% WORLD No. II. c' A SECOND SKRIES l^L E.^ 3 N»e. m GEOGRAPHY / ■\ BY *^ ' "• %. ^ ' • MARY L. TiALpf^ _ >, ', 'V -^ * • -y 1 • 4 -^^ ) BOSTON^: PUBLISHED BY GINN BRO'fHERS. ; ' 1876. > - V ^' -. , --^•: " r » y AlA-iv- > ^^^ # , u • G\^ .^'^- 'VlH Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1872, by MARY LUCY HALL, in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. ,. f. . • ■->■* ;;w "^ / // I ■^ f ITV, f 6^ Cahbrioue. o UNI^fciTV, Press : Welch, BiGEtow, &,'Ca( • PREFACE. " /'\P making many books there is no end," and it seems almost V^ presumptuous in these days to offer a new school-book. Yet, as long as young people of ordinary intelligence are heard to say, " I never could remember map-questions," or, " I 've been through Geography three or four times, but have forgotten it," new efforts must be made to throw life and interest into the study. Geography, far from offering chiefly long lists of names and statistics, as a task for the memory, should include the very spirit of the world we live in, describing varieties of scenery and climate, and the distribution of plant-life, animal-life, and human life, over the earth. In this age of universal travel, when steam-vessels and rail- roads have brought the most distant parts of the earth wilhin the limits of possible journeys, it is desirable for the young student to acquire a good basis of geographical knowledge, or at least to have his interest excited in other lands and people, that he may read and observe with intelligence and eagerness. It is not the object of the present volume to give a multitude of names to be memorized, but to connect with the important physical and political regions such suggestive descriptions as will lead pupils to seek fuller accounts elsewhere, or to travel with interest and advantage. ^ The natural sciences are touched upon only so far as to make the general description intelligible, yet in the hope that the study of geography will naturally lead on to the study of geology, astron- omy, botany, zoology, etc. History and geograpliy must always be closely connected, since the progress and development of human civilization have been so largely dependent upon physical condi- tions. Experienced teachers follow their own methods, yet the following suggestions concerning the use of the book may bo ol' some value. July, 1872. Before taking this larger Geography pupils are supposed to have learned thoroughly IVom " Our World, No. I.," or some equiva- lent, the outlines of land and water, the moaning of ordinary geo- graphical terms, and the relative position and names of .the different countries of the earth ; so that, without repetition here, the neces- sary allusions will be understood. Either before or after the detailed study of a country, as the teacher may prefer, the pupil should make a careful study of the map, after the manner of the models given, so as to be able to recite without questions, from a mural mapjor blackboard drawing. The map-study, when of large populous countries, where there is much to be remembered, will be learned more easily if taken after the description, since it will then have mor? interest for the student. The pupils should be encouriigod to test their knowledge by endeavoring to answer the OeneraLReviiui QueMions vtiihoni referr ence to text or map. ' .. Each member of the class should be able to gL^je the Summaries without aid of questions from the teacher. • The Tables at the end of the book may be used for comparing the size of different countries, lakes, rivers, etc., as indicated in the questions. The Pronouncing Vocabulary may be used in conducting a thorough test-review ; its very miscellaneous character keeping up a lively interest in the recitation, since two consecutive words may name a place in one hemisphere and a plant, animal, or pecu- liar custom of the other. It is believed that pupils, who have been kept long enough upon the Primary Book to be 'entirely fomiliar with its contents, will be found fully prepared for this volume, and that the two books will form as complete a course of geographical study as can be pursued in our common schools. M. L. II. 34o^-: TABLE OF COKTE'NTS PART I Introfluctory Definitions PAGE 1 2 THE EARTH. Form, Motions, etc. ... 3 Light. Direction ..... 3 Time 3 Longitude ..... 4 Day and Night ... 4 Hkat. Seasons 4 Zones ..... 5 Atmospheke Winds 5 Rain, Snow, etc. ... 6 Climate. Latitude . . . . r 6 Climate of the different Zones . 7 Isotherms . . . . " . 7 THE CRUST OF THE EARTH. Description .... 7 The Ocean. Waves, Currents, and Tides • . 8 Classes of Islands . . . '8 Surface under Water . . . ' 9 The Land. Mountains • , • • 9 Volcanoes . i. . . .9 Plains . . . « . . 10 Rivers and Lakes . . .10 Plants. j Classification of . . .10 Distribution of . . . .12 Uses of "12 Animals. Distribution of . . . .13 Uses of 14 Classification of . . . .14 INHABITANTS OF THE EARTH. Civilization Races .... Religion and Government. Occupations. Fishing . . Agriculture Manufactures Mines and Metals . Cloih .... Paper Leather Pottery . Trade and Commerce General Review op Part L PART II. Introductory. The Ancient World . Middle Ages Modern Times Maps and Map-Drawing. Explanation of Ma])s . Maps of the Hemispheres Mercator's Projection . PAGE Scale of a Map ... 28 Suggestions for Map-Drawing . 28 NORTH AMERICA. Explorations and Colonies . 32 Natives 33 Political Divisions ... 34 Summary ..... 34 Greenland .... 35 Study of the Map of North America 37 Greenland (continued) . . 38 British America . . . .40 Summary . . . . 43 THE UNITED STATES. History 43 Study "of the Map ... 45 Description . . . . .45 Atlantic Slope. The Northern Section . . .48 Maine ..... 52 New Hampshire . . . .54 Vermont ..... 54 Massachusetts . . . .54 Rhodclsland . . . . 55 Connecticut 55 56 . 58 59 . 59 60 . 61 61 . 62 63 . 63 65 . 66 66 . 66 67 New York New Jersey . Delaware . Pennsylvania The Southern Section Maryland . District of Columbia Virginia West Virginia . The Caroliiias Georgia . Florida Summary Basin of the Mississippi Description . The Southern Section Alabama, Missis.sippi, and Louisiana 67 Arkansas and Missouri . . 69 Tennessee and Kentucky . . 69 The Northern Section . . .72 Ohio 72 Indiana and Illinois . . .72 Michigan 73 Wisconsin and Minnesota . . 73 Iowa ..... 74 Summary 74 The Grazing District . . 76 Kansas and Nebraska . . .76 Dakota 76 The Indian Territory . . .76 Texas 77 Western Plateau. Description . . . . .78 New Mexico and Arizona . 78 Nevada and Utah . . .79 Colorado . , . . . 79 Wyoming, Idaho, and Montana . 79 Washington Territory andOregon 80 California ..... 81 Alaska 83 Summary ..... 83 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, AND THE WEST INDIES. PAGE Central America . . . .86 Summary .... 86 The West Indies .... 87 General Review of North America 90 SOUTH AMERICA. History 91 Description .... 91 Region of the Andes . . .91 Study of the Map ... 93 United States of Colombia . . 95 Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Chili 95 Patagonia ..... 96 The Pampas 96 Argentine Republic . .' . 96 Uruguay and Paraguay . . 97 Brazil . . " . . . 97 The Selvas . " . . . 98 Guiana . . . . .99 Venezuela .... 99 Summary . . . . .101 Special Terms . . . . 1 02 THE EASTERN CONTINENT. Study of the Map of Asia-Europe 102 Southern Europe. Greece 104 Italy 105 Sicily ..... 107 Spain 108 Portugal 110 Study of the Map of Europe . 110 Summary .... 112 Middle Europe. Switzerland . . . .112 Austria . . . . .114 German Empire . . . .115 Holland 117 Belgium 118 Denmark . . . . .118 France 118 Summary .... 122 British Islands. England 123 Scotland 124 Ireland 125 Summary .... 126 Northern Europe. Norway and Sweden . . .127 Iceland 129 Russia 130 Summary .... 132 General Review for Europe . . 133 Special Terras . . . .133 Mexico 84 ASIA. Siberia Kamtschatka . Summary . Chinese Empire Summary Japan Summary . India Summary ' Turkestan Afghanistan and Beloochistan Persia .... Mohammedan Countries. Ottoman Empire . 133 135 135 135 139 140 141 141 146 146 146 146 147 PAGE Turkey in Europe . . .149 Turkey in Asia .... 149 Syria 149 Arabia ..... 151 Study of the Map of Asia . 151 Summary . . . . .152 General Review for Asia . . 1 52 AFRICA. Description . . . . .153 Study of the Map . . .155 North Africa. Barbarv States . . . .156 Egypt " 158 Nubia and Abyssinia . . . 158 Desert of Sahara . . . 159 Summary . . . . . 1 59 Soudan 159 Region of the Native Tribes . 160 Colonies. The Cape Lands . . .161 East and West Coasts . . .161 Madagascar . . . .162 Summary . . . . .162 General Review of Africa . 162 Special Terms . . . .162 AUSTRALIA AND THE ISLANDS. Description . . . .163 Study of the Map . . .165 Miscellaneous Review . . 167 TABLES. Height of the principal Mountains 171 The longest Rivers . . . 171 Areas. Some of the largest Islands . . 171 Some of the largest Lakes . . 171 The principal Countries . . .171 Population of the principal Cities 171 Largest Cities of the United States 172 Vocabulary 173 LIST OF MAPS. Map indicating Routes of Trade and Commerce, and Direction of Winds and Currents . . . . .23 Maps of the Hemispheres . 30 and 31 Map of North America (Physical) . 36 Map of British America . . . 39 Map of the United States . 46 and 47 57 64 71 75 89 92 100 103 HI 120 and 121 128 . 150 154 Map of Northern New England . Map of Southern New England Map of the Middle States . Map of the Southern States . Map of the North Central States Map of Mexico, Central America, and the West Indies .... Map of South America (Physical) Map of South America (Political) . Map of Asia-Europe (Physical) . Map of Europe (Political) Map of Central Europe Map of the British Islands Map of Asia (Political) Map of Africa ( Pliysic'al and Political ) Map of Australia and Islands (Physical and Political) Maps indicating Distribution of Plants and Animals .... 164 169 HINTS TO TEACHERS. THE author's views of the object and method of geographical study are already stated in the Preface to this volume. Two facts must be accepted in considering the book : 1st. That such teacli- ers and pupils as wish to depend chiefly on direct questions and an- swers will not find the style adapted to their wants ; 2d. That in order to secure the end in view, it is absolutely necessary for the pupil to have studied thoroughly some primary geography, and to be familiar with the general position of the most important countries, mountains, and rivers of the earth. Our World, No. 1., is the natural introduction to this book, and children who study that at the proper age will be ready to begin No. 2. when from ten to twelve years old. Pupils who have been accustomed to memorize their lessons will at first find it difficult to give the more descriptive portions of the text ; but they will soon learn to state the chief points clearly in their own words, and these points will be more firmly impressed upon their minds than if originally presented as bare statements. The book will probably produce its best results when the teacher devotes a part of the time assigned to each recitation to reading aloud with the class, and explaining the text of the next lesson, which can then be so well learned and recited as to save the time thus used in advance. This method is especially desirable when quite young pupils first come to the study of the book. ^P Part I. should be taken in short lessons, and with directions and aids from the teacher. The difiSculty of some of the subjects there treated is inherent, and if such topics as seasons, winds, tides, etc., cannot be fully understood by children when going through the book for the first time, they need not be learned then with the same degree of thoroughness required in its easier por- tions, but should be taken up again at a later period. Yet these topics should not be deferred altogether, for the very general but connected idea of the world as a whole, obtained by a careful reading and discussion with the teacher, is a good preparation for the study of the different countries. Whenever possible, by way of illustration (as in the chapter on Plants), let 'the pupils sug- gest specimens familiar to themselves ; and, if objects mentioned are wholly unknown to the children, it is well for the teacher to show specimens or pictures of them. Such topics as Inhabitants of the Earth (pp. 15 and 16), the general account of Occupations (p. 17), etc., may be read aloud in the class, and reviewed by means of general questions. At the beginning of the account of North America (p. 32), the history of the discoveries, settlements, etc., should be learned thor- oughly, while the account of the. natives may be read and commented upon in the class. Again, the account of the settlement of the Thirteen Colonies, which is the introductory part of the section on the History of the United States, may be studied as the lesson, and the. remainder of the section read in the class. The map-sludies upon each grand division should be taken first in the class with open books, under the direction of the teacher, and then learned thoroughly for the next lesson in connection with the map-questions which follow them. In preparing the map-lessone, the intention has been to give no more names than can be retained per- manently in the memory of the pupil. Either the number of towns, rivers, etc., referred to in any state or section, must seem limited to persons familiar with that particular locality, or the sum-total must swell to a number of names and positions far beyond the capacity of any mind to retain, and the pupil must be unable to discriminate as to the relative importance of these numerous places. The summaries should be repeated with accuracy by each member of the class, and the review questions at the end of each continent answered perfectly, before entering upon the study of the next division. It is the opinion of many teachers that habits of attention and concentration are acquired by a class accustomed to examinations upon topics read aloud, and that the combination of this method of instruction with the exactness of recitation required for the sum- maries, reviews, and other portions of the book, form one of its im- portant features as an aid in mental development. OUR WORLD: SECOND SERIES OF LESSONS IN GEOGRAPHY PART I. INTRO DUG TORT. IN all ages men have been eager to tell and to hear new things, and before books were known, travellers wandered abroad, bring- ing home wonderful stories of unknown lands. Among the earliest writings of ancient nations are descriptions of the world they lived in, and from two Greek words, ge, "the earth," and grapho, "1 de- scribe," comes the term Geography, meaning a description of the earth. But we can readily understand how imperfect and incorrect were these descriptions, made centuries before the American conti- nent was discovered, or even the true form of the earth was known. To the few civilized nations of those times, occupying only the central portion of the great Eastern continent, the rest of the world was a surrounding wilderness, with vague limits, into which traders and travellers opened pathways very slowly, through many dangers and difficulties. No railroads crossed the continents ; no steamers sailed against wind and tide ; no vessels were strong enough, and no sailors skilled enough, to venture far from land. A short coasting voyage in the Mediterranean was a great undertaking ; and after a week's tedious journey on mules or camels, with guides, escort of armed men, and the necessary store of provisions and water, the traveller was no farther from home than a man would now find him- self after a few hours' ride in one of our comfortable railway-cars. Thus it happened, while these old nations were considerably ad- vanced in arts and manufactures, and had great poets and philoso- phers, that their wisest men were very indifferent geographers, and made such mistakes as we should scarcely expect from school-boys of the present time. Knowing so little of the world beyond, each r OUR WORLD. geographer placed his own country as the central or main portion of the earth, describing the remainder according to his imagina- tion. The Hindoos represented the earth in the form of a lotus flower, with India and the sacred river Ganges in the middle, and other known countries on the outer petals. The Greeks made Mount Olympus the home of the gods, and surrounded the earth by a broad stream called Oceanus. Even after maps representing the shores of the Mediterranean with tolerable accuracy were made, the known world included only the southern part of Europe, Western Asia, and North Africa. A little later the British Isles were added to the maps, and the East Indies, with Ceylon nearly as large as Hin- dostan. Indeed, it is not strange that great mistakes were made upon those early maps, since so little was then known of the true form and size of the earth, and of the calculations required in order to project any considerable portion of a spherical surface upon a plane. The following sketch is a map of the world as drawn by an ancient Grecian geographer. The Earth as known 500 B. C. As civilization spread, the representations of the earth's surface became more extended and correct. New nations grew up along the western coast of Europe, and among them were adventurous navigators, who followed the African coast around the Cape of Good Hope, explored the shores of the entire Eastern Continent, and in time crossed the ocean, and discovered America. After this the surface of the earth was explored in all directions by land and by sea, and not only have accurate representations been made of the outlines and position of all important bodies of land and water, but many wonderful truths have been discovered about the earth, namely, — its spherical form ; its position as a planet, or one of the heavenly bodies ; and its revolutions, with other planets, about the sun. Laws have also been discovered which regulate climate, winds, clouds, distribution of light and heat, etc., — all of which affect the vegetation and animal life of different parts of the world. Geography now includes a description of the motions of the earth, with its times and seasons ; of the atmosphere surrounding it ; Questions. — What is the meaning of the word Geography ? What is said of the earliest descriptions of the earth ? Why was so little of 'the earth known to the ancient civilized nations ? How did the Hindoos and Greeks represent the earth ? Wliat part of the earth was best known to the ancients ? What was the progress of discovery ? What facts and laws have been discovered ? What does the study of geography now inclnde ! of the soils, rocks, and metals forming its crust ; of the varieties of its surface ; of the forms of its bodies of land and water ; and an account of its plants, animals, and inhabitants. The whole world is now so well known that the geographical books of all modern nations agree ; and by means of small spheres, or globes, with the outlines of land and water traced upon them, even children may get a correct idea of its entire surface. MAP QUESTIONS. It is taken for granted that pupils have, before beginning this book, studied some primary geography, and learned the names of the different bodies of land and water, and the position of the principal countries of the earth. To study the following lessons profitably they should be able to answer these general map ques- tions : — What are the names of tlie grand divisions of land ? What are the names of the oceans ? What three divisions are in the northern hemisphere ? What division east of North America ? West of North America ? North of Africa ? East of Africa ? West of Africa ? By what oceans is North America bounded ? Africa ? Asia ? By what continents or divisions is the Pacific Ocean bordered ? The Atlantic ? The In- dian ? By which divisions is the Arctic Ocean enclosed ? Where is the Gulf of Mex- ico ? Gulf of California ? Gulf of Guinea ? Where is Hudson Bay ? Baffin Bay ? Caribbean Sea ? Mediterranean Sea ? Red Sea ? Black Sea ? Baltic Sea? Arabian Sea ? North Sea ? Where is the Mississippi River ? Hudson River? Nile? Amazon? Strait of Gib- raltar ? Isthmus of Suez ? Where is Cajie Horn ? Cape of Good Hope ? Where are the West Indies ? East Indies ? British Isles ? Japan Islands ? Where is New- foundland ? Iceland ? Greenland ? Terra del Fuego ? Where are the Andes Moun- tains ? Rocky Mountains ? Alleghany Mountains ? Alps ? Himalaya ? Pyrenees ? Atlas Mountains ? Where is British America ? United States ? Mexico ? Brazil ? England ? Ireland ? Norway and Sweden ? Holland ? France ? Spain ? Italy ? Greece ? Germany ? Turkey ? Russia ? Siberia ? China ? India ? Aiabia ? Egypt ? Portugal ? DEFINITIONS. Parallel lines are lines running in the same direction, thus : Perpendicular. — When one line stands upon an- " ' other line without inclining to either side, it is per- pendicular to it, thus : a a is perpendicular to bb. Angle. — An angle is the difference of direction between two lines meeting at a point Lines in the same direction never meet. A very slight difference of direction makes a very ___^ -^ small angle. The greater the difference of direction the larger the angle. The length of the lines does not affect the size of the angle. A right angle is an angle formed by two lines meeting per- pendicularly. An acute angle is fnialler than a right angle. <^ An obtuse angle is larger than a right nngle. THE EARTH. — LIGHT. 1 3 ! Sphere. — A solid body, every point of tlic surface of which is equally distant from its centre. Circles. — If a sphere is cut through by a plane the sections form circles. If the sphere is cut through the centre, the sections form great circles, and the centre of each circle coincides with the centre of the sphere. All other sections make small circles. All great circles of the same sphere are of the same size. Small circles are smaller, as the section is made farther from the centre of the sphere, thus: Circumference. — The boundary line of a circle. Every point of the circumference is ecjually distant from the centre. Diameter. — A straight line connecting opposite points of the circumference and passing through the centre ; thus, A B. Radius. — Half the diameter, as C B, or a straight line drawn from the centre of a chicle to any point of the circumference. Horizon. — The circle that appears to bound the view, or the line where earth and sky seem to meet. Vertical — Perpendicular to the ground or horizon. THE EARTH Before beginning a thorough study of the different countries of the earth, it is well to learn several facts that have a great influence upon its vegetation, animals, and inhabitants. 1. That the earth is a spheroid, or slightly flattened sphere, con- tinually turning on its own axis, making one revolution in twenty- four hours. 2. That while thus turning on its axis the earth is also moving round the sun, at an immense distance from it, making an entire circuit in one year ; and that the orbit, or path in which the earth moves, is not exactly circular, but slightly elliptical, or oval. 3. That the earth receives light and heat from the sun. 4. That all parts of its surface are not lighted and heated equally. In order to explain these facts, and to refer easily to different parts of the earth, we imagine certain circles upon its surface, as represented in the following figures, or upon a terrestrial globe. An imaginary line passing through the centre of the earth perpendicular to the direction of its daily motion represents its axis. The extremities of the axis at the surface of the earth are called the north and south poles. A circle around the earth half-way between the poles divides it into two half spheres or hemispheres, and is * called the equator. Other circles parallel with the equator are used for in- ,j dicating distances, and are called parallels. Circles passing through the poles are called meridians, and mark distances east and west. Questions. — What facts must be learned before beginning to study the different countries ? What is the axis of the earth ? Where are the poles ? What is the equator ? What circles are called parallels ? What are meridians ? -- -Af Fig. 1. The circumference of every circle is divided into 360 equal parts, called degrees. Each degree is di- vided into sixty equal parts, called minutes, and each minute into sixty equal parts, called seconds. They are indicated thus : 5° 20' 31", which reads, five de- grees, twenty minutes, and thirty-one seconds. LIGHT. 1. Owing to the spherical form of the earth, only one half of its surface can be lighted at once. The side that is turned to the sun receives light, while the opposite half remains in shadow. 2. The motion of the earth on its axis brings different parts of its sur- face toward the light and into the shadow once ev- ery twenty -four hours, making day and night. Direction. — Wherever we may be on the earth's surface, as that point turns into the light we call it sunrise, though it is we who are moving toward the sunlight and not the sun rising to us. The part of the horizon where the sun appears to rise is called east, and directly opposite is west. Standing with the right hand toward the east and the left hand toward the west, we face the north, and directly oppo- site is south. All intermediate directions between north and cast are commonly called northeast, between east and south southeast, between south and west southwest, and between west and north northwest. Time. — The daily revolution of the earth is from west to east, and of two places on its surface the one farther eastward turns into the light first, or has sunrise earlier than the other. If a man about to travel from Boston westward observes the time of sunrise by his watch to be five o'clock, he will find on reaching Chicago that, by the same watch, the sun rises at a few minutes after six, showing that the sun is then about an hour high at Boston. At any place the same dis- Fig. 2. tanee west of Chicago it would be then about an hour before sunrise. Questions. — How many degrees in every circumference, and liow divided ? Wliy is only half the tartli's surface liglited at once ? Is the same lialf always lighted ? Whatissunri.se? Wliere is east ? west? north? south? In what direction does the earth turn on its axis ? Is sunrise earlier in Boston or Chicago ? and why ? Will a watch be .slow or fast that is talcen from New Orleans to New York ? OUR WORLD. #'fe ^ ^ it"^ a Fig 3. Time, therefore, must be regulated for each place by making it twelve o'clock just at noon, or when the sun has reached the higli- est point above the horizon ; and clocks or watches are put forward or backward according as they are taken east or west. As the earth revolves tlirough 3G0 degrees in twenty-four hours, it follows that one hour of time must be allowed for a twenty-fourth part of that distance, namely, 15 degrees. Thus the difference of time be- tween two places can be easily calculated by their distance, or the distance by the time, counting fifteen degrees for every hour, and by certain rules the distance in degrees may be changed to miles. Longitude. — Distance east or west is called longitude, and is reckoned from the meridians, one meridian being chosen for a start- ing-point. Different nations have chosen different first meridians ; but the one which for a long time has been most commonly used is that which passes through Greenwich, near London, because of the ob- servatory there. Upon our American maps longitude is usually reckoned both from Greenwich and Wasliington. Day and Night. — If the axis of the earth were perpendicular to its path lound the sun, the dividing circle between the lighted half and darkened half of its surface would pass through the poles, cor- responding with a meridian, thus: Fig, 3. Each place would bo just as long in the light as in the shadow, and therefore the days and nights would always be equal, — twelve hours each. But in reality the axis is in- clined to the orbit, thus : Fig. 4. In the position here repre- sented more than half the north- ern hemisphere is Ijrought with- in the light, and, consequently, while the earth makes one revo- lution on its axis, any place north of the equator, as P, is longer in the light, A B, than in the dark, B G. The farther north the place is, the greater will be the difference of length between the day and night, until for a space within the circle x y, around the north pole, there will be no night while the earth makes an entire revolution. Meanwhile, since only half the sphere can receive the sun's rays at once, all the light that is gained in the northern hemisphere must be lost in the southern. At any place south of the equator, there- fore, the night will be longer than the day, and to the south polar region the daily revolution will bring no day. This would be the condition of the world all the year, long days and short nights in one hemisphere, and long nights and short days in the other, if the eartli remained stationary. But at the end of six months the earth will Iiave moved half through its path round the sun, and as its axis keeps the same direction, the north pole always pointing to the north, the greater part of the southern hemisphere will be now brought within the sun's rays, causing long days and short nights south of the equator, while the north polar region will have no day, thus : Fig. 6. Questions.' — What distance east or west gives a vaiiation of one hour of time ? Wliat is longitude ? From what point is longitude generally reckoned ? How would the world be lighted if its axis were perpeudicular to its orbit ? What is the ])ositioii of the axis ? Explain Fig. 4. Explain Fig. 5. What parts of the earth's surface have at one season no day and at another no night ? Fig. 5. But the change was very gradual during these six months, each day in the northern hemisphere losing a little,- and each night gain- ing what the day lost of the twenty-four hours, while just the reverse took place in the southern hemisphere. There must, therefore, have been a time when both nights and days were equal, or twelve hours long in both hemispheres. These equal days and nights occur twice in the course of the year, once half way between our longest days of summer and shortest days of winter, or in autumn; and again between the shortest days of winter and longest days of summer, or in spring. HEAT. The manner in which the earth is heated by the sun also depends on its form, motions, and the position of its axis. 1. The sun's rays strike most directly upon the central spot of the side that is turned toward it. Around this they fall slantingly upon the curv- ing surface ; fewer rays are absorbed within a given space, and consequently there is less heat. 2. If the earth were stationary, one circular space of its surface would always bo hottest, but the motion of the earth on its axis brings different portions of its surface successively under the perpendicular rays, so as to form a continuous hot belt around it. 3. The position of the earth in regard to the sun ^■^ is such that this hot belt extends on each side of the equator, the surface north and south of it being colder and colder toward the poles. The change, however, from hot to temperate and from temperate to cold is verj' gradual. 4. The motion of the earth round the sun with its axis always pointing in the same direction, beside causing a variation in the length of days, also causes a variation of temperature in all parts of the surface, mov- ing the circle of greatest heat alternately northward and southward. Seasons. — When the days and nights are equal in both hemi- A f'y/' \, /~~\barch SEpr.\ -, ^* B Kg. 8. Questions. — When are days and nights etiual in both hemispheres ? Upon what does the heating of the earth depend ? How do the sun's rays fall upon the earth ? How does the motion of the earth on its axis all'ect the heating of its surface ? What I)art of the earth is most heated, and why ? What causes a variation of temperature on the earth's surface ? HEAT.— THE ATMOSPHERE. spheres the temperature is also about equal, the sun being directly over head at the equator, and the heat diminishing equally toward the north and south poles. At these times it is spring in one hemi- sphere and autumn in the other. Let Fig. 8 represent spring in the northern hemisphere when the earth is at A. Then as the earth moves onward round the sun, and more and more of the northern hemisphere is brought into the sunlight, the circle of greatest heat, or of perpendicular rays, moves farther north of the equator until a quarter of the yearly revolution brings midsummer heat in the north- ern hemisphere, thus : Fig. 9. Then the sun is directly over head 23 i ' JUNE^ degrees north of the equator, which is the farthest northern limit of perpendicular rays. A circle drawn round the globe at this distance from the equator marks the northern limit of the hot belt ; and an- other circle 23^ degrees from the pole marks the limit of continuous polar day. When it is midsummer in the northern hemisphere it is midwinter south of the equator, since the heat has diminished toward the south pole in the same proportion that it has increased toward the north pole. During the next quarter-revolution the heat begins to increase southward. When it is completed the vertical rays are again over the equator, and it is spring in the southern hemisphere. (See B, Fig. 8.) When another quarter-revolution is completed the condi- tions of summer and winter are reversed in the two hemispheres, thus : Fig. 10. The sun is directly overhead 23| degrees south of Fig. 10. the equator, which is the southern limit of perpendicular rays ; and the limit of long polar days is -23^ degrees from the south pole. Zones. — -The circle that marks the limit of vertical rays in the northern hemisphere is called the Tropic of Cancer, and their south- em limit is marked by the Tropic of Capricorn. Questions. — When is the temperature equal in both hemispheres ? What change takes place in a quarter-revolution ? Explain Fig. 9. Explain Fig. 10. How far northward and southward do the vertical rays reach ? What is the Tropic of Can- cer ? Of Capricorn ? The circles that mark the limits of continuous polar day or night are called the Arctic and Antarctic cir- cles. These circles divide the earth's sur- face into five belts, called zonea, from the Greek word for belt or girdle. The belt between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn is the hot or Torrid zone. The belts between the tropics and po- lar circles are called the North and South Temperate zones. The Frigid or frozen zones lie between the Arctic and Antarctic circles and the poles. Fig. ii. THE ATMOSPHERE. [Refer to Map on page 23.] Air. — The colorless, invisible air or atmosphere in which we live is composed chiefly of oxygen and nitrogen gases with some vapor. Beyond a certain height it becomes too thin and light for our use, and persons going up very high mountains, or in balloons, find it scarcely possible to breathe. Oxygen is the great supporter of life and of combustion, and when the supply is insufficient, as in close, crowded rooms, narrow streets, mines or cellars, people cannot 'breathe easily, and lights burn dimly. Winds. — Air is expanded or rarefied by heat ; hence healed air, being lighter than colder air, naturally rises above it ; and the un- equal heating of the atmosphere keeps it more or less in motion, — currents of warmer air constantly rising, and currents of colder air rushing in beneath. This motion of the air is called wind. Permanent Winds. — Some winds are constant, blowing steadily from the same direction day after day. Thus in the torrid zone the heated air constantly rises, and currents of air from cooler regions north and south flow in to supply its place. But the atmosphere revolves with the earth upon its axis, and, since the polar regions move through a smaller circle in the daily revolution than the equa- torial, the polar currents have less velocity than the parts of the N.POLE Fig. 12. S.POLE Questions. — What are the Arctic and Antarctic circles ? What is the meaning of zone? What is the Torrid zone? What are the Temperate zones? Frigid zones? Of what is the atmosphere composed ? What is said of oxygen ? How does heat affect the air ? What is the cause of wind ? What are permanent winds ? Where is heated air constantly rising ? Where do cold currents come from to take its place ? OUR WORLD. earth toward which they are moving, and therefore do not blow directly north and south, but fall westward, becoming in the temper- ate zones northeast and southeast winds. Within the tropics they form permanent winds blowing constantly from east to west. Sailors take advantage of these permanent winds of the torrid zone, and they are everywhere known by the name of tirade winds. Midway between these, or where the heated air is constantly I'ising, neither current is perceptible, so that a little north of the equator there is a region of perpetual calm, called the zone of calms. The ascending air divides into two upper currents which blow toward the poles. In the temperate zones, where they gradually cool, they become surface winds and are called return trades. Hav- ing a greater velocity of rotation than the temperate and polar regions they blow from the southwest and northwest. Periodical winds are caused by the alternate heating of the tropi- cal lands in the two hemispheres, and blow in opposite directions during winter and summer. These winds prevail mostly in the Indian Ocean, because of the alternately heated lands of Asia and Africa, and are called monsoons, or season winds. During the northern win- ter the northeast monsoon blows across this ocean toward Africa, and during the southern winter the southwest monsoon blows toward India. Variable Winds blow at all times and seasons, prevailing in the temperate zones where the air is not so much heated, and where the currents are easily turned by various causes. Sea-Breezes prevail along shores during the day, because, as the land becomes more heated than the water by the sun, the warm air above it rises and a cool current blows in from the sea. But the land also loses its heat more quickly than the water, and therefore during the night a land-breeze blows seaward. These breezes are often of great importance to the comfort of the inhabitants of hot climates. Hurricanes. — The greater the diil'erence of temperature between two currents of air the more rapid will be their motion. Winds therefore vary from the gentlest breeze to the most violent storm. In the torrid zone the force of the wind is often terrific, and it some- times comes with a whirling motion, wrenching up treesj^engulfing vessels, and causing great destruction in its path. Such wind storms are called hurricanes in the West Indies, and typhoons in the China Seas. A sudden whirl between two currents, lasting a very short time, is called a whirlwind, or tornado. Moisture is constantly evaporated or drawn upward from the sur- face of the ocean, rivers, and lakijg by the heat of the sun and held in the atmosphere, either invisible or in the form of light clouds, which are usually to be seen even in a bright day. Rain. — When there is more moisture than the air can hold it falls in the form of rain, The warmer and lighter the air the more it ex- pands and the more moisture it can contain, and a little change of temperature causes what we call "clearing oti'" or "clouding up." This expansion and condensation of the air is constantly going on, according to the temperature and the direction of the currents of air, — rain failing more at some places than at others, and more at some seasons than others. Snovir. — Wh.pn the atmosphere is quite cold the moisture freezes and falls in the-^form of snow instead of rain. In the process of freez- ing the particles of moisture take a variety of regular and beautiful forms call^ crystals, — tiny stars, feathery wheels, and six-sided ^ Questions. — Why do they fall to the westward? What becomes of them in the tropics ? What are they called ? What is the zone of calms ? What are the return trades ? What is said of periodical winds ? Of monsoons ? Variable winds ? How are sea-breezes caused ? Land breezes ? What are hurricanes ? Where called ty- phoons ? What is a tornado ? Where does the moisture in the air come from 1 What causes rain ? What causes snow, and in what form does it fall ? figures which may be seen plainly when the snow is light and dry. When it is damp, the crystals stick together in large tiakes and can- not be distinguished one from another. Snow-flakes. Hail. — Sometimes when the falling drops of moisture pass alter- nately through warm and cool air they freeze and partly melt and freeze again, reaching the ground as hail. "Devr. — People often speak of dew falling at night ; in fact, how- ever, dew does not fall, but is formed at the surface of the earth, where the moisture is collected in large drops by the rapid cooling of the earth and the air near its surface about sunset. Fog. — It frequently happens that the atmosphere around us is full of moisture, especially on seashores or river banks, and a sud- den chill condenses it into a visible mist, or fog. The cooling after dark is often sufficient to cause a fog which disappears in the morn- ing, when the air is again expanded by the warmth of the rising sun. CLIMATE. All these variations of temperature and moisture come underthe name oi climate, and determine in a great measure the vegetation and animal life of a country, as well as the life and occupation of its inhabitants. Two fixed laws or scales of temperature hold good all over the world. 1. The greatest heat near the equator, and a gradual lessen- ing toward each pole. 2. A gradual lessening of heat as we rise above the level of the sea, so that in ascending high mountains, even' in the torrid zone, we should pass through the same changes of tem- perature and of vegetation as in going through the torrid, temperate, and frigid zones, and should find their summits covered with snow all the year round. Latitude. — The climate of a country therefore depends greatly upon its distance north or south of the equator, or its latitude. Cir- cles parallel with the equator are called parallels of latitude ; and if one of these circles is 1,000 miles north of the equator, all places on it are in the same latitude and, if there were no modifying causes, would have very much the same climate. Geographical distances are meas- ured by degrees; but, as the degrees of a great circle of the earth are equal to 69J miles, distance north or south of the equator can be easily changed to miles. Torrid Zone. — The torrid zone is between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn, and extends 23^ degrees north and south Questions. — What is hail ? Where and how is dew formed ? Fog ? What is climate ? What are the two general laws for the variation of temperature ? What is latitude ? Why is it important to know the latitude of a country ? How is latitude measured ? Where is the tonid zone t 1 30 N0R1i CLIMATE. — THE CRUST OF THE EARTH. of tlie equator, including the greater part of Africa and South America, half of Australia, and a little of North America and Asia. Here the weather is warm and the foliage green all the year, and the only change of seasons is from rainy to dry. Eain usually falls in torrents a part of each day for several months and then ceases entirely. During the drj^ season, dews and the invisible moisture in tlie air preserve the vegetation, yet there is often much suffering from the want of water, and large tracts become parched like a des- ert ; but, when the rains return, trees and grass freshen up into wonderful luxuriance and beauty. Rich and abundant vegetable and animal life characterize this zone, magnificent forests, rank grasses several feet high, large, fiei-ce animals, and myriads of insects. The inhabitants live much in the open air and are not fond of work. Temperate Zones. — The two temperate zones extend from the tropics to within 23J degrees of the poles. The north temperate zone, including the greater parts of Europe, Asia, and North Amer- ica, contains much more land than the south temperate. These zones have four seasons. 1. Winter, when the trees lose their foli- age and cease to grow, when the nights arc long and the cold often intense. 2. Spring, when the buds open into tender green, flowers begin to bloom, and the streams overflow. 3. Summer, when the days are long and warm, the foliage is thick, and fruits are ripening. 4. Autumn, when the leaves fall, the frost comes, and the harvests are gathered. In this zone vegetation is less luxuriant than in the torrid zone, and the inhabitants are obliged to work harder, and to use forethought in preparing for the winter. This climate, therefore, is the best for the development of man, where he is not enfeebled by too much heat, nor overcome by cold and the difficulty of obtaining food. Frigid Zones. — In these zones life is cold, hard, and dreary to all who have lived in a warmer climate. The short summer brings but scanty vegetation, and even this ceases in the extreme north, where the snows and ice never wholly melt. The few inhabitants of this icy climate wrap themselves in clumsy garments of fur, devour the fat of whales and seals in order to keep warm, and have no other thought than how to obtain the barest necessaries of life. Isotherms. — If the general law of temperature were uninter- rupted, places situated on the same parallel all round the world would have the same temperature. But many causes, such as the po- sition of land and water, difference of elevation, or of winds and cur- rents, and the direction of mountain chains, modify or vary the cli- mate and appearance of different parts of the world. Here a great plain in the interior of a continent, shut off from the ocean or other waters, becomes a hot, dry desert. There large rivers flow through low lands in the same zone, the hot moisture rises and dense forests border their banks. A current of wind striking against a mountain chain is forced upward where the air is cooler, and its moisture con- denses into rain, causing on that side of the chain a pleasant climate and rich vegetation, while on the other side may be bare slopes and a dry heat. These influences cause a variety of climates, and iso- thermal or equal-heat lines do not correspond with the parallels of latitude. Following the isothermal lines we find the west coast of Europe warmer than the American shores in the same latitude di- rectly opposite ; and when we eat figs and olives from Italy and Spain, or hear of invalids going from New England to France for a milder climate, we forget that those countries are no farther south than our own. [Refer to Map on page 169.] THE CRUST OF THE EARTH Thus far we have considered the outside influences that affect the earth, and we now come to the actual surface or crust of the earth itself. The discovery and development of natural laws have been the work of ages, for such knowledge is obtained gradually. First, by the general observations of men in the pursuit of their various occupations. Secondly, by the patient study and investigation of a few, persons in each age and nation. Thus some knowledge of the crust of the earth has been obtained. It was observed along cliffs or on mountain sides that layers, or y strata, of different kinds of rock rested one above another with great regularity, and were usually slanting, thus : Fig. 14. Workers in stone found that some rocks were hard, like granite ; others soft and easjly split, like slate. In mining and quarrying, impressions of shells, bones, leaves of plants, and sometimes of entire animals were found in solid rock, — many of them unlike any now existing ; and buried deep in the frozen earth of the cold northern region were found remains of elephants, which were probably adapted to a cool climate. Fig. u. Questions. — Describe the climate of the torrid zone. What portions of the earth are included witliin this zone? Wliere arc the temperate zones ? Which has the more land ? Describe their climate. Describe the climate of the frigid zones. What causes modify or interrupt the general law of climate ? What are isothermal lines ? Do isothermal lines correspond to the parallels of latitude 1 Which shore of the Atlantic Ocean is the warmer ? Which is farther north, Paris or Boston ? Which has the colder climate ? How has a knowledge of our world been obtained ? What observations were made in regard to the earth's crust ? Intelligent men began to inquire into the causes of these singular appearances. Examining r/iore closely and in different localities, they found far inland remains or fossils of sea-shells and corals which must have grown in salt water. They also learned that cer- tain fossils were always found in the same kind of rocks, and that in some rocks no fossils were seen. It was discovered that when strata of rock end suddenly- on the side of a hill, a continuation of the same strata, in the same order and containing similar fossils, is often found on the opposite side of the valley many miles distant. (Fig. 15.) Moreover the appearance of certain rocks was such as is always produced by fusion or intense heat. By comparing their discoveries and ideas these various students have finally agreed on many points. There is still much to learn, but thus far it is generally conceded that the earth was once a globe of melted matter turning on its axis, and that the "surface gradually hardened into a solid crust, while the surrounding vapors condensed into a flood of waters. The surface in cooling contracted into a rough, uneven crust, particles of which were continually-worn off by the rolling waters and deposited in layers of sand and mud. The first living creatures which appeared were shell-fish and corals, or such other animals as could endure the heated waters of that early Questions. ^ What were the results of more careful examinations? Describe thi' supposed formation of the earth. OUR WORLD. period. Successive periods in the progress of the earth's formation followed, — new strata were deposited by the waters, and new forms of animal life appeared. And at intervals came tremendous convul- sions, rending and upheaving the gradually thickening crust, lifting portions above the water, and throwing out streams of melted rock from within, to fill the fissures or harden upon the outside. At length the crust was solid and deep enough to resist the force of the inter- nal heat, the atmosphere had cooled and cleared, large bodies of dry land were conveniently distributed over the globe, and the waters had retired into the depressions, forming a highway of easy commu- nication from land to land. The world was ready for man, and earth, air, and water abounded with creatures for his use. THE OCEAN. [Refer to Map on page 23, ] Referring again to our imitation globe, we find that the water still covers about three fourths of the earth's surface in one connected body, though the large masses of dry land lie in such a way as to partially divide it into several lesser oceans known by different names The largest are the Pacific and Atlantic, on opposite sides of the globe, which really extend from pole to pole, though these names are only applied between the north and south polar circles. The Arctic Ocean lies around the north pole, partially enclosed by the continents of Europe, Asia, and America, opening broadly into the Atlantic, but only connected with the Pacific by the narrow Bohring Strait. The Antarctic Ocean, around the south pole, is un- confined by land, and only separated by name from the other oceans. The Indian Ocean is in the southern hemisphere, partially enclosed by Asia, Africa, and Australia. Water. -^ In the continual process of evaporation from the broad surface of the ocean, only pure, tasteless vapor is drawn up into the atmosphere. The various salts and mineral substances washed from the earth remain dissolved in the sea, making the water very salt and bitter, and unfit to drink. Waves. — Waves are generally raised by the wind, and vary from gentle ripples to stormy billows. Often in the fairest weather the surface of the ocean is broken by waves that become higher as the winds are stronger, and in storms rise, foam, and break with tre- mendous power, especially along the shores On some shores, owing to the direction and force of regular winds and currents, and to the slope of the land, these ocean waves always roll high, as at the Cape of Good Hope, which is a difficult point for vessels to pass even in fine weather. To a person standing on a beach one distant wave appears to roll onward until it strikes the shore, but the wave motion is in reality conveyed from one portion of the water to another, each particle re- maining almost stationary in its own place. This will be perceived by throwing a stick into the water at some distance from the land ; there it will remain, lifted again and again by the passing waves, instead of rolling with the first to land. Currents. — • The same differences of temperature that cause winds, or currents in the atmosphere, also cause currents in the ocean, though the ocean currents are more complicated than the winds, being modified by them, and often interrupted or turned aside by the direc- tion of the shore lines. Yet some of them have been fully traced out and are well known to sailors. Currents of warm water from the torrid zone, moving rapidly toward the colder regions, often keep their warmer temperature in the midst of cold waters, and have a great Questions. — How much of the earth's surface is covered by water ? How is this body of water partial!}' divided ? What is said of the different oceans ? What of the water of the sea ? What of waves ? Describe wave motion. What is said of currents ? influence on the climate of the shores they meet. The Gulf Stream is a warm current which flows from the Gulf of Mexico, and carries its waters from that southern latitude northeastward and across the ocean to the shores of Europe, making their climate milder than that of the opposite shores in the same latitude. Sometimes a current is so bent as to become circular in its course, so that a bottle or plank has been known to come round again to the same spot months after it was dropped in the water. There is such a great circular current in the Atlantic Ocean that is constantly sucking in the floating sea- weed toward its centre, forming an immense mass of it called the Sargasso (or seaweed) Sea. The regular ocean currents are useful in several ways, — they aid sailors when flowing in the direction of their voyage, they convey seeds of plants to barren islands, and carry quantities of floating logs and planks to shores where no timber grows. On some of the islands in the North Atlantic the people depend entirely on this driftwood for building and firewood. Tides. — There is another motion of the ocean not so easy to un- derstand. According to a general law of attraction the moon draws the whole mass of the earth toward itself. This attraction acts suc- cessively on difl'erent parts of the earth's surface as they are turned toward the moon in the course of the daily revolution, and, as the water yields more readily to the attraction than the land, there is a gradual swell in different parts of the ocean, at regular intervals, called a tide. The solid earth is more attracted than the water farthest (m) from the moon ; hence this water is left be- hind, or a tide is formed there. Thus two high tides occur together on sun, although so distant, has LOW TIDE HIGH I TIDE opposite sides some effect on The Fig. 16. of the earth, the tides. Islands. — Beside the large bodies of dry land many lesser peaks or ridges of the solid crust have risen here and there above the water, dotting the ocean with islands of every size and form. Islands are classed as oceanic and continental. Continental Islands lie along the shores of the mainland, usually enclosing seas, and are often continuations of mountain chains on the continents. Some of the larger islands are of such size as to con- stitute important empires or countries, as Great Britain and Japan. Others are merely bare rocks rising from the water. Oceanic Islands are solitary peaks or clusters rising in mid-ocean far away from other dry land. The Sandwich Islands and the Azores are examples of this class. Coral Islands. Many islands of the torrid zone, though resting upon submarine mountains, are not a part of the earth's crust, but are formed by tiny living creatures which inhabit the seas. These are the coral polyps, — small, jelly-like creatures that multiply in masses, forming, as they grow, a stony, branching skeleton. As myriads of the polyps live and die, the coral formation grows higher and larger, until it reaches the surface of the water. Here the waves roll and break upon it, crushing and wearing off the upper portion and forming a thin soil, which is increased by drift, and catches floating seeds from the winds and currents, until at last the coral mass be- comes an island. Sometimes these coral formations are mere reefs along a coast, dangerous to navigators. The islands, or atolls, con- Questions. — What is the Gulf Stream ? The Sargasso Sea ? What are the uses of currents i How are tides caused ? Why is the ocean dotted with islands ? What are continental islands ? Oceanic islands ? How are coral islands formed ? THE OCEAN. — THE LAND. 9 sist of a circular reef enclosing a lake, or lagoon, and open at one side. These lagoons make safe harbors for ships, always smooth and quiet, however loud the roar of the waves dashing on the outer Coral Island shore of the island. Coral polyps only live in warm climates, conse- quently these islands are mostly in the torrid zone, and many of them arc very beautiful with their luxuriant tropical vegetation. Points or peninsulas of coral formation have here and there been added to the mainland. Stirface under vrater. — Since the solid crust of the earth forms one continuous surface partly covered with water, the bottom of the sea is, like the dry land, a succession of hills, valleys, low plains, and plateaus, the water being in many places quite shallow, and in others too deep to be sounded. THE LAND. The dry land rises chiefly in two great masses, or continents, on opposite sides of the globe ; but each of these large continents is so nearly divided into two parts that four grand divisions may be reck- oned, — North and South America in the western hemisphere, and in the eastern, Africa, and_ Asia-Europe. This last is one mass of land, not naturally divided, yet its eastern and western parts are so different as to inhabitants and condition' that Europe is considered a fifth division. The smaller continent of Australia makes a sixth grand division. The name of continent is sometimes applied to each of these six divisions, though the word means a continuous body of land entirely surrounded by water. Although there are three northern and three southern divisions, the distribution of land is very unequal in the northern and southern hemispheres. Both Africa and South America taper to points at a distance from the south pole, leaving a vast open ocean, while North America and Asia-Europe broaden toward the north, until they almost touch, nearly enclosing the Arctic Ocean. Thus the great bulk of land, including almost all of Asia and North America and the whole of Europe, lies in the north temperate and frigid zones ; so that in speaking of the earth and its productions the term north has come to be almost synonymous with cold. Questions. — What is a lagoon ? Where are coral islands found ? What is said of the bottom of the sea ? How is the land distributed ? How many continents are there ? How many grand divisions ? Which two are not naturally divided ? Is there more land in the northern or southern hemisphere ? What land encloses the Arctic Ocean 1 Mountains. — Mountain-systems consist usually of several ridges, more or less parallel, united here and there by cross ridges, and send- ing out lesser spurs on each side. Some mountains are covered far up with luxuriant forests, while others are bare and rocky. Diflfer- ont chains have characteristic forms of outline ; some swell in great, rounded curves one above another, and others rise in sharp peaks and clifis. The lofty summits of the higher mountains arc always covered with snow, and collect perpetual stores of moisture to feed the count- less streams that water the land and open communication with the sea. By the early shrinkage and upheavals of the earth's crust, moun- tains appeared ; and by its fractures the lower rocks were brought to the surface, and metallic veins were formed. As the crust became thicker, the convulsions were more violent, and the upheavals greater; so that the highest mountain-ranges were the last formed, while the oldest ridges are comparatively low. Volcanoes. — Some of the openings made in the crust were not entirely closed, and thus volcanoes were formed, through which steam, gas, and melted matter still escape, and prevent such an ac- cumulation within as might again rend the earth. Yet, even with these vents, the internal force is powerful enough to shake the earth from time to time, causing what we call earthquakes. A volcano is usually a conical mountain with a crater, or hollow, in the top, of considerable extent. When a volcano is not in active eruption, vis- Crater. itors may descend into its crater, though even then some parts may be soft and heated, and jets of sulphurous steam or smoke may rise from it. Sulphur usually abounds either in great yellow flakes, or mixed with the mud and gas. There are often loud groanings and explosions for several days before an eruption ; — then the flames shoot up, showers of ashes and red-hot stones are thrown to a great distance, and broad streams of melted rock, or lava, pour down the mountain-side. These streams are several feet in depth, and often flow over many miles, overwhelming forests, fields, and cities, and causing immense loss of life and property. A volcano on one of the Pacific islands is thus described: "The crater was two miles in diameter and the wall rose perpendicularly nine or ten hundred feet. A lake within was surrounded by a solid Questions. — What is said of mountain -systems ? Of their outlines ? Are the highest mountains the oldest or newest, and why ? What are volcanoes ? What is a crater? What is lava ? Give the description of an eruption. 10 OUR WORLD. crust, with much porphyry, aud sulphur enough to load many ships ; and thousands of jets of inflammable gas issued from the surface. In 1754 there was a violent eruption which lasted eight days, with tremendous explosions, darkness, and clouds of ashes that fell at a distance of twenty leagues. Streams of bitumen and sulphur ran over the district ; the alligators and sharks were destroyed in the rivers, and flung upon the banks ; and villages were overwhelmed with ashes and lava." Such eruptions have occurred at intervals in various parts of the world, and a few volcanoes have become famous for their repeated eruptions, or the terrible destruction they have caused. The best known of these are Mount Vesuvius and Mount Etna near the Mediterranean Sea, Mount Hecla in Iceland, and the volcano Kilauea, on one of the Sandwich Islands. The chief vol- canic region of the world extends around the shores of the Pacific Ocean. There are many extinct volcanoes, from which there have been no eruptions for a long time, and which are no longer feared. Plains. — Between mountain-chains and peaks are valleys, ravines, and plains, various in size and form. Valleys are sometimes narrow and deep, and sometimes widen out with gentle slopes over a broad extent of country, affording fine tracts for cultivation. The upper valleys, among* the higher ridges, often form extensive levels, far above the sea, which are called plateaus, or table-lands. Plateaus being high, among rugged mountains, are not remarkable for luxuri- ance of vegetation, and are often bare and dreary in appearance. Extensive lowlands, without mountains and with a comparatively level surface, are generally called plains, but take different local names in different parts of the world. The large grass-plains of North America, in the basin of the upper Mississippi, are known as prairies. The names of pampas and llanos are given to vast plains in South America covered with luxuriant grass. The great plains around the Caspian Sea are called steppes ; those of Siberia are called tundras. Deserts are plains, whether high or low, that are mostly destitute of trees or grass ; such as the vast regions of sand and rock in Africa and Asia. Rivers, however large, have small beginnings, or sources. Some- times the rainwater absorbed by the earth filters through the liglit upper soil, until, reaching a layer of clay, it creeps on and finds an opening whence it issues as a spring. From the spring runs a brook or rivvdet, which flows down to find the lowest level of the valley. Sometimes water collects in marshy liollows until it over- flows and wears a pathway to the sea. Often streams rush down the narrow ravines in mountain regions, and unite into large rivers before finding an outlet. Other rivers have their origin in vast masses of snow gathered among the high mountains, where the surface only melts during the summer days. When this melts, the water pene- trates the snow, and, freezing there during the night, changes it into a substance between snow and ice, called neue. The accumulated snow of succeeding winters presses upon this, and finally it becomes clear, compact ice. Portions of this ice come down into the narrow valleys leading from the mountain-crests, and move slowly on as frozen rivers, or glaciers, till they are melted at their base by the summer heat in the lower valleys. The streams which flow from different glaciers often unite into one large river. Glaciers bring down rocks and loose earth, broken from the sides of the valley, which form ridges on their sides and at their base, and are called moraines. Rivers, once formed, are constantly supplied by rain and by melted Questions. — Which are some of the most famous volcanoes ? What are plains ? Plateaus ? What names are given to different low plains ? What is a desert ? How are livers formed ? snows ; and a rapid melting in the spring, with heavy rains, causes the rivers to swell and overflow their banks. In- some cases these overflows, or freshets, are great disasters, washing away houses, fences, and bridges, and ruining crops ; but in others they are essen- tial to the prosperity of the country, serving to fertilize the land in the absence of rain. The direction and length of rivers depend on the slope of the land. Streams on the narrow west slope of the Andes have only a short course before reaching the sea; while the Amazon, rising on the other side of the mountain range, flows entirely across- the continent. A very slight elevation of land in the interior of a continent causes its rivers to flow in opposite directions ; and, whether high or low, such an elevation is called a water-shed. The more sudden the slope the more rapid the current of the rivers. The bed of a river is the channel or passage worn by the waters in the soil or rocks. Large rivers flowing through low tracts in the latter part of their course usually deposit mud and sand at their mouths, through which the water makes its way to the sea by several outlets. Such alluvial flats crossed by the many channels or mouths of the river are called deltas. The basin of a river is the tract of land drained by the main stream and its branches ; and sometimes includes a vast extent of country, as with the Mississippi, where the basin extends from the Rocky Mountains to the Alleghanies. A river-system consists of all the rivers with their branches that flow from the same water-shed, in the same general direction, and into the same ocean. Navigable rivers promote the growth and prosperity of a country, by opening it to trade with other parts of the world. Sailing vessels ascend the larger rivers to a considerable distance, and steamboats take their place on smaller streams. The productions of one region are thus easily carried to another, and foreign luxuries brought into the interior of a continent. Not all rivers are useful for transporta- tion, as some flow through cold, barren countries, that produce little; and others are too much obstructed by rocks or sand-bars to be navi- gable. The small streams of a country are often of great importance in supplying ivater-power for turning the machinery of manufacturing and saw-mills. Water absorbed in the earth takes some taste of the peculiar soil and minerals through which it flows. This taste is usually so slight that river-water is called fresh, as compared with the salt water of the sea. In some cases, however, streams or springs issue from the ground so strongly impregnated with iron, sulphur, or salt, that they are called mineral-springs. Such waters are often beneficial in vari- ous diseases, and are visited by people from great distances. Lakes are bodies of fresh water that fill hollows or depressions in the land, and are fed by streams from the nearest hills, while other streams serve as their outlets to the sea. PLANTS. [Refer to Map on page 169.] Vegetation is most luxuriant in the hot, moist climates of the torrid zone, gradually disappearing toward the poles ; and there is great variety of size and form, from majestic forest trees that live through centuries, to tiny herbs that grow for a season, blossom, and die. Classification. — The botanist classifies the vegetation of our Questions. — What is a glacier, and how is it formed ? What causes a freshet ? How are the direction and length of rivers determined ? What is a w-ater-shed ? A river-bed ? How is a delta formed ? What is a river-basin ? A river-system ? Men- tion the uses of rivers. What is said of river-water ? What are miueml-springs ? What are lakes ? Where is vegetation most luxuriant 1 PLANTS. 