UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Class 
 
THE 
 
 HISTORY 
 
 OF 
 
 BEES-WAX 
 
 AND ITS 
 
 COMMERCIAL 
 
 VALUE. 
 
WAX CRAFT. 
 
A 
 
'\ 
 
WAX CRAFT 
 
 ALL ABOUT BEESWAX 
 
 ITS HISTORY, PRODUCTION, ADULTERATION, AND 
 COMMERCIAL VALUE 
 
 BY 
 T. W. COWAN, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.M.S., F.E.S., &c. 
 
 Chairman British Bee-keepers' Association, Editor " British Bee Journal," 
 
 Author of " The British Bee-keeper's Guide Book," " The Honey Bee: Its Natural 
 
 History, Anatomy, and Physiology," "Foul Brood and Its Treatment," 
 
 "British Bee-keeper's Note-Book," "Bees and Their Management," 
 
 " Wintering Bees," "Doubling and Storifying," 
 
 "How to Make an Extractor and Bellows Smoker," &c. ; 
 
 Member of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Honorary 
 
 Member of several Bee-keepers' Associations in Europe and America, &c., &c. 
 
 WITH 17 PLATES AND 37 FIGURES ON ART PAPER. 
 
 LONDON : 
 
 SAMPSON Low, MARSTON & Co., LTD., TUDOR HOUSE, 
 32, WARWICK LANE, 
 
 AND OVERY HOUSE, IOO, SOUTHWARK STREET, S.E. 
 AND 
 
 "BRITISH BEE JOURNAL" OFFICE, 8, HENRIETTA STREET, 
 COVENT GARDEN, W.C. 
 
 Copyright Registered at Stationers' Hall. 
 1908. 
 
0-0? 
 
 LONDON : 
 
 L. UPCOTT GILL, BAZAAR BUILDINGS, 
 DRURY LANE, W.C. 
 
TO THE 
 
 MASTER, WARDENS, AND COMMONALTY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 ART OR MYSTERY OF WAX CHANDLERS 
 
 OF THE 
 
 CITY OF LONDON 
 
 WHOSE RECORDED HISTORY OF FIVE CENTURIES 
 EXHIBITS ITS CARE FOR THE INTERESTS AND 
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF AN IMPORTANT INDUSTRY 
 ESPECIALLY AT A TIME WHEN THE CANDLES USED IN THE 
 
 RITUAL OF THE CHURCH 
 
 WERE COMPOSED ENTIRELY OF BEESWAX 
 
 THE MASTER OF THIS ANCIENT GUILD BEING 
 
 BY VIRTUE OF HIS OFFICE 
 
 PRESIDENT 
 
 OF THE 
 
 BRITISH BEE-KEEPERS' ASSOCIATION 
 
 THIS WORK IS DEDICATED 
 
 IN GRATEFUL ACKNOWLEDGMENT 
 
 BY 
 
 THE AUTHOR 
 
 185077 
 
PROEM. 
 
 I AM frequently asked to recommend some book treating 
 of beeswax, but as no work on the subject has appeared 
 for some time past, reference can only be made to text- 
 books, which, although containing much information on 
 bee-keeping, devote very little space to the question of 
 beeswax. 
 
 Nearly twenty years ago I translated from the German 
 a small pamphlet of nineteen pages on beeswax by M. J. 
 Dennler, which found a ready sale; but this has for some 
 time past been out of print, and, in deference to requests 
 for a larger book, this work has been brought out, in the 
 hope that it will supply a long-felt want for information 
 on the subject. 
 
 Beeswax is an important article of commerce, large 
 quantities being annually imported into this country for 
 use in the manufacture of the finest candles, also by 
 soap-makers and chemists in various preparations. But 
 beyond these requirements, the extension of bee-keeping 
 on modern methods has created a yearly demand for 
 thousands of tons of pure wax in the production of 
 comb-foundation for the use of bee-keepers. 
 
 From the very earliest ages, too, the manufacture of 
 candles, figures, and flowers from beeswax was known 
 to the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, and I 
 have therefore thought it well to give an historical outline 
 of the subject, followed by separate chapters on the 
 production of wax, its uses in commerce and manufactures. 
 
 The introduction of vegetable and mineral waxes in 
 recent years having caused these to be used extensively 
 
8 PROEM. 
 
 for adulterating beeswax, I have treated this part of the 
 subject at considerable length, giving detailed descriptions 
 of these waxes, with their several characteristics, so that 
 fraud may easily be detected. 
 
 The rendering of wax and the manufacture of comb- 
 foundation have also been more fully dealt with than 
 is usual in text-books. 
 
 There are districts where honey production is not 
 profitable, owing to its being dark in colour or of an 
 inferior quality. In such places it might be advantageous 
 to work for the production of wax alone, the latter always 
 being saleable. 
 
 At the end of the book will be found practical recipes 
 for no various technical uses of wax, some of them 
 containing several different recipes for choice. 
 
 With regard to the illustrations throughout the work, I 
 am indebted to the A. I. Root Company for the use of 
 Figs. 24, 26, and 28 to 32. 
 
 Some of the illustrations have been drawn or photo- 
 graphed expressly for this book, and others, alluded to in 
 the historical chapter, have been reproduced from old 
 engravings in my possession, which I hope will prove 
 interesting. 
 
 This work is the result of notes and information 
 collected during the last forty years, and I believe covers 
 the ground more completely than any other book on the 
 subject hitherto produced. It is hoped that it will have 
 an equally favourable reception with that accorded to my 
 British Bee-keeper's Guide Book and The Honey-Bee. 
 
 THOS. WM. COWAN. 
 Upcott House, Taunton. 
 June, 1908. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. HISTORICAL. 
 
 . PAGE. 
 
 Bible references to wax In mythology Pliny's mention 
 of wax Bee-keeping in ancient times Writing tablets 
 Uses of wax in the arts Wax figures Modelling in 
 wax Encaustic painting Sorcery and witchcraft 
 Use by early Egyptians Plato's reference to poison- 
 ing and sorcery Divination and discovery of crime 
 Wax used for giving light Pagan Rome and proces- 
 sional candles Festivals of Saturn, Bacchus, and 
 Ceres Use by early Christians Early use of candles 
 in England Artificial flowers and fruits Votive offer- 
 ings in Roman Catholic Church Uses of wax in 
 medicine; in embalming Wax seals first used by 
 Romans Shakespeare's allusion to wax The Worship- 
 ful Company of Wax Chandlers; its objects; its Nor- 
 mansell Cup and Beadle's Staff-head Present uses of 
 wax 15 
 
 CHAPTER II. THE PRODUCTION OF BEESWAX. 
 
 Origin of beeswax Opinions of Swammerdam and other 
 ancient writers The existence of wax as a vegetable 
 product Beeswax not found ready made Wax-scales 
 mentioned in 1684 Discoveries of Hunter and Huber 
 Ventral plates of bee, and wax-scales Wax at first 
 fluid and a secretion Is not produced at all times Dr. 
 de Planta's discovery Huber's experiments; those of 
 Dumas and Milne-Edwards Colour of beeswax when 
 pure ; its composition and specific gravity : its bleach- 
 ing capabilities and solubility in different liquids 
 Commercial beeswax Retains its ductility under great 
 ranges of temperature 45 
 
io CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER III. WAX RENDERING. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Primitive methods The common practice A better plan 
 of rendering combs Beeswax of considerable value 
 Treatment of wax-cappings How combs containing 
 honey should be treated Ravages of wax-moth; how 
 obviated Separating wax from its impurities Water 
 containing lime to be avoided Different ways of melt- 
 ing wax Solar wax-extractor Extracting in an oven; 
 with hot water; precautions to be taken French 
 extractor Use of salt water Gerster's steam extractor 
 Heated wax-presses of two kinds Hot water-press 
 Root's German press Swiss press Unheated presses : 
 their advantages Root's press: method of working... 53 
 
 CHAPTER IV. BEESWAX IN COMMERCE. 
 
 Countries which produce wax. German bee-masters in the 
 Middle Ages Beeswax from the Orient Where the 
 best wax is collected Importations from the United 
 States of America-^European wax Large demand in 
 Russia for tapers Extensive bee-keeping in Ekaterino- 
 slav Wax from Africa and other countries Difference 
 in colour and value List of places whence wax is 
 imported and its colour 73 
 
 CHAPTER V. REFINING AND BLEACHING WAX. 
 
