fishing in the lakes FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES 249 has been seriously injured, in spite of all that the fish com- mission has done to restock the waters with great numbers of small fry. Pacific Fisheries. — The salmon of the West, abundant along the Pacific coast from Alaska to San Francisco, are the most interesting of all our fishes. These fish begin and end their lives in the fresh waters of inland rivers ; but by far the largest part of their exist- ence is spent in the salt waters of the ocean near the mouth of some river or in a shallow in- dentation along the coast. Salmon fish- eries, extending from the Golden Gate to Puget Sound, are the most valuable in the United States, with the exception of the oyster grounds. The largest salmon Salmon fishing in Puget Sound. canneries are situated on the Columbia River and Puget Sound. The first place in value among our true fishes belongs to the salmon. Only one other species surpasses them in the world, and that is the sea herring. A Bit of Salmon History. — Five important varieties of salmon, ranging in size from eight to sixty pounds, with occasional specimens of over a hundred pounds, abound in the United States, especially in the streams of Oregon. 250 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS Washington, Idaho, and Montana. When the salmon are about ready to lay their eggs, they leave the salt ocean waters and start a long journey, sometimes of 2000 miles, up a convenient stream. This river is frequently the one in which they themselves were born. So strong are the salmon at this time that they are able to make these trips against the swiftest currents, cataracts, and even over falls ten feet high. When they have reached the spot chosen as the birthplace of the young, the female lays several thousand eggs and leaves them to the mercy of nature ; for both parents die even before the eggs are hatched. Most of the spawning occurs in the fall and the eggs hatch several weeks later. The chances for a salmon to develop from the egg to a full-grown fish are very small. In the first place, from three fifths to four fifths of the eggs are eaten by other fish. Of those that are hatched so many are devoured either in the home nest or on the trip to the ocean that only one or two per cent of all the eggs live to reach full size. To prevent this enormous loss the Bureau of Fisheries has constructed hatcheries in which salmon eggs are secured and hatched, and the young are cared for until able to shift for themselves. As a result, eighty-five per cent of the eggs are developed into good-sized fish. Catching Salmon. — The salmon industry began about fifty years ago. As soon as canning and refrigeration were introduced it grew so rapidly that extinction of the fish was imminent. The Columbia River fishermen work during July and August when the salmon are starting on their inland journey. Then the river is filled with the finest fish. They are caught in gill nets, traps, or fish wheels. The gill net, over a thousand feet long and forty feet wide, is stretched between the two boats across the river in the FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES 251 path of the salmon. The upper edge floats on the surface of the water, buoyed up by cork, and the lower edge is held in place by weights. The meshes of the net permit the head of the fish to go through, but not the body. The gills prevent the captives from backing out. Thus the salmon are held fast until taken out by the men. In swift currents the fish are dipped up in wire nets that swing from the rim of water wheels. The wheels are fastened to piers extending from the banks of the stream ; and are kept in motion by the moving water. Salmon traps are made of netting fastened to a circle of posts in the water, in such a manner that the unsuspecting fish easily finds its way into them. There they remain until removed by the men. Canning Salmon. — All along the lower Columbia are many canning establishments where the fish are prepared for the market. As soon as the salmon are delivered at the factories they are cleaned, canned, cooked, and labeled so quickly that it almost seems to be done by magic. The head, fins, and tail are cut off. The body is scraped inside and out, and given a final washing. Then they are cut into the right lengths for the cans, which are packed and sealed by machinery. A small venthole is left in the top of the can until the contents have been cooked. The opening is then sealed ; and the cans are cooled, cleaned, Salmon canning. 252 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS and labeled. Finally they are packed in cases and shipped to all parts of the world. Alaskan Fisheries. — The Alaskan waters are exceed- ingly profitable fishing grounds. Salmon, cod, and halibut abound. The seal fisheries have more than paid for Alaska. Since that peninsula and the adjoining islands were pur- chased from Russia in 1867 for $7,200,000, the United States government has received $9,000,000 for leases giving certain companies the privilege of catching seals in these waters. The largest seal-breeding place in the world comprises the five rocky, desolate Pribilof Islands in Bering Sea. About the first of May the males arrive on these islands from their winter quarters in warmer southern seas. The females, called cows, arrive at the rookeries, as the seal ledges of the Bering Islands are called, about the first of Seals on beach, Alaska. FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES 253 June. The young males, known as bachelors, on arriving at the islands herd together on the outskirts of the rookeries. It is these young males that are killed for their skins. A day or two after the arrival of the females, the young seals or pups are born. A week or two later their mothers enter the neighboring waters in search of food for themselves, returning at intervals to nourish their young. The males remain on the islands until August, living on the fat they have accumulated during their winter stay at sea. Then they go to sea in search of food. The pups leave the rookeries about November. International Seal Agreements. — Since all nations may fish without restriction anywhere in the ocean beyond the three-mile Hmit, a large number of seals, many of them mothers, were killed and captured in the open seas. So many were killed at sea that the extinction of these animals was almost sure to occur. To prevent this, Russia, Japan, England, and the United States signed a treaty in 191 1 which provides punishment for any one who kills seals in the deep waters of the Pacific north of the thirtieth parallel of latitude. They may be killed only on land, between December and April ; and no one is permitted to kill a female. By this treaty it is hoped that the number of seals will increase and that the Alaskan seal fisheries may be a permanent industry. Whaling. — Another profitable sea animal that lives in the cold northern waters is the whale. Many people erroneously think it is a fish. The gills, necessary for a wholly aquatic life, are wanting in the whale ; so it must come to the surface at regular intervals to get a fresh supply of air. Before the Civil War, whaling was an important American industry, because it yielded oil and whalebone, 254 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS two products for which there were no substitutes. The whaHng headquarters then were at New Bedford, Massa- chusetts, and most of the whales were caught off the coast of Greenland. Lately mineral and vegetable oils have been discovered which partly take the place of the animal oil. The whalebone has been partially replaced by cellu- loid, rubber, and other products. These changes, added to the scarcity of whales, have greatly reduced the extent of whaling. In the meantime the headquarters have shifted to San Francisco. Most of the right whales are caught in Cutting up a whale to obtain whalebone and oil, Newfoundland. FISHERIES Ol' THE UNITED STATES 255 the Arctic Ocean, but sperm whales are captured in the Indian Ocean. After a whale is sighted, a harpoon is shot at it from the ship or launch. The dead monster is then fastened to the side of the vessel. The fat is removed from it and transferred to the ship, where from twenty to thirty thousand gallons of oil are rendered out of it. The horny, fringed sheets of whalebone ten feet long, attached to the upper jaw, are worth from three to four dollars a pound. The sperm whale has no whalebone but is valuable for its sperm oil, which is manufactured into candles and ointments. It also yields a fragrant substance, called ambergris, used in making perfumes. The teeth often serve as a substitute for ivory. By-products. — The chief use of fish and, indeed, most water animals is for food. But they yield many other valu- able by-products as well, which give rise to a number of re- lated occupations. For example, glue and fertilizers are manufactured from the skin, bones, and other refuse parts of fish. Fish glue is used in making court plasters, and on postage stamps. Cod fiver oil is noted for its medicinal qualities. Isinglass is obtained from the swimming bladders of fish. Future Fish Supply. — Such large numbers of fish and other water animals have been taken from our streams, lakes, and coast waters that many of our fisheries are threatened with extinction. To repair the losses already sustained and to prevent still further depletion the national government and several of the states have created fish commissions, whose duty it is to increase the quantity and improve the quality of the fish supply of the United States. The United States Bureau of Fisheries makes 256 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS careful studies of the habits and diseases of various species ; for example, salmon and oysters. The rivers, lakes, and coast waters are stocked with young fish. Men gather eggs from the spawning grounds, hatch them artificially, and take charge of the young until they can care for. them- selves, at which time they are set free in the rivers and lakes. Fish eggs are sometimes imported from other countries so that new kinds may be developed here. Questions 1. Which are more important, land or sea animals? 2. The food of many land animals consists of vegetation. What furnishes the food for the millions of fish in the ocean ? 3. On an outline map of the United States indicate the various important fishing districts. 4. Prepare an exhibit of pictures of as many varieties of fish as possible. How do Alaskan salmon reach Chicago ? 5. Describe one of your own fishing experiences. 6. Ask your marketman where his fish came from. CHAPTER XVIII MINERAL WEALTH OF THE UNITED STATES. THE METALS Classes of Mineral Products. — There are two classes of minerals, — metallic and nonmctallic. The first group in- cludes iron, gold, silver, copper, zinc, lead, quicksilver, and many others. The second group includes building stone, clay, coal, petroleum, and gas. Iron. — With the possible exception of coal, iron is our most valuable mineral. At present we are producing about one half of the world's annual iron output. Minnesota, Michigan, Alabama, New York, and Wisconsin produce about nine tenths of the total iron output of the United States. <^^Iron ore deposits. Thu areas in solid black iudicatc mining re^ons. Iron ore regions of the United States. 257 258 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS An open iron mine, Minnesota. The steam shovel is scooping up the ore and placing it in cars. Lake Superior District. — The Lake Superior region is the greatest iron producer in the world. The iron Hes so near the surface that it is mined with unusual ease and little cost. Since the close of the last century, mining ma- chinery has been so much improved that it has largely dis- placed hand labor and greatly reduced the expense of excavation and transportation. Enormous steam shovels scoop the reddish ore from the open pits of the mines into freight cars, which take it to near-by lake ports. Then it is carried in vessels to iron-manufacturing cities, like MINERAL WEALTH OF THE UNITED STATES 259 Chicago, Gary, and Cle\cland. From Cleveland and other Lake Erie ports much of the ore is shipped by railroad to Pittsburgh and other neighboring cities. The Superior field lacks coal, and therefore the iron ore is shii)ped by water to the great manufacturing cities near the coal fields. Millions of tons of raw iron, looking very much hke ordinary soil, are received by the many smelting fur- naces every year. From the iron-smelting centers, vast quantities of pig iron, cast iron, wrought iron, and steel are sent out by rail and boat to Detroit, Buffalo, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Cincinnati, Indianapolis, and scores of other cities w^here these semi-raw products are manufactured into farming implements, printing presses, stoves, sewing machines, automobiles, locomotives, ships, wire, nails, pins, and hundreds of other articles. Molten iron pouring into the molds Breaking into bars the pig noii tluit of a pig iron machine. has solidified in the grooves in the sand. Leading Iron Cities. — Pittsburgh, in the heart of the richest coal field in the United States, carries on the greatest iron and steel business. Chicago and Gary, which lie near 26o THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS the Superior iron mines just north of them and the Illinois and Indiana coal mines just south, are the next in impor- tance. Birmingham, Alabama, is favorably located with reference to coal, iron, and limestone deposits; hence it ranks third in this class of manufactures. It does such a large business in iron and steel that it has earned for itself the name, " Pittsburgh of the South." Colorado has large deposits of limestone, coal, and iron ; and Pueblo in that state is the leading city of the Western States in the manu- facture of iron and steel. Copper. — After iron, our most valuable metallic mineral •& DiUuit I'iibll-i)Ling Co. Pouring copper into molds, Michigan. In front is a pile of ingots taken from the molds. MINERAL WEALTH (W THE UNITED STATES 26 1 is copper. Next to silver, copper is the best conductor of electricity ; and its chief use is for manufacturing electrical appliances. The marvelous increase in the uses of elec tricity has made a great demand for this metal. It is also used in the manufacture of boilers, and for roofing houses and sheathing the bottoms of ships. Copper mixed with tin makes bronze ; when mixed with zinc, it produces brass. Chile