11 earth according to differences of structure and modes of growth ; but we can only refer here to a few well-known divisions. Deciduous-leaved trees are those which lose their leaves in winter, and they belong chiefly to the temperate zones. Evergreens are trees with needle-like leaves, which remain green all the year. Most of them bear cones, like the pine, fir, hemlock, and larch, and abound in cold countries. The cedar and cypress are found chiefly in warm climates. Palms are tropical trees with no branches, and clusters of long, feathery leaves at the top of their tall trunks. The date-palm, cocoa- palm, oil-palm, and fan-palm are among the most useful species. Sago is obtained from the pith of another species, which grows in South America and the East Indies. Shrubs are plants with woody, branching stems, and of perennial growth. Tea, coflee, and other useful plants are among the shrubs ; while many of them are very ornamental. Vises include large climbing-plants and the slender twiners. The grape-vine and hop-vine are familiar examples. Immense woody vines interlacing the trees of the tropical forests are called lianas. The Flowerless Plants — such as ferns and mosses — have no flowers, and bear spores in place of fruit or seeds. Ferns are delicate, graceful plants, with their spores in little clus- ters or rows upon the back of tiieir leaves, called fronds ; or some- times upon separate stems. The ferns of the temperate zones are small annuals ; but within the tropics they attain to the size of trees. Mosses are low, tufted plants, with their spores in little boxes, called capsules, raised upon a slender stem, and usually opening by a lid. Though diminutive, they are very varied and beautiful plants. Lichens are tlie dry, flat growth found upon stones, fences, and the bark of trees. One species forms the gray tufts which hang from old trees in our forests. Fungi form another class of simple yet important plants, and in- clude mushrooms (some species of which are eaten as delicacies), mildew, mould, rust in grain, &c. Algce are salt or fresh water plants ; and probably the first vegeta- tion on the earth's surface belonged to this class. Next lichens grew upon the bare rocks, and by their decay made a thin soil. Mosses, ferns, rushes, and grasses followed ; then, as the soil became thicker, palms and forest trees ; and finally the prfes- ent rich and varied vegetation of the earth appeared, which adds much to the beauty of our world, and supplies many of our wants. Flora. — Different plants require not only different degrees of lieat and moisture, but difl'erent soils ; and many are so dependent upon the particular nourishment which they absorb from the earth, through their roots, that they die if transplanted into an unsuitable soil. Thus each climate and each region of the earth has its peculiar vege- tation, adapted to the prevailing temperature and soil. The date ripens under a tropical sun, the apple thrives best in a temperate climate, and the hardy birch lives through the severe arctic win- ters. Within these broad limits of the zones each family or species of plants chooses its "habitat" or home. The alders and wil- lows follow streams in search of moisture, the cranberry creeps over the salt meadow of the sea-shore, and the golden-rod blooms Tropical Vegetation. Questions. — Wliat are deciduous-leaved trees ? What are evergreens ? Describe palms. What are shrubs ? What is said of vines ? What are spores ? Describe ferns. Mosses. Lichens. What is said of fungi ? Of algai ? Why arc different ]ilants found in > VVi ii .t.. : fi-olB- ..*')'' M,vi>' j>y:^ N o 1- I li W .■ > 1 W i 11 .1 -> . I ^ 1. 11 1 li .!• o I :i , IV 1 11 ,1 V'^illf^^^ . >|l-'" ..o---;: '■"'--" ,1.- -WiiuVs I ..v,.,-,„.,^l n u ator <"1.', WITH IIU. CHIEF ROUTES OF COMMERCE. I:; 1 ..I, ".•»! Ill 1.7 l.uu^iUuU- 17 f.usl li-oui 77 U'uHbin;^tt>li 107 GENERAL REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR PART I. What did the ancient nations know of Geography ? What was the progress of geo- graphical knowledge ? What does geography include ? Repeat the definitions given of lines and angles. Of the sphere, ciicle, and parts of a ciicle. What four facts affect the vegetable and animal life of the earth ? What imaginaiy circles are used for convenient reference ? LIGHT. How is the earth lighted by the sun ? How do we determine direction ? Will a man who has travelled from Chicago to San Francisco find his watch fast or slow ? How nmch, and why ? What is longitude ? What is the position of the earth's axis ? Why are our days longer than our nights during the summer ? When are the days and nights of eipial length all over the earth ? What parts of the earth have for a time continuous day, and at anotlier season continuous night ? Draw the figures and explain the variation in the length of days and nights. HEAT. Upon what does the heating of the earth's surface depend ? What part of the earth is always hottest ? What parts of the earth are always cold ? What causes the changes of seasons ? Draw the figures and explain fully. What are the limits of the torrid zone ? What are the limits of the temperate zones ? Where are the frigid zones 1 ATMOSPHERE. Of what is air comjKJsed ? What causes wind 1 What are the trade-winds ? What is the zone of calms, and where ? What are the return-trades ? How are periodical winds caused ? How are sea and land-breezes caused ? What causes rain ? Snow ? Hail 1 What causes dew ? Fog ? CLIMATE. What two general laws for the variation of temperature ? What is latitude ? De- scribe the torrid zone. The temperate zones. The frigid zones. What are isothermal lines ? Why do they not correspond with parallels of latitude ? CRUST OP THE EARTH. What observations have been made on clifl's and mountain sides ? What discoveries by mining and quarrying ? What further inquiries and investigations ? Describe the supposed formation of the earth. THE OCEAN. How much of the earth's surface is water ? What are the names and limits of the five oceans ? What are waves ? What are the causes of currents ? What is the Gulf Stream ? What is the Sargas.so Sea ? How are tides caused ? Describe the three classes of islands. Give an example of each class. What is the bottom of the sea ? THE LAND. What are the grand divisions of land ? Is there more land north or south of the equator ? What is a mountain-system 1 How were mountains fonned ? Wliat are volcanoes ? Mention the different kinds of plains. How are rivers formed ? Describ:- the formation of a glacier. What is a water-shed ? Mention one. What is the bed of a river ? Its basin ? A delta ? What is a river-system ? Mention the uses of rivers I What are mineral-springs ? What are lakes ? r PLANTS. Where is vegetation most luxuriant ? What are deciduous-leaved trees ? Ever- greens ? Shrubs ? Vines ? Give an example of each. Where are palms found ? Mention some of the most useful species. What are spores ? Describe ferns. Mosses. Lichens. What are fungi ? Alga; ? Has the vegetation of the earth always been as varied as now ? Why do difl'erent parts of the earth have different forms of vegeta- tion ? What is meant by the flora of a country ? What are the characteristic jilants of the tropical flora ? What ett'ect has the climate of the temperate zones upon vegeta- tion ? What plants are characteristic of these zones ? What is the vegetation of the frigid zones ? What changes of vegetation are observed in ascending high mountains ? What is the flora of the ocean ? What are the principal food-plants ? What are those used for clothing ? For beverages ? For extracting oil ? W^hat are some of the useful gums ? Mention some of the most common vegetable dye-stuffs. What parts of plants furni.sh spices ? Give examples. Describe some of the useful barks. For what pur- poses is the hard wood of trees used ? What is bamboo, and how used ? ANIMALS. Where is animal-life most varied and abundant ? What are the characteristic ani- mals of the torrid zone ? Of the temperate zones ? Of the frigid zones ? Is animal or plant-life more abundant in the frigid zones ? What is meant by the fauna of a coun- try ? Mention some of the uses of animals. What are the four great divisions of animals ? What are quadrupeds ? Ruminants ? Rodents ? Carnivorous animals ? Marsupials ? INHABITANTS OP THE EARTH. Describe the progress of civilization in the world. Wliat natural conditions are unfavorable for its progress ? Into what races are the inhabitants of the earth divided ? Describe each. Wliat are the prevailing religions of the world ? What are the two distinct fonns of government ? OCCUPATIONS. Wliy did men apply themselves to different occupations ? What place does fishing hold as an occupation ? What are the important fisheries ? What progress has been made in agriculture, and how ? Why are metals, and workers in metals, important to the progress of civilization ? Mention the difl'erent qualities of metals. How are iron, lead, and other metals found ? How obtained and i)repared for use ? What different qualities of iron are used, and for what purposes ' What are the chief uses of lead ? What are the properties and uses of copper and tin ? What is bronze ? Zinc ? Brass ? Pewter ? What are alloys ? AVhat are the proiierties and uses of gold and silver ? What results have come from the eager search for gold ? To what uses is mercury applied ? What is coal, and what are its uses ? What are the two processes in making cloth ? What improvements have been made in them ? How are woven fabrics colored ? Where was cotton first manufactured ? Wfiere is it chiefly manufactured now ? Upon what does the value of wool depend ? What are the different kinds of wool ? What is silk ? By whom was silk first manufactured ? How is pajwr made ? For what is leather used ? Wluit is Umnin ? How is leather made ? AVliat is the history of pottery ? What are the varieties, and how do they differ ? What was the earliest mode of trading ? Wliat are some of the results of trade and commerce ? Wliat is money, and why used ? Describe the progress in facilities for intercourse. PART II. INTRODUCTORY. THE ANCIENT WORLD. THE climate, productions, and central position of the region around the Mediterranean 'Sea were favorable for the first ad- vances in civilization. This great sea, with its numerous gulfs and bays, aflforded facilities for intercourse without being too formidable for the first sailors, with their rude vessels and slight knowledge of navigation. Along its shores, therefore, grew up some of the most ancient nations, of which we have any historical knowledge ; and from thence learning and art have spread throughout the world. Egyptians. — Thousands of years ago the Egyptians were already learned in astronomy, geometry, medicine, and other sciences ; wore garments of fine linen and woollen ; made ornaments of gold and silver; carved upon stone or painted, in colors that have lasted through ages, representations of their victories in war, their chariots and arms, their various occupations, and their implements. They built substantial palaces, temples, and tombs for their kings ; they (?tected those immense pyramids so old that nobody knows when or by whom they were made, yet so well-built that they have stood through many centuries, and it is still the wonder of the world how the massive stones were lifted into place. It was part of their religion to worship their ancestors ; and one of their most singular customs was that of embalming their dead in costly oils and spices, and wrapping them in many yards of linen. These embalmed bodies, or mummies, have often been found, and, together with pictures and inscriptions carved upon blocks of stone, they tell us something of daily life in the old cities of Thebes and Memphis, whose ruins have now been visited, studied, and explained for many years, while another people and other customs have existed on the banks of the Nile. Phoenicians. — The Phoenicians, on the eastern coast of the Medi- terranean, were the traders of the olden time. Their vessels filled the " Great Sea," as it was then callefl, and even sailed beyond the Strait of Gibraltar. They were renowned for their wealth ; and, be- side founding the great city of Tyre on their own coast, they estab- lished colonies on the African shore, where they built the famous city of Carthage. The Phoenicians wove fine cloth and made a rich dye from a shell-fish found along their coast, which became cele- brated as the Tyrian purple, and was used for the garments of kings and nobles. Babylon. — Farther eastward were the Assyrians, Medes, and Persians, and on the plain of the Tigris and Euphrates stood the famous city of Babylon. Situated on the highway of trafiic with India, it was the resort of travellers, merchants, and idlers, receiving vices as well as costly merchandise, and was notorious alike for its wealth and depravity. Questions. — What part of the world was most favorable for the first progress of civilization ? What were the advantages of this region ? What is said •( the Egyptians ? What are mummies ? How have we learned anything of daily life in ancient Egypt ? Where did the Phoenicians live ? For what were they famous ? What was the Tyrian purple ? Where was Tyre ? Where was the city of Babylon ? What is said of it ? India. — For a long time, India was the eastern limit of the known world ; and Alexander, the Macedonian conqueror, when he had marched his armies as far as the Indies, lamented that he had conquered all the world. Greeks. — No people are more interesting to us than the ancient Greeks, who inhabited a mountainous peninsula in the southeast of Europe. Their civilization came r.-\ther later than that of Egypt ; their ideas of religion were less gloomy than those of other pagan nations ; and their progress in art and their perception of beauty much greater. They gave human forms and passions to their many gods and goddesses, built temples, and held national festivals in their honor. The Greeks took great care to strengthen and develop the body into its greatest possible perfection, and athletic games were held at their religious festivals, — foot races, chariot races, boxing, leaping, and wrestling. The victors in these games were crowned with laurel and regarded with honor and respect. Many of the beautiful marble statues, made by the Greek sculptors, to rep- resent their gods, are still preserved, and are admired by all modern nations as the finest models. We are familiar with the mythology of the Greeks, or the fabulous adventures of their divinities, and meet everywhere, in marble, bronze, painting, and engraving, repre- sentations of Apollo, Mercury, "Venus, Cupid, &c. Their temples were fine specimens of architecture, and are still imitated in modern buildings. The Athens of those days was celebrated not only for its magnificent temples, but for its schools and philosophers, and was the seat of learning and art. Romans. — While Greece was reaching this high degree of fame and prosperity, another nation was rising into power. A band of rude adventurers had built a city called Rome, in the west of Italy, which region was then peopled by various tribes living in walled towns. Gradually these towns were conquered by the Romans, who grew into a great nation, caring less for art than the Greeks, and more for war and conquest. The more they felt their strength, the more eager were they for battle and fame, and at last they conquered the surrounding countries, — Egypt, Syria, and, after years of war with the Carthaginians, all the African shore. Armies were sent against the uncivilized tribes of Spain and France, and our young students still read in Latin, the language of these old Romans, an account of their campaign in Oaul, as France was then called, written by the Roman general Ciesar. Greece was also conquered, and thus almost the whole known world, — that is to say, all the countries around the Mediterranean Sea, and as far east as India, came within the Roman Empire. The Romans also reached England, or Britain ; had some knowledge of the barbarous tribes of Middle Europe ; and had heard vague stories of the Blacks of Ethiopia, or Africa. The maps and descriptions of that time included Northern Africa, South- western Asia, and the greater part of Europe. Questions. — What is said of India ? Who were the Greeks ? How did they com- pare with the Egyptians ? What is said of their games ? Of their statues and gods ? Temples ? What was their great city ? What nation succeeded the Greeks in power ? What is said of the foundation and growth of Rome ? What countries did the Romans conquer ? What was the extent of the empire ? What did their maps include ? 26 OUR "WORLD. As the Bomans became powerful and wealthy, they also became indolent, dissipated, and fond of luxury and amusement. Some of their emperors were monsters of cruelty ; and noblemen, whose an- cestors had lived simply, caring only for the national fame, lavished incredible sums on banquets, dress, baths, and shows of wild beasts. Dissensions, rebellions, conspiracies broke out among them ; and while these once warlike Romans grew weaker and weaker, the strong, fierce, barbarians north of them were coveting the lands south of the Danube, which were richer and pleasanter than their own. At last these northern hordes — Goths, Vandals, and Huns, barbarians who had lived in rude huts, or wandered without homes, dressed in skins, and ignorant of all the arts of civilized life — poured down upon the Empire. Some went into France, others into Spain, others into Italy, some even into Africa. The Empire was overwhelmed ; cities were destroyed ; libraries burned ; and the progress of the world in learning and civilizatic/n seemed to be put back many ages. This was the end of what is known as the period oi ancient history, — that is, of the history of nations which reached a considerable degree of civilization, but afterward declined or disappeared entirely from the earth. MIDDLE AGES. , The ancient period was followed by what are called the "Dark Ages," — because barbarism and ignorance seemed to have regained possession of the world, — or the " Middle Ages," as being a transi- tion period between the civilization of ancient and modern times. New kingdoms were established in Italy, France, Spain, England, and Germany ; one barbarian king succeeded another, and there was constant fighting, and changing of boundary lines. Meanwhile the rude Goths received some ideas from the people they had conquered. They learned to live in better dwellings, to build walled cities, to use armor, and to carry on some kinds of manufactures. For a long time, however, everything like trade or handicraft was despised by the upper classes, and all book-learning was confined to the priests and monks. The strong became kings, chiefs, or nobles ; and the most powerful took possession of the best lands. Each noble or leader gathered about him as many dependents as desired his pro- tection, or the plunder that they could riot> obtain alone ; and he became the lord and they the vassals. The leaders built their strong- holds or castles, on rugged heights, diflScult to reach. Every part was made with reference to war ; — the walls were built of massive stone ; narrow loop-holes answered for windows ; there were great cellars and court-yards wherein to store supplies in times of siege ; dungeons beneath the castle for prisoners ; and moats or ditches around the walls, crossed by draw-bridges that could be quickly removed. Such were the homes of the nobles of those times, and the ladies rode abroad only under an escort of armed men. The lords owed allegiance to their sovereign, and were expected to come at his command, in times of common need, with all their retainers ; but they were often more powerful than the king himself, and refused obedience, or rebelled outright. As the broad lands and titles de- scended from father to son, each generation became more haughty and independent. In time, however, Christianity spread among these people, and pre- pared them for improvement ; though there was much superstition. Questions. — Why did the Romans lose their glory ? By whom were they con- quered ? What i» meant by ancient history ? Wkat were the middle or dark ages ? What kingdoms were established by the barbarians ? How did the barbarians im- prove ? What is said of the nobles or leaders ? Of their dwellings or castles ? What I the relation between king and nobles ? and many feared the God preached by the monks as their forefathers had feared their idols. Abbeys and monasteries appeared through- out Europe ; at first in secluded spots, through fear of marauding bands of pagan barbarians ; then in open view, under the protection of the powerful lords, and endowed with land and wealth. In time, the grand old cathedrals were built, which cost such vast sums, and were not completed for centuries, or still remain unfinished. Princes and nobles, either from piety or to expiate their sins, de- voted immense treasure, which had been too often obtained by plun- der and oppression, to their erection. Money that is now expended on highways or railroads, in lighting the streets of cities, for schools, and for many other needs unknown in those times, was then all lav- ished upon one building. While kings and nobles often could not read or write, and held in contempt all peaceful occupations, the industrious middle classes improved in manufactures, extended trade, and became a wealthy and powerful body in spite of the oppression of the nobles. It was during these centuries that the kingdoms of Spain, France, Germany, and England grew in power, and were prepared for modern civiliza- tion. The "Dutch, or Netherlanders, and the Portuguese had vessels on all known waters, and had made their way round the Cape of Good Hope. • Christopher . Columbus, a skilful Genoese sailor, fully con- vinced that the earth was round, and that he could reach India more directly by sailing westward, obtained from the court of Spain ships with which to attempt the voyage. Striking boldly out into mid-ocean, he was carried westward by the trade winds, and at last reached land, — not India, as he supposed, but a small island belong- ing to the group since known as the Bahamas. Returning to Spain with the news of his discovery, Columbus was soon followed by other explorers eager to claim a portion of the new lands. MODERN TIMES. With the discovery and settlement of America a new epoch in the world's history began. The extension of navigation and trade brought many important changes, and the European nations advanced rapidly in civilization. The invention of printing made education more gen- eral ; ancient arts were revived ; new manufactures introduced ; and the old civilization was surpassed in many respects. During this modern period of the world's history the farthest limits of the habit- able earth have been explored, and the most distant nations brought into such easy and constant communication that the prosperity or misfortune of one affects the comfort and welfare of all. War in France cuts off the supply of her manufactures to other countries, and the failure of the cotton crop in America throws thousands of English workmen out of employment. Even the horrors of famine and conflagration are lessened by the aid and sympathy so quickly conveyed to the sufferers by means of the railway and telegraph. Better laws now prevail, and the oppressions of the olden time, when people believed in the " divine right of kings," are no longer possible. The strongest national prejudices are breaking down, and the gates of China and Japan, which, from the earliest tradition, have been closed to the outer world, are now open. Already thousands of Chinese have emigrated to the western continent, and foreigners are slowly but surely making their way into the heart of the Celestial Questions. — What is told of abbeys and cathedrals ? What wealthy and pow- erful class arose ? What was known of the world and of navigation then ? What is the story of Columbus ? Why could he not reach India ? What effect did the dis- covery of America have in the Old World ? What is said of modern times ? MAPS AND MAP-DRAWING. 27 Empire. They find there to-day a civilization which dates from the period of ancient history, but which must soon be modified by in- tercourse with other nations. SUMMARY. THEEK PEEIODS OF THK WORLD'S HISTORY. 1. Ancient world and nations from the earliest tiraes to the overthrow of the "Western Roman Empire. The nations around the Mediterranean Sea, — Egyptians, Persians, Phoenicians, Greeks, and lastly, the Romans by whom the whole region was conquered' and formed into one vast Empire. India, with a peculiar local civilization, holding little intercourse with the rest ef the world, but partially known and visited by merchants. China and Japan, with a still more isolated civilization, almost unknown to ancient nations. 2. Middle Ages. — From the overthrow of the Western Roman Empire to the end of the fifteenth century. Irruption of barbarians over the Empire from Northern Europe and Western Asia. Loss of arts and civilization. Growth of European kingdoms. Rise of trade. Discovery of America. 3. Modem Times. Settlement of America. Ancient arts revived in Europe. Useful inventions and manufactures. Colonies of America become inde- pendent. Growth of the United States. Progress of discovery and of modern civilization. MAPS AND MAP-DRAWING. As we have already said, the best way of obtaining a correct idea of the position and form of the bodies of land and water upon the earth's surface is by the use of an artificial globe. But it is not pos- sible for every student to have a globe at hand, nor would it be con- venient to use one large enough for the features of the smaller coun- tries to be distinctly represented upon it. Therefore, for the study of separate countries it is necessary to use maps, or drawings of their outlines upon paper. It is not easy to represent the spherical surface of the globe on a flat surface, as we may see by attempting to flatten the peel of half an erange. Either the edges will split in several places and cover too great a space, or the central parts will be compressed into less than their natural size. Nevertheless, by means of certain mathe- matical calculations applied to parallels and meridians, portions of the earth's surface can be projected on a plane, without materially altering the forms or outlines ; and maps of all parts of the world can be made for the use of students. Explanation of maps. — 1. It is generally supposed that a map- drawer faces the north. The top pf the map, therefore, is north, the right side east, the bottom south, and the left side west. 2. Parallels arc drawn from side to side, at regular iritervals from the equator ; and the latitude, or distance north and south of the equator, is marked in degrees on the side of the map, at the extremities of the parallels. 3. Meridians extend from top to bottom, — the central meridian being a straight line, and the others more or less curved. Longitude, or distance east and west from Greenwich or Washington, is numbered in degrees at the top or bottom of the map. Maps of the hemispheres. — Not more than half the earth's surface is usually drawn on one plane, and the whole world is, there- fore, represented in two hemispheres. The meridian which is most conveniently used for dividing the sphere passes through both the great oceans, leaving Europe, Asia, and Africa on one side, and North and South America on the other. The frame or skeleton of the map of a hemisphere (Fig. 1) consists of a great circle, or dividing meridian, with the north and south poles indicated at the top and bottom, and the equator drawn from east to Questions. — Give the summary of the sketch of the three periods of history. Wliy are maps used ? How can you show the difficulty of representing a spherical surface upon a plane ? How can portions of the earth's surface be correctly repre- sented by a map ? Give the explanation of a map. How is the whole surface of west through its centre. The circumference is marked in degrees from the equator to each pole ; and parallels and meridians are drawn as in the figure. ^^ j^|^ The polar circles are drawn 23^ degrees from the poles ; and the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn 23^ degrees from the equator.^ In this frame - work, the first thing that strikes the eye is that the parallels are not really parallel with, or equidistant at ev- ery point from the equator. This is owing to the impossibility, al- ready mentioned, of substituting exactly a flat for a spherical surface. We know that on the globe every point of the equator is equally distant from the north pole, yet on the map the quarter meridian E P is longer than the quarter meridian C P. In order that the parallels may divide these two meridians proportionately they must curve toward the poles ; and, by the "projection" of a portion of a spherical sur- face upon a plane, we mean the careful calculation of the necessary variations in all these curves, so as to give upon the map the true forms of the continents. The curvature of the parallels is greater toward the poles, because each parallel is the circumference of a smaller circle than the one preceding it. Near the equator, the curvature of parallels, for a small portion of the earth's surface, is very slight ; therefore, on maps of single countries situated there, the earth generally represented ? Explain the framework of a map of a hemisphere. Why are the parallels not drawn parallel to the equator ? What is meant by the projection of a portion of the earth's surface upon a plane ? How does the curvature of the parallels vary ? 28 OUR WORLD. the lines for parallels may be straight without causing any evident inaccuracy in the outlines. Map on Mercator's Frqjectioii. — For some purposes it is very desirable to see the whole surface of the earth at once, and this may be done by represent'ng it as though it were a cylinder instead of a sphere. This, however, widens the polar regions very much from east to west (see Fig. 2), and in order tliat the northern parts of Europe, Asia, and America may not be broadened out of all pro- portion, they are also length- ened from north to south by increasing the distances be- tween the parallels toward the pole. Thus the forms of the continents are easily re- cognized, though still dispro- portionately broad at the top. Such a map is called \ Fig. 2. Mercator's projection." (See page 23.) Charts, or representations of sea and coast, are made on Mercator's projection ; and navigators find the direction between any two places indicated with accuracy for any part of the earth. The scale on which a map is dra^xm. -^ Every map is con- structed on a given scale of miles to an inch ; and maps of any country may be made larger or smaller as desired. If a line one fourth of an inch long is given to represent a distance of ten miles, a map ten inches square would represent a surface four hundred miles long and four hundred miles wide. A map with ten miles to every half inch must be twice as long and twice as broad to represent the same sur- face (see Figs. 3 and 3'). Kg. 3. Pig 3'. Distances on maps are measured by degrees. Latitude is meas- ured on great circles ; hence the length of a degree of latitude is about the same on all parts of the earth's surface. Each degree is equal to sixty geographical miles, or about sixty-nine and one sixth statute miles. Longitude is i^asured on the equator, and on paral- lels ; hence degrees of longitude vary in length. At the equator a degree of longitude is a little over sixty-nine miles ; on the fortieth parallel it is about fifty-three miles ; on the seventieth parallel it is about twenty-three and a half miles. Questions. — What is a map on Mercator's projection, and when used ! How does it alter the forms of the continents ? What is meant by the scale of a map ? How are distances on maps measured ? Why is the length of a degree of latitude about the same in all parts of the earth ? Give the length in miles. What is said of degrees of longitude ? SUGGESTIONS FOR MAP-DRAWING. It is desirable, in studying geography, to aid the memory by draw- ing the outlines of countries, and indicating the position of their towns, rivers, mountains, etc. The accurate projection of a map is too diflScult and tedious for young students ; but for ordinary prac- tice it is sufiicient to copy the reference map, either by eye or measurement. Most pupils can, with a little practice, copy a map, or even reproduce it from memory, with suflScient accuracy for purposes of study ; but for those who may need them, the following suggestions are offered. FIRST METHOD, WITHOUT THE USE OF PARALLELS OR MERIDIANS. 1. Rule a border, or frame, for the intended map. 2. Draw two faint lines crossing this through the centre, one from north to south, the other from east to west. 3. Cross the map used as a model with two similar lines, or with very narrow strips of paper. Consider carefully what parts ol' the country lie in each quarter of ■r^ 'K 1-' E a . J- 9 f • e Fig. 4. the map. Find by eye or measurement the most northern, eastern, or southern points, and dot corresponding points within the frame just made. Then draw the outline from point to point lightly, and, if correct, trace it over again with a sharp, black pencil, or with pen and ink. SECOND METHOD, — WITH PARALLELS. Frames or skeletons for maps, with the parallels and meridians already drawn and numbered, may be bought at the stationer's ; but it is good practice to draw these lines by eye or measure- ment, m 1. Rule the border of the map and the perpendicular meridian through the middle. 2. Draw the other meridians and the parallels, curving them more or less according to the position of the country. The parallels of North America or Asia must curve considerably, while those of Africa or South America may be very slightly curved, or even ruled straight without affecting the form of these continents, since they are mostly within the torrid zone. 3. Number the parallels and meridians to correspond with the model. 4. Select prominent points of the outline and indicate them accu- rately by counting the degrees of latitude and longitude. 5. Continue the coast from point to point, carefully considering on or near which parallel or meridian intermediate points should come. Questions. — What is the advantage of map-drawing ? Draw upon the blackboard a map of South America by the first method given for drawing a m&p. Draw a map of Africa by the second method. MAPS AND MAP-DRAWING. 29 A projection may be made with some degree of exactness by ob- serving the directions which follow, in place of those numbered 2 in the method just given. Divide the perpendicular meridian into spaces of one, two, or five degrees each, according to the country represented and the size of the map. Through the division points draw the parallels of latitude, curving them more or less according to the position of the country. The centre of curvature will be on the side of the nearest pole. Mark off upon each parallel, right and leftfroin the central meridian, spaces found by consulting the following Table. These will be frac- tional parts of the spaces already marked on the central meridian. For instance, if the map be of Canada, the lowest parallel may be 40°, the highest 50°. On the 40th parallel a degree of longitude is 52.8 miles, while a degree of the meridian is 69.2 miles ; therefore the spaces on that parallel will be ||f , or about f of the meridian spaces. On the 50th parallel the spaces will be ||J, or a little less than f , and on the 45th parallel ||J, or about f of the meridian spaces. Draw meridians through the division points of the parallels. Unless great accuracy be required, however, the meridians may be ruled straight. Table of Lengths of Degrees of Longitude in various Latitudes. At the Equator 1° of Longitude = 69.2 miles. Latitude. rof L 5° 68.8 lO" 68.0 15° 66.7 20' 64.9 25° 62.6 30° 59.8 35° 56.5 40° ,52.8 Latitude. V of Longitude 45° 48.7 miles. 50» 44.3 " 55" 39.5 " 60° 34.5 " 65° 29.2 " 70° 23.6 " 75° 17.8 " 80° 12.0 " To increase or dinUnish the size of a map without the use of parallels and meridians. 1. Trace on thin paper the border and coast line of the model map, and cross it in both directions with lines at regular intervals, forming a number of small squares. 1 2 3 i 5 I r^ \i \ (■ ( ^ s \ A u<\ I e ^ K \ 1 a 2 3 4 i h n AT' \i \ ' ( ^ \ ■\ ^^^^ A J e ^' \ t Wg 5. _^__^__ Fig. 5'. 2. Rule a border for the intended map of the size desired, and cross it with the some number of lines. If the frame is prepared for a larger map, the square^ will be proportionately larger than those upon the traced outline. (See Figs. 5 and 5'.) 3. Select and indicate convenient points in the coast line ; such, for instance, as the one at the crossing of lines 2 and d, and then draw the whole outline by referring carefully to the corresponding squares. In all cases make the coast lines very light at first, so that they can be easily erased and corrected. Questions. - How may a map of Africa be more accurately constructed ? Show how a map of a country may be enlarged. Show how it may be diminished. Coast lines. — A coast lino may be shaded by several lighter lines following the coast outside, as in Fig. 6 ; or by short, quick Fig 6. Fig. 6'. pencil-touches always running east and west, as in Fig. 6'. The shading should bo done upon the faint outline, so that the heavy coast line afterward drawn may come out clear and distinct from the shade. A very soft, delicate coast-shading may be made by cutting out the traced outline of a continent or country, placing it upon a blank sheet, and shading around its edges with a stump and pencil dust. Then draw the heavy coast line inside this shading, and complete the map. Mountains. — The lines for mountains should be made wider and heavier according to height. 1. Mark out with light dots the general form or direction of the chain. 2. Shade with two rows of nearly parallel lines, varying in length and size. Sometimes leave white spaces between these rows, where the chain is broad ; and for narrow chains leave only short black lines or dots. Break and vary the shading of long chains liivei* as much as possible. 3. Slight pencil-touches, in a single, irreg- ular line, may be used for low ridges or hills. Rivers. — Mark the course of a river faintly by comparing with the parallels and meridians, or by the eye. Then begin lightly at the source and make the waving line heavier and blacker toward the mouth. To'wns are represented by small black dots or stars. Much practice is needed to draw maps well ; and this practice serves to fi.\ the form of outlines and the position of mountains, rivers, and cities in the mind, so tha* the pupil will be able to draw from memory. From beginning to end of the study of geography it is desirable for the pupil to make rapid sketches of maps upon the black-board at the time of recitation. The map-studies given throughout the book may be recited from such sketches, in the man- ner suggested at the beginning of the section on the study of the map of North America. Questions. — What directions are given for shading a coast line ? How may mountains be represented ? How may rivers be represented ? Towns ? Hg.8 "WHSTEB-jf HEIEIBMIEEE . Xa!*»rcll'^ I^ ^D.-J'evstrv («•««»». SaT^Mors j,r^w^«le,K.;. ...T">lli»"K ■*'-4*'-., ■ajf-<"»« ^"«'""4) .S; Paid 1 fnlliu. ', ytl- '^H4 ^loqiio V ;'I'<^"«iiib.|.„ Vi/.li_- . i''\ I'-'Bi... rl^''^"-„"^""- 7':»»N L*. y '"■^ . A " '' "" ^ .' EXEEOISES OlS" MAPS Wiat is the latitude of the southern point of G,«,nland ! Of the southern point of Newfoundland ? Of New York City ? Of the southern F^^ pu^ » «[ ^1 Horn ^ Of the Cape of Good Hope 1 What countries in both hemispheres are crossed by the 20th parallel of north latitude ? By the tr^ic o. Cancer ? .^"^ " *J^ ^^^^^ of San Francisco? mat is the longitude of the Cape of Good Hope? Give the latitude and longitude of Boston. Of Canton What g?"'!/^^^;^ J"f ^^ L crossed by the equator ? What cities of South imerica are in nearly the same longitude as Washington ? Whach grand divisions widen toward the north I Which I lACTiiiof 'iFirMiri^ i mnririF ^ia.. OF THE HEMISPHEEES. G.tirS^n/anSr . extend through the greatest number of degrees of latitude ? Which through the greatest number of degrees «pf longitude ? 'Wliich have the greatest variety of climate ? Between what parallels does Africa lie ? What then must be its climate ? What great mountain-chains run north and south '( Which run east and west ? What is the difference in time between London and Calcutta ? Why ? When it is noon at St. Petersburg what is the hour in London ? ' 32 OUR WORLD. THE OOISTTINEN^TS. Having considered the earth as a revolving globe, with its surrounding atmosphere and waters, its seasons, climates, and other general features, we are now prepared to study the geography of each continent and country. This includes a description of the surface, moun- iains, rivers, vegetation, animals, and other physical or natural features ; and also an account of the political condition, the form of govern- ment, the boundary-lines, the manners and customs of the inhabitants, and the historical associations. NORTH AMERICA. HISTORY. EXPLORATIONS. It was near the close of the fifteenth century that Christopher Columbus made his first voyage across the Atlantic, reaching one of the Bahama islands, which he called San Salvador. On another voy- age, a few years later, he discovered the mainland of South America. It would seem, therefore, that the continent should have been called Columbia ; but another explorer, Amerigo Vespucci, followed soon afterward, and the story of his adventures being the first published account of the new world, it took from him the name of America. When the first explorers returned home with the wonderful news of their discoveries, their stories, vaguely gathered from the natives, of abundant' gold and silver, produced a great sensation throughout the west of Europe. The Spaniards, eager to possess themselves of these new lands and treasures, sent out other expeditions ; established colonies in the West Indies ; explored the shores of the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea ; and claimed the whole region for the King of Spain, by right of discovery. The English, French, and Portuguese, all coveting a share in the honor and profit of farther explorations, also fitted out vessels for the New World. ' The voyage was not then what it is now, when the Atlantic has be- come a familiar highway to the sailors of all nations. Vessels were small, inconvenient, and unsafe ; supplies were altogether insufiicient ; sailors knew little of the science of navigation ; and the vast expanse of waters lay before them, with its unknown winds, currents, and dangers. After a hazardous voyage there was on the American side no busy city, no comfortable home, no aid nor shelter for the adven- turers. Moreover, large sums were needed for the outfit of an expe- dition, and often wars and diflficulties in the old countries occupied the attention of influential or wealthy persons, who might otherwise have aided and protected new settlements. Company after company of adventurers touched upon the American shores, — now running their vessels upon the bare rocks of Labrador ; now forcing them through the ice of the northern seas ; now gliding into smooth streams amid silent forests yet untrodden by man. Many were lost at sea ; some were stranded among sand-bars and islets along the shores ; some perished with hunger in the unsuccessful at- tempt to found a colony ; and others, discouraged by difficulties, re- turned home. Thus the work of colonization did not advance rapidly, and the close of another century came before the Atlantic coast was perma- nently settled by Europeans ; yet much had been done to prepare the way for future success. Accounts of various exploring expeditions had been written ; general attention had been turned to the improve- Questions. — When and by whom was the Atlantic first crossed ? What land was discovered ? When was the continent itself discovered ? Why called America ? What explorations were made after the first discoveries ? What difficulties did the early navigators meet ? ment of maps, charts, methods of navigation, and geographical infor- mation ; the way across the ocean was opened ; and here and there on the western shore stood log-forts as landmarks. The French had explored tlie northeast country ; left their names along the St. Lawrence river ; laid claim to the region now occupied by Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, etc , which was called New France ; and were engaged in fisheries on the banks of Newfoundland. The English had made various attempts to find a northwest passage to Asia, through the Arctic ocean ; and, during the reign of Queen Elizabeth, had explored the Atlantic coast between Nova Scotia and Florida, naming it Virginia. The English were also engaged in the Newfoundland fisheries. The Spaniards had fought their way into the interior of Mexico and Central America, discovered the Mississippi, and made at St. Augus- tine, in Florida, the first permanent settlement on the Atlantic coast. COLONIES. Early in the seventeenth century three permanent settlements were established along the Atlantic coast, which became centres of future colonization, and have had an important influence upon the history of our country. Two of these were English, and the third French. Ne'W France. — The French extended their settlements along the St. Lawrence, ai:d on the islands at its mouth. Their Jesuit priests wandered, as missionaries among the savages, west into the region of the great lake's ; the city of Quebec was founded ; and, in Nova Scotia, or " Acadia," as it was then called, an industrious little community of farmers had made a home. But at the close of a war between England and France, in the next century, the French colo- nies were ceded to the English, whose territory then included all the northern region since known as British America, and the Atlan- tic colonies. Virginia. — In the reign of James I. of England, a company of merchants and noblemen, in or near London, obtained a grant of land in the great Virginian territory, and sent out a party once more to attempt a settlement. After exploring the coast for some distance, the adventurers found a suitable spot for their colony on one of the many streams flowing into the Atlantic, and named the river and set- tlement James river and Jamestown, in honor of King James. Here they felled trees, built log-huts, cleared little patches of land, and planted their first crops. They found a mild climate, abundant fuel and lumber in the vast forests, and a rich, new soil, promising full harvests. Yet the new settlers suff"ered, as their predecessors had done, from exposure, fevers, want of food, troubles with the savages, quarrels among themselves, and bad government. Just as they had Questions. — What is said of the French explorers? Of the English explora- tions ? Of the Spanish ? What three colonies were established early in the seven- teenth century ? What is said of New France, or the French settlements ? What became of these colonies? Where and by whom was the first English settlement made? NORTH AMERICA. 33 become discouraged, as others had been before them, another party of colonists arrived from England, with stores and farming imple- ments, and a new governor. Henceforth the colony prospered, and in time grew into the State of Virginia, or the " Old Dominion " as the inhabitants afterward liked to call it, — the oldest State in our Union. Plymouth. — While the exploration of the newly discovered con- tinent had been going on, there were living in Holland a number of English families, who had left home to escape from the persecution which they had suffered on account of their religious opinions. After remaining in Holland several years, they found that their chil- dren were exposed to many temptations ; and therefore, hearing of the new world across the water, they determined to make, in that wild, unsettled land, another home, where they would be free to wor- ship according to their belief. Making the necessary preparations for the voyage, they embarked in one small vessel, but were joined on the English coast by another ship, containing others of their faith. Soon, however, one of the vessels was pronounced unfit for the voyage, and they returned to England. A part of the company was left behind, and the " Mayflower " then sailed alone from the port of Plymouth. If the Virginia colony had suffered privations and dis- tress, the Pilgrims endured still greater hardships. Instead of the mild climate, rich soil and forests of Virginia, they found the rocky shores of New England, and landed shelterless and helpless amid the snows and keen winds of winter. They persevered through incredi- ble sufferings and difficulties ; and though the bleak hillside con- tained many graves before spring, they succeeded in establishing the first New England colony, which was called Plymouth, in remem- brance of the old English port. These two colonies at Jamestown and Plymouth, founded under such different circumstances, were followed by other settlements, until the colonization of the Atlantic ceast spread from Maine to Florida. Spaniards. — Meanwhile the Spaniards ceased to care for the little settlement of St. Augustine in Florida, which had never in- creased, and established themselves permanently in the southern portions of the continent. Spreading throughout the country even to the Pacific coast, they intermarried with the natives, and their descendants, taking the name of Mexicans, became an independent nation, retaining, however, the Spanish language and customs. NATIVES. All these adventurers from Europe, landing on the shore of the new Western Continent, and finding no civilized nations to dispute their claims, took possession of the country, scared}' recognizing any rights of the savage inhabitants of the forests. The first discoverers, believ- ing the land to be India, called these native Americans " Indians," and the name has since been applied to them more than to the East India tribes. They were also called "red men" from their reddish- brown color, in distinction from the whites, or " pale faces," as the Indians called the Europeans. Each tribe, however, had its own name, and a particular tract of the vast wilderness as a hunting- ground ; and the Pequods, Narragansetts, Mohegans, Mohawks, and other tribes, soon became well known in colonial history. These savages had no manufactures ; cultivated only a few patches of maize, or Indian corn ; wore skins for clothing, and shoes or moc- casons of soft buckskin. They soon began to trade with the early Questions. — Who were the Pilgrims ? Where and how was the second English settlement made ? Why called Plymouth ? Where did the Spaniards settle ? What inhabitants did the Europeans find in America? Why were they called Indians? What was their condition ? settlers for blankets, beads, etc. ; and henceforth the Indian costume, which has become traditional, consisted of a blanket wrapped about the body, moccasons embroidered with many-colored beads, and ornaments of feathers, fringes, and beads for both arms and legs. The straight, coarse, black hair of the men was closely shaved, except one lock on the top of the head, left as a point of honor, for the convenience of scalping, or cutting off the scalp from the top of the head, in warfare. This lock was usually tied up with a bunch of feathers. The women wore their hair hanging loose over the shoul- ders, or braided with various ornaments ; and, instead of a blanket, sometimes wore a dark petticoat adorned with beads or fringes. luduui EiR'uiiipinent The Indian dwellings were small, pointed huts, or wigwams, made, tent-like, of bark or mats stretched over branches of trees stuck in the ground. As with all savages, the women were drudges ; they hoed the corn and carried burdens ; the only occupations of thii men were hunting and warfare. The killing of the first deer was an event to the Indian youth, and he impatiently awaited the first war- path and the first scalp, which would confirm him in the dignity of Questions. — What is said of their appearance and dress? Of their dwellings? Of their customs ? 34 OUR WORLD. manhood, and entitle him to a place among the warriors. A chief was honored according to his age and experience, and the number of scalps boastfully hanging at his belt, or upon the pole of his wigwam. The weapons of the Indians were bows and arrows, headed with flint or stone points, roughly chipped out for the purpose ; and the toma- hawk, or hatchet of stone, which was hurled with great dexterity at the head of a foe. Those tribes which came in contact with the Europeans soon obtained firearms, and iron tomahawks instead of those they had rudely hewn* out of stone. They never attacked their enemies in large numbers, but, dispersing through the woods, shftt from behind trees or bushes, often creeping stealthily into the very camp of the enemy. When on a war-path they usually painted their skins in various colors and devices, and warriors of different tribes were known by the fashion of their paint, as more civilized soldiers are by their uniforms. Forest-life gave these people keen sight and hearing, quick per- ception, and a soft, sure step ; and, with unerring certainty, they followed the faintest trail of friend or foe for hundreds of miles through the pathless woods. They were taught from infancy to endure pain without a murm'ur, to suppress all signs of emotion, and to suffer torture without moving a muscle of the face. To show no surprise, to be perfectly calm in joy or sorrow, was to support worthily the dignity of an Indian warrior.. These savages, though ignorant, cruel, and treacherous, were re- markable for a peculiar dignity and courtesy of manner, and were highly poetic in their language and perceptions. They often used pleasing or striking comparisons, and names were given from some conspicuous quality, or some fancied resemblance, as Ilawkcye, Great Serpent, Drooping Lily, Laughing Water. They believed in a Great Spirit, who was pleased when they did right and displeased when they did wrong ; and in a " happy hunting-ground " liereafter, where brave warriors were to be received after death. Such were the people already inhabiting the continent when the Europeans arrived. At first they seemed inclined to be friendly with the whites, and often supplied them with corn ; but, again and again, they suflered injustice or abuse from rude, reckless adventurers be- longing to the settlements, and, as it was not in their nature to for- get or forgive an injury, they retaliated. Here one man was killed by them, and there another ; exploring parties were taken prisoners ; women and children were massacred in the colonies ; and at last there was almost constant enmity between the races. The colonists ploughed their fields and planted their grain with muskets by their side, while guards were anxiously on the watch for the crafty foe. In spite of all precautions, a bullet might at any moment whistle by their heads, or the eye of a savage glare upon them from the nearest thicket. The mother, rocking her child by the fireside, looked up to find a painted warrior with uplifted tomahawk m the door-way ; and the inhabitants of many a burning village were scalped as they fled at midnight from the flames. As the colonies prospered, more white men came from the Old World, sometimes buying land from the Indians, sometimes taking it as their right ; and, as the red men saw themselves driven from their hunting-grounds, and their forests cleared by the axe of the " pale faces," their fear and dislike grew into bitter hatred. Councils of war were held, leagues were made among the tribes, and the warfare became terrible. But resistance was vain ; and, weakened by feuds and jealousies among themselves, they decreased rapidly in number. Questions. — What weapons did the Indians use ? What was their mode of warfare ? What were the characteristic traits of this people ? How did the .Indians receive the whites ? What difficulties grew up ? The Pequods, Mohegans, and other tribes conspicuous in the early history of the colonies- soon perished; and, as the settlers advanced westward, the natives retreated before them. After a time the Atlantic colonies rebelled against the English government, established their independence, and were recognized as the American nation, occupying the central portion of the continent. The white population gradually extended over the valley of the Mis- sissippi, and the Creeks, Seminoles, and other Indian tribes disap- peared entirely, or retired to the unsettled regions of the far West, where the roving Apaches and many other tribes still commit their depredations and occasionally massacre an emigraut party. A few tribes have become more or less civilized, and are protected by our government ; but, as a race, they have shown a strong dislike to the customs and occupations of civilized life, and seem to be unable to bear its restraints and confinement. POLITICAL DIVISIONS. North America now comprises : — Greenland, belonging to the Danes ; Alaska, in the northwest, formerly owned by Russia, but purchased by the United States ; British America, including all the northern portion of the continent, still in possession of the English ; the United States, or central belt between the twenty-fifth and forty- ninth parallels ; and Mexico and Central America, occupied by descendants of the Spaniards who, like the Americans, became independent of the mother-country, and formed republican govern- ments. SUMMARY. In 1492 Columbus made his first voyage across the Atlantic, dis- covered the West Indies, and afterward the coast of South America. The Spaniards continued the exploration of South America, the West Indies, and Mexico, and made one settlement at St. Augustine in Florida. The French and English explored the northeast coast of North America. The French took possession of the region along the St. Lawrence, and the English claimed the land from Canada to Florida. In 1607 the first permanent English colony was established at Jamestown, Virginia, by a company of merchants and adventurers called the London Company. In 1620 the second English colony was established at Plymouth, Massachusetts, by the Pilgrims, a company of English exiles, who had been persecuted at home on account of their religious opinions. In 1608 the French made a permanent settlement at Quebec, and afterward extended their colonies along the St Lawrence. But later, these French colonies came into possession of the English, and now form a part of British America. The natives inhabiting America when the Europeans arrived, were various tribes of copper-colored savages, who wore skins, dwelt in wigwams, or pointed huts of bark and mats, and lived chiefly by hunting. At first they were friendly to the whites, but soon began to resist their claims to the country, — burning villages, slaying women and children, and keeping up continual warfare with the colonists. Few of the Indians have ever J^ecome civilized, and the tribes per- ished or retired westward as the white settlements spread inland. Toward the latter part of the eighteenth century the English colo- nies, which had spread along the Atlantic coast from Maine to Florida, became dissatisfied with the British government, because of unjust Questions. — What became of the Indians ? What is their present condition ? What political divisions does North America now comprise ? NORTH AMERICA. 35 taxation ; and their principal men, having met in Congress, declared the independence of the colonies in 1776, and their determination to separate from England. After a revolutionary war of eight years, the English gave up the contest, and the colonies were henceforth recognized as the United States of America, and formed a republican government. At the time of the revolution there were only thirteen States in the Union, but the population has increased rapidly, and now the terri- tory of the United States occupies all the central portion of the con- tinent from the Atlantic to the Pacific. The Spanish colonists, after settling Mexico and Central America, [Take the Study of the Map of North America here. also rebelled against the home government and became independent of Spain. Their descendants in Mexico are now known as the Mex- ican people, retaining the Spanish language and customs. Central America is at present divided into five republics, and one English colony. • British America includes the former French colonies of the St. Law- rence, and all the region north of the United States except Alaska. Greenland, the island or peninsula in the northeast, belongs to the Danes. Alaska, formerly belonging to Kussia, was purchased by the United States in 1867. (See page 37.)] POLITICAL DIVISIONS. GEEENLAND. Area over 700,000 squa,re miles. While the French and English colonies were growing up south of Newfoundland, explonitions were made still farther north. Navigat- ors entered the strait between the barren, rugged cliffs of Labrador and the mountainous, deeply indented shore of Greenland ; and, sail- ing northward, found a dreary, arctic region of bare rocks and per- petual ice and snow, overshadowed a large part of the year by the long twilight and night of the polar winter. Though much of this region is uninhabitable, they found some parts of Greenland and Labra- dor thinly peopled by the Esquimaux, who were clothed in skins, repulsive in appc.irance, and of uncleanly habits. The English navigators, intent upon discovering a passage through these northern so:is to the Pacific Ocean, made various unsuccessful arctic voyages ; claimed the northern portions of the continent for Great Britain, and gave names to the barren, uninhabitable islands of the Arctic Ocean, but attempted no colonies on its unpromising shores. The Danes and Norwegians, however, made small settlements on the west coast of Greenland ; but their Arctic possessions, except for the fisheries, which are of considerable value, have been of little im- portance to them. Fine cod and herring are abundant, and the Green- land whale-fisheries have been famous for many years ; but the great Greenland plateau has proved quite useless for any purposes of colon- ization, or general improvement, and remains now what it was to the early adventurers. Vast numbers of seals frequent the shores ; foxes and polar bears roam hungrily over wastes of snow and ice, and eider- ducks, with otlicr water-fowl, abound on the rocky coasts. For a little while in midsummer, when the sun is farthest north of the equa- tor, the slanting rays have sufficient force in the southern parts to produce a few small plants and mosses ; and the more sheltered of the numerous fiords on the west coast are scantily bordered by stunted birches. Farther north, all trace of vegetation disappears in the region of perpetual snow and ice, where no navigator has ever fol- lowed the coast far enough to determine certainly whether Green- land is an island or a peninsula, though the former is probable. The interior is wholly unexplored, and a strong current along the east coast prevents the approach of vessels on that side. In winter the cold is intense ; and even in summer the little plants come up al- Questions. — What kind of country ilid the early explorers find north of Labra- dor ? Who inhabited that cold region ? Wliat land did the English claim ? Where and by whom were settlements made ? What is said of the importance of Greenland ? Describe the country, plants, and animals. most from beneath the snow ; the glaciers glitter on the heights ; and, from time to time, huge masses of ice, accumulated during the winter, partially melt at their bases, and, plunging over into the water, move slowly with the southern current until they disappear in warmer waters. The native Esquimaux live in little hovels made of earth and blocks of snow, with only one low entrance. They dress wholly in skins or furs, and eat fish, boar's meat, and oil, but chiefly the fat or blubber of the whale and seal, of which they are very fond ; for, while the inhabitants of warm countries require but little meat, and live chiefly on fruits and vegetables, the people of these high latitudes need much animal food to keep up the natural warmth of the body. The prop- erty of an Esquimaux consists of a canoe and a light sled, made of whalebone and skin, a team of dogs, a good supply of skins for him- self and family, and a store of dried fish and oil for the long winter. The few summer weeks are passed in laying in skins and provisions for winter use, either by spearing seals from their canoes, or making long hunting expeditions over the ice with dog-sleds. As the long winter comes on, tliey take refuge much of the time in their huts, Esquimaux Hut. which are usually crowded with men, women, and children. One would scarcely expect to suffer from heat in this region of severe cold, but in an unventilated Esquimaux hovel, odorous with half-cured skins, rancid oil, and smoke from the burning lamp which serves for light, heat, and cooking, the atmosphere is not only warm, but Questions. — What are icebergs ? Describe the Esquimaux and their manner of living. Of what does the property of an Esquimaux consist ? How is the summer ? The winter ? What are their dwellings ? 