 Removing impurities Industries requiring white wax 
 Bleaching different kinds of wax Some cannot be 
 bleached Bleaching carried on as a trade Extent of 
 the industry Injury caused by the introduction of 
 mineral and vegetable wax Chemical processes not 
 recommended Testing commercial wax Refining wax ; 
 to be done at a low temperature Use of steam 
 Apparatus required Use of sulphuric acid Root's 
 method described Refining on a small scale Use of 
 tartar and borax Method employed in France 
 Bleaching by means of light Preparation of ribbons 
 After treatment Time required Loss of weight after 
 bleaching Addition of tallow and turpentine Injury 
 by chemical processes 78 
 
CONTENTS. ii 
 
 CHAPTER VI. ADULTERATION OF WAX. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Skill used in selecting adulterants Extent of adulteration 
 Paraffin and other waxes having similar properties 
 used Other substances Melting-point and specific 
 gravity not always reliable Specific gravity and 
 melting-point of pure beeswax Hehner's grouping of 
 substances used as adulterants Quantity of paraffin 
 added without altering physical properties Ceresin 
 sold as beeswax Apparatus for testing melting-point 
 Dr. de Planta's views respecting analysis Nine 
 simple tests Vegetable wax Japanese, Carnauba, 
 Sumatra, Borneo, myrtle-berry, palm-tree, Otoba, 
 cow-tree, and other vegetable waxes Wax of animal 
 origin Chinese insect wax Spermaceti Tallow 
 Mineral waxes Ozokerit, zietrisikite, hatchettine, ela- 
 terite, and idrialine Various industrial products 
 Stearine and paraffin The different specific gravities, 
 melting-points, and characteristics of each 89 
 
 CHAPTER VII. MANUFACTURE OF COMB-FOUNDATION. 
 
 Devices used to secure straight combs Invention of comb- 
 foundation by Mehring Improvements by Jacob, 
 Schulz, and others Root's introduction of roller- 
 machines Two methods employed now Foundation 
 pressing " Rietsche " press Foundation rolling 
 Preparing the sheets Dipping-tank Preparation of 
 dipping-boards Temperature for obtaining best results 
 Rolling the sheets Temperature of room " 'Weed' 
 New Process " described Automatic action of machines 
 "British 'Weed'" foundation 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. COLOURING WAX. 
 
 Two methods employed Incorporating the pigment in the 
 mass Applying layers of wax in which colours have 
 been introduced Poisonous colours to be avoided 
 Danger of arsenic Harmless colours named How the 
 colours should be mixed to obtain the different shades 
 Earth colours used for cheap work Aniline colours 
 recommended Method of mixing the colours in wax 
 Proper proportions of various ingredients for produc- 
 ing blue, green, yellow, red, violet, and black 118 
 
12 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. WAX CANDLES AND TAPERS. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Pliny's mention of candles Ornamental tapers used by 
 Britons and Anglo-Saxons Different methods of 
 candle-making Should be made from best and purest 
 beeswax only ; its better light and freedom from smell 
 Manufacturers mixing other waxes to cheapen the 
 product Manufacture of wicks important Relative 
 size of wicks to candles and the materials of which the 
 former are made Rendered less combustible by wick- 
 mordants Preventing wicks from carbonising Wax 
 tapers : apparatus for making Tapers for Christmas- 
 trees Wax candles : methods of making Rolling on 
 table Making candles by pouring on wicks Pressing 
 through cylinder Moulding Composition suitable for 
 moulding Fluted and spiral candles 122 
 
 CHAPTER X. MANUFACTURE OF WAX FLOWERS, FRUITS, 
 AND FIGURES. 
 
 Wax flowers used as botanical specimens in museums Pure 
 wax only can be employed in their production 
 Mineral and vegetable waxes not suitable Venice tur- 
 pentine added to give plasticity Proportions to be 
 used Various ways of imparting colour to wax 
 Using dry powdered colours Method of preparing the 
 sheets Experience necessary Results if proper con- 
 ditions are not observed Cutters and moulds used 
 when working on a large scale Finishing touches to 
 be put by hand Applying the colours Skill of artist 
 shown in final arrangement Wax fruits, figures, and 
 models Use of plaster-of-Paris moulds Large figures 
 to be made hollow Stearine and resin added in their 
 manufacture Proper proportions to use Modelling 
 anatomical specimens 129 
 
 CHAPTER XI. TECHNICAL USES OF WAX. 
 
 One hundred and ten practical recipes in which wax forms 
 an ingredient, there being in some the choice of several 
 recipes 134 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 FACE PAGE 
 
 PLATE I. Frontispiece 
 
 FIG. i. ENCAUSTIC WAX PAINTING FROM HERCULANEUM. 
 From a steel engraving by F. A. David, Paris, 1780. 
 
 PLATE II. 16 
 
 FlG. 2. D^DALUS FIXING THE WlNGS WITH WAX ON HIS 
 
 SON ICARUS. From engraving by Le Maire, Paris, 
 1721. 
 
 FIG. 3. THE DESCENT OF ICARUS INTO THE AEGEAN SEA. 
 From engraving by Le Maire, Paris, 1721. 
 
 PLATE III. 17 
 
 FIG. 4. ROMAN MAIDENS WITH WAX TABLETS. Engraving 
 
 by F. A. David, Paris, 1780. 
 FIG. 5. OPEN TABLET AND STYLE. By the same. 
 
 PLATE IV. 40 
 
 FIG. 6. NORMANSELL CUP, the property of the Worshipful 
 
 Company of Wax Chandlers. 
 FIG. 7. RUSHLIGHT HOLDER WITH CANDLE, in Author's 
 
 possession. 
 
 FIG. 8. BEADLE'S STAFF-HEAD, the property of the Worship- 
 ful Company of Wax Chandlers. 
 
 PLATE V. 41 
 
 FIGS. 9 AND io. ENGRAVINGS ON NORMANSELL CUP. 
 
 PLATE VI. 48 
 
 FIG. n. WAX MASK. 
 FIG. 12. NEW COMB. 
 
 FIG. 13. COMB IN WHICH BEES HAVE BEEN BRED, SHOWING 
 THE COCOONS. 
 
 PLATE VII. 49 
 
 FIG. 14. BEES CLUSTERING IN COMB-BUILDING. 
 
 PLATE VIII. 52 
 
 FlG. 15. WAX ADULTERATED BY THE INSERTION OF NAILS. 
 FIG. 16. WAX-SCALES ON ABDOMEN OF BEE. 
 FIG. 17. VENTRAL PLATE OF WORKER. 
 
 FlG. l8. COMB-FOUNDATION. 
 
14 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 FACE PAGE 
 
 PLATE IX. 53 
 
 FIG. 19. WAX-MOTH, Galleria cerella. 
 FIG. 20. COMBS DESTROYED BY WAX-MOTH. 
 FIG. 21. APPLIANCE FOR TESTING THE MELTING-POINT OF 
 
 WAX. 
 FIG. 22. GERSTER'S WAX-EXTRACTOR. 
 
 PLATE X. 58 
 
 FIG. 23. SOLAR WAX-EXTRACTOR. 
 FIG. 24. THE " HATCH-GEMMIL " WAX-PRESS. 
 
 PLATE XI. 59 
 
 FIG. 25. FRENCH WAX-EXTRACTOR. 
 FIG. 26. GERMAN STEAM WAX-PRESS. 
 FIG. 27. Swiss STEAM WAX-PRESS. 
 
 PLATE XII. 68 
 
 FIG. 28. "ROCKWOOD" WAX-PRESS. 
 FIG. 29. ROOT'S WAX-PRESS, SHOWING DIFFERENT PARTS. 
 
 PLATE XIII. 69 
 
 FIG,. 30. ROOT'S WAX-PRESS, READY FOR RECEIVING THE 
 
 WAX. 
 FIG. 31. ROOT'S WAX-PRESS IN OPERATION. 
 
 PLATE XIV. 86 
 
 FIG. 32. CANDLE FACTORY AND BLEACHING WORKS. 
 