used to be the leader in the production of copper ; now the first place is held by the United States. We supply more than half of the world's annual output of this metal. For a long time the shores of Lake Superior in Michigan were the greatest copper region on the globe. The metal occurs there in almost a pure state. Another important copper section is the Butte district of Mon- tana ; but the greatest producer to-day is Arizona. A large part of our annual copper output goes to Europe, mainly to Netherlands, Germany, France, and Great Britain. Our rivals in copper production are Mexico, Spain, and Japan. Lead. — With the progress of industry and science, lead becomes more and more useful. It is employed in roofing houses, lining cisterns, making plumbing pipes, and for manufacturing metal type, shot, white lead, solder, and pewter ware. This metal is found in workable quantities in only four states : Missouri, Idaho, Utah, and Colorado. With the exception of the first, they are all in the Rocky Mountain section, where the lead is often found in lead- silver deposits. Our country produces more than any other nation, or a third of the world's annual supply of lead. Zinc. — Zinc is a hard mineral and is generally found with copper or lead. Its hardness, together with its power 262 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS to resist the rusting effects of water, make it very useful for drain spouts and gutters of houses. Galvanized buckets are treated with a zinc solution and thus are able to render far more satisfactory service than tin buckets or even the old oaken buckets. Almost all the zinc of the world is produced by the United States, Germany, and Belgium. The United States ^delds about a third of the entire amount. Zinc mining is carried on in ten or twelve states, but Mis- souri leads them all. This state furnishes two thirds of the American product. Mercury. — The United States produces about a fourth of the mercury of the world. From California about eighty-five per cent of the output of the United States is obtained. Texas, Utah, Arizona, and Oregon supply the remainder. This metal is the only one that, under ordinary conditions, is a liquid. The hquid in thermometers and barometers is mercury. It is also used in making the backs of mirrors, in medicines and dentistry, and for ex- tracting gold and silver from their ores. Aluminum. — Within the last thirty years, aluminum has been added to our hst of valuable metals. It had re- mained practically unknown for so long a time because it is difficult to separate from the other elements with which it is usually combined. By means of electricity this mineral now is easily released from its ore, called bauxite. It is particularly valuable on account of its light weight and rust-proof quality. Kitchen utensils, suit cases, artificial limbs, musical instruments, mailing tubes, chemical uten- sils, and camera cases are a few of the articles made of it. The United States produces about a fourth of the world's supply, and most of it comes from Arkansas, Georgia, Alabama, and Tennessee. MINERAL WEALTH OF THE UNITED STATES 263 Gold. — Because of its licauty and scarcity, gold is regarded as a precious metal. It is used chiefly for jewelry and money. Men are so anxious to possess gold that they will undergo the most trying hardships to secure it. Some very extensive migrations into new lands have l^een due to the quest for gold and other precious metals. Gold-producing Countries. — The leading countries in gold production are British South Africa, the United States, Australia, and Mexico. Our own country mines a httle more than one fifth of the world's annual output. California, Colorado, Nevada, Alaska, South Dakota, Utah, Montana, and Arizona are the chief gold-producing areas of the United States. Discovery of Gold in California. — In January 1848, a man named Marshall built a flour mill for Mr. Sutter, a pioneer settler near Sacramento, California. While dig- ging a mill-race, he found in the sand some bright, shining particles which proved to be gold. This discovery caused great excitement. The gold fever spread rapidly over the country. Men rushed from all parts of the world — from New England, Mexico, China, France, Germany, Italy, and Russia — to Cahfornia. There were no transcon- tinental railroads in those days, so thousands of men from the eastern part of the United States crossed the western plains, deserts, and mountains in canvas-covered wagons to the California gold fields. Others went by ship to the Isthmus of Panama, crossed the narrow strip of land, and then took ship again for San Francisco. Still others went in ships around Cape Horn to reach California. The gold region was public land belonging to the Govern- ment. Each prospector, soon after his arrival, filled a pan with gravel from the river, shook and whirled it under the 264 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS water until only small specks of gold remained. If he was satisfied with the result he applied for a claim of the river front on the spot where he had made his test. The lucky prospectors made very large wages. Ordinary miners re- ceived $16 a day. The very lucky ones netted as much as $1000 and even $5000 a day. Fabulous prices were paid for food and clothing. Hotel accommoda- tions were scant. People lived in log cabins, shanties, and tents. Board and all living expenses were incredibly high — flour $1 a pound, bacon $1.60 a pound, candles $1 each, a pair of boots $100. Letters could not be mailed in the modern sense of the word, but they were ex- pressed at $2, $3, and $4 each. As more and more Gold washing, California. gold was found, pan-washing became too slow, and the rocker came into use. The rocker had a flat bottom, two side boards and a head board with a hopper at the upper end ; the head of this contrivance was several inches higher than the foot. Earth and water were thrown into the hopper ; the gold and fine gravel fell through the screen of the hopper to the bottom of the rocker, while the coarse MINERAL WEALTH OF THE UNITED STATES 265 rocks rolled off from above. The machine was kept in constant motion. At the lower end was a riflSe about an inch and a half high which caught the gold particles as the liner gravel and clay were washed down by the water. Later the rocker gave way to the " long torn," which consisted of a trough or sluiceway of boards with sides ten inches high. The water thrown into the sluice- way on the earth carried the latter down the gently slant- ing bottom board, which was supplied with riffles that caught and held the particles of gold, while the gravel washed away. This produced results more quickly than the rocker. In time, canals were built from the rivers to the great gold-bearing hills some distance away. By means of pipes, large streams of water were played against the soil and gravel, forcing it into ditches or sluices. The gold settled at the bottom, while the clay and sand rolled away. This method is called hydraulic mining. While it is rather expensive because dams and flumes must be built and water mains must be laid, one man can accompHsh as much by this method as thirty-five diggers. Dredging for Gold. — The beds and deltas of many rivers are rich in gold. This is obtained by means of dredges. A gold dredge is a slow boat with an endless chain of buckets that scoop up the earth from beneath the water, removing thousands of cubic yards of earth in a day. As each bucket reaches the top of the dredge, its contents are dropped into a hopper. The mass rolls down a revolving screen, and water is constantly played upon the screen, so that the soft earth and particles of gold escape through the screen and flow over the riffle boards below. The riffles hold back the gold. The stones are 266 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS carried to the end of the screen and are thrown off in some- what the same way as the wheat straw is carried from the threshing machine by the straw stacker. Thus great heaps of rocks and soil are taken from the earth and piled in hills. These pyramids of dredged earth are now removed by crushing the rocks and using them for roads, railroad ballast, and concrete. The remaining soil is then leveled and the tracts are converted into farm lands. A gold dredge. Gold from Solid Rocks. — After considerable mining had been done along the rivers, men found that there were veins of solid rock rich in gold, deep down in the earth. To get this is more difficult and costly than hydraulic mining ; for deep shafts must be sunk, and hoisting engines, mining tools, and blasting materials secured. The solid rock is crushed in stamp mills and then by various means the MINERAL WEALTH Ol" TIIK UNITED STATES 267 gold is separated from the line particles of rock. Such mining can be done only by -companies with large sums of money. The result of the California gold fever was the rapid settling and building up of the West. Mine after mine of gold, silver, copper, and lead was discovered in California. Nevada, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado ; in fact, all through the Pacific and Rocky Mountain section, until to-day this is one of the richest and most promising parts of the United States. Roads were built across the moun- tains, over which thousands of people traveled in search of new opportunities. The Pacific Railroad, ready for use in 1867, was the first of a number of steam highways that promoted a stream of westward migration which has not yet come to its end. Soon resources other than minerals attracted strong, daring young men and women from the East. Agriculture, fruit growing, stock raising, and lum- bering brought in as much wealth as the gold. Scores of prominent cities sprang into existence, among them Sacra- mento, San Francisco, Oakland, Los Angeles, Portland, Seattle, Tacoma, 5alt Lake City, Spokane, and Denver. Gold in Alaska. — In 1898 there was a new gold excite- ment. Bright yellow particles of gold had been discovered in the sands of the Klondike and other tributaries of the Yukon River. Then the cry was, " On to Klondike," and there was a mad rush to the Arctic region near the bound- ary of Canada and Alaska. The gold seekers took a steamer at Seattle and sailed 1200 miles along the Canadian shore to Skagway in southern Alaska. There the adventurers began a long wearisome tramp northward over the Dead Horse Trail, so named because many prospectors lost their horses here through exhaustion. By and by the men 268 MINERAL WEALTH OF THE UNITED STATES 269 reached the upper waters of the Yukon, glad to take boats and thus be relieved of carrying heavy burdens over rough paths. But even a sadder fate awaited them here ; for some of the boats were stranded in the rapids of the river. Many lost their goods and not a few were drowned. But the more sturdy and fortunate ones finally reached Dawson, Canada, in the midst of the gold district lying in Canada and Alaska. At first the miners washed the gold-bearing sands lying at the surface. Later, when much of the loose surface earth had been sifted, they searched underground for hidden treasures. They often found gold deposits several feet below the surface. In order to get the gold in the winter season the earth had to be thawed out with fires before the mining operations could be carried on. A few men were fortunate enough to wash out hundreds of dollars' worth of gold daily ; but for the majority it meant most trying hardships and privations with no unusual returns ; and in some cases disappointment was the only reward. As in the case of Cahfornia, the railroad soon followed the path of the gold hunters ; so now the entire trip from our western coast can be comfortably made in steamers and by rail. Gold at Nome. — In the midst of the Klondike excite- ment, gold was discovered on the beach of Cape Nome, which lies on the west coast of Alaska near the entrance to Bering Strait. At once, hundreds of Klondikers packed their goods and in all possible haste sailed down the Yukon River and across Norton Sound to Nome, a small Eskimo village. This was even a richer field than the one they had left behind. Within a few days Nome had a population of 2000 men. Very shortly after the arrival of the miners, hotels, stores, banks, telegraphs, telephones, electric lights. 270 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS railroads, and schools came into existence, like mush- rooms. While the sands along the beach yielded rich returns, Nome was a thriving city. In recent years it has declined in importance. A mining camp, Alaska. Much as gold is prized, it is only dead matter, which in itself cannot contribute one iota to human comfort. The lucky finders had to have purchasers for their yellow metal. So they took it to the United States assay office which had been put up in Seattle by the Government. This office has bought many miUions of dollars' worth of Alaskan gold dust and has sent it to the mints to be coined. Gold is the third resource which has made Alaska profitable to the United States. MINERAL WEALTH OF THE UNITED STATES 27 1 Other Resources in Alaska. — While gold lured men north, it is not the resource that holds them and builds up A field of potatoes, Alaska. the region. Furs and gold attract a floating population ; agriculture builds up a permanent community. Formerly Alaska was known as a cold, barren place from which men had best keep away. Since the discovery of gold, it has been found that the climate is as good as that of Norway and Sweden. While the winters are severe in the interior, the summers are warm and well adapted in certain parts to the raising of grains, vegetables, and grass. Valuable forests are found in the southern half of the peninsula. The excellent pastures make stock-raising possible, es- pecially of the reindeer, cattle, and sheep. Besides the gold, rich copper deposits and valuable coal beds have been dis- covered. Manufactures have at least made a start, and a few railroads have been built. 