'V ^r I I ■•J" r^ ^ ^'*»^« . B \ ^^»' >rf»"' -■^•-roKii J %: (-JV* *^*v '^C ..K 'Vl 7 Qi '(iS* AwS **»»w- J)?.. ^^^o '% o ^>^ 11 TU- *i JJ K**^ --^ r-^.] ■*:«/'A ^ PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL. ^,vr"^ S.«1p of Mill's. ^ I II -^ BH I i i T i n i T — -. — 1""'^ - jn^nn i (> ]no 304> 8n» 44>4) r)UO tiiio 7oo him wto louo -"Sepal ojil 3|0 n^fuae West 30 fram ITashin^ton llO NORTH AMERICA. 37 quite overpowering to strangers. While in-doors the natives need little clothing, yet they never step outside without numerous fur wrappings. In severe seasons they often find it very hard to get food, and here and there the half-ruined huts of a deserted village show that the inhabitants have perished, or dispersed to more favor- able neighborhoods. Such a life does not tend to refinement, and the straight, coarse hair of the Esquimaux hangs over round, heavy- looking faces, not at all prepossessing. They have little idea of right and wrong, and have no words in their language to signify dirt or neatness. The first establishments on the west coast of Greenland were made chiefly by Norwegian missionaries, who have endured a hard life of exile and privation, in order to teach the Esquimaux. The little mission villages consist of a few poor houses, and one larger build- ing for church and school ; and are inhabited by the families of the missionaries, a few traders or agents, and such of the Esquimaux as have been reclaimed from a savage life. Nothing could be more simple and, as it seems to us, more comfortless than their lives. They build their houses of drift-wood cast ashore by wave and cur- rent, and cultivate a few of the most hardy vegetables, but live chiefly tipon fish and meat, obtaining some clothing, grain, etc., from the Danish vessels that visit the coast for cargoes of seal-skins, oil, fish, whalebone, and eider-down. [Continued on page 38.] STUDY OF THE MAP OF NORTH AMERICA. Area nearly 9,000,000 square miles. [After looking out upon the map the physical features, as indicated in the following lesson, the pupil should be able to give the entire account by referring to an outliHC map or blackboard sketch. The green color on the physical maps indicates lowlands.] Position. — North America is the northern division of the Western Continent ; bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the east by the Atlantic, on the southwest and west by the Pacific. It is only connected with South America by the narrow isthmus of Panama. Climate. — Extending through more than 70° of latitude, the continent in- cludes all varieties of climate, — tropical, subtropical, temperate, and frigid. Form. — The form of the outline is somewhat like a triangle, with the point southward, and the' broad base toward the north. The southern, or tropical por- tion is comparatively small, only the narrow point of the triangle being south of the Tropic of Cancer. The great central mass lies within the temperate zone, and the broad base of the triangle extends far into the polar region. The north- western extremity is only separated from Asia by Behring Strait. The coast line is quite irregular, being broken on the east by BafBn Bay, Hud- son Bay, Gulf of St. Lawrence, Gulf of Mexico, and many smaller indentations; and on the west by the Gulf of California, Bay of San Francisco, and otliers. North of 50° the coast is fringed by numerous inlets, rocks, and small islets. Islands.' — 1. A group of large islands in the cold, almost unexplored region of the Arctic Ocean. 2. Newfoundland, east of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, with smaller islands near by. 3. Bermudas, a group of small islands off the eastern coast. 4. Bahamas, off the southeast extremity of Florida. 5. The West Indies, a large group north of the Caribbean Sea. 6. Vancouver Island, near the Pacific coast, on the fiftieth parallel. 7. Queen Charlotte, Sitka, and others, farther north. Capes. — On the east coast are Cape Farewell, the southern point of Green- land ; Cape Rice, the southern point of Newfoundland ; Cape Sable, the south- ern point of Nova Scotia ; Cape Cod ; Cape Hatteras ; and Cape Sable, the southern point of Florida. On the west coast are Cape Corrientes, Cape St. Lucas, and Cape Mendocino. Mountains. — 1. A vast mountain-system, sometimes called the Cordilleras, Questions. — What is said of the first Norwegian settlers ? Describe their vil- l.iges. Huw is trade carried on, and what is exported from Greenland ? extends through the western part of the continent. It consists of several ranges with high plateaus between. Popocatapetl, 17,717 feet, is probably the highest peak. The whole mountain-system between Alaska and the Isthmus of Panama, was formerly called the Rocky Mountain chain ; but this name is now apphed only to the most eastern range. The Coast Range rises directly from the Pacific coast. Between the Coast Range and the Rocky Mountains is the Sierra Nevada, which, north of the Columbia River, takes the name of Cascade Mountains. The Sierra Madre runs through Mexico and continues throughout Central America, interspersed with volcanoes. Between the Sierra Nevada and Rocky Mountains are various transverse ridges, enclosing plateaus which are often barren and dreary, and sometimes as destitute of water and vegetation as the deserts of Africa or Asia. Between the Sierra Nevada and the Coast Range, however, there are rich, beau- tiful valleys, where the climate is mild and vegetation luxuriant. In Mexico the ranges rise both from the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico, forming a central plateau. 2. Nearly parallel with the Atlantic coast runs the Appalachian Mountain sys- tem, extending from the Gulf of St. Lawrence nearly to the Gulf of Mexico. These mountains are much lower than tie western ranges, seldom rising above 3,000 or 4,000 feet, except in North Carolina and New Hampshire. 3. South of the fiftieth parallel a slight elevation runs across the continent, forming a water-shed between the rivers of the Arctic Ocean and those of the Gulf of Mexico. The sources of the St. Lawrence are on its southern slope. Lowlands. — 1. The great central plain, divided by the water-shed into the basin of the Mississippi, and the northern lowlands around the Mackenzie River and Hudson Bay. 2. The Atlantic slope, between the Appalachian Mountains and the ocean, ex- tending from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to Florida. 3. The low coast-belt along Mexico and Central America. River-systems. — 1. Flowing northward from the central water-shed are the Mackenzie, opening into the Arctic Ocean, and the Nelson, and other streams, flowing into Hudson Bay. 2. The St. Lawrence, a large river flowing northeastward into the Atlantic, and the outlet for the great lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario. These are the largest fresh-water lakes in the world, and are navigable for large vessels and steamers. 3. The Atlantic rivers, rising in the Appalachian Mountains and flowing across the Atlantic slope into the ocean, most of them taking a southeasterly course. 4. The great Mississippi, which rises near the centre of the continent, and flows southward into the Gulf of Mexico, receiving from the Rocky Mountains the waters of the Missouri, Arkansas, and Red Rivers, and from the Appalachian Mountains the Ohio and its branches. 5. Farther south, the Rio Grande, flowing from the Rocky Mountains into the Gulf of Mexico. 6. The slope is so sudden from the Coast Range to the Pacific that no long streams flow from its western declivity. The one large river breaking through the mountains to the Pacific is the Columbia. The Sacramento and San Joaquin (see map of the United States) flow, the one south and the other north, through the long, narrow valley between the Sierra Nevada and Coast Range, and empty together into the Bay of San Francisco. Farther south the Colorado rises in the Rocky Mountains and flows into the Gulf of California. Far northward the Yukon flows from the Rocky Mountains through Alaska into Behring Strait. MAP QUESTIONS. What are the boundaries of North America ? In what zones does it lie ? Between what parallels and meridian.s ? What bays and gulfs along the Atlantic coast ? Along the Pacific coast ? Where is Cape Farewell ? Cape Sable ? Cape Cod ? Cape Hat- teras ? Cape St. Lucas ? Cape Mendocino ? AVliat two mountain systems are there ? What three ranges in the western system ? AVhere is the Appalachian system ? AVhere is the central water-shed ? What is the course of the Mackenzie River ? Of the St. Lawrence ? Of the Mississippi ? Rio Grande ? Colorado ? Columbia ? AVhat are the principal river-systems ? What are the principal branches of the Mississippi on the east ? On the west ? What islands belong to North America ? OUR WORLD. Mission ViUnge, Julianshaab, the most southern settlement, has not more than fifty white inhabitants. Lichtenfels is the residence of the Danish gov- ernor. Upernavik is important as the most northern station, beyond which there are no other hnman habitations except a few Esquimaux huts. By means of sledge-expeditions the northern coast of the con- tinent has been determined, and the Arctic Ocean, with its islands, mapped out ; but no vessels can sail through the frozen channels, and the extreme polar regions remain unexplored. Yet the idea of discovering a navigable passage through these waters, and of reaching an open polar sea, has never been aban- doned ; men are still found ready to brave the sufferings and dangers of an arctic expedition, and the recent voyages of Franklin, Kane, Hayes, etc., are familiar to many young readers. Exploring Expeditions. — A vessel sailing from one of our north- ern ports for an arctic voyage is loaded with coal and provisions for Iceberg. ^ Questions. — Where is Julianshaab ? Lichtenfels ? Upernavik 1 On which coast are the settlements ? Give an account of an arctic exploring expedition. one or two years, and usually stops at the Greenland settlements to obtain a supply of skins for garments, a team of dogs, and perhaps an Esquimaux hunter or interpreter. Thence the explorers enter upon the unknown world of glaciers, _/Zoes, or field ice, and majestic bergs, or ice-mountains, rising hundreds of feet above the water. After the summer of July and August, with uninterrupted day, the twilight lengthens, the cold increases, the vessel crashes and quivers through the thickening ice ; and, struggling onward yet a little farther, is at last held fast in the frozen mass, not to be released for months, while the stillness and darkness of the long winter night gradually settle over the adventurers. It is not, however, entirely dark, but a weird, gloomy night, often fantastically brightened by a wonderful crown of rosj' light arching the heavens, fitful, fiery flashes, or crosses and globes of gleaming silvery-white. All arctic voyagers are struck with the beauty and brilliancy of these northern lights, or aurora borealis ; for, though we sometimes see them here, they are not nearly so bright or varied. SUMMARY. Greenland, a great, dreary country near the north pole, belongs to the Danes, and is chiefly valuable to them for its fisheries. The cli- mate is intensely cold, and the greater part of the country barren and mountainous, covered with glaciers, or perpetual ice and snow. The vegetation consists of stunted birches in the southern part, and during the short summer a few plants and mosses. The northern part is un- inhabitable. The southern part is inhabited by Esquimaux, savages who dress in furs, eat oil, fish, and whale-blubber, and live in hovels of earth and snow. Missionaries have taught some of these Esqui-' giaux in the neighborhood of the villages. The Danish settlements consist of a few wooden houses, and do not increase much in size or importance. Vessels come and go between Greenland and Denmark, bringing clothing, grain, etc., and taking back fish, oil, seal-skins, whalebone, and eider-down. ^ 9 g W 3 a CO 3. CO Z,'^ tP s I I 93 3 p. w a P3 CD O CO B .» 5" § o 3! 5 O ^ td 3 ^ 3- -^ " E. p. A- ^ M a y a p p. 2 B !o S p. ^ — "■ f^ m O o' B S- ^ p — ' JO B" 3 I "^ n M 8 gi £? B I B B - a- f» » — B tfi P- o K- n w 2 S si M B W W w 3 e g W to w B S p. sr a g B -. C C £- a B S a. 2 ' a S' g. O. I-, w O DS § *<5 w B- w w B so 93 2 e "T) S s! a § S" o- ■< fD «j « -1 ^» J- ^ 00 a k! O a o *^ w I— I o \ 4D OUE WORLE. BRITISH AMERICA. '^ DESCRIPTION. The country. — British America occupies all the northern part of the continent except Greenland and Alaska, including the extensive region originally claimed by the English explorers, and the southeast provinces, formerly in possession of the French. The northern shores, bordering on the Arctic Ocean, are cold, barren, and uninhabitable, like the neighboring islands ; but the greater part of the country, though broken and even mountainous, is fertile, well watered by beautiful lakes and rivers, and suitable for agriculture, especially in some of the southern and western parts, where the climate is milder than that of New England. As yet, however, the greater part of this vast region is unsettled and covered by forests, where a few tribes of Indians still hunt the deer and the beaver. As Europeans found it profitable to send vessels on long voyages to the Northern seas for fish and seal-skins, so hunters and traders have explored the remotest parts of this wild region to obtain the valuable furs of the sable, ermine, marten, beaver, and other fur-bearing an- imals which abound in these forests. Long ago an English company. Beaver. known as the Hudson Bay Company, obtained a grant or charter, giv- ing it a certain degree of authority over the immense region about the Bay, from Canada northward, and extending later «ven to the Pacific Ocean. Gradually forts or trading-stations have been established along the shore of the Bay, and throughout the countrjj^ where agents are sent to trade for furs with the Indians and Canadian hunters from "t^e bor- der settlements ; who, after a season's hunt through the pathless forests, leave their collection of skins at the nearest " Fort," usually receiving in exchange cloth, tobacco, powder, beads, etc., kept on hand for the purpose. From Canada to the Arctic shores, and from Hudson Bay to the Pacific, the only settlements are these stations of the fur-traders, — small clearings in the wilderness, from fifty to two hundred miles apart, with half a dozen wooden storehouses and cabins, a dozen men, and occasionally women and children. The Company have vessels trading along the coasts, bringing goods from London, and carrying back furs. The southwest province of British Columbia, lying west of the Rocky Mountains, has all the natural advantages of good soil, min- erals, lumber, harbors for shipping, and the mild climate that prevails on the Pacific coast. And now that the intercourse between California Qnestions. — What does British America include? Describe the country. By whom is the greater part inhabited ? What is the Hudson Bay Company ? What and where are the forts or trading-stations ? What is the appearance of one of these stations ? What is said of British Columbia ? and the civilized world has so enlarged, the population of these north- ern provinces will increase rapidly. New Westminster, the capital of British Columbia, is on Frazer River, where there are valuable gold-mines. The port of Victoria, on Vancouver Island, in easy communication with California and the Sandwich Islands, is a town of some size, with considerable trade and ship-building. The island is favorably situated, with good harbors, and contains coal-beds, lumber, and good building-stone. The fine tract of country around the Saskatchewan offers many ad- vantages to settlors, and is becoming of more and more importance. The provinces of British Columbia and Manitoba, the latter includ- ing the tract of country around Manitoba Lake, and bordering upon the United States, were in 1871 admitted into the Dominion of Canada. The eastern provinces. — Along the St. Lawrence River are the southeast provinces, originally settled by the French, but now in pos- session of the English, namely, the four provinces, Ontario, Quebec, New Bninswick, and Nova Scotia with Cape Breton Island, which, in 1867, were formed into the "Dominion of Canada," and the two island provinces of Newfoundland and Prince Edward. Ontario and Quebec. — These two provinces extend along the river and lakes, from the Strait of Belleisle, at the eastern extremity of Labrador, almost to the head of Lake Superior. Surface. — The country rises gently from the river toward a slight ridge running along the northern boundary of the province, which forms a water-shed between the rivers of Hudson Bay and those flow- ing into the St. Lawrence. Much of the province is still entirely un- settled, a continuation of the wild north country, but the soil is usually good, and, where the forests have been cleared, all the com- mon grains are cultivated. The climate is cold, but not too severe for health and comfort. The ground is covered with snow during the most of the winter, and sleighing is the common mode of travel. In the southern part are V populous agricultural districts which export grain, and year by year the farm-lands gain upon the forests. Towns, villages, and cities have grown up along the river and lake shores, which are open to the Atlantic through the St. Lawrence. By this extensive water communication the produce of the surrounding country — grain, lumber, furs, and fish — is exported profitably. Questions. — What is said of Vancouver Island ? What is another valuable part of the country ? 'WTiat provinces were originally settled by the French ? Which were formed into the Dominion of Canada, and when ? What other provinces were admitted in 1871 ? What is the extent of Ontario and Quebec (formerly Canada) ? What is the appearance and condition of the country? Where are the cities, and what are their advantages for trade ? BRITISH AMERICA. 41 view fuiioQg the Thousand Islauds. The river is navip^able as far as Montreal ; and, by means of canals skirting the rapids above that city, vessels can pass up the river, through the Lake of a Thousand Isles, into Lake Ontario. Jr Ontario, separated from Quebec by the Ottawa Eiver, is the more western and less settled of the two provinces. The old French popu- lation scarcely extended so far inland, and the inhabitants are mostly English, and the settlements comparatively recent. The towns are busy and thriving, but not large ; the people being employed chiefly in .agriculture. Ottawa, on Ottawa River, is the capital of the Dominion of Canada, and residence of the Governor-General of the provinces, who is ap- pointed by the British government. The provinces elect their own members for the parliament held at Ottawa. Toronto, the largest city of Ontario, is situated on Lake Ontario, with a fine harbor and extensive lake trade. The other principal places are Kingston and Hamilton, also on the lake. The towns and farming population are collected- in the southern part, near the lakes and river, and one need not travel far to get be- yond the region of civilization. Indian encampments are no uncom- mon sight, and parties often come into the towns to sell their mocca- sons, curiously woven baskets, and varieties of bead-work. Quebec. — The province of Quebec extends from the Ottawa Eiver to the Strait of Belleisle, including all the lower valley of the St. Lawrence. The country, though nowhere very high, is broken and hilly, the lakes and waterfalls numerous, and the scenery often fine, particularly along the rivers. The Saguenay, which is next in size to the Ottawa, and famed for the grandeur of its scenery, has become a favorite resort for tourists, and excursion boats ply regularly during the summer. The falls of Montmorenci are also much fre- quented. •Iii.this part of Canada the names, population, and histori- cal associations are chiefly French. In many places the dwellings Questions. — Give a general description of Ontario ? Wliat and where is Ottawa ? Wliat and wliere are the other chief towns ? What is said of the Indians ? What is the extent of the province of Quchec ? What is said of the country 1 In what respect does Quebec differ from the province of Ontario ? have a quaint, foreign appearance, and few farm- houses are without some cherished relic of early times, — the wliite Norman cap, or the silver chain and cross that came over with the French peasant two hundred years ago. Canadian French is very generally spoken, and most of the people are Catholics. Cities. — The cities, which are all on or near the St. Lawrence, exhibit a mixture of French and English peculiarities quite striking to an American from the other side of the river, though in many respects bearing the stamp of the New World. Montreal, a large, handsome city, is situated on a hilly island in the St. Lawrorice, at the mouth of the Ottawa, where it commands an immense trade ; collecting the produce of the neighboring country, and exporting more grain than any other American city except New York. The streets are wide : many of the houses handsome, and built of gray stone. The principal street, containing ware- houses, stores, etc., runs from north to south, near the river, which is bordered by a long line of quays of hewn stone, with a broad esplanade be- tween the river and the houses. In the higher part of the city, rising with the hillside, are the handsomest dwell- ings and the more conspicuous buildings, — the convent of Notre Dame, the cathedral, the hospital, and the seminary of St. Sulpice. The city tells its own st(md in time still' further strengthened by artificial fortifica- tions. Long afterward, during a war between France and England, when Queljec had become an important city, the French felt them- selves secure on these heights ; but th^English commander Wolfe disembarked from his ships in the night, and ascending by a steep path to the neighboring plains of Abraham, finally obtained posses- sion of liite city. The little St. Charles River, flowing into the St. Lawrence from the north, leaves between it and the larger river the narrow promontory called Cape Diamond, upon which Quebec is situated, the city consist- ing of a lower and upper town. The Upper Town extends across tbe cape, rising abruptly from the St. Lawrence in a wall of rock, and sljjping toward the St. Charles ; and is surrounded by fortified walls with five gates. Here are the citadel, parliament house, city hall, fashio'riaM& stores, finest houses, and hotels. Tiic view from the Questions. — What is said of the cities ? Describe Montreal. What is said of the manufactures and trade of Montreal ? Describe the situation of Quebec City. How is the peliinsula of Cape Diamond formed ? What is the Upper Town ? 42 OUR WORLD. A ramparts is magnificent ; — west and south the populous suburbs of St. Louis and St. John, with their elegant villas and gardens, extend to the Plains of Abraham, where a monument commemorates the victory of Wolfe ; and on both sides of the St. Lawrence, as far as the eye can reach, stretch cultivated fields, dotted with white cottages. Under the cliffs along the St. Charles lies the Lower Town, or busi- ness part of the city, with its stores, warehouses, and long line of quays and docks, where the largest ships can find harbor, more than three hundred and sixty miles from the gulf. The Lower and Upper Town are connected by a winding street and several flights of steps. Aside from beautiful scenery, Quebec is well worth seeing as the only walled city in America north of Mexico. It is strange to us to see cannon and sentinels, with bayonets and uniforms, always at hand. The fine, dry atmosphere is healthy, and in it the autumn-leaves turn brilliantly ; but the winters are cold, and in the markets beef, fowls, and fish are frozen stifl", and milk is sold by the pound like lumps of ice. The river is frozen hard for about three months. Fine ships are built here, and Quebec, the centre of maritime commerce in British America, is one of the chief lumber and timber ports on the continent. The imports are chiefly manufactures and groceries ; and, for the use of the Indians, powder, guns, hatchets, beads, etc. Of the smaller towns along the St. Lawrence the most important is Three Rivers, at tlie mouth of the St. Maurice. New BrunS'VTick. — The province of New Brunswick has many natural advantages and a certain quiet prosperity. Branches of the Appalachian chain extend over the northern part, making beautiful scenery, and the eastern coast is quite bold. Coal and iron are found ; the fine forests supply lumber, and abound with deer and beaver; and the waters are filled with salmon, cod, herring, and mackerel. The people are occupied in farming, fishing, lumbering, and ship-building. Flax, wheat, and excellent potatoes are culti- vated especially along the rivers. Scarcely a stream is without a saw-mill, and lumber is floated down by the spring torrents. St. John, the largest port, has a fine harbor, at the mouth of the St. John River, accessible to the largest vessels all the year. There are no other large towns, but both banks of the St. John, for more than two hundred miles, are thickly lined with villages and dairy farms. Some of the inhabitants are descendants of the old Acadian French. There are also many Scotch, and both classes keep to some degree their national dress and customs, and are little disposed to improve- ments. Nova Scotia. — Attached to the southeastern extremity of New Brunswick is the long, narrow peninsula of Nova Scotia, almost sur- rounded by the ocean, and receiving the Atlantic waves on a bold, rocky coast. Its northern shore is washed by the Bay of Fundy, remarkable for the great height and rapid rise of its tides. The peninsula is noted for the variety of its minerals. The inland surface is varied with woods, hills, and lakes ; and the many coast-indentations aiford fine harbors and deep sea-basins. The climate is tempered by the surrounding oceanic atmosphere, and, where the land is properly cultivated, the farmer finds a com- fortable support; but there are other more profitable occupations. Large flocks of sheep graze on the hillsides ; the coast towns carry on extensive fisheries ; and the coal-mines of Pictou, in the northern part, are widely known, sending large exportations of coal to the United States. No manufactures of importance are exported, but the peasants weave their own coarse, bomeBpun cloth. Questions. — What is the Lower Town ? What is said of the commerce of Quebec ? What is said of New Brunswick ? What of the occupation of the people ? What of the towns T Describe Nova Scotia. What is said of its climate ? Of its mines 1 On a fine harbor of the east coast stands Halifax, the chief British naval station in America ; and English ships of war are stationed there for weeks at a time. The front of the town is lined with wharves, where vessels of all kinds arc continually discharging and receiving cargoes. Warehouses rise beyond the wharves ; then one row of dwellings above another, up the hillside ; and, above the whole, the signal-posts of the batteries. The place has a rather pe- culiar appearance from the variety in the building and coloring of the houses, which are chiefly of wood, painted white, pink, blue, brown, etc. There are, however, some handsome stone-dwellings in English style. Nova Scotia exports to Great Britain rough timber, fish, and oil ; and to the' United States coal and gypsum, or plaster of Paris, which is largely quarried here and in New Brunswick. This province was the Acadia of the early French colonists. Here came thrifty Norman peasants, with their wooden shoes and simple habits, and made for themselves homes, not wholly unlike the old homes in France, — cosey little villages, surrounded with gardens and orchards, whose owners believed they had a right to the fields they had reclaimed from the wilderness ; but, war breaking out between England and France, the colonists joined in the contest, and a com- pany of English soldiers, landing in the midst of the harmless Aca- dian peasants, burned their villages, and dispersed in a day the little communities gathered through long years of toil. Since then other villages have been built, other farms cultivated, and a busy popula- tion gathered over the whole country. , Cape Breton, a large island near by, belongs to the province of Nova Scotia. Coal and iron are abundant on the island, and farming is of considerable importance ; but the products of the fisheries are the chief exports. Sydney is the most important town. Here was the old town of Louisburg, famous in colonial times as a strong fortress. Prince Edvraxd Island is noted as the best fishing-station of these seas. The fisheries are mostly in the hands of United States fishermen. Beside the capital, Charlottetown, there are several lesser vil- lages. Nevrfoundland. — This large island, though exceeding Ireland in size, is the least promising in appearance of all the provinces, being cold in winter and wet in summer, and often shrouded in dense fogs. Its high, rocky coast looming, bare and dreary, through the mists, its hills scantily covered with poor firs and birches, and its lowlands either wet and marshy or overgrown with stunted shrubs or heaths, do not invite colonization ; yet- quite a population has been drawn by its valuable fisheries. From the earliest discovery of America European fishermen were attracted to these shores by the inexhausti- ble supply of cod and mackerel ; and the fisheries on the Banks of Newfoundland have become famous all over the world. The coast aflbrds good harbors, aifd along the deep bays and inlets are the hamlets of the fishermen, with their fishing craft secured among the rocks. Most of the settlements are on the small peninsula extending from the southeast corner. St. John's, the capital and only important town, has more than twenty thousand inhabitants, and is larger than most of the other island ports. There are good farms in its vicinity, and goats, which browse on the heaths, supply the people with milk. Questions. — What is said of Halifax « What is exported from Halifax ? What is said of Cape Breton Island and its resources ? For what is Prince Edward Island noted ? Describe the country and climate of Newfoundland. For what is the island valuable ? What is said of its fisheries ? Describe the capital. THE UNITED STATES. 43 The Newfoundland cod are not more widely known than the New- foundland dogs, which are so famous for their size, strength, beauty, and devotion to their owners. OS' the coast of Newfoundland are the small French islands of St. Pierre, Miquelon, and Little Miquelon, or Langley, important as fishing-stations SUMMARY. British America occupies all the northern part of the continent ex- cept Greenland and Alaska. The Arctic shores are cold and barren, but the greater part of the country is covered with fine forests, and is fit for cultivation. Much of this vast region is inhabited only by Indians ; but the forests abound with the ermine, marten, sable, beaver, etc. ; and Forts or trading-stations, connected with the Hudson Bay Company, have been established throughout the wilderness, where Indians and Cana- dian hunters exchange their skins for blankets, beads, powder, and shot. The furs obtained at these stations are distributed through other countries. Provinces. — British Columbia and Manitoba, now admitted into the Dominion of Canada, and the whole Saskatchewan Vallej', have the advantages of fertile soil and comparativelj"^ mild climate, beside the gold of Fraser River and extensive coal fields, and the population is rapidly increasing. The older provinces along the St. Lawrence, formerly belonging to the French, are much more thickly settled. All the large cities and towns are on or near the river and lakes, where the advantages for trade are grcEtt. All these eastern provinces, except the islands of Newfoundland and Prince Edward, are included in the Dominion of Canada, and a Governor-General resides at Ottawa, on Ottawa River. In Ontario, the most western of the older provinces, the people are occupied chiefly in farming, and Montreal exports more grain than any other American city, except New York. Quebec, bordering on the lower course of the St. Lawrence, is more populous, and many of the inhabitants are descendants of the early French settlers, and retain, in a great measure, their language and customs, giving a foreign character to this part of the country. The coast-provinces and islands are all noted for extensive fisheries of herring, mackerel, and cod. Newfoundland, or the Grand Bank near by, is famous for the most valuable cod-fisheries in the world. Nova Scotia and New Brunswick export coal and gypsum. Beside the immense quantities of fish from the islands and coast, the inland provinces export lumber, grain, and furs ; and ship-build- ing is extensively carried on. Cities. — Montreal is situated on an island in the St. Lawrence, where it is joined by the Ottawa, and carries on a large trade. Quebec, built on the lofty peninsula of Cape Diamond, between the St. Lawrence and the little river St. Charles, is strongly fortified, and is the only walled city in America north of Mexico. Halifax rises on a steep hillside on the coast of Nova Scotia, has a fine harbor, and is the British naval station. St. John is the principal town of New Brunswick. St. John's, a busy place of more than twenty thousand inhabitants, is the only large town of Newfoundland ; most of the settlements on this barren, foggy island being mere fishing-hamlets. * HISTORY THE UNITED STATES By the middle of the eighteenth century the English settlements had spread along the Atlantic coast from Maine to Florida, and con- sisted of thirteen separate colonies, settled and chartered at difierent times, either by new companies from the Old World, or by small par- ties of seceders from the earlier settlements. 1. Massachusetts. — Soon after the landing of the Pilgrims at Plymouth in 1620, other settlements were made at Saldm and Bos- ton ; and before the close of the seventeenth century about seventy- five towns wore founded, containing, altogether, a population of nearly seventy thousand. 2. Ne'W Hampshire. — ^This territory was granted to various pri- vate individuals, whose conflicting claims caused many disputes. It was for a long time connected with Massachusetts, but finally became a separate province. 3. Connecticut, at first included in the charter of the Plymouth Colony, was afterward granted to Lord Say and Scle, and others ; and the trading-stations early established at New Haven, Windsor, and other places, became flourishing towns. 4. Rhode Island was settled by Roger Williams, who was com- pelled to leave Massachusetts because of peculiar religious opinions. 5. New York was settled as early as 1614 by the Dutch, who claimed the country in right of discoveries made by Henry Hudson Questions. — What is said of the Kewfouiullanil dogs ? What small islands near the coast ? How far did the English colonies extend by the middle of the eighteenth century ? How was Massachusetts founded 1 New Hampshire ? Connecticut ? while in the service of the Dutch East India Company. The colony prospered for some time under the name of New Netherlands ; but Charles II., refusing to recognize the Dutch claim, bestowed the ter- ritory upon his brother the Duke of York, for whom it was named ; and, after some warfare, the Dutch gave up the colony. 6. New Jersey was settled both by Dutch and Swedes, and was for a time attached to New York, but became a separate province in 1738. 7. Delaware was settled first by Swedes ; was claimed by the Dutch ; belonged at one time to New York, afterward to Pennsylvania ; and finally became a separate province. 8. Maryland was granted by Charles I. to Lord Baltimore for the purpose of establishing a colony for Roman Catholics, who were then persecuted in England. 9. Pennsylvania (or Penn's woods) was bestowed by Charles II. upon the Quaker, William Penn ; who, with a conscientiousness very rare in those days, would not claim the land without buying it from the Indians who inhabited the forests. 10. 11. Carolina was at first included in the Virginian territory ; but later a large tract was granted by Charles II. to a company who settled at Charleston, so named in honor of the king. Long before this time Raleigh had attempted to establish colonies, and some of the French Huguenots had settled at Port Royal. In 1729 the territory was divided into the two provinces of North and South Carolina. Rhode Island ? New York ? New Jersey ? Delaware ? Maryland ? Pennsylvania ? Carolina 1 When did North and South Carolina become separate provinces ? 44 OUR WORLD. 12. Virginia remained as the original province, after Carolina was separated from the territory, and was afterward known as the " Old Dominion. '^- 13 Gedrgia was granted, in 1732, by George II. to James Ogle- thorpe and others, as a refuge for destitute persons. These thirteen colonies were, by the middle of the eighteenth cen- tury, peopled by an industrious, intelligent population. The first difficulties of colonization wore over, and their labors and sufferings had been rewarded with comfortable homes, thriving towns, and well- cultivated farms. The settlers of the southern provinces were ob- taining wealth from their broad, fertile acres ; the people, of New England had learned to supply the deficiencies of their less promising soil and climate by successful fisheries and an active trade. Alto- gether the colonies had attained to a condition of social comfort and refinement, and were of no little importance to the mother-country. The colonists, however, were not wisely treated by the home gov- ernment ; and, though they still considered themselves loyal English subjects, their patience had been severely tried by unjust taxes, inter- ference with their rights of trade, and by the tyranny and mismanage- ment of governors who came over from England, ignorant of the country and the people they were to rule. After sevei>al unsuccessful petitions to the English government, the discontent burst foi'th ii^to open resistance. The principal men from each colony assembled for congultation, and, on the 4th of July, 1776, declared the American colonies free and independent of England, and determined henceforth to make their own laws. The English would acknowledge no such right ; and, treating the colonists as rebels, sent over an army to put down the disturbance. Then fol- lowed the long, terrible years of the Revolutionary War, which re- sulted in the freedom of the colonists, who established a republican form of government, and were acknowledged by the European nations as an independent people, having equal rights with themselves. The thirteen colonies became the United States of America, and the na- tional flag of thirteen stripes and symbolical stars was soon known and respected upon all seas. At the time of the American Revolution the settlements did not ex- tend very far inland. The western parts of the large States of New York, Pennsylvania, and Virginia were still covered with forests, where the fallen leaves were disturbed only by the light-footed deer, or the stealthy tread of the Indian. Reaching into this wilderness were outposts, or log-forts, where a few soldiers were stationed to protect the borders, and the pioneers as they moved westward. After the colonies became independent, the great tide of emigration soon rolled beyond the Appalachian Mountains and spread over the valley of the Mississippi. Adventurers from the old settlements were always ready to go farther west ; and many families of thrifty, indus- trious Germans bade farewell to their " Fatherland," and came over to clear farms in the forest, which would cost nothing but hard labor, and might become comfortable homes for their children and grand- children. Every year the number of emigrants from the old countries increased. Here and there in the forest appeared little clearings, crossed by zigzag fences, and covered with unsightly stumps, with a log-cabin in the midst.- Thus, while another generation was growing Questions — By what name was Virginia known ? To whom was Georgia granted ? Wliat was the condition of the colonies at this time ? What were the causes of discon- tent with England ? What was tlie result of this discontent ? When was the Decla- ration of Independence made ? How did England receive it ? What was the result of the war ? How many States were then united under the name of the United States ? What extent of country was settled at the time of the Revolution ? What is said of the tide of emigration after the Revolution ? What was the appearance of a farm or "clearing " in those times ? What is said of the inland settlers ? Log-house. up in the Atlantic States, to whom the early terrors, the starvation, scalping, and massacres were stories of the past, the inland settlers were, in their turn, suflering all these misfortunes ; since the Indians still attempted, though vainly, to resist the encroachments of the whites. By the end of another half-century these clearings had be- come towns, safe roads crossed the country in all directions, steamboats sailed on the Mississippi and its branches, and new States were added to the Union. For a while the living wave, flowing westward, paused on the banks of the great river, and Arkansas and Missouri were border States. Beyond lay the vast western territory, unsettled except by a few "squatters," or hardy adventurers, willing to escape from the re- straints of civilized life. Exploring expeditions were made from time to time, and accounts came back of a barren, unpromising country to- ward the Rocky Mountains, shared by herds of buffaloes and scattered tribes of Indians. New settlers, therefore, preferred trying their for- tunes southward in Texas. In 1848, however, the discovery of gold, in large quantities, caused a great rush to California. Laborers, merchants, lawyers, men of every class, not only from all parts of our own country, but from the Old World, hastened to enrich them- selves with the gold of tlie western mountain region ; and in an incredibly short time a large city opened its harbor to trade on the Pacific coast. Beside an abundance of gold on the mountain-slopes, there were fertile valleys, tracts of luxuriant vegetation, and a de- lightful climate, far milder than that of the same latitude on the Atlantic coast. The first feverish gold-excitement soon died out ; yet the population of California has increased rapidly. Mines are now worked in many different localities, several of the Western Ter- ritories have become States, towns are scattered throughout the country, and a railroad extends from New York to San Francisco, bringing the Pacific within seven days' reach of the Atlantic cities. The United States now cover the whole breadth of the continent from ocean to ocean, and the large tract of Alaska, in the northwest corner of the continent, has been added to their domain. SUMMARY. In 1776 the thirteen Atlantic colonies declared themselves inde- pendent, and after a war of eight years with England, established a republican government. The colonies were recognized as the United States of America, and ths people as the American nation. Emigra- tion from Europe continued, and the interior of the country was grad-^ ually settled, the remnants of Indian tribes retreating beyond the Mississippi. . Questions. — What had been the progress of the settlements by the end of another half-century ? Why did not emigration continue westward ? What caused the rapid settlement of the far West ? What is said of the growth of California ? What are its advantages, beside rich mines ? What is now the extent of the United States ? THE UNITED STATES. 45 In 1848 gold was discovered in California; and since then a con- siderable population has collected in the country beyond the Kocky Mountains, The large port of San Francisco has grown up on the Pacific coast, in direct communication with the Sandwich Islands, China, and Japan, and connected by railroad with the Atlantic cities. STUDY OF THE MAP OF THE UNITED STATES. [Refer also to maps on pages 53, 57, 64, and 71.] Arm, 8,600,000 Square Miles. Populatwn, about 40,000,000. The United States occupy the central portion of North America, between the 26th and 49th parallels of latitude, and include also the vast territory known as Alaska, Boundaries. — They are bounded on the north by British America,from which they are partly separated by the St. Lawrence River and the great lakes ; on the east by the Atlantic Ocean ; on the south by the Gulf and country of Mexico ; and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. Coast. — The east or Atlantic coast forms three inward curves : one from the Bay of Fundy to Cape Cod; a larger curve from Cape Cod to Cape Hatteras; and a third from Cape Hatteras to the southern extremity of Florida. Along the northern part of this coast are excellent harbors ; but from New Jersey southward the shore is bordered by sand-bars and islands, making navigation difficult. Cape Hatteras, especially, has long been a terror to sailors. The principal indentations are Penobscot Bay, Casco Bay, Massachusetts Bay, Cape Cod Bay, Buzzard's Bay, Narragansett Bay, Long Island Sound, New York Bay ; Delaware Bay, with Capes May and Henlopen at its opening ; Chesapeake Bay, entering between Capes Charles and Henry ; and Albemarle and Pamlico Sounds, on each side of Cape Hatteras. The principal islands are Nantucket, Martha's Vineyard, Block Island, Long Island, Port Royal and other islands on the Carolina coast, and the Florida Keys. The south coast, on the Gulf of Me.xico, makes one large inward curve from the southern extremity of Florida to the southern extremity of Texas, broken midway by the projection of the delta of the Mississippi River. There are some harbors, though the shore is flat and sandy. The principal indentations are Apa- lachee Bay, Pensacola Bay, Mobile Bay, Lake Pontchartrain, and Galveston Bay. The west or Pacific coast forms one large outward curve from the southwestern extremity of the United States to Cape Flattery, the central and most western point being Cape Mendocino, and the Bay of San Francisco the only indenta- tion of any size. Off the southwest coast are the islands of Santa Barbara. Surface. — The whole country is divided by the Appalachian Mountain sys- tem and the vast system of the Cordilleras into three sections, extending from north to south : 1st. The Atlantic slope between the ocean and the Appalachian Mountains. 2d. The great plain of the Mississippi between the Appalachian Mountains and the Cordilleras. 3d. The western plateau extending from the Rocky Mountain chain to the Pacific. Mountains. — 1st. The Rocky Mountains cross the whole country from north to south, forming the eastern border of the plateau, and are often barren and rocky ; hence their name. The Coast Range rises along the Pacific shore ; and farther inland is the Sierra Nevada, which, toward the north, takes the name of Cascade Mountains. The plateau between the Sierra Nevada and the Rocky Mountains is crossed by a number of ri6.. I SI m, ""¥0,^ V, r l':f??''jC"a'l"<''t^ V C-Bha ^-^*5 ^^ / 1' I/a n ^w-ti. j> >a*r" jMiuuBg ffttf ii>«l ^ N f t^^^X'^^-^ ffOTTfin^llri™. trAHHVlIX* ./-' ■c? I ^-, 1B1».WI»" ! 351 N ^ ;vNjf^"^"" '" /. /-' Of > V m ^ y Mx\FOFTHE J/ A' .V / r o BuU .Scalo i>t' .VUles •jr. !VO 3.1 O AO LOn IKO '_M>4I ^JMt :tCK) :IKO C.9a»B>- -U tip *•". t=T..-- [..idigMM W? '"H-eHl ««) ,_,_,_.ffl. 48 OUR WORLD. large seaports, where the people are engaged in commerce and manu- factures. 2d. The agricultural Central States, or prairie lands about the Up- per Mississippi, where grain is chiefly grown. 3d. A second agricultural region, including the Southern States, where the towns are mostly small, the plantations large and devoted to the cultivation of cotton, rice, or sugar, and where many of the inhabitants are colored. 4th. The great mining region of the West, as yet thinly settled, and where society is generally in a rough, transition state. Metals. — Iron abounds in most of the States, chiefly in Missouri, Pennsylvania, Michigan, and Illinois. Lead is most abundant in Missouri, Iowa, Wisconsin, and Illinois. Copper occurs frequently, but the great copper region is in the neighborhood of Lake Superior. Gold was formerly obtained in Carolina and Virginia, but is now found in much larger quantities in California and other Western States and Territories. Silver is obtained most abundantly from Arizona, Nevada, Utah, and New Mexico. Minerals. — Goal is found in all the States except two or three in the northeast, but the principal coal-fields are in Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Illinois. Marble for building purposes is found in most of the States except those along the Mississippi. Limestone takes the place of marble in some of the States near the Mississippi. Granite abounds in the Northeastern States. Sandstone, red, light yellow, and of other shades of color, is found in various parts of the country. Salt, sul- phur, and mineral springs are numerous in Virginia, New York, Ken- tucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, etc. Hot springs and geysers have been discovered in the newly settled western country. Forests. — 1. The forests of the Northern States consist chiefly of pines and other evergreens, with the birch, willow, alder, aspen, elm, maple, and oak, and there are many other trees beside. 2. The trees of the Central States are oak, ash, maple, hickory, black walnut, chestnut, poplar, dogwood, sweet gum, sycamore, lo- cust, cedar, and Others. 3. The forests of the Southern States include the cedar, cypress, live-oak, catalpa, magnolia, and palmetto. In the extreme South, oranges and some other tropical prodiictions are found. Animals. — The animals of the country are the fox, squirrel, rab- bit, raccoon, prairie dog, lynx, moose, buflfalo or bison, bear, wolf, deer, wild-cat, beaver, etc. The rattlesnake is the most formidable reptile. The moccason- snake and adder are also venomous, and, in the extreme South, alli- gators frequent the rivers. Of birds, the eagle has long since taken the first place and become the national emblem. Vultures, buzzards, hawks, and other birds of prey are common. The American mocking-bird is one of the sweet- est songsters, and has the power of imitating other birds. Sparrows, robins, wrens, swallows, etc., are abundant. Grouse, wild ducks, turkeys, and quails are found by sportsmen in different parts of the country. THE ATLAJ^TIO SLOPE, Physically, t1lis slope is the strip of country lying between the Ap- palachian Mountains and the ocean ; but, politically, it includes, be- side the Atlantic States, Vermont, New York, and Pennsylvania, the last two extending beyond the mountain chains. The hill-country, along the base of the mountains, sinks into a low belt of alluvial coast-lands, extending from Maine to Florida. The surface of all the Atlantic States is, therefore, similar ; namely, a low, sandy tract, with here and there rocky headlands, border- ing on the ocean ; and a broken or hilly interior, rising westward into the Appalachian mountain region. The principal ridges of this mountain system are the White Mountains in New Hampshire, the Green Mountains in Vermont, the Adirondacks and Catskills in New York, the AUeghanies in Pennsylvania, the Blue Eidge in Virginia, the Black Mountains in Carolina, and the Cumberland Mountains in Tennessee. The most isolated of these are the White Mountains and the Adirondacks, which seem scarcely connected with the main system. Each State is abundantly supplied with water-power by the numer- ous streams which cross the slope, usually in a southeasterly direction from the mountains to the Atlantic. While there is this general similarity of surface, the great variation of latitude produces a decided difference in climate and productions, and in the occupations of the people^ so that, for a more particular description, it is convenient to divide the slope into two sections. Questions What two agricultural regions are thjre, and what are the productions of each ? What is said of the raining region ? Where are coal and iron found ? Lead ? Copper ? Gold ? Silver ? Marble ? Limestone ? Granite ? Sandstone ? Salt and mineral springs ? What are the most common trees of the northern I'orests ? Of the central forests ? Of the southern forests ? What are some of the most common animals of the country ? What is the most formidable reptile ? What is said of the eagle ? What other birds are there ? Of what does the Atlantic slope consist ? Into what two belts is it divided ? What are the principal ridges of the Appalachian chain ? What is said of its rivers ? What differences are there between the northern and THE NORTHERN SECTION. This section includes the New England States, with New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware, and is the great commercial and manufacturing region, the most populous portion of the United States. Toward the east coast, especially, and in the vicinity of the larger cities, one village almost connects with another. Ughthonae. southern parts of the slope ? What States does the north section include ? What is the general character of this section ? THE UNITED STATES. 49 The coast is often rocky, sometimes even bold, and at some seasons the waves of the stormy Atlantic break with great violence on its granite clifiFs, and the gleam from lighthouses on many dangerous points warns sailors off the rocks. Yet the numerous bays and in- lets afford fine harbors ; and here are most of the large seaports of the United States, in constant communication with all parts of the hab- itable globe ; and many lesser ports, engaged in fisheries or ship- building. Alternating with the bolder parts of the coast are " salt marshes," or levels of coarse, reed-like grass ; and sandy flats, over- grown with the low, creeping cranberry vine. Salt Marshes. The scenery of this belt of coast land is marked by rocky hills, covered with a scrubby growth of bprry bushes and golden-rod ; by meadows and orchards parted by low stone-walla or hedges ; and by sedgy marshes, full of ferns and orchids, all intersected by a labyrinth of country roads, winding from village to ^lage. There are no real forests, but here and there groves of dark old pines, low, thick woods of oak and young evergreens, and streams fringed with the willow and black alder. Especially characteristic of all this eastern country is the beautiful elm, often attaining a great size, and forming a part of almost every landscape, dotting the meadows, shading the Qnestions. — Describe the coast, of forests and trees ? Describe the beit of coast land. What is said roads, or spreading its graceful, drooping branches over village church and cottage. Quite as familiar are the numerous sheets of water, popularly called " ponds," but clear and beautiful enough to bear the more poetic name of lake. In summer they 'are often white with water-lilies, and in winter thronged with skaters. Many of the larger ponds supply the cities with water and with ice. Such is the coast region of the Northern States, thickly interspersed with cities and villages, and comprising the southern parts of Maine and New Hampshire, and a large part of Massachusetts, Con- necticut, Rhode Island, New Jersey, and Delaware. Hill country. — As the land rises farther inland, the cities become less numerous, the farms larger, the hills higher, the valleys deeper and broader, and large forests appear. Though the country may still be called populous, we see less of man and more of nature ; till at last, travelling through the forest wilderness of Maine, over the much- visited White Mountain country, among the picturesque Catskills or the romantic wilds of the Pennsylvanian Alleghanies, we find ourselves in the true mountain-region. The rounded outlines, wooded sum- mits, rivers, cascades, and green valleys of the Appalachian chain, exhibit all the wildness and beauty of mountain scenery, without the grandeur or sublimity belonging to the Swiss glaciers and ava- lanches, the volcanic peaks and precipitous gorges of the Andes, or the severe desolation of the Rocky Mountains. Many of the inter- vening valleys are under cultivation, and railways connect this east- ern country with the great West, as if no mountain-chain stood in the way. Beyond the mountains is found the prettily diversified surface of a large part of New York and of Western Pennsylvania, with woods, lakes, fields, and pastures ; still populous, and with nu- merous manufacturing towns and villages, but assuming a more agricultural character, as it slopes into the great central plain of the Mississippi. Inhabitants. — The people of the Northeastern States are remark- able for their intelligence, neatness, and activity ; and these traits are everywhere apparent. Large sums are devoted to the purposes of education, and public schools of various grades are found in city and village, where boys and girls may be educated without other cost than the school-tax paid by each citizen. There are also colleges, and institutions of various kinds specially designed to prepare students for some profession or occupation. In the larger cities are valuable libraries, many of them for the free use of the inhabitants, where a vast number of costly books may be consulted, that otherwise could only be obtained by the wealthy. In the reading-rooms usually attached to these libraries, all the current periodicals and newspapers may be read, not only by per- sons who have comfortable homes, but by thousands to whom a quiet room, warmed and lighted, is a luxury that could be enjoyed in no other way. An immense number of newspapers are published in the cities, and quickly distributed over the country by means of the many railroads, so that hard-working men on the distant farms understand and can speak intelligently of what is going on all over the world. From these States have come many of our authors, poets, historians, and scientific men ; some of whom have acquired a reputation even in the Old World, and whose works have now become sufficiently numer- ous and important to form an American literature. The neatness of the inhabitants of these States has become pro- verbial, and gives to the whole country an appearance of thrift and comfort very attractive. Still more characteristic, if possible, is the Questions. — What is said of ponds? Describe the hill country. What is the character of the Appalachian mountain country as compared with other mountain scenery ? What parts of the north section extend westward beyond the mountains ? What is said of the inhabitants ? 50 OUR WORLD. energy with which all pursuits or occupations, whether of head or hand, are conducted. The people are accused, indeed, of too great haste in money-making, which exhausts their lives without leaving time for social pleasures ; but, if they are eager in business, they carry out, with the same vigorous activity, many philantliropic plans for the establishment of charitable institutions, for the extension of knowledge, and for the advancement of science. Occupations. — Manufacturing is the general occupation of the people throughout the country ; and in town and village, machinery of all kinds is continually at work, producing almost every conceivable article that can be bought or used. Especially interesting are the im- mense establishments for the manufacture of cottons, woollens, and machinery. Great mills maybe seen in the suburbsof thriving cities or trading centres, wherever a running stream aflbrds convenient water-power ; and, as hundreds of operatives are often employed within the walls of one building, a large manufacturing population is collected in their immediate neighborhood. The picturesque situation of many of these mills, the clustering shade-trees, the rush of the water over the dam, and the quiet stream winding away through the mead- ows below, go far to make one forget the red brick walls, black smoke, noisy machinery, and the atmosphere of oils and dyes. Proprietors frequently build houses for the accommodation of the operatives, and rows of cottages often stand near the mills, many of them ornamented with scarlet-runners or morning-glories, and for the most part neat and comfortable in appearanca. Yet much remains to be done, as civilization advances, to improve the conditions of factory life. The most extensive cotton-mills arc along the Merrimac, both in Massachusetts and New Hampshire, at Fall River, and in the neigh- borhood of Providence, Rhode Island. An immense quantity of cotton is brought annually from our Southern States to be made into white cloth, calicoes, ginghams, and thread. Among the important establishments are immense print-works, which consume large quan- tities of foreign and domestic dye-stuffs. Carpets and other woollen goods are also largely manufactured in some localities. Having in our own country an abundance of coal and iron, many people are employed in mining ; and, in Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Connecticut, and Massachusetts, iron-manufactures are extensively carried on, including hardware, castings, rifles, machinery, steam- engines, and agricultural implements. The manufacture of shoes is very extensive, and there are large tanneries, as well as shops for the manufacture of pegs and lasts. Beside these more general manufactures, in which many thousands are employed, various kinds of wares are produced in different towns ; some localities have become famous for glass-ware, carriages, plated ware, clocks or watches. Fanning. — The soil of the North Atlantic slope is not remarkable for its fertility, though there are some fine valleys toward the interior, especially in New York and Pennsylvania. Much of the country is too broken for cultivation ; large parts of New Hampshire and Ver- mont are only profitable as grazing lands ; and portions of the coast- belt are barren and rocky. The farmers produce chiefly provisions for the use of the neighbor- ing population ; and in the thickly settled coast region, especially, the cultivated lands are devoted to fruits and vegetables. Grain is grown on the larger farms, but to no great extent. The soil is often poor, and the farms are small, compared with the vast cultivated tracts Questious. — What is one of the most general occupations ? "What is said of the great manufacturing establishments ? Where are the great cotton-mills ? What other establishments are mentioned ? What is said of iron-works ? Of shoe-factories ? What other wares are manufactured 1 What is said of farming, and the productions of this part of the country ? What is another important occupation ? of the West and South ; yet the land is well tilled. Intelligent labor, the most improved methods of cultivation, and a chemical knowledge of soils compensate for natural deficiencies ; and where markets are numerous, and transportation easy and rapid, it is profitable to expend considerable time and money on a small space. On a few old-fash- ioned farms, most remote from the cities, the people still retain their simple habits. Great wood-fires blaze on the hearth, and j'arn is spun on the wheel ; but even here, by means of newspapers and pedlers, mowing and sewing machines have been introduced, and the corn- huskings, apple-parings, and quiltings of old times are no longer necessary accompaniments of New England farming. The grazing lands of Vermont and>New Hampshire suppl^ a considerable quantity of wool ; and the fine di|iry farms of New York produce more butter amLcheese than are made in any other State of the Union. Fisheries. — Various t^jv^ns along the coast we engaged in the great cod and nuickerel fisheries, for which the Atlantic waters in this vicin- ity have long been fainous. Meets of fishing-vessels go forced to the Newfoundland Banks, and into the #ulf of St. Lawrence. New Bedford, New London, and other towns of Massachusetts and Connecticut are Itfrgely engaged in whaling, and whale-ships are sent into both the Pacific and North .\tlantic waters ; but the business is not so exten- sive as formerly. - ^ Shipbuilding is another important occupation of the coast pec^e. With excellent harbors, large streams to bring down plenty of good lumber to the coast, and the necessary tools and machinery manufac- /> Shipbuilding. tured near by, the business has been for many years successfully car- ried on, though recently it has rather declined, owing to the facilities for obtaining more cheaply built foreign vessels. Beside the many ship-yards along the coast there are several large navy-yards for the building and repairing of war or government ves- sels ; and the American "iron-clads," first made and used during the late war, are regarded as among the important modern inven- tions. Commerce, in all its branches, gives employment to a large portion of the populiition. Regular lines of steamers sail between this coast and Europe ; innumerable vessels are engaged in the exportation and importation of every variety of produce and merchandise ; and the QnestionB. — What of the fisheries and fishing towns ? What places are noted for whaling ? What is said of shipbuilding ? Of commerce 1 THE UNITED STATES. 