 PLATE XV. 87 
 
 FIG. 33. "BRITISH 'WEED'" FOUNDATION FACTORY. 
 
 PLATE XVI. 100 
 
 FIG. 34. WAX-PALMS : A, Ceroxylon andicola; B, Coper - 
 
 nicia cerijera. 
 
 FlG. 35. "RlETSCHE" COMB-FOUNDATION PRESS. 
 FlG. 36. COMB-FOUNDATION ROLLS. 
 
 PLATE XVII. 101 
 
 FIG. 37. APPARATUS FOR DRAWING WAX TAPERS. 
 
WAX CRAFT. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 HISTORICAL. 
 
 BEESWAX was known in the most 
 ancient times as a useful product. 
 The Bible tells us of " a land flowing 
 with milk and honey," and where honey was 
 there must also have been wax. Scriptural 
 references to honey are more numerous 
 even than to the bee. Wax is occasionally 
 spoken of under a distinct appellation 
 (donag\ differing from that of honey-comb 
 (nophtth), the latter being more frequently 
 mentioned. The natural inference is that 
 nopheth was, probably, the officinal term of 
 the period, but sacred allusions throw no light 
 on this, being confined to comparisons and 
 references to the fact of wax melting under the 
 influence of heat. 
 
1 6 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 When the authentic tradition of the origin of 
 the universe was lost or obscured by the inven- 
 tions of man, fable and fiction began to prevail. 
 And to these dark ages of mythology we must 
 turn in order to find the earliest reference to 
 wax. We read in Greek legendary history that 
 Daedalus, an Athenian, was the most ingenious 
 artist of his age. He is credited with many 
 inventions, not the least being the use of sails 
 for ships. Having killed his nephew Dalus, 
 he fled with his son Icarus from Athens to 
 Crete. Here they made for themselves wings 
 of feathers and wax, and took their flight from 
 Crete. According to the legend, Icarus 
 attempted so high a flight that, nearing the sun, 
 the wax cementing the wings to his body was 
 melted, and, falling into the ^Egean Sea, he was 
 drowned near the island called after his name. 
 The father, flying at a lower elevation, alighted 
 at Cumae, in Italy, where he built a temple to 
 Apollo. (See Figs. 2 and 3, Plate II.) 
 
 Then we read in the Second Eclogue of 
 Virgil that the god " Pan taught to join with 
 wax unequal reeds" this in allusion to his 
 invention of a musical instrument composed of 
 seven reeds. Pan was also supposed to have 
 been the guardian of bees. 
 
 Pausanias tells us that one of the oldest 
 
PLATE II. 
 
 2. Daedalus fixing the wings with, wax on his eon Icarus 
 
 3. The descent of Icarus into the -Egean Sea 
 
PLATE III. 
 
 4. Roman maidens with tablets of wax 
 
 5 Open tablet and style 
 
HISTORICAL. 17 
 
 temples dedicated to Apollo was raised by bees 
 from wax and wings, and was sent by the latter 
 to the Hyperboreans. 
 
 The Greeks, Phoenicians, and Romans were 
 acquainted with beeswax, and even understood 
 how to bleach it. Pliny calls white wax cera 
 punica (Punic wax), and refers to its prepara- 
 tion and bleaching in the following words: 
 '' The best wax is known as Punic, or Cartha- 
 ginian wax, the next best being a wax remark- 
 ably yellow in colour and permeated with the 
 smell of honey. This last comes from Pontus, 
 and it is surprising to find it in no way affected 
 by the poisonous honey it has contained. The 
 next in quality is Cretan wax, which contains 
 the largest proportion of propolis, a substance 
 of which we have previously made mention 
 when treating of bees. Next to these varieties 
 comes Corsican wax, which, being the produce 
 of the box- tree, is generally thought to be 
 possessed of certain medical properties. 
 
 " The Punic wax is prepared in the following 
 manner: Yellow wax is first blanched in the 
 open air, after which it is boiled in water from 
 the open sea, with the addition of some nitre. 
 The flower of the wax or, in other words, the 
 whitest part of it is skimmed off with spoons, 
 and poured into a vessel containing a little cold 
 
 B 
 
1 8 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 water. It is then again boiled in sea-water by 
 itself ; this done, the vessel is left to cool. This 
 operation is three times repeated, and the wax 
 is then left in the open air, exposed upon a mat 
 of rushes, to dry in the light of the sun and 
 moon respectively, for while the latter adds to its 
 whiteness, the sun helps to dry it. In order, 
 however, that the wax may not melt, it is 
 covered with a linen cloth ; thus reined, if it is 
 boiled once more, the result is a wax of the 
 purest whiteness. Punic wax is also considered 
 the best for medicinal preparations." 
 
 In the first century of our era during the 
 time of Dioscorides, a physician and botanist 
 of Greece wax was rolled into sheets for 
 making artificial flowers according to a method 
 described by him. 
 
 In ancient Greece and Italy bee-keeping was 
 of great importance to the farmer, the proceeds 
 of wax and honey forming a valuable part of 
 his revenue. Even the poorest peasant kept 
 bees, not only for the honey but also for the 
 wax, as being equally valuable. 
 
 The ancients down to the Middle Ages used 
 wooden tablets covered with a thin layer of wax, 
 on which they traced the characters with a metal 
 style, pointed at one end and flattened at the 
 other. They were used for correspondence and 
 
HISTORICAL. 19 
 
 for temporary inscriptions, but when per- 
 manency was required it was usual to engrave 
 the inscription on marble, brass, or leaden 
 sheets. Paper only came into use about the 
 thirteenth century. 
 
 After alluding to the leaves of the palm and 
 the bark of trees as being used for writing on, 
 Pliny says : " In succeeding ages public docu- 
 ments were inscribed on sheets of lead, while 
 private memoranda were impressed upon linen 
 cloths, or else engraved on tablets of wax. In- 
 deed, we find it stated by Homer that these 
 tablets were employed for this purpose even 
 before the time of the Trojan war." 
 
 The tablets referred to were in the form of a 
 book (Figs. 4 and 5, Plate III.), the respective 
 boards having a raised border round them, so 
 that when closed the wax surfaces were pre- 
 served from friction for the protection of the 
 writing. When folded, they were sealed with 
 wax and impressed with a device engraved 
 usually on a ring worn by the writer. When 
 the writing was no longer needed, the waxen 
 surface was smoothed down with the flat end of 
 the style. 
 
 These tablets consisted of two, three, or more 
 leaves, and according to their number they were 
 called : diptycha, with two ; triptych a, with 
 
 B 2 
 
20 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 three ; penteptycha, with five leaves ; and those 
 that had more were called polyptycha. Catullus 
 tells us that the ancient Romans generally wrote 
 their love-letters on these tablets, and that the 
 person receiving them replied on the same, after 
 smoothing out the first writing. These tablets 
 are illustrated in Figs. 4 and 5, Plate III. 
 
 In the fourth century, during the annual cere- 
 mony of the Paschal candle, a large wax candle 
 was blessed and placed on the altar on the day 
 before Easter. At that time the candle used was 
 not intended to be burnt at all, for it had no 
 wick, being simply a column of wax upon which 
 all the movable feasts of the year were inscribed. 
 
 It was quite natural that such a malleable 
 and plastic substance as wax should be utilised 
 in the fine arts of the period ; we therefore find 
 it used by painters and sculptors of the time 
 in considerable quantities. Waxen profiles seem 
 to have been the favourite likeness with the 
 Romans for such magistrates as had the right 
 to sit in the curule chair. Pliny tells us also that 
 " portraits modelled in wax were arranged, each 
 in its separate niche, to be always in readiness 
 to accompany the funeral processions of the 
 family occasions on which every member of 
 the family that had ever existed was always 
 present." 
 
HISTORICAL. 21 
 
 When a man became celebrated, his figure, in 
 wax, appeared in the atrium of the private house, 
 as well as in public buildings. 
 
 Masks, taken after death and used in funeral 
 processions, were ultimately cast in wax 
 (Fig. n, Plate VI.). According to Pliny, "the 
 first person who expressed the human features 
 by fitting a mould of plaster upon the face, and 
 improving it by pouring molten wax into the 
 cast, was Lysistratus of Sicyon, brother of 
 Lysippus. It was he, in fact, who made it his 
 study to secure a faithful likeness of the person 
 represented. Before his time the only thought 
 of the artists was how to make their portraits as 
 handsome as possible." 
 