27: THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS Our Gold-producing Districts. — The greatest gold fields in the country to-day are in Colorado. Cripple Creek. Leadville, and Denver are especially rich in silver and gold deposits. California is the second in the production of gold at present, closely rivaled by Alaska. There are four mints in the United States where gold is melted, stamped, and milled into coin ; namely Philadelphia, New Orleans, Denver, and San Francisco. Silver. — While gold is the best mineral for setting a standard of values, silver is a better metal for the making of coins, because of its greater hardness. Moreover, it is found in much larger quantities than the yellow metal. The world's output of silver is ten times as great as that of gold per year. In the last fifty years silver mining has Silver-lead mills, Idaho. MINERAL WEALTH OF THE UNITED STATES 273 steadily increased in our country. The chief silver-pro- ducing countries are Mexico, United States, and Canada. In the United States, Nevada, Utah, Montana, Idaho, Colorado, and Arizona lead in the production of silver. Much of the gold ore also contains silver and thus these two metals may be the product of one kind of ore. Large quantities of silver are present in copper ores, hence in copper mining, silver is an important by-product. Questions 1. What properties make iron the most useful mineral? 2. What is the relation between iron and commerce ? Iron and farming ? 3. Write out a list of articles that are wholly or partly made of iron or steel. 4. Name the great steel centers and account for their de- velopment. 5. Collect specimens of pig iron, cast iron, wrought iron, steel, lead, zinc, copper, brass. 6. Sketch a map of the Great Lakes and the adjoining states of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York. Show routes over which iron ore passes ; ports at which it is unloaded and converted into useful articles. 7. Why are so many blast furnaces and steel mills far re- moved from the iron mines ? 8. What is the most valuable resource- of Alaska? Of California ? 9. Sketch a map of Alaska, and the Yukon River, On it indicate the Nome and Klondike gold districts. ID. What effect would a total lack of gold and silver have upon our industries ? A lack of copper ? CHAPTER XTX MINERAL WEALTH OF THE UNITED STATES. NONMETALLIC MINERALS Coal, the Basis of Successful Industry. — No country at the present time ranks high in industry that does not have an abundant coal supply. The three leading modern in- dustrial nations lead in the production of coal as well as of iron. They produce four times as much coal as all the rest of the nations together. Of the world's output in 1910 the United States produced 39 per cent, Great Britain 23 per cent, and Germany 18 per cent. Coal Fields of the United States. — In general there are two kinds of coal — anthracite or hard coal, and bitumi- nous or soft coal. While, so far as is known, this country Distribution of mineral fuels in the United States. 274 MINERAL WEALTH OF THE UNITED STATES 75 Digging into a seam of coal at the face of a cliff, Pennsylvania. has the largest single anthracite coal field in the world, it is only half the size of Delaware. It lies in eastern Penn- sylvania. Besides this there are very small areas of it in Colorado and New Mexico. The bituminous fields are well scattered over the United States. No less than thirty states produce coal. The two leading sections are the Appalachian region and the eastern interior field lying in Illinois, Indiana, and Kentucky. The leading coal states, in order of importance, are Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Illinois, Ohio, Indiana, Alabama, Kentucky, Colorado, Iowa, and Wyoming. 276 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS Work in the Mines. — Work in the mines is all very hard, whether it be the opening of the shaft or tunnel in a new mine, the blasting of a wall of coal, the propping of the ceiling with heavy beams, the loading of the cars, or the breaking up of the hard anthracite lumps. It is doubly difficult when the miner has to work on hands and knees in a thin vein ; or work while lying on his back. Sometimes the mine is damp from water that has run into it. The dangers in coal mining are serious. The miners may suffocate from mine gases ; or they may be crushed by the caving in of the roof; or be drowned by an un- expected break of a wall that lets in a flood of watery or an explosion may dash them to pieces ; or a fire may break out and burn them to DrUiing into a layer of coal. death. Formerly Httle attention was paid to mine accidents ; but as people have become more thoughtful of one another's welfare, laws have been passed to protect miners, and the number of accidents have decreased. Inspection and Transportation of Coal. — When coal is ready for the market, before it leaves the mine it is in- spected by government officers whose duty it is to see that it has been properly cleaned of slate and other foreign matter. More than a million people in our country are employed in handling coal. Bituminous coal, as it leaves the mine, is run down inclined railroads and discharged MINERAL WEALTH OF THE UNITED STATES 277 into waiting cars or barges. Freight boats, filled with this fuel, may be seen ghding over the waters of the Ohio, the Mississippi, and the Great Lakes. Railway companies that carry the coal overland, have as many as 70,000 cars devoted entirely to coal shipments. By-products of Coal. — Only recently has man learned to secure many valuable by-products from vast quantities of material that in the past was thrown out as waste at the mouth of the mines. All the fine dust and slack which were formerly thrown away are now used in firing boilers or are burned in specially constructed grates. Coke is also Interior of a gas plant. manufactured from it. Illuminating gas is secured by dis- tillation from coal, after which it is passed through water and slacked lime. When steam is passed over red hot coke a fuel known as water gas is the result. Coal tar, 278 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS which is a by-product of coke manufacture, used to be considered worse than waste, because the men did not know how to get rid of it except to throw it into streams ; and there it was a nuisance. Nowadays scores of valuable articles are made from it ; such as ammonia, benzine, saccharin, dyes, red ink, disinfectant oils, carbolic acid, explosives, insecticides, photographic developers, creosote for preserving meat and wood, lubricating oils, pitch for tar paper and tar felt, and lamp black. It is coal, too, that produces part of the mineral oil that replaces whale oil and thus supplements our fishery products. Waste in the Mining of Coal. — Probably the fact that our coal supply seemed inexhaustible has led us to be very wasteful. It has been estimated that up to 1883, for every ton of coal that was marketed a ton and a half were lost at the mine ; since that date one ton has been wasted for every ton used. Sometimes thin layers of coal are inter- spersed with layers of shale. Such beds have been left because it was too much trouble to handle the shale. As a rule in the past any stratum of coal less than three feet thick has not been mined. Of course that means an enor- mous waste. Sometimes when several veins occur in the same place, the lower ones are worked first ; then those above cave in and are so crushed that it is impossible to extract the coal of the higher seams from the debris. Ex- plosives used to loosen the coal crumble a large quantity of it and cause great loss thereby. Waste of Coal in Factories and Power Houses. — If the coal in the furnaces of our factories, stores, and large public buildings were properly burned there would be little or no smoke. The smoke is unbumed coal. In the form, of soot and smoke we are driving about 20 per cent of the fuel MINERAL WEALTH OF THE UNTLED STATES 279 that is thrown into the furnace out through the chimney without the least return to us. On the contrary there is great injury to our health. Many American families, per- haps all those using coal, are wasting some by overfeeding the stoves and furnaces, heating more rooms daily than are in use. Waste of Coal in the Manufacture of Coke. — In the United States a large amount of coal is wasted in the Coke ovens, West Virginia. thousands of poorly constructed ovens in which coke is manufactured. Other countries, such as Germany, manu- facture their coke in ovens that not only increase the quantity and improve the quality of the coke, but yield ammonia, tar, and gas as by-products. If all our ovens were of this modern type, millions of dollars would be saved annually. 28o THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS Government Coal Lands. — Early in the history of our country, the government sold public lands for little or nothing, irrespective of whether it was farming or coal- bearing land. The loose laws made it possible for groups of individuals, forming a corporation, to acquire immense areas of coal fields at a trifling cost. This put a great resource into the hands of private owners at ridiculously low prices. To-day the government is classifying the pubhc lands as agricultural and coal bearing. This work is being done by the United States Geological Survey. As the task requires several years, large tracts of pubhc land are withdrawn from settlement or sale, until the Geological Survey can classify them and give some definite informa- tion as to their true value. When that is done, the coal lands are sold at prices more nearly proportional to the worth of the coal. Government Ownership of Coal Lands. — It has long been suggested that coal lands should be held by the United States government, and leased to private concerns at a specified royalty. By this method the government revenue would be increased, and the coal supply would probably last longer. In 191 2 the government tried for the first time the plan of leasing a coal mine instead of selling it. A mine of 2480 acres in Wyoming was leased for ten years to a private company at the rate of six and a half cents a ton on all coal mined during the first five years, and eight cents a ton for the remaining time of the lease. In order to promote the safety of the miner and prevent the waste of coal this mine must be operated according to rules prescribed by the Bureau of Mines at Washington. This is an experiment whose purpose it is to make coal mining in America as safe as it is in Europe. MINERAL WEALTH OF THE UNITED STATES 281 "■*'^''y^>'""?*/f*- 4 UMTED STATES N>^..^ipJ/r.'' O^ \;^,, SCALE OF MILES ^ .--^~— l^^f'' ^1 \iV---- 200 £00 100 500 30° 3IO THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS Before this road was completed to its western terminus the building of railroads had begun. Modern American Roads. — For a long time after the introduction of railroads wagon roads were generally neg- lected. Recently it has been found that such roads are necessary arteries leading to the railroads. This fact and the introduction of rubber-tired vehicles and the rural free delivery mail service are causing renewed interest in good roads. To-day there are several milUon miles of gravel, crushed stone, or brick roads in this country. Thousands of strong bridges span the rivers in all parts of the United States. River Transportation. — No country has been more liberally suppHed by nature with rivers and lakes than the United States. The Mississippi and its large tributaries furnish 16,000 miles of navigable waterway. All told, 25,000 miles of our waterways are now serving commerce. The rivers of the United States transport a very large amount of freight at much lower rates than those charged by railroads. Grain and lumber are the chief articles of traffic on the upper Mississippi ; while many vessels on the lower river start thousands of bales of cotton on their long journeys to the factories. The Ohio with its head- waters in the iron and coal region of Pittsburgh, carries to the towns on its banks many barges of coal, fleets of lumber rafts, and many steamboats filled with factory products. A single fleet of barges sometimes carries 70,000 tons of coal down the Ohio and Mississippi from Pennsylvania to New Orleans. Vast quantities of iron, grain, and petroleum also are carried by the Ohio. Heavy ocean freight finds its way to and from Phila-, delphia by way of the Delaware River. The Hudson River DOMESTIC EXCHANGE OF GOODS IN UNITED STATES 311 has a large passenger traffic, numbering several million travelers each year. It also receives vast loads of grain, meat, lumber, and other freight from the Erie Canal, which connects Lake Erie with the Hudson River. Almost every river of the Atlantic is navigable to the limit of high tide, called the Fall Line. The Pacific Coast is not so well sup- plied with navigable tributaries. Canals. — Water has always been such a cheap means of transportation that in many instances if men did not find a river where they needed one, they constructed an artificial water route and called it a canal. The first important canal of America was the Erie, built from 181 7 to 1825 across the state of New York from the Hudson, near Albany, to Buffalo on Lake Erie. By means of this canal, freight ) Detroit Fhotouriijjhic Cu Erie Canal, Rochester, N.Y. 312 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS charges across New York from Albany to Buffalo dropped from $120 a ton to $14 a ton ; from $10 for a barrel of flour to thirty cents. The success of the Erie Canal is attested to by the impetus it gave to canal building throughout the country. In the quarter of a century following its completion, 4500 miles were completed at a cost of $214,000,000. Improving American Waterways. — For a long time the river and canal traffic steadily increased. But as the railroads developed, river transportation steadily decreased. The waterways seemed unable to meet the railway competi- tion and so their service became less efficient. When the cars were unable to handle the enormous crops of late years, people tried to fall back on the waterways, but found them in rather a deplorable condition, owing to neglect and to the shrinkage of water due to removal of the forests. The necessity for improving rivers and extending canals, as European nations have done long ago, became evident. Waterways associations were formed to investigate condi- tions and suggest improvements. Plans for improving inland navigation include the deepening of rivers, the puri- fication of waters, development of power, the control of floods, and the extension of canals. The state of New York is now enlarging the Erie Canal so that it will carry steam- towed barges with a tonnage four times that of present canal boats. Panama Canal. — The greatest canal project of the United States is that of the Panama Canal which has just been completed. It cuts through the narrowest part of the neck of land joining North America and South America. The French started the project, but failed. The United States beHeved that such a canal connect- DOMESTIC EXCHANGE OF GOODS IN UNITED STATES 313 ing the two largest oceans would be of inestimable value to the United States and also to the rest of the world. So when the French failed in their undertaking, the American government bought their plant and rights for $40,000,000. It paid the Repubhc of Panama $10,000,000, together with an annual payment of $250,000, for the use and control of the Canal Zone, a strip of territory ten miles wide, through which the canal was built. Two serious problems were connected with the building of this waterway. First, the problem of sanitation ; and second, the task of cutting through the mountain range which forms a part of the backbone of the two Americas. Both have yielded to the skill and energy of American engineers. A ship entering the canal on the Atlantic side passes through a sea-level section ; then it enters the Gatun Locks which lift it to Gatun Lake, which is 85 feet above sea level. This lake was formed by placing across the Chagres River a dam one and one half miles long, one half mile wide at the base, and 100 feet wide at the top. After leaving Gatun Lake, the vessel enters the Culebra Cut, which has been excavated through the continental divide of the isthmus. The canal level in this cut is the same as that in Gatun Lake. At the Pacific end of the Culebra Cut, the Pedro Miguel and Miraflores Locks lower the ship to another sea-level section, which leads out to the Pacific Ocean. (See map of Panama Canal Zone, p. 347.) Great prophecies are made as to the wonderful advantages the Panama Canal will bring to America. The cheap freight rates will foster industry in all lands bordering on 314 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS ?*.■ '^^*^'^***1MKSHBSi 1 IH^.- - - ■'.^»^^^B HHraHPirL- 1 Panama Canal locks. the Pacific, including our own. To meet this new business, transcontinental railroad lines are extending toward the Pacilic in every North American country. There will be increased trade between Europe and our western coast. The Canal will stimulate commerce in every city on the Mississippi, from the head of its navigable waters to the Gulf. Much trafhc that now goes to the Atlantic sea- board will go to Gulf ports. Cheaper transportation be- tween the Atlantic and Pacific coasts will increase commerce, not merely between the East and West, but between our eastern coast and Asia. All things considered, the southern coast is now much more favorably situated with reference to the commerce of the world than heretofore, hence southern ports, especially Galveston and New Orleans, should experience greater prosperity. DOMESTIC EXCHANGE OF GOODS IN UNITED STATES 315 River Ports on the Mississippi. — The largest river port in the United States is St. Louis, in the heart of the Mississippi Valley, near the mouth of the Missouri River, where it receives and distributes large supplies of grain, meat, tobacco, and machinery. Memphis, at the head of naviga- tion for the largest vessels on the Mississippi, is an im- portant southern center for lumber and cotton. New Orleans, commanding the southern gateway of the conti- nent, is the metropoHs of the far South. Lying in the midst of the sugar-cane fields, it has a large sugar-relining business. It is also an important cotton-shipping point. River Ports on the Ohio. — Pittsburgh, at the head of the Ohio, is the greatest center of the iron and steel industry in the world. It hes in the heart of the richest coal field in the world ; while the Great Lakes and short rail routes from Lake Erie deliver the Superior iron at her doors. This Pittsburgh, near the junction of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers. 3l6 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS city is also famous for the production of oil and glass. Just at the point where the Ohio makes its big turn toward the southwest is Cincinnati. This city catches much of the traffic of the Ohio River. Meat, clothing, machinery, and malt liquors are its chief manufactured products. Levee on the Ohio at Cincinnati. The next great manufacturing and commercial center on the Ohio River is Louisville, leading in tobacco, flour, leather, and Kquor industries. Missouri River Ports. — The enormous grain and stock- raising industries of the prairie states have given rise to two of the largest meat-packing centers in the world: They are Omaha, Nebraska, and Kansas City, Kansas, both on the Missouri River. Commerce on the Great Lakes. — The Great Lakes are the greatest of all inland waterways. For commercial pur- poses, two canals — one on the Canadian and the other on DOMESTIC EXCHANCIK OF C.OODS TN UNTTKl) STA'I'ES 317 the American side — have Ijocn built around the rajiids in the St. Marys River, between Lakes Sujierior and Huron. The American canal surpasses all olhcr canals in the w(»ild in the amount of freight carried. Commerce has concjuercd Niagara Falls by passing through the Welland Canal, which connects Lakes Erie and Ontario. The St. Lawrence River, navigable for ocean vessels up to Montreal, connects the Great Lakes with the Atlantic. Iron ore, grain, Hour, copper, lumber, and coal supply most of the traffic carried on the (jrcat Lakes. The first five articles, which are the chief products of the region lying near Lakes Superior and Michigan, go east ; while; coal, after a short haul from the mines to Lake Erie, travels west. The traffic going east is several times a*s large as that going west. The freight rate on the (ireat Lakes is scarcely one tenth that of railroads for equal distances. This accounts for tlie enormous lake traf^c. Lake Ports. — Many important cities are situated on the lakes, because these waters, besides affording excellent transportation facilities, are in the midst of vast mineral, lumber, and agricultural resources. From Duluth, Two Harbors, and Su])erior iron ore is shi])])ed to southern and eastern lake ports. Chicago, Milwaukee, Detroit, Toledo, Cleveland, and Buffalo receive and distribute this mineral and other products carried by the lakes. Chicago, the great metropolis of the North Central section, and the greatest lake port in the world, is the second city of the United States in population. Milwaukee, a great grain and lumber port, is noted for its flour mills, machine shops, iron works, and breweries. Detroit manufactures iron and steel cars, automobiles, and machinery. Cleveland has large meat-packing, steel, and 3i8 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS (g) DtlroU Photographic Co. Lake steamers at Buffalo. shipbuilding interests. Buffalo, at the junction of the Erie Canal and Lake Erie, takes care of an immense amount of trade between the interior of our country and the port of New York. The electric power furnished by Niagara helps to make it a very large manufacturing center. Coastwise Trade. — The United States has the greatest coastwise traffic in the world. The large Atlantic and Gulf seaports, such as New York City, Boston, Philadelphia, New Orleans, and Galveston, are connected with one another by steamship lines. The same is true of our Pacific ports. In 1 817 a law was passed requiring all vessels employed in the coastwise trade of the United States or on the rivers or the Great Lakes to sail under the American flag. The law also requires all trade between the United States and its possessions, with the exception of the PhiHppines, to be carried in our own vessels. DOMESTIC EXCHANGE OF GOODS IN UNITED STATES 319 Merchant Marine. — Our country ranks second in the world, that is, next to England, in the tonnage of its mer- chant vessels, but most of them are engaged in domestic trade. Only about one tenth of our exports and imports are shipped in vessels owned in the United States, while nine tenths are handled by the ships of foreign nations. The Early Days of American Railroads. — Swifter and more rehable transportation than that afforded by canals and rivers is needed for modern commerce. This is supplied by the railroads. The first cars, something like open car- riages, were drawn over rails by horses. Such simple rail- roads were constructed about 1828. The transportation of heavy freight demanded more than horse power. Soon locomotives were imported from England, and before long Americans set to work to improve upon them. In 1831 Peter Cooper's engine, Tom Thumb, made its maiden trip of thirteen miles in one hour and gained the honors over the horse with which it raced. Each drew one car of pas- sengers. Another remarkable engine of this early rail- An early American train. 320 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS road period, the "Best Friend," made twenty miles with five loaded cars attached. The early railroads were all short, usually connecting seaports with local inland points. Then interior towns were joined. The first runs of some of the lines were great occasions. Some of the trial trips of the pioneer trains were honored with music played by a band in the first passenger coach. In order to enlist the aid of the government, state legislators were guests of honor on " first trips," which closed with festive dinners. By the mid- dle of the nine- teenth century hundreds of short lines under the management of as many difTerent owners were in opera- tion throughout the seaboard states. Passen- gers desiring to go great dis- tances had to change cars frequently. Freight, too, had to be reloaded, causing unneces- sary labor and ,, . „ , . ^ . delays so that Main waiting room, Pennsylvania Station, New York. goodswere some- DOMESTIC EXCHANGE OF GOODS IN UNITED STATES 32 1 times spoiled or Ibst. About 1850, a number of short lines in New York State were purchased and operated by one management. They were soon connected and afforded continuous trips between Albany and Buffalo. This was the beginning of the great system of railroads known as the New York Central Lines. Other railroad consolida- tions soon came into existence. The Pennsylvania Rail- road is a great system built up by the union of more than 200 railroads. Soon after the middle of the century, by consoUdation and westward extension of railroads, the in- terior came into touch with the Atlantic seaboard. By 1853 Chicago had been connected by rail with the eastern coast. With liberal aid from the National government, a railroad reached the Pacific coast in 1869. This was the first tie that firmly bound the West to the East. Magnitude of American Railway Network. — After 1869 there was great activity in railway construction, especially in the central and western regions, which were being opened up to settle- ment. Since 1890 from 2000 to 5000 miles of new tracks have been built each ^ "^^'^^^^ American locomotive. year. Most of the unskilled labor was done by immigrants. Immense sums of money are invested in the railroads of the United States, and they do a very profitable business. The total value of United States railroads in 1910 was over $19,000,000,000, representing about a sixth of the wealth of this country, and owned by about 212,000 stockholders. More than 1,600,000 men are on the payrolls of railroad 32 2 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS companies. In spite of the fact that the United States has over 250,000 miles of railway, which is 10 per cent more mileage than all Europe, and is equal to 40 per cent of all the railroads of the world, we need many more. Importance of Railroads. — The United States could never have competed in industry and commerce with Great Britain and Germany but for the railroads. Distances here are enormous compared with those countries. All the EngUsh factories, for instance, are within fifty miles or less of the seacoast. When we remember that each of the various industries of our country is confined mainly to a special district from which its products must be dis- tributed over a country equal in area to the continent of Europe, we get some conception of the importance of rail- roads. Let us briefly review a few of the great industrial districts. Corn and wheat are produced chiefly in the North Central States ; cotton, sugar cane, and rice in the South ; oranges, lemons, and other semitropical fruits in California and Florida ; meat in the corn belt and on the western plains ; and lumber in the South and Northwest. Coal is mined in Pennsylvania and other states of the Ohio basin. Illinois is a great center for the manufacture of agricultural implements ; Massachusetts, shoes and cotton goods ; and Pennsylvania, iron and steel. The distribution of these products and numerous others keeps the railroads busy all summer and winter, day and night. Railroad Centers. — Many river and lake ports, finding their water communication entirely inadequate, have be- come great railroad centers as well. Other inland cities owe their commercial importance entirely to railroads. Chicago. — Chicago is the greatest railroad center as well as the greatest lake port in the world. Most of the DOMESTIC EXCHANGE OF GOODS IN UNITED STATES 323 n M^r^^^i: jr ':Yi ♦"^,"\ ■fa i' 5t--^ > « 324 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS commerce of the United States moves east and west, and Lake Michigan extending north and south for 300 miles Railroad yards, Chicago. causes a great concentration of railroads at its southern end. This concentration alone would make Chicago a great commercial center. It is situated in the most ex- tensive agricultural region of the country, and the enor- mous productivity of this section gives a vast trade to the city. In meat packing Chicago ranks first among the cities of the world. Other important manufactures of this city are iron and steel, machinery, clothing, lumber, railroad cars, and flour. St. Louis. — Although its favorable location for river transportation gave St. Louis an early start, its continued growth has been due to the many railroads that center there. St. Louis lies in the path of much of the commerce between the East and the West, and more than two dozen DOMESTIC EXCHANGE OF GOODS IN UNITED STATES 325 railroads enter the city. From this city several important railroads extend to the Gulf and inland cities of the South. Railroad Centers on Lake Erie. — Buffalo, Detroit, Cleveland, and Toledo arc the most important railroad centers on Lake Erie. At Buffalo, lying at the eastern end of the Lake, the east bound lake traffic is transferred from ships to railroad cars. This city is also the meeting point of railroads from the Atlantic coast, from the North Central section, and from Canada. Detroit is the crossing place of east and west railroads that run north of Lake Erie. " Cleveland is the meeting point of iron ore from the Lake Superior mines and of coal from the mines of Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Ohio. From this city the coal is shipped by water to western points. A large part of the iron ore is shipped from this point by rail to t f A view of St. Louis. 