61 wharves of our large seaports are lined with shipping from all parts of the world. The seamen, upon whom this large commerce greatly depends, are usually natives of the coast towns, who are early attracted to sea- faring life ; and who, after a few years' experience, are not only pre- pared to take command of a vessel, but have acquired a general knowledge of foreign ports, and of the kinds of merchandise suitable for the different markets. Many of the merchants are ship-owners, and engage ofBcers to sail their vessels ; others employ vessels to bring such merchandise as they require ; and the smaller traders are supplied by the wholesale dealers. * • Imports. — Groceries, chietly obtained froA warm countries, are among our largest impoi'ts. The great wholesale dealers of New York, Boston, and Philadelphia send vessels to the West Indies for sugar, molasses, cigars, and,sw^t-meats ; to the Mediterranean for oraiiges, lemons, olives, dried fruits, nuts, oto. ; and'to'the East Indie^or coflee, gums, and. spices. Teas and wines are important imports. Dry goods are extensively imported ; chiefly linens from the flax- growing countries of Europe, broadcloth, fine dress goods, and fanCy *aci;&:les ; for, though we make cottons, calicoes, and some woollen gogas, the American looms have not proftuced the delicate cambrics, uAr me soft texture and rich colors of tiie French delaines and thibets ; and as yet the best qualities of laces, ribbons, and gloves, and the finest watches and jewelry, are ;nade by the more experienced manu- facturers of Europe. Hides, in great numbers, are brought from South America to supply our extensive leather-manufactures. Dye stufl's, india-rubber, and guano are also largely imported. Tin has not been mined in the United States, and is imported from the Cornwall mines of England, and from the island of Banca. Iron and copper, wliich abound in our own country, are largely imported, because tiie labor of mining is much cheaper in Europe, and because it is hard to find here intelligent and experienced head- miners to direct the work. Certain localities have becom^«)§lebrated for some particular styles or qualities of manufactures, which are eagerly sought by merchants of other countries. Thus, goods in endless variety are transported hither and thither, and India shawls, Bohemian glass, Dutch bulbs, German toys, Siberian furs, etc., are drawn into the great commercial ••urroiit and deposited on our shores. v% Exports. — The cotton grown in our Southern States not only sup- lilies the mills of New England, but many of the factories of Europe. Grain, flour, smdfl^^h are all largely exported in various directions. Manufactures, especially cottons, hardware, and machinery, are sent to the West Indies and to South America. American sewing-machines are known in Europe; and our calicoes, beads, rifles, etc., often pass through the highways and byways of traffic into the possession of African chiefs Inland trade. — The vast quantity of merchandise brought con- tinually to this coast is not consumed in the immediate neighborhood. Collected here from various foreign ports, it is distributed throughout the interior of the continent. By means of railroads, canals, and steamboats on all the navigable rivers of the Mississippi Valley, sugar, coffee, and molasses are so widely distributed that " West India Goods" are announced in the grocery stores of the remotest vil- lages ; and, from the inland States, cotton, grain, pork, and cattle are brought to the coast for exportation. Coast trade. — There is also a regular coast trade, or interchange of produce and merchandise from port to port along the Atlantic coast ; and hundreds of vessels are constantly engaged in carrying cotton, rice, tar, pitch, lumber, coal, granite, ice, etc. Some go to Mexico or Central America for indig(j, cochineal, and mahogany. Cities. — Generally speaking, American cities are regularly laid out, with straight, parallel streets, often crossing at right angles ; though some of the older cities have imitated the narrow, irregular streets of the Old World. The largo Eastern cities may be said to consist of three parts : 1st, pleasant suburbs of handsome residences, embowered in drooping elms and shrubbery, and surrounded with extensive grounds ; 2d, long blocks of brick dwellings, with churches and schools, forming the main part of the city ; 3d, a crowded business-centre, with many fine warehouses, banks, and offices. In the great ports may be found a fourth locality of wharves, warehouses, carts, drays, barrels, boxes, dirt, and confusion. In the smaller cities many of the dwellings, and even the churches, are of wood, but of considerable architectural pretension ; and the houses are usually surrounded by beautiful grounds. * Questions. — How is this large commerce carried on ? What are the principal I imports ? Where do our groceries come from ? Dry goods ? Hides and dye-stuffs ? Why is iron imported ? What are our principal exports i the inland trade ? What do we mean by Villages. — Nothing is more characteristic or more attractive than the New England village, enclosed by orchards and meadows ; with its slender spires rising above the trees ; its clusters of white frame- houses, with their open piazzas, close-clipped terraces and hedges ; and its smooth, unpaved streets, shaded by maples and horse-chest- nuts, or double rows of elms. In relief to the dazzling whiteness and somewhat prim form of the typical village home, are quaint little brown cottages, with diminutive gables and turrets, and here and there stylish dwellings, constructed after the latest architectural devices, and enclosed by well-kept grounds. With much of the quiet and beauty of country life, these villages are often easily accessible to the cities, and have their own lecture-rooms, libraries, amuse- ments, and resources. Questions. — The coast trade ? What is said of American cities generally ? Of the smaller cities ? 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'^ s 03" "5 i g 3 3 bo '^ .bo 5 a Ul ■>^ o cs a 3 o a =i *. 3 o a cS b^ 03 > 03 03 S rt Fh rt L. -f ft r/.' 0) br rt ^ CS 03 ^ 0) 'a "• ^ 03 >^ bo k! _^ .2 '" Z ^- bo o o c a -rj- i=c 03 ■73 03 s o P ft 3 ft ^ 03 - CS ja 03 +j -73 03 a ^^ o CO tJT 53 ? a bo a c 3 cS — m 03 o m bc-fS •IS 3 G '-' a a § 2 u cS J5 3 5 -i r d iQ i i\L ,?x:] * 5- .» .« g £ to 58 OUR WORLD. one of the grandest cataracts in the world. The neighborhood is destitute of the picturesque wood and mountain scenery often accom- panying waterfalls, and there are other falls of a greater height, but nowhere is such a tremendous mass of water precipitated in one vast sheet. The Hudson, or " North River," rises near Mount Marcy, the highest peak of the Adirondacs, and flows southward between the Catskill and Taconic ranges into Long Island Sound. Its lower Scene on the Hudson. course is between the wild and picturesque cliffs known as the Highlands. In this beautiful region, high on the west bank of the river, is situated West Point, the United States military school, where young men may receive such education and training as will fit them for soldiers. In addition to its natural charms, the banks of the Hudson are adorned with picturesque cottages and elegant villas. The Adirondacs in the north and the Catskills in the south are sep- arated by the valley of the Mohawk River, which enters the Hudson at Troy. Cities. — New York, the largest city in America and the great commercial seaport of our country, is situated at the southeast ex- tremity of the State, on the long, narrow island of Manhattan. This island, thirteen miles long and less than three miles wide, lies at the mouth of the Hudson, separated from the main-land on the north by Harlem River, and from Long Island by the narrow channel called East River. The west end of Long Island extends nearly to Staten Island, which lies off the Jersey coast, and the strait between the islands is known as the " Narrows." This strait forms the opening from the Atlantic into New York Bay, which receives the waters of the Hudson. The harbor is one of the finest in the world, and ships line the wharves on both sides of the city for three miles up the Hudson and East Rivers, forming a forest of masts and cordage. Opposite the city on the Long Island shore is Brooklyn, a large and prosperous city, but often regarded as a suburb of New York, and soon to be con- nected with it by a suspension bridge of a single span. Opposite New York on the Jersey shore are Hoboken and Jersey City, reached by ferry-boats across the Hudson. New York is a cosmopolitan city, having a vast trade with all parts of the world, a large foreign element in its population, and a flood of immigration pouring in at Castle Garden, on the Battery, once a favorite resort, to spread itself over the whole country. The city has increased in population more than twelvefold during the Questions. — Describe the Hudson. How is New York, Manhattan Island surrounded ? Describe the city. ^' situited ? How is last half century, and has extended its limits from the vicinity of the Battery through nearly the whole of the island. Business has con- tinually invaded the quarters of desirable residences, compelling the citizens to seek quiet homes farther " up town," till the neighbor- hood of Central Park is becoming the most fashionable part of the city, and the whole upper part of the island is being filled with costly residences, so that the population of moderate means over- flows into New Jersey, Long Island, and other suburbs. Broadway, the great thoroughfare, six miles long, contains many of the large hotels and stores, and is extended by the new Boulevard far up the island. Fifth Avenue, which has been called a street of palaces, is fast becoming a business locality. The once beautiful park in the lower part of the city is now occupied with the City Hall and other public buildings. Trinity Church, dating back to colonial times, rears its tall spire and rings its chimes at the head of Wall Street, the great financial centre, where millions pass from hand to hand daily, and fortunes are often made or lost in a few hours. The churches, hotels, theatres, banks, and business-houses are numerous and costly. There are many benevolent, literary, and scientific in- stitutions, among which may be mentioned Cooper Institute, founded" by an eminent merchant whose name it bears, and designed for the free education of the people in practical arts and sciences, and Astor Library, one of the most valuable in the country, the gift of another wealthy citizen. The city is supplied with water from the Croton Water-works, by an underground aqueduct forty miles long. Central Park, the finest in the country, is two and a half miles long and about half a mile broad, and one of the most successful examples of landscape-gardening in the world. On or near the Hudson. — Albany, the capital, is on the direct line of railroad communication between Boston and the West. Troy is just above Albany, and Saratoga is a short distance west of the river. Ticonderoga, at the northern extremity of Lake George, is famous as a battle-field during the Revolution. On or near the Central Railroad. — Schenectady and Utica are on the Mohawk. Syracuse is in the midst of the salt region. Oswego, on Lake Ontario, is a thriving grain port. Rochester, with its ex- tensive flour mills, is at the falls of the Genesee River. Buffalo, the terminus of canal and railroad at the outlet of Lake Erie, is a great thoroughfare of travel and transportation. Ogdensburg, on the St. Lawrence, receives large importations of grain from Canada. Ithaca, at the head of Cayuga Lake, is the seat of Cornell University. NEW JERSEY. The northern part of the State is broken and hilly, and the steep wall of rock known as the "Palisades" borders the Hudson on the Jersey side above New York City. South of Staten Island Raritan River flows into a bay of the same name, at the entrance of which is Sandy Hook. Southward from this point extends the well-known beach of Long Branch, a fash- ionable resort of the New York people. Cape May, the southern extremity of the State, at the mouth of Delaware Bay, is another watering-place much frequented by Philadelphians. The southern portion of the State is a great sandy swamp, overgrown with cedar, pitch-pine, and oak. South of Long Island the character of the Questions. — What cities and towns on or near the Hudson ? Where is Buffalo ? Kochester ? Mention other central towns. What is said of New Jersey ? Where is Sandy Hook ? Long Branch ? Cape May ? THE UNITED STATES. 59 Atlantic coast changes, becoming low, flat, and sandy, and in this respect New Jersey belongs with the States of the Southern section. The coast is fringed with sandbars and islets, and is entirely desti- tute of the good harbors found farther north. There are conse- quently no large seaports, and the commerce of the State is carried on through New York. Much of the land is under cultivation, pro- ducing wheat, and especially vegetables and fruits. New Jersey has been called the "Garden State." Extensive tracts contain beds of tlie well-known "Jersey marl," regarded by agriculturists as one of the best fertilizers, and from the productive lands of this State the New York markets are largely supplied. Clay of a peculiar quality is also found here, excellent for making pottery, which is largely manufactured. Iron is abundant, and machinery, hardware, and all the varieties of ironwork form the principal manufactures of the State. The leather manufactures are scarcely less varied than those of iron ; and trunks, harnesses, etc., are extensively exported. Cities. — Trenton, the capital, is situated on Delaware River, and is noted for great foundries, rolling-mills, rifle-works, sword, gun, and wire-rope factories ; some of them the largest of their kind in the United States. Paterson manufactures Cottons and woollens, beside making nearly half the locomotives used in the country. In its vicinity are the falls of the Passaic River. Newark is the principal city of the State, and the centre of the leather manufactures. Princeton is noted chiefly for its college. DELAWARE. Delaware, the smallest State in the Union except Rhode Island, is very similar to New Jersey in soil, climate, coast line, and pro- ductions ; that is to say, it has no harbors, and little commerce, but fine crops of wheat, vegetables, peaches, etc. The kaoline, or white clay, found in the northern part, supplies the stoneware factories of Philadelphia. In the south is a cypress swamp, overgrown with shrubs and evergreens, and abounding in reptiles and noxious in- sects. Cape Hcnlopen is the southern extremity of the low, marshy shores of Delaware Bay. The manufacturing district is in the north- ern part of the State around Brandywine Creek, of Revolutionary fame. Wilmington, on a hill near this stream, is noted for the manu- facture of steam-engines, and also for its flour-mills. Dover, a small place, is only important as the capital of the State. PENNSYLVANIA. Pennsylvania is a large, populous State ; and, beside the thickly peopled manufacturing districts, there are ample farm-lands for the cultivation of wheat, rye, and buckwheat, and for -the raising of live- stock. Mining, however, is the specialty of this State, which con- tains extensive iron-mines and vast beds of coal, both anthracite and bituminous. Tlie central part of the State is crossed by the ridges of the Alle- ghanies, which form here the broadest portion of the Appalachian system. This beautiful and romantic region is traversed by the main routes of travel, and the picturesque beauty of wooded summits, Questions. — "What is said of the coast ? Of soil and cultivation ? What is marl ? What other resources has the State ? What is said of Trenton ? Of Paterson ? N'ewark ? Princeton ? What is said of Delaware ? Of Its resources ? What is said of the cypress swamp ? What capes at the opening of Delaware Bay ? AVhere is the manufacturing region ? What is said of Wilmington 1 Of Dover 1 What is said of Pennsylvania ? deep valleys, winding streams, and waterfalls is perhaps increased by the canals and roads which follow stream and valley, and by the bridges which span the ravines. The Susquehanna, a river of great length, rises far northward, in New York, and takes a devious course through Pennsylvania into Chesapeake Bay. The Juniata flows east- ward into the Susquehanna, through a region of great beauty. The point where the Delaware breaks through the Blue Ridge, known as tlie Water Gap, is famed for its bold scenery. The river rushes through a deep gorge between perpendicular cliffs more than a thou- sand feet high. The Delaware forms the eastern boundary of the State, and receives the Schuylkill at Philadelphia. In the west the Alleghany River, flowing from the north, and the Monongahcla, from the south, unite to form the Ohio, thus opening navigation to the Mississippi. In Western Pennsylvania are the vast bituminous coal-fields, where thirty-five thousand men, and the capital of more than fifty mining companies are employed in obtaining coal from the Monongahela lands. Few mining products are so valuable as coal, which is not only used as fuel for household and manufacturing purposes, but for making gas to light our cities. Even the coal tar, or refuse after mailing gas from bituminous coal, which was formerly considered useless, is now mixed with gravel for roofs, sidewalks, etc. More- over, by distillation, it is made to produce beautiful colors, — mauve, magenta, purple, etc., — and what is still more remarkable, is made to yield agreeable perfumes. Iron is also obtained in abundance from this region, and an immense quantity is used annually in the various iron manufactures, in which Pennsylvania surpasses every other State. In the northwestern part of the State is the famous Pennsylvania "oil-region," where springs of.rock-oil, or petroleum, have been dis- covered within the last few j'ears. The gold of California scarcely made a greater sensation throughout our country than the discovery of this oil floating on the surface of streams, or oozing out from the earth in the coal regions. Lands that had been almost worthless were sold for large sums, and machinery was arranged for boring to great depths in search of the oil. Some persons made, in a short time, fortunes that seemed fabulous ; but others lost, and gradually the great oil-excitement has subsided into a regular industrial pursuit, in which many persons find employment. An immense amount of petroleum is consumed in our own country, and a large quan- tity is exported. In 1871 fifty thousand gallons were sent to England alone. Various qualities of oils, kerosene, paraflSne, etc.. Questions. — What is said of the rivers ? Of the coal region ? Of iron ! oil region ? Of the 60 OTJR WORLD. are distilled from the petroleum ; some for illuminating purposes, and others for lubricating machinery. Solid purafBne resembles the purest white wax, and is manufactured into candles. Though so recently employed in this country, petroleum was known to the ancients, and is still obtained in the region about the Caspian Sea, and in India. In a fluid state it was formerly known as naphtha, but when thick, like tar, it was called asphaltum. Titusville and Oil City, on the Alleghany River, are the centre of the Pennsylvania oil-region ; but petroleum is also found in the neighboring coal-lands of Ohio and Virginia. Salt is also obtained by boring in the coal formation. Extensive quarries of white marble in this State supply the cities with building material. Cities. — Pittsburg, at the junction of the Alleghany and Monon- gahela, is the shipping port of coal for the Mississippi Valley, and the centre of the iron manufactures. Here are numerous establishments for making nails, rivets, cutlery, and machinery ; and an immense cannon foundry supplies the United States government. More than three hundred steam-engines are made yearly, and steamboats are built here for the Southern and Western rivers. The city of Pittsburg Pittsburg. occupies the point between the two rivers ; and on the opposite side of the Alleghany the suburbs have grown into quite a large town called Alleghany City. On the opposite bank of the Monongahela stands the American Birmingham, black and grim with iron-works. Rising on the steep slope are great foundries, with their massive forges and furnaces glowing night and day, the dense smoke of the bituminous coal roll- ing up from the tall chimneys, and resting in a heavy cloud over the whole region. Philadelphia, the seat of the first Congress, is only surpassed by New York in population. The city is situated on a plain at the junction of the Delaware and Schuylkill Rivers ; and, though more than sixty miles from the ocean, has all the advantages of a sea- port, with a tide flowing from Delaware Bay into both rivers. The suburbs extend beyond the two rivers, forming Camden, east of the Delaware, and West Philadelphia, on the west bank of the Schuylkill. Low hills rise on the north of the city, covered with populous manufacturing villages and handsome residences. The city was regularly laid out in squares by its founder, William Penn. Streets extend from river to river, and are crossed by others at right angles. Chestnut Street is the fashionable shopping promenade, corresponding to Broadway in New York. Strangers are especially attracted by the grounds of the Fairmount Water-works, and by the quiet beauty of Laurel Hill Cemetery, directly on the river-bank. Questions. — What is said about petroleum in the Old World ? Of salt and mar- ble ? Describe Pittsburg. Describe Philadelphia. Girard College, endowed by Stephen Girard for the education of orphan boys, is built of white marble and modelled after the Grecian Parthenon. Here also is the United States Mint. Philadelphia is engaged in commerce and manufactures, and carries on a busy trade with the interior. Harrisburg, on the Susquehanna, below the junction with the Juniata, is the capital of the State. Reading and Lancaster are thriving towns. THE SOUTHERN SECTION. This portion of the Atlantic Slope extends south from Pennsylva- nia, including Maryland, Virginia, North and South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida. The character of the country south of Pennsylvania changes per- ceptibly. The coast is low, flat, and marshy, bordered with shoals, sand- bars, and low, sandy islands, enclosing shallow bays, and aflbrds few good harbors. The names of Cape Fear and Cape Lookout are sig- nificant of the dangers of navigation along the Carolina shore, and no part of the Atlantic coast is more dreaded than the neighborhood of Cape Hatteras, which is the eastern point of a long sand-bar en- closing Albemarle and Pamlico Sounds. Lovrlands. — As the mountains turn westward from the shore the belt of coast land becomes broader, lower, and more marshy. The cypress swamps, that in New Jersey and Delaware succeeded the marshes and ponds of New England, become farther south still more extensive. Nothing can be more dreary than these immense swamps, covering miles of country, sometimes overgrown with rank grass or herbage, but mostly filled with tall pines, cedars, and cypress-trees, their half-bare roots soaking in the foul, black water, and the long, gray moss, peculiar to the Southern coast country, hanging from their boughs. A most unwholesome atmosphere exhales from the reeking soil and decaying vegetation, especially during the summer. Reptiles are numerous, and in the more southern States alligators abound in the slimy mud. These swamps are often impassable, except where occasional strips of firm land serve as pathways. In the Great Dis- mal Swamp a canal is used for the transportation of lumber. These swamp-forests supply an abundance of timber ; and large tracts of drained land yield fine crops of rice and cotton. The rivers creep sluggishly through the swamps on their way to the sea, choking the shallow bays with sand and mud, and are navigable only for small vessels. As the maple and elm are characteristic of the Northern States, so in these Southern lowlands the eye becomes familiar with the beautiful sweet-gum tree and the dark, glossy foliage of the live or water oak near the farm-houses, in the marshes, and along the rivers. The gray, or Spanish moss, which, however, is not a moss, but a plant of the pine-apple family, named Tillandsia, is a still more strik- ing peculiarity of the vegetation. Drooping from the boughs of the swamp-forests, it adds to the dreary, mournful efi"ect of the scenery ; but hanging from the branches of an avenue of live-oaks, it gives a graceful, weird beauty to the foliage. Palmettoes are found in the extreme South. Hill-country. — The western limit of the lowlands is the ledge which marks the head of tide-water in the rivers, and runs through Questions. — What is the capital of the State ? What other towns are men- tioned ? What States are included in the Southem section ? Describe the coast. Describe the lowlands. The swamps. What is said of the rivers ? What are th« characteristic trees ? Where are forests found ? What mountains in the West ? THE UNITED STATES. 61 Richmond, Raleigh, Columbia, Augusta, etc. Here begins the hill- country with its pleasant valleys, farms, and healthy uplands ; and, farther inland still, are the mountain ranges, — the Blue Ridge, Al- leghanies, Cumberland Mountains, and others, interspersed with deep ravines, caverns, mineral springs, and coal-beds. Inhabitants and occupations. — The States of this section were formerly Slave States, and have a large colored population. Before the abolition of slavery, in 1865, education was confined mostly to the higher classes. Not only were the slaves kept in ignorance, but the poorer whites often could not even read or write. Now, how- ever, there is a general eagerness for knowledge and improvement, and public schools are established in several of the States. Many of the former slaves have become land-owners, and are beginning to realize the duties and responsibilities of citizens. In this Southern section agriculture is the leading occupation. The greater portion of the inhabitants are engaged in the cultivation of tobacco, cotton, and rice ; and, in the uplands, grain. Instead of the large, busy, commercial cities of the North, there are found small and quiet towns, and the large plantations which give the country a thinly settled appearance. Most of the field-labor is performed by the col- ored population. Manufactures are increasing in some places, especially around Baltimore, Richmond, and Charleston ; and there is a considerable trade in lumber, and in the pitch and tar obtained from the pine woods. Quito a coasting trade is carried on by means of small vessels, and within the last few years foreign commerce has increased. Throughout this Southern country the large forests, the uninhabit- able swamps, the isolated houses of the planters, the cabins of the laborers, and the peculiar vegetation, all render the scenery very dif- ferent from that of the Northern States. MARYLAND. West Maryland, or the narrow tract between the Potomac River and Pennsylvania, is a wild, mountainous region, crossed by the Al- leghanies ; and, being directly in the great coal region, it supplies coal and iron for manufactures of considerable importance. The little mountain town of Cumberland is the centre of the coal trade. The main portion of the State is almost divided by Chesapeake Bay, which reaches nearly to Pennsylvania, receiving there the waters of the Susquehanna River. The low, marshy shores of the bay af- foid few harbors beside that of Baltimore ; and the eastern coast is fringed with sand-bars. Its reedy shores abound with a species of wild duck, regarded as a great delicacy in the neighboring markets ; and oysters are obtained in large quantities along its coves and in- lets, and shipped at Baltimore. The city of Baltimore is situated near the head of the bay, on an arm of Patapsco River, where it has all the advantages of a seaport. The appearance of the city is striking and picturesque, and its streets are wide, regular, and neat. The city was named for Lord Baltimore, the founder of the Roman Catholic colony in Maryland, and many of the present inhabitants are Roman Catholics. Baltimore is reckoned among our great commercial cities, and has large manufactures. Annapolis, farther down the bay, is the capital of the State, and contains the United States Naval School. Questions. — What is said of the inhabitants ? What is the chief occupation ? What are cultivated ? What is said of manufactures ? Trade ? What is said of tlie appearance of the country ? Wliat is said of West Maryland ? Of Chesapeake Bay ? What is exported from its shores ? Describe Baltimore. What is said of Annapolis ? DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. This District occupies an area of sixty square miles on the east bank of the Potomac, and is the seat of the General Government of the United States. Like the other Territories, it has a governor ap- pointed by the President, a legislature elected by the people, and a delegate in Congress who can take part in debates, but cannot vote. The G-eneral Government. — The American colonies, having asserted their independence, formed a republic of States, agreeing to unite under a federal government, which should direct all affairs relating to the welfare of the whole country, while each State should make its own laws and regulate its local affairs. Delegates from the colonies assembled at Philadelphia in lt87, and drew up a form of government, which was finally adopted as the Constitution of the United States; and, in 1789, George Washington was inaugurated the first President under it. By the conditions of this constitution, the government is divided into three branches, the legislative, the executive, and the judicial. The legislative power is vested in Congress, which comprises the Senate and House of Representatives. Two senators are chosen by the legislature of each State to serve for a terra of six years ; and representatives, proportioned in number to the population of each State, are chosen by the people to serve for two years. The President represents the executive department, and is chosen to serve as chief magistrate for a terra of four years. If his rule is acceptable he may be re-elected. The judicial department consists of a Supreme Court, whose judges are appointed for life, and of inferior courts in the several States. The President has the power, with the consent of the Senate, of appointing a Secretary of State, a Secretary of the Treasury, a Sec- retary of War, a Secretary of the Navy, a Secretary of the Interior, a Postmaster-General, and an Attorney-General, who preside over the various departments of the government and form the "Cabinet." Ministers, and other representatives of the United States govern- ment, are sent to foreign countries to watch over the interests of the nation, and of American merchants, travellers, and citizens. The people of each State choose a governor and legislators to direct the local government, and an assembly, or legislature, is held in one of the cities, which is called the capital of the State. As it is desir- able to have this place of meeting accessible to the greatest number of inhabitants, the capital is generally selected as near the centre of population as possible, without regard to other advantages ; hence it is often a city of much less size and importance than others in the State. Some States have two capitals, the legislature meeting alter- nately at each. There is also one central capital for the general United States gov- ernment, where the President and other oiBcers reside, where public buildings are provided for the transaction of governraent business in its various departments, and where Congress meets. Philadelphia was the first capital of the United States, but since 1800 Washington has been the permanent seat of government. The Capital. — The city of Washington is situated on the left bank of the Potomac, about one hundred and sixty miles from its Questions. — Where is the District of Columbia? What kind of government was formed by the colonies ? What are the three branches of the government ? Which branch does Congress represent ? How are senators chosen ? How are repre- sentatives chosen ? Who is the chief ruler, and how chosen ? What constitutes the judicial department ? What other government officers are associated with the Presi- dent ? What are the duties of United States niinisters ? Describe the government of each State. What is the capital of a State t What is said of the national capital ? 62 OUR WORLD. mouth. It spreads over a large area in proportion to its population, and is called the " City of magnificent distances." The Capitol. Tlie streets running in one direction are named from the letters of the alphabet, while those which cross at right angles are numbered. Broad avenues intersect tliese streets diagonally, converging toward the diflferent public buildings and bearing the names of States. Pennsylvania Avenue is the great thoroughfare through the city, and leads from the Capitol to the President's house. The beautiful white marble Capitol, with its great dome seen from afar, and its numerous columns, is surrounded by a park of thirty-five acres. The White House, as the residence of the President is called, is also surrounded by pleasant grounds, with a lawn sloping toward the river. In its vicinity are the buildings of the War, Navy, and Treas- ury Departments. One of the attractions of the city is the Patent Office, in the Department of the Interior, which contains interesting collections of curious productions, manufactures, etc., and also mod- els of all American inventions offered for Patent. The Smithsonian Institution is devoted to the extension of useful knowledge, by means of lectures, scientific observations, and the publication of books. Washington is surpassed by many of our cities in musical, artistic, and literary advantages, but has uncommon facilities for a brilliant and varied society. Not only do the President and other government officials reside here, but also the ministers from foreign courts. While Congress is in session there is a rapid succession of balls, parties, dinners, and receptions ; but with the close of the session this social excitement suddenly ceases, and dulness settles over the city. The great peculiarity of social life at Washington is its want of stability ; the same set of people meet together for a few years, and then the President, senators, representatives, and foreign ministers, having completed their terms of service, vanish with their families and are replaced by new officials. Georgetown is a suburb of the capital. Questions. — How is Washington situated ? Describe the city. What are the principal public buildings ? What advantages has the city ? What is said of society? What other city in the District of Columbia 1 VIRGINIA. Virginia is one of the largest and most beautiful of the Atlantic States, possessing an unusual variety of natural charms and advan- tages. In the valleys and river-bottoms fine crops of wheat are grown, and more tobacco is raised than in any other State. Though farming is the principal occupation throughout this State, the great coal-beds and iron-mines give employment to large numbers. The commercial and manufacturing interests belong chiefly to the eastern part of the State, which is crossed by the Potomac, James, and Rappahannock Rivers. Chesapeake Bay, running up into the low coast country, affords some facilities for commerce. Norfolk has one of the few good harbors south of Baltimore. Richmond, the chief city and capital of the State, is beautifully situated oir James River, where the upland country begins. The deep bed of the river crossed by long bridges, and the abrupt hill- sides make a striking approach to the city. Numerous flour-mills and tobacco-factories form the chief wealth of the place, but there are also some manufactures. On the Potomac, some distance below Washington, stands Mount Vernon, the residence of our first president, George Washington. The whole central portion of the State is traversed from northeast to southwest by the Alleghany Mountains and Blue Ridge. This is the region of coal-beds, iron-mines, caves, mineral-springs, rapids, ravines, and romantic glens and gorges. The far-famed sulphur springs of Virginia, including the White Sulphur, Hot and Warm Springs, Winchester, and others, are scattered over the Shenandoah Valley, between the Alleghanics and the Blue Ridge. Weir's Cave, one of the beautiful caverns i'ound in limestone formations, is only The N'atiiral Bridge. second in size to the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky. The famous Natural Bridge of Virginia is an arch of stone of great height over Questions. — What is said of Virginia ? Wliat natural advantages ? Where is the manufacturing di.strict ? Describe Richmond. Where is Jfount Vernon ? De- scribe the central portion of the State. Describe the Shenandoah Valley. What natural curiosities in Virginia ? Where is the Natural Bridge ? THE UNITED STATES. 63 a little stream flowing into James River, just west of the Blue Ridge. In the northeastern extremity of this beautiful valley is the grand view of Harper's Ferry, where the Potomac forces a passage through the Blue Ridge at the mouth of the Shenandoah. WEST VIRGINIA. The northwest portion of the " Old Dominion," between the Al- leghany Mountains and Ohio River, during the late civil war be- came a separate State, known as West Virginia. The valley of the Kanawha abounds with coal and salt mines, and the great oil-region of West Pennsylvania continues through this State. The Ohio River opens West Virginia to the central trade of the Mississippi Valley, affording easy communication with Pittsburg, Cincinnati, St. Louis, and New Orleans. Wheeling, the chief city, holds an impor- tant position on the Ohio. Charleston, the capital, on the Great Kanawha River, is noted for its salt works. Other towns are grow- ing rapidly. [Take Map Studies here. (See page 65.)] THE CAROLINAS. In the Carolinas we find all the characteristics of the Southern coast lands strikingly developed : the most dangerous shoals and sand-bars, shallow sounds reaching far up into the land, low islands sometimes forming large plantations, and either immense cypress swamps, often following the river-courses far inland, or open marshes of soft bog, overgrown with rank herbage. Like all lands subject to tide-floods, this swamp region is very productive, and large tracts which have been drained for cultivation are covered, year after year, with luxuriant crops of cotton or rice. The swamp cedars and pines attain a vigorous growth, and the great live-oaks of some localities furnish the finest timber for shipbuilding in the Union. The belt of lowlands broadens here to such an extent that it may be subdivided into the productive swamp region of the coast, and a sterile, sandy belt, covered for the most part with pines or scrub-oaks, valueless for cultivation, and known throughout these and the more Southern States as " pine barrens." The absence of grass, and the glare of the loose, white sand, give a peculiar aspect to this region. Wild-flowers, however, grow abundantly in the spring ; and, as New England children seek flowers in their sedgy marshes, the young people here know the treasures of the pine barrens, where the bay- flower blooms and the golden blossoms of the Carolina jessamine hang from bough to bough. Westward rise the more healthy up- lands, with forests of oak, maple, cherry, and poplar, and with fresh running streams, in strong contrast to the muddy, sluggish river- courses below. Throughout all this hill region grain, tobacco, and sweet potatoes are cultivated, and the wild grapevine grows luxuri- antly all over the country. North Carolina. — The name of pine barrens has become espe- cially associated with North Carolina, where the distinctive occupation is the preparation of pitch, tar, and turpentine from the extensive pine woods. All through the low country the trees bear white scars from the cuttings made in the spring, when the sap begins to flow Questions. — Where is Harper's Ferry? What and where is We.st Virginia? What is .said of it ? Of Wheeling ? What and where is the capital ? What is the character of the surface of Carolina ? Of the soil ? Describe the pine baixens. The hill-conntry. What is the special occapation in North Carolina ? What is turpen- tine? freely. This white, thick sap, or turpentine, drips into wooden troughs and is collected for exportation. Tar is made by burning billets of pine wood in heaps, covered over with earth so that they cannot blaze. A little curl of smoke escapes from the top of the mound, and the tar, or thick, blackened sap, runs out in a trench at the bottom. Pitch is obtained by boiling down the tar. Rosin is also obtained from the turpentine. The western part of the State is crossed by the Blue Ridge and Alleghany Mountains from Virginia, and the Black Mountains, which contain some of the highest peaks of the Appalachian range. The southern ofishoots turn westward and are lost in the northern parts of Georgia and Alabama, barely skirting South Carolina. The coal- beds are not much worked, but gold has been obtained along the Blue Ridge in quantities that seemed considerable before the dis- covery of the vast gold regions of California. The Carolina herring-fisheries are important. Wilmington, situated on a monotonous level of white sand, is the chief commercial city. Newbern, on the Neuse River, about thirty miles from Pamlico Sound, is the largest city in the State. Raleigh, the capital, is pleasantly situated about six miles from the Neuse, and conveniently connected by railroads with other parts of the State. South Carolina. — We are now in the Southern plantation region, with its immense cotton-fields, zigzag fences, and large colored popu- lation. Cotton and rice are the staple productions, and palmettoes and magnolia groves are suggestive of tropical vegetation. Rice Swamp. The drained swamp-lands of South Carolina are especially suitable for the cultivation of rice, which is more extensively produced here than in any other State. Cotton of a superior quality, known as the "sea-island cotton," grows on the Island plantations along the coast. These low islands, scarcely rising above the water, were for- merly little more than swamps covered with forests and filled with alligators ; but the larger islands are now cultivated and support a QuestionB. — How is tar made ? Pitch ? What mountains in the west ? What is said of the Black Mountains ? Of golC MilcH ViCtNlTV OF NEW YORK n 111 -ill 30 44> no i(io kS T^o iD) jh: A.; j ^Tj^brf Sarnia >, W\ .1 BiilBHki o .'■ il /■ ■> »vy-> [jichriiolil.-, ■{ ^/Z- iFoHb ^^., ,»if* v>aii3 tlpwlac ,/ KewCHi -4-; ) /^ >y' (TTihiirvtne ,'" ^ -„ ^ •mofeMmire ,^S>5-^a7^^ ,l^aTl>ain«R^ -^ v ,.,^1 ■.-..,.' '! |jn'aiS[Kir^S?)il City ^ I'iUftoii ^N'a^inkr iSFy'^E' " :\ P Steub™ Mm II ■\ f J. I. li R e' i:jftv«-i«» a/l'»*-«o„t' -^^o"" \ rf^^ 'l -,'/. "^'"uCa^^rH;.".! . / N'HwragtiA ''""'I I'll-IIMiiiil ^PlU^kvu*> .. J! iSjAKLKsfilll Vdi-tTolJf-cu, «^-*-. ^ # ■% 'Vii. •Bferlin \ \ ^ .\> ^•i. _/i(y^iitt^ •is*!*^ N M) R T bg T alffl of (>«t^^^^j>^*' „ . /~. \ i- I/JUSMAI. Ivilli- > 'Aihiupsvilli' ->^ ■^^ T- U^/ .7? ^ ./- fvj 'W%^d 1 THE UNITED STATES. 65 MAjP STUDIES. NE"W YORK. t Boundaries. — E.\st. — By Lake Champlain and a nearly straight boundary line on Vermont, Massachusetts, and Connecticut. North. — Half by Canada and the St. Lawrence River, half by a coast line on Lake Ontario. West. — Bv Niagara River separating it from Canada, a coast line on Lake Erie, and a short boundary line on Pennsylvania. South. — A Straight line on Pennsylvania, continued southeastward by Delaware River and a boundary line on New Jersey. Mountains. — The Adirondacs in the northeast, tlie Catskills and the High- lands in the east and southeast. Rivers. — The Hudson rises in the Adirondacs, flows south through the east- ern part of the Sta'e into Long Island Sound. The Mohawk flows eastward into the Hudson. The Susquehanna rises in this State and flows southward into Pennsylvania. The Genesee flows from south to north through the State, and empties into Lake Ontario. Niagara River and Falls are on the west boundary. Cities. — On the Hudson. — New York, West Point, Poughkeepsie, Albany, Troy. On Lake Champlain. — Plattsburg and Rouse's Point. Westward from the Hudson. — Saratoga, Schenectady, Utica, Syracuse. On the St. Lawrence. — Ogdensburg. On Lake Ontario. — Sackett's Harbor, Oswego. On the Gen- esee River. — Rochester. On Lake Erie. — Buffalo, Dunkirk. Resources. — Commerce, manufactures, farming, mining. PENNSYLVANIA. Boundaries. — North ? West? South? Easfby? Separating it from ? Mountains. — Several ridges of the AUeghanies. Rivers- — The Alleghany from New York, and the Alonongahela from Penn- sylvania, unite to form the Ohio. The Delaware forms the east boundary, flow- ing into D e Bay. The Susquehanna rises ? Flows into ? The Juniata flows among the mountains into ? Cities. — Pliiladelpliia on? Harrisburg on ? Reading on? Pittsburg on? Resources. — Coul, iron, petroleum, manufaptures. \ , /- '■■ NE-W JERS'^Y. Boundaries. — Northeast by ? West by? Separating it from ? Southwest roast on ? East coast on ? Mountains. — Ridges in the north. Rivers. — The D e flowing into? The? c flowing into? The R n (lowing into? Cities. — Trenton on ? Newark on ? Patcrson on ? Jersey City on ? Resources. — Iron, porcelain-clay, fruits, manufactures. DELAWARE. Boundaries. — North ? West ? South ? East, a coast line on ? Mountains and rivers. — No mountains, and few streams. Cities. — Dover, the capital, on ? Wilmington on ? Resources. — Wheat and fruits. MARYLAND. Boundaries. — North? "West-^ South and southwest by? Separating it from ? East, a boundary line on ? And short coast line on ? Mountains. — AUeghanies and Blue Ridge in the west. Rivers. — The Potomac rises in the AUeghanies, forms the southwest boun- dary, and flows into Chesapeake Bay. The lower course of the Susquehanna is tlirough the northeast part into ? Cities. -^ Baltimore on Patapsco River, near the head of C e Bay. An- napolis, the capital, on ? Cumberland on? Resources. — Tobacco, iron. DISTRICT OP COLUMBIA. Where, and what cities does it contain ? VIRGINIA AND WEST VIRGINIA. Boundaries. — South. — A long boundary line on North Carolina and Ten- nessee. NoitTH AND Northeast. — A short boundary line on Pennsylvania, and separated by the Potomac from Maryland. (The point of intersection of the straight boundary lines on Pennsylvania and Maryland is directly north of the middle point of the south boundary line.) Northwest. — By the Ohio River, separating it from Ohio. (West Virginia extends north to the intersection of the Ohio River and the west boundary of Pennsylvania.) West. — By Kentucky, separated from it by ? East. ^ — -A coast line on the Atlantic and Chesapeake Bay. Mountains. — The Blue Ridge and AUeghanies run, in parallel ridges, through the State, forming the Shenandoah Valley. Rivers. — The Potomac, Ohio, and Big Sandy are boundary lines. The Shen- andoah flows northeast between two mountain chains into the Potomac at Har- per's Ferry. The James, York, and Rappahannock flow southeast into the Atlantic, and the Kanawha flows through West Virginia into the Ohio. Cities. — Richmond, the capital of Virginia, is on ? Norfolk, the chief port, is on? Yorktown, of Revolutionary fame, is on ? Frederick'sburg is on ? Wheel- ing is on ? Charleston, the capital of West Virginia, is on ? ^^ .0 Resources. — Tobacco, wheat, mineral waters. * •^ considerable population. The forests have mostly disappeared, though some pines and palmettoec still remain on Port Royal and other large islands. Charleston, the chief Atlantic port of the Southern States, is built on a point of land formed by the junction of the Ashley and Cooper Kivers. Many of the streets are bordered with shade-trees, and the well-built houses are ornamented with balconies or verandas, and surrounded by gardens. Many of the residents are owners of cotton or rice plantations in the neighborhood, where they spend a part of the year. Charleston harbor has many fortifications, and Fort Sum- ter, now partially in ruins, is memorable as the first point of attack in the war of Secession. Columbia, in the interior, is the capital of the State. Beaufort is on Port Royal Island. Camden is a place of historic interest, where two battles were fought during the Revolutionary War. GEORGIA. In Georgia we have a continuation of the Carolina surface : the same marshy coast, with magnolias and palmettoes rising from the low, tropical islands, and cypresses and live-oaks hung with moss ; the sterile pine barrens ; and the hill-country of the interior, where the Cherokee rose, with its evergreen foliage and white flowers, abounds. But there is a shorter line of sea-coast ; less marsh- land, except the great Okefinokee Swamp, extending partly into Florida ; and a greater extent of healthy upland country. The northern part of the State, where some of the ranges of the Appalachian system have their termination, is wild and picturesque. Here, and in the neighboring region of the Cumberland Mountains, the deep chasms, the precipitous ledges of rock, the torrents and ravines, form a wilder combination than is found among the Northern mountain ridges. The productions are the same as in Carolina, — cotton and rice in the lowlands, and grain in the upper valleys. The Savannah^ one of the largest Southern rivers, separates Georgia from South Carolina ; and near its mouth stands the small, but beautiful city of Savannah, with shaded streets, open squares, and detached houses surrounded with a profusion of vines, flowers, and shrubbery. It is connected by railroads with Charleston on one side, and the Gulf of Mexico on the other, and is increasing in trade and popu- lation. Questions. — Wliat is said of the islands along the coast ? What is the name of the largest ? Describe Charleston. What is the capital ? What other towns are mentioned ? What is said of Georgia ? Of the mountain region ? Of the produc- tions ? Of the Savannah River ? Describe the city of Savannah. 66 OUR WORLD. Atlanta, a thriving city at a railroad junction, toward the north- ern part of the State, is now the capital. Augusta is an important place at the head of navigation on the Savannah. Macon, on the Ocmulgee, and Columbus, on the Chattahoochee Eiver, are also im- portant towns. FLORIDA. The warm, equable climate of Florida, with its orange groves, pal- raettoes, and sugar-cane, indicates the border of the torrid zone, and here scarcely a trace is left of the life and scenery of the northern portion of the Atlantic slope. Large tracts are dry and sandy, as in the pine barrens, but much of the country is swamp-land. The warm climate, heavy dews, and abundant moisture compensate for the poverty of the soil, and the planter often obtains good crops of cot- ton and rice, whicli, with the figs and oranges, large ferns, thickets of prickly plants, brilliant blossoms, and the lofty swamp forests, form a decidedly tropical vegetation. But in spite of its beauty and richness, an eye accustomed to grass lawns and green pastures is often wearied by the bare sand. Everglades. — Beside the ordinary coast marshes, the whole southern portion of the State is occupied by immense swamps, over- grown with cypress and water-oaks, interspersed with stagnant pools of water, and known as the " Everglades." These vast swamp-lands, inhabited by alligators and water-fowl, are often quite impassable after the rains, and can only be explored in a boat or canoe which can be pushed through the canes beneath the gloomy draperies of Spanish moss that hang from the trees. The peninsula of Florida is a coral formation attached to the main- land, and covered in the course of ages with soil and vegetation. The long coast line on gulf and ocean is indented with numerous lagoons, skirted by reefs and islands, and is almost inaccessible. The southern point is surrounded by a chain of islands known as the " Florida Keys," ending in a cluster of coral rocks, called the Tor- tugas. South of the Keys there is a navigable channel, and beyond is the long coral reef known to sailors as the " Florida Reef." Key West, five or six miles long and two wide, is the principal island, and important as a harbor and naval station, but is otherwise only a dreary mass of coral rock. St. Augustine, the oldest city in the United States, stands quaint and venerable within sound of the Atlantic surf, a relic of the past, disturbed by no noisy trade. The narrow streets, the overhanging balconies, the convent, and the old fort, with drawbridge and moat, built over two hundred years ago, might well belong to some old European city. Very little business of any kind is carried on, and the place is now known chiefly as a resort for invalids who go to spend the winters in that delightful climate. Sandy roads lead through the remains of the old city gates into the surrounding country, bordered at first by live and water oaks twined with yellow jessamine, and then passing through a level expanse of low palmettoes. Some miles beyond, picturesque groves of magnolia and oak begin to appear, with the usual draperies of Spanish moss, and an undergrowth of shrubs, creepers, and ferns. The St. John's River, flowing northward from a swamp three hun- dred miles south of St. Augustine, is a sluggish but clear stream, more like a lagoon than a river, with a tropical vegetation along its banks. Jacksonville, on the St. John's River, with a larger population than St. Augustine, owes its growth to the large number of visitors from Northern cities, and to its export of pine lumber. There are many steam saw-mills in its vicinity. Tallahassee, the capital, is on a railroad which crosses the north- ern part of the State. Pensacola and Apalachicola are the chief ports on the Gulf, and these, with some other small stations, carry on the coasting trade. Much of the cotton is exported through Mobile. SUMMARY. The Atlantic Slope extends from Maine to Florida, ranging from fifty to two hundred miles in breadth. A low ledge divides the coast belt from the western hill-country which rises gradually to the Appalachian Mountains. The hill-country is varied throughout with woods, valleys, water- falls, and cultivated fields of grain. COMPARATIVE FEATURES. NOETH SECTION. Commercial, manufacturing, and popu- lous. Cities numerous and large. Farms small, chiefly grain and grazing lands. Coast often rocky ; harbors numerous. Small, sedgy marshes and clear ponds. •Grass lawns and meadows. Lumber forests inland . Trees, — elms, alders, willows, oaks, ma- ples, birches, spruces, firs, hemlocks, etc. Islands rocky and hilly. Rivers clear and rapid. SOUTH SECTION. Agricultural, and less tlikkly settled. Cities fewer and comparatively small. Plantations large, producing tobacco, cotton, and rice. Coast low, obstructed by sand bars ; har- bors few. Immense swamps overgrown with cy- press-trees and live and water oaks. Sandy pine-barrens. Lumber forests in the coast .swamps. Trees, — pines, live-oaks, and cypresses draped with gray moss, also sweet-gum trees, magnolias, palmettoes, etc. Islands low, flat, and sandy. Rivers muddy and sluggish. THE BASIN OF THE MISSISSIPPI. Tms vast basin, lying between the mountain systems of the East and West, includes the two great agricultural regions of our coun- try, — the wheat or grain region of the North, and the cotton region of the South. The middle portion of this great plain consists of a varied surface, more or less wooded and hilly, which flattens northward into the broad grass prairies, and southward into the low coast lands of the gulf. Questions. — What is the capital ? What other towns are mentioned ? What is said of the climate and appearance of Florida ? Of the productions ? What are the Everglades ? What is said of the formation of Florida ? Of the coast ? What are The whole basin is drained by the innumerable streams which rise along the slopes of the Appalachian and Rocky Mountains, and, unit- ing one with another, swell the Missouri, Arkansas, Ohio, and finally join the Mississippi. With this great volume of water the Missis- sippi carries down an immense quantity of mud and sand, which is continually deposited at its mouth ; and a large delta is thus formed, the Keys? The Tortugas ? Where is the Florida Reef ? Which is the largest island ? Describe St. Augustine. The surrounding country. St. John's River. What is said of other towns ? Wliat is included in the Mississi])pi Basin ? What is said of the middle portion ? Of the rivers and drainage ? How is the delta formed ? THE UNITED STATES. 67 extending far into the gulf, and covering a space of from ninety to one hundred and fifty miles wide. The Mississippi, rises in the beautiful lake and forest region of Minnesota, where its clear stream, studded with islands, falls in cascades over rocky ledges, and is bordered by high bluffs affording a succession of picturesque views ; but the precipitous banks entirely disappear before the river is joined by the Ohio. The stream becomes thick and muddy, as it continues its course through the alluvial plain of the south, flowing between low, wooded banks, that rise only a few feet above the water, and finally through the cane-brakes and cypress- swamps of Mississippi and Louisiana. When the river is high it overflows all this low country, and great seas spread out on both sides of the stream. Along the lower course of the river, embank- ments are raised for protection, yet the spring freshets often cause great destruction, sweeping away fences and houses, and driving boats out of the main channel into the stamps. By successive over- flows and subsidences, and the wearing of the soil, new outlets are formed, which are often navigable, and are known as "bayous." As the banks of the river are undermined, trees are swept down by the floods and left in the main channel, with their roots fixed in the Vlc-.v on fii. M mud, their tops partially or wholly under water. These " snags," or "sawyers" as they are called when they are swayed by the current, render the navigation of the Mississippi dangerous, espc cially at night. Obstructions are also caused by accumulations of drift, and large sums are expended in removing both drift and snags. The Mississippi is navigable to St. Anthony's Falls in Minne- sota; and, through the Ohio, communication is opened from New Orleans to Pittsburg, a distance of over two thousand miles. West- ward the Missouri is navigable to the Rocky Mountain region. Thus the whole plain is open to trade and an easy exchange of produce. This central plain may also be considered in two sections, differing almost as much as those of the Atlantic slope, though the leading oc- cupation is the same in both. Questions. — Describe the upper course of the Missis.sippi. The course helow the Ohio. What is said of its overflows ? What are bayous ? What are snags ? What is said of the extent of navigation ? How may this central plain be divided ? THE SOUTHERN SECTION. This section, including the Gulf States, together with Arkansas and Tennessee, is mainly a region of swamps, frequent inundations, rich alluvial plains, immense plantations, and small towns or cities sparsely scattered over the country. Of late years railroads have been greatly multiplied, and in the more healthy localities, and in the trading-centres, thriving towns are growing up. The winters are mild, never bringing more than a thin coating of ice, and the summers are long and hot, and often accompanied by enervating fevers. The fertile soil readily yields abundant crops, and cotton is shipped from the Southern ports to supply thousands of looms and spindles in America and Europe. Since the late war of Secession the white population has increased in these States, and manufac- tures, which had before been very limited, are becoming more im- portant ; but these broad, rich plains are so admirably fitte^for cul- tivation that agriculture will always be the chief occupation of the people. Cotton is the great staple of the country, but tobacco, sweet potatoes, some grain, and, in the extreme South, rice and sugar-cane are produced, and to some extent oranges and figs. In this last region alligators and paroquets are still further indications of a tropical climate. There are abundant facilities for inland trade, with rivers and railroads crossing the level country in various directions. ALABAMA, MISSISSIPPI, AND LOUISIANA. These States, like those of the South Atlantic slope, have a low marshy coast, obstructed by sand-bars and islands. Along the shore stretches a broad belt of cypress-swamps and cane-brakes traversed by sluggish streams, and gradually changing into a tract of sandy barrens scantily covered with straggling pines. Still farther north spread the broad, rich plains which constitute the wealth of the Southern States, varied only by occasional undulations, and in some parts without trees, except where strips of forest border the rivers. Cotton-Picking. Questions. — What does the southern section include ? What is the character of the country ? What is said of the climate and condition of this section ? What arc the productions ? The facilities for trade ! What is said of the Gulf Stat«s ? De- scribe the coast and country. 68 OUR WORLD. The northern counties are generally well wooded with oak, hickory, walnut, and sycamore. Sometimes the plains arc covered with a natural growth of coarse, tufted grass, but oftener the eye rests on an interminable expanse of cotton-fields, fresh and green in early spring, but later covered with pale yellow flowers, and in autumn lirowii and dry, and tliickly spotted with the large white cotton-balls bursting from the ripe pods. Then the fields are alive with cotton- pickers, chietly cohirod men and women, bending over the long rows of plants, bearing tall baskets on their heads, or driving the lumber- ing i)X-cart down the lane. Alabama. — The northern part of this State is crossed by the last ridges of the Appalachian range, and here the country is wild and picturesque, containing forests, hills, coal-beds, sulphur springs, and Indian mounds associated with legends of the old tribes. The lower portion of the State is destitute of good water, which is only ob- tained ^ artesian wells, in some of which the water rises from a depth of a thousand feet. Montgomery, the capital, on one of the principal railroads, has grown rapidly within the last few years, and is now the largest city in the State. Mobile, next in importance to New Orleans as a cotton-port, is situated on a flat, sandy plain near the gulf, extending about a mile along the river, and surrounded by handsome suburban residences, villas, and cottages. The occupation of the people generally has some connection with the growing, pressing, storing, buying, sell- ing, or shipping of cotton ; but there are some foundries and ship- yards. Huntsville is a pretty town in the northern part of the State. Sel- ma, near the middle of the State, is an important railroad centre. Mississippi. — This State consists almost entirely of prairie lands, and produces more cotton than any other State of the Union. 'Along the Mississippi River there is a tract of low hills or mounds, and in the vicinity of Vicksburg and Natchez are the only "blufis," or steep banks, found in its lower course. On the gulf shore there are no harbors, and few ports on the long river-course. Natchez, the principal river-port and trading-centre, is situated on the " Blufls," and Vicksburg, memorable for a siege during the late war, is farther up the river. Jackson, the capital, is a small city on the Pearl River. Louisiana. — Here the cane-brakes and swamps reach their great- est extent, and the whole southern part of the State is one vast region of lakes and marshes, crossed only in boats. The oozy land rarely forms a firm surface, and its forests and canes rise, as it were, from the midst of the waters. Numerous lakes, or pools, scarcely distinguishable from the swamp waters, serve as haunts for alligators and other reptiles, and water- fowl ; and the region is traversed by streams and " bayous." Far up the Mississippi the swamp forests of cypress and water-oaks, darkened with long festoons of gray moss, border the river and its branches, giving to the scenery the beauty of luxuriant growth, dreamy solitudes, and weird shadows. All this region is subject to inundations, and the levees or embankments raised to pi-otect the city of New Orleans from the overflow of the river extend north- ward to Baton Rouge. Between the marshes of the Sabine and Mississippi Rivers lie extensive prairies, and over the grass meadows of Opelousas roam the first of those large herds of cattle that will QueationB. — Describe the cotton plantations. What i.s said of the surface of Alabama? Of Montgomery ? Of Mobile ? Of other towns ? What is said of Missis- sippi ? Of the river blufls ? What are the principal towns ? What is said of Lou- isiana ? Of the lake and marsk region 1 Where are the prairies ? be found so conspicuous in Texan life. North of the Red River the country is more wooded. Cotton is largely cultivated, but sugar-cane is the special produc- tion of Louisiana, and the great sugar-houses take the place of the cotton-presses of the Mississippi plantations. On a sudden bend of the Mis- sissippi, about a hundred miles from its mouth, stands New Or- leans, the one great city of the South, and the greatest cotton- port of the world. The surround- ing country is almost as flat as the delta itself, and a belt of .swamp-land, covered by cypress and dense underbrush, extends north of the city toward a slight swell along the shores of Lake Pontchartrain, which has been ap- propriated for the principal ceme- teries. Louisiana was first settled by the French, and the subtropi- cal climate, and the French char- acter which New Orleans still re- tains, make it unlike any other city of the Union. Some quar- ters are occupied entirely by the French, and there are French the- atres, hotels, and newspapers. Many houses are still standing that were built in the old French or Spanish style, stuccoed on the outside in white or yellow, and ABaTon. with a carnagc-way leading from the street to an inner court-yard. The old streets are narrow, like those of European cities, and some of the wealthy, populous fau- bourgs are quite foreign in appearance. Canal Carondelet pene- trates to the heart of the city, connecting with Bayou St. John, and terminating in a basin for the accommodation of vessels. Another canal, running westward, takes most of the coast trade, and is filled with lumber-boats ; but the Mississippi is the great thoroughfare of commerce. Along the river in front of the city extends the "levee," or embankment, in a succession of wharves and piers several miles long, lined with vessels from all parts of the world ; and during the busy season it is the scene of a singular ac- tivity. Commodities of all countries are brought to the New Orleans . market, and the only drawback to trade is the unhealthy climate, with its fatal yellow-fever, that banishes half the population from the city during the summer months, destroys many who remain, and causes an almost entire cessation of business in the deserted streets. New Orleans exports an immense quantity of cotton to Europe, and sends sugar and molasses to the inland States by means of steam- boat navigation. It is now the capital of the State. Baton Rouge, the former capital, and one of the old French settle- ments on the Mississippi, is in the midst of the cotton and sugar dis- Questions. — Where are the Ojielousas meadows ? What are the productions ? Describe New Orleans. What is said of its trade 1 What is said of Baton Rouge ! THE UNITED STATES. 