 Wax figures of their deities were used in the 
 funeral rites of the ancient Egyptians, and 
 deposited among other offerings in their graves. 
 Among the early Greeks wax figures were 
 used as dolls for children. 
 
 Modelling in wax was also common in the 
 earlier centuries of our era, the Emperor Valen- 
 tinian being recorded as highly accomplished 
 in the art, which during the sixteenth and 
 seventeenth centuries attained a high standard 
 of perfection. Copying the Italians, both Ger- 
 man and Spanish artists produced numbers of 
 portrait medallions, busts, and statuettes, as well 
 
22 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 as groups clothed with gorgeous garments, 
 which portraits were generally admired for their 
 fine execution. 
 
 During the reign of Louis XIV. Antoine 
 Benoist, a celebrated artist, was designated as 
 " painter to the king and sole sculptor in wax." 
 A wonderfully fine portrait, executed in beauti- 
 fully coloured wax by this artist, is still preserved 
 at Versailles. He was granted a patent of 
 nobility by Louis XIV., and his coat of arms 
 consisted of three sable bees on a gold ground. 
 Benoist's fame also spread abroad, and he made 
 busts in wax of the courtiers of Anne of Austria, 
 which he was allowed to exhibit in Paris. 
 He was also invited over to England, where, 
 amongst other portraits in wax modelled by him, 
 was one of James II. and the attendants of his 
 Court. 
 
 Benoist made a fortune from his skill in wax 
 portraits, but soon had imitators. It became the 
 fashion during the funeral ceremonies of princes 
 and persons of distinction to exhibit their 
 effigies modelled in wax, and there are numerous 
 records of this prevailing custom, ranging from 
 the time of Philip of Valois in 1350 to the Prince 
 of Conde in 1646, after which date there seems 
 to be no further record. 
 
 The latest and most perfect figures modelled 
 
HISTORICAL. 23 
 
 in wax are to be seen at Madame Tussaud's in 
 London, the Grevin Museum in Paris, along 
 with those seen in the windows of hairdressers 
 and in travelling shows of wax- works. 
 
 In Italy all the early bronzes were cast from 
 models in wax, and about the end of the 
 eighteenth century the sculptor Flaxman made a 
 number of portraits and other figures in wax. 
 
 Painting in wax seems to have been practised 
 many centuries ago, for Anacreon, addressing 
 an artist who was painting the Bacchantes, 
 makes allusion to the wax used for the 
 purpose, showing that its solubility in oils and 
 fats was known even in those days. Pliny tells 
 us that in his time it was not agreed who was 
 the original inventor of the art of painting in 
 wax and in encaustic, some thinking that the 
 credit of the discovery should be given to Aris- 
 tides of Thebes, who was the first of all painters 
 to give full expression to the mind and passions 
 of man, although he was somewhat harsh in his 
 colours. Subsequently, however, the art was 
 brought to perfection by Praxiteles. 
 
 This method of painting was practised to a 
 great extent from the time of Alexander the 
 Great until the seventh or eighth century, from 
 which time it gradually declined until the four- 
 teenth century, when it seems to have fallen into 
 
24 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 disuse, and all practical knowledge of the art 
 became entirely lost. Long afterwards about 
 1750 interest in the forgotten art was re- 
 covered, and the practice of it revived in France 
 by M. Bachelier and Count Caylus. It was also 
 restored in Munich in the reign of King Louis 
 of Bavaria. Since that time many fine works 
 in this style of painting have been produced. 
 The colours are ground and laid on with a 
 vehicle composed principally of wax. This is 
 brought to the surface either by the application 
 of a warm iron, such as is used in laundry work, 
 or by a vessel containing fire being held a little 
 distance from the picture. 
 
 Referring to painting with minium, Pliny tells 
 us that the proper way is to first " dry the wall, 
 then with a hair-brush apply hot Punic wax, 
 melted with oil, after which the varnish must be 
 heated with an application of gall-nuts burnt to 
 a red heat tfll it quite perspires. This done, it 
 must be smoothed down with rollers made of 
 wax, and then polished with linen cloths till it 
 shines like polished marble." 
 
 Pliny also says that in ancient times only two 
 methods of encaustic painting were in use, viz., 
 in wax and on ivory, with the cestrum or pointed 
 graver, but we learn that when this art was 
 extended to the painting of ships of war a third 
 
- 
 
 ft r : - 
 
 HISTORICAL. 25 
 
 method was adopted, that of melting the wax 
 colours and laying them on with a brush while 
 hot. Such painting applied to ships was said 
 never to spoil from the action of the sun, salt 
 water, or winds. It is certain that this method 
 of painting resisted injury caused by time and 
 the elements, for the vast mural paintings taken 
 from patrician houses in Herculaneum and 
 Pompeii, that can still be seen after the lapse 
 of more than eighteen centuries, bear witness to 
 the wonderful preservation of these colours. 
 The frontispiece (Plate I.) is a good example 
 of one of these paintings. 
 
 Witchcraft and sorcery are nearly as old as 
 the world, so that it is not surprising to learn 
 that a substance almost imperishable like bees- 
 wax should be employed by sorcerers and 
 witches, whose spells were frequently resorted 
 to with criminal intentions. 
 
 When the magician or witch desired to cast 
 a spell on anyone, an image of wax representing 
 the victim was made, and surrounded with three 
 (the fatidical number) different coloured threads, 
 each thread having three knots. The image was 
 then pierced with needles in a number of places, 
 sometimes all over, and exposed in the streets 
 of Athens, and the individual on whom the spell 
 was cast was supposed to experience similar 
 
24 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 disuse, and all practical knowledge of the art 
 became entirely lost. Long afterwards about 
 1750 interest in the forgotten art was re- 
 covered, and the practice of it revived in France 
 by M. Bachelier and Count Caylus. It was also 
 restored in Munich in the reign of King Louis 
 of Bavaria. Since that time many fine works 
 in this style of painting have been produced. 
 The colours are ground and laid on with a 
 vehicle composed principally of wax. This is 
 brought to the surface either by the application 
 of a warm iron, such as is used in laundry work, 
 or by a vessel containing fire being held a little 
 distance from the picture. 
 
 Referring to painting with minium, Pliny tells 
 us that the proper way is to first " dry the wall, 
 then with a hair-brush apply hot Punic wax, 
 melted with oil, after which the varnish must be 
 heated with an application of gall-nuts burnt to 
 a red heat till it quite perspires. This done, it 
 must be smoothed down with rollers made of 
 wax, and then polished with linen cloths till it 
 shines like polished marble." 
 
 Pliny also says that in ancient times only two 
 methods of encaustic painting were in use, viz., 
 in wax and on ivory, with the cestrum or pointed 
 graver, but we learn that when this art was 
 extended to the painting of ships of war a third 
 
HISTORICAL. 25 
 
 method was adopted, that of melting the wax 
 colours and laying them on with a brush while 
 hot. Such painting applied to ships was said 
 never to spoil from the action of the sun, salt 
 water, or winds. It is certain that this method 
 of painting resisted injury caused by time and 
 the elements, for the vast mural paintings taken 
 from patrician houses in Herculaneum and 
 Pompeii, that can still be seen after the lapse 
 of more than eighteen centuries, bear witness to 
 the wonderful preservation of these colours. 
 The frontispiece (Plate I.) is a good example 
 of one of these paintings. 
 
 Witchcraft and sorcery are nearly as old as 
 the world, so that it is not surprising to learn 
 that a substance almost imperishable like bees- 
 wax should be employed by sorcerers and 
 witches, whose spells were frequently resorted 
 to with criminal intentions. 
 
 When the magician or witch desired to cast 
 a spell on anyone, an image of wax representing 
 the victim was made, and surrounded with three 
 (the fatidical number) different coloured threads, 
 each thread having three knots. The image was 
 then pierced with needles in a number of places, 
 sometimes all over, and exposed in the streets 
 of Athens, and the individual on whom the spell 
 was cast was supposed to experience similar 
 
26 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 tortures in the same parts of the body as the 
 effigy would feel if alive. Sometimes this was 
 done in order to obtain a favour, but more often 
 vengeance was the object of these cabalistic 
 proceedings, and if the victim did not succumb 
 to fright, poison was used by the sorcerer to 
 obtain the desired end. 
 