326 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS the iron and steel cities south of Lake Erie. A consider- able portion goes to the blast furnaces of Cleveland itself. Toledo, at the western end of Lake Erie, is an important shipping point of grain, lumber, and coal. St. Paul — Minneapolis. — St. Paul and Minneapolis constitute a great railroad center of the Northwest. . From Interior of a flour mill, Minneapolis. this industrial district three of the great " transcontinental" railroads run to the Pacific coast. Situated close to the pine forests near Lake Superior, and the rich wheat fields of the Red River Valley, these two cities are important shipping points of wheat, flour, and lumber. Minneapolis has the largest flour mills in the world. Kansas City and Omaha. — Kansas City and Omaha are the chief commercial centers of the Missouri Valley. Into DOMESTIC EXCHANGE OF GOODS IN UNITED STATES 327 these cities the railroads bring numerous trainloads of cattle and hogs to the packing houses and ship out enor- mous quantities of dressed meats. Kansas City in Missouri and Kansas City, Kansas, constitute a single commercial center. Denver and Salt Lake City. — Denver lies at the meet- ing point of radiating mountain passes, connected by many railroads. This fact has developed its manufactures of mining machinery, and made it a financial center of the jJ^g|Pl,,|*|UIJlJijl^B>aj "•Br.^,— y,y^a|g| am. y Bi|pMPK.s._iH:awhir'''^ WU^^ StTS^Ofc — »-^ tt » 1 lB^lC5SRJf~^''"^ ilK^ ^^^^ .MoiKH t.i-_5j.r- -- " -^1 , ^ii'ifHi'"?"' J 1^ ( •"- - " [-'--■"^■j -. : .17"^-^^ ini-ni M""' " 'WkiJjS '-V^.^^ gi* "S^^ ■fi|iil|||JW::.'©j;;^-r ■^i' ■^— '•* .- ""rii*^- A view of Denver. Rocky Mountain region. Salt Lake City is the chief rail- road center of the Great Basin. Indianapolis. — Most of the east and west trade of the United States moves across the level plains lying between the Great Lakes and the Ohio River. The importance of Indianapolis as a railroad center is very largely due to its location in the middle of this region. Its grain elevators, flour mills, meat-packing establishments, and automobile factories owe their success to the crossing of lines of trade and travel from all directions. 328 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS Cincinnati. — Cincinnati, the most important railroad center of the Ohio Valley, is the crossing place of several east-west lines and north-south lines. Fine railroad bridges span the Ohio at this place. Inland Railroad Centers of the South. — Atlanta is the chief inland railroad center of the South. Birmingham and Montgomery are important transportation centers of Alabama. The former, lying in the great coal and iron district of the South, ships large quantities of pig iron. Fort Worth and Dallas, situated in the heart of a produc- tive cattle and cotton region, are important collecting and distributing centers of northern Texas. El Paso is the center of a number of Unes that connect with Mexican railways. Electric Roads. — In recent years many electric railways have been built. These Hues have penetrated out-of-the- way places and developed sections which the steam cars -—■-5=^ .^^ I S^^am ■ ■K : ^ _i;:t^i^iijiii^ i^i-mi,!*)! f^.. # ^SB ^^Bpa^Si^^^Mfii^^B^H ^ . ■-i-a-.W Car used on interurban electric railway. had failed to reach. Interurban Hnes have done much to promote the social life of rural districts and to reheve crowded conditions in large cities. Because they afford quick, cheap transportation, they have become carriers of milk, butter, and garden produce from country districts to the cities. DOMESTIC EXCHANGE OF GOODS IN UNITED STATES 329 The United States Postal System. — With the introduc- tion of the railroad, which greatly reduced the cost of mail delivery, the United States Post Office became an important promoter of trade. People write letters, ordering goods from distant parts, and they send checks and postal money orders in payment of purchases made. To-day, a letter with a stamp costing two cents may close a transaction in which thousands of dollars are involved. By parcel post, packages of mer- chandise not exceed- ing fifty pounds may be mailed to all places in the first and second zones, and not exceeding twenty pounds to points in the other zones of the United States. This new work of the post office department is of great commercial importance. Telegraphs. — For modern commercial purposes, a letter is frequently too slow to produce the desired result. Since 1844 many telegraph wires have been stretched over this land to promote business by increasing communication faciUties. As in the use of electricity for manufacturing, it was found that during the hours of the night the wires were not in great demand. Recently, companies have made it possible to send night letters by telegraph at greatly reduced cost. The telegraph is very necessary for the safe Interior postal railroad car. 330 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS operation of railroads. Hence, the poles and wires are usually placed alongside of the tracks. Telephones. — In 1876, even a more wonderful mea,ns of communication came into use. The telephone outdoes the telegraph, for it clearly transmits the human voice hundreds and even thousands of miles. By means of this remarkable invention, goods are bought and sold in a small fraction of the time required by mail or even the telegraph. People can be in close touch with their friends or customers at a moment's notice. The farmer feels near to distant neighbors, and increases his profits by telephone communi- cation with various markets, enabhng him to buy and sell to the best advantage. Summary of Domestic Trade. — In railroad mileage, the United States stands first among all countries. Our in- dustrial prosperity is very largely due to the cheap and rapid transportation of goods by the railroads. Without them the great products of farms, mines, and factories could not be distributed to the sections that need them. In addition to the vast network of railroads, this country has many navigable rivers and lakes. The Great Lakes form the greatest inland waterway in the world. Good roads are of no less value than railroads, and the states are rapidly building new highways and improving old ones. Questions and Exercises 1. Draw a map of the United States showing the coast indentations and the large rivers. 2. Collect pictures of passenger, freight, and interurban cars. Pictures of canals. 3. Trace routes through Panama Canal (a) from New York to San Diego; (/>) Portland, Oregon, to New Orleans ; (c) Bos- ton to San Francisco. DOMESTIC EXCHANGE OF GOODS IN UNITED STATES 33 1 4. In the improvements of what waterways are you most interested? How will their improvement affect the industries of your community ? 5. Tell about the important river ports of your part of the country. 6. Trace the coastwise route from Boston to Philadelphia; from Philadelphia to Porto Rico; state cargoes, freight rates, and length of trip. 7. Make a railroad map of the United States, showing trunk lines. 8. On a map, connect your city by the proper railroads with the six largest cities of the United States. 9. Study a railroad map of your state. 10. Compare cost of sending a day telegram from your town to the nearest large city with that of a night telegraph letter between the same points. 11. Discuss your city streets or county roads as arteries of traffic. 12. Name the chief railroads that pass through your city. Name the most important kind of freight carried. 13. What route would you take to go to New York ? Denver? St. Louis ? Chicago ? Seattle ? New Orleans ? 14. How do the Great Lakes promote commerce ? 15. What do you know about the Good Roads Movement? 16. Do you know of any recent inventions that may still further revolutionize transmission of messages or mail ? CHAPTER XXII THE FOREIGN COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES Our Foreign Commerce. — During the past twenty-five years, the United States has made such great progress in foreign trade that it now ranks as one of the three greatest commercial nations of the world. The value of our exports is greater than that of our imports, while the value of the exports of the United Kingdom and Germany is less than the value of the imports of each country. In the early history of the United States, farm products and other raw materials formed nearly all of our exports. To-day, manu- facturing is so extensive that factory products constitute a large part. Due to our rapid gain in population, there is so great a domestic demand for foodstuffs that the export of these products is relatively decreasing. In proportion to the population, our foreign commerce is less than that of European nations. The per capita foreign trade of Great Britain is one hundred ten dollars ; that of Germany is sixty-seven dollars ; while that of the United States is only thirty-eight dollars. Even httle Switzerland and Belgium excel us. And the Dutch average three hundred eighty dollars of foreign commerce to every man, woman, and child in the land ; in other words, the Netherlands carry on ten times as much foreign commerce proportion- ately as the United States does. Exports of the United States. — The great fish and lumber resources of the northeastern section, the tobacco of the Middle Atlantic States, the cotton of the South, and grain 332 THE FOREIGN COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES 333 and meat of the interior have from the start been our chief exports. To these, coal and its by-products, petroleum, iron, steel, and copper manufactures, dairy products, hops, agricultural implements, naval stores, fertilizers, carriages and cars, paper and books, furs, sugar, molasses, fruits, cotton and woolen manufactures, brass, and soap, besides many other minor products, were added later. In its early stages the country sent out immense quanti- ties of raw material, especially agricultural products. Even now these form the largest part of our exports ; but they are decreasing fast. Indeed, on account of the rapidly increasing population, we may soon be compelled to import even such foodstuffs as are easily produced here. In the meantime, our manufactured goods are finding an ever better demand abroad. Now two fifths of our exports are factory products, and it is hoped that these will steadily increase in the future. At present they consist chiefly of cotton, breadstuffs, meat, and dairy products, iron and steel, leather manufactures, tobacco, coal, copper products, and fruits. Our best customers are Great Britain and Ireland, Germany, Canada, France, Netherlands, Italy, Belgium, and Mexico. These are not our only markets, for we sell at least a httle to almost every nation on the earth. Imports of the United States. — The United States imports much raw material that is converted here into finished articles ; notably, raw sugar, hides and skins, raw silk, vegetable fibers, and rubber. Other imports are tropical and semitropical fruits, coffee, tea, spices, drugs, furs, toys, wool, dyes, and chemicals. Our island possessions, Porto Rico, Hawaii, and the Philippines, send us many tropical products. The countries from which we buy most are Great Britain and Ireland, Germany, France, 334 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS Cuba, Brazil, Canada, Japan, Mexico, Italy, India, Bel- gium, and China. Seaports. — The United States has a greater number of large seaports than any other country. A city to become an important seaport must be situated on a good harbor, must have easy access by transportation lines to the interior of the country, and must have short water routes to the leading commercial countries of the world. Our leading seaports are New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Puget Sound, New Orleans, Baltimore, San Francisco, and Galveston. Since most of our trade is with Europe, the Atlantic ports have a far greater foreign commerce than the Pacific ports have. Port of New York. — New York, the eastern " sea-gate of the continent," is the chief commercial port of the United States and of the world. It is the largest manufacturing Customhouse, New York. THE FOREIGN COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES 335 center of this country, the most important manufactures being clothing, books and periodicals, dressed meats, machinery, and refined sugar. The city is crowded with factories and warehouses ; the streets are congested with land traffic, and the harbor is filled with river and ocean craft. It is America's chief banking center. Its greatest occupa- tion is commerce. New York handles two thirds of our imports, and one third of our exports. Sixteen lines of rail- way, coming from the north, west, and south, center in this city. Many steam- ship lines terminate in New York and its adjoining ports, Hoboken and Jersey City. On an aver- age, t!wenty large passenger and freight steamers arrive and depart daily. Three thousand freight cars daily bring in cargoes for these ships from the west. In order to facilitate the street traffic, the city is provided with subways through which thousands of people are carried every day between various points in the city. Tunnels under the East River connect Man- H ^I^^B Metropolitan Building, New York. 33^ THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS hattan with Brooklyn, Long Island ; others under the Hudson River join the city with New Jersey. Boston, the second port of this country, has been a leading commercial center for over a hundred years. It is a large cotton, wool, and shoe market. Coal, cotton, wool, rubber, and hides are imported ; corn, wheat, cattle, and leather are exported. The city has extensive trade with Great Britain, and a heavy coastwise trade with other North Atlantic cities and with Canada. It is one of the most important manufacturing centers of the United States, the chief products being books and periodicals, boots and shoes, and clothing. Boston harbor. Philadelphia, the fourth city in foreign commerce, is third in population. The city is an important manufactur- THE FOREIGN COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES 337 ing center. Clothing, woolen goods, books