69 trict ; but the difficult navigation of the river here has prevented its growth. ARKANSAS. A mild climate, large plantations, and fine crops of cotton entitle Arkansas to a place among the cotton States ; and, though it is shut off from the coast marshes, there are along the Mississippi River swamp-forests, cane-brakes, and shallow lakes, as in Louisiana. The country generally, however, is far more varied and striking than in the level prairie region farther south. Hills and forests alternate, and in the western part of the State is the wild mountain-region of the Ozark Mountains. All this western country abounds with coal, iron, lead, zinc, and gypsum, though mines are as yet little worked. The forests afford lumber, the fertile soil produces corn, cotton, etc., and pasture lands supply wool and live stock. Few States are crossed by so many large, navigable rivers. The Arkansas has a course of fourteen hundred miles within the limits of the State ; the White and Washita also flow through the State. The Red River crosses the southwest corner, and the Mississippi forms a boundary of between three hundred and four hundred miles. The towns are small and comparatively few. Little Rock, the capital, is situated on Arkansas River. The trade of Arkansas consists chiefly in the transportation of cot- ton, hides, and lumber down the river. MISSOURI. The last of the swamps of the Mississippi end with the "Great Swamp " along the St. Francis Valley, which extends from Arkan- sas into Missouri, more than a hundred miles, covered with a dense growth, full of lakes or lagoons, and subject to inundation.- Beyond this the banks of the river rise higher, sometimes in a solid mass of limestone, three hundred feet high. North of the Missouri River appear the fertile rolling prairies of the north section, destitute of trees, but separated by broad belts of forest along the streams. The western and least populous portioji of the State is rugged and broken with precipitous cliffs and the high peaks of the Ozark Mountains. Hemp and flax are cultivated in place of cotton, and fine crops of wheat are raised in the north. There is some coal, and Missouri is important as an iron State. A peak, called Iron Mountain, and other lesser summits are remarkable masses of magnetic iron ore. Missouri has great advantages for future growth in its central po- sition, navigable rivers, fertile soil, and mineral wealth. St. Louis, on the Mississippi, twenty miles below its junction with the Missouri, was founded by the French as a depot for furs, but has become a large and important city, and one of the gre^ trad- ing-centres of the West, connected with San Francisco by a branch of the Pacific Railroad. Several streets parallel with the river are devoted to business, and beyond these the city presents a vast ex- tent of residences, churches, and public institutions, reaching back to the open prairie. It has the air of a long-established Eastern city, with many evidences of wealth and refinement. The descendants of the original settlers still retain the French language and customs, and give to the place somewhat the character of New Orleans. From Qaestions. — What is said of Arkansas ? In what does it resemble the Gulf States ? In what does it differ from them ? What is said of mountains ? Of livers ? Of towns ? What is said of the southeastern part of Missouri ? Of the northern part of the State ? Of the western part ? What are its productions and resources ? What is Iron Mountain ! What is said of St. Louis ? its central position in the Mississippi Valley St. Louis probably com- mands as great a variety and profusion of supplies as any market in the world. Hannibal and St. Joseph, one in the east, the other in the west, aro flourishing places. TENNESSEE AND KENTUCKY. We have now reached the transition region between the cotton Slates of the South and the wheat States of the North. The last of the swamp-lands disappear with the cane-brakes of West Ten- nessee and the Missouri marshes on the opposite side of the river. The pine barrens are replaced by " cedar knobs," or groves of tall cedars covering the rocky hills, and springing from the thin soil of the limestone ledges. The great masses of gray stone, the dark foliage, and the scraggy dead branches of the older trees produce a dreary effect ; but these cedar tracts are very valuable for timber. The wood b«iiig fragrant, prettily striped with red and white, and easily split like the pine, is used not only for posts, rails, beams, and boards, but also for making tubs, pails, chests, and other household articles. In these States we find neither the plains of Mississippi nor the treeless prairies of Illinois ; but a more equal distribution of tim- ber, and a surface everywhere varied with hills, valleys, and forests. The large, fertile farms consist of woodlands, fields, and pastures, and no single crop is exclusively cultivated. Cotton is grown on many of the Tennessee farms, but much less extensively than in the true cotton States, and its cultivation ceases altogether in Kentucky, where flax is substituted in some degree. Wheat, rye, and tobacco are raised, but the distinguishing production is Indian corn, which is used for bread far more than wheat in many of the Central and Southern States. A large part of the yearly crop is used in feeding cattle, horses, and hogs. Hams, pork, and lard are among the most important farming products, and throughout this part of the country a "smoke-house" for curing bacon is a necessary appendage of every farm, and scarcely any other meat is eaten. Many farmers are occupied in sheep-raising, and both States are noted for fine mules and horses. A striking feature of all this central country is the beauty and extent of the forests, usually without underbrush, and consisting of lofty hickory-trees, black walnuts, oaks* poplars, maples, and low-spreading beeches. Walnuts, hickory nuts, and chestnuts abound, and the ripe acorns and beechnuts fall from the trees in such quantities as to furnish food for hogs during some months of each year. The eastern portion of both States is crossed by the Cumberland Mountains, and is one of the wildest parts of the Appalachian range, with its narrow valleys, gloomy caverns, overhanging ledges, and deep chasms, that give the appearance of a greater elevation than the chain actually attains here. There are fine coal-beds throughout this region, and iron is also abundant. Mineral springs high among the mountains are frequented during the summer as much for the magnificent scenery as for the healthful waters. The limestone of these States is full of caverns, among which is the famous Mammoth Cave of Kentucky, one of the greatest natural Questions. — What other thriving towns ? What place do Tennessee and Ken- tucky occupy in the great central plain ? What take the place of the Southern pine- barrens ? Of what value is the cedar-wood ? Describe the surface of the country. What is said of cotton ? What are the productions ? What is said of Indian-corn ? Of hogs and stock ? Of forests ? Describe the eastern part of the country. What is the common stone of this region 1 What is usually found in limestone regions ! De- scribe the Mammoth Cave. 70 OUR WORLD. OUR WORLD. THE NORTHERN SECTION. This section is the great prairie region of the Mississippi basin, including Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, and Dakota. It contains all the condi- tions of a prosperous agricultural country, — a deep, rich soil, abundant grass pastures, a level surface, admirably adapted for cultivation and easy transportation, and a healthful climate. Timber and building stone are not wanting, though confined to certain localities, and these States arc rich in coal, iron, and other metals. The iron of Missouri, the lead of Wisconsin and Illinois, and the copper of thcLake Superior region have become known far and wide. ^B Before th^jBlfores of the Pacific were settled, this now central sec- tion was knowiRs the far west, thinly peopled, and destitute of the comforts and social refinements of the older States. But there is nothing more striking in the history of our country than the rapid growth of these prairie States. The announcement of their wonder- ful fertility brought rapid emigr|4ion both from the Old World and from the Eastern States. Their imKcd population has, from the first, been remarkable for energy, intelligence, and interest in all pub- lic enterprises. Cities grew up rapidly, and are already adorned with stately edifices, fi"ne churches, parks, and avenues. Large sums are expended for schools and colleges, and the latest improvements in methods of education are eagerly adopted. The natural features of the country generally are: 1. The vast treeless prairies, level or slightly undulating, and covered with wav- ing grass brightened in spring by a profusion of flowers. 2. Sterile tracts here and there, thinly covered with oaks, and known through- out this region as " oak-openings," which take the place of the "cedar-knobs" or "pine-barrens" farther south. 3. Steep, rugged blufis rising along the banks of the larger rivers, sometimes reaching a height of three or four hundred feet. Parts of each State are covered with forests of hickory, walnut, sycamore, buckeye, etc. The extreme northern part of the section is broken and picturesque, afibrding a strong contrast to the prairie region. OHIO. Ohio, with its level surface, fertile soil, and advantages of railroad, lake, and river, transportation, is one of the most wealthy and populous States in the Union. Nearly the whole country is either under cultivation or covered with forests, and from the river boun- dary on the south to the lake shore on the north, the railroads pass through a succession of fields, pastures, and woodlands. Wheat, corn, and tobacco arc largely produced, also wool, pork, live-stock, and all other products of a fine farming district. The first attempt to make wine in our country was in Ohio. The vineyards about Cincinnati produce the well-known Catawba wine, which resembles the light wines of Germany, and the cultivation of the grape has been introduced into other Western States. The country generally is too flat to admit of much variety of scenery, but the hilly tracts along the Ohio and the high shores of the lake afford some picturesque sites. On one of the blufls of Lake Erie stands Cleveland, the centre of the lake trade, and one of the Questions. — What is said of the northern section of the Mississippi basin ? Of the advantages of the country ? Of its growth ? Describe the natural features. What is said of the extreme northern part ? What is said of Ohio ? Of its agriculture and productions ? What of wine-making ? What are the other resources beside farming ? What is said of the surface and scenery ? handsomest cities in the country, with wide, clean streets, shade- trees, open squares, and a broad expanse of lake studded with white sails in the summer, and in midwinter a solitude of ice. Cincinnati, the chief city of the State and one of tlie large cities of the Union, is situated on the Ohio River, and collects grain, iron, coal, salt, lumber, and other produce from the surrounding country ; distributing in return flour, hardware, clothing, furniture, and other manufactures. The Catawba wine is a special export, but Cincin- nati is even more famed for its great pork-packing establishments. Immense numbers of hogs are supplied annually from the neighbor- ing States,' and smoked hams, salted pork, lard, soap, and candles are sent to dist.«nt markets. The bristles are manufactured into brushes, and Gvon the bones are used. The principal business streets are on the plain along the river, while handsome residences rise on the surrounding hills. In beauty of suburbs Cincinnati is surpassed by no inland city. On the Ken- tucky shore opposite stands the flourishing city of Covington. Columbus, the capital of the State, has a population of only twenty- five or thirty thousand, but contains a number of handsome public buildings. Dayton, on the Miami River, has fine water-power for manufactur- ing purposes, and important railroad connections. INDIANA AND ILLINOIS. Indiana contains much fine timber-land, but its western part re- sembles the State of Illinois, where the country consists for the most part of immense prairies, either cultivated or grass land, with scarce- ly a tree to be seen for miles, or a rock to turn the edge of a plough. There are, however, some tracts of forest, especially along the streams, and a light-colored building stone is largely quarried in cer- tain localities. Along the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers the banks rise in steep, rugged blufls, singularly wild and picturesque as con- trasted with the level prairies, and many of them connected with romantic Indian legends. There arc large beds of coal, the more valuable from their position near the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers ; and the lead mines of Illinois are of great importance With the exception of a few oak-openings, the whole country is fit for cultivation, and for several years Illinois has produced more wheat than any other State in the Union. Indianapolis, the capital of Indiana, is one of the greatest railroad centres in the country, and the terminus of some important lines. The other thriving towns are usually grain and flour depots. Chicago, in the northeastern part of Illinois, where the Chicago River furnishes a good harbor on stormy Lake Michigan, is the great centre of trade between the East and the West. It has grown with wonderful rapidity into a large city, noted for its wealth, the beauty of its public buildings, the magnitude of its commercial interests connected with all parts of the country, and its business activitj'. Notwithstanding the terrible conflagration of 1871 which devastated the business part of the city, and left thousands of the inhabitants without homes or occupation, the energy of the people and the natural advantages of position will doubtless soon restore it to its former importance. Questions. — Describe Cleveland. Where is Cincinnati ? What is said of its importance, manufactures, and exports ? For what is the city particularly noted ? What is said of Columbus ? Of Dayton ? AVliat is said of the surface of Indiana and Illinois ? Of the bluffs ? Of coal-beds ? Of lead ? Of the soil ? Describe Indianap- olis. What is said of Chicago ? THE UNITED STATES. •73 The city extends for several miles along the lake shore and reaches back to the yet unoccupied prairie. Its level site is regularly laid out in broad avenues, which present a pleasing variety of street architecture. The Cottonwood trees, which seem to have grown as rapidly as the city itself, already furnish abundant shade, while the light cream-colored stone, quarried a few miles from the city, gives to the streets a cheerful aspect. This stone is admirably adapted for building purposes, being soft to the chisel, but hardening by ex- posure to the air. A system of parks and boulevards has been projected, which, when completed, will include a shaded drive of about twenty miles round the city, and add greatly- to its beauty. Lincoln Park, already laid out, commands a fine view of the lake, and exhibits the skill of the landscape-gardener in obtaining a pleasing diversity of surface upon the level prairie land. Chicago is supplied with good water by means of a tunnel two miles long, constructed under the lake ; and two tunnels have been made under the river which divides the city, having double road- ways and passages for pedestrians, so that this busy people need wait no longer for their draw-bridges to be closed ; but can walk or ride beneath the river's bed to the opposite part of the city. About four miles from the city ar^, the famous Stock Yards, to which immense herds of cattle are brou^t by railroad and provided for in a hundred acres of pens. Near bVis the Cattle Exchange, a spacious edifice, containing a bank, telegraph office, etc., where the business of buying and selling is transacted. Galena was formerly the centre of the lead-mining interests, but has somewliat declined as other mines have been worked. Spring- lield, in the centre of the State, is the capital. Peoria is beautifully situated upon the Illinois River, where it expands into a broad, deep lake. The fine rolling prairie back of the town furnishes its supplies and much of its business. Quincy and Alton are on the Mississippi, and have also important railroad connections. MICHIGAN. Michigan consists of two peninsulas, one lying between Lakes Huron and Michigan, the other between Lakes Michigan and Su- perior. At one point they are separated only by Mackinaw Strait. South Michigan is a continuation of the surface of Indiana and Ohio, with level prairies, scattered oak-openings, shore bluffs, many streams and ponds, belts of forest, and a rich soil producing abun- dant crops of grain. With its great extenc of lake shore and its raij- roads it has uncommon commercial facilities for an inland State. Detroit, on Detroit River, connecting Lake St. Clair with Lake Erie, is the chief city and the avenue of the lake trade. Lansing, in the interior, is the capital of the State. Ann Arbor, not far from Detroit, is one of the growing Western towns, and is the seat of Michigan University, which has over a thousand students, and is open to both men and women. North Michigan. — Singularly striking is the contrast between tlic southern peninsula, fair, fertile, level, with cultivated fields and thriving towns, and North Michigan, wild, rugged, and mountainous, in many parts bleak and sterile, and almost uninhabited The rocky shores of Lake Superior are indented by deep bays and surrounded by high cliffs ; and west from St. Mary's Falls the abrupt sandstone bluffs, as seen from the lake, assume fantastic forms of Questions. — What is said of other towns ? Where and what is Michigan ? De- scribe South Michigan. What is said of Detroit ? I^nsing ? Ann Arbor ? Describe the northern peninsula. In what points do the two peninsulas differ f castles, temples, pillars, etc., and are known as the "Pictured Rocks." In the winter season terrible storms prevail, and the waves of this immense lake, charged with ice, beat upon the rocky shore with all the power of ocean waves. Nowhere else on inland waters is the scenery so bold and grand. If the southern peninsula gathers wealth from its broad grain-fields and timber-lands, the bleak, rugged north country contains inex- haustible mineral treasures. Copper, silver, iron, and salt are found. Copper, especially, exists in such quantities and such purity that this is now regarded as the great copper region of the continent. ]^ WISCONSIN AND MINNESOTA. Through both of these States the characteristic features of the section still continue, — rolling prairies, fine soil, abundant grain crops, belts of timber, and steep bluffs along the rivers and lake shores. But they also include the beautiful and picturesque region of the Upper Mississippi, with its hills and groves, its streams, springs, lakes, and shallows overgrown with wild rice, and its clear waters falling in cascades and rapids, or running through narrow, rocky gorges. These gorges, whose perpendicular walls of rock sometimes rise a hundred feet, as in Wisconsin River, are known throughout all the Western country as " dalles," those of the Pacific region being on a still larger scale. The largest rivers are the Wisconsin, Chippewa, St. Croix, and Minnesota, all flowing into the Mississippi, which rises near the northern boundary of Minnesota and flows slightly southeast, form- ing part of the boundary of the two States. The lead region of Wisconsin is no less valuable than that of Illinois ; and coal and iron are found more or less in all these States. The northern part of the State, almost entirely unsettled, furnishes vast quantities of lumber, but towns are fast growing up in the south. Milwaukee, a place of about sixty thousand inhabitants, is situ- ated on Lake Michigan, most of the residences being on the high bluff over- looking the lake. It is a great grain depot, con- t ai n i n g some of the largest flour - mills in the coun- try. Beef, pork, and butter are also largely exported. Madison is the capital of Wisconsin. St. Paul, the chief city and capital of Min- nesota, is beautifully situated just below the Falls of St. Anthony, surrounded by bluffs, caverns, and waterfalls. The Falls of Minnehaha Brown's Falls,, tire falls and rapids of the St •oix, and many lesser cascades, are in the neighborhood. Groix, and many 1 Questions. — What is the chief wealth of the southern? Of the northern? Where .are Wisconsin and Minnesota ? What are the general features of the coun- try ? What is the character of the northern part ? What are dalles ? 'What are the principal rivers ? Whitt is said of minerals ? Describe Milwaukee. What and where is the capital of Wisconsin ? Of Minnesota ? Describe St. Paul. 74 OUR WORLD. IOWA. In Iowa there is less cultivated land than in Illinois, and broad grtiss prairies become the distinguishing feature of the country, where one may travel for days over natural pastures broken only by hazel-bushes or thickets of wild-rose and honeysuckle, lu some parts groves and belts of forest alternate with grass land, but in North Iowa the scenery is bolder, — hills or mounds are topped with lofty oaks, streams pour over precipitous rocks, and the banks of the larger rivers rise in craggy bluffs. Iowa is rich in iron and lead, but the chief mineral wealth of the State is in its extensive coal-beds. All this prairie country abounds with quails, wild turkeys, and grouse or prairioJlens. The State is well watered by large rivers. Dubuque, the oldest city, is situated on the Mississippi, and is the chief market for grain and lumber, and the depot of the Iowa lead- mining region. Des Moines, the capital, \^.-tm a river of the same name. Daven- port, Muscatine, Burlington, and Keokuk are important places. In all these Central StateW^nanufactures are increasing, but the farming, mining, and grazing iW^rc^^ts greatly predominate. With Iowa closes the description of States bordering on the Mis- sissippi, it being the last of the .special wheat or grain States. Graz- ing or stock-raising is the leading occupation of the more western States and Territories. MAP STUDY. MISSOURI Boundaries. — North ? East ? Separated by ? South ? West ? Partly separateJ by ? t*J^\ ^^ Mountains. — Ozark Mountains in the southwest. Iff Rivers. — M i on the eastern boundary. M i flows through the State into ? Some of its branches are ? Cities. — St. Louis on ? Jefferson City,i|he capital, on ? Hannibal on ? Products. — Grain, lead, and iron. •KENTUCKY. Boundaries. — North V Separated by ? East ? South ? West ? Separated by? Cumberland Mountains in east. Rivers. — The O — o and M i are boundary lines. Other rivers are ? Cities. — Louisville on ? Paducah on V Frankfort on ? Covington on V Products. — Corn, live-stock, tobacco. OHIO. ^ Boundaries. — North by ? And shore line on ? East ? Southeast ? Separ-' ate.iby? AVest ? .' Rivers. — The O — o is a boundary river. The S o flows? The^I i flows? Other rivers are ? Flowing into? Cities. — Cin^iguati on ? Cleveland and Sandusky on ? Columbus on ? Dayton on ? . • I Products. — • Grain, wine, wool, pork. INDIANA. Boundaries. — North ? East? South? Separated by ? West? Rivers. — The W h flows into ? Its branches are ? Cities. — Indianapolis where ? New Albany on ? Fort Wayne where ? Chief product. — Wheat. -i — — Questions. — Where is Iowa ? What is said of this State ? Describe the prairies. The northern part. What metals are abundant ? What is said of coal ? What is said of Dubuque ? Of other towns ? What is said of occupations ? njiiNOis. Boundaries. — North ? East ? Partly separated by ? And with shore Une on ? South ? Separated by ? West ? Separated by ? Rivers. — The Illinois River flows into ? Other rivers are ? * Cities. — Chicago on ? Peoria, Galena, Springfield, Cairo, where ? Chief product. — Wheat. (Minerals. — Lead and coal.) MICHIGAN. Boundaries. — South Peninsula. — East ? South ? West ? Saginaw Bay where ? Grand Traverse Bay formed by ? Rivers. — Saginaw River flows into ? Grand River flows into ? Detroit on ? Lansing on ? Ann Arbor on ? Kalamazoo on ? North Peninsula. — Boundaries. — North? Southwest? Southeast? Separated from South Micliigan by V Manjiiette on ? Eagle Harbor on ? Sault St. Marie on ? Resources. — Copper, grain, lumber. "WISCONSIN. Boundaries. — North ? East shore on ? South V West ? Rivers. — Wisconsm and other streams flow southwest into ? Green Bay formed by ? ' Milwaukee, the chief, city, on ? Madison, the capital, where ? Fond du Lac where ? Products. — Wheat and other grains. MINNESOTA. Boundaries. — North ? East ? South ? West ? Rivers. — Mississippi River rises in ? Flows southeast and forms part of boundary between ? St. Croix flows into ? St. Paul, the chief city, on? Near mouth of? Minneapolis on ? Duluth where V Falls of St. Anthony, near the head of navigation, on ? Resources. — Grain, lumber, wool. lO-WA. Boundaries. — North ? East? South? West? Rivers. — Boundary rivers are M i and M i. The Des Moines flows into y Dubuque on? Davenport on? Council Bluffs on V The capital is ? Where? Resources. — Grain, coal, lead. SUMMARY. SOUTH SECTIOK. Extensive cypress-swamps and cane- brakes along the Gulf shore and up the Mississippi and its branches. Sterile tracts, or "pine barrens." Surface generally level, cotton and sugar cultivated. Forests of cypress, live-oak, and mag- nolia. Muddy, sluggish streams, forming sand- bars and deltas.^ Exports, — cotton, sugar, and molasses. THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. NORTH SECTION. Steep, rocky bluffs along the banks of the Mississippi and other large rivers. Sterile tracts, or "oak openings." Rolling prairies, either grass pastures or fields of wheat. ^Forests of hickory, black walnut, pop- lar, oak, chestnut, and sycamore. C!Icar rivers, rnniiing through gorges, or falling in cascades over ledges of rock. Exports, — wheat, flour, grain, beef, and pork. CENTRAL STATES. The Central States are broken and hilly, with "cedar knobs" and extensive forests. Indian corn and tobacco are cultivated. Hogs, mules, and horses are raised. Mountainous Regions. — The eastern parts of Tennessee and Kentucky are crossed by the Cumberland Moimtains, ridges of the Appalachian system. The western parts ^ of Arkansas and Missouri are cros.sed by the Ozark Mountains. The northern parts of Michigan and Minnesota are broken and hilly. Rivers. — The Yazoo, the Ohio with its branches, Tennessee and Cumberland, the Illinois, and the Wisconsin flow from the east into the Mississippi ; and the Red, Ar- kansas, Missouri, Des Moines, and Minnesota flow from the n est into the Mississippi. 'fm 5*1 oxV ^■■i?^'^' ■<"<*■* .(..*j s^ iiiyiyu ttawiw l|*ttmiTOraJ|^feHafe Oetawai' / Jf K/ , JI^T •Boli ASLkaii sa TSon Rockbridge 7 if / uY^/j/ /f J /-tv a '5**-f&pk™«nc ^aceti^ \ \ f T ( t 76 OUR WORLD. The Rio The Sabine, Pearl, Tombigbee, and Alabama flow into the Gulf of Mexico. Grande separates the United States from Mexico. Minerals. — Iron and lead in Missouri, Iowa, Wisconsin, and Illinois. Coal in Ohio, Illinois, Iowa, and most of the other States. Copper and iron in Michigan. Cities. — New Orleans, the chief Southern port. Mobile, next in importance to New Orleans as a cotton port. St. Louis, the chief city of Missouri, and a great trading-centre a little below the junction of the Missouri and Mississippi Rivers. Cin- cinnati, the chief city of Ohio on the Ohio River, and noted for wine and the pork trade. Louisville and Nashville, the chief cities of Kentucky and Tennessee, have a large river trade. Chicago, in Illinois, on Lake Michigan, is the great trading-centre of the Northern section, and connected by railroad with New York and San Francisco. Milwaukee, in Wisconsin, is a great provision-depot, exporting flour, beef, and pork. Indianapolis, in Indiana, is a great railroad-centre. St. Paul is at the head of naviga- tion, near St. Anthony's Falls, on the Mississippi. THE GRAZING DISTRICT. [Refer to Map of the United States.] A line running southward from the northwest corner of Minnesota to the southwest corner of Louisiana marks pretty nearly the west- ern limit of all the States bordering on the right bank of the Mis- sissippi ; but between this line and the Kocky Mountains there is still a broad belt of prairie lands. There is no marked difference be- tween the prairies, wheat-fields, and small towns of Iowa and Mis- souri, and those of Kansas and Nebraska ; yet in the latter Slates the cultivated lands bear a smaller proportion to the vast grass plains, the belts of woodland are more rare, the towns fewer and confined chiefly to the neighborhood of the newly constructed i-ail- roads, while a fine grazing region extends toward the mountains, still inhabited by herds of buffaloes and antelopes. *■ Kansas and Nebraska — It is not that Kansas and Nebraska are unfit for cultivation, but that these States are so admirably adapted for grazing that stock-raising is the easiest and most profit- able occupation. If we consider that Kansas alone is larger than all the six New England States, and that it contains few towns of more than five thousand inhabitants, we may have some idea of the extent and value of these natural pastures covered with a variety of nutri- tious grasses, some of which are so hardy and abundant as to last all the year ; drying into hay on the ground, and thus supplying food for immense herds of cattle through summer and winter. In a large part of the country where these hardy grasses prevail, the Nebraska stock-raiser, instead of carefully sheltering and feeding his cattle, as is done in New England, turns them into the prairies by the thousand to find food and shelter like the wild herds. As railroads multiply, immense numbers of live cattle are sent East from these plains, together with wheat and grain from the States bordering on the Mississippi. Thus this Western region becomes a vast provision-depot, supplying both bread and meat to the crowded population of the manufacturing cities of the East. Grouse and wild turkeys abound here, as in Iowa ; and another in- habitant of the prairies is a singular little animal called, from its yelp- ing cry, the " prairie dog," though it is much more like a woodchuck than a dog. These animals congregate in large communities, bur- rowing in the earth and throwing up mounds a foot or more high. It is amusing to see one of these prairie-dog towns with the crowd of comical little creatures squatting on their mounds, and soberly sui> veying the prospect, but hastily tumbling into their holes at tha Questions. — What States border on the west bank of the Missis-sippi River? What States or Territories lie immediately west of these ? What is the character of this belt of country between Missouri and the Rocky Mountains ? What is said of Kansas and Nebraska especially ? What of the size of Kansas ? Describe the grazing region and manner of stock-raising. What is said of the exports of these States! What is said of prairie dogs ? Prairie-dog Town. sound of approaching steps. Owls and rattlesnakes, a strange com- bination of visitors, are usually found in the burrows, probably for the purpose of devouring the young animals. In the western part of these States we find, instead of towns, forts or outposts, where United States soldiers are stationed for the pro- tection of settlers. Scattered throughout this Western country are " Eeservations," or districts set aside by the government for the remnants of Indian tribes. Some of these Indians live quietly in their villages, conforming somewhat to the modes of civilized life, and occasionally working as laborers for the farmers or graziers, but appearing among their own people in full Indian costume on all fes- tive occasions. Other more savage and vindictive tribes, often in- cited to deeds of violence by the frauds and abuses they suffer from unprincipled white men, give much trouble, murdering and plunder- ing settlers and travellers. Towns. — Leavenworth, on the Missouri River, is the largest town in Kansas. Topeka, the capital, is on the Kansas River. Lawrence is a leading town. Lincoln, the capital of Nebraska, and Nebraska City are in the eastern part of the State. Omaha, on the Missouri River, is the starting-place of the Pacific Railroad, and is growing rapidly. Dakota is still inhabited chiefly by Indians. The State is crossed from northwest to southeast by the Missouri River, which has many branches. The settlers are engaged in grazing, farming, and the fur trade, which, on the borders of Canada, where the forests are more extensive, is quite a profitable occupation. Yankton, the capital, is on the Missouri, at the mouth of the Dakota River. The Indian Territory, south of Kansas, is under the government of the United States, but inhabited by the descendants of the Creeks, Seminoles, ChoctaWs, and other Indian tribes, who were removed Questions. — What is said of forts and Indians ? What and where are the chief towns of Kansas ? Of Nebraska ? What is said of Dakota ? Of the occupations of the people ? Where and what is the Indian Territory ? THE UNITED STATES. 77 from the more Eastern States, and have become more or less civilized, cultivate the soil, manufacture a little, and have schools, churches, etc. The capital and chief town is Tahlequah. Texas, the largest State in the Union, occupying the immense tract between Louisiana and the Rio Grande, resembles Mexico in climate and productions more than any other part of the United States. It was first settled by Spaniards and belonged to Mexico ; but quite a large American population emigrated there, and, dissatisfied with the Mexican rule, desired admission into the United States. After re- peated difficulties, which resulted in a war between Mexico and our country, the annexation of the new State was eflected. The character of a country is, however, less easily changed than its government, and there remain the almost tropical climate of Texas, with seasons of drought and rain, the peculiar, thorny vegetation characteristic of Mexico, the Mexican towns with their massive old Spanish buildings, the herds of cattle and wild horses on the plains, the "ranchos," or cattle farms, of the stock-raisers, and the Texan plainsman scouring the prairies after the wild herds, a?id using the lasso with all the dexterity of a South American. The country along the coast is low, often marshy, with forests of cypress, live-oak, and palmetto, much like the other Gulf States. The fertile soil produces large crops and a profusion of fruits and flowers. The American inhabitants have settled chiefly in the beautiful agri- cultural region of East Texas, and are engaged in the cultivation of cotton and sugar-cane, and in carrying on the commerce of the State, chiefly through New Orleans and New York, exporting cotton, sugar, pepper, vanilla, and also hides and cattle from the interior. Galveston, on Galveston Bay, is the principal seaport. Houston, on a stream flowing into Galveston Bay, and Austin, the capital, are the chief American towns. San Antonio, an old Spanish town, beau- tifully situated in a fertile district, is the centre of the inland trade through California and New Mexico. As we leave the coast, the forests and plantations are gradually replaced by vast prairies, and the live-oak and cypress by the white- flowered yucca, the aloe, and the mesquit tree, resembling our locust, but bearing smaller leaves, long, flat pods, and large thorns. These are the great grazing lands of Texas, where herds of buffa- loes, cattle, and mustangs, or wild horses, roam over the prairies. Questions. — What is the condition of the Indians there ? What is the capital ? Where is Texas ? What is said of its history ? Describe the country. What is said of the coast region and productions ? Of the American population ? Of trade and exports ? What and where arc the principal towns ? What is said of San Antonio ? Describe the prairie or grazing region. What is the Texas "mustang"? Great attention is given to raising horses, cattle, and sheep, and thousands of aidmals often belong to one ranclio, or cattle farm. Farther inland still, the vegetation consists chiefly of patches of bunch-grass or of artemisia, a wild wormwood, though genei'ally called sage-bush ; and toward the Pecos River the country becomes an absolute desert. Travellers suffer greatly for want of water, and animals perish with thirst, as on the African Sahara. This barren plain is the bftginning of the great desert which stretches over the plateau between the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada. The northwest border of the State, crossed by spurs of mountains, is a labyrinth of abrupt ridges, deep gorges, and lofty walls of lime- stone. In some places the rivers seem to have worn deep cuts, or canons, in the solid rock, which rises in perpendicular walls to the height of many hundred feet. These dark, narrow defiles, often several miles long, form a striking feature, not only of this border region of Texas, but of all the plateau northward. One of the wild- est, most romantic gorges here is the pass of the Guadaloupe Moun- tains, closely hemmed in by overhanging rocks. Throughout all this and Caotl. northern and western portion of the State the peculiar Mexican flora prevails. Sparsely scattered over the dry plains, filling gorges, and clinging to the bare rocks are the agave or aloe, with its tall stem and Questions. — What is said of stock-raising? AVhat is a rancho ? Describe the desert. Describe the northwestern border country. Describe the peculiar vegetation of Texas. ■78 OUR WOKLD. crown of yellow blossoms; the prickly pear, with fleshy leaves grow- ing one out of another; the singular ball-cactus, growing on the sur- face of the ground or on the bare rocks ; and the gigantic stems of the saguara, rising from the plain like fluted pillars as large as a man's arm, and fifty or sixty feet high. As yet the only railroads are along the coast, and all transportation through the interior is by means of mules and wagons. Long trains of emigrants or traders, reminding one of the caravans of Africa, cross the praij'ies and the desert from San Antonio to El Paso, on the border of New Mexico. . The northwestern part of Texas is inhab- ited by the Apaches and other tribes of Indians ; and, in addition to the want of water and the fatigue of the tedious journey, there is always the possibility of an attack from the savages. MAP STUDY. [See Map of the United States.] Dakota is bounded on the west by ? On the north by ? On the east by ? On the south by ? It is crossed from northwest to southeast by M i River. Nebraska lies between D a on the north and C o and K s on the south. It is crossed by the P e River flowing into ? The capital is ? Omaha is on ? Nebraska City is on ? Kansas lies west of ? East of? Between what on the north and south ? It is crossed by K s River flowing into ? Topeka, the capital, is on ? Leav- enworth, the largest city, is on ? Lawrence is on ? Indian Territory lies west of? Between what on the north and the south ? It is crossed by the A s River. Texas lies south of the Indian Territory. It is bounded on the east by ? Southeast by ? Southwest by ? Separated from it by ? Northwest by ? The rivers T y, B s, and C o flow southeastward into ? The Pecos into ? Cities. — Galveston on ? Houston on ? Austin on ? San Antonio on ? THE WESTERN PLATEAU. [Refer to Map of the United States.] The great Western Plateau, occupying nearly one third of the ter- ritory of the United States, between the Eocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada and Cascade range, widens to its greatest breadth in the middle, where the Rocky Mountains curve eastward and the Pacific coast curves westward. This broad plateau is broken by short ridges, clusters, and moun- tain knots. Extending through its midst is a desert-waste, or rather a succession of deserts, destitute of water, bare of vegetation, ex- cept here and there a solitary mesquit-tree or patches of dry, ragged sage bush, and with its monotonous level broken only by some moun- tain ridge which rises abruptly from the plain in still more awful desolation, its great masses ofvhite rock reflecting the sunlight with pa,inful brilliancy in the clear, dry atmosphere, and without a tree, bush, or even a handful of soil on its sides. It is thought, however, that the general barrenness of these plains is caused less by sterility of the soil than by want of water, and that where irrigation is pos- sible much of the land may be made fit for cultivation. On the east the vast system of the Rocky Mountains, with its various ridges, groups, and peaks, runs through Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, and New Mexico. Each new explorer brings accounts of some marvel just discovered, and many of the beauties and wonders of nature distributed over the earth seem to be exhib- Questions. — "What means of transportation? What is said of the Indians? What Is said of the extent and position of the Western plateau ? Describe this plateau. What is said of the sterility of the soil ? Through what States and Territo- ries do the ranges of the Rocky Mountains pass ? ited in this vast mountain region. Beside lofty summits, deep ravines, magnificent cataracts, light cascades, caverns, and frightful chasms, there are also basaltic columns, extinct craters, mud volca- noes, hot springs, and geysers. The Sierra Nevada, with its snow-capped peaks, slopes on the west toward fair valleys, mild and genial, and with a luxuriance of vegeta- tion nowhere else known in these latitudes. Here are the big trees of California, and wonderful fruits and flowers. -Beyond the Cali- fornian valleys the outer Coast Range slopes to the long, narrow shore line of the Pacific, where the great port of San Francisco is engaged in trade with the populous empires of the Eastern world. Resources. — Beside the extensive deserts of the plateau there are large tracts of grass-land for stock-raising, and fertile valleys or river bottoms, vsrith forest belts of oak and cottonwood. The farmer finds fields to cultivate, and the cattle of the stock-raiser roam by thousands over the plain. The great pine forests of the north afl'ord fine lumber ; and toward the northern boundary skins and furs are obtained in suflScient numbers to make the trade profitable. But the chief wealth of the country lies in its mines. Gold, silver, lead, copper, salt, and quicksilver are found more or less abundantly in nearly all these Western States and Territories. History. — A few years ago this portion of our country was consid- ered almost uninhabitable, but with the rise and growth of San Fran- cisco, the opening of mines, and the construction of roads, the popu- lation» has increased wonderfully, and towns are springing up over the more accessible parts of the vast territory. Immense tracts, however, are still unsettled and inhabited onlj^ hy Indians, or com- panies of miners tempted into the wilderness by rich veins of gold or silver, and desperadoes who haunt the outskirts of civilization, pursuing a wild, adventurous life free from all restraints of law. Looking upon the map of this Western country, wc find, scattered over the southern portion, many Spanish names, as San Jose, Sacra- mento, Santa Fe, etc. ; and, in fact, long before pioneers from the Eastern States had crossed the Mississippi, early settlements or ex- plorations were made here by the Spaniards, who have left their traces not only in the names but in the old towns, the ruins, and the evidences of the teaching of Jesuit priests among the Indians. Mex- icans are to be seen in most of the settlements, where their dress, language, and customs are familiar. Their term rancho, or ranch, is adopted in the grazing regions, where also the lasso is generally used. The Mexican or Texan flora also extends throughout these South- ern States and Territories. The yucca and artemisia, or Mexican sage- bush, are everywhere common, and the thorny mesquit is the charac- teristic tree of a large part of the country. In the more fertile val- leys or river bottoms there are forests of oak and cottonwood, but timber is scarce, and the absence of foliage*a general feature of the region. New Mexico and Arizona. — The great desert beginning in Texas, continues into New Mexico with its prairie-dogs, lizards, rattlesnakes, and straggling mesquit-bushes. Across it long wagon- trains make their way from El Paso to Santa F<5, or to the salt springs between the Rio Grande and Pecos Rivers, a journey of sixty days, to obtain the annual supply of salt. Another route leads from St. Louis to Santa Fe, formerly much travelled by emigrants. Questions. — What are the natural features of this mountain region ? What is said of the Sierra Nevada and country westward ? Of the coast line ? What arc the resources of the whole region ? What is said of the growth of the country ? Wluit of the unsettled tracts ? What traces of the Spaniards are found over the Soiithern section ? What vegetation prevails ? What is said of the desert of New Mexico ? What two wagon-routes through the Territory ? Where is Santa Fe ? THE UNITED STATES. 79 Railroads are opening into this country rapidly, but it will be a long time before the wagon-trains of the wilder regions are entirely superseded. There are fine grazing lands in New Mexico, and rich mines, though but little worked. In Arizona Bilver is abundant, and the Santa Rita mines have been worked for some time ; but mining is both difficult and dangerous in those unsettled parts of the country. The want of water and of fuel is a great drawback, and when the ore has been smelted with no bet- ter wood than dry sage-bush, it is almost impossible to carry the metal to the nearest station without being attacked by Indians. The Mex- icans employed in the mines arc scarcely more to be trusted than the savages, often betraying the wagon-train into their hands, or escaping with the silver from the mines. The American population is still very small in this region, the towns are few, and at intervals are United States forts, with garri- sons to protect the country. Two classes of Indians inhabit this region of New Mexico, Arizona, and the southern part of California : 1st, the Comanches and Apaches, fierce, roving tribes, who are implacably hostile to the whites, and averse to all regular occupations, and who murder the miners, attack emigrant-trains, and steal cattle from the ranches ; 2d, the Pimos, Papagos, and other friendly tribes, who live in villages, cultivate the ground a little, work in metals, and manufacture, with the sim- plest implements, cotton cloth, blankets, and earthenware. Their habitations are circular in form, made of stakes and rushes, thatched with corn husks, and not more than seven feet high. Nevada and Utah, lying north of Arizona, include a large por- tion of the great basin or desert. Beside the Humboldt Mountains in Nevada and the Wahsatch Range, which traverses Utah, there are several lesser ridges. Timber is scarce and vegetation scanty, but there are some grass plains for grazing. The silver mines of Nevada are very valuable, and Utah contains iron and coal in abun- dance, and many varieties of marble. In the mountain region of the Questions. — What is said about the iniiios of Arizona and the difficulties of work- ing them ? Where are the Santa Rita mines ? What is said of the American popu- lation ? What two classes of Indians inhabit the country, and what is said of them ? What State north of Arizona ? What Territory east of Nevada ? What is said of their iurface ? Of the mines in Kevada ? In Utah ? Wahsatch sulphur abounds, and some of the numerous hot springs are said to be more valuable, medicinally, than the ^E^ ^^^Ej^a^^ ^^Pj famous mineral waters of the Pyrenees. There are many lakes and streams with no outlet from this elevated plain ; among them the Humboldt River in Nevada, and the Great Salt Lake in the northern part of Utah. On the shore of this lake stands the remarkable Salt Lake City, inhabited bj^^ community of Mormons, gathered from all parts of the United States and Europe, and presided over by their leader and prophet, Brigham Young. They set- tled in this region in order to be isolated, as some of their laws and customs are contrary to the prevailing ideas of Chris- tian communities, and conflict with the govornmont of the United States, but the Pacific railroad brings them into the high- way of travel. The Mormons are an in- dustrious people, and by careful labor and irrigation have succeeded in transforming the desert about their city into fruitful fields. The great difficulty of transportation hitherto has obliged them also to manufacture their own leather, woollen fabrics, implements, and furniture. The most conspicuous building is the great Tabernacle, or house of worship. The " Root-diggers " of the Nevada deserts are the most degraded of the Indian tribes, living upon roots, like the Hottentots of Africa, and often finding it more difficult to obtain water than food. Colorado, east of Utah and north of New Mexico, is crossed by the main ranges of the Rocky Mountains, and includes the sources of the Platite, Arkansas, Rio Grande, and Colorado Rivers. Pike's Peak, famous in the history of gold digging, rises bare and rugged from the dense pine forests at its base, though there are beds of grass between the rocks, and patches of yellow and purple flowers even up to the snow which rests perpetually in the gorges near the top. This summit commands one of the grandest views on the continent, ex- tending a hundred miles in all directions. On the east a vast plain stretches like an ocean as far as the eye can reach, while on the west mountains are piled up in endless variety and confusion. West of this l^nonutain is the most southern of three enclosures known as North, Middle, and South Parks. These beautiful plains are tree- less, but covered with a rich profusion of grasses and flowers, and completely surrounded by rugged and picturesque mountains. Denver, the metropolis of Colorado, is a well-built city, and an important railroad centre. A road one hundred and five miles long connects it with the LTnion Pacific road at Cheyenne. Wyoming, Idaho, and Montana are also crossed by broad ranges of the Rocky Mountains, which extend over the vast tract about the head-waters of the Missouri, Yellowstone, and Columbia Rivers, and are remarkable for their waterfalls, high, rugged mountain passesi extinct craters, hot springs, and geysers. The great geyser of Madison Valley discharges every three hours an immense volume Questions. — What is said of hot springs? Lakes? Describe Salt Lake City and its people. What is the Tabernacle ? What is aaid of the Root-diggers ? How is Colorado situated ? What is said of its surface ? Describe Pike's Peak. What is said of the view from its summit ? What four great rivers rise in the neighborhood ? What three parks west of Pike's Peak? Describe them. What is .said of Denver? What other Territories are crossed by the Rocky Mountains ? What rivers rise here ? Describe the mountain-region. The great geyser. 80 OUR WORLD. northwest through Idaho, forming part of the western boundary ; and Clark's Fork flows from Montana across the northern part of Idaho. West of the mountain range spread the dry plains of the interior, with their barren ridges and scanty vegetation. The yucca, the cac- tus, and the mesquit of the Southern section are replaced by pines, firs, and other cone-bearing trees, which prevail throughout all the Northern country, both in the forests of the fertile valleys and sparse- ly scattered over sterile plains and bare hills. of sparkling water to a height of over two hundred feet. Deep canons have been worn here, and singular, flat-topped peaks, to which the name of " buttes " has been given, rise abruptly from the plain. Much of this region is still unsettled, and the district about the northern tributaries of the Platte is inhabited by the Pawnee Indians. Pawnee Indians. Fort Laramie, one of the oldest land-marks of the Western plains, is in the eastern part of Wyoming. The Missouri River flows northward for some distance, and forming the Great Falls as it turns from the mountains, continues eastward through Montana. Snake River, formerly called the Lewis Pork of the Columbia, flows Questions. — What are bnttes ? What is said of the inhabitants ? Of Missouri Eiver ? Snake River ? "Washington Territory and Oregon. — The barren plains, with their scanty vegetation, occupy all the eastern portion of Washington Territory and Oregon. Farther west the Cascade Mountains, a con- tinuation of the Sierra Nevada, cross the country from north to south, dividing the sterile plains of the east from the delightful valleys of the west, with their great beauty and luxuriance of vegetation. No- where is there a greater contrast in nature than upon the two slopes of this mountain-chain. On the east one may travel whole days without seeing a tree ; on the west one is never out of sight of dense forests, where the trees, chiefly Douglas spruces, Oregon cedars, pines, and other cone-bearers, attain a size and beauty elsewhere unknown. The lofty summits of Mount Baker, Mount Hood, Mount St. Helens, Mount Jefterson, and Mount Adams, are covered with perpetual snow, though in the valleys below the climate is mild and the ice rarely forms more than two inches thick. Many of these peaks are extinct volcanoes. The Columbia River, after breaking through the mountains, flows westward into the Pacific, forming a part of the boundary between Oregon and Washington Territory. Among the natural curiosities are the dalles, or rapids in the gorge, eight hundred feet deep, where the Columbia forces its way through the Cascade Mountains ; the Falls of the Columbia farther down the stream ; the Falls of the Willamette ; and numerous hot springs. The population of this region is small, and collected near the Pacific coast and the Columbia River ; but the great industrial ad- vantages will be rapidly developed. Questions. — What i.s the characteristic vegetation of the northern section of the plateau ? What Territory borders on Britisli America and the Pacific ? What State south of Washington ? What portions of Oregon and Wasliington are occupied by the barren plains ? Where are the Cascade Mountains ? Of what mountains is the Cascade chain a continuation ? What is the chaiucter of the country west of the Cascade Mountains ? What are some of the principal snow-covered peaks ? What is said of the Columbia River ? Of the natural curiosities 1 Of the population and ad- vantages of the Territory t THE UNITED STATES. 81 The Valley of the Willamette in Oregon is a fine agricultural region, and the forests supply good timber ; but with its abundant water-power Oregon possesses peculiar advantages for becoming a great manufacturing State. Salem, the capital, already contains large woollen mills. Portland, the principal port, is on the Willamette, a few miles from its mouth. The Puget Sound region gives to Washington Territory uncommon facilities for trade. The harbors are good, and large vessels come up the Sound to within two miles of the city of Olympia, at its head. The surrounding country is covered with dense forests of magnifi- cent evergreens, scarcely inferior in size to the giant trees of Cali- fornia. These forests afford inexhaustible supplies of lumber, easily obtained and exported ; already there is an extensive lumber-trade, and large steam saw-mills are at work in these forest wilds. Pish, especially salmon, and oysters have also become important exports from the Sound. California, occupying the whole extent of coast line between Oregon and Mexico, is the oldest and most thickly settled of the Western States, and the commercial outlet of the plateau region, already in communication with all parts of the civilized world. The Rocky Mountains being regarded an almost impassable bar- rier on the east, the tide of population which poured into California from the older States and from foreign countries during the gold ex- citement came mainly by way of San Francisco. The gold-digging still goes on in various localities, but the partially exhausted mines are abandoned to some extent for richer mining regions in the newer States or Territories, and a large portion of the inhabitants are en- gaged in the more ron-nlar occupations of agriculture and trade. We Gold mines are worked near the Columbia in the southeastern part , hear no longer of immense lumps of pure gold, or of fortunes dug of Washington. Questions. — What is said of the valley of the Willamette ? What and where are tlie chief towns of Oregon ? AVhat is said of Puget Sound ? Of the commercial ad- vantages of Washington ? Of the country around the Sound ? What is said of lum- bering! out of the earth in a day, but of regions of luxuriant vegetation, where fruits and flowers attain a wonderful size, crops yield a hun- dred-fold, and huge trees rise to a height of over three hundred feet. Questions.— What other exports ? What is the position and condition of Cali- fornia ? What is said of the occupations of tlie inhabitants ? Of the vegetation ? 82 OUR WORLD. and with such a circumfcreDce that horsemen may easily ride within a hollow trunk. The Sierra Nevada, whose eastern sKipe is so barren, descends westward into valleys of the greatest beauty. Through the long valley enclosed between the Sierra and the Coast Range flow the Sacramento from the north and the San Joaquin from the south, both ?aUa oftbe Yosemtte. emptying together into the Bay of San Francisco. This entire val- ley, with its mild climate, rich soil, abundant water, and grass pastures, is unsurpassed as an agricultural country. Among the many wild or picturesque spots in this whole Western country, none has been so much admired as the famous Yoseraite Valley, which presents a scene of unsurpassed grandeur, witli its precipitous walls, its gleaming cascades, and its grove of pines, centuries old, beside whose gigantic height men seem as pygmies. In California the year is marked by a dry and a rainy season ; and during the latter part of summer the cultivated valleys show no sign of verdure except in the orchards, where the trees, with their roots below the parched soil, are loaded with ripening fruits. When the autumn rains begin, hills and valleys are clothed with gieen, and large crops of grass and grain are produced. Beside grain, fruit-trees, etc., grapes are now largely cultivated in California, and light wines, similar to those of Ohio, are exported to all parts of the country. Since transportation by railroad is now so rapid, California grapes, pears, and other fruits are brought to the Eastern markets. Stock-raising is an important occupation here, as in all the Western plains, where the grass furnishes food for cattle through the year. Manufactures have become more varied and extensive than in many States of the Mississippi Valley. In addition to the gold still exported, quicksilver is obtained in considerable quantities. Cities. — San Francisco, the great Pacific port, has a fine situation on a bay of the same name, with a spacious harbor. The wide streets, fine public edifices, churches, halls, and theatres may be favorably compared with those of the Eastern cities, while much that is strange and foreign strikes the eye. Here are seen the lithe Mexican, with his sharp-crowned hat ; the bearded, sunbrowned miner ; and thou- sands of Chinese with their bland, smooth faces, oblique eyes, and long braids of hair hanging down behind. The latter occupy a quarto- by themselves, eating with chop-sticks, and keeping up other national customs. They are employed as cooks, waiters, porters, etc., and make excellent servants. Stockton is an important station on the Pacific Railroad, and from this point excursions are made to the Yosemite Falls and the groves in the Valley of the San Joaquin. . Sacramento, in the Sacramento Valley, is the capital, and Nevada City, Grass Vdlley, Smartsville, and Placerville are important as raining stations. San Diego, in the south, is the terminus of the wagon-routes through Texas, and has the best harbor on the California coast after that of San Francisco. The southern part of the State is little settled and still inhabited by Indians, some of whom are the degraded Root-diggers. There are several old Spanish towns on the coast. The Union Pacific Railroad, connecting with other roads from the Eastern cities, begins at Omaha, on the west bank of the Missouri River, continues westward to Cheyenne, and thence over the Rocky Mountains and through the canons in the Wahsatch chain to Og- den, near Salt Lake. Here it connects with the Central Pacific road, which runs westward across the desolate plateau, up the steep Questions. — What mountains cross the State ? What is tlie character of the cointry ea.st of the Sierra Nevada ? West of this range ? What rivei-s flow through the long valley ? Describe the region between the Sierra Nevada and Coast Range ? What is said of the Yosemite Vallej' ? Of the seasons and productions of California ? Wliat is further said of the occupations of the people ? Of metals ? What of San Francisco and its people ? Of other towns ? What of the southern part of the State ? What is the route of the Pacific Raiboad ? THE UNITED STATES. 83 ascents, through the dark tunnels and deep canons of the Sierra Nevada, and across- tlie Sacramento Valley and Coast Range to San Francisco. Thus an unbroken line of communication is formed across the entire continent, from ocean to ocean. Along the uninhabited heights of the Sierra immense sheds have been built over the road at intervals to prevent the blocking of the track by heavy drifts of snow. There is another line running from St. Louis to Denver nearly par- allel with the one just described, and connecting with it at Cheyenne. A road crossing the country farther north is in process of construc- tion, and still another is in contemplation through the southern part of the plateau. ALASKA. This Territory, which forms the northwestern portion of the Amer- ican continent, and has an area ten times as large as the State of Pennsylvania, formerly belonged to the Russians, but has been pur- chased by the United States. As it lies chiefly in the frigid zone it is not valuable for agricultural purposes. The climate, however, like that of the Pacific coast gen- erally, is milder than in the same latitudes on the Atlantic ; and Alaska is far less snowy and desolate than Greenland. The trees are larger and more numerous, the forests of some localities supplying lupiber for shipbuilding ; and, after the long winter, vegetation springg-iip rapidly in the more sheltered valleys, — grass, shrubs, and wild-flowers appearing almost under the snow. The mineral products are said to be important ; but the chief wealth of the country is in its furs and fisheries. The inhabitants are chiefly Indians, whose habitations are usually half under ground. A number of Russians still remain, who had made their way from Kamtschatka across Behring Strait in search of furs. Scattered over the Territory are large wooden forts, or fur stations, like those of British America, where stores of blankets, beads, pow- der, and shot arc kept to exchange with the Indians, or white hunters and trappers for furs. One of the most important is Fort Yukon, on Yukon River, which, with its tributaries, forms the largest water- course of the country. Questions. — What other railroads are in process of construction ? Where is Alaska, and to whom does it belong? What is said of its climate and vegetation? What constitute its chief wealth ? What is said of the inhabitants ? Of the forts ? Sitka, the principal settlement, is on one of the islands along the southern part of the coast. The Aleutian Islands, off the extremity of the narrow peninsula formerly known as Alaska, are also included in the Territory. SUMMARY. The great Western Plateau includes all the States and Territories between the Rocky Mountains, on the east, and the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range, on the west. Utah, crossed from north to south y the Wahsatch Mountains, and containing Great Salt Lake and e Mormon settlements, occupies the centre of the plateau. Throughout the mountain ranges the country is wild and pic- iwiiresque, with snowy peaks, precipices, rugged passes, caiions, \\tinct volcanoes, geysers, hot and sulphur springs, and natural parks enclosed by mountains. The chief geysers are in Wyoming, near the head-waters of the Y'^ellowstone River. The largest parks are in Colorado, near Pike's Peak, the most eastern part of the range. The highest summits are in the Cascade and Sierra Nevada Range, some of which are Mount Baker, Mount St. Helens, Mount Hood, and Mount Shasta. The plateau is chiefly dry and barren, but rich in mineral resources. Throughout the southern portion the scanty vegetation is similar to that of Texas, consisting of cacti, aloes, mesquit-trees, and Mexican sage-bushes. In the north are some evergreens and grass larras. West of Sierra Nevada are val- leys of great beauty and fertility, and forests of gigantic trees. The vast territory of Alaska is still occupied chiefly by Indians. Its furs and fisheries are important. Its climate is milder than that of Greenland in the same latitude, and its forests furnish timber for ship-building. MAP STUDY. y^ [See Map of the United States.] What two Territories north of Mexico? What two Territories and State im- mediately north and northwest of these ? What Territory north of Colorado ? What three west of Dakota, bordering on British America ? 'VSTiat Territory and States'ljorder on the Pacific ? Which Territories have nearly the form of a «juare or parallelogram ?— , Wlych are^ the most irregular in form ? What State forms along curve on the Pacific coast? What Territory is in the centre of the plateau ? What meufltain range forms the eastern border of the plateau ? What two names are given to the range on the western border ? What ridge crosses Utah ? Wliat ridges^,rfoss~%vada ? Tlie Rocky MouijftxinjjhainXuns north through New M o and C o, then turns northwest through W g, and continues between I oandM a into B h A — i — aJ It attains its mbst eastern and loftiest points in C o, where and the Three Parks. Tlie Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range a and N a, and through O n and W n. Its high- est peaks are ? / The Coast Range runs near the Pacific coast. What Sound in Washing'on Territory ? What are the two most western capes on tlie Pacific ? What bay in California ? What lake in Utah ? 'The sources of the M i, Y e, and of the forks of the C a Rivers are all found in the mountain-knot on the borders of M a, I o and W g. In what direction does the Missouri flow ? Of what river is the Yellowstone a branch ? Where does the Columbia form a boundary ? Through what moun- tain range does it break ? What rivers have their sources in the vicinity of Pike's Peak ? Through what Territories do the forks of the Platte River flow ? Where is the upper course of the Arkansas ? Of the Rio Grande ? What Ls the course of the Colorado ? Of the Gila ? Where is Humboldt River ? Into what does it flow ? What two rivers drain the California Valley ? What im- portant river of Oregon flows north into the Columbia ? What are the chief cities of the Rocky Mountain region, and where situated ? are Pike's Peak runs between C I / Questions. — What is the chief settlement ? What of the Aleutian Islands ? 