 In all these sorceries and bewitchings it was 
 considered of great importance that the features 
 of the person aimed at should be copied as 
 accurately as possible in wax. If the needles 
 already mentioned penetrated the heart or head 
 of the figure, the bewitched person was sup- 
 posed to die, and no doubt sometimes did from 
 sheer fright or superstition. 
 
 In the history of the early Egyptians we also 
 find that charms and miniature wax figures were 
 used for divers purposes by magicians of the 
 period. From a papyrus of the time of the 
 Third Rameses we learn that a certain conspira- 
 tor had modelled for himself waxen figures of 
 men and had them enchanted with mystic words 
 for the purpose of winning the favour of the 
 women of this Pharaoh's harem. 
 
 Grecian magicians also made use of wax 
 figures and honey, pretending to foretell events 
 and predict death by their means, and fatal 
 results sometimes occurred through fright and 
 
HISTORICAL. 27 
 
 belief in the magician's powers. The Romans, 
 too, evidently used such figures, for we find that 
 Ovid, in one of his elegies, complains of being 
 under the malicious influence of a statue made 
 of red wax which bore his image and name. 
 Then, centuries later, the French historian 
 Mezerai refers to the malicious incantation of 
 Charles of Valois, as revealed in a document 
 dated 1564, which states that the effigy of wax 
 " was made, having the resemblance of the king 
 lying on a bed of sickness, and had this not 
 been discovered, it was intended to make the 
 king die of a lingering death by placing the wax 
 image near the fire, and as the effigy gradually 
 melted away the life of the king (as they sup- 
 posed) would also fade away, until death super- 
 vened." 
 
 In the chapter in his " Laws " relating to 
 poisoning and sorcery, Plato says : " And when 
 men are disturbed in their minds at the sight 
 of waxen images, fixed either at their doors, or 
 in a place where three ways meet, or on the 
 sepulchres of parents, there is no use in trying to 
 persuade them that they should despise all such 
 things because they have no certain knowledge 
 about them." He then goes on to explain what 
 is to be done with those given to poisoning or 
 witchcraft, and concludes by saying : " But he 
 
30 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 allowed themselves this luxury (as it was then 
 held to be) were accounted extravagant. 
 
 One of the first examples of public lighting 
 dates back to the beginning of the fourth cen- 
 tury, when the Emperor Constantine ordered 
 the whole city of Constantinople to be illumin- 
 ated on Christmas Eve by means of lamps and 
 wax candles. 
 
 From the very earliest times candles were 
 associated wi{h religious ceremonies. Accord- 
 ing to the established rites of Zoroaster, the 
 pagans burned lighted candles in their worship 
 of the Sun-god. What was done on a grand 
 scale on certain high occasions in connection 
 with this sun-worship was repeated on a smaller 
 scale in the individual acts of worship to their 
 several gods by lighting lamps and wax tapers 
 before their favourite divinity. In pagan Rome 
 the same practice prevailed, and in their pro- 
 cessions wax candles figured largely. They 
 were also used in the celebration of the Eleu- 
 sinian mysteries, held in Attica in honour of 
 Ceres, the goddess of corn, and in remembrance 
 of her favours. That there was some occult 
 " mystery " connected with the use of wax 
 candles may be readily believed if we bear in 
 mind the unanimity with which different pagan 
 peoples have agreed to use them in their sacred 
 
HISTORICAL. 31 
 
 rites. In the worship of Ceylon wax candles 
 are considered an indispensable requisite, and 
 devotees are obliged to place them before the 
 image of Buddha. 
 
 At all the principal festivals of Saturn, 
 Bacchus, and Ceres, candles and wreaths made 
 of wax were much used. 
 
 From a papyrus of Rameses III. we gather 
 that payments were made from the royal 
 treasury of sacrificial funds, such as the follow- 
 ing: 
 
 331,702 jars of incense, honey, and oil. 
 
 3,100 teben of wax. 
 
 1,933,766 jars of incense, honey, fat, oil, 
 &c. 
 
 The early Christians, who at one time met 
 only in the catacombs, made use of this method 
 of lighting, and afterwards, when permitted to 
 build churches, they found the sacred edifices 
 so dark as to compel the use of candles for the 
 purpose of illumination. It was not until the 
 fourth century that lights began to be employed 
 for ritual and symbolical purposes, while at a 
 later period the Roman and Eastern Churches 
 commenced using them in the daytime, and 
 from this time onward the consumption of wax 
 for this purpose gradually increased. 
 
 At funerals also, from the days of Con- 
 
32 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 stantine, processional lights were used, and it 
 was a common practice to have lighted candles 
 placed round a corpse before interment or 
 cremation. 
 
 In the city of Fez, on Mahomet's birthday, 
 the scholars of every school celebrated a feast, 
 every boy carrying a lighted torch, some of 
 which weighed 30 Ib. Purchas tells us that 
 these torches were most curiously made, " being 
 adorned round about with divers fruites of 
 Waxe, which being lighted betimes in the 
 morning doe burne till Sim rising, when the 
 solemnity ceaseth. This day useth to be very 
 gainful unto the School-masters, for they sell the 
 remnant of the Waxe upon the Torches for 
 above a hundred Duckets." 
 
 It was formerly a custom of the priests to 
 distribute the remains of the Paschal candle 
 among the people, who burnt it in their houses 
 and on their lands as a preservative from harm. 
 From this custom originated also the Agnus 
 Dei, a cake of wax stamped with the figure of 
 a lamb with a nimbus, bearing a cross or flag. 
 Such medallions are still used in the Church of 
 Rome and are blessed by the Pope at intervals, 
 beginning with the first Sunday after Easter 
 following his consecration, and every subse- 
 quent seventh year. 
 
* HISTORICAL. 33 
 
 In his " Encyclopaedia of Antiquities " T. D. 
 Fosbrook tells us that during the Middle 
 Ages candles were not made by regular crafts- 
 men, but by monks and the servants of the 
 nobility. An illustration of this is to be found 
 in Asser's " Annals," where an account is given 
 of the manner in which King Alfred directed 
 his candles to be formed. " He commanded his 
 chaplain to supply wax in sufficient quantity, 
 and he caused it to be weighed in such a manner 
 that when there was so much of it as would equal 
 the weight of seventy-two pence, he caused the 
 chaplain to make six candles thereof, each of 
 equal length, so that each candle might have 
 twelve divisions marked across it." These 
 candles, when burnt in succession, lasted for 
 twenty-four hours, and each division indicated 
 the third of an hour. 
 
 The Reformation severely affected the wax 
 trade, and bee-keeping also suffered heavily in 
 consequence, from the fact that the Evangelical 
 Church did away with the use of tapers at 
 Divine service. 
 
 In addition to tapers and candles, wax was 
 used in still larger quantities in the manufacture 
 of artificial flowers and fruits, which were much 
 used as ornaments for rooms, artificial flowers 
 made of woven fabrics being then unknown. 
 
 c 
 
34 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 The making of fruits and flowers in wax was 
 brought to great perfection in Rome and also 
 in Alexandria. Varro praises the skill of the 
 Roman wax-worker Posis, who made apples and 
 bunches of grapes so like Nature that it was 
 impossible to distinguish any difference at sight 
 between the real and the artificial. 
 
 Lampridius, the historian, mentions that 
 Heliogabalus had served for the guests at his 
 table imitations in wax of all the food partaken 
 of by himself. 
 
 In very ancient times wax was occasionally 
 used to fashion the miniature figures of ances- 
 tors, kept in houses to be produced on certain 
 important ceremonial occasions. It was also 
 used for making images of animals for people 
 too poor to buy living animals for sacrificial 
 purposes. 
 
 Besides these curious customs, it is recorded 
 that at the Adonis festival waxen figures of 
 fruit and animals were placed by women about 
 the catafalque, upon which was an image of the 
 god, and at the same time little figures of the 
 god were brought out to public view. 
 