and periodicals, leather, cotton goods, carpets and rugs, refined sugar, and Shipbuilding yards, Philadelphia. locomotives are made here. Its exports include in addition to its manufactures, corn, wheat, meat, and petroleum. The imports are chiefly fruit and raw sugar from the West Indies, and carpet wool from Europe. Steamship lines connect it with Liverpool, Antwerp, and the West Indies. Baltimore is an important commercial and manufacturing center on Chesapeake Bay. The export trade, consisting of wheat, flour, tobacco, cotton, meat, copper, and corn, is extensive, and is carried on by three transatlantic steam- ship lines. The manufacturing interests include tobacco, iron and steel, and the canning of fruits and vegetables. Its most noted industry is the catching and shipping of 338 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS Unloading oysters, Baltimore. oysters. An average of thirty carloads of oysters leave daily between September and April. Puget Sound. — Seattle, Tacoma, and other cities on Puget Sound constitute the port of Puget Sound. These cities handle most of the Alaskan trade, and also carry on extensive commerce with Asia. Lumber and wheat are leading exports of this port. San Francisco, with one of the most beautiful harbors in the world, is the financial and commercial center of the Pacific coast. Sugar refining is an important industry, most of the raw sugar being imported from Hawaii. The Santa Fe, Southern Pacific, Union Pacific, and Western Pacific serve San Francisco, but its railway connections are only fairly good, when compared with those of the great THE FOREIGN COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES 339 Atlantic ports. Steamship lines extend from San Francisco to the ports of Oregon, Puget Sound, and Alaska. Others connect it with Panama, Central America, the Hawaiian Islands, Japan, Australia, and England. Tea and silk are imported from Japan, wool is received from Australia. The principal exports, wheat, flour, lumber, canned fruits, and salmon, are sent chiefly to Europe. Los Angeles, Seattle, Tacoma, and Portland are San Francisco's com- mercial rivals. New Orleans. — In foreign commerce New Orleans ranks third among the seaports of the United States, being a close rival to Boston. Although about seventy miles up the Mis- sissippi River, the city is reached by large ocean steamers. The shallow water of the river near the mouth is deep- ened by the construction of walls, or jetties, which confine the river to a narrow channel. The current between the An ocean steamer at New Orleans. 340 THREE INDUSTRI.\L NATIONS jetties has sufficient velocity to clear the channel of silt and thus keep the depth at about thirty feet. Enormous cargoes of cotton and grain are exported from this city, and large quantities of bananas and other fruits from the tropical countries to the south are brought in. The Panama Canal and larger trade with South America will doubtless increase the foreign commerce of New Orleans. Galveston is a rival of New Orleans as a commercial center. It is one of the largest cotton-shipping ports in the world, and is a collecting and distributing center for the western part of the Gulf States. Finding Foreign Markets. — Our tremendous gain in manufacturing industries makes it necessary to find new markets for surplus products. The countries that buy our cotton are* encouraging the cultivation of cotton in their colonial possessions, and if these countries should succeed in raising much of the cotton needed for their mills, our ex- ports would decrease unless we find other markets. The new markets for which we are looking are not to be found in Europe where the countries are older than ours, and have turned their overflowing population from the fields into the factories. They must be found in undeveloped countries where farming is the chief occupation. In uncivilized and backward nations the people are rapidly acquiring modern methods of living and their wants are rapidly increasing. In such countries we should secure our share of commerce. The chief reason we are not capturing foreign trade as fast as we should, is that we have not learned how to sell goods. Foreigners, especially the Germans, can teach us some valuable lessons. They have schools of practical training for youths who expect to engage in foreign trade. THE FOREIGN COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES 34 1 German bo}s are taught foreign languages so that they may be able to talk business in the language of the customer. As soon as they are old enough, German apprentices in commerce are sent to foreign lands, where they take posi- tions as office help, sometimes even as janitors, merely to acquire the power to speak the strange language fluently, and to learn all about the peculiar commercial whims and tastes of the natives. In due time they are promoted, and, finally, they return to Germany, where they report what they have learned. They are then instructed in the factory about all processes of manufacturing articles they are to sell later. We must train our young Americans in the same way. They should, by all means, learn German and French, and, if possible, Spanish. When we have improved our system of business education a large increase in trade will come to us as it has to others. Present Movements for Gaining Markets. — Both the government and business men of the United States see the need of increasing our foreign markets ; and earnest efiforts are being made to compete successfully with other nations. Men organize themselves into local societies whose business it is to study foreign needs and the best means of advertising. These organizations are called chambers of commerce, boards of trade, or commercial clubs. Agents are sent by the United States Department of Commerce into other countries for the purpose of studying trade conditions. Our national government sends consuls into all foreign lands, whose most important duty it is to study commercial needs abroad and report them to Washington at once. Formerly these reports were pubHshed monthly, but now they are published daily. Thus the government helps com- merce and manufacturing, as it aids agriculture and mining. 342 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS Questions and Exercises 1. From which sections of this country do the majority of our exports come ? Account for this. 2. Trace ocean routes between our seaports and those of our foreign customers. 3. Can you think of ways of securing foreign markets not mentioned in this chapter ? (See the Daily Consular and Trade Reports, Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C.) 4. Name ten countries where we might successfully secure markets for our factory goods. 5. Have we as good a chance of securing foreign markets as our rivals ? 6. Why have our meats been refused at times by European countries ? 7. Look through the current magazines for articles on American commerce. 8. Visit your home chamber of commerce to learn what it is doing to promote the interests of the community. 9. What makes a good seaport ? 10. Is it fortunate or unfortunate that most of our foreign trade is carried in foreign ships ? 11. On a map, connect our leading seaports with the world's leading ports, by the proper steamship lines. CHAPTER XXIII COLONIAL POSSESSIONS OF THE UNITED STATES Outlying Possessions. — The continuous area lying between Canada and Mexico, and extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific, is known as " Continental United States," or simply the " United States." Our first out- lying possession was Alaska, which was purchased from Russia in 1867. By our war with Spain, in 1898, we gained possession of Porto Rico, the Philippine Islands, and numerous small islands of the Pacific ; and in the same year Hawaii was annexed to the United States. Now the Stars and Stripes float over American possessions in three zones. Cuba and the United States. — After Spain was forced to give up Cuba at the close of the Spanish- American War, ........08 ^,»^*X1 ,^Ny i r^^"", 343 344 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS this island, with the aid of the United States, became a republic. While Cuba is an independent nation, our country has certain rights there. The American government has agreed to protect this island against foreign attacks ; in return for this service, Cuba has leased several naval stations to the United States. In this age when the ocean plays such a large part in the welfare of the nations, naval stations scattered over the waters of the earth are of great importance. Our friendly relations with Cuba give us preference in her trade, which is fortunate, since each produces what the other wants. Our Cuban imports of sugar alone are an Loading sugar on a ship in a Cuban port. item of great importance, for Cuba produces more cane sugar than any other region ; and of all countries, the United States is the largest sugar consumer. In addition to sugar. COLONIAL POSSESSIONS OF THE UNITED STATES 345 the island sends us tobacco, bananas, coconuts, oranges, pineapples, mahogany, and dyewoods ; for which we return wheat, meat, lumber, and fuel. So far we have not captured her trade in manufactured imports, which she receives largely from Great Britain, Spain, Germany, and France. Porto Rico. — Porto Rico received the Americans with open arms at the time of the revolt against Spain. Since LAN BAN DESECHIO^ AguadiUaJl C MONA * p , „ t^v:- ^ -^^"■"-''"'^■''^^EQUES C A R B E A N PORTO EI CO SCALE OF MILES d 10 20 30 Longitude 67" West from fi6° Greenwich 1898 it has had an American government, and there are friendly trade relations between it and our country. Its area is not quite that of Connecticut, but it is one of the most highly cultivated and densely populated of the West Indies. The island supports more than a million people. Life is very simple there. It is summer the year round, hence only light clothing is worn, and many houses are only grass-covered huts. Vegetables and fruits are the chief food ; and their production requires little effort. Up to the time the United States took possession of it, Porto Rico had attained only the most primitive development. 346 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS American schools have been established, and modern machinery and methods of transportation are being intro- duced. The United States controls almost nine tenths of the trade. We import sugar, coffee, tobacco, and fruit from Porto Rico, and export iron and steel manufactures, cotton goods, rice, flour, and meats. Its chief city, San Juan, is a lij U ndirauod tt Oncliruood. An American school in Porto Rico. port of call for trade steamers going the rounds of the islands in the Caribbean Sea. Culebra, one of the five small adjoining islands which fell to our possession with Porto Rico, is an important naval station. The Canal Zone. — A small strip of territory ten miles wide across the RepubHc of Panama, known as the Canal Zone, was acquired by the United States in 1904. The COLONIAL POSSESSIONS OF THE UNITED STATES 347 >t^=;^ \^% PAJfiMA CANAl ZONE AND ROUTE OF THE?" PANAMA CkSih SCALE OF MILES 1 1 Republic of Panama, from whom the Zone was bought, is very friendly to the United States. ItjhkeCuba, though independent, is under our protec- tion against foreign attack. Hawaiian Islands. — One of the most beautiful possessions is the group of Ha- waiian Islands, whose fertile valleys are covered with sugar and rice plantations, and whose green mountain slopes furnish pasture for cattle and sheep. The healthful cUmate, the invigorating breezes, and the charming landscapes make these islands almost a paradise on earth. Oahu Island, the most populous of the group, stands at the cross-roads of commerce in the heart of the Pacific. Steamers carrying American, Asian, and AustraHan trade regularly stop here on their long trips across the ocean. The trade routes between San Francisco and the Philippines, between Seattle and Austraha, and between Panama and Japan cross at Honolulu, which has become a coaHng sta- tion for all the world. The United States could not have found better commercial and strategic possessions. Hawaiian Products. — The warm climate and the rich volcanic soilmake the raising of sugar cane the most profit- able business on the island. The yield of cane per acre 348 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS is unsurpassed, because the most improved methods of cultivation are employed. Sugar forms ninety-five per cent of the total exports of the Hawaiian Islands. Most of it goes to San Francisco, the rest to New York and Philadelphia. Rice, fruit, coffee, tobacco, and hides are also exported. The people of Hawaii reahze the drawbacks of having practically only one source of income. They are trying to develop other crops, such as rice, bananas, pineapples, and coffee. Manufacturing is being developed, and the canning of pineapples and other fruits is already an im- portant industry. The United States has most of the Hawaiian trade. In return for their sugar and fruits, we send them lumber, hardware, machinery, groceries, dry goods, and clothing. The People of Hawaii. — The Hawaiian Islands have a very mixed population, composed of natives, Chinese, Japanese, Portuguese, and about ten thousand Americans, COLONIAL POSSESSIONS OF THE UNITED STATES 349 British, and Germans. The business of these islands is controlled mostly by citizens of the United States, who have introduced modern improvements of every kind, — roads, railways, ships, wireless telegraph, telephones, electric light, and trolley cars. The Pacific cable connects these islands with San Francisco. Samoa and Guam. — The United States owns a number of small islands that form important commercial stations between Hawaii and the western shores of the Pacific. Between Australia and Hawaii lie the Samoan group of islands. Five of these belong to the United States. While they have little commercial value, the natural harbor of Pago Pago makes an excellent naval station. Guam is a fertile island lying between Hawaii and the Philippines. Its chief use now is as a cable and coaling station. There are several other small islands which form parts of the American chain across the Pacific. The Philippine Islands. — The tropical Phihppines, numbering between two thousand and three thousand islands, extend over a distance north and south equal to that from Duluth to New Orleans, and east and west from Chicago to New York. Their area is almost equal to that of Great Britain and Ireland. The islands are not well adapted to white settlers because of the moist tropical chmate. The People. — The eight million inhabitants consist of Malays, Negroes, Chinese, Japanese, Spaniards, British, and Americans. The Malay population, about seven million in number, are called Filipinos. The majority of the people are very ignorant ; they have low standards of living, and are satisfied with the barest necessities of life. As a result, agriculture is not yielding a tenth of what it ~-^ PXCATANDUANES NutVaffiawres MANILA »-'l %, «»> x.