84 OUR WORLD. Where is Salt Lake City ? What are the chief cities of Oregon and California, and where situated ? What are the capitals of these Western States and Territories ? What are the principal forts of the Western region, and where situated? Name all the States and Territories wholly or partly included in the great plateau ? Which are in the southern portion ? The middle portion ? Which border on British America ? Which on the Pacific ? What territory borders on the Pacific and Arctic Oceans ? What river crosses it ? Where does it empty ? MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, AND THE WEST INDIES. MEXICO. History. — After the discovery of the Western World the Spaniards took possession of some of the West India islands before the English and French explored the Atlantic shore. About a cen- tury before the settlement of Jamestown and Plymouth a little band of Spaniards from these islands landed on the Mexican coast, near the spot where the port of Vera Cruz now stands, — not as merchants or pilgrims, but as rude adventurers, soldiers by profession, who came, sword in hand, to seize upon gold, silver, and land. Here they found natives resembling those of the islands ; ignorant, half naked, gentle in disposition, and with less strength and endur- ance than the Indians of .the more northern parts of the continent. Never having seen 'men on horseback, these Indians regarded the armed and mounted warriors with timid curiosity and superstition, and were glad to propitiate them by such gifts as they had to offer. The Spaniards, eager for the gold and silver they had expected to find in abundance, questioned the Indians about the country, and hearing vague rumors of a great city and a powerful king far inland, they determined to see the city for themselves. Hernando Cortez, their leader, a fearless, unscrupulous man, ac- customed to carry out his will by force or by stratagem, was unmoved by the dissuasions of the natives, who threatened him with the king's displeasure. Leaving his ships and all means of escape behiniMiim, he, with his little band, began a march through an unknown country, where thousands of the natives might surround him at any moment. Difficulties beset the explorers at every step, — the country became broken and mountainous as they left the coast, the road led them higher and higher over steep ascents and gloomy gorges, and the difierent tribes on their way often received them with open disfavor, or endeavored to destroy them by treachery. But everywhere they heafd of Montezuma, the great king, who held all the neighboring tribes as vassals. Finally they reached the last mountain-pass, and beheld at their feet a charming valley or plain, completely surrounded by rugged moun- tains, and covered with grass, groves of palms, and fruit-trees. Upon an island, which rose out of a beautiful lake, stood a magnificent city, — magnificent even to men who had seen the cities of Granada, — with massive walls, immense temples, palaces inlaid with gold and silver, boats, gliding among the gardens and orange groves, and witt three long causeways connecting the city with the outer shores of the lake. Here the Spaniards were received with courtesy and dignity by the king Montezuma, before whom the inhabitants prostrated themselves with the greatest reverence and devotion ; and here in the midst of the American wilderness, surrounded by savages, the adventurers found an isolated people with a kiiowledge of architec- ture, of the manufacture of cloth, iron, and silver, and of various other Questions. — When and by whom was Mexico settled ? What is said of the na- tives ? Who was the leader of the Spaniards ? What difficult expedition did he undertake ? Describe the march. What is said of the City of Mexico and itf in- habitants ? arts of civilized life, and who expressed their ideas by means of a kind of picture-writing. Yet, with all this, there was an idolatrous religion, the offering of sacrifices, — eyen human sacrifices, — and the "barbaric splendor" that provqg a partial civilization. But the wonder was liow they had advanced so far ; and this early civilization, found in Mexico and in another isolated region of South America, has caused a great deal of speculation and controversy among historians. . Not less wonderful than their condition is the fact of the conquest of this people by a mere handful of strangers on their own ground, in their own homes, where it might be supposed the Spaniards could have been easily destroyed. The whole story of this conquest is as romantic as any fiction, and Montezuma's imprisonment and death in his own capital are among the saddest events of early American history. The Spaniards, under Cortez, firmly established themselves in Mexico, and after several years of warfare obtained possession of the whole country. Instead of settling on the coast and gradually exploring inland, as the English colonists did, the Spaniards, as we have seen, penetrated at once into the heart of the country ; and the natives, instead of retreating before the invaders, as in our own country, gradually intermarried with the conquerors, and thus formed the Mexican people. Though the Mexicans long ago became independent of Spain, they have retained the Spanish language, customs, dress, and, to a great extent, the Spanish style of architecture, with only such variations as the peculiarities of climate and country required. The Mexican government is republican, but by no means so well ordered as that of the United States, and abuses, discontents, and rebellions are frequent. The national religion is the Roman Catholic. Surface of the country. — South of the United States the Coast Range is lost in the peninsula of California, and the great plateau between the Sierra Nevada and the Rocky Mountains narrows grad- ually toward the isthmus of Panama, including the whole of Mexico, with the exception of the narrow strips of low, unhealthy coast land along the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean. The mountain chains traversing the plateau are called the Mexican Cordilleras or chains, and the main range takes the name of Sierra Madro. The general appearance of the country is not unlike parts of Texas and California. Here again are the wild, gloomy mountain regions, with low, rocky ridges, or detached peaks, jagged and picturesque ; dry, parched plains, without water or vegetation ; extensive grass pastures, with here and there a winding line of dark green, marking the wooded banks of a river-course ; and herds of cattle and wild horses. There is an occasional rancho, or stock-farm, with its house • Questions. — What of their conquest ? What is the ori^n of the Mexican people ? What of their customs, government, and religion ? What is said of the position and fonn of the country ? What names are given to the mountains ? Describe the general appearance of the country with its varieties of scenery. What is a raneho t MEXICO. 85 of adobe, or sun-dried bricks, its large well for the cattle, and its corral, or enclosure, big enough to contain thousands of animals. Groves of Cottonwood, fruit-trees, and lands under cultivation are also to be found in the fertile valleys of the iierras calienles, or hot regions. Tiie thorny vegetation found in all the warm coun- tries of America is espe- cially characteristic of the Mexican plateau. The yucca, or Spanish bayonet, attains the dimensions of a tree ; the agave, or American aloe, common everywhere, is invaluable to the native tribes, sup- plying material for build- ing, fibres for making nets and cordage, food from its roots, a favorite fer- mented drink from its juice, and various other wants. Of many species of cactus the prickly pear is one of the most common and important, and has been taken as a national emblem, being represented on the Mexican dollar, as the eagle is on that of the United States. Palms, orange-trees, mahogany, dye woods, and other exclusively tropical productions begin to appear in the tierras calienles of the low coast. Such vegetation is only seen in occasional valleys where there is moisture as well as heat, and around the cities where irrigation keeps the verdure through the dry season ; but the droughts, the eleva- tion, and the absence of foliage in the thorny plants give a general air of barrenness to the country. Metals. — The silver mines of Mexico have been famous from the earliest knowledge of the country as the richest in the world. Gold and copper are also found, and here are some of the most im- portant quicksilver mines. Animals. — Cattle, wild horses, and herds of antelopes roam over the grass lands, and wild turkeys and quails abound as in our prairie States. Beside the prairie dogs, moles, rats, rabbits, and other bur- rowing animals, these plains are infested with centipedes, often ten inches long ; scorpions, with their poisonous sting ; and tarantulas, or venomous spiders, which hide in burrows covered by trap- doors. Lizards of various hues glide over the plains with incredible swiftness ; and the rattlesnake abounds everywhere from the Gulf of Mexico to the Pacific, on grass plains, deserts, and rocky ledges. Productions. — In the low, warm coast regions sugar-cane, cotton, Questions. — What is said of the vegetation? What is said of the uses of the agave ? Of the prickly pear ? What vegetation in the Iierras calienUi ? What ani- mals are found on the grass lands ? On the plains ? What is the tarantula ? What mines in Mexico ? What arfe the principal productions ? Gathering Cocliiiieiil luMtTts. and indigo are cultivated, and in some parts coffee, tropical fruits, vanilla, and cacao are produced. A peculiar and important export is the cochineal insect, which makes a beautiful crimson dye. The prickly pear, upon which the insects live, is extensively cultivated, and they are brushed from the leaves in great quantities and dried for exportation ; in which state they look like tiny black balls, from which, when dropped into hot water, the brilliant red color is extracted. Inhabit£Uits. — As a people, the Mexicans are backward in educa- tion and in the arts of civilized life. Schools are few and poor, and the women, especially, are very ignorant. The methods of agricul- ture are simple, and the Mexicans have few manufactures, that of leather being the most important. They embroider fine saddle- cloths and other trappings, and are expert in the manufacture of gold lace. Many of the people are, like the Texans, engaged in stock-raising, and hides are an important export. Manufactured goods, wrought- iron, .and machinery are imported. The trade of the interior is car- ried on by means of pack-mules, and the arrieros, or muleteers, have become an important class. The Mexicans, like the Spaniards, are extravagantly fond of dan- cing, and all classes delight in the guitar. Bull fights and cock fights are the national amusements, as in all the Spanish colonies. The women wear scarfs or mantles on their heads instead of bon- nets. The street dress of a lady, especially for church, is black ; but at other times bright colors and a profusion of jewelry are in style. The men wear short jackets of cloth or velvet, and pantaloons slashed at the sides and ornamented with rows of buttons. Questions. — What is said of cochineal ? What of the condition of the Mexicans ? Wliat are their manufactures ? What is said of their exports and imports ? Of their inland trade ? Their amusements ? What is said of dress ! 86 OUR WORLD. The common building material is adobe, a composition of mud or clay and gravel, or sometimes straw. The houses are usually of one story on account of earthquakes, are whitewashed or colored light pink, blue, yellow, or green, and roofed with red tiles. In the larger cities the churches and principal residences are handsome and substantial ; but in many places dilapidated ruins remain as the effect of former earthquakes. Cities. — Vera Cruz, as old as the conquest of the country by Cortez, is the only port of importance on the Gulf 'coast. Acapulco is the chief port on the Pacific, and is visited by vessels going to and from California. Mazatlan, another port farther up the Pacific coast, is a place of several thousand inhabitants, and contains handsome, substantial buildings, with the narrow streets and long colonnades of the old •Castilian cities. The city of Mexico is charmingly situated on Lake Tezcuco, in the midst of a broad plain entirely enclosed by lofty mountains. The city is an immense square, with straight, woU-paved streets, hand- some buildings in massive Mexican style, a great cathedral, and a plaza, or enclosure for bull fights, large enough to accommodate three thousand persons. The alameda, or public promenade, found in every Mexican city, is a fine grove of large trees, intersected with walks and carriage-roads. The environs of the city are exceedingly beautiful, and from the high tower of the cathedral there is a charm- ing view of the whole surroimding plain, with its cultivated fields ; long avenues of shade-trees leading to the city ; aqueducts over lofty arches ; gardens and orange-groves ; the lake, with its canoes and Indian boatmen ; and the fine old convent of Guadalaxara among the ravines of the mountain. Enclosing the whole is a colossal moun- tain range, rising in wild and striking contrast to the plain. On one side are peaks glittering with eternal snow, and on the other volcanic vapors issuing from the crater of Popocatapetl, one of the loftiest peaks on the continent. CENTRAL AMERICA. Central America occupies the narrow southern extremity of North America, between Mexico and the Isthmus of Panama, and includes the five republics, Guatemala, Honduras, San Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Kica, and the English colony of Balize. It is crossed by the Sierra Madre and other mountain ranges, in- terspersed with numerous volcanoes. There are high plains among the mountains, and narrow strips of low coast land along the Carib- bean Sea and the Pacific Ocean. The general character of the country, its surface, soil, climate, and productions, resemble those of Mexico. The low, marshy shore of the Bay of Honduras is noted for its groves of mahogany, which supply the markets of the United States and Groat Britain with this valuable wood. The English obtain sup- plies of mahogany from their own little province of Balize. The logs are obtained by parties of lumbermen who explore the thick swamp- forests, cut down the finest trees, clear the trunks of branches, and drag them through the thicket. The occupation is not only very laborious, but often dangerous, for the hot tropical sun, the rank vegetation and marshy soil, make this coast region very unhealthy, and at some seasons it is certain death to venture into the forests. Questions. — What is said of architecture ? What and where are the chief sea- ports ? Describe the city of Mexico. Where is Central America ? What does it include ? What is the character of the country ? What is said of the coast of the Bay of Honduras ? What and where is Balize ? How is mahogany obtained ? Logwood, fustic, and other dye-woods are also obtained here. Indigo of a superior quality is more extensively cultivated and ex- ported than from any other country except India. Among other common exports are sarsaparilla, vanilla, and cochi- neal, beside hides from the interior. Throughout the country are massive ruins of the ancient archi- tecture which was found here, as well as in Mexico, by the Sp::::- iards. The present inliabitants are Mexicans ; native Indians, usually a degraded class of laborers ; and a few Castilians who pride them- selves on their direct descent from old Spanish families. The gov- ernment, as in most Spanish-American States, is very badly man- aged, and revolutions, conspiracies, and civil wars are frequent. The principal cities are San Salvador, Guatemala, and San Leon. A few years since, the travel to California was chiefly by way of Panama. At first the journey across the isthmus was accomplished on mules, but a railroad was soon made from Aspinwall, on the Caribbean Sea, to Panama, on the Pacific, a distance of about forty miles. SUMMARY. Mexico is a broad table-land, which is crossed by volcanic moun- tain ranges, and descends to narrow strips of low coast land along the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean. The Sierra Madre is the chief range. The vegetation consists chiefly of cacti, and other thorny, fleshy plants which are common upon high, dry plains in hot climates. Palms, tropical fruits, indigo, sugar-cane, cotton, cabinet and dye- woods are found in the low lands. The common animals are wild herds of cattle and horses, moles, rabbits, prairie-dogs, and other burrowing animals, noxious insects, lizards, scorpions, and rattlesnakes. The mining products are silver, copper, gold, and quicksilver. Trade. — The exports are indigo, cochineal, sugar-cane, vanilla, mahogany, and logwood. The chief imports are manufactured goods. Pack-mule's are the usual means of inland transportation. The cities are Mexico, the capital, on a high plateau surrounded by mountains ; Vera Cruz, the chief port, on the Gulf of Mexico ; Aca- pulco, the chief port on the Pacific. The common building material is adobe, a composition of mud and gravel. The houses are whitewashed, or colored pale pink, yellow, etc., and roofed with red tiles. History. — Mexico was conquered by the Spaniards under Cortez, who found here the Aztecs, a half-civilized people, with some knowl- edge of manufactures, architecture, and picture-writing. The pres- ent inhabitants are descendants of the Spaniards and natives. They are fond of dancing, guitar-playing, bull-fights, cigars, and gay trap- pings ; and retain, in general, the language, dress, and customs of the Spaniards. Central America is a mountainous country, resembling Mexico in vegetation, products, and inhabitants, and contains five separate republics. Indigo and mahogany, of the best quality, are the chief exports. Balize, a part of Yucatan, belongs to England, and is valuable for its mahogany. Scattered through the country are ruins of the massive ancient architecture found here by the Spaniards. Questions. — Wliat are the exports ? What is said of indigo ? Of ruins ? Of the inhabitants and government ? What are the principal cities ? What is said of travel to California ? Give the summary of the account of Mexico and Central America. THE WEST INDIES. 87 THE WEST INDIES. The numerous islands included under this name lie, with few excep- tions, in the torrid zone, and extend in a broad chain from off the soutiieastern coast of Florida, nearly to the mouth of the Orinoco. They are divided into three groups, the Bahamas, the Great Antilles, and the Lesser Antilles. The Bahamas form a chain of low, narrow islands north of Cuba. A thin soil covers the rocky surface, producing moderate crops of cotton, corn, and fruits ; and on the largest of the islands some tim- ber is obtained for shipbuilding. Turk's Island and others of the group export salt obtained by the evaporation of sea water in " pans " or troughs. Nassau, on one of the smaller islands, is the capital, and the chief trading port with the United States and England. It was one of the islands of this group that Columbus discovered on his first voyage across the Atlantic. San Salvador, or Cat Island, has been generally supposed to be the spot where he landed, though recent authorities give Waiting's Island, farther cast. The Antilles. — ^The larger islands, with varied surface, rich soil, and abundant moisture, are among the most beautiful and productive of tropical regions. Earthquakes, however, are frequent ; thunder- storms prevail at some seasons of the year ; and violent hurricanes sometimes devastate the country, tearing up trees and houses, and engulfing vessels in the raging waters, or dashing them in frag- ments upon the rocks. Some of the Lesser Antilles are coral islands, but many of the large islands are of volcanic formation, and are surrounded by sharp, rugged peaks of rock, uninhabitable except by sea-fowl, crabs, and turtles. The coasts usually rise in precipitous bluffs, especially on the west ; but in some places the shore lands are low and marshy. Cuba, Ilayti, Jamaica, and Porto Rico, called the Great Antilles, are all crossed from west to east by mountain ridges, rising some- times to a height of seven or eight thousand feet, and short streams flow from both slopes to the sea. These mountains contain copper, lead, silver, etc., though only copper has been mined; and their sides are covered with magnificent forests of logwood, fustic, ma- hogany, satinwood, ebony, and the close-grained red cedar, of which cigar-boxes are made. Interspersed among the mountains are grass pastures for great numbers of cattle, mules, sheep, and goats ; and the rich lowlands are devoted to the cultivation of sugar-cane, coffee, tobacco, cotton, and indigo. All the usual tropical fruits abound, — bananas, pineapples, oranges, limes, and lemons. The wilder ravines are filled with luxuriant flowering plants, and clusters of palms rise above the green mass of foliage. The royal palm is the glory of all tropical scenery, and avenues of this noble tree adorn the streets of the cities and the gardens of the wealthy. ' The soil is the best in the world for sugar-cane. Half the sugar used is made in these islands, and the waving cane spreads over im- mense plantations, interrupted only by clusters of fruit-trees sur- rounding the farm-buildings. Each plantation has a sugar-house, and hundreds of laborers are employed in cutting and hauling the cane, making the sugar, and carrying great wagon-loads of hogs- heads to the seaports. The juice, crushed from the canes by steam or horse power, is boiled several times in immense kettles until it is sufficiently thickened and clear of impurities. The sugar is then the molasses drips out beneath, ugar, brought to us in hogsheads or Questions. — Where are the West Indies ? Of what groups do they consist ? What is said of the Bahamas ? What is the chief port ? Which of tliese islands was discovered by Columbus ? What is said of the Antilles in general ? Of the moun- tains of the Great Antilles ? Of the forests ! Lowlands ' What is said of sugar plantations ? How is sugar made ? crystallized in great basins, and This is the common brown boxes. The crystallized brown sugar, though apparently dry, still retains a portion of the molasses, and is refined, or whitened, bj' various processes of extracting the remaining syrup. This refining of the sugar is often done in other countries. Fruits grotv to perfection in all these islands, and, beside the oranges, pineapples, and bananas that are exported fresh, many others are preserved. The West India sweetmeats are known as widely as the sugar and cigars, especially guava jelly, candied limes, and preserved ginger. The plantain is the chief article of food among the poorer classes, and one may see a small plantation of bananas or plantains surrounding the thatched cabin of the poor man. Tobacco is largely cultivated and manufactured into cigars, leaf- tobacco, and snuff for exportation. Among the specialties are Ja- maica rum, bay water from St. Thomas, and Curayao cordial. The imports of all the islands are chiefly manufactured goods, cottons, woollens, hardware, etc. Cuba, the largest of the West Indies, is about 790 miles long, and in its broadest part 120 miles wide, including an area about equal to that of the State of New York. It contains extensive sugar estates and large tobacco factories ; and exports, beside sugar and cigars, sweetmeats, dye-stuffs, cabinet-woods, hides, etc. Cuba is still inhabited by the descendants of the early Spanish settlers, who are generally planters, merchants, or professional men. There is also a large number of Spaniards on the island, who are usually in the employ of the government, which seldom appoints a native Cuban to any trust. The small shop-keepers are also gener- ally Spaniards. A bitter enmity exists between these Spaniards and the native Cubans. In 1869 a rebellion broke out which, although it has not met with much success, has never been wholly suppressed, and it has been necessary for the Spanish government to keep a. large standing army in Cuba. There is a large number of African slaves on the island, for the slave trade was carried on in Cuba long after it was given up by other civilized nations. When slaves were no longer imported, coolies, or Chinese laborers, were brought over to take their places, and these are found all through the island. Havana, the chief port of the West Indies, is situated on the north- ern coast, and has one of the most beautiful harbors in the world, guarded at its entrance by Morro Castle and other strong forts. The houses are built in the Spanish style with flat roofs, and are often painted in bright gay colors, which give the city, as seen from the water, quite a cheerful look. The streets in the oldest part of the city are very narrow, but in the newer portion are fine, wide avenues, on which the ladies ride at sunset in barouches and volantes, which last are the vehicles peculiar to the country. The city contains many fine churches, theatres, and beautiful parks. In the Cathedral are laid the ashes of Christopher Columbus. Matanzas is beautifully situated on the northern shore of the island. A few miles from the city is a remarkable cave, quite as attractive though not so extensive as the Mammoth Cave of Ken- tucky. The other principal cities are Santiago, Villa Clara, and Trinidad. Hayti, or St. Domingo, was colonized by the French and Spaniards, the former occupying the western, and the latter the eastern half of the island. Questions. — What is said of fruits? What specialties are mentioned? What impoits ? What is said of Cuba ? Of its inhabitants and present condition ? Of Havana ? Of Matauzas ? What other cities ? 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E ^ o 05 OJ o w bo 03 ^ " o '- g ca bo 'p. •- 3 .3 13 ca c o bo ' o ca 03 Xl E 3 3 03 bo c -w .3 ea -M 03 a< 33 c8 ■+J ca b* 3 P 3 tS ■" 13 >^ 03 ■^ t/i > 03 S « 03 +j 03 ^ £, ca 13 ■~ 3 ea ea CO bo a-S 05 O ^3 . C3 3 .-S o ^ J3 3 03 c„ i> o o o ea •^ E ca 00 S 1^ O +J a ca O 2 .2 3 -3 -M ca 3 .H 03 ca •E > ca 13 3 >> J o 5 -" .2 o » K C3 -^ £ •" -2 C3 .M .2 »= ^ J C3 -' 3 S 2 r rt .2 90 OUR WORLD. GEIS^EEAL EEYIEW OF NOETH AMEEIO A. MAP QUESTIONS. Where is Baffin Bay ? The Bay of Fundy ? Hudson Bay ? Delaware Bay ? Mobile Bay ? Chesapeake Bay ? Gulf of California ? Gulf of St. Lawrence ? Pamlico Sound ? Lake Pontchartrain ? Great Salt Lake ? Great Slave Lake ? Great Bear Lake ? Lake Champlain ? Lake Winnipiseogee ? Moosehead Lake ? Lake St. Clair ? What are the Great Lakes ? Where is Cayuga Lake ? Behriug Strait ? Davis Strait ? Mackinaw Strait ? Isthmus of Tehuantepec ? Isthmus of Panama ? Cape Hatteras ? Cape Fear ? Capes Charles and Henry ? Capes May and Henlopen ? Where are the two capes named Cape Sable ? What are the political divisions of North America ? Which is the most northern of the United States ? The most southern ? What States on the Atlantic ? On the Gulf of Mexico ? Which border on British America ? On the east bank of the Mis- sissippi ? On the west bank ? What States border on the Great Lakes ? On the Ohio ! What States and Territories on the great Western Plateau ? What States and Territories border on the Pacific ? Give the capital of each State. Describe the course of the Mississippi River, giving its source, its direction, and where it empties ? Of the Missouri ? Red ? Arkansas ? Rio Grande ? Columbia ? Des Moines ? Wisconsin ? Kansas ? Wabash ? Ohio ? St. Lawrence ? Connecti- cut ? Hudson ? Mohawk ? Where is the Potomac ? James ? Savannah ? Pedee ? St. John's ? Chattahoochee ? Mobile ? Alabama ? Tennessee ? Cumberland ? Yazoo ? Colorado ? Platte ? Penobscot ? Susquehanna ? Delaware ? Where are the White Mountains ? Green Mountains ? Adirondacs ? Catskills ? The Blue Ridge ? AUeghanies ? Cumberland Mountains ? These are ranges of what mountain system ? What States are crossed by this mountain system ? What name is sometimes applied to the western mountain system ? What are the names of its principal ranges ? Where are the Ozark Mountains ? Seaports. — Where is New York situated ? Boston ? Baltimore ? Charleston ? St. Augustine ? Savannah ? Mobile ? New Orleans ? Galveston ? Portland ? Portsmouth ? Newburyport ? Gloucester ? Provincetown ? New Bedford ? New- port ? Providence ? New Haven ? Norfolk ? Annapolis ? Wilmington ? Beaufort ? San Francisco ? Olympia ? New London ? RiVEB AND Lake Ports. — Where is Philadelphia situated ? Cincinnati ? Pitts- burg ? Washington ? Hartford ? Richmond ? Leuisville ? St. Louis ? St. Paul ? Bangor ? Albany ? Omaha ? Nashville ? West Point ? Natchez ? Chicago ? Buffalo ? Milwaukee ? Detroit ? Cleveland ? In what State is Salem ? Augusta ? Lowell ? Worcester ? Burlington ? Spring- field ? Concord ? Manchester ? Montpelier ? Lawrence ? Conway ? Nashua ? Taunton ? Rutland ? Fall River ? Plymouth ? Troy ? Harrisburg ? Rochester ? Dover ? Oswego ? Trenton ? Newark ? Paterson ? Wilmington ? Ogdensburg ? Princeton ? Wheeling ? Raleigh ? Columbus ? Atlanta ? Augusta ? Jacksonville ? Tallahassee ? Huntsville ? Montgomery ? Selma ? Jackson ? Vicksburg ? Baton Rouge ? San Antonio ? Little Rock ? St. Joseph ? Hannibal ? Memphis ? Frankfort ? Paducah ? Indianapolis ? Madison ? Galena ? Lansing ? Kalamazoo ? What are the chief settlements in Greenland ? Where is Cape Farewell ? Cape Chudleigh ? What country north of the United States ? What provinces are included in the Dominion of Canada ? Which border upon the United States 1 Which borders upon the Great Lakes ? Which is traversed by the St. Lawrence River ? Which border upon the Gulf of St. Lawrence ? Which upon the Atlantic ? Which are islands ? Which is a peninsula ? Give the capitals and chief towns of each province. Where is the Strait of Belleisle ? What is the capital of Newfoundland ? What country sonth of the United States ? Wliat mountains pass through it ? What peninsulas belong to Mexico ? What country southeast of Mexico ? What are its political divisions ? Where is the Bay of Honduras ? Of Campeche ? The Gulf of Tehuantepec ? Where is the city of Mexico ? The port of Acapulco ? Vera Cruz ? San Jose ? Guatemala ? What and where is Balize ? SPECIAL TERMS. Iceberg. — A mass of ice broken from the Arctic shores, and floating southward with eighth ninths of its weight under water. Floes. — Broken masses of floating ice in the Arctic seas. Fiords. — Deep, narrow bays on the rugged coasts of Norway and Greenland. Forts. — Military stations ; of which there are several west of the Rocky Mountains for protection against the Indians. Fort& — Trading stations throughout British America ; usually large wooden buildings where stores are exchanged for furs. Ermine, Sable, Marten, Mink. — Fur-bearing animals of the weasel family, from ten to fourteen inches long, which inhabit British America and Siberia. The ermine is white, except the tip of the tail, which is black, and is used to orna- ment articles made of the fur. The other animals have soft, dark fur. Dalles. — Rapids in the deep gorges of the northwestern rivers of the United States. Caiion. — A cut in solid rock, often several hundred feet deep, aad several miles long. The sides rise in steep walls, and a stream flows at the bottom. G-eysers. — Boiling springs which discharge at regular intervals. Butte. — A peculiar, flat-topped peak rising abruptly from the plain. Knob. — A term used for high hills in the Central States of the Mississippi Valley. Oak openings. — Park-like woods among the prairies of the North Central States. Pine barrens. — Sterile, sandy tracts, covered with pines, in the Southern States. Everglades. — The swamp forests of Southern Florida. Cane-brakes. — A dense growth of canes or reeds among the Southern swamps. Bayous. — Outlets or channels formed by inundations along the Lower Mississippi. Levee. — An embankment along the Mississippi to protect a city from inundation. Rancbo. — Spanish name for cattle-fann, used in Mexico, Texas, etc. THE UNITED STATES. Rhode Island, the smallest State in the Union, has an area of a little more than 1,000 square miles. New York is nearly fifty times as large, while Alaska is about four hundred and fifty times as large. Texas and California rank next to Alaska in size, and the Western Territories are larger than any of the older States. The State of New York has a population of over 4,000,000, Pennsylvania of over 3,500,000, while Nevada, the least populous State, has less than 50,000 inhabitants. Ohio and Illinois have about 2,500,000, and Missouri, Indiana, and Massachusetts about 1,500,000. The population of some of the principal cities, according to the eensus of 1870, is : — Cities. Population. CitlM. Population. Cities. Fopulatiou. New York . . 942,292 Chicago . . 298,977 New Orleans 191,418 PUladelphia . . . 674,022 Baltimore . . 267,354 San Francisco . 149,473 Brooklyn . . 396,099 Boston 260,626 Buffelo 117,714 St. Louis . . 310,864 Cincinnati . . . 216,239 Washington . . 109,199 More than two thirds of the exports of the United States go to Great Britain and Ireland, the rest chiefly to Canada, the West Indies, and Germany. They consist gil- most entirely of agricultural produce. First in importance stand wheat and flour ; then follow cotton, tobacco, pickled pork and hams, butter, and cheese. The imports are various, and from all the different markets of the world, — sugar, iron, steel, woollens, sUk manufactures, coffee, flax and linen, tea, tin, etc. REMARKABLE OR INTERESTING LOCALITIES. Niagara Falls. — On the Niagara River between Lakes Erie and Ontario. Trenton Falls. — Upon a branch of the Mohawk, about fifteen miles from Utica, in a limestone formation where fossils abound. Palls of St. Anthony. — On the Upper Mississippi in Minnesota. The Yosemite Valley and Mariposa Big Tree Grove. — Wonders of Cali- fornia, to be held as national parks. The Great Geysers. — Boiling fountains in the mountain region of Wyoming. Harper's Perry. — The passage of the Potomac through the Blue Ridge in Virginia. The Natural Bridge. — Also in Virginia, a natural stone arch, spanning a small branch of the James River, and more than two hundred feet above the water. Delaware Water Gap. — The passage of the Delaware through the Blue Ridge. The Palisades. — High, basaltic bluffs along the Hudson River on the Jersey side. The Pictured Rocks. — Bluffs along the shore of Lake Superior, which present to the eye fantastic shapes as seen from the lake. Mammoth Cave of Kentucky. — The most famous of many limestone caverns in the central limestone region of our country. The Notch, the Flume, and the Old Man of the Mountain. — Special points of interest among the White Hills of New Hampshii'e. The Adirondacs and Catskills. — Much frequented mountains of New York. Saratoga. — In the eastern part of New York, containing important mineral waters. Long Branch and Cape May. — Noted beaches on the coast of New Jersey. Ne'wport. — A fashionable resort, with a fine beach, on the island of Rhode Island. Nahant. — A rocky peninsula in Massachusetts Bay. ^ount Desert. — A mountainous island off the coast of Maine. \ St Augustine. — On the coast of Florida ; the oldest city in the United States. SOUTH AMERICA. '.)l SOUTH AMERICA HISTORY. The circumstances of the colonization of the two grand divisions of the American continent were sincrate climates ; higher still vegetatiow be- comes scanty, and the elevated plateaus, except here and there in some sheltered valley, are bare and dreary. At last all trace of vi-getation ceases among the highest summits, and bare rocks of granite and porphyry, often in splendid variety of colors, or snow- covered peaks encircled with mists, surround the hardy traveller who ventures into this desolate region. The only living creature to be seen is f^ie condor, an enormous bird which inhabits these rocky heights, reminding one of the eagle in North America. The Andes. Prodcctions. ~ Among the special productions of the Andes are the cacao, or bean of which the various preparations of chocolate are made ; cinchona, or the famous Peruvian bark, from which quinine is obtained, in general use as a medicine ; and tha„eoca, a shrub or sma^t^reer-BTx-or-eight feet high, the leaves of which arc chewed as Questions. — What are the special productions? What is cacao? Cinchona? Coca ? What is the condor and where found ? a narcotic by the people, especially by the Indians, who are thus enabled to go a long time without food when carrying heavy burdens over th^ mountains upon their backs. The eastern slopes of the Boliviait mountains, even as high as 8,000 feet above the sea, are covered with coca plantations. Animals. — Beside the condor hovering amx)ng the upper sum- mits, several other animals are* peculiar to this mountain-region. The lama, a sure-footed, docile, and enduring creature, is as valuable for purposes of transportation among these difficult mountains as the camel is on the African deserts. Its hair is also used, chiefly for making^ lace and dress goods, and is exported for that purpose. The alpaca goat, a smaller animal of the same family, supplies the silky alpaca wool or hair so generally used for dress fabrics. The vicuna, still another species, is a gentle, graceful creature, resembling the gazelle of Eastern countries. Its hair is exceedingly fine and soft, iuid is used to some extent by the inhabitants, but not exported. Among the Andes of Chili is found the little chinchilla, with its soft gray fur: In the lower valleys are the jaguar, tapir, ant-eater, and other animals which abound in the forest regions of South America. Mining regions. — The population and principal cities of the i Pacific States are collected in the elevated valleys, or plateaus of the ' tnining region, and nowhere else in tT^ejyorld are there so many large cities situated at so great a height above the sea-level. These cities, so difficult of access, are greatly dependent upon the :fimall ports with which they are connected on the Pacific coast. I Throughout all the mountain-ranges rich veins of silver, copper, ! and gold have yielded their treasures since the earliest days of Span- ish colonization. The more exposed veins were rudely worked by the Indians before the arrival of theSpani^ds, and since their settle- ment mines have been opened in various localities. Yet only the simplest methods of mining are in use, and the two great drawbacks to success are the difficulties of transportation over the mountain roads, and the want of water in some of the richest mining districts. Sometimes the ore must be slowly removed on pack-mules or donkeys, while a second train of mules carries a supplj'^ of water for the first. The most important mines arc those about Quito, in Ecuador, the rich copper and silver mines of Chili, and the famous mines of Mount Potosi, in the high plateau of Bolivia. This conical mountain is pierced with shafts and galleries in all directions, large masses of rock rciaaining as supports. tf Transportation across these lofty and steep mountain-ranges is everywhere difficult, and in many parts of the range no road is pos- sible. Most of the higher pas o'oo or routes can only b& traversed by the sure-footed mule or lama. Kope-bridges span narrow gorges over rushing torrents b6neath, and up the precipitous ravines and narrow defiles of Bolivia and Peru the traveller is borne in a chair, strapped to the back of an Indian porter. The rich agricultural and mineral resources of these .States have , remained of little avail, because of the cost and time necessary for transportation, — all goods being carried from the coast to the upland valleys and cities on pack-mules or lamas. Long trains of mules are continually winding along the edges of precipices, and up the almost perpendicular ascents of the apparently impassable joads. Of late years, however, since engineers have accomplished such wonders of science in the construction of tunnels, bridges, -and roads through other wild mountain-regions, efforts have been made to lessen Questions. — What animals belong particularly to tliis region ? What is said of the lama ? Wliere are the large cities of these States situated ? WhatTTsaid of metals and of mining ? What are the difficulties ? What are some of the prin^pal mining regions ? What is said of Potosi ? What is said of transportation ? What improve- ments are in progress ? SOUTH AMERICA. 95 the difficulties of transportation through these Pacific States of South America. For several y,ears railroads have connected Valparaiso vsrith Santiago, the capital of Chili, and some other towns ; and others are now in process of construction between the most valuable mining districts and the principal cities and coast towns. Coast region. — The strip of country between the mountains and the ocean is in many parts narrow, barren, and unattractive. The settlements are chiefly small ports, uninviting in appearance, where supplies are received for the upland cities, and from which the products of the interior are exported. Valparaiso, however, the chief seaport of the Pacific coast, is a handsome city of considerable size, and in active communication with ull parts of the world, carrying on a large trade with the United States Callao, in Peru, and Guayaquil, the port of Ecuador, are visited by vessels from the United States and Europe. But these, and the still smaller ports of Arica, Cobija, etc., are mere trading- stations, where goods !lre exchanged, and where travellers find the moans of continuing their journey inland. [Refer to political map, page 100.] The United States of Colombia occupy the northwest corner of South America, bordering both on the Pacific Ocean and the Carib- bean Sea. They are a confederation of nine small States, of which Panama is the most important. There is a considerable transit trade across tlie isthmus from Panama to Aspinwall. Coflee, tobacco, and cotton are the chief exports of the country. Bogota, the capital, is situated in a picturesque mountain-district, where a branch of the Magdalena Kiver, precipitated into a neigh- boring ravine, forms the beautiful Falls of Tequendama, always crowned with a column of vapor, visible at a distance of twelve iniles. Cartagena, on the Caribbean Sea, near the mouth of the Magdalena River, is the principal seaport. The Magdalena and Cauca Rivers flow north between parallel ranges of the Andes into the Caribbean Sea ; and most of the larger liorthern branches of the Amazon rise in the mountain-region of Colombia. Ecuador lies immediately south of the equator, between Colombia and Peru, and is separated from the latter by the head stream of the Amazon. The large city of Quito is situated in one of the highest valleys of he Andes, directly on the equator, and surrounded by a magnificent scries of volcanic mountains, including the lofty summits of Cliim- liorazo and Cotopaxi. Scattered over the plain around the city are villages, fields, and orchards, while flocks and herds graze on the mountain-sides ; and in the distance rise white, glittering peaks, with smoke and flames sometimes issuing from craters covered with snow. Guayaquil, the port of Quito, ranks as the second of the Pacific ports, and has a population of over 20,000. r Peru, one of the earliest settled regions of South America, was explored and conquered by Pizarro, a Spanish leader, who climbed the mountains with a company of adventurers, as Cortez had done in Mexico a few years before. Here in these high valleys of Peru, en- losed by lofty mountain-ranges, the Spaniards found another singu- :tr people, like the Aztecs of Me.xico, dwelling in cities, worshipping In massive temples, carrying on manufactures of cloth, metals, and earthenware, and far in advance of the savage tribes that inhabited Questions. — What is said of the coast region ? What are the principal ports ? Whisre is Colombia ? WJiat i.'i^tho government ? What is said of trade and export.s ? What is the capital of Colombia, and where ? What rivers in Colombia ? What State south of it ? What is said of its capital ? What is the chief seaport ? What is said of the conquest of Peru by Fizarfot the rest of the continent, and lived by hunting and fishing. The Incas, or rulers of the ancient Peruvian cities, have long since passed away ; but their old city of Cuzco still stands, containing many ruins, and here and there on the Bolivian border, in the neigh- borhood of Lake Titicaca, are found ruins of temples and palaces of the peculiar architecture of this ancient people. Lima, the capital of Peru, with a population of 70,000, is situated among the mountains, like all the cities of this region. The streets are wide and lighted by gas, but ill-paved, undrained, and dirty ; and the houses, as in other South American cities, are painted light green, yellow, white, blue, etc., and built mostly with flat roofs. Callao, the port of Lima, makes a poor appearance, with its low, flat-roofed houses, of adobe or sun-dried bricks, but has an important trade. Peru has always yielded largo supplies of silver, and along the western ridges are inexhaustible mines of nitrate of soda. Great numbers of lamas and alpacas inhabit the mountains, and cinchona- trees abound ; but of late years the vast stores of guano obtained from the Chincha Islands, lying off" the coast, have been the most important export, bringing to Peru an income twice as great as that of her metals. Multitudes of petrels, gannets, pelicans, and other sea-fowls have perched for ages on the rocks of these small islands, and the layers of guano thus formed are often thirty feet deep. It is supposed that an outlet for trade may be found through the head branches of the Amazon, along the eastern valleys of Peru ; but all this part of the country is now inhabited by hostile Indian tribes. Some of these savages not only use nets for fishing, and have sheds for salting and drying their fish, but cultivate corn and cacao, and evQfli smelt iron with considerable ingenuity. ~5^olivia, occupying the broadest and most elevated portion of the Andes, has no coast region except the barren tract known as the Desert of Atacama, and Cobija is its only port. Its upland cities are connected with the coast chiefly by the small Peruvian ports. La Paz, the chief town and seat of government, is on a high barren plain, difiBcult of access. Sucre was formerly the capital, Cochabamba, another important town, is in a pleasant valley, with more genial climate, and surrounded by gardens and fruit trees, Potosi, one of the most elevated towns on the earth, stands in a desolate plain, near the rich silver mines of Mount Potosi. Chili is one of the most prosperous of the South American States. Lying just beyond the tropics, and witliin the mild, genial climate of the south temperate zone, its fertile valleys are watered by rains brought by the Pacific winds, and yield the productions of both torrid and temperate regions. The coast belt is broader than in Peru, the mountain-range nar- rower, and, for the most part, lower and more accessible, though interspersed with volcanic peaks, of which Aconcagua is the highest. Some of the principal places near the coast are connected by rail- ways, and along the roads from the coast towns to the interior are flourishing fields of grain, vineyards, groves of almonds, and other tropical fruits. Peaches and other fruits of temperate climates grow well, and strawberries, especially, come to great perfection, Valparaiso, with its spacious suburbs and handsome villas, is the largest seaport on the western coast of South America, and has a population of about 80,000. Santiago, the capital, is a city of more than a hundred thousand Questions • What traces of the Incas remain ? What is said of the capital of Peru ? What of its port ? Wh.at are the exports of Peru 1 Where is guano found ? What is the natural oiitlet for the trade of Peru ? Why is it not available ? What is siiid of Bolivia ? Of La Paz ? Of other towns ? What is said of the condition and climate of Chili ? What of its coast and mountain-region ? What of its pro- ductions ? What of Valparaiso ? Of Santiago ? / 96 OUR WORLD. inhabitants, surrounded by magnificent scenery, and yet sufficiently accessible to be connected with its port by railroad. It is well built, with a spacious alameda, or public promenade, bordered by poplai-s, and contains good schools and creditable literary institutions. San Felipe de Aconcagua is the centre of extensive copper mines, and a mining town of considerable size and importance. Opposite the coast of Chili, in the Pacific, is the island of Juan Fernandez, the residence of Alexander Selkirk, upon whose adven- tures the story of Robinson Crusoe was founded. Patagonia. — Southward from Chili the Patagonian coast is fringed with numerous mountainous islands, bathed in almost perpetual moisture by the prevailing west winds, and covered with forests. The Andes rise abruptly from the Pacific coast and slope eastward to the Atlantic in a broad, shelving plain of sand and gravel. Only scanty shrubs and grass are produced, and the inhabitants live chiefly by hunting and fishing. The most important animals are a kind of deer, the ostrich, and the guanaco, a species of lama. Water-fowl abound along the coasts. The Patagonians dress in long mantles of guanaco hide, reaching from the shoulders to the feet, and often grotesquely ornamented with black and red paint. They live in huts formed of rows of stakes driven into the ground and covered with guanaco hides. Separated from the mainland by the Strait of Magellan is Tierra del Fuego, or Land of Fire, which consists of a group of islands, ter- minating in Cape Horn, the southern extremity of the continent. The general aspect of these islands is wild and desolate, though some parts are well wooded with the antarctic or evergreen beech. A few tribes of savages are the only inhabitants. ThQ passage around Cape Horn is much dreaded by sailors on account of high winds, extreme cold, and occasional icebergs from the Antarctic waters. The navigation of the Strait of Magellan is strait of Magellan. tedious and difficult. In many parts of the strait the scenery is quite striking, — the banks rise on both sides in rugged cliffs, while snow- covered summits and glaciers are seen on every side. Questions. - What is the chief mining town ? What island off the coast of Chili I What country south of Chili ? What is its character ? What of its in- habitants ? What islands south of Patagonia ? What is said of them ? What of mavigation in this vicinity ? East of the southern point of Patagonia is a group of islands be- longing to England, called the Falkland Islands. THE PAMPAS. The broad expanse of country between the Andes and the Parana River consists chiefly of immense treeless plains, known as the "Pampas." This boundless level, covered with luxuriant bunch-grass, four or five feet high, or with still .taller thistles and other herbage, is with- out path or landmarks to the inexperienced eye, and interrupted only at long intervals by a solitary tree or cluster of cactus. Toward the northern borders the grassy surface is interspersed with stony tracts, groves of trees, or patches of bush, and along the base of the moun- tains there is a belt of marshes and ponds, overgrown with aquatic plants. Many parts of the plain are perforated by the numerous holes of the InscacJms, small animals that burrow in the earth like the prairie-dogs and rabbits of the North American prairies ; and, instead of the grouse or prairie-hens, are occasional flocks of South American ostriches running swiftly over the plain upon their long, awkward legs. As long as the earth retains any moisture from the annual rains the thick pampas-grass and dark green thistles spread in one vast sea of verdure, affording pasturage for innumerable herds of wild cattle and horses ; and even when the grass begins to dry into hay there is still abundance of nourishing food. But toward the end of- the dry season, especially if the drought is unusually protracted, the grass and thistles crumble into powder, animals perish with thirst while seeking the banks of the river, and clouds or whirlwinds of dust, like the sand storms of the African desert, overwhelm the traveller. In the eastern part of the plain, along the banks of the Parana River, the solemn grandeur of this vast expanse is exchanged for beautiful meadows, extensive lawns, with here and there palm-trees, and a variety of productions of both the tropical and temperate zones. The Argentine Republic. — The region just described formerly included a number of separate provinces, which are now united under one government, and form the Argentine Republic, with the city of Buenos Ayres as its capital and chief commercial port. The country has many natural advantages, — unlimited pastures, a fertile soil, navigable rivers, and a surface adapted to easy trans- portation. But this republic has not attained the prosperity and importance to which it seems entitled by nature, owing chiefly to political disturbances, wars with neighboring States, and revolutions and dissensions within its own limits. Intelligent statesmen have been constantly opposed, in all their efforts for the welfare of the country, by the ignorant Indian population, and by a class of men still more unmanageable, called the Gauchos, or inhabitants of the Pampas. < These Gauchos are descendants of Spanish adventurers, and have sunk to a half-civilized condition, hating the restraint of law and order, and abandoning themselves to the wild, free life of herdsmen on these broad plains. Their poor habitations are scarcely homes ; for, being sent out daily in boyhood to the corral with the cattle, they soon learn to live on horseback, scouring the plains after wild Questions. — What group of islands east of Patagonia ? What and where are the Pampas ? What is said of their vegetation and appearance ? What are the most com- mon animals ? What is the appearance of the Pampas in the dry season ? What of the country along the Parana River ? What is the Argentine Republic ? What are its natural advantages ? Wh.it has interfered with its prosijerity ? Who are the Gauchos ? Describe their manner of life. SOUTH AMERICA. 97 herds, lasso in hand ; and collect in the wretched hovels that serve as taverns, where they drink a kind of beer, gamble, and use too freely the dagger or knife that is never wanting at a Gaucho's side. They regard the population of the cities with jealousy and hatred, frequently oppose their plans, and sometimes obtain control of the government. The country has now an intelligent and patriotic President, who has introduced many improvements in schools and government af- fairs ; and the condition of the country is comparatively quiet and hopeful. The most populous and best cultivated portion of the country is the pleasant district about the Parana River, northward from Buenos Ayres. Fields of grain alternate with woods and pastures, and towns and villages are scattered over the country, the neatest and most thriving of which are occupied by companies of Scotch or Germans who have emigrated to South America. Buenos Ayres, on the lower course of the river where it takes the name of La Plata, is one of the finest cities of South America, and- has considerable trade, chiefly with Great Britain and the United States. The foreign residents are quite numerous as compared with other South American cities, and there are several Protestant churches. Cordova is a quaint old Spanish city, with a Jesuit college and a new National Observatory. The other chief towns are Mendoza and San Juan. Notwithstanding the fertile soil, the exports of the Argentine Republic are not agricultural products, but almost entirely wool, hides, tallow, salted meat, horsehair, and ostrich feathers from the Pampas. Wool alone constitutes one half the value of the exports. In exchange for these products, England and the United States send to Buenos Ayres manufactured goods, machinery, coal, and iron. Several railroads are in the process of construction, machinery and cars being sent from the United States ; but over the Pampas journeys are made in companies on horseback, with guides and provisions for camping out, and there is always danger of an attack by Indians. East of the Argentine Republic lie the two small States of Uruguay and Paraguay. Uruguay includes a portion of the Pampas, which extend beyond the river, and is very similar to the country westward. Its exports are hides, tallow, bones, wool, and sheep-skins. Montevideo, the capital and seaport, is quite a flourishing city, and lias a large trade, chiefly with England. Paraguay, included between the Parana River and its chief branch, the Paraguay, is an inland State. Asuncion, on the Paraguay River, is the capital. The principal article of commerce is the male or Paraguay tea, a species of holly cultivated in large plantations. The leaves, when dried, are ground to powder, and extensively used in South America as a substitute for tea. Most of the manufactures supplied to the South American States ome from Great Britain. Emigrants from European countries go to his part of the continent, and large commercial houses are conducted by English, French, and German merchants. Questions. — What is the present condition of the country ? Where is the most flourishing district ? What is said of emigrants ? What is said of Buenos Ayres ? What other towns are mentioned heside Buenos Ayres ? What are the exports from the Argentine Republic ? What are the imports of this and neighboring South Amer- ican States ? What is said of travelling ? What small States ea.st of the Argentine Republic ? What is said of Uruguay ? Of its exports ? Of its capital ? What is said of Paraguay ? What is its chief town ? Its chief article of commerce ? Who are the merchants of these States ? Bndlian Fonat. BRAZIL. The great eastern or central mass of the continent is included in the empire of Brazil, the largest and most important of the South American countries. Brazil was settled by the Portuguese, but, outgrowing its connection with the mother-country, like the Spanish and English colonies in America, it asserted its independence, though not as a republic. The son of the King of Portugal,,who had been in the Brazilian province for some time, was chosen by the people as their ruler, with the title of Emperor, and the country was soon afterward recognized as the Empire of Brazil. There is a very mild form of monarchical govern- ment, however, and Don Pedro II., the reigning Emperor, is an in- telligent man, interested in the welfare and progress of his people. The resources of the country are varied and inexhaustible, and much progress has been made of late years in education, trade, and social condition. The great obstacle to commercial prosperity has been the want of good roads for rapid transportation over such a vast Questions. — What is said of the position and extent of Brazil ? By whom was it settled ? What is its history ? What is its present condition ? What is the great obstacle to commercial prosperity ? / 98 OUR WORLD. extent of country ; but several railroads are already built, and others are in contemplation. This great empire includes within its limits every variety of surface and scenery, with all the material resources which belong to the South American continent. 1. E.xtensive tracts of grass pasture, a continuation of the Pampas east of the Parana River, afibrd ample opportunity for stock-raising, and supply wool, hides, tallow, beef, and horn for exportation. 2. Tlie broad Brazilian plateau, with its bare plains and rocky ridges, contains gold, platinum, and stone for building purposes. It is especially rich in diamonds, which look like dull pebbles when washed from the sands of the rivers, but, when cut and polished, are of great brilliancy and value, though not as large as those of some mines in the East. Many parts of the plateau are wild and picturesque, with mountains, ravines, rivers, and waterfalls ; while the rich valleys and fertile coast districts are admirably adapted to the cultivation of coffee, cacao, sugar-cane, cotton, indigo, aucf other tropical productions. 3. The magnificent selvas or forests of the Amazon spread over hundreds of miles along the course of the great river, and supply the most brilliant dyes, the most useful gums, and all the varieties of costly cabinet woods, — mahogany, rosewood, satinwood, ebony, etc. The palms, which are abundant in Brazil, snpply the native Indians with food, drink, oil, thatching for their huts, fibres for nets, cordage, and mats. Bananas, yams, the cassava or tapioca plant, and various tropical fruits, serve as means of subsistence to many tribes. In the forests, plains, and rivers of Brazil are found all the animals of the South American fauna. None of the huge African quadrupeds belong to this continent, and the fierce wild beasts are represented chiefly by the jaguar, or American leopard, and the puma, or American lion, both of which are much feared by the natives. The tapir, an animal resembling the hog, inhabits the forests, and other character- istic animals are the sloths, ant-eaters, armadilloes, monkeys, and, in the western mountains, vicunas and alpacas. The deep forest thickets abound with serpents, lizards, ants, scorpions, mosquitoes, humming-birds, parrots, toucans, and other birds with brilliant plumage. The Selvas. — This region, spreading over an area five or six times as large as the whole of France, surpasses every other part of the world in wild luxuriance of tropical vegetation. The trees rise to an enormous height from a rich undergrowth of yoiing palms, canes, and rare and beautiful ferns. Their great trunks are often entwined with graceful creepers, or clothed with brilliant aerial orchids of fantastic forms and colors, while, from bough to bough, the gigantic lianas, or woody vines, hang in heavy festoons. The Amazon, rising in the Andes, flows through this whole region, receiving numerous branches from the north and the south. For many miles these rivers wind through forests, where the sun never penetrates the dense foliage, and damp mists' hover like clouds among the trees. At long intervals, in the more open parts of the selvas, Indian villages stand on the banks of the river ; but many large tracts are wholly impassable, except for the canoe that floats on the narrow streams leading to the main river, through dim shades of over- hanging boughs ; and into some of the forest-depths no human being has ever penetrated. Birds of gay plumage flutter among the branches ; tall flamingoes, Questions — Describe the three natural divisions of Brazil. Upon what pro- ductions do the Indians depend ? What are the animals of Brazil ? What and where are the selvas t Describe this forest region with its birds and animals. herons, and spoonbills stalk along the marshy river-banks, and myriads of humming-birds flash like gems as they hover and flit among the flowers. Monkeys of many kinds and sizes, distinguished from their kindred in __ Africa by their long, prehensile tails, scream and chatter in the trees. Dex- terously coiling their tails, they swing from bough to bough, or, clinging one to another, they form, with their bodies, living bridges from tree to tree for the passage of their companions. Troops of plump little peccaries run hither and thither, rooting for nuts like wild pigs, which, indeed, they are often called. Alligators frequent the rivers in great numbers, and the huge boa-constrictor crushes his prey in his deadly coils, swallowing large animals, and occasionally a human victim. The puma prowls in forest thick- ets, and the jaguar climbs the trees after monkeys or birds, or, creeping out on low branches overhanging the streams, lies in wait for such fish as may come within reach of his stealthy, cat-like claw. Large parts of Brazil are inhabited by tribes of Indians, some partly civilized, appearing in the cities from time to time to barter feathers, gums, dyestuffs, etc., for other wares; others savage and often hostile to the whites, making it dangerous for explorers to go too far inland without protection. Throughout the western and central parts of the empire there are few towns or white settlements ; but villages are scattered through the mining regions of the plateau, and along the lower banks of the Amazon. Farther up the river are a few small settlements, solitary farm-houses, Indian huts at long intervals, and finally depths of forest with no habitations. Para is a well-known town, toward the mouth of the Amazon, where explorers, traders, and emigrants make their last prepara- tions for starting upon the somewhat adventurous journey into the interior. Along the coast are several important ports, and in the neigh- boring valleys are villages and large cofl'ee and sugar planta- tions. Bahia is an important port for the exportation of sugar. Rio Janeiro, the chief commercial port of South America and one Questions. — What is said of the population of large parts of Brazil ? Where are the towns and villages chiefly ? What settlements on the Amazon ? What is said of Para ? Of the coast country ? Where is Bahia ? What and where is Rio Janeiro ? What is said of its situation ? SOUTH AMERICA. 99 of the large cities of the Western Continent, is the capital of Brazil and residence of the emperor. It is delightfully situated just within the tropics, and its fine bay is said to be equal in beauty to the famous Bay of Naples, or the Bosphorus at Constantinople. Fantastic moun- tains enclose the bay, stretching along the shore in irregular and pic- turesque outlines, and the city is built on the level spaces between them. The streets wind in among the hills, and along their slopes rise rows of houses, their light walls and red-tiled roofs contrasting strikingly with the intervening masses of dark green foliage. The dwellings, usually of stone or stucco, are of two stories, which is rather uncommon in South America. The prominent elevations are occupied by churches and convents. On one side rises the Morro de Castello, overlooking the harbor, with its foreign shipping, and on the other stands the convent of San Beato. In front of the city, and facing the broad expanse of the bay, with I its lovely palm-covered islands, is a terrace, three hundred feet in length, paved with marbles, and enclosed by low walls, with trees and flower-vases. The streets of the city are filled with priests, monks of difl'erent orders, venders of sweetmeats, beggars, and pedlers, who go about bearing trays of merchandise, as the ladies of South America seldom go out for their shopping. Especially to be noticed in the streets of Kio are the coflfee-carriers ; for, though wagons are used more than formerly, long lines of half-naked negroes may still be seen bearing upon their heads great sacks of coifee, keeping time, in a running trot, to the measure of a monotonous chant. Beautiful suburbs extend along each shore and back into the inte- rior, interspersed with villas and orange groves. Here reside most of the nobility, ministers of state, and ambassadors, forming a mixed population of Brazilians and foreigners from various parts of the world. The massive aqueducts which span the ravines between the hills are supplied by rivulets from the mountains ; and washer- women bring their great baskets of clothes from the city to be washed in the streams, as is customary in all South American cities. Farther inland follow gardens, villages, hedges of prickly pear, bamboo fences, fields of sugar-cane, and large coffee plantations. The beautiful coffee shrubs, with their dark glossy leaves, white flowers, and clusters of scarlet berries, are planted in long rows, five or six feet apart, and protected from the heat of the sun by the broad spreading upper branches of lofty shade-trees, the lower boughs being cut away to allow free passage of air and light. Each plantation is supplied with a stone court or pavement, upon which the berries are crushed, and the grains dried for exporta- tion. Such quantities of coffee are shipped from this region that " Rio coffee " has become a familiar term in Europe and the United States. The cassava, or flour prepared from the root of the manioc plant, is largely consumed in many parts of Brazil, and is made into bread and a variety of dishes. The creamy substance deposited from the juice of the crushed roots is the tapioca of commerce. Bananas are to the people of South America what dates are to the Arabs, or olives to the peasants of the Mediterranean Sea. They arp , served in various ways on the tables of all classes, and are the prin- cipal food of the poor. This nourishing and delicious fruit is pro- duced in such abundance that it can be bought everywhere at the most trifling cost. A Questions. — Of its houses and convents ? Of its streets ? Of its suburbs ? Of the interior ? Describe the coffee shnib and plantations ? What is cassava ? What ii laid of bananas ? 