 In pagan times votive offerings in wax were 
 very plentiful in the temples, and such of them 
 as took the shape of figures came into use in the 
 Roman Catholic Church; indeed, so numerous 
 
HISTORICAL. 35 
 
 were they in Italy that the walls of the Church 
 of the Annunciation in Florence were completely 
 covered with them. From the Middle Ages 
 onward it was the custom to burn candles before 
 a Madonna or saint whose favour was sought. 
 
 Devout people at that time firmly believed 
 that their wishes would be granted through the 
 influence of wax images, and adopted this form 
 of giving thanks for expected blessings to come. 
 
 In Germany and other countries the shape of 
 that portion of the body of persons affected by 
 disease was moulded in wax and placed in the 
 church with the conviction that in this way 
 recovery would be ensured. Even to this day 
 one may sometimes see in chapels and on the 
 altars in places of pilgrimage hands, feet, arms, 
 and other parts of the body formed in miniature 
 from wax. 
 
 In making candles intended to be placed on 
 the altar during Mass only pure wax was em- 
 ployed, those made of tallow or other sub- 
 stances being used only for the purposes of 
 illumination. 
 
 For medical purposes certain valuable proper- 
 ties of wax have been recognised from the 
 earliest ages, Greek and Roman chemists 
 attributing hypothetical virtues to this substance, 
 and profiting by it at the expense of their credu- 
 
 c 2 
 
36 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 lous patients. Pliny tells us that " every kind 
 of wax is emollient and warming, and tends to 
 the formation of new flesh ; fresh wax is, how- 
 ever, the best. It is given in broth to persons 
 troubled with dysentery, and the combs them- 
 selves are sometimes used in a pottage made of 
 parched alica. Wax also counteracts the bad 
 effects of milk, and ten pills, the size of a grain 
 of millet, will prevent milk from coagulating in 
 the stomach." 
 
 Some idea of the extent to which wax was 
 used in commerce in distant ages may be 
 gathered from what Pliny further says : " As to 
 the different uses to which wax is applied in com- 
 bination with other substances in medicine, we 
 could no more make an enumeration of them 
 than we could of all the other ingredients which 
 form part of our medical compositions. These 
 preparations, as we have already observed, are 
 the result of human invention. Cerates, poul- 
 tices, plasters, eye-salves, antidotes none of 
 these have been formed by Nature, that parent 
 and divine framer of the universe ; they are 
 merely the inventions of the laboratory, or 
 rather, to say the truth, of human avarice." He 
 also tells us that the juice of the laser- wort mixed 
 with wax will extract corns from the feet after 
 they have been first loosened with a knife, and 
 
HISTORICAL. 37 
 
 as a remedy for convulsions it is given in pills 
 (coated with wax) about as large as a chick-pea. 
 
 Wax was also employed for a great number of 
 other purposes. Urns and other vessels used 
 for holding wine, oil, and metheglin were sealed 
 with it. Mixed with such other ingredients as 
 brick-dust, lime, or pitch, it formed a cement for 
 internal architectural decorations. In a pure con- 
 dition ropes were smeared with it in order to 
 preserve them from rotting, and the colours of 
 walls and marbles were improved by being 
 polished with this substance. 
 
 Regarding embalming the dead, Herodotus 
 tells us " the Persians cover the body with wax 
 and then place it in the ground." Strabo also 
 says their mode of burial was to smear the 
 bodies over with wax before interment. The 
 Assyrians also, who had many rites in common 
 with the Persians, placed their dead in honey 
 after smearing the body with wax. The Egyp- 
 tians likewise did this at times, although it was 
 not a usual custom with them. 
 
 The Romans first used wax for seals of deeds 
 and legal documents, but for this purpose it was 
 generally mixed with some other ingredient that 
 would tend to harden the wax, in addition to the 
 various colours incorporated with it. The mix- 
 ture varied at different epochs, and the colours 
 
38 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 were also changed according to the dignity of 
 the persons and the nature of the deeds to which 
 they were affixed. Specially fine seals were 
 usually covered with circular pieces of paper to 
 ensure their preservation. 
 
 Shakespeare alludes to the use of wax in 
 sealing documents in the " Second Part of 
 King Henry VI. ," where the rebels under 
 Jack Cade met at Blackheath. On this occasion 
 one of the rebellious crowd says : " The 
 first thing we do, let's kill all the lawyers." 
 To which Cade replies : " Nay, that I mean 
 to do. Is not this a lamentable thing, that of 
 the skin of an innocent lamb should be made 
 parchment? that parchment, being scribbled 
 o'er, should undo a man? Some say the bee 
 stings : but I say, 'tis the bee's wax ; for I did 
 but seal once to a thing, and I was never mine 
 own man since." Shakespeare makes several 
 other references to wax being used for this 
 purpose. 
 
 After all that has been said, one is apt to 
 wonder how the enormous demand for wax 
 could have been supplied in the ages long 
 past to which reference has been made. It 
 becomes clear, however, that it was usual to 
 impose taxes which had to be paid in certain 
 quantities of wax. In the year 181 B.C. Praetor 
 
HISTORICAL. 39 
 
 Pinarius, after defeating the inhabitants of the 
 island of Corsica, imposed on them a tax of 
 1 00,000 Ib. of wax, and this contribution 
 was doubled two years afterwards. The in- 
 habitants of Trebizond also paid tribute to the 
 Romans in equivalents of wax. In the Middle 
 Ages taxes in the form of wax were paid to 
 kings, and certain officers had the right to 
 demand a given number of candles and pounds 
 of wax. 
 
 In all religious ceremonies in France large 
 quantities of wax were consumed, and the in- 
 cumbents neglected no means of procuring it. 
 Among the annual revenues of the Bishop of 
 Puy was 20 Ib. of wax. In 1330 the farmers 
 of the domain of Beauregard had each to pay 
 2 Ib. of wax annually. In 1632 John de Frettar, 
 sexton of the monastery of Chaise Dieu, stipu- 
 lated for an annual rent of 600 Ib. of wax, to be of 
 good merchantable quality, that the tenant was 
 to bring to his house yearly on St. John's Day. 
 Another deed, dated July 27, 1668, shows that 
 the monks of the same monastery rented to 
 John Marel for six years the revenues of the 
 workroom for the payment of i2olb., to be 
 paid in wax candles of first quality at the rate 
 of 1 8 sols per Ib. 
 
 The employment of candles, which up to 
 
40 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 that time was chiefly confined to churches, 
 monasteries, and houses of the nobility 
 became very general in the fifteenth century, 
 and the trade of candle-making had acquired so 
 much importance that the wax chandlers of 
 London obtained an act of incorporation. This 
 Guild (one of the oldest) is now known as the 
 Worshipful Company of Wax Chandlers. 
 
 There is no documentary evidence of this 
 ancient Company's existence prior to 1371, but 
 from a petition presented to the Court of Alder- 
 men in that year it would appear the Guild had 
 then attained an established position. 
 
 In 1483 (i Richard III.) the Company was 
 incorporated by Royal Charter, with power 
 to choose a Master and two Wardens to over- 
 see the craft of wax chandlery, and, upon 
 any defects or defaults being found, to punish 
 the offenders. This charter was confirmed and 
 extended by subsequent charters. 
 
 Grants of arms were conferred in 1485 by 
 Sir Thomas Holme, Clarenceux King-of-Arms, 
 and in 1536 the arms were altered and ampli- 
 fied by Thomas Hawley, Clarenceux King-of- 
 Arms, and again in 1636 were confirmed By 
 Henry St. George, Richmond Herald. 
 
 By-laws based upon the charters were con- 
 firmed in 1515, and again in 1664. 
 
PLATE IV. 
 
PLATE V. 
 
 and 10. Engraved designs on Normansell cup 
 
HISTORICAL. 41 
 
 "The Company's books contain many refer- 
 ences to faulty wax and the punishment of 
 offenders, the punishment generally being the 
 forfeiture of the wax, wrought or unwrought. 
 Links, staff torches, &c., unprinted, " corse cast," 
 and badly made links, and mixing wax with 
 adulterants seem to have been the principal 
 offences. 
 
 The Company had, in common with its sister 
 Companies, parted with its most valuable plate, 
 which, according to a seventeenth-century 
 record, must have been an exceedingly fine one. 
 Among the pieces that remain, the most inter< 
 esting are the Normansell Cup, of classic design 
 (Figs. 6, 9, and 10, Plates IV. and V.), and the 
 Beadle's Staff-head (Fig. 8, Plate IV.). 
 