^. Cr—'-^r Ma MlNDOROf- ', BUR ASCvSit-l T el Un' / I ,/~^ /I T el Un-— ^ IloUo/J f I ^1 yv L|YTE ^ o ARGAO ' V * \(/Ta'°f laran orj SjlN T. ... S.^-1 JButuani j| SEA Zamboangi BASILAN^^JJ" . . Jolo o iButuan: ::^ D A N A 0^ I I O'C.Sin Sarangam -Pt-^ SARANGANI IS. CELEBES SEA UL POATES CO,, N,l Loaptude 120 East from 124 Greenwich 35° COLONIAL POSSESSIONS OF THE UNITED STATES 351 might ; the most primitive methods of transportation are in use ; mining and manufacturing are in their infancy. Products. — The chief business is agriculture. The leading products are Manila hemp, coconuts, sugar, rice, fruits, and spices. As many of these are not produced in the United States, we have a very active trade with these islands. The fibers of Manila hemp are used to make ropes and binder twine. Better cultivation of the land would greatly increase the farm crops. The vast forests, containing woods adapted for cabinet work and veneer- ing, as well as for house and ship building, are a source of great wealth. Besides timber, they yield valuable gum and dyewoods. But these resources have scarcely been touched. The mining industries have not yet been extensively developed. Philippine Commerce. — The PhiHppine Islands, with twenty times as much land as there is in the Hawaiian group, and forty times as many people, carry on very little more commerce. This is due to primitive methods of cultivation, poor means of transportation, scarcity of capital, and lack of education. The leading exports are Manila hemp, copra, sugar, and tobacco. The United States receives a third of their exports, followed by the United Kingdom, France, and Spain. Their leading im- ports, rice, cotton goods, iron and steel products, meats, flour, and petroleum, are purchased mainly from England Hemp factory, Philippine Islands. 352 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS and the United States. American machinery, banks, railroads, post offices, telegraphs, schools, and business methods are already greatly increasing the commercial value of these islands, and improving the conditions of the people. Conclusion. — The acqui- sition of outlying posses- sions has placed the United States in the class of great imperial nations, not be- cause the possessions gained are extensive in territory, but because they are important for commercial and naval reasons. We have become the peers of the British and the German empires. A Philippine loom. Questions and Exercises 1. How do you account for our long-time lack of interest in colonies while England and Germany were strenuously striving for more territory ? 2. Is it easy or difficult for colonies, like the Philippines, to suddenly adjust themselves to a new government ? 3. Could we have commercial prosperity in our colonies without establishing a strong modern government there ? 4. In a general way compare the climate and products of the United States with those of her colonies. 5. Which of our colonial possessions do you consider the most valuable ? Why ? 6. Of what political and commercial advantage to the United States is the American Pacific cable which connects her islands with the mainland? CHAPTER XXIV THE MATERIAL, SOCIAL, AND POLITICAL STATUS OF THE UNITED STATES TO-DAY Material Resources. — The United States, stretching from ocean to ocean and from the Gulf to the Great Lakes, is a storehouse of rich treasures. Extensive areas of fertile farm lands, rich mines, extensive forests of valuable timber, navigable lakes and rivers, and swift streams furnishing enormous water power are some of our greatest natural re- sources. Our country produces more coal and iron than any other country. Larger crops of corn and cotton are grown in the United States than in all the rest of the world ; and our wheat crop is larger than that of any other country. In the manufacture of iron and steel goods, flour, meats, and many other important products we excel all other countries. Conservation of Natural Resources. — So vast were our natural resources that for a long time we were extravagant in the use of them. At last we realized the danger of waste- fulness, and we are now beginning to conserve the material wealth of our country. We are guarding our forests against fires that in past years have caused such appalling losses. Unnecessary waste in lumbering and in the manufacture of wood products is growing less each year. By more care- ful methods of mining we are securing a larger percentage of the available mineral supply than ever before. Through scientific methods of agriculture we are obtaining larger crops than heretofore, and at the same time we keep the soil up to its full measure of fertility. 353 354 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS People. — It required the brain and brawn, not merely of one but of many nationalities, to develop the wonderful resources of the United States. Fundamentally, America is English ; but descendants of Germany, Sweden, Holland, France, and Spain worked at this gigantic task from the very start. In later years, Italians, Russians, and Austrians sought and found homes in America and are adding their share of effort to the building up of this great nation. Moreover the negro, the red man, and the Mongolian have each played a part in making America the most cosmopoli- tan of nations. Characteristics of the Americans. — The inherent char- acteristics of Americans, which are the most important factor in their success, are self-reliance, push, audacity, inventiveness, fair-mindedness, eagerness for novelty, a world-wandering spirit, a capacity for work, and a love of duty. Conservation of Human Beings. — Great attention is being given to the conservation of the health of our people. New methods of fighting disease are being discovered each year, and great emphasis is placed upon the maintenance of the conditions that insure public health. To promote public health, laws have been passed making sanitary conditions compulsory. Crowded tenements are being abolished. Cities are cleaning streets and alleys, quarantining conta- gious diseases, and inspecting food supplies. The hours of labor have been reduced from sixteen and eighteen to ten and eight. Children are not permitted to work at all in certain occupations. Laws are enforced to prevent acci- dents in mines, factories, and on railroad trains. Government by the People. — Our laws are made by Congress, which consists of the Senate and the House of THE UNITED STATES TO-DAY 355 Representatives. The members of both houses of Congress are elected by the people. The term of ofhce of Senators is six years, that of Representatives is two years. The chief executive of the United States is the President, elected for four years. He may advise Congress on governmental afifairs, but is unable to make a law. In many respects he is subject to other departments of the government. All American officials are responsible to the people. Our liberal government gives the citizens wonderful privileges, but it also lays great duties on us. We must all help to work out the national welfare. Republics are safe only when all the people realize their responsibilities and "strive after high, standards of living. Education in the United States. — The public schools in our country are supported generously by taxation, and A class in cooking. 356 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS parents and guardians are compelled by law to send their children to school for a specified number of years. The more progressive states are now raising the age limit at which pupils may stop school from fourteen years to six- teen. More subjects are constantly added to the curricu- lum, such as hygiene and industrial training. More money A class in woodworking. is being spent on elementary schools, high schools, agricul- tural colleges, universities, trade and professional schools. Plans are being made for every kind of commercial training. This nation gives so much attention to the education of the youth because the people believe that it is the chief means of assuring their future welfare. Means of Recreation. — We give considerable attention to recreation and pleasure. Good plays, operas, and con- certs are offered to the public in winter ; and outdoor musi- cal entertainments are furnished in summer. Newspapers THE UNITED STATES TO-DAY 357 and magazines devoted to every possible interest may be had at small cost. Most of the American homes have lawns of their own, and there are many public parks and playgrounds in the large cities. The rivers and lakes afford boating and swimming. Working hours are short- School children dancing in public recreation grounds. ened in summer. The Saturday half holiday and the annual two weeks' vacation, usually with pay, are important fac- tors in making efficient American citizens. No other country offers more magnificent recreation centers than ours. There are the many famous Atlantic summer resorts, the lakes of Maine, the White Mountains of New Hamp- shire, the Green Mountains and Lake Champlain of Ver- mont, the Adirondacks and Niagara Falls of New York, the winter resorts of Florida, the summer resorts of north- ern Michigan, the wonderful caves of Indiana and Ken- 358 THREE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS tucky, the Great Lakes of the North, and the glorious mountains of the West. Good Will of Other Countries. — The United States is on friendly terms, not only with other countries of North America, but also with all the other nations of the world. By carefully observing the rules of neutraUty when other countries are at war, by giving disinterested advice when they reach a crisis, by furthering the cause of peace in other lands, and by exercising a strong sense of the rights of others, our country has gained for herself the good will and respect of the world. Our Relations with England and Germany. — The year 1 9 14 marks the hundredth anniversary of peace between England and the United States. The bonds of friendship are becoming stronger every year. We have never had a war with Germany. Besides this fortunate condition, the fact that the Germans have many American relatives has developed an inestimable feeling of good will between the two nations. As England is our mother country, so Ger- many may in a sense be called our fatherland. The people of these two countries and our own have many common traits ; such as, their earnest appHcation to industry ; their world-wandering spirit; their love of freedom; and their intense desire for conquest, which in late years has come to mean victory over material things through brain power. It is this last quality, namely, that of intelligence, joined with an unyielding determination to master the big prob- lems of industry, that has made England, Germany, and the United States the Three Industrial Nations. TABLES 359 Table I. — Area and Population, the United States State .\rea Sq. Mi. Pop. 1910 State Area Sq. Mi. Pop. 1910 Alabama 51,998 2,138,093 North Dakota 70,837 577,056 Arizona 113,956 204,354 Ohio 41 ,040 4,767,121 Arkansas 53,335 1,574,449 Oklahoma 70 .057 1,657,155 California 158,297 2,377.549 Oregon 96,699 672,765 Colorado 103,948 799,024 Pt-iiiisvlvania 45 ,126 7,665,111 Connecticut 4,96s 1,114,756 Rhodi" M;ind 1 ,248 542,610 Delaware 2,370 202,322 SoutI) Carolina 30 ,989 1,515,400 Florida 58,666 752,619 South Dakota 77 ,615 583,888 Georgia 59,265 2,609,121 Tennessee 42 ,022 2,184,789 Idaho 84,313 325,594 Texas 265,896 3,896,542 Illinois S6,66s 5,638,591 Utah 84 990 373,351 Indiana 36,354 2,700,876 Vermont 9,564 355,956 Iowa 56,147 2,224,771 Virginia 42 ,627 2,061,612 Kansas 82,158 1,690,949 Washington 69 127 1,141,990 Kentucky 40,598 2.289,90'; West Virginia 24 170 1,221,119 Louisiana 48,506 1,656,388 Wisconsin 56,066 2,333,860 Maine 33,040 742,371 Wyoming 97,914 145,965 Maryland 12,327 1,295,346 Part of Gt. Lakes 61 ,750 Massachusetts 8,266 3,366,416 Michigan Minnesota 57,980 84,682 2,810,173 2,075,708 Territories, Etc. Mississippi 46,865 1,797,114 District of Columbia 70 331,069 Missouri 69,420 3,293,335 Territory of Alaska 590 ,884 64.356 Montana 146,572 376,053 Guam 210 9,000 Nebraska 77,520 1,192,214 Territory of Hawaii 6 449 191,909 Nevada 110,690 81,875 Philippine Islands ('03) 115,026 7,635.426 New Hampshire 9,341 430,572 Porto Rico 3.435 1,118,012 New Jersey 8,224 2,537,167 Panama Canal Zone 474 50,000 New Mexico 122,634 327,301 Samoa Is., etc. 77 6,100 New York 49,204 9,113,614 Soldiers and Sailors abroad 55,608 North Carolina 52,426 Largest 2,206,287 Cities of Grand Total 3 THE United States 805 074 101,102,677 Popin-ATioN, 1910 Population, 1910 New York, N. Y. 4,766,883 Oakland, Cal. 150,174 Chicago, 111. 