7h GUIANA. The only part of South America not in the possession of the Span- ish or Portuguese population is the district lying along the northeast coast, divided into three colonies, which belong respectively to the French, Dutch, and English. The hot, moist climate and fertile soil produce fine forests and tropical fruits. Though the coast is low and not easily accessible, these colo- nies carry on an extensive commerce, exporting sugar, coffee, cotton, and spices. Cayenne pepper comes mostly from the French port. Much of the inland country consists of upland plains, but some parts of the coast are so low and flat that in portions of George- town, the capital of British Guiana, there are canals in place of streets, and many of the houses are built on posts. Paramaribo is the capital of Dutch Guiana. The Cacao. VENEZUELA. Venezuela occupies the northern portion of the continent, be- tween Guiana and the United States of Colombia, including the llanos or plains of the Orinoco, magnificent forests in the plateau south of this river, and the mountain region crossed by the north- ern ranges of the Andes that turn eastward along the Caribbean Sea. The Llanos. — These plains, extending along the northern bank of the river and westward for a thousand miles or more, are covered with tall grass, like the pampas, which becomes parched and dusty in times of drought. Toward the close of the dry season large tracts are burned over, in order that the grass may spring up more luxuriantly when the rains come, and make rich pastures. Questions. — Where is Giiiiina ? To whom does it belong ? What is the nature of the country? What are the cX|iorts? Where is Cayenne? What is said of Georgetown ? What is the capital of Dutch Guiana ? Where is Venezuela ? What is said of its surface ? Describe the llanos. / Afj, 3i Went „ ^i:v EAJi./L-!«,i */ SOUTH AMERICA. 101 The llaneros or plainsmen are as expert in the management of their wild steeds as the Gauchos, and from being continually on horseback acquire a rolling gait like that of sailors, so that they are easily recognized in the towns when they come to sell cattle and hides, or are driven from the plains by inundations. 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Silk-making, with the cultivation of the mulberry and the rearing of the worms, belongs especially to this region, giving employment to the whole population of many towns and villages of Italy, and to thousands of laborers in the silk factories of France. In strong contrast with the ruined temples, broken marbles, and half-buried columns of the ancient cities are the various colored houses of the more modern towns, with their flat, red-tiled roofs, conspicuous from afar. In this mild climate it is the custom to live much out of doors, and the people not only tend vineyards, fields, and flocks, but spin, weave, and dance in the open air. GEEECE. While England and Germany were still inhabited by barbarians, the ancient Greeks reached the height of their glory and prosperity, rep- resenting the beauty and refinement of the age. Their city of Athens was the centre of art, literature, and philosophy, and was adorned by the great sculptor Phidias with columns and statues, which have remained as models for after-ages. Greece was subdued by the all-conquering Romans, and shared the fortunes of the Empire, sinking deeper into obscurity as civilization spread westward, and the modern European nations grew in pros- perity. Later still the country was devastated by the Turks, who burned and laid waste forests, fields, and villages, driving the inhabi- tants into the mountain fastnesses of the interior. With the aid of other Europeans the Greeks freed themselves from the dominion of the Turks, after a desperate conflict, and a monarchical government was established. The country is comparatively quiet now, under King George I., a son of the King of Denmark ; though a bitter hos- tility «till exists between Greek and Turk, and the whole land out- side the towns is infested by robbers. The great mass of the people are poor and ignorant, and some fierce clans live secluded in the inaccessible mountain provinces. Except for the loss of the forests destroyed by the Turks, Greece is physically what it was hundreds of years ago, when the shepherds piped in Arcadia and the Olympic games were held in the sacred groves. It is a rugged and mountainous peninsula, strikingly irregu- lar in outline, and so deeply indented that the southern part, formerly Questions. — Mention other products. What occupation is very general ? What is the principal occupation in many towns and villages ? What is said of architecture ? What is said of the Greeks ? What has been the history of Greece / What is its present condition ? Describe the country. EUEOPE. 105 known as the Peloponnesus, forms a lesser peninsula, only con- nected with northern Greece by the isthmus of Corinth. It is a land of mountain-ridges, deep, narrow valleys, torrents, glades, and dells, with a coast of rocky headlands worn into caverns and ,i;-rottos. The slopes are covered with vineyards, and the small, seedless raisins, known in commerce as currants, are exported from these shores and the neighboring islands in immense quantities yearly. During the currant vintage rich proprietors reside in their coun- try villas to superintend the harvest, upon which they chiefly depend. On the rugged isthmus are the remains of the once wealthy city of Corinth, where one of the early Christian churches was estab- lished, to which two of St. Paul's Epistles were addressed. Orpcian niin. Athens stands on the plain of Attica, five miles from the sea, with the celebrated fortress of the Acropolis upon a platform of rock rising abruptly from one to three hundred feet above the town. On tiie highest site in Athens stands the classic Parthenon, which has served as a model for so many public buildings in modern times. Among other famous ruins are the temple of Theseus and the Areopagus. In the streets of the new town people from the East and the West are to be seen, and a variety of national and foreign costumes. The Greek costume is beginning to disappear in the capital, but the young palikars, or nobles, still wear their crimson jackets and boots embroidered with gold, full white linen skirts reaching to the knee, and the Fez cap of red cloth, so common on the Mediterranean shores. Islands. — No part of the Mediterranean is more full of interest than the numerous islands scattered over its eastern seas. Tiny and insignificant as they appear on the map, those "isles of Greece" have been the theme of poets of all nations from the time of Homer. Though they are no longer so finely cultivated as of old, large populations are supported still, and vineyards and olive-groves cover the hillsides, villages nestle in the valleys, large cities stand Questions. — What is said of currants ? Of the isthmus of Corinth ? Where is Athens ? What is the Acropolis ? What are some of the ruing ? What is said of the modern city and costumes ? What is said of the islands ? on the plains, and convents, monasteries, and fortresses crown the rocky heights rising from the blue sea. The Ionian Islands, comprising Corfu, Santa Maura, Cophalonia, Zante, and others in the Adriatic, were settled by the Greeks, but, after the fall of Greece, were overrun by one nation after an- other, and are now under the protection of England. They occu- py a central, position for trade, and export wines, currants,- and olive-oil. C<5rfu, especially, is an important military station and commercial depot, strongly garrisoned by English soldiers, and is remarkable for beauty of scenery and a delightful climate. Good roads lead from the ports inland, ending in bridle-paths among the mountains. And here, as in Greece, groups of women at the wells or fountains, with their long, flowing drapery, and ample folds of linen falling from the head, give an Oriental charm to the scene. Cephalonia, the largest of the islands, is similar to Corfu in scenery and productions. Cur- rants form its chief export. Zante, especially, is noted for currants, which are cultivated on every hill. The little island of Ithaca, though of no modern interest, is full of memories of the most brilliant period of Greek chivalry, and is immortalized in the Odyssey as the home of its hero, Ulysses. The iEcEAN Islands include the Cyclades, belonging to Greece, and the Sporades, belonging to Tnrkey. Thr Cyclades are the group around Delos, once sacred to Apollo, and adorned with a temple revered by all Greece, but now a desolate rock. Naxos, the largest and most beautiful of the group, is famous for its wine, and it produces also oil, figs, oranges, and lemons. Pares is celebrated for quarries of marble, formerly used in Greece for the finest statues. The Sporades, islands along the eastern coast, of which Samothrace, Lesbos, and Scio are the chief, now belong to Turkey, though colo- nized by the Greeks. These islands sufiered terribly from the rav- ages of the Turks, but have improved in late years, and the citron and orange groves are springing up again. Wine, oil, and fruits are exported. Cos is one of the most beautiful of the islands. Rhodes, celebrated in ancient times for its colossal statue of bronze, was for two centuries the stronghold of the Knights of St. John. Crete, or Candia, one of the most fertile islands, is covered with an abundant growth of aromatic herbs, myrtle, orange, lemon, pome- granate, and almond trees. After long oppression by the Turks, the Cretans have recently made a desperate but unsuccessful struggle for independence. ITALY. [Refer to maps on pages 111, 120, and 121.] In ancient times the name of this country was lost in that of its great city. Rome was then the centre of civilization and power, and our associations with Italy begin only after the downfall of the Roman Empire, and the rise of modern European kingdoms. Instead of consolidating into a strong, central power, like its ancient representative, Italy has been divided into small kingdoms and free cities, each eager for its own aggrandizement. Torn by dissensions and jealousies, and overrun by French and Austrians, its« history is a tissue of wars, conspiracies, treachery, and oppression. Questions. — What and wliere are the Ionian Islands ? What is said of their position and exports ? Describe Corfu. What is said of Cephalonia ? Of Zante ? Of Ithaca and its history ! Of Santa Maura ? What is said of the jEgean islands ? What are the Cyclades ? What is said of Delos ? Of Naxos ? Paros ? What are the Sporades ? What is said of their condition ? Of Rhodes ? Of Crete ? What is .said of Italy ? Of its history ? 106 OUR WORLD. The war of 1859, however, resulted in the establishment of a national g-overninent, under King Victor Emmanuel, and considerable improvement has already been made in the condition of the country. Scenery and productioiis. — The Alps form a mountain-boun- dary between Switzerland and Italy, and Northern Italy con- tains Alpine heights, glens, and lovely lakes. Here are Lakes Garda and Maggiore, and Como with its precipitous but.richlj' culti- vated banks, its villas and terraces, and its boatmen in picturesque costume. • ' At the base of the Alps spread the fertile plains of Lombardy and Piedmont, drained by the river Po, and abundantly irrigated by means of canals. Fine crops of grain and grapes are raised. Lom- bardy is the silk-region of Italy, almost the whole population bein^ occupied in cultivating the mulberry-trees and rearing the silk- worm. The southern peninsula is traversed from north to south by the Apennines, rugged and picturesque ranges, sending out headlands on either side, and becoming wilder and ruder toward the south, where the mountains attain their greatest elevation and a savage grandeur of scenery. The volcanic region of Italy extends along the coast from Naples southward, including Mount Vesuvius, Mount Etna in Sicily, and the volcano of Stromboli in the Lipari Islands. Nothing can exceed the beauty of Italian scenery. Towns and villages, with their bright colors, are scattered thickly over the plains, or perched on crags and clifl's amid vineyards and olive- groves. White villas, with terraces, balu.strades, vases, and statues, peep out from vines or groves of the flat-topped, Italian stone- pine, and behind all rises a wall of richly wooded mountains. The people are engaged chiefly in agriculture, and with little labor and very defective methods, grain, vegetables, and delicious fruits are produced. Olive-oil, fruits, safl'ron, capers, drugs or medicinal plants, and grain are largely exported. Wines are made throughout the country, but, owing to the method of manufacture,, do not im- prove with age, and are unfit for exportation. The principal export is silk, exceeding in value all the others. The other manufactured exports are chiefly velvets, braided straw in which the Italians ex- cel, mosaics, carved marbles, porcelain, majolica-ware, artificial flowers, and jewelry. Macaroni, of which the people are extrava- gantly fond, is a dry, hard paste of flour made into rolls or sticks, and is an article of export. Immense numbers of sardines and anchovies are also exported, and the coral-fisheries along the coasts supply the costly red, pink, and white coral used for ornaments. Men go out in boats, and drag the rocky bottom with wooden frames or nets, in which the coral becomes entangled ; but the delicate branches are crushed in this way, and the finest coral is obtained by diving. Cities. — During the Middle Ages many of the Italian cities were noted as seats of learning, in the midst of the general ignorance, and the ancient universities of Bologna, Sienna, Padua, and others are still in existence. Venice and other ports were then the commercial centres of Europe, supplying the Western World with silks, velvets, and brocades. The cities of Italy contain museums and art-galleries filled with the works of Michael Angelo, Raphael, Canova, and other artists, which serve as models for the civilized world. Nothing is more characteristic of these cities than the beautiful suburban villas Questions. — What is the present condition of Italy ? What mountains on the ^ north of Italy ? Describe North Italy. What is said of the valley of the Po ? Of the southern peninsula ? Where is the volcanic region ? What is said of the scenery ? Of agriculture ? What are the productions ? Exports ? Manufactures ? What is said of the coral-fisheries ? What is said of Italian cities of the Middle Age ? belonging to nobles, who spend their incomes for fine houses, statues, and pictures, though obliged to live with the greatest frugality. The Roman Catholic religion is established throughout the country, shrines stand by the waysides, and the cathedrals and churches are adorned with the costliest works of art. In the streets are seen various orders of monks, easily recognized by their costumes. Rome. - - On the banks of the Tiber, in the midst of a great plain known as the Campagna, stands Rome, once mistress of the world, making a brilliant picture in the history of ancient times, when the incense of costly sacrifices rose day and night from the altars of her temples, when triumphal processions of her victorious generals moved through the streets with captive princes chained to their chariots, and slaves bearing the rich spoils of war, and when thou- sands of her people gathered in the amphitheatres to witness combats of wild beasts, or of gladiators, trained swordsmen who fought in the arena before fair ladies as well as brutal soldiers. And when the Empire had fallen, Rome ruled the mediaeval world by other means ; for, as the Christian religion spread, the Pope of Rome became all-powerful, receiving the homage of the kings and princes of Europe. The city and neighboring provinces came into the possession of the Pope, under the title of States of the Church. Ancient Rome has almost disappeared ; the principal remains being aqueducts, tombs, gates, baths, and arches, all crumbling to decay, and the Colosseum, a vast amphitheatre, with tiers of seats still re- maining, where the ancient Romans sat to witness the combats of fierce lions, tigers, and even men. The modern city has its own interests and associations, and Rome is now the capital of united Italy. The chief buildings are the im- mense Church of St. Peter, with its huge dome, lofty colonnades. Questions. — What are the characteristics of the cities ? What is the religion of the country ' Where is Rome situated ? What is said of ancient Rome ? Who were gladiators ? What is said of the later power of Rome ? What are the States of the Church ? What is said of the ruins of ancient Rome ? Of the Church of St. Peter ? EUEOPE. 107 and uumerous statues of saints on the entablatures, each twelve feet high ; and the Vatican, the residence of the Pope, adorned with Raphael's pictures and the frescoes of Michael Angelo. Among the characteristic features of the city are its magnificent old palaces, with their massive stone walls, quadrangular courts, and great stair- ways. These are the dwellings of descendants of noble families, proud of their birth, and unwilling to part with their hereditary mansions, though sometimes very poor. The ground-floors, with grated windows, are let to tradesmen, or used for stables, and the broad stairs, though of fine marble, are often covered with dirt. In Rome are many studios of artists, \*^ho go from all parts of Eu- rope and America to study art, and who may be seen in the gal- leries or grand old churches copying the works of the masters. The great festival at Rome is the Carnival season, when the streets are filled with masqueraders, carriages wreathed with flowers, and witit a joyous populace throwing flowers, bonbons, and egg-shells filled with perfumed water. Civita Vecchia, the port of Rome, is thirty miles distant, and connected with it by railroad. Naples, south of Rome, is built on the shores of a beautiful bay. Suburbs extend along the shore, and the cliffs and headlands are studded with castles and houses. In the distance rises Mount Vesu- vius, sometimes smoking, sometimes in active eruption. Near by stood the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum, buried by ashes or lava during the first known eruption of the mountain, in the year 79, and not discovered till about a century ago. Florence, situated in the valley of the Arno, is one of the most beautiful cities of Italy. It is an attractive residence for foreigners on account of its healthful climate, grand historical monuments, and numerous art-treasures. The Campanile, or bell-tower, by the side of its splendid Cathedral, and the bronze gates of the Bap- tistery, with designs in bas-relief, are especially admired. Leghorn, one of the chief commercial cities of Italy, supplies the interior with the produce of European countries, and exports silks, rags, drugs, coral, and alabaster-work, beside the straw hats and braids for which it is famous. Genoa, situated on a gulf scarcely less beautiful than the Bay of Naples, is another important city, exporting velvets, silks, damasks, gold and silver work, and artificial flowers. Turin is surrounded by scenery of unrivalled grandeur. Milan is noted for its beautiful Gothic cathedral of white marble, the grandest specimen of that style of architecture in the world. All its prominent points are crowned with colossal statues, of which there are said to be more than four thousand. Milan manufactures fine chemical instruments, and is the centre of the silk-trade. Venice is built on seventy-two little islands in tiie shallows of the Adriatic, and seems to rise out of the water. Many parts are trav- ersed by canals instead of streets, and the long, black gondolas glide noiselessly up to the houses. Some of these water-streets are narrow and sombre ; but the Grand Canal, which winds through the city, is broad, light, and gay. As soon as a steamer drops anchor at its entrance it is surrounded by a little fleet of gondolas, which, re- ceiving passengers, glide lightly and gracefully over the water. Along the canal rise marble-fronted palaces, and beyond them the domes and spires of the churches. Among the beautiful edifices for which Venice is famed are the Doge's Palace and the Church of St. Mark. The Ducal Palace is connected with the prisons by the cele- Questdons. — Wliat is the Vatican ? What is said of the palaces ? Of studios ? Of the Carnival ? What is said of Naples ? Of Mount Vesuvius ? Of Florence ? Of Leghorn ? Genoa ? Turin ? Milan ? Venice ? Venetian houses and canal, brated Bridge of Sighs, so full of sad memories. The Rialto, abroad bridge across the Grand Canal, is a general thoroughfare. Pisa, with its loaning tower, Ravenna, Mantua, Verona, Padua, and many other places have special associations of beauty or past history. Sicily. — South of Italy is the beautiful island of Sicily, famous alike for classic remains and for the grand volcano of Etna, which has thundered and raged at intervals through many ages. The scenery of the island is magnificent. Ruins of ancient temples or strong for- tresses rise from mountains and precipices, which overhang groves of dark green ilex. Village houses, painted white and yellow, stand at the base of cliffs hung with purple flowers, and surmounted by con- vents or picturesque castles looking seaward. The climate is like that of Southern Italy, and through the whole year the foliage of the orange and fig trees remains in the valleys, the cactus and aloe border the waj'sido, and over the mountain run myrtle, arbutus, and laurel, while beside convent and villa stand the dark cypresses. The wealth of the island consists entirely of its natural products. Half the cultivated lands are devoted to grain-fields and pastures, and the remainder to vineyards, olive-groves, orchards, and gardens. The vine flourishes everywhere, but is only cultivated near the coasts. Questions. — What is said of other Italian cities ? Eor what is Sicily famous f What is said of its scenery ? Of its climate and productions ? 108 OUR "WORLD. because of the diflSculty of transportation. Oil from the olive-groves is one of the principal exports. Fruits are exported in immense quantities, and there are large plantations of or-ange, lemon, and citron trees. The inferior qualities of these fruits are used for vari- ous purposes ; oil is expressed from their rind, citric acid is obtained from the pulp of the lemon, and a rich cordial from tlie peel of the orange. The best oranges and lemons are gathered carefully, wrapped in paper made for the purpose, and packed in boxes for exportation. Messina alone exports half a million boxes of oranges annually. Mount Etna rises about 11,000 feet above the sea. Its lower slopes are covered with rich vegetation, intersected by streams of black lava, which, slowly decomposing, makes the richest of soils. The middle or " woody region " is covered with forests of lofty trees, — chestnut, filbert, and cork-oak ; and above this follows a desert region of stunted plants ; and lastly a dreary waste of lava, ashes, and scoriae forms the crest of the mountain, with the crater in the midst emitting sulphurous vapors. On the summit patches of snow lie all the year, and no sound of life is heard, but only the thunder of tempests and the tremendous explosions of the mountain. Such is the fertility of the lower. region of Etna, that no other part of the island is so thickly inhabited, and nowhere are the people so well housed, clothed, and fed as in the fifty or sixty villages on its slopes, where they enjoy their comforts, forgetful of the danger that constantly threatens. Here stands the city of Catania, encircled by groves and dark beds of lava. The lava from Etna has filled up its harbor, consumed its gardens, cruslied its walls, and nearly buried the city again and again ; and yet Catania has arisen from its ruins, ei-ected new pal- aces, and founded more splendid churches and convents ; the very* substance which ravaged the plains being used for the reconstruction of the city. Streets are paved with lava, churche* and palaces are built of lava, and the city seems to be a direct produfct of the volcano. On all sides are cornfields, vineyards, olive-groves, cottages covered with vine leaves, villages, and charming villas, all resting upon the lava. In 1693 Catania was destroyed by an eruption from a new crater. There issued first an imnicnse quantity of black smoke, then, with a terrible crash, a torrent of lava burst forth, red-hot rocks shot high in the air, and the ashes and sand reached Malta, at a distance of 130 miles, while the lava flowed over valleys, forests, and vil- lages. I Messina, the northeastern port of the island, stands in the midst of 'a rich country, and exports wine, oil, silk, and fruits. Palermo is memorable as the scene of the massacre of the French by the Sicilians, known in history as the Sicilian Vespers. Syracuse, once mistress of Sicily, and the rival of Athens, is now only a provincial town, a mass of rude dwellings, churches, and convents piled in strange confusion upon the hillside, and surrounded by beds of lava. Malta. — The English possess not only the fortress of Gibraltar, commanding the entrance of the Mediterranean, but also the island of Malta. The position of this rocky island, the enormous strength of its fortifications, and its magnificent harbor make it the most im- portant military and naval station of the Mediterranean, and a useful depot for the manufactures of Great Britain, which are distributed by small vessels to every point on the coast. After an eventful history in ancient times, Malta was bestowed by the Emperor Charles V. upon the Knights of St. John, who had been Questions. — What is said of oranges, lemons, and citrons ? AVliat is the height of Mt. Etna ? Describe its slopes. Its summit. What is said of the people in the villages around Etna ? Describe Catania. Describe the eruption of 1693. What is said of Messina ? Of PaleiTOO ? Of Syracuse ? Where is Malta ? To whom does it belong ? What are its advantages ? What is said of its early history ? Of the Knights of St. .Tohn ? Fortress nn Malta. driven from Rhodes by the Turks. The Knights employed their great wealrti in fortifying tiie island, and then followed the most brilliant period of its history. The Knights engaged in subduing the fierce Barbary pirates, so long the scourge of the sea and the terror of merchant-vessels, and resisted all attacks of the Turks upon the island. Afterward, by the chances of war, Malta came into the possession of the English. Valetta is the chief port, garrisoned by English soldiers and protected by the fortress above it. Sardinia and Corsica, two large islands, the former belonging to Italy and the latter to France, are very similar in surface and produc- tions to the other islands of the Mediterranean. Corsica is noted as tlie birthplace of Napoleon Bonaparte ; and the little island of Elba, near bj^ as the place of his temporary exile.- SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. Spain. — The Spanish peninsula, with its fertile soil and long coast- line on the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea, has apparently great advantages for commercial prosperity ; but, owing to political and other difficulties, the country is less advanced than many other parts of Europe. Yet there was a time when Spain had both glory and power. While Middle Europe was slowly acquiring a knowl- edge of the useful arts, the Arabs or Moors, imbued with the spirit of the old Eastern civilization, made their way from Africa into the pleasant region of Southern Spain, and there founded the fair king- dom of Granada, which was first a dependency of the Eastern Mo- hammedan Empire, but afterward became an independent kingdom. Among those dark-skinned Moors, with turbans and flowing robes, were poets, historians, physicians, and architects ; and under their dominion the Southern valleys became as a garden, — aqueducts bringing water from the mountain-streams into every part of the plain, and, by a perfect system of irrigation, the country producing abun- dantly for a large population. The luxurious Oriental taste showed itself in gardens, groves, and fountains ; and beautiful edifices rose in tiie cities, with the graceful arches, delicate tracery, and intricate carving peculiar to Moorish architecture. Here grew up the cities of Cordova, Seville, Valencia, and Granada, and artisans already skilled Questions. — What is the seaport ? What is said of Sardinia and Corsica ? For what is Corsica noted ? Elba ? What is said of the Spanish peninsula ? Who founded a kingdom in the south of Spain ? What is said of the Moors ? EUROPE. 109 in Iiandicraft wove silks and woollens, made fine leather-work, and wrought in gold anU silver. At this time the Christian kingdoms in the north of Spain were also becoming powerful, and were in constant warfare with the Infidels, as they called the Moors ; and finally, during the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, the Moors were conquered and driven from Spain. But a romantic interest still attaches to the valleys and cities they inhab- ited, and a few of their descendants are scattered over the country. During this reign of Ferdinand and Isabella America was discov- ered, and the treasures of her Western colonies raised Spain to a brilliant position among the countries of the Old World. Her empire at one time included large provinces of Middle Europe, beside valu- able possessions in the East Indies. Then followed her gradual de- cline ; she lost her European possessions ; most of the American colonies became independent ; and, under a government sometimes despotic, sometimes inefficient, the people have been poor, agricul- ture defective, and manufactures few. The country is now in an un- settled political condition. The peninsula, crossed from east to west by several mouutain- chain.s, with large rivers flowing between them into the Atlantic, consists of a high central table-land, sinking into valleys and plains toward the coasts, which are in some parts rocky, in others low, and at the mouths of the rivers even marshy. The great central plateau is very scantily wooded, the country often bare and dreary-looking, and the scenery wild and gloomy. Many districts are entirely uncultivated. Grass, however, is not wanting ; large numbers of sheep and goats find pasture on the rocky hills, and wool, especially the famous merino wool, is a valuable export. The mountain-slopes are often well wooded with oaks, chestnuts, and evergreens, and the valleys and plains are covered with the varied and luxuriant vegetation belonging to the Mediterranean shores. In the beautiful Southern provinces, especially, delicious fruits are pro- duced in abundance, licorice, capers, and madder are cultivated for exportation, and a large quantity of raw silk is exported to supply the manufactures of other countries. In some districts olives grow in profusion, and, with a little coarse bread and garlic, form the prin- cipal food of the peasants. When the time for gathering the olives arrives, the villagers repair to the groves with donkeys and panniers, and the men pick the fruit white the women and children fill the panniers and drive the donkeys to the towns. The cork-oaks of Spain supply most of the cork used in America and Europe. At the proper season the light, porous bark is taken from the great forest-trees in strips, several feet long, and prepared for exportation. The wines of Spain arc more valuable than all the other productions, and the fine sherry wines of Malaga, Xeres, Ali- cante, etc., are celebrated all over the world. The mineral exports were formerly of great value, especially silver ; but now the most important are lead and quicksilver. Saltpetre is also largely exported, and excellent gunpowder is made in the country. Manufactures have never flourished since the expulsion of the Moors; and though the merino sheep of Spain furnish, the finest wool in Europe, only a coarse woollen cloth is made in the country. One of the most common manufactures is that of black lace, so ex- tensively used for the mantillas worn by Spanish women. Questions. — What became of the Moors ? How did Spain acquire importance as a nation ? What cau.sed her decline ? What has been her condition recently ? What are the natural features of the peninsula ? What is said of tlie central plateau ? What of the mountain-slopes and valleys ? What is the principal food of the peas- ants ? What is said about olive-gathering ? How is cork obtained ? What are the wine ports ? What are the mineral exports ? What is said of manufactures ? The country is finely situated for commerce, but, owing to ineffi- cient regulations, the numerous inlets and headlands of the coast, as well as the passes of the Pyrenees, are infested with organized bands of daring smugglers, who openly defy the government, and the Spanish contrabandists have become a recognized class. Until within a few years, not a railroad was found in Spain ; and throughout the interior the only mode of transportation is by pack- mules, and the muleteer is quite an important character. The Roman Catholic religion has long predominated in Spain, and in no country have the priests and friars had greater power and influ- MoakB. ence. Here may be seen the Capuchins with shorn heads, coarse gowns, rope girdles, and sandals, and various other orders of monks. The people are extravagantly fond of dancing ; no village festival occurs without a fandango, and wherever peasants collect under the orange-trees, after the day's labor, the sound of castanets may be heard, and all classes play upon the guitar. Bull-fights are the great na- tional entertainment. Every large city contains an amphitheatre, and, in place of the lions and tigers of the old Roman arenas, the fierce bulls of Andalusia are prpvided for the combat. Madrid, the capital, stands on a wide, arid plain of the central plateau, cold in winter and parched with heat in summer. The city is enclosed by a wall, and the five principal entrances are approached by avenues of trees terminating in handsome gateways. The sterile neighborhood and absence of villas and gardens give Madrid a gloomy, forbidding appearance from without ; but the streets are wide, well paved, and supplied with numerous public fountains. Santander, on the Bay of Biscay, Barcelona, on the Mediterranean, and Valladolid and Oviedo are among the principal northern cities. The most picturesque and interesting cities of Spain are in the beautiful Southern provinces, watered by the Guadalquiver and its branches. Cadiz, one of the largest ports, is on the Atlantic coast. Questions. — What is said of commerce ? Of means of transportation ? What is tlie national religion ? What are the amusements of the people ? Describe Madrid. What are the principal northern cities ? Where are the most interestimg cities ? What is said of Cadiz ? 110 OUR "WORLD. g ;s s ^ s ^ ^ -" O I = s f« S 3> . 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E o +.» CO 3 o CJ CO 3 _> .5 "* ^ CJ 00 E j= o -^ o .13 c9 -M C3 o 3 _o cS CJ ^ = tS be CO "^ a a =„ E CJ bo cS fe I ^5 7b 3 ■if C-2 J3 o o « a o B . I o 5: f- ^ ■■-/ i / y i! ■Z (' (5^ T^ S 1 "' Y» V^ -^^ >-■ 1J' . ; ^\ >i ^i «c ?^; !f? ^ k V > V f \ *9 ^/ ^ AT IJ , ^' 112 OUR WORLD. northwest coast of Africa, long ftimous for its wine, which, like the sherry of Spain, is sent all over the civilized world. Vines are cultivated in the valleys and upon artificial terraces far up the mountain-sides. Cape Vekde Islands. — This group, lying off Cape Verde, belongs also to Portugal. Orchil, a species of lichen, which grows upon the rocks, and from which litmus is obtained, is an important export. Canaries. — This group of islands, not far from Madeira, belongs to Spain. Tcneriffc is the chief island and port. The volcanic peak of Teneriffe sends forth jets of sulphurous steam, and the vapors from the crater produce beautiful crystals of sulphur. The vegetation of the islands is similar to that of the Azores, and here are found the little birds that bear the name of the islands. SUMMARY. The Mediterranean region includes most of the important countries of the Ancient World, which now occupy a subordinate place among European nations, and also contains many populous, richly cultivated islands. The shores are characterized by a mild climate, a luxuriant vegetation, beautiful scenery, and the ruins of ancient cities. The distinctive productions are the olive, currant, grape, cypress. myrtle, tropical fruits, and aromatic plants. The principal exports are wine, olive-oil, figs, dates, currants, raisins, citron, almonds, fil- berts, hazel-nuts, pistachio-nuts, chestnuts, walnuts, drugs, silk,iegetation, — thick forests, delicious fruits and spices, — and the word jungle is familiar in connection with India, sig- nifying a dense, rank growth, either of forests or of reeds and grasses. Productions. — Here, as in China, tiie bamboo is common and in- dispensable to the people for building and for various other purposes both useful and ornamental. The rattan, with its slender, pliable stems, is also largely used for basket-work, cordage, etc., and is ex- ported to other countries. Among the forest trees are the sago and cocoa-nut palms ; the teak, which furnishes the hardest and best of all woods for ship-building ; the varnish-tree ; the gamboge-tree, which yields a gum for bright yellow paint ; the mango and other fruit trees ; the fragrant sandal wood ; and, belonging especially to India, the banyan, a singular tree of great size and beauty, throwing off shoots from its lower branches which tend earthward and take root, forming of one tree a grove large enough to shade several Jiun- dred people. All the spices — cloves, cinnamon, nutmegs, pepper, etc. — are produced abundantly, especially on the islands, together with ginger, arrow-root, and cardamoms. Rice and cotton are ex- tensively cultivated all over the country, the former furnishing food, and the latter clothing for the people. A native laborer with his bowl of rice and his cotton garment is provided with the necessaries of life. Among other important productions are indigo, sugar-cane, and the silk-mulberry. Animals. — Tigers are always associated with the jungles of In- dia. They abound in the thickets north of the Ganges, and tiger- hunting is a national amusement. The elephant not only roams the forests, but is domesticated, wearg gay trappings, goes to war, and promenades the city streets with sober dignity. Oxen and a small species of buffalo are used for ploughing and for drawing carts. Camels are used by travelling merchants, but are much less numer- ous than in Western Asia. The Cashmere goat, so famous for its fine wool, and other species of goats are found in the mountain prov- inces. Apes and monkeys are regarded with reverence by the Hin- doos, and sometimes have shrines or temples dedicated to them India abounds with venomcuis serpents, which infest the hot swamps Questions. — What is said of other towns 1 What is undei-stood by the Indies ? What is said of the climate ? Of the vegetation ? W^hat arc some of the natural pro- ductions ? The cultivated products ? What are the characteristic animals of India ? 142 OUR WORLD. and rank grasses, frequently entering the bamboo-dwellings. Pea- cocks and other birds of brilliant plumage are native here ; scorpions abound ; and among the insects are centipedes, the lac-insect, which produces, chiefly upon the twigs of the banyan-tree, the resinous lac used in varnish, and the beautiful, large fireflies that flash and sparkle after nightfall like gems. Gold, silver, and precious stones abound in the mountain-ridges, and there are valuable pearl-fisheries along the coasts. Farther India. — The eastern peninsula consists of the kingdoms of Siam, Anam, and Birmah, with native rulers ; but the English possess a part of Birmah, and the French a part of Anam. A large number of Chinese have settled along the shores and form the most industrious portion of the population, the foreign commerce being almost entirely in their hands. The peninsula is crossed from north to south by spurs from the Hiin.alaya Mountains, dividing it into plains or valleys, nearly corresponding with the political divisions, ancusts ? 156 OUR WORLD. Locust. hoppers, and, after the wings are taken off, the bodies are roasted and eaten, often with wild honey, by the natives. During some seasons tliey are so numerous as to become a terrible scourge to the country. Tliey come in vast swarms, like a thick cloud, hiding the sun ; and the noise of their millions of wings is like the distant roar of water. When this army alights, the brandies of trees break with the weight, and in a few hours all vegetation disappears from a large area. Grain is gnawed to the roots, and trees are stripped of their leaves. Some poisonous reptiles belong to Africa, and here, as in India, men spend their lives in taming venomous serpents, generally so fatal to mankind. It is a question how much trickery these " charmers" use, yet it is certain that some persons can handle such creatures without being hurt. Tlie exhibitions of serpent-charmers are very common in the streets of Cairo and the cities of Barbary. There is no animal more repulsive than the hyena, with its cruel, hungry face and disgusting habits. It is the ghoul among animals ; it haunts the desert, follows caravans, and prowls around tents with ravenous expectation. Not unfrequently it makes its way into the villages to rob new-made graves. Yet, if the hyena is repulsive, it is also useful as a scavenger in waste plains, disposing of dead bodies of men and beasts which otherwise would cause disease and death to the living. POLITICAL DIVISIONS Africa maybe divided into: 1. North Africa, including the Mo- hammedan countries of Egypt and the Barbary States, and extending into the Desert of Sahara ; 2. Nubia and Abyssinia, bordering on the Red Sea; 3. Soudan, south of the Great Desert ; 4. The Negro Coun- tries, which occupy the greater portion of the southern half of the continent; 5. Foreign colonies and trading-towns along the coasts. NORTH AFRICA. Barbary States. — This region is one of the finest pai'ts of Af- rica, with a mild climate, and all the characteristics of the beautiful Mediterranean shores. Around the Gulf of Sidra there are barren, sandy tracts near the coast, but westward the hills soon begin to rise, alternating with fertile valleys and cultivated fields. Still far- Cypress- trees ^»*it''--' Questions — AVli.it is said of Reptiles ? Hyenas ? How is Africa divided politi- ther west the Atlas range descends in terraces to the sea, covered with cedars, laurels, and myrtles ; the hills and glens are overgrown with a profusion of aromatic shrubs and wild-flowers, the streams are fringed with oleanders, and towns and villages along the slopes are surrounded with orchards of peaches, apricots, and almonds, and groups of tall, dark cypress-trees. Date-palms are to be seen almost everywhere, and are especially numerous over a large district south of the Atlas, known as the Land of Dales. The southern shore of the Mediterranean is not leas associated with stories of ancient times than is the European shore. Ruins of old cities have fallen into heaps of rubbish ; mutilated statues and carved pedestals lie half-buried in the earth ; and tombs, excavated in the mountain-side hundreds of years ago, are overgrown with creeping vines, or serve as dwell- ings for the half-wild Arabs. The Inhabitants of all this northern region comprise Turks, Arabs, Moors, Jews, and other races, but the prevailing religion, customs, dress, and architecture are essentially Mohammedan. The population consists of two classes, — inhabitants of towns, and wandering tribes of Arabs or Bedouins. The towns' people, merchants, traders, manufactur- ers, and government officers - wear the turbans, loose garments of silk or woollen, and rich gir- dles which form the usual Mo- hammedan costume. The Be- douins inhabit the pasture-lands bordering on the desert, and other tracts of uncultivated country. They dwell in tents, live upon MobaumieUau woman. cally ? What is said of the Barbary States ? Of their vegetation ? Of dates ? Who are tlie inhabitants ? How is the population divided ? Describe the Bedouins. AFRICA. 157 milk and dates, and wear a thick, brown woollen cloth, several yards long, wrapped about them , red caps ; and sandals of camel's hide. The Bedouins have but little intercourse with the cities, each family supplying its own wants ; every woman spins, and every man can weave the coarse cloth for his mantle. When spin- ning they sit on the ground and put a heap of wool under then feet, passing tufts between then toes upward to a kind of spindle Morocco, much the largest and richest of the Barbary States, is independent, and ruled by an emperor. Cape Spartel, the northern extremity, is opposite the Rock of Gibraltar. Morocco, the capital, stands on a large plain enclosed by mountains, and contains magnificent mosques, but the houses are mean, and the streets narrow and crooked like those of Turkey. The sur- rounding country is beautiful and picturesque, and lilies of the valley, mignonette, and jasmine grow wild in profusion. Fez is an important city, noted for the manufac- ture of the red caps so much worn along the Mediterranean shores. The people of Barbary excel in tanning, and Morocco is famous for the soft leather or goat-skin of that name. The tanners of Mequi- nez, by a process of tanning with pomegranate and other plants na- tive in the Atlas provinces, but unknown to Europeans, make the skins of lions and panthers as soft as silk, and extremely white. Various dyes are employed, and several cities are celebrated for mo- rocco of some particular color. The best red is made in P^ez, the best yellow in Morocco, etc., etc. Much of this colored morocco is used by the Mohammedans for slippers, and large quantities are exported. Various woollen goods are manufactured here aiid in the other States, chiefly carpets or rugs, and the white or striped " bernouses " worn by the Arabs. Algeria. — Formerly the natives of the Barbary coast were pirates, and so infested the sea that tlie commerce of European nations suf- fered greatly, and the merchant or sailor had always before him the possibility of a cruel death or a life-long slavery. Christian nations united against these pirates, fleets were sent out year after year, and the French have since 1830 been in possession of Algeria. Strong fortifications protect the coast, though the province still retains its native population and character. The city of Algiers rises on the mountain-side in a succession of terraces, and presents an imposing appearance from the sea, surrounded by strongly fortified walls, with four castles and gates ; but on a near approach there is nothing at- tractive about the place. The French population consists of mer- chants, ship-brokers, and bankers ; and steamers sail regularly to and from Marseilles. Tunis is governed by an absolute monarch with the title of Bey. Questions. — Wliat is saiil of Morocco ? Of the city of Morocco ? Of the capital ? Of Ki!Z ? Of manufactures ? How did Algeria come into the iX)Sse.ssion of the French ? What is said of the city of Algiera ? What of the other Barbary States ? The forming of a Caravan. Tripoli is nominally subject to the Ottoman Empire. Barca and the large oasis of Fezzan belong to Tripoli. The country for the most part is lower and less interesting than the mountain-region farther west, and Barca extends over the desert tracts near Egypt. The cap- itals, of the same names as the provinces, are meanly built Moham- medan towns, though Tripoli makes a striking appearance with its glittering white houses and long avenues of palms rising from a broad, sandy plain. The extensive inland trade of Barbary, Egypt, and the desert south- ward is carried on entirely by means of caravans ; all kinds of mer- chandise being transported by camels, which are admirably adapted by nature for desert-travel, and have become wholly domesticated in these countries. They are very patient, and carry heavy loads, — usually of about five huudred pounds. One of their stomachs is pro- vided with little cells in which they can retain a quantity of water sufficient for several days, drawing it into their throats again gradu- ally, as needed. The bottoms of their feet are covered with tough cushions, wliich give them a firm footing on the sand ; their mouths are lined with hard cartilage, enabling them to eat the dry, thorny plants of the desert ; and there are callous surfaces on the chest and knees, upon which they rest without injury when kneeling to receive their loads. The milk of the camel is necessary to the wandering tribes, and the flesh is also eaten, though rarely, as camels are too valuable to be killed, except in case of necessity. The hair is woven into diflerent fabrics, fine and coarse, and is also used for a great variety of small brushes. Tliis species of camel is distinguished by a single hump, and cannot endure cold like the two-humped or Bac- trian camel of Middle Asia. A caravan often consists of four or five hundred loaded camels, and a crowd of merchants, servants, guides, and horses. The mer- chants come together just outside the city from which the caravan is Questions. — How is the trade of this region carried ou ? What is .said of the camel ? What is a caravan ? 158 OUR WORLD. to depart. There camels are hired, contracts made, leaders ap- pointed, armed men provided for protection against robbers, and finally supplies of water and food laid in ; the water being carried in the leather bottles peculiar to the East. Chance travellers and ex- plorers join the caravan ; and it is common for Mohammedan young men to make one or more jouruej's with caravans, in order to see the world, and grow in knowledge and wisdom, just as our young men make a European tour, or study a year or more in Germany or France. The annual caravans to the East stop at Mecca, where are gathered over 200,000 men and 100,000 camels from all parts of the Moham- medan world, and where a fair is held which lasts two or three months. There Persian silks, perfumes, spices, and India goods are taken in exchange for leather, cochineal, ostrich feathers, woollen cloth, etc. The caravan from Barbary to Soudan carries salt, woollen man- tles, sashes, Turkey-daggers, mirrors, etc. ; and brings back ivory, gums, gold-dust, feathers, indigo, natron, and slaves. The trade of North Africa includes three great branches: 1. The caravan-trade with the East ; 2. The caravan-trade with Sou- dan ; 3 The maritime-trade with Europe. Egypt. — The name of Egypt calls up two quite different pictures to the mind, — ancient Egypt, one of the oldest and wisest of nations, great in power, learning, and civilization, with its long line of kings, its mighty cities, its temples, and pyramids ; and modern Egypt, a dependency of the Turkish Empire, which has been ill-governed and backward in civilization. The present rulers, however, are active in introducing modern improvements. Surface. — In the lower part of its course the Nile receives no tributaries, but flows on in one great volume through a narrow plain, shut in on each side by a ridge of barren hills, one bordering upon the Red Sea and the other upon the desert. In this valley of Egypt no rain falls, except periodical showers at the delta ; but the want of water is supplied by the yearly overflow of the Nile, and the river is regarded as a beneficent power by the inhabitants. The banks of the river are the highest portions of the plain, which slopes slightly toward the hills ; and thus the rich loam, washed into the main stream by the torrents of Abyssinia, is spread, by the inundation, over the whole valley, making it unusually fertile and suitable for grain. That ever}' part of the land may have a full and lasting benefit from the water, numerous canals cross the country in all directions, and, by means of dams, gates, and sluices, the inundation is regulated according to the wants of the people, and a supplj' of water held in reserve for a considerable part of the year. The canals are bordered by narrow embankments, which serve as pathway's over the country, and during the time of the overflow communication from place to place is often very indirect. The appearance of the country varies with the season. During the drought the earth is parched, and cracked with wide, deep fissures. In the time of inundation, which begins in June, the whole valley is like a lake, sprinkled with groups of trees and villages built on mounds. By January the water has subsided, leaving a black, slimy soil, into which the grain is dropped. T';e period of vegetation fol- lows almost immediate]}', and the whole country is covered with ver- dure. But under any condition the general aspect of the country is monotonous. The delta is either a dry plain, or a lake, or a carpet of verdure. Farther south the view is bounded by bare hills, on the east high and abrupt, on the west lower and covered with sand. Along the river palm succeeds palm, one village is like another, white Questions. — What is said of the caiuvan-trade 1 What are the tliree great branches of trade ? What i.s said of Egj'pt ? Describe the valley of the Nile. Irriga- tion and canals. The appearance of the country. The delta. tombs gleam from the copses, and rows of white birds stand on the sand-banks. There are few wild animals ; hyenas and jackals prowl on the desert, the little jerboa burrows among the ruins, and storks feast on the frogs and worms after the overflow ; the crocodile, once so com- mon in the Nile, is seldom seen north of Nubia, but the river abounds with fish. Insects are now, as of old, the scourge of the country ; and flies, fleas, and lice swarm in vast numbers. Productions. — There are no forests in Egypt. The sycamores, with their low, spreading branches, are the principal shade-trees ; and tliese, with a few date-palms, and acacias and fruit-trees, stand in little clusters about the villages. There are no weeds, and but few flowers, for the inundation washes oflf all seeds, so that nothing grows but what is again planted. Some aromatic shrubs grow near the hills ; but the native plants are mostly aquatic, like the lotus and papyrus, and are found in the canals or on the edges of lakes and marshes. Grain, flax, hemp, and beans are cultivated, and also the henna-plant, used by the women for coloring their nails. The manufactures are chiefly of linen, cotton, and silk, and earthen- ware water-jars, with which every house is supplied. The villages are small collections of mud hovels thatched with palm leaves, and built on mounds or heaps of rubbish which barely raise them above the waters of the inundation. Cairo, a place of over 200,000 inhabitants, is one of the finest Mo- hammedan cities, and the mosques are numerous and often beautiful. Along the narrow streets are rows of shops, — mere recesses, several feet above the street, separated by railings, and open in front, where the merchants sit on cushions with their wares arranged on shelves behind them. Water from the Nile is carried about in the leather bottles peculiar to the East, and sold from door to door. Asses are used for riding througli the narrow, crooked streets, instead of carriages. Opthalmia, a disease of the eyes caused by the hot winds and sand, prevails ; and many of the people are blind or affected with sore eyes, especially among the laboring classes. Some distance up the river from Cairo stand the wonderful pyra- mids of ancient Egypt, containing the tombs of kings who rei^jned thousands of years ago. The ruins of the old city of Thebes are still visited. The busy port of Alexandria is continually thronged with foreign- ers, and contains a number of European buildings. The only other cities are the smaller ports of Damietta and Rosetta. A canal has been opened across the isthmus of Suez, which short- ens the distance to India, and will have a great effect upon the trade of the Mediterranean. Suez, on the Red Sea, is at one end of the canal, and Port Said, the other terminus, is a small town built on the low, flat sands, scarcely above the water. Nubia and Abyssinia. — In ancient times the people of Nubia and Abyssinia were respected as nations of standing and civilization, though they were but little known. There is no trace now left of such civilization ; but the natives differ from the Negroes in appear- ance, and, though quite dark, resemble the old Egyptians. They are preferred to the Negroes as slaves by the Mohammedans, and great numbers of young boys and girls are constantly taken to Cairo and other places. Abyssinia is mostly a high table-land, crossed by mountain-ridges, and, after the tropical rains, torrents of water pour down the deep Questions. — What animals are common ? What are the productions ? What is said of the manufactures ? Villages ? Of Cairo ? Of ruins ? Of other cities ? Of the Suez canal ? Of Nubia and Abyssinia ? Describe Abyssinia. AFRICA. 159 ravines, overflowing and fertilizing the plains below. The scenery is wild and grand, — high, rugged mountains with deep gorges and waterfalls, interspersed with fertile valleys covered with luxuriant vegetation. Gum-trees abound, and fine wheat is raised. People. — The present population is a mixture of Turks, Arabs, Jews, and natives, all in a rather degraded condition. The usual dress is a loose cotton garment, generally dark blue, but sometimes white bordered with red. That of the woman is wrapped about her body and fastened on one shoulder, as in Upper Egypt. Nubia is a level plain, broken hero and there by bare, rocky tracts of some height. The country is partly wooded, partly pasture-land, with some marshes along the Nile, but upon the whole rather bare and unpromising. Khartoom is the only large town. Baboons inhabit the bare rocks, and parrots and guinea-fowl the woods below. Hyenas prowl in the desert, and hippopotami, croco diles, and herons are found in the swamps. Gum-arabic and ostrich feathers are exported. The Desert of Sahara. — South of the Barbary States extends the vast Desert of Saliara, from Egypt to the Atlantic Ocean. It is a region of drought and desolation, consisting of tracts of gravel and rock, and great wastes of fine, loose sand, marked with ripples by the wind, and broken here and there by bare ridges of granite or dark masses of sandstone rising above the shifting surface. Over some portions a few dry, thorny bushes are sparsely scattered, but many acres produce neither twig nor blade of grass. The whole of this immense region would be uninhabitable, and even impassable, but for occasional spots of verdure, like islands in a sea of sand. These fertile spots, or oases, vary in size, from a well, shaded by a group of palms, to quite large tracts of pasture and cultivated lauds arouud towns or villages. The caravan-routes are generally determined by the oases, yet the want of water is often severely felt. Sand storms are also frequently encountered, when thick clouds of fine sand fill the air, and so envelop man and beast that the gasping trav- eller only avoids suffocation by falling flat upon the ground. Caravans are often attacked by plundering tribes of Bedouins, and the surest way to escape this misfortune is to employ some of the Arabs themselves as guides and protectors. SUMMARY. North Africa consists of Egypt, the Barbarj' States, and parts of the desert. It is inhabited by Turks, Arabs, and Moors; and, except Morocco, which is independent, and Algeria belonging to the French, is subject to the Ottoman Empire. The Mohammedan re- ligion, customs, and dress prevail. The vegetation of the Atlas region is like that of the Mediter- ranean shores generally, including forests of cedar, laurel, and cypress, aromatic plants i^nd flowering shrubs, with peach, apricot, and almond trees around the towns. Dates specially abound. The manufactures are silk, cotton, and woollen goods, and fine leather, especially morocco, so called from the country of that name. Trade is carried on chiefly by means of caravans. Egypt consists of a long valley watered and fertilized by the over- flow of the Nile, and crossed by numerous canals. Beside the cul- tivated products, — - grain, flax, etc., — the vegetation is confined to a few trees about the towns and water-plants on the canals. The ancient remains are the pyramids and the ruins of Thebes. The chief cities are Cairo the capital, and Alexandria the seaport. South Questions. — What is .said of the people. Of Nubia ? Of the animals ? AVliat are the exports ? Where is the Great Desert ? Describe it. What are oases ? Wliat is said of sand storms ? What are other dangers of the desert ? of Egypt lie Nubia and Abyssinia, and westward to the Atlantic stretches the great Desert of Sahara, uninhabitable except on the oases. SOUDAN. Country. — ^The broad region immediately south of the Great Des- ert consists of various provinces, known under the general name of Soudan. Some portions of the country are covered with marshes, interspersed with lakes and patches of jungle ; and others are crossed by rocky ridges, which rise in turret-shaped masses, looking in the distance like ruined castles. The greater part of Soudan, however, is fertile, with wooded valleys, green pastures, large culti- vated tracts, populous towns, and scattered huts. Inhabitants. — In this open country the Mohammedans from the north and the African tribes from the south meet and intermingle, forming a large population, half blacks, half Arabs ; and large cities, centres of trade between the two races, have grown up in the very heart of Africa. The Negro tribes have become ex- pert in various manufactures, and their villages have a thriving ap- pearance. The inhabitants are of three classes, — pastoral tribes, agricultur- ists, and the people of towns, — and are more or less under the dominion of the Mohammedan government. Each province is tena- cious of its own rights, and provincial feuds keep the country in an unsettled state. This is a serious drawback to the prosperity of the country. The pastoral tribes are mostly Arabs in the northern part, who take rank according to the animals they keep : 1, those who own camels ; 2, those who keep cattle ; 3, those who have sheep and goats. The agriculturists inhabit the villages scattered over the cultivated lands, each tribe being presided over by a " sheik," who is responsi- ble to the general government. The cities have governors with difierent degrees of power, subject to higher rulers. Vegetation. — Many of the trees are gum-producers, which consti- tute the chief wealth of the eastern provinces, where whole acres are covered with the gum-arabic tree. The characteristic palms appear in groves and clusters, or are scattered singly over the plain. The magnificent baobab, with its spreading branches, casts a grateful shade. Along the watercourses, tamarinds take the place of our willows ; and the asclcpias, or milkweed, is the common weed of the country. Cotton, millet, indigo, and manioc are cultivated in irreg- ular, unfenced patches around all the huts and villages. Soudan is almost destitute of salt, but produces large quantities of nalron, or carbonate of soda, which lies in a snow-white crust over the shallow lakes. Tlie natron is stored in huge piles near the lake, to await the coming of the next caravan. The villages have usually a cheerful, busy air, and consist of well-built mud-huts with polished walls, ornamented with designs or colored mats. The women carry water, spin cotton, and pound corn, and the men weave mats and work in iron. Cities. — Several large cities mark the line of trade across the country from east to west, of which Tinibuctoo is the most western. Kano, Sokoto, and Kuka are more central and flourishing. These cities contain the circular thatched huts of the negroes side by side Questions. — Where is Soudau ? AVliat is said of the country ? By whom is it inhabited ? Into what classes are they divided ? What is tlie government ? What is said of the pastoral tiibes ? Of the agriculturists ? What are the i>ioductions ? How are cotton and iudigo cultivated ? Wliat is said of iiatrou ? Of the villages ? Of the cities f 160 OUR WORLD. with the square, clay houses of the Arabs, and are surrounded by walls of considerable strength. Kano, the central emporium of trade, presents a great variety of clay houses, huts, and sheds ; green, open pastures for horses, camels, or goats ; ponds over- grown with water-plants ; clus- ters of date-palms ; and people in various costumes, from the naked slave to the gaudily dressed Arab. Sokoto is also a busy place, especially on market- days, when fairs are "held on the plain outside the city, which is covered with buyers and sellers, sheds, booths, herds of cattle, and piles of goods. Timbuctoo stands on the north bend of the Niger, in the midst of a flat, marsliy region ; and has a less active trade than the other cities. The manufactures of these cities consist chiefly' of leather- work, — bags, belts, bridles, and sandals, — and of cotton cloth woven in small pieces and dyed with indigo for the striped sliirts or gowns worn by the Negro tribes. Earthenware is also made, and a variety of mats and baskets. Ostrich feathers, wax, and ivory are collected for traffic by the natives. The foreign goods brought down by the caravans from the north, are calicoes, silks, beads, needles, knives, and articles of Arab dress, — bernous, red caps, and shawls. Large quantities of salt are brought into Soudan, and the annual arrival of the salt-caravan is an event of great im- portance. REGION OF THE NATIVE TRIBES. The whole of the interior country south of Soudan is inhabited by native negroes, and is divided into various provinces, each in possession of an independent tribe, with its own chief and laws. These tribes are almost constantly at war with one another, and usually make slaves of their captives. They are uncivilized, and live after the usual manner of savages, but there are different de- grees of intelligence and advancement among them. Missionaries have endeavored to teach Christianity in a few places, and the tribes near thp coasts have considerable intercourse with the white settlers. The usual form of government appears to be partly patriarchal and partly despotic. Each chief is, in a manner, the father of his people, and bound to support and protect them ; but he has absolute power over his dependents. Houses. — The style of building is the same throughout all negro land, — the huts are low and circular, with mud or clay walls and conical roofs, thatched with grass or palm leaves. They are gen- erally without windows, and each hut has but one low opening. The huts are, however, much better built in some places than in Questions. — What is said of Kano ? Sokoto ? Timbuctoo ? What are the manufactures ? Wliat goods are brought by the caravans ? How is the interior I south of Soudan occupied ? Wliat is the condition of the tribes? What is the gov- ernment ? Describe the houses. A Negro Village. others ; and the roof is more or less pointed or rounded, according to the fashion of the tribe. Some tribes make their clay walls very smooth, or even ornament them with designs ; others cover the in- side walls with mats. The more thrifty and industrious tribes have stages for drying manioc-roots or fruits ; and reed-cages for keeping fowls. The furniture consists of a few earthenware jars for grain and water, mats and baskets of palm leaves, and calabashes or gourds, which ai'e used for bowls and cups. The villages are only collections of these huts, often surrounded with patches of grain, cotton, and manioc. -^ The dress of these tribes is very simple, consisting usually of a short skirt of cloth or skin, though the more intelligent tribes wear loose cotton gowns of their own manufacture. Anklets and bracelets of iron or silver are worn, often so heavy as to blister the limbs. Even in the wilds of Africa people suffer for fashion's sake ; some file their teeth to a sharp point, so that their smile resembles the grin of an alligator ; and others knock out the front teeth as soon as they are grown. Faces are hideously tattooed ; the hair is knotted into uncouth styles"; tind oil is used freely on hair and skin. There are only the rudest methods of agriculture, and grain is ground between two round, flat stones, moved one upon the other by hand. The more advanced tribes work in metals and weave cot- ton cloth in small pieces of four or five yards each. Palm leaves, grass, and rushes are manufactured into a variety of mats, baskets, and nets ; and earthenware is made by all the tribes, but in diflerent degrees of perfection, from rough bowls to well-formed, highly' pol- ished jars and platters. Indigo and several other dyes are used. The country. — Large tracts of this country are covered with forests alternating with open glades ; and palms prevail in all vari- eties, with tamarinds, acacias, and other tropical vegetation. The broad region inundated by the Zambesi and its branches is an oozy swamp for a great part of the year, overgrown with tall grass and reeds, interwoven with convolvulus, whose strong stems are like Questions. — Describe the villages. The dress. What is said of agriculture and manufactures ? Of the country ? Of the Zambesi region I AFRICA. 