 The following description of the cup, sent by 
 the Wax Chandlers' Company, appears in the 
 catalogue of antiquities and works of art ex- 
 hibited in May, 1861, at Ironmongers' Hall: 
 " A large straight loving cup and cover 
 (silver), 20^- in. high, 6f in. diameter, on a 
 baluster stem and a round foot; on the cover 
 stands a gilt figure of Mars, with a spear and 
 shield, all of very rough execution. The cup 
 is engraved over the whole surface with subjects 
 and articles relating to the production and manu- 
 facture of wax. On the bowl is a man tingling a 
 
42 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 swarm of bees, and another is hiving the same 
 from the bough - of a tree; and two shields of 
 arms, viz.: ist, the arms of the Company; 2nd, 
 argent on a fess cotised azure three fleurs-de- 
 lis, or, for Normansell. Crest, a demi-female 
 holding in her left hand an annulet, and in- 
 scribed : ' The Gift of Richd. Normansell, 
 Gent., Tenant to ye Companie.' On the cover 
 are the following subjects: On a table 
 stands a taper-roller fitted with scissor-snuffers ; 
 a melting cauldron on a fire, a man with ladle in 
 front of a fireplace, accompanied by his turn- 
 spit ; a naked figure kneeling at a desk, at the 
 side of which is a large taper, which he appears 
 to have just lighted ; a robed female with basket 
 on her head, and with a sickle cutting cotton 
 for the wicks from a tree ; on the foot are figures 
 in Eastern costumes, bee-hives on stands, a 
 griffin on a pedestal, birds, &c. The plate 
 mark is the small black letter f, of 1563." 
 
 The Beadle's Staff-head, probably made 
 about 1670 or 1680, is thus described in the 
 City Press of March 13, 1897: "It is of 
 somewhat irregular shape, and is covered with a 
 design in high relief incorporating the Com- 
 pany's arms and motto. Below this is a repre- 
 sentation of a bee-hive and bees, illustrating the 
 trade of wax-making." 
 
HISTORICAL. 43 
 
 It will therefore be seen that formerly bee- 
 keeping must have been carried on extensively, 
 as honey was the only sweetening substance, but 
 by the introduction of sugar bee-keeping was 
 decreased anoT the production of wax was 
 reduced to a minimum. Besides the Reforma- 
 tion, which reduced the demand for wax, power- 
 ful competitors appeared in commerce, and wax 
 obtained from various plants and minerals, such 
 as stearine, paraffin, ceresin, and others, which 
 are frequently used for the purpose of adulterat- 
 ing beeswax, further lowered its price. 
 
 At the present time the Greek Orthodox 
 Church makes the largest use of wax, for this 
 and oil are the only illuminating agents allowed. 
 In the Roman Catholic Church the " Catholic 
 Dictionary " says : " The present custom of the 
 Church requires that candles should be lighted 
 on the altar from the beginning to the end of 
 Mass, nor can lighted candles be dispensed 
 with on any consideration. A parish priest, for 
 instance, must not say Mass for his flock, even 
 on a Sunday, unless candles can be procured." 
 These, as well as candles for weddings, fetes, 
 and saints 5 days, are generally ornamented either 
 with spirals of gold or with different devices in 
 colours. The small candles used on Christmas- 
 trees are also made of coloured wax. Besides 
 
44 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 candles, wax is also used for making thin tapers, 
 and for a number of artistic, medicinal, and 
 technical purposes. 
 
 The modelling of anatomical dissections, first 
 practised in Florence, is now common, and 
 many fine specimens can be seen in museums. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE PRODUCTION OF BEESWAX. 
 
 BEESWAX has its origin in the honey 
 consumed by bees and transformed by 
 them into fatty matter by a process of 
 digestion and secretion. 
 
 This, however, was not the opinion of 
 ancient writers Swammerdam, Maraldi, Reau- 
 mur, and others, who, being aware of the fact 
 that numerous plants were capable of producing 
 wax-secretions, for a long time held the opinion 
 that bees collected ready-made wax directly from 
 flowers, and, when building their comb from it, 
 merely had to knead the wax so gathered with 
 saliva in order to render the substance more 
 pliable for working with. 
 
 Wax exists as a vegetable product, and forms 
 a part of the green fecula of many plants, par- 
 ticularly of the cabbage. It may also be ex- 
 tracted from the pollen of most flowers and 
 from the skins of plums, among other stone 
 fruits. It also constitutes a varnish upon the 
 surface of the leaves of many trees, while the 
 
46 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 berries of Myrica angustifolia, latifolia, and 
 cerifera afford abundance of wax. But this 
 so-called vegetable wax, when chemically 
 examined, is found to be either not wax at all, 
 but only ordinary fat, i.e., a compound including 
 glycerine, or simply a waxy matter somewhat 
 allied in composition to beeswax, but materially 
 differing from the latter in other respects. 
 
 We now know that beeswax is not found ready 
 made in Nature, but is formed in the body of 
 the worker-bee. It is an organic and not a 
 mechanical production, and issues in the form 
 of scales from between the ventral plates of the 
 abdomen. 
 
 It is difficult to say who was the first to notice 
 these wax-scales, but Martin John in 1684 
 mentions them, as did Thorley in 1744 and 
 Wildman in 1779. Hermann C. Hornbostel, a 
 Hanoverian pastor, also describes them in 
 the "Hamburg Library" about 1745. On 
 August 22, 1768, M. Willelmi, writing to 
 M. C. Bonnet, said that a German peasant, 
 member of a society of bee-keepers, had 
 ascertained that wax was produced in the 
 shape of scales between certain of the rings 
 on the under side of the abdomen (Fig. 16, 
 Plate VIIL). Unfortunately, M. Willelmi does 
 not mention the name of this Lusatian peasant, 
 
THE PRODUCTION OF BEESWAX. 47 
 
 but states that the wax-scales can be removed 
 with the point of a needle from a bee working 
 at comb-building. Subsequently John Hunter in 
 1792 gave a description of the segments of the 
 bee's abdomen, and drew attention to the wax- 
 glands by which these scales were produced. F. 
 Huber in 1793 commenced a series of experi- 
 ments, which eventually confirmed the discovery, 
 showing that wax was produced from honey, 
 and not gathered, as was supposed by Reaumur 
 and others. 
 
 On each of the four ventral plates in the 
 body of a worker-bee is a framework of 
 chitine surrounding two transparent surfaces. 
 One of these ventral plates is seen enlarged 
 in Fig. 17, Plate VIII., showing the trans- 
 parent surfaces on which the wax-scales are 
 produced. The dark part marks the hard 
 chitine framework surrounding the discs, while 
 the transparent wax-yielding surfaces are 
 irregular, pentagonal in shape, and covered 
 by the segment immediately above them. The 
 lower part, which overlaps the plate below it, is 
 of hard chitine and covered with feathered hairs. 
 The smooth, slightly sunken surfaces are the 
 moulds in which are formed the wax-scales from 
 the secretion which passes through them in a 
 liquid state from glands situated beneath. These 
 
48 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 wax-secreting glands are only found immedi- 
 ately under the transparent membrane, and do 
 not exist beyond the framework. The fat-cells 
 are connected with the membrane by tubes, 
 through which the liquid wax flows upwards, and 
 passes through the membrane when the tempera- 
 ture is at 95 deg. to 98 deg. Fahr. 
 
 The fluid wax is thus moulded on the 
 depressed cavities ; the hard part of the segment 
 above, pressing over them, causes the liquid to 
 assume their shape, and the little scales, after 
 becoming solid, are drawn out of these so-called 
 wax-pockets as required for use. 
 
 Wax cannot be produced at all times, but its 
 secretion is voluntary, and for its production a 
 temperature of from 87 deg. to 98 deg. Fahr. is 
 required, which the bees are able to obtain by 
 close clustering when comb-building (Fig. 14, 
 Plate VII.). The wax-scales resemble mica, are 
 transparent, very brittle, pale yellow in colour, 
 and at such times they protrude from beneath 
 the segments, as seen in Fig. 16, Plate VIII. 
 These wax-scales may be found in abundance 
 scattered on the floor-board of a strong colony 
 during the time when the bees are busy comb- 
 building. They are removed from the cavities 
 by means of the pincers on the hind legs, trans- 
 ferred to the front legs, and then to the mouth, 
 
PLATE VI. 
 
 / 
 
 11. Wax mask 
 13 Comb in which bees ha 
 
 12. New comb 
 been bred, showing the cococ 
 
PLATE VII. 
 
THE PRODUCTION OF BEESWAX. 49 
 
 to be masticated by the jaws with the addition 
 of saliva, which modifies the wax and makes it 
 plastic. Dr. de Planta found a considerable 
 quantity of saliva in the wax when prepared for 
 use in comb-building, while in the scales it was 
 certainly absent. 
 
 Huber, after a series of experiments several 
 times repeated proved that bees fed on honey 
 and water produced wax, while, if fed only on 
 pollen, none was produced. He also showed 
 that bees fed on sugar-syrup were able to 
 produce wax, and (after several consecutive 
 trials) that those fed with syrup made of sugar 
 yielded more wax than when fed on honey, 
 brown moist sugar yielding the largest quanti- 
 ties. These results were fully corroborated by 
 Dumas and Milne-Edwards, who in 1844 
 repeated Huber's experiments, and found that 
 500 grammes of sugar yielded 30 grammes of 
 wax, while the same quantity of honey only gave 
 20 grammes. Other observers, such as Gunde- 
 lach and Berlepsch, have obtained similar 
 results, so that Huber's conclusions may be 
 considered as established. 
 
 Although honey or saccharine matter alone is 
 needed, Berlepsch and others have pointed out 
 that bees cannot do without pollen, which serves 
 to make up for the enormous wear-and-tear of 
 
 D 
 
50 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 tissue caused by wax-secretion. The elabora- 
 tion of wax not only draws largely on the vital 
 powers of the bee, but also costs both bees and 
 their owners much honey. The exact amount of 
 honey consumed in producing a given quantity 
 of wax has not yet been definitely decided, 
 scientists differing so widely in their opinions as 
 to vary between 6^ Ib. and 20 Ib. of honey being 
 required for i Ib. of wax, without counting loss 
 of time caused in the building of combs. Taking 
 the average at is^lb., and comparing the value 
 of honey to that of wax, it will be seen that the 
 loss is considerable. 
 
 Beeswax, when pure, though usually pale 
 yellow in colour, is sometimes nearly white, and 
 the difference in colour is due, as Dr. de Planta 
 has pointed out, to pollen consumed by the bees. 
 For instance, when bees are collecting pollen 
 and honey from heather, the pollen being white, 
 the wax is also white, whereas, when collecting 
 from sainfoin, the pollen being orange-coloured, 
 the wax also partakes of this colour. 
 
 According to Brande, wax is composed of 
 80.20 per cent, carbon, 13.14 hydrogen, and 6.36 
 oxygen. 
 
 Its specific gravity is between .960 and 
 .967, and it melts at about 143 deg. to 
 147 deg. Fahr. At 85 deg. it becomes plastic, 
 
THE PRODUCTION OF BEESWAX. 51 
 
 and is then readily moulded and kneaded into 
 shape. 
 
 Sir Benjamin Brodie in 1848 demonstrated 
 that beeswax mainly consisted of cerotic acid 
 (C 27 H 57 2 ), myricine or palmitate of myricyle 
 (deHjiO, C 30 H6iO), and a small quantity 
 of a fatty substance resembling margarine, to 
 which Lewy gave the 'name ceroleine. Otto 
 Hehner, who submitted to analysis a large 
 number of samples of English and foreign wax, 
 found it remarkably constant in composition. 
 Cerotic acid he found to vary only from 13 to 
 1 6 per cent., and the quantity of myricine from 
 86 to 89 per cent. This includes 4 to 5 per cent, 
 of ceroleine. 
 
 By boiling wax in alcohol the myricine separ- 
 ates; as the alcohol cools the cerotic acid crys- 
 tallises out, leaving ceroleine in solution. 
 
 Beeswax is soluble in ether, chloroform, 
 benzol, bisulphide of carbon, turpentine, &c. ; 
 partially soluble in boiling alcohol; and in- 
 soluble in water or cold alcohol. 
 
 During the process of bleaching, wax parts 
 with i per cent, of carbon, and absorbs i per 
 cent, of oxygen. The cerotic acid from bleached 
 wax contains more oxygen and less carbon than 
 that obtained from unbleached wax, whereas the 
 myricine in either remains the same. Hehner 
 
 D 2 
 
5* WAX CRAFT. 
 
 says he has " every reason to believe that the 
 changes due to some of the bleaching processes 
 alter the composition of the wax more deeply 
 than is generally supposed." 
 
 Besides beeswax, there are in commerce wax 
 from plants and other insects than bees, and 
 mineral wax. Of these we shall have to speak 
 later, some of them being used for adulterating 
 beeswax. 
 
 The beeswax of commerce is found in cakes 
 of different sizes and shapes, varying in colour 
 from light to dark yellow. It breaks with a fine- 
 grained, clean conchoidal fracture, has more or 
 less aroma, is plastic, tenacious, and can be 
 kneaded without its sticking to the fingers. 
 Placed in the mouth it is nearly tasteless, and 
 when chewed does not adhere to the teeth. 
 
 Beeswax retains its ductility and tenacity 
 under greater ranges of temperature than any 
 mineral, plant, or insect wax, and is therefore 
 the only one suitable for making comb-founda- 
 tion (Fig. 1 8, Plate VIII.) ; not only so, but it 
 has been found that an admixture of 25 to 50 per 
 cent, of paraffin or ceresin is very liable to melt 
 down in hot weather. Practically, therefore, 
 pure beeswax is the only product that should be 
 used in making foundation for use in hives. 
 
PLATE VIII. 
 
 16. "Wax adulterated by the insertion of nails 
 
 16. Bee, snowing wax-scales on abdomen 
 
 17. Ventral plate of worker 
 IS, Comb-foundation 
 
PLATE IX. 
 
 19 Wax-moth (Galleria cerella). 
 
 20 Combs destroyed by wax-moth. 
 Appliance for testing melting-point of wax 
 
 21 
 
 22 Gerster's wax-extractor 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 WAX RENDERING. % 
 
 SOME of the primitive methods of 
 separating wax from its impurities were 
 extremely crude; even now the natives 
 of different countries from which we obtain wax 
 are most careless in its preparation, so that the 
 imported article when put on the market here 
 is not seldom full of foreign substances. 
 
 The common practice is to break up the 
 combs and strain the honey from them, after 
 which they are placed in a cauldron of water. 
 As the combs generally contain pollen and 
 brood, they are allowed to soak for a time in 
 order to soften the pollen and cast off skins of 
 the cocoons. A fire is then lighted under the 
 cauldron and the mass boiled, being stirred 
 meanwhile with a stick to cause the combs to 
 go to pieces. When the wax is all melted 
 that which floats on the top is ladled out on to 
 a canvas or other strainer placed over a pan 
 containing a little water. More combs are put 
 into the cauldron, and the process continued 
 
54 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 so long as there are any combs to melt. When 
 cool enough the refuse is squeezed with the 
 hands to remove what wax remains, the debris 
 being thrown away. But a good deal of pollen 
 with small particles of rubbish passes through 
 the strainer. In dealing with best samples 
 the wax is re-melted in clean water and 
 strained again. This method is a very wasteful 
 one, it being impossible to impart sufficient 
 pressure by squeezing to extract all the wax, 
 consequently a good deal is thrown away with 
 the refuse. The crude method described also 
 frequently ends in the wax becoming discoloured 
 from burning. 
 
 A better plan, that of boiling in bags, will 
 be described later, being one still extensively 
 adopted by those who have not taken to modern 
 methods. 
 
 Formerly the production of wax was much 
 greater than now. Modern bee-keeping does 
 not yield so much wax as is obtained when 
 bees are kept in skeps or boxes, or by any of the 
 primitive methods by which the great majority 
 of stocks are destroyed annually and all 
 combs melted for wax. On the other hand, 
 the bee-keeper who works with movable-comb 
 hives extracts the honey and returns the combs 
 to be refilled. In this case the only wax 
 