2,185,283 Worcester, Mass. 145,986 Philadelphia, Pa. 1,549,008 Syracuse, N. Y. 137,249 St. Louis, Mo. 687,029 New Haven, Conn. 133,605 Boston, Mass._ 670,58s Birmingham, Ala. 132,685 Cleveland, Ohio 560,663 Memphis, Tenn. 131,105 Baltimore, Md. 558,485 Scran ton. Pa. 129,867 Pittsburgh, Pa. 533,90s Richmond, Va. 127,628 Detroit, Mich. 465,766 Paterson, N. J. 125,600 Buffalo, N. Y. 423,71s Omaha, Neb. 124,096 San Francisco, Cal. 416,912 Fall River, Mass. 119.29s Milwaukee, Wis. 373.857 Dayton, Ohio 116,577 Cincinnati, Ohio 363,591 Grand Rapids, Mich. 112,571 Newark, N. J. 347,469 Nashville, Tenn. 110,364 New Orleans, La. 339,075 Lowell. Mass. 106,294 Washington, D. C. 331.069 Cambridge, Mass. 104,839 Los Angeles, Cal. 319,198 Spokane, Wash. 104,402 Minneapolis, Minn. 301,408 Bridgeport, Conn. 102,054 Jersey City, N.J. 267,779 Albany, N. Y. 100,253 Kansas City, Mo. 248,381 Hartford, Conn. 98,915 Seattle, Wash. 237,194 Trenton, N. J. 96,815 Indianapolis, Ind. 233,650 New Bedford, Mass. 96,652 Providence, R. I. 224,326 San Antonio, Tex. 96,614 Louisville, Ky. 223,928 Reading, Pa. 96,071 Rochester, N. Y. 218,149 Camden, N. J. 94,538 St. Paul, Minn. 214,744 Salt Lake City, Utah 92,777 Denver, Col. 213,381 Dallas, Tex. 92,104 Portland, Ore. 207,214 Lynn, Mass. 89,336 Columbus, Ohio 181,511 Springfield, Mass. 88,926 Toledo, Ohio 168,497 Wibnington, DeL 87,411 Atlanta, Ga. 154,839 Des Moines, Iowa, 86,368 360 TABLES Table II. — Leading Exports of United States, Value, Principal Countries of Destination. For the Year Ending June, 1914. Thousands OF Dollars Cotton, unmanufactured 6io,47S United Kingdom 231,818 Germany 181,892 France 73,919 Cotton, manufactures of 28,84s Cfiina 6,096 Philippine Islands 5,536 Copper, manufactures of 144,896 Germany 46,123 Netherlands 26,493 France 25,453 United Kingdom 2 2,443 Meats 143,262 United Kingdom 61,223 Germany 19,143 Iron and steel, manufactures of 106,560 Canada 30,130 United Kingdom 9,400 Wheat 87,953 United Kingdom 26,015 Netherlands 19,380 Belgium 12,479 Germany 10,605 France 5,385 Flour 54,454 United Kingdom 13,806 Netherlands 4,670 Cuba 4,058 Hongkong 4,502 Thousands of Dollars Oil, illuminating 74,500 United Kingdom 10,007 Netherlands 8,849 China 6,349 Japan 4,757 Germany 4,290 Oil, lubricating, etc. 27,853 United Kingdom 6,469 France 3,430 Germany 3,204 Coal 59,921 Canada 47,210 Lumber 57,781 United Kingdom 13,232 Canada 10,434 Tobacco, unmanufactured 53,964 United Kingdom 20,698 Italy 6,114 France 4,783 Germany 4,014 Agricultural implements 31,966 Russia 6,496 Argentina 4,345 France 4,150 Germany 3,216 Canada 3,073 Automobiles 26,575 Canada 5,920 United Kingdom 5,8 S3 Leading Imports of United States, Value, Principal Coltsttries of Origin. For the Year Ending June, 19 14. Thousands Thousands OF Dollars OF Dollars Coffee 110,725 Copper in ore, pigs, ingots, etc. 54,322 Brazil 76,016 Mexico 14,457 Columbia 11,556 Canada 7,947 Mexico 8,028 Peru 6,598 Venezuela 6,194 Chile 6,126 Central American countries 4,944 Spain 5,280 Sugar, cane 101,366 Wool, unmanufactured 52,619 Cuba 98,39s United Kingdom 19,377 Philippine Islands 2,554 Argentina 7,563 Silk, raw 97,828 Australia and New Zealand 6,936 Japan 71,345 Cattle 52,182 China 15,919 Argentina 16,166 Italy 8,781 Canada 7,133 Rubber, crude 71,220 Mexico 5,479 United Kingdom (reexported) 31.152 Jute, fabrics of 42,421 Brazil 16,319 India 35,273 Cotton, manufactured and unmanu- Tobacco 35,029 factured 70,841 Cuba 16,385 United Kingdom 16,197 Turkey 9:837 Egypt (raw cotton) 12,276 Art works 35,010 Germany 12,016 France 22,332 France 11,763 United Kingdom 7,937 Switzerland 9,670 Sisal hemp Mexico 25,861 22,980 TABLES 361 Table III. — OCEAN STEAMSHIP ROUTES From San Francisco to City Route Miles City Route Miles Honolulu Direct 2,091 Sitka Direct 1,302 Hongkong Via Honolulu 7.030 Unalaska Direct 2.051 Yokohama Direct 4,799 Nome Via Unalaska 2,706 Apia Direct 4,161 Mazatlan Direct 1,337 Auckland Via Apia 5. 742 Acapulco Direct 1.833 Sydney Via Honolulu 6,Sii Panama Direct 3.24s Melbourne Via Honolulu 7.033 Callao Direct 3.987 Guam Via Honolulu 5. 428 Valparaiso Direct 5,140 Manila Via Honolulu 6.934 Punta Arenas Direct 6.193 Singapore Via Manila 8,304 New York Via Magellan Strait I3,I3S Port Townsend Direct 770 New York Via Panama Canal 5,262 From New Orleans to City Route Miles City Route Miles Vera Cruz Direct 798 Valparaiso Via Panama Canal 3,926 Colon Direct 1,395 Tampa Direct 474 San Francisco Via Magellan Strait 13,500 Havana Direct 601 San Francisco Via Panama Canal 4,690 New York Direct 1.68s Valparaiso Via Magellan Strait 9,000 Liverpool Direct 4,625 From New York to City Route Miles City Route Miles Bermuda Direct 681 Melbourne Panama Canal 9.945 Liverpool Southern 3. 153 Sydney Suez Canal 13.471 London Southern 3.245 Sydney Cape of Good Hope 13.306 Havre Southern 3.274 Sydney Panama Canal 9,691 Gibraltar Direct 2,219 Wellington Suez Canal 14.387 Pernambuco Direct 3.698 Wellington Cape of Good Hope 14.034 Rio de Janeiro Direct 4.770 Wellington Panama Canal 8,522 Montevideo Direct 5.807 Yokohama Suez Canal 13,079 Punta Arenas Magellan Strait 7,000 Yokohama Cape of Good Hope 15.099 Punta Arenas Panama Canal 5.967 Yokohama Panama Canal 9.677 Valparaiso Magellan Strait 8,380 Bombay Suez Canal 8,186 \'alparaiso Panama Canal 4.633 Bombay Cape of Good Hope 11.395 San Francisco Magellan Strait 13,135 Bombay Panama Canal 14,982 San Francisco Panama Canal 5.262 Calcutta Suez Canal 9,829 Port Townsend Magellan Strait 13.873 Calcutta Cape of Good Hope 12,254 Port Townsend Panama Canal 6,002 Calcutta Panama Canal 14.165 Honolulu Magellan Strait 13.312 Singapore Suez Canal 10,177 Honolulu Panama Canal 6,702 Singapore Cape of Good Hope 12,409 Melbourne Suez Canal 13.009 Singapore Panama Canal 12,522 Melbourne Cape of Good Hope 12,838 INDEX Aberdeen, 52. Aden, 98. Africa, 3, 4, 20, 81-82, 239, 263, 290. Agriculture: Australia, 75-76; British India, 71-75; Canada, 90-91; Eng- land, 48-52; Germany, iii, 122, 128-133; United States, 183-202. Alabama, 191, 257, 262, 275, 290, 293. Alaska, 252, 263, 268, 269, 270, 343. Alfalfa, 189. Alps, 299. Amazon, 20. Amber, 19. Animal industries, 50, 51, 132, 133, 223- 243- Appalachian Highland, 177. Apples, 204. Arctic Ocean, 255. Argentina, 196, 224, 232, 239, 290. Arizona, 208, 210, 236, 261, 262, 273. Arkansas, 189, 191, 216, 237, 262, 285. Army, 106, 157. Ascension Island, 99. Asia, 4, 20. Atlanta, 328. Australia, 4, 26, 75-78, 224, 232, 239, 263, 290. Austria-Hungary, 4, 49, 199, 231. Bahamas, 99. Baltic, 19. Baltimore, 259, 292, 295, 337. Barley, 188. Bath, 295. Bechuanaland, 81. Belfast, 2, 47, 55. Belgium, 42, 262, 332. Berlin, 147. Bermudas, 99. Birmingham, England, 57 ; United States, 260, 293, 328. Bombay, 75. Boots and shoes, 240. Boston, 234, 24s, 291, 318, 336. Brazil, 2, 193, 196. Bremen, 151, 152. Bristol, 43. British Africa, 81-84. British coaling stations, 98. British Empire, 35-107. British Guiana, 84, 85. British India, 71-75, 193, 196. Brockton, 240, 298. Brussels, 4. Buffalo, 231, 259, 288, 293, 301, 317, 318, 325- Butter and cheese, 229. By-products, 185, 188, 195, 218, 235, 240, 255, 276, 281. Cables, 20, 21, 29, 95. Calais, 42. Calcutta, 75. California, 25, 186, 188, 199, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212, 217, 225, 233. 237, 263, 289. Camden, 234. Canada, 85-97, 267, 273. Canals, 58,j&o, 142, 187, 311, 312, 317. Canal Zone, 346. Cape of Good Hope, 81. Cape Town, 83. Caribbean Sea, 21, 346. Carpets, 234. Cascade Mountains, 12, 178, 217. Central Plain, 178. Central States, 183, 186, 188, 189, 216, 231, 288, 322. Ceylon, 19, 98. Charleston, 193. Chemnitz, 136. Chesapeake Bay, 48. Chester, 234. Cheyenne, 225. 362 INDEX 363 Chicago, 187, 225, 231, 241, 259, 288, 291, 293, 298, 317, 322-324. Chile, 261. China, 3, 4, 196, 292. Cincinnati, 231, 241, 259, 288, 291, 298, 316, 328. Citrous fruits, 208. Clermont, 22. Cleveland, 231, 259, 293, 317, 325. Climate, 9. Coal, S3. 134. 274-280. Coast Ranges, 178, 217. Coastwise trade, 318. Cohoes, 292. Coke, 277. Cologne, 136, 152. Colonial possessions: England, 70-100; Germany, 15&-157 ; United States, 343-352. Colorado, 25, 199, 205, 226, 233, 260, 261, 263, 272, 275. Commerce: Australia, 78; England, 57-61; Germany, 115, 140-147; India, 73-74; New Zealand, 79; United States, 305-342. Connecticut, 200, 246, 284, 292. Conservation, 104, 105, 127, 164-166, 353, 354- Copper, 260. Cordilleran Highland, 178. Corn, 183-186. Cotton, 190-196. Cripple Creek, 272. Cuba, 2, 343-345- Culebra, 346. Cyprus, 98. Dairying and dairy products, 226-230. Dallas, 328. Da\^^6on, 269. Delav^are Bay, 248. DenvcE, 272, 327. Deserts, 25, 210, 211. Detroit,^2S9, 317, 325. Domestic animals, 50, 133, 223-243. Dover, 42. Dresden, 150. East Indies, 199. Edmonton, 96. Education, 106, 166-168, 201, 242,255,355. Egypt, 4, 26, 83-84, 98, 193, 196. Elberfeld, 136. Electrical industries, 139, 301, 302. Electric roads, 328. El Paso, 328. England, 35-107. EngUsh Channel, 35, 299. Erie Canal, 311, 312. Factories, 104-105, 116, 117, 354. Falkland Islands, 99. Fisheries, 18, 91, 52, 244-256. Fla.x, 196. Florida, 18, 208, 237, 248, 285. Forests, 31, 32, 46, 87, 127, 214-222. Forest Service, 221. Fort Worth, 328. France, 2, 42, 49, 199, 292. Fruits, 66, 132, 203-213. Galveston, 193, 318, 340. Gary, 259, 293. Georgia, 191, 192, 206, 212, 262, 285, 290. Germany, 4, 42, 108-171, 231, 262, 332. Gibraltar, 98. Glasgow, 43, 47, 55, 68. Gloucester, 244. Goats, 235. Grand Rapids, 296. Grapefruit, 208. Grapes, 206. Great Britain, 35-107, 332. Grimsby, 45, 52. Guam, 349. Halifax, 95. Hamburg, 151. Hamilton, 95. Harbors, 45, 67, 151, 334-340- Harwich, 52. Hawaiian Islands, 2, 199, 347-349. Hay and forage, 189. Holland, i, 27, 39, 40, 42, 332. Hong Kong, 99. Honolulu, 347. Horses, 50, 237. Houston, 193. Hudson Bay, 93. Hull, 43, 52. Idaho, 25, 199, 233, 250, 261, 273. Illinois, 183, 186, 225, 226, 231, 236, 275, 281, 284, 286, 289, 293, 296, 297, 322. 3^4 INDEX India, 26, 71-75. Indiana, 183, 186, 226, 231, 236, 274, 281, 283, 298. Indianapolis, 231, 259, 288, 327. Indian Ocean, 19, 20. Industrial centers, 61-68, 147-153, 286- 302, 315-318, 322-328. Inventions, 55. Iowa, 183, 205, 225, 226, 231, 236, 275. Ireland, 49. Iron industries, 53, 57, 116, 134, 257-260. Irrigation, 25, 26, 210. Italy, 4, 26, 292. Jamaica, 99. Japan, 261. Kaiser Wilhelm Canal, 142. Kansas, 183, 226, 229, 231, 236, 282, 283. Kansas City, 225, 231, 237, 288, 316, 326. Kentucky, 183, 200, 205, 216, 275, 285. Keokuk, 302. Kimberley, 83. Klondike, 267. Lakes, Great Bear, 87 ; Great Slave, 87 ; Winnipeg, 87 ; Great Lakes, 244, 248, 258, 261. Leadville, 272. Leather, 4, 241. Leeds, 55. Leicester, 55. Leipzig, 5, 140, 152. Lemons, 208. Lexington, 237. Limes, 208. Liverpool, 43, 44, 55, 64—66. London, 43, 44, 61-64. Long Island Sound, 248. Los Angeles, 210, 301. Louisiana, 189, 198, 208, 216. Louisville, 316. Lowell, 233. Lynn, 241, 298. Mail service, 29 ; Germany, 144. Maine, 203, 215, 246, 284, 289. Mainz, 153. Malta, 98. Manchester: England, 55, 56, 60, 66; United States, 234. Manufacturing : in general, 28 ; British India, 73 ; Canada, 93 ; Germany, 116, 117, 135-140; Great Britain, 54-57 ; United States, 286-304. Maryland, 289. Massachusetts, 207, 246, 284, 286, 290, 296, 297, 322. Mediterranean, 20, 21. Memphis, 193, 315. Mexico, I, 261, 263, 273; Gulf, 21. Michigan, 188, 199, 203, 204, 205, 207, 215, 226, 233, 257. Middle Atlantic States, 189, 247, 288. Milk, 226. Milwaukee, 231, 288, 317. Mining: in general, 13, 28; Australia, 77; Canada, 91; England, 53, 54; Germany, 133-135 ; United States, 257-285. Minneapolis, 187, 288, 326. Minnesota, 186, 188, 196, 215, 225, 226, 229, 257. Missouri, 183, 186, 205, 216, 225, 226, 231, 236, 261, 262, 296. Mobile, 193. Montana, 190, 196, 226, 233, 250, 261, 263, 273. Montgomery, 193, 328. Montreal, 95. Mules, 237. Munich, 125, 150. Natal, 81. Navy, 106, 160. Nebraska, 183, 186, 225, 226, 229, 231. Netherlands, i, 27, 39, 40, 42, 332. Nevada, 263, 273. New Bedford, 254. Newcastle, 47, 59. New England States, 189, 244, 290, 291. Newfoundland, 97, 246. New Hampshire, 215. New Jersey, 207, 247, 289, 292, 297, 298. New Mexico, 233. New Orleans, 193, 315, 318, 339. New York (state), 203, 204, 207, 215, 225, 226, 247, 257, 283, 284, 286, 289, 291, 292, 296, 297, 298. New York (city), 234, 241, 259, 288, 291, 296, 298, 299, 318, 334-336. New Zealand, 78-81, 239. Niagara Falls, 32. INDEX 365 Nome, 269. North Carolina, 200, 290. North Dakota, 186, 196. North Sea, 21, 35. Oats, 1 88. Ohio, 183, 186, 205, 207, 226, 231, 233, 236, 275, 280, 2S4, 293, 296, 297, 298. Oklahoma, 183, 216, 282. Olives, 209. Omaha, 225, 231, 237, 288, 316, 326. Orange Free State, 81. Oregon, 25, 211, 233, 249, 262. Ostriches, 3, 81-83, 236. Ottawa, 95. Pacific Ocean, 21. Panama Canal, 21, 312-314. Paris, 5. Parliament, loi, 102. Paterson, 295. Peaches, 205. Pearls, 19. Pennsylvania, 188, 203, 204, 207, 275, 283, 284, 286, 291, 292, 293, 296, 297, 298,322. Pensacola, 193. Peru, 196. Petrograd, 5, 143. Philadelphia, 234, 240, 259, 291, 292, 29s, 296, 298, 318, 336. Philippine Islands, 349-352. Pittsburgh, 259, 282, 293, 295, 315. Plums, 206. Plymouth, 52. Porto Rico, 345-346. Portsmouth, 43. Potatoes, 131, 203. Poultry, 236. Providence, 234, 295. Provincetown, 245. Pueblo, 260. Puget Sound, 249, 338. Quebec, 91. Railways : Canada, 94 ; Cape-to-Cairo, 83; England, 58; United States, 267, 319-322. Recreations, 161, 356-357. Refrigeration, 239. Rhodesia, 81. Rice, 189. Rivers: uses, 32; Columbia, 186, 249; Danube, 141; Elbe, 42, 141; Hudson, 187, 310; Kern, 301; Klon- dike, 267 ; Mackenzie, 87 ; Missis- sippi, 20, 244, 302, 310; Nelson, 87; Nile, 20; Oder, 141; Ohio, 216, 310; Rhine, 20, 42, 136, 141, 142; St. Lawrence, 87, 317; Sacramento, 178; San Joaquin, 178; Saskatchewan, 87; Seine, 42; Thames, 58; Tyne, 59; Vistula, 141; Willamette, 178; Yukon, 87, 267. Roads, 306-310. Rochester, 240. Rocky Mountains, 12, 178, 214, 216. Russia, 4, 199; 231. Sahara, 26. Salmon, 249-252. Salt Lake City, 327. Samoa, 349. San Francisco, 254, 295, 338. San Juan, 346. Savannah, 193. Scotland, 3, 49. Scranton, 295. Seal fishing, 252-253. Seattle, 267, 270, 338. Seaweeds, 18. Sheep raising, 3, 51, 133, 231-235. .Sheffield, 3, 57. Shreveport, 193. Sierra Nevada, 12, 178, 217. Silk, 3, 292. Singapore, 98. Sioux City, 225. Soils, 8, 201. South Africa, 81-83, 239, 263, 290. South Carolina, 189, 191, 192, 285, 290. South Dakota, 26, 186, 196, 263. Southern States, 189, 198, 203, 205, 216, 237, 248, 290. South Georgia, 99. Spain, 3, 26, 232, 261. Spanish Armada, 39. Sponges, 18, 248. St. John, 95. St. Joseph, 288. St. Louis, 187, 225, 231, 241, 288, 293, 298, 31S, 324- St. Paul, 326. 366 INDEX Steamships, 21, 22, 23, 40-41. Stockyards, 238. Suez Canal, 21, 84. Suffrage, 102, 156. Sugar, 2, 131, 132, 197-200. Swamps, 27. Swine, 50, 133, 230, 231. Switzerland, 4, 292, 332. Telegraphs, 29, 329; wireless, 31. Telephones, 29, 330. Tennessee, 216, 262, 285. Texas, 183, 189, 191, 216, 225, 226, 237, 262, 282. Textiles, 55-57, 136, 289-293. Tobacco, 200, 201. Toledo, 317, 325. Toronto, 95. Toys, 4, 127. Transvaal, 81, 83. Trinidad, 99. Troy, 292. Turkey, i, 235. Union of South Africa, 81, 83. United States, 172-358. Utah, 199, 233, 261, 262, 263, 273. Vancouver, 96. Vegetables, 203. Vermont, 215, 284. Vicksburg, 193. Virginia, 200, 205. Wales, 58. Washington (state), 186, 205, 212, 217, 250, 289. Western States, 188, 189, 206, 211, 226, 249, 267. West Virginia, 216, 275, 283. Whahng, 253. Wheat, 49, 73, 77, 92, 186-188. Winnipeg, 96. Wireless telegraph, 31. Workingmen, 105, 165, 239. Working women and children, 165, 354. Wyoming, 226, 233, 275, 280. Yarmouth, 52. Zinc, 261. Zones, 9— II. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY Los Angeles This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. muRii APR 0^*91 h'u ^'•■^'.1 -^ .^ 315 I L 006 009 833 2 UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY AA 001 027 199 ^