161 whip-cord. Here crocodiles and hippopotami luxiiriate in the shallow streams, and snakes and otters abound in the reedy waste. North of the Orange River extends the Kalahari Desert, — a barren plain sparsely covered with tufts of coarse grass, patches of bush, and a few thorn-trees. There are no streams or ponds, and the wretched, half-starved Hottentots who inhabit the country can only obtain water by digging holes where the sand shows some signs of moisture, and waiting for them to fill slowly. The women often walk several miles in search of these spots of moisture, carrying empty ostrich-eggs to be filled with water. For a little while after the rainy season the plain is covered with creeping plants and a kind of bitter melon, eagerly devoured by men and beasts. COLONIES. The Cape Lands. — In the latter part of the fifteenth century a Portuguese navigator, while looking for a passage to India, discovered the Cape of Good Hope, but no settlements were then made. In 1650 the Dutch, who were by that time carrying on a regular trade with the East Indies, established a colony at the Cape, where their vessels could stop for repairs or supplies on the long voyage. But there was nothing to attract emigrants in large numbers, and the growth of the settlement was slow. Early in the present century, during a war between the English and Dutch, Cape Colony came into possession of the English, who used it as a place of exile for their convicts until the penal colony was established in Australia. Since then the Cape-colony has improved greatly in character and in num- bers. The English now own the provinces of Cape Colony and Natal, including about a thousand miles of coast, and, beside Cape Town, several important towns have grown up. Cape Town. — The coast is neither bold nor rockj', but presents a succession of headlands or promontories, the chief of which are Cape Agulhas, the most southern point of Africa, and the Cape of Good Hope, upon which the town is built. The white, flat-roofed houses, with terraces fronting the bay, make a striking appearance. The city is regularly laid out in the old Dutch style, with canals in the principal streets, and the avenues are lined with oaks, pines, and poplars. In the background Table Mountain rises almost perpendicularly to a height of eighteen hundred feet, flanked on each side by barren crags. Pretty villas stand on the heights around, and well-kept walks overlook the town and bay. The country. — Inland the land rises in a succession of terraces toward the Orange River, and consists mostly of rather dry plains and bare ridges. Grain is cultivated near the settlements, and there are fine vineyai'ds which produce the sweet Constautia wine, exported from the Cape. By far the greater part of the country is unfit for agriculture, because the streams are mostly mere torrents which dry up during the long droughts, leaving deep i-avines. Large tracts are available for pasturage, and stock and sheep raising is the business of the country. The " Cape wool " is quite famous. When the English took possession of Cape Colony, the new gov- ernment was regarded with disfavor by the Dutch farmers who had settled there, mainly on account of a law which forbade the holding of Hottentot slaves. Most of these farmers, therefore, retreated northward beyond the British rule, forming an independent commu- nity of stock-farmers, known as " Boers." Questions. — What is said of the Kalahari Desert and its inhabitants ? When and by whom were the Cape Lands discovered ? By whom settled ? What of the Dutch colony ? How did the English get pos.session ? What of the colony since it has been owned by the English ? Describe Cape Town. The country northward. What is the chief occupation ? Who are the Boers ? The common mode of transportation in South Africa is by means of great bullock-carts, known as " Cape wagons," which take wool, hides, etc., to the coast, and carry goods from the towns to the inland villages and farms. Vegetation. — Cape Colony has a vegetation peculiar to itself, and for beautiful flowers and every kind of fleshy, prickly growth it is unrivalled. Great succulent euphorbias with leafless, prickly branches ; various beautiful geraniums ; the gladiolus and other bulbs, known in our gardens as " Cape bulbs," all grow wild here. Countless varieties of heath prevail, and for miles at a time the country is covered with " bush " or thickets of fleshy, thorny plants, chiefly of the aloe kind, many of which have flowers of great beauty. Animals. — Many of the larger animals of Africa are found here ; especially those which go in herds and like an open country, — buf- faloes, antelopes, zebras, gnus, etc. Ca£Eraria. — The southeast slope of this region of terraces, south of Orange river, is an exception to the dry, bare character of the country generally. Wooded mountain-slopes and fertile, well- watered valleys make a fine province, which belongs to a tribe of natives known as CafiBrs. These people are tall, well-formed, and among the most intelligent of the natives. Bold and brave, they have sturdily resisted the encroachments of the English, with whom they have kept up almost constant warfare. East and West Coasts. — The narrow strips of lowland along the coasts consist of sand, salt marshes, and alluvial flats, over- grown with mangroves and rice. The rank exhalations drawn from such a soil by the heat of the tropical sun fill the air with a miasma fatal to white men. Rivers are numerous, but are so obstructed by sand bars at their mouths as to make navigation impossible. Inland rise hills and mountains, making a pleasant upland country, cooler and more healthy than the coast. Along these coasts are coflee and sugar plantations ; and peanuts are extensively cultivated for the oil obtained from them, which is a substitute for olive-oil. The castor- oil plant also grows here, and the manioc and banana. Liberia and Sierra Leone are settlements of free blacks on the west coast, the former established by Americans, the latter by the English. Missionaries have been teaching there for many years ; there are schools and churches ; and the better class of people, chiefly merchants, live in comfortable and often handsome houses. Liberia is a republic, with a constitution resembling our own. Mon- rovia is the capital. Free Town is the capital of Sierra Leone. AsHANTEE AND Dahomey, kingdoms on the Gulf of Guinea, belong to two of the most powerful native tribes, as cruel as they are strong, whose names have long been associated with every kind of outrage upon colonists and upon each other. Towns of the West Coast. — Notwithstanding the dreaded fever, and the sand bars, which in some places make the coast quite inac- cessible, some foreign settlements have grown up along this inhos- pitable shore. The earliest were the Portuguese colonies, which had only a short period of prosperity. Their towns consist of one or two ruined cathedrals and substantial government buildings in close neighborhood with the mud-huts of the natives. The residents are a few educated officials and priests^ a regiment of idle soldiers, and a small number of merchants. San Paulo de Loanda is the chief town, and the residence of the governor-general. Questions. — What is said of transportation ? Of vegetation ? Animals ? Of Caffiaria ? Of the east and west coasts ? Of Liberia and Sierra Leone ? What is said of two powerful native kingdoms ? Of the Portuguese settlements on the west coast ? What is their chief town ? 162 OUR WORLD. The small English trading-towns, Bathurst and others, are quite similar in appearance, with "streets of burning sand; a score or two of white houses blazing in the sun ; court-yards with fowls and goats, and naked boys pounding corn ; wattle and daub huts ; stalls for fruit and palm-wine at the street corners ; drunken sailors ; traders, dressed all in white, hurrying by with business faces under broad straw hats ; and dusky savages, with spears, gaping at tlie sights." Along the streams are groups of native huts surrounded by ba- nanas, palms, and patches of grain or manioc. Gold-dust, washed from the sands of the rivers, is one of the most valuable' exports, and a portion of the coast is known as the Gold Coast. Ivory, beeswax, cstrich feathers, and gums are obtained from the interior by moans of native traders, who make long jour- neys on foot, carrying from the coast towns, guns, knives, calico, beads, etc. The East Coast resembles the west coast, except that the Eng- lish towns are fewer and smaller, and the Portuguese towns still more dull and lifeless. The Portuguese colonics were formerly more prosperous, cultivated wheat, coffee, and indigo, and carried on extensive gold-dust washings. But, giving up everj'thing for the slave-trade, they declined rapidly. Now there is little agriculture and less trade. Madagascar. — This large island off the east coast is inhabited by Malay and negro tribes. It resembles South Africa in climate and productions. A lofty mountain-range, rich in iron, runs the whole length of the island, and there are large, navigable rivers ; but the interior is little known. Tananarive is the capital. SUMMARY. Soudan is the common ground of the Arab and negro races, the limit of the Mohammedan dominion in Africa, and the end of the caravan-routes from Barbary. The cities of Kano, Sokoto, and Kuka are great trading centres between the two races. Almost the whole of the country from Lake Tchad southward is occupied by various native tribes, all uncivilized, but of different degrees of intelligence, from the wretched Hottentots, who scarcely find food and shelter for themselves, to the tribes of Soudan and the coast provinces, who make cotton cloth, work in metals, and culti- vate cotton, grain, and indigo. They wear little clothing, live in circular huts thatched with palm leaves, and are frequently at war, using iron spears and shields of hippopotamus-skin of their own manu- facture. Those who come in contact with the Arabs of Soudan and the foreigners on the coasts carry on considerable trade, exchanging elephants' tusks, ostrich feathers, and beeswax for knives, guns, shot, beads, calico, etc. Along the coasts are a number of colonies or trading-towns be- longing chiefly to the English and Portuguese. Cape Colony, a large province, rising in ridges or terraces from the coast to the Orange River, was first settled by tlie Dutch, but now belongs to the English. The country is dry and unfit for agriculture, but is admi- rably adapted for stock-raising, which is the chief occupation of the people. Cape Town, Elizabeth, Graham's Town, and other thriving towns export wool, hides, and wine. On the east and west coasts are small trading-towns which export rice, gold-dust, palm-oil, castor- oil, peanuts, and tapioca. Ivory, wax, and ostrich feathers, col- lected by the natives of the interior, are important exports of all the coast settlements. Questions. — Describe the English towns. What are the exports of the coast legion ? What is said of the east coast settlements ? Of Madagascar ? GENERAL REVIEW QUESTIONS. How is Africa bounded ? What sea separates it from Europe ? What one from Arabia ? What strait opens into the Red Sea ? What isthmus connects Africa witli Asia ? What gulf west of Afiica ? Between what degrees of latitude does Africa lie ? Which countries are in the north temperate zone ? Which in the south temperate ? Wliat effect has the solid form of the continent on the climate ? What is the extent of the Great Desert ? What other desert, and where 1 How do the mountains run ? Where are the Atlas Mountains ? The Lupata Mountains ? Where are the highest mountains ? In what region does the Nile rise ? Into what does it flow ? Where is the Niger ? The Zambesi ? Orange ? Congo ? Senegal ? Gambia ? What are the lakes of Africa ? What countries border on the Mediterranean Sea ? On the Red Sea ? What is tlie surface of IJarbary ? Of Egypt ? How is Egypt fertilized ? Wliat is the appearance of the country in Sahara ? What countries on the west coast ? How does the desert of Kalahari differ from the Gi-eat Desert ? What part of Africa is marshy and crossed by many streams ? What are the characteristic trees of Africa ? What vegetation prevails in the Atlas Mountain-region ? What parts of Africa and of Europe have a similar vegetation ? In what part of Africa do bulbs and heath grow ? What is the largest shade-tree ? What are the uses of the palms ? Of manioc ? Where and from what is castor-oil obtained ? What do the tribes of the interior cultivate ? How do the animals of Africa compare with those of other continents ? What are some of the largest animals ? What animals frequent rivers and marshes ? Which herd together ? What animals are found on or near deserts ? AVhy is the camel fitted for travelling on the desert ? By whom is the northern half of Africa inhabited ? The southern half ? Why are there large trading-towns in Soudan ? Mention them. Where is the cara- van-trade earned on ? Where have Europeans made settlement* in Africa ? To whom does Cape Colony belong ? What are the chief towns ? Fsr what is the country fitted ? What is the mode of inland transportation ? What are the exports ? What kind of towns along the east and west coasts ? What is exported from them ? What exports are obtained from the natives of the interior ? What is the condition of the native tribes ? AVhat kind of houses have they ? What manufactures ? What religion and customs prevail in North Africa ? What manufactures ? SPECIAL TEEMS FOR ASIA AND AFRICA. / Mandarin. — A Chinese official. Coolie. — A Chinese laborer or porter. Brahmins. — Priests or persons of the highest social rank in India. Pariah. — One who has lost. caste in India. Lama. — A Buddhist priest. Farsees. — The descendants of the old Persian fire-worshippers. Imaum. — A Mohammedan teacher or priest. Sultan. — The title of the ruler of the Turkish Empire, and of other Eastern rulere. Caliph. — The title given to the Mohammedan ruler in the time of the Arabian ascendancy. Pasha. — The governor or viceroy of a country under the Sultan. Bedouins. — Wandering tribes of Arabs in Noi'th Africa and Western Asia. Sheik. — A chief in Mohammedan countries. Hottentots. — The most degraded of the tribes in South Africa. Henna. — A plant yielding a yellowish juice, used by the Mohammedan women for coloring their nails. Kohl. — A black jiowder, used by Mohammedan women for painting the eyebrows. Lacquer. — A varnish made from the gum of a tree in Japan. Lac. — A resin formed on trees by the puncture of the lac-insect, chiefly obtained from the Banyan-tree. Bush. — The name applied to a dense growth of aloes, cacti, and fleshy, thorny plants covering large tracts in South Africa and Australia. Bamboo. — A gigantic reed, used for a variety of purposes by the people of China, Jajian, and India. Junk. — A Chinese vessel. Palanquin. — A long box or carriage on poles, borne by men, which is much used in India for travelling. Mosque. — The Mohammedan house of worship. Minarets. — Slender towers on the mosques. Harem. — The portion of a Alohammedan house devoted to the women. Seraglio. — Name given to the harem of the Sultan. Caftan. — The long, loose gown worn by Persians and Turks. Koran. — The sacred book of the Mohammedans. Khan. — An luifurnLshcd house to shelter travellers in the Turkish Empire. Calabash. — A gourd growing on a tree in Africa and South America, the rind used for bowls, and the pulp eaten. AUSTRALIA AND THE ISLANDS. 1G:3 AUSTRALIA AND THE ISLANDS [Take the Study of the Map here. (See page 165.)] DESCRIPTION. Surface. — The greater part of Australia is a dry, sterile plain, with hilly districts rising from it like islands. Some parts are sandy, others grassy, and large tracts are covered with low, prickly plants and scrubby shrubs called " bush." The eastern part is more or loss mountainous, and quite well wooded and watered. The climate is generally fine, especially in the southern parts ; but there are long, irregular periods of drought. Hot winds blow frequently from the interior toward the coast, bringing a fine dust, painful to the eyes. Vegetation. — The fertile parts of Australia are open, park-like in appearance, and the prevailing trees are acacias, often with two kindw Branch of Acacia. of foliage, and various species of eucalypti, also called ^gum-troon with their leathery, dark, narrow-leaved foliage. River-oak, sandal- wood, and rosewood furnish hard timber for building purposes and furniture. Scarcely any native fruits are found ; but the flowers are abundant and brilliant, and Australian ferns are remarkable for their size and bea\ity. Many of the gum-trees have showy blos- soms, and the golden flowers of the wattle are conspicuous. Long festoons of the sarsaparilla often hang from the acacias, and the bush is covered for miles with flowers of varied colors. The Animals are small and mostly marsupials, the largest of which are the kangaroos, remarkable for their long hind-legs and great leaps. Birds and water-fowl abound, and the gigantic bird called the emu, found only in this region, is sometimes seven feet high. The Natives have dark skins and long, curling hair. Some of the southern tribes are mild and timid. Others are fierce, and some of them cannibals. They are neither industrious nor intelligent. They manufacture only rood-baskets and mats, and their dwellings aro formed by tying down branches of trees into a sort of bower, or by spreading a few strips of bark over poles. Questions. — Describe the surface of Australia. maU. Natives. . The cliuiate. Vegetation. Ani- The Emu. Colonies. — Australia nominally belongs to the English, who have settled chiefly along the southeast coast, much of the interior being still unexplored. The most important provinces arc New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia. The capitals and chief cities are Sydney, Melbourne, and Adelaide. Australia was discovered by the Dutch, but settled by the Eng- lish. In 1787 the first English colony was established, as a place of exile for convicts, who were sent to Australia as they had been previously to South Africa ; so that it soon became the custom to talk of "a trip to Botany Baj' " for the London thieves. The cliaracter of the colony gradually improved ; for, as the climate was good, the country fine for sheep-raising, and land cheap, hard-working Questions. — To whom diws Australia belong? What are the principal prov- inces ? Chief cities ? By whom was Australia discovered ? Settled ? For what purpose ? M'hat is said of the early condition of the colony ? Oif . i hpl-oa^itua e llo Kaaf from AUSTRALIA AND THE ISLANDS. 165 STUDY OF THE MAP. Area of Australia, about 3,000,000 square miles. Australia lies entirely in the southern hemisphere, between the Indian and Pacific Oceans, and is the smallest of the continents. It extends from 10° to 39° south latitude, and is therefore in the torrid and south temperate zones. The coast is uniform ; the few indentations of any size are the Gulf of C a on the north, and S r Bay andA -n Bight on the south. M n Bay and B y Bay are small bays on the east coast. Capes. — • The most noi thern point is Cape Y k. On the east are Point D r and Cape H e. Cape VV n forms the southern point ; and on the west are Cape L n and N h \V 1 Cape. S h Cape is south of Tasmania. Ska.s. — Chains of islands on the north and east shut in A a Sea, C- — -I Sea, and the Se i of New Z d. IsLAN D8. — The largest of the surrounding islands are P i or New G a, T a or Van D n's Land, and the three isl nds called New Z d. MouNTAixs. — The highesit mountains are the A n A s in the south- east. The B e Mountains follow the east coast from Cape H c to Point D r, subsiding into low hills beyond. Rivers. — Australia is almost destitute of navigable rivers, and mimy of the small streams, as well aa the lakes, become mere pools or marshes in dry seasons, so that they cannot even be used for irrigation. The only large rivers are the M yand the U g which Hows into it. BouNDARiKS. — Australia is bounded on the North by ? On the East by? South by ? West by ? The six divisions are West, North, and South Australia, Queen's Land, New South Wales, and Victoria. [Continued from page 163.] people went out to try their fortune at stock-farming. GVjnvicts were allowed to labor under the free settlers, on conditioM of good behavior, and some became farmers or merciiants. After a time no more con- victs were sent to the mainland, but to the island of Tasmania. Several settlements had grown up, and the cultivation of grain was becoming profitable, when, in 1850, gold was discovered in large quantities along the Murray River. Then there was a rush, not only from the coast settlements, but from all parts of the world. Adven- turers, vagabonds, and people in search of fortune, all made their way to " the diggings." In these days, when travelling has become easy, and useful inventions have multiplied, settling a new country is not what it was formerly, and it required but a few years to make comfortable homes in the Australiati wilderness. Now there are several millions of people in the provinces, large farms, a number of small towns along the coast, and the three thriving cities of Mel- bourne, Sydney, and Adelaide, with substantial buildings, and wide streets, well paved and lighted with gas. From these cities large quantities of gold and wool are exported, and also copper, skins, and tallow. Melbourne, the capital of the colony of Victoria, is pleasantly sit- uated on the little river Yarra, near the head of the large bay called Port Philip. There are not oidy fine houses, large shops, and good hotels, but theatres, libraries, and museums. The Botanical Gardens, on the river-bank, are beautifully laid out, and exhibit many plants and animals peculiar to Australia. Along the river for some distance are country houses, surrounded by verandas covered with gay- colored creepers, and with gardens sloping to the water. Victoria is less subject to severe droughts than New South Wales ; yet water is scarce and often brackish. In some localities the dry Questiona. — What caused a large emigration ? Wliat is the present condition ! What are the chief exports ? Describe Melbourne. What is said of the want of water ? ravines are covered with skeletons of animals which have died of thirst. The gold-region occupies the whole valley of the Murray Kiver. The principal mines are at Balarat and Burra Burra. One remnant of the old convict days still remains. Suspicious- looking parties of horsemen, called bushrangers, are sometimes seen on by-roads, and raids are occasionally made on solitary farms. Eager explorers are warned not to go too far without escort, for fear of reck- less outlaws who live a wandering life in the bush. The open nature of the Australian wilds makes tliem a rare hunting- ground, though there is nothing here so exciting as the lion or ele- phant hunts of Africa. Kangaroo-hunting is the popular amusement, and is not unlike fox-hunting in England. Kiingaroo-hunt. Islands. — Tasmania. — The coast consists almost entirely of bold, rocky cliffs, and the whole island is too rugged and mountainous to support a large population ; yet the English colony is prospering, and Ilobart Town is not far behind Adelaide or Sydney. New Zealand. — These large islands, southeast of Australia, were discovered by the Dutch, but are now the seat of a flourishing Eng- lish colony. Auckland is the chief town. (See map on page 30.) Papua, or New Guinea, is almost entirely in possession of native savage tribes ; and its great natural resources are undeveloped. East Indies. — Between Australia and Asia arc numerous islands in groups of various names. Borneo, Sumatra, and other large islands are crossed by mountain-ridges, alternating with fertile val- leys and numerous rivers, and are covered with a luxuriant tropical vegetation, including teak, ebony, gutta-percha, camphor, and bread- fruit trees, immense ferns and gorgeous flowers. Tlieciiltivuted pro- ducts are rice, cotton, coffee, sugar-cane, and indigo. The animal kingdom is largely represented by elephants, leop- ards, orang-outangs, crocodiles, eagles, parrots, birds of paradise, peacocks, flamingoes, and other beasts and birds of tlie torrid zone. Coal, iron, and precious stones exist, and the resources of these islands .appear to be inexhaustible, but as yet the European colonies are comparatively small. Borneo, much larger than Great Britain and Ireland together, is inhabited by several races, chiefly Malays, partly uncivilized Moham- medans, and partly pagans. The Dutch have some settlements on Questions. — Where is the gold-region ? What are the chief mines ? Who are bushrangers? What is said of Imnting? Of Tivsmania ? Of New Zealand ? Of Papua ? Where are the East Indies ? Which are the largest islands ? What are tlie productions? Animals? Minerals? What is said of liorneo ? 166 OUR WORLD. the island, and the English have gained control of the west coast, but have many difficulties with the natives. Sumatra contains quite extensive Dutch settlements, which carry on an active trade in pepper, rice, gums, etc. Java, celebrated for its coflee, is in possession of the Dutch, and is said to be the best governed of all the East India colonies. Bata- via, the capital and residence of the governor-general of the Dutch colonies, has held a prominent place in the commercial world from the first establishment of the India trade. Celebes, with its capital. Macassar, also belongs to the Dutch. The Moluccas, or Spice Islands, produce the common spices in abundance, especially cloves, which were for a long time confined almost exclusively to these islands. Branch of a Clove-tree. The Philippixr Islands, belonging to Spain, are more generally settled by the whites than many of the other islands, and exhibit all the Spanish characteristics as to houses, dress, and customs. The islands are mountainous and volcanic, and have suifered from violent eruptions, as well as from the storms and hurricanes which prevail in the China seas. The scenery is picturesque, varying from valleys with their winding streams, villages, and thickets of bamboo, plan- tain, and bread-fruit, overtopped by tall palms, to rugged mountains, dense forests, and steep paths, where palanquins are much used. Rice, bananas, cotton, and sugar-cane are cultivated, and espe- cially tobacco ; the chief industrial pursuit being the manufacture of the Manila cigars, which are almost as well known in Europe and America as those of Havana. Manila hemp, really a species of QuestionB. — What is said of Sumatra ? Of ,Iava ? What is its capital ? What is said of Celeljes ? Of the Moluccas ? Of the Philippines ? What are the produc- tions ? What exports are well known ? plantain, is used for making cordage, mats, etc., and largely' ex- ported to the United States. The bamboo is as abundant and as generally used as in China. The chief cities are Manila, the capi- tal, and Binondo, on opposite shores of the same bay, on the island of Luzon. Here are the immense cigar-establishments, employing thousands of men and women, many of whom live in the neighboring country-villages. Almost as celebrated as the Manila cigars is the beautil'ul pina, a fine fabric woven of the fibres of the pineapple leaf with a simple bamboo-loom, and often embroidered by the women. Cotton and silk goods are manufactured to son)e extent, and also coarse fabrics of hemp and of the fibres of the palm leaf. Large villages are scattered throughout the islands, surrounded with gardens, patches of plantain and banana, and beautiful with vines and flowers. Like the Mexicans, the people delight in guitar- playing, dancing, and cock-fighting. The exports from the islands are cigars, tobacco, manila-hemp, rice, rattan, beeswax, yams, beau- tiful woven mats, and pina muslins. The Sandwich Islands. — This group, in the midst of the Pacific Ocean, long important as a tradnig-centre and stopping-place for whaling-vessels, and interesting as the scene of successful missionary labors, has greatly increased in commercial importance since the settlement of California and the opening of the Chinese ports. The coasts often rise in perpendicular cliff's more than a thousand feet high, and the islands contain several lofty volcanic peaks, among which is Mount Loa with a crater at its summit, and another immense crater, nine miles in circumference, on its slope, called Kilauea. Some of the hills are covered with dense forests, and the plains below with sugar and coffee plantations and broad pastures, where large herds are kept to supply meat for whalers and merchant vessels. Honolulu, the chief port, in a central position between San Francisco, Hong Kong, and Yedo, carries on a large, continually increasing trade. Sugar, coffee, and rice find a ready market in California and British Columbia. American missionaries have resided on the islands nearly fifty years, and the Hawaiian people are quite well taught. They have schools and churches, and the king has encouraged the introduction of the dress and habits of civilized nations. They manufacture cloth of different qualities from the bark of the mulberry-tree, and mats of dyed grasses. Of the numerous other groups of islands in the Pacific some are volcanic, but many are of coral formation, covered with the most beautiful tropical vegetation, but inhabited for the most part by savages of the Malay race, who live chiefly upon the bread-fruit, and supply themselves with shelter, implements, oil, and wine from the prevailing bamboo and cocoanut palm. They arc often hostile to the whites, and it is not always safe for sailors to land on the islands. Among the best known groups are the Society, Friendly, Feejee, Marquesas, and Caroline Islands. (See Maps of the Hemispheres, pp. 30, 31.) Tahiti, the largest of the Society Islands, has been long visited by merchant vessels and missionaries, and the islanders have aban- doned some of their savage customs. They exchange cocoanuts, oil, and shells for cotton cloth, calico, knives, groceries, etc. The name Oceanica is sometimes used as including the East Indies, also called Malaysia ; Australia and its surrounding islands, known as Australasia ; and Polynesia, or the numerous groups scattered over the Pacific Ocean. Questions. — What is the capital ? What are its manufactures ? What is pi&a ? What is said of the jieople ? Where are the Sandwich Islands ? What is said of their surface? Productions? Position and trade ? People? What is said of other gioups of islands in the Pacific ? What are some of these groups t What is said of Tahiti ? MISCELLANEOUS REVIEW. 167 GENERAL REVIEW. Between what oceans is Australia ? What sea on the north ? Where is the Great Barrier Reef ? Where is Botany Bay ? Wliat are the mountain-ranges of Australia ? The rivers ? What place was first settled by the English ? Where are convicts sent now ? What is the condition of the natives ? What strait between Papua and Aus- tralia ? Tasmania and Australia ? What is the port of West Australia ? Where is Sumatra ? Where is Papua ? What large islands are crossed by the equator ? What island southeast of Sumatra ? To whom does it belong ? What is the capital of Java ? Of the Philippines ? Where are the Philippines ? To whom do they belong ? What is cxiwrted from Manila ? From Java ? Where is Celebes ? Singapore ? Where are the Moluccas ? What are the general productions of the East Indies ? What is the most important group in the Pacific ? What is the latitude of the Sandwich Islands ? Where are the Feejee and Society Islands ? In what direction is New Zealand from the Sandwich Islands ? On what water and in what direction must one sail from San Francisco to Honolulu ? From Manila to San Francisco ? From Manila to New York ? From Java to Amsterdam ? From Ceylon to England ? Read from the map the names of some of the small groups in the Pacific ? To what group does Tahiti belong ? SUMMARY. ' Australia, the smallest of the grand divisions, bclong's nominally to the English, who have made settlements in the sontheastern prov- inces of New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia, which are watered by the Murray and Darling, the only Australian rivers of much size. The resources of the country are the immense stock- pastures, where large numbers of sheep are raised, and the gold- mines, the richest in the world except those of California. Quite a large white population has collected within a few years, and the cities of Sydney, Melbourne, and Adelaide are large, busy trading-ports, exporting wool, hides, gold, etc. As far as the rest of this continent has been explored, it is dry and bare. The plants and animals arc most of them peculiar to the country ; the vegetation is not remarkably luxuriant, and the largest animal is the kangaroo. The islands around Australia are Tasmania, settled by the English as a penal colony ; the three islands of New Zealand, where there is an important and prosperous British colony ; and Papua, the largest of the islands, but as yet little known. The East Indies are a group of large islands southeast of Asia, remarkable for a great luxuriance of tropical vegetation, and for numerous animals, birds, and insects. The English, Dutch, and other European nations have valuable colonies on many of the islands, and along their shores are thriving, well-built European ports, with villas and gardens amid the tropical vegetation and the bamboo-houses of the dark-skinned natives. The exports from the islands are rice, sugar, coffee, cotton, spices, gums, dye-woods, etc. Batavia, on the island of Java, belongs to the Dutch ; Manila, on the Philippines, to Spain ; and the island of Singapore to the English. Scattered throughout the Pacific are numerous groups of islands, some volcanic, but many of them alolls, or coral islands, covered with palms, bread-fruit, bananas, etc., and inhabited by savage native tribes. The Sandwich Islands have an important position for trade, and the people have become partly civilized. MISCELLANEOUS EEYIEW. LESSON I. What is the proportion of land and water on the earth's surface ? What divisions of land in the northern hemisphere ? In the southern ? What are the zones ? What causes the differences of temperature over the earth's surface ? What countries lie in the torrid zone ? In the north temperate ? South temperate ? North frigid ? What are the principal islands of the torrid zone ? Of the temperate zone ? Why is Nonvay warmer than Greenland ? What is the general climate of the eastern Atlantic coast as compared with the same latitude on the western or American coast ? What is the character of the climate and productions along the Pacific shores of the United States ? What is the character of the climate and productions of the Mediterranean shores ? Of the States bordering on the Gulf of Mexico ? Of South Africa ? Of the Amazon region ? In what countries is the bamboo in common use ? Where are the palms most useful, and what are the different species ? What takes the place of the palm or bam- boo in Mexico ? Where do pine-forests prevail ? Heaths ? Acacias ? Bread-fruit and bananas ? In what countries is rice cultivated for the common food of the peo- ple ? Where are some of the greatest wheat or grain regions ? What are the tea- countries ? What countries are esiiecially noted for coffee ? Cacao ? Sugar-cane ? Spices ? What are the wine-countries ? Where is indigo most largely cultivated ? What are some of the other common dyes ? What are the great cotton-countries ? Where is flax cultivated and manufactured ? Silk ? What parts of the world are famous for wool ? For woollen manufactures ? What are some of the different kinds of wool ? From what three countries in the southern hemisphere are large cargoes of wool and hides shipped ? Where are the extensive grass-plains or grazing regions ? Where are the most celebrated mining regions ? What kind of woods are used for building or cabinet-work, and where are they found ? Where is the caoutchouc-tree Totind ? What are the various oils in common use, and from what are they obtained? What is cinnamon? Tapioca? Sago? Ginger? Camphor? What are cloves ? Nutmegs ? What islands are noted for the manufacture of cigars and tobacco ? What are the principal fur-bearing animals ? What animals are used as beasts of burden ? What skins are tanned for leather ? Where are the largest animals found ? Where is the tiger found ? The reindeer ? The kangaroo ? The giraffe ? Crocodiles ? Alligators ? Where are i)arrots and monkeys found ? Apes and gorillas ? Where are camels used ? Lamas ? What are locusts ? What are termites ? Where is the cochineal insect found ? Wlierc are hyenas found ? Where docs the beaver make his home? The hipjiopotamus? What are the largest birds, and where foun Wesl irom .10 rrr«<-nwich d) Lontfitmle .'W Knst Hit lao 150 TABLES y Height of some of the prin- cipal Mountains of the ■world. Feet. 29,000 28,000 26,800 23,900 22,300 21,400 21,300 21,100 21 000 20,300 20.000 19,200 18,200 18,000 18,000 17,700 17,300 16,000 1,5,700 15,700 l.-i.lOO 15,000 14,900 14,800 14,700 14,400 14,000 13,700 17,300 13,500 13,400 12,000 12.000 11,200 11,000 11,000 11,000 10,700 9,200 9,000 9,000 9,000 9,000 8,500 8,000 7,.500 7,200 7,000 7,000 7,000 6,900 6,700 6,700 6,300 Hima- ► laya Mt3. Andes. Africa. Andes. ) Aver. ) height. > Mexico. Rocky Mts. Mt. Everest, or Guarisaiiker. Kunchinginga, Dhavalagiri, Aconcagua, Sahama, Chimborazo, Sorata, Illiinani, Chuquibamba, Arequi|)a, Kilimanjaro, Picaoho, \ Cotopaxi, ) Elbtirz Alts , Knenlun Mts. Popocatapetl, Orizaba, S Mt. Brown, I Mt. Hooker, j Mt. Blanc, ( . , Mt. Rosa, ) "^'P' Peak on New Zealand. Mt. St. Elias, Coast Range. Matterhorn, Alps. Mt. B'airweather, Coast Range. Mt Shasta, Sierra Ne- vada. Pike's Peak, Rocky Mts. Jiingfrau, Alps. Mt. Loa, Sandwich Ids. Fremont's Peak, Rocky Mts. Schreckenhorn, Alps. Peak on Tenerift'e. Peak on Sumatra. Mt. Hood. I Cascade Mt. Jefferiion, ( Ifangc. Peak in Atlas Mts. Chiriqui, Central Amer. Ml Etna, Sicily. Peak in Java. Mt. Si'iai, Arabia. Cape Verde Islands. Mt. St. Helen's, Cascade Mts. Highest Apennino. Mt. Olympus, Turkey. Mt. Horeb, Arabia. Scandinavian Mts. Australian Alps. Cuba Range. Hayti Range. Altai Mts. Ciingnian's Peak, Mt. Mitchel, Black Mt. Mt. Wash- ington, Appalach- ian Ranges. Questions. — Which continent hm the highest mountiin-range ? What ifl the hi];hest peak ? What range ran)(8 wcood ? \^at \% the highest peak ? How much lower than Mt. Kverest? What two ranges rise to 18,000 feet? What Tolcanic poire. Rhone. 500 Vistula. Brazos. [ Susduehanna. 500 Roanoke. Potomac. to j Savannah. James. 400 Wabash. Tagus. Po. 400 Connecticut Seine. to \ I ) uero. Oder. 300 Gnadalquiver Delaware. 350 Hudson. 350 Cape Fear. 350 Penobscot. Kennebec. 300 Sacramento. to Thames. 200 Severn. ^ Shannon. ARBAS. [The areas of the Grand Divisions are given in the text. J Some of the largest islands. Sq. miles. 300,000 260,000 220,000 155,000 100,000 92,000 90,000 70,000 51,000 47,000 41,000 40,000 40,000 36,000 32,000 30,000 28,000 25,700 25,000 10,.500 9,0(X) 0,200 Name. Bonteo. Papua. Madagascar. Sumatra. New Zealand. Niphon. Great Britain Celebes. Java. Saghalien. Luzon. Newfoundland. Iceland. Cuba. Ireland. Ycso. Tasmania. Ceylon. Hayti. Sicily. Sardinia. Jamaica. Some of the largest lakes. Sq. miles. Name. 170,000 Caspian Sea. 32,000 Lake Superior. 23,000 Lake Michigan. Questions. — What is the largest island in the world ? How niiiny times larger than Great Britain ? Than IJuba! How do the Caspian Sea and Ijtke Su- perior compare in size? Wh-'tt islands are nearly the same .size as Ni-wfoumi- land? What iland is nearly the sjuue siwi as Ore-at Britain ? Which two great lakes are nearly the same size ? 21.000 Huron. 14,000 Tchad. 13,000 Baikal. Victoria Nyanza. ) Very large. Albert Nj anza. > but undcter- Tanganyi ka. ) mined. 8,000 Erie. 6,500 Ontario. 6,500 Ladoga. 5,100 Nicaragua. 3,200 Titicaca. 2,000 Great Salt. 1,000 Wenner. 700 Wetter. 180 Constance. 61 i;omo. 57 Vlaggiore. Areas of the principal countries. Sq. miles. Name. 6,018,000 Russia in Asia. 2,050,000 Russia in Europe. 4,695,000 Chinese Emjiire. 3,630,(X)0 British America. 3,515 000 United States. 3,100,000 Brazil. 1,553,000 India. 826 820 Argentine Republic. 773,140 Mexico. 752,000 Farther India. 672,000 Turkey in Asia. 640,400 Turkestan. 541,100 Persia. 535,760 Bolivia. 510,160 I'eru. 481,270 Alaska. 368,2.30 Venezuela. 3.57,170 U. S. of Columbia. 308,500 New South Wales. 274,.50O Papua. 274,3.50 Texas. 25y,.500 Morocco. 240,350 Austria. 221,900 Ecuador. 209,000 France. 195,000 Spain. 1 92,830 Cajie Colony. 191,870 Central America. 188,900 California. 170,617 Sweden. 143,776 Montana. 135,900 I'russia. 135,200 Chid. 128,290 Nfhosrraphv of. many names is still unsettled, — writers of equal authority differing in regard to their proper spelling. In the following lists the form in most gencml ^ise has Iweii adopted, and it has not been thought neces,~ary to give the other forms. The names of cities are often compounded of local teims and of the word signifying city or town in the different languages, — burg, (German,) Magdeburg. stadt, (German,) Carlstadt. borough, (English,) Scarborough or boro'. pore or poor, (Hindoo,) Nagpoor. city- polls, (Greek,) Adrianople. towni ton or town, (English,) Charlestor . abad, (Hindoo,) Hyderabad. ham, home, (English.) Framingham (home of the stranger). | ville, (French,) Louisville. wich, village, (English,) Sandwich Many places in England with the termination moutli grew up at the mouths of little rivers, as Dartmouth, mouth of the Dart ; Tynemouth, etc., were similarly applied. Such names as Lancaster, which end in the Roman word easier, a camp, were given when the Roman legions w etc. The terminations ford, port. ere stationed in England. Many names in the United States were hrought from England. Others are the old Indian names, as Chattahoochee, Mississippi. (The situation of places not mentioned in the text is indicated ) A. Andalusia, (Spain,) an-dah-luz'- B. Blenheim, blen-hime'. Calais, (France,) kal'lay. yah. Blois, (France,) biwah. Cal-cut'ta. Aar, ahr Androscoggin, an-dros^;og'ghin. Bab-el-man'deb, (" The gate of Bo'ers. Caliph, kay'lif Abeoktita, ahb-e-o-koo'tah. Angara, ahn-gahrah tears.") Bogota, bo-go-tah'. Callao, kal'ya-o. Cam-bay' (India). Aberdeen, ab-ernleen'. Anglesea, ang'gl-sy. Bab'y-lon. Bo-he'mi-a. Al)omey, abo-ma^'. Abyssinia, ab is-sm'eah Angora, an-go'rah. Bac'trian. Boise, bwahzay. Cam-bo 'di a. Angouleme, (France,) ang-gou- Badajos, (Spain,) bah-dah'hos. Bokhara, bok-har'rah. Cam'bri-an. Acacia, ah-kas'she-ah lem'. Baden, bah'den. Bo-liv'ia Cam-er-oon'. Acadia, ak-kab'diah. An-napo-lis. Baffin. Bologna, (Italy,) bo-lone'yah. Campagna, kahm-pahn'yah. Acapulco, ak-ah-pool'ko Aconcagua, ak-onkah'gwah. Ant-arc'tic Bag'dad. Bo'lor. Campanile, kahm-pah-nee'ley. Antigua, (W. I.,) an-teegwah. Ba-ha'mas. Bom-bay', ("Good bay.") Campbell, kara'el. Acre, ay'ker. Ant'werp Bahia, bah-ee'ah. Bordeaux, bor-do'. Cam-pe'che. Acropolis, ak-krop'o-lis. Apache, ahpah'chay. Baikal, by'kahl. Bor'ne-o. Can'a-da. Aden, ah'iieii A-|)a-lacH-i-co'la. Bal-a-rat'. Bosphorus, bos'fo-rus. Canandaigua, (N. Y.,) kan-an- Adije, ad'ee-zher Ap'en-nine. Bal-brig'gan. Bos'ton. day'gwah. Adirondac, ad-e-ron'dak. A-poI'lo. Balearic, bal-e-ar'ik. Both'ni-a. Ca-na'ries. Ailobe, ah-do'bay. A ppalachian, ap-pah-lay 'ke-an. Balizc, bah-leez'. Boulevard, bool-vahr'. Can'cer. Adrianople, adre-an.o'pl. A(]ueduct, ak'wc-dukt. Balkan, bahl-kahn'. Boulogne, (France,) boo-lone'. Can'di-a. Adriatic, ad-re-ai'ik. Ar'ab. Balkash, bahl-kash'. Bourbon, boor'bon. Canon, kan'yon. JEgean, ee-gec'an. A-ra'bi-a. Bal-mor'al (Scotland). Braganza, (Spain,) brah-gahn'- Can-o'va. Afghanistan, ahf-gan-is-tahn', Arafura, ah-rah-foo'rah. Baltic, bawl'tik. zah. Can-ta'bri-an. (" Land of the Afghans.") Ar'al. Baltimore, bawl'te-more. Brahma, brah'mah. Can'ton (U. S.). Aga-ment'i-cus. Ar'a-rat. Bam-boo'. Brahmapootra, brah-mah-poo'tra, Can-ton' (China). Agave, ah-gah'vay. Archangel, ark-ain'jel. Bang-kok'. (" Son of Brahma.") Caoutchouc, koo'tchook. Agiilhas, ah-gool'ahs. Archipelago, ar-kipel'a-go. Ban-yan'. Brazil, brah-zeel'. Cape Breton, kape bret'on or Aix-la-Chapelle, ayks-Ia-sha-pcl'. Ar-c-op'a-gus. Barbadocs, bar-bay'doze. Brazos, brah'zos. bre-ton'. Ajaccio, (Corsica,) ah-yaht'cho. Argentine, ar-jen-teen'. Bar'ca. Bremen, brem'en. Cap'ri-com. Alabama, al-a-bah'mah. Arica, ar-rec'kah. Barcelona, bar-say-lo'nah. Breslau, bres'law or -lo. Capuchin, kap-u-shen'. Alameda, al-ah-may'dah. Ar-i-zo'na. Basle, bahl. Bris'tol. Caracas, kah-rah'kas. A-las'ka. Ar-kan'sas. Bassora, bas-so'rah. Britain, brit'tn. Car'a-van. Albany, awlTian-e. Aries, arl. Ba-ta'vi-a. Brit'ta-ny. Car-cas-sonne'. Altem'arle, al-l)er-marl'. Ar-ma-dil'lo. Bath'urst. Brock'en. Cardenas, (Cuba,) kar'day-nas. Albuqueriiue, (Spain,) al-boo- Ar-me'ni-a. Baton Rouge, bat'on roozh'. Brook'lyn. Car-diff (Wales). ker'kay. Arrieros, ar-re-ay'ros. Bayonne, bah-yon'. Bruges, bru'jes. Ca-rib-be'an. Aldemcy, awl'der-ny. Ar-te-mi'si-a. Bayou la Fourchc, by'oo la foorsh. Brusa, broo'sa. Carls'bad. Alenv'on, (France,) al-en-son'. Ar-tic'u-lates. Bazaar, baz-zar'. Brus'sels. Carls-cro'na (Sweden). A-lep'j)o. Aleutuin, a-lew'shan. Ashantee, ah-shan'tee. Beaufort, bu'fort. Bucharcst,(Turkey,) bu-kah-rest'. Carls'ruhe (Germany). As'pin-wall. Bedouin, bed'oo-in. Bu'da. Car'ni-val. Al-cx-an'dri-a. Assafoetida, as-a-fet'i-dah. Beliring, beer'ing. Buddha, boo'dah. Car-o-li'na. Alga, (pi.) Algfe, al'gah, al'gee. Astrachan, as-trah-kan'. Bel'gi-um. Buenos Ayres, bway'nos eyeres, Ca-ron'de-let. Algiers, al-jeers'. Asuncion, as-soon '.see-on . Belleisle, bel-ile', ("Beautiful isl- (" Good air.") Cnr-pa'thi-an. Al-ham'bra. Atacama, at-ah-cah'niah. and.") Bug, (Russia,) boog. Car-pen-ta'ria. Alicante, (Spain,) al-i-kahn'tay. Atchafalaya, atch-ah-fah-ly'ah. Beloochistan, bel-oo-chis-tahn', Bungalow, boon'gah-lo. Carrara, kar-rah'rah. Al'lah. (" Lost water.") (" Land of the Beloochees.") Bun'ker. Carrageen, kar'rah-ghcon. Al'lc-gha-ny. Athabasca, (B. A.,) ath-a-bas'- Benares, ben-ah'rez. Bur'gun-dy. Cartagena, kar-tah-hay'nah. Almaden, (Spain,) al-mah'den. kah. Bengal, ben-gawl'. Bur'ra Bur'ra. Cash'mere. Aloe, al'o Ath'ens. Benguela, bcn-gay'lah. Butte, bute. Cas'pi-an. Alpaca, al-pak'ah At-lan'ta. Ben Ne'vis. Cassava, kas-sah'vah. Alsace-Lorraine, al-sahs-lor-rane'. Atoll, ay'toU. Bergen, ber'ghen. Cassiquiare, kas-se-kc-ah'ray. Altai, al-ti'. Augs'burg. Berlin, ber-lin' or ber'lin. C. Castine, (Me.,) kas-tcen'. Altamaha, al-ta-ma-haw'. Au-gus'ta. Bermudas, ber-moo'daz. Catania, kah-tay'nia. Alton, awl'ton. Aurora Borealb, aw-ro'rah bo- Beyrout, bay'root. Caboul, kah-bool'. Ca-taw'ba. Amtergris, am'ber-grees. ree-ay'li». Biafra, be-afrah. Cacao, kah-kow'. Catoche, kah-to'chay. Amerigo Vespucci, ah-mer'i-go Aus'tri-a. Biddeford, bid'de-furd. Cachelot, kash'lo. Cats'kill. ves-poo'che. Auvcrgne, (France,) o-vairn'. Binondo, be-non'do. Cac'tus, Cpl.) Cac'ti. Cat'te-gat, (" Cat's gate.") Amiens, (France,) am'e-enz. Au.\errc, (France,) o-sair'. Bir'mah. Cadi, kay'di. Cauca, (S. America,) kow'ka. Amoor, ah-moor'. Avignon, ah-veen-yong'. Bir'ming-ham Cadiz, kay'diz. CjMtcasus, kaw'ka-sus, (" White Amoy, ali-moy'. Av'on. Biscachas, bis-kah'chas. Caernarvon,(Wales,) ker-nar'von. ^Heuntain.") Amphitheatre, am-fe-the'ay-ter. Az-o'res. Bis'cay. Caf-fra'ri-a. 4 I^^rnne, ky-en'. Anam, ah-nahm'. A/'ov. Bison, by'son. Cairo, ki'ro. ^ ^Enan, (W.L,) ky-man', ("AUi- Anchovy, antH:bo'vy. Ax'tees. Bi-tu'me'n. Calais, (Me.,) kal'is. ^ IW'"'--") 174 OUR WORLD. Cayugn, (N. Y.,) kay-yoo'gnh. Celebes, sel'e-becs. Cenis, sen'ee. Ceiilipeile, sen'tc-peed, ("A hun- dred feet.") Ceplialonia, scf-ah-lo'nia. Cette, set. Cevennes, s!iv-ven'. Ceylon, se-lon'. Chagrei!, (Panama,) shah'gress. Chalet, shal'lay. Chalons, (France,) shah-lawn'. Chamois, sham'niey. Cliaini)agne, sli.im-panc'. Clmmplain, sham-plane'. Chartres, (France,) shar'tr. Chat-ta-hoo'chee. Chat-ta-noo'ga. Che-raw' (S. C). Cherbourg, sher'boorg. Ches'a-pcake. Chev'l-ot Cheyenne, shey-cn'. Chicago, she-kaw'go. Chi'goe. Chihuahua, (Mexico,) che-wah'- wah Chili, chil'le. Chil-li-co'the (Ohio). Chiloe,. chelo-ay'. Chiml)orazo, chira-bo rah'zo. Chincha, chin'chah. Cliin-chil'la. Chi|)|)ewa, chip'pe-waw. Chowan' (N. C). Christiania, kris-te-ah'nia. Chrys'alis, Cpl ) ehrys'a-lids or chry-sal'i (ies. Chudleigh, chnd'lee. Chnqnil)amba,chew-ke-bahm'hah. Cienfuegos, (Cuba,) see-cn tway'- gos. Cinchona, sin-ko'na. Cincinnati, sin-sin-nat'te. Circassia, sir-kash'e-ah. Ciudad Real, (Spain,) theoodad' ray'al. Civita Veechia, che'vee-tah vek'- ki-a. Cobija, ko-bec'hah. Cob'lentz. Cobra, ko'l)rah. Coca, ko'cah. Cochabamba, ko-chah-bahm'bah. Cochineal, kotch'e-neel. Cock-a-too'. Co-coon'. Coinibra, (Portugal,) ko-eem'- brah. Cologne, ko-lone'. Co'orado, kol-o-rah'do. Comayagua, ko-may-ah'gwah. Co-nian'ches. ('o'mo. Com'or-in. Confucius, Con-fu'shus. Connecticut, kon-nct'e-kut. Coo'lie. ^*»^ Co|)enhagen, ko-pen-hah'ghcn, ("Trading port.") Coquimbo, ko-kecm'bo. Cor'do-viU Co-re'a. Cordilleras, kor-dil-y ay 'ras. Cor'fu. Cor'inth. Cor'mo-rant. Cor-ral'. Cor-ri-en'tes, ( "Currents.") Cor'tez. Costa Rica, kos'tah rce'kah, (" Rich coast.") Cote d'Or, kote nor. Crimea, krim-ce'ah. Cronstadt, (Rus.sitv,) kronc'stadt, (King's town.") Cuenca, kwen'kah. Cuirass, kwe'rass. Cumana, koo-mnh-nah'. Curacao, koo-rah-sow'. Cuzco, koos'ko. Cyclades, sik'lah--rawl'tar. Gila, he'lah. GirailFc, je-raf. Gironde, je-rond'. Glacier, glas'e-er. Glasgow, glas'go. Gloucester, glos'ter. Gnu, nu. Gua, (India,) go'ah. Gobi, go'be. Go-dav'er-y (India). Gol-con'da. Go-ril'la. Goth:i, go tab. Gottingen, get'ting-ghen. Granada, grah-nah'dah. Greenwich, grin'idge. Grenoble, gren-ob'l. Groningen, gron'ing-ghen. Guadala.xara, (Spain,) gwah-dah- lah-hali'rah. Guadalquiver, gwah-dahl-kwiv'er, (The " great river ") Guadaloupe, gaw-deh-loop'. Guailiana, gwah-de-ah'nah. Guanaco, gwah-nah'ko. Guano, gwah'no. Guardafui, gwah-dah-fwee'. Guarisanker, gwah-ri-sank'er. Guatemala, g\vah-te-mah'lah. Guava, gwah'vah. Guayaquil, gwi-ah-kecl'. Guernsey, ghern'zc. Guiana, gbe-ah'uah. Guinea, gbin'ne. Gutta Pereha, gut'tah per'cha. Gyp'sum. Haarlem, har'lem. Ilab'i-tat. Hague, haig. Hakodadi, liah-ko dah'de. Halle, (Saxony,) hal'leh. Ilam'burg. Ham'mer-fest. Han'o-ver. Ha'rcm. Hat'te-ras. Ha-van'a. Haverhill, hay'ver-ill. Havre, hahv'r, (A "harbor" or "haven.") Havre de Grace, hahv'r deh grahss, ("Haven of thanks.") Hawaii, h ih-wy'ec. Hayti, liav'te, (" Mountainous.") Haytieu, [lay'shen. HeidellKrg, hy'del-bcrg. Uel'i go-land, (■ Holy land.") Hen-lo'pen. Henna, hen'nah. Herat, her-aht'. Her-cu-la'ne-um. Herefonl, ber'eh-ford. Hesse-Cassel, lies' se-kas'sel. Himahiya, him -ah- lab -yah', (■• 1 he abode of snow.") Hin-dos-tan', (" The land of the Hindoos.") Hoang-Ho, ho-ahng-ho', (" Yellow river.") Ho-bo'kcn. Holstein, hol'stino. Hol'y-heud. Hol'y-rood. Holyoke, hole'yoke. Honduras, hon-doo'rahs. Hong-kong', (" Sweet waters.") Honolulu, hon-o-loo'loo. Hoog'ly. Hoo'sac. Hospice, hos'piecc. Hot'ten-tot. Housatonic, hoo-sah-ton'ik. Hous'ton. H ue, hoo'ay or whay . Huguenot, hu'ghen-no. Hungary, hung'ga-re. lee'land. I'daho. I'iex. Imaum, im'awm. Inca, in'kah. India, in'de-ah. Indies, in'jiz. In-dian a. In-di-an-ap'o-Iis, In'dus. Innsbruck, ins'brook, (" Bridge of the Inn.") In'ver-ness. lo'ni-an Iowa, i'o-wah, Iran, ee'rahn. I re' I and. Irkutsk, ir-kootsk'. Irawaddy, ir-ah-wod'do, ("Great river.' ) Ir'tish. Isar, ee'sar. I-so-therm'al. Ispahan, is-pa-hahn'. I-tas'ea. , Ith'a-ca. J. Jagnar, jah'gwah. Juniaic.i, jay-may'kah. Japan, jahpan'. Jai)ura, (S. A.,) hah poo'rah. Java, jah'vali. Jeanne Dare, zhahn dark. Jesuit, jez'u-it. Joannes, (S. A.,) ho-wan'nes. Johannisberg, yo-hau'nis-burg. Jorullo, ho-rule'yo. Juan Fernandez, whan-fer-nahn'- des. Judaja or Judca, jn-dce'ah. Juggernauth, ju^j'gher-naught. Julianshaab, ju'a-ans-harb'. Jum'na. Jungle, jun'gl. ■' Juniata, joone-at'ah. Jura, joo'rah. Jut'laud. Kalahari, kah-lah-har'c. Kalamazoo, kal-ali-maz-zoo'. Kamtschatka, kahni-chat'kab. Kangaroo, kang-gah-roo'. Kano, kah'no. Kansas, kan'zas, (" Smoky water.") Kash-gar'. Kas-kas'ki-a. Ka-tah'din. Kearsarge, keer'sarj. Kelat, ke-laht'. Kenat, kc-naht'. Kcnawha, ke-naw'wa. Ken'ne-bec. Ken-ti'.ck'y. Khan, kahn. Khar-toom'. Khiva, ke'vah. Kiachta, ke-aik'tah. Kid'der-min-ster. Kilauea, kc-law-a'nh. Kilimanjaro, kil-e-niahn-jah'ro. Kil-lar'ney. Kiijlen, ke-o'len. Kioto, ke-o'to. Kirghiz, kir-gheez'. Kissingcn, kis'sing-ghen. Kiusiu, kew'shew. Kohl, kole. Konigsberg, ken'igs-bcrg, (" King's town. ) Ko'ran. Kuka, koo'kah. Kuen-Lun, kwen'loon. Kunchinginga, koon-chin-jing'- ghah. Kurdistan, koor-dis-tahu'. Kurile, koo'ril. Kwieh'pak (Alaska). L. Labrador, lab-rah-dor'. Labuan, lah-boo-ahn'. Laccadive, lahk'ka-decT. Lacquer, lak'er. Ladoga, lah-do'gah. Lad rone, lah-drone'. Lagoon, lah-goon'. La Guayra, lah-gwi'rah. Lama, lah'mah. < Lamasaries, lah-mah-sah'rccs. Lamoille, lah-mwahl'. Lanc'as-ter. Landes, lahnd. Languedoc, lahn'ghe-dok. La Paz, lah paz. Lap'land. Lar'a-mic. La RochcUe, lah-ro-shel'. Lassa, lahs'sah. Lasso, lahs'so. Lausanne, (Switzerland, J lo- zabn'. Leav'en-worth. Leenwin, lu'win. Leeward, lee'ward or lu'urd. Leg'horn. Leicester, les'ter. Lcipsic, lipe'sik. Leiih, (Scotland,} leeth. Lena. Ice'nah. Le-vant'. I^eyden, li'dn. Lianas, lee-ah'nahs. Li-bc'ri-a. Lichen, li'ken. Lichtenlcls, lik'ten-fels. Liege, leej. Lille, leel. Lima, Ice'mah. Linnieus, lin-nce'us. Linnhe, (Scotland,) lin'neh. Linz, lintz. Lipari, lee-pah're. Lis'bon. Liv'er-jjool. Llano Estacado, I'yah'no cs-tah- kah'do, (" Staked Plain.") Llanos, I'yab'nos, (" Plains.") Lof-fo'den. Loire, Iwahr. Lom'bar-dy. I PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY. 175 % Lo'mond. London. Los .\nf;eles, los an'jeh-les. Lou-i-si-an'a. Lon'is-ville. Louvre, loov'r. LowV'lL Lu'Ik'c. Lucerne, loo-sern' Luck'now Lu]>i\tii, loo-pah'tali. Lux'em-burfj. Luzon, loo-zon'. M. iMiicassar, mah-kahs'sar. .Maikenzic, inah-ken'ze. Mackinaw, mak'inaw. .Ma'con. Mad-a-gas'car. Mad'der. Madeira, mahdaj'rah. Madras, mah-drass'. Ma-drid'. Maydalena, mag-dah-lay'nah. Ma-'do-burg. Magellan, nnih-jel'lan. Maggiore. niahd-jo'ray. Maimatehin, nii-niali-cheen'. Majorca, raah-jor'kah. Mal-a-l)ar'. Ma-lac'ca. Malacliite, raal'ah-kite. Mal'a-ga. Millar, may'lar. Ma-lay'. Maldive, mal'deev, ("Thousand isles.") Mrilstroni, mayl'stnim. Malta, mawl'tah. Managua, mali-nah'gwah. Man'ehes-tcr. Mandarin, man-dah-rcen'. Manhattan, nian-hat'tn. Man-il'a. Man-i-to'ba. Mannheim, raau'himc. Man-tchu'ria. Maii'tn-a. Maraeaibo, mah-rah-ki'bo. Mar-an-ham' (S. A.). Mar-i-po'sa. Mar'nio-ra, (" Marble.") Marne, mam. Marcjuesas, niar-kay'sas. Marquette, mar-ket'. Marseilles, mar-saylz'. Martinique, mar-te-neek'. Mat-a-mo'ras. JIatanzas, mah-tan'zah«. # -♦8 Mate, mah-tay'. Matsmai, mats-mi'. Mauch Chunk, (Penn.,) mawk chunk'. Mauritius, maw-rish'us. Mazatlan, (Mexico,) matz-at'lahn. Mecca, mek'kah. Mechlin, mek'lin. Medina, mcd ee'nah, ("The Cit/.") Med-i-ter-ra'nc-an, (" Midst of the land.") Meerschaum, meer'shawm. Menam, may-nahm', (" Mother of waters.") Meissen, (Saxony,) my'sen. Mel'boume. Memphis, mem'fiss. Memphremagog, mem-fre-may'- Menai, me-nay' or mcn'i. Mendocino, mcn-do-see'no. Mequinez, mek'c-nez. Mer'ri-mac. Mer'thyr Tyd'vil (Wales). Me-sop-o-ta'mi-a. Mes'quit. Messina, mes-see'nah. Mctz, mets. Meuse, muze. Miako, mc-ah'ko. Miami, (Ohio,) me ah'me. Mieli'el An'ge-Io. Mich'i-gan. Mikado, nie-kah'do. Milan, mil'an. Mil'ledge-ville. Milwaukee, mil-waw'kee. Min'a-ret. Min-nc-ap'o-lis. Minneluiha, min-ne-hah'hali. Min-ne-so'ta. Min-or'ca (Mediterranean). ' Miqnelon, mik'eh-lon. Mis-sis-sip'pi, ("Father of wa- ters ") Mis-soii'ri, (" Muddy river.") Mobile, mo-beel'. Mocha, nio'kah. iMo'ile-na. Mo-gul'. ^ \ Moham'med. Mo'hawk. Mo he'gans, Moldau, niol'do. .Mol-da'via. Mol'lusk. Mo-lnc'cas. Mo-nad'nock Mon-go'lian. Mo-non-ga-he'la. Mon-ro'via. Montana, mon-tah'nah. Montauban, moii'to-bahn. Mon-tauk'. Mont Blanc, mawn blahng, (" White Mountain.") Monterey, mon-tcr-ay', (" Royal mountain.") Monte Rosa, mon'tay ro'sah. Montevideo, mou-tay-vid'eo, (" Mount Prospect.") Montezuma, mon-tay-zu'mah. Mont-gom'er-y. Montmorenei, mont-mo-ren'se. Mont|X!lier, mont-peel'yer. Montreal, mont-ray-awl/,(" Royal Mount.") Montserrai, (W. raht' Mo-rainc'. Mo-roc'co. Mor'mon. Moscow, mos*!t». Moselle, mo-zel'. Mosque, ij^sk. Mount Desert, mount de-zert', Mozambique, mo-zara-beck'. Mufti, muf'te. Munich, mu'nik or mflm'nik. Miis-eat'. Muscatine, mus-ka-teen'. Muskingum, mus-king'gii?n. Mus'yi^. vN. ^ * Nacogdoches, (Tcxas,^ nak-o-do'- /'*sbirc, nu hamp'sheer. New Ilernnbut, nu hcrn'hoot. New Orleans, nu or'le-ans. New Wcst'min-ster. New Zealand, nu zce'land. Niagara, ne-ag'ali-rah, ("Thun- der of waters.") Nicaragua, uik-ah-rah'gwah. Nice, neeee. Niger, ni'jer, (" The great dark river.") - Niu'e-veh. Ning-po'. Niphon, nee'pon. Nismes, rieem. Nijiiei No\ gorod, nizh'ne nov-go- rod'. Nor'man-dy. Norwich, (U. S.,) nor'ritch or nor'witch. Norwich, (Eng.,) nor'rij. Notre Dame, not'r dam. Nova Scotia, no'vali sko'she-ijh, ("New Scotland.") No'va Zem'bia, (" New land>") Nubia, noo'be-ah. Nueces, (Texas,) nway'ses. Nu'rem-bcrg. Nyanza, (Albert and Victoria,) ne-ahu'zah. Nyassa, ne-ahs'sah. Oahn, (Sandwich Isles, ) wah-hoo. 'OasSs, o'a-sis. E OaVaca, (Mexi«^wah-hah'kah. O'bi' V "^ ' -- Occanus, o-she'a-nus. Oceaniea, o-she-an'e-kah. Ocnudgec, ok-raul'ghee. O-eo'nee. O'der. O-des'sa. Odyssey, od'e-se. Og'dens-burg (N. Y.). Ogeeehec, o-ghee'chee. O-hi'o (Tile "tieautiful river "). 0-kc-tin-o'kee. ^ Ok-hotsk'. Ol'den-burg. ' , O-lym'pi-a. ' 0-lyni^)us. (Jmaha, o-maw-haw'. 0-man'. \^ Onega, o-nia;'gah-v. •■,. •- Oneida, o-ny*9an. Onondaga, on-on-daw'gah. Ontario, on-tay'rejo. », . Ontonagon, on-toh-aw'gon. Opelousas, op-c-loo'sas. O-por'to, (The "port"). Orchil, or'kil. Or'c-gon. Or'en-burg. O-ri-ent'al. Orinoco, o-rc-no'ko, (" The coiled .serpent") Ork'neys. .-• Orleans, (France,) or'lay-awn. Ortegal, or'tay-gahl. Osaka, o-sah'kah. Os-we'go. Ottawa, ot'taw-wah. Ot'to-nian. Ouse, ooz. Oviedo, (Spain,) o-ve-ay'do. O-zark'. Padre, pah'dray, (" Father.") Padua, pahd'yoo-ah. Paducah, pah-du'kah. Pagoda, pah-go'dah. Paisley, paze'le. Palanquin, pal-«n-keen'. Palembang, (Sumatra,) pah-lem- bahng'. Palermo, pah-Ier'mo. Pal'es-tine. Palikar, pal'e-kar. Pal-i-sades'. I'aWmet'to. Pal-my'ra. Pani'li-co. I'ainpas, liahm'pahz. Panama, ])alin-ali inah'. Papagos, ])ah-pah-goce'. Papua, pah'poo-ah. Pa-py'rus. Para, pah-rah'. Paraguay, pah-rah-gwi'. Parahiba, pali-rah-e'bah. Par-a-mar'ibo. Parana, pah-rah-nah'. Paranahiba, iiah-rah-nah-ce'bah. Par'a-site. Pariali, pah're-ah. Parime, pah-ree'may. Parina, ))ah-iee-nah'. Par'ma (Italy) Par-nas'sus. Par'se^. I'ar'the^noh. » l*as-ea-fK>u'Ia. , Pasha, ^h-shaw'. Pas-sa'ic. «• R. I««adelpliia, fil-a-del'fe-ah, (" City of brotherly love.") Pliili]ipine, fil-lip']ieen. Phuenieia, fee-ne'shc-ah. Pituelio, pce-kah'tcho. Pie-o-krtBi ^ ^~> ■>- ' Picton, pik-too'. Pied'mont, ("Foot of the moun- tain.") Pil»omayo, pil-ko-mi'o. Pimos, pe-mocc'. Pina, peen'ya. -:. Pisa, pe'zah. Pis-cat'a-qua. Pistachio, pis-tah'sho. Pi tea, pee-tec'. Pizarro, pe-zar'ro. Plateau, ])lali-to'. Plaza, plaK'sah or plah'thah. Poitiers, (France,) pwah-teer'. Po'land, ("Flat land.") Polder, jiole'der. Polynesia, pol-e-ne'she-ah, (" Many islands.") Pompeii, pom-pay'ce. Pon'cho. Pondicherry, (India,) pon-de- sher're. Pontchartrain, pon-shar-trayn'. Pon'ti-ac. Popayan, po-pah-yahn'. Pojiocatapetl, po-po-kat'ah-pet'l, (" Smoking mountain.") Porphyry, ixir'fe-re. Port au Prince, por-to-preiiss'. Porto Rico, por'to lee'ko, (" Rich harbor.") Port'u-gal. Po-to'mac. I'otosi, )io-to-sec'. l*oughkee))sie, po-k^p'se. Prague, jirahg. Prairie dii Chien, pray're du slic-ahn', ("Dog prairie.") Pi'esidio del Norte, pray-see'de-o del nor'tay. Prussia, prush'ia, Puebla, pweb'lah. Puerto Principe, pwer'to preen'se- pay. Piiget, iiu'jet. Pun-jab'. Puntas Arenas, (L. California,) poon'tahs ali-ray'nabs. Purns, (S. A.,) poo'rooee. Pvrenees, pir'e-neez. 1^'thon. Q. Quathlamha, kwaht-Iahra'bah. (Juebee, kcr-bek', or kwe-bek'. Quincy, kwjn'ze. ■f Quinine, kwe-iiine', or kwen'ccn. Quito, ke'to. Jiaane,, rah-seen'. Ra'di-atesi. ^ Raleigh, raw'le. Ranch ur Raiicho, ralinch, rahn'- cho. Rangoon, rahng-goon'. Ranz des Vaelics, ralinz day vahsh. Ra])-idan'. Raphael, rahf'ah-el. Rap-pa-ban'noek. "Raritan, rar'e-tan. Rat'is-bon. Ravenna, rah-ven'nah. Reailing, red'ing. Reichpnberg, ri'ken-burg. Rcnnes, (France,) ren. Reykyavik, rye'ke-ali-vik', (" Smoky village.") Rheims, ranz. Rheinstein, rine'stine. Rhigi, ree'ghi. Rhine, rine. Rhinoceros, ri-nos'e-ros. Rliodes, rodze. Rhone, rone. Rialto, rc-al'to. "^ Riesengebipge, fe'sen-ghe-becr'- ghe. Riga, ree'gha. Riobaniba, (S. A.,) rec-o-bahm'- bah. Rio de La Plata, rec'o day lah plah'tah, (" River of Silver.") Rio del Norte, ree'o del nor'tay, (" River of the North.") Rio Grande, ree'o grahn'day, (" Qreat River.") Rio Janeiro, r«e'o jan-ee'ro. Rio Negro, ree'o nay'gro, (" Black River.") Roanoke, ro-an-okc'. lie, ro-shcl'. ster, roteh'es-ter. nt. er-dam. n, roo'ahn. Roam i 176' OUR WORLD. ^Sk>, si-o'to. HwSjv, sko'rc-ah. ticiitarj, skoo-tali're. Seme; san. . Sc^a, scl^ah.*"*^ Seiiegal^en'e-gawl Sen.rC-gaiu'bia. Se'poy. Sev'ern. Seville, sev'il. Sevres, sev'r. Seychclle, (I. Ocean, Shanghai, shang-hi'. Shan'non. Shas'ta. She-boy'gan. Sheik, sheek. Shen-an-do'ah. Shiraz, ske-rahz'. Si-am'. Si-be'ria. Sic'i-ly. SM'ra. Si-er'ra, mountain peaks.) Sierra Leone, se-er'rah lay-o'nay, (" Lion mountains.") ■• Sierra Madre, se-er'rah matl'Sray, (" iVIother mountains.") Sierra Morena, .sc-er'rali mo-ray'- nah, (" Brown mountains.") Sierra Nevada, se-er'rali nay-vah'- dah, (" Snow mountains.") fffkok, se-kok'. Simplon, sem'plon. Si'na-i. Singapore, sing-gah-pore', (" City of lions.") Sin'too-ism. Sioux, soo. Sit'ka. Siva, seti'vjih. Skager Kack, skah-gher rahk'. Smyrna, smer'nah. So-co'tra. Sofala, so-fnh'lah. S^issms, (FrSnce,) swaw-sawn'. So-ko'io. S«ncfc'. I.), sahn'tah S sahn'tah moiv'rah. S.i ,1 . '., ihn'tah ree'tah. ' Santiago, sahn-te-ah'go, (" Saint James.") Saonc, sone. Sar'a-ccn. Saragossa, sah-rah-gos'sah. Sar-a-to'ga. Sar-din'ia. Sas-kateh'c-wan, (" Swift cur- rent.") Saiilt St. Marie, soo sen mah'- ree, (St. Mary's Falls.) Sa-vnn':iah, Sax'o-ny. Scan-di-na'via. SchafThaiisen, shaf-how'zen. Scheldt, skclt. Schenectady, ske-nek'tah-de. Schiedam, she-dam'. Seinde, sind. Schleswig, shles'vig. Schoodic, skoo'dik. Schuylkill, skool'kiL say-shel'. ' A saw, rid(;e ' applied to a notched with , saint loo'is, or sen sen maw-reece'. St. Loui.s loo'ee. St. Maurice, Stock'holm. St. I'icrre, sen pe-air'. Stras'burg. Strelitz, stray'litz. Stromboli, strom'bo-le. Stutt'gard. Sucre, soo'kray. Su-det'ic. Suez, soo'ez. Sui'tan. Sumatra, soo-mah'trah. Surinam, soo-ray-nahm'. Sus-que-han'na. Sutlege, (India,) sut'lej. Suwanee, soo-waw'ne. Swe'den . Swit'zer-land. Sydney, sid'ne. ^^Syr'a-cusc. iSyria, sir're-ah. Tabreej_toh-breez'. TSK:on'ic. Ta'gus. Tahiti, ta-hc'te. Tahlequah, tah'leXwah. Tal-la-has'see. Tal-la-poo'sa. Tampico, tahm-pee'ko. Tananarivo, tah-nah-nah-ree'vo. Tanganyika, tahn-ghan-ye'ka. Tangier, tahn-jeer'. Tapajos, (S. A.,) tah-pah'hoce. Ta-ran'tu-la. Tasmania, taz-may'ne-a. Taunton, tahn'tun. Taurus, taw'rus. Teak, teek. . Teheran, trfh-her-ahn'. Tthuttn tepee, tay-wahn'tay-pek. Teneritfe, tcn-er-ii''. Ten'nes-.see. Tequendama, (S. A.,) teh-kwen- dali'mah. Ter'mite. Terre Haute, ter-reh bote', ( " High land.") Tezcuco, tez-koo'ko. Thames, temz. Thebes, theebz. * Thian-Shan, te-ahn'shahn, (" Ce- lestial mountains.") Thibet, te-bet', or tib'et. Thor, tor. Thun, tune. Ti'bcr. Ti-be'ri-as. Ticino, (Switzerland,) te-che'no. Ti-con-der-o'ga. Tierra Caliente, te-er'rah kah-le- en'tay. Tierra del Fucgo, te-er'rah del foo-ay'go, (" Land of fire.") Ti'gris. Til-land'si-a. Tim-buc'too. Ti'mour. Titicaca, te-te-kah'kah. Tobago, (W. I.,) to-bah'go. To-bolsk'. Tocantins, to-kahn-teens'. *: To-le'do. Tontjuiri, ton-keen'. To pe'ka. Tor'ne-a. To-ron'to. Tortugas, tor-too'gahz, ("Tor- toises.") ; Toulon, too-lawn'. Toulouse, too-looz'. Tour-nay'. Tours, toor. Traf-al-gar'. Tran-syl-va'nia. Trcbizond, treb'e-zond. Tre-pang'. Trieste, tre-est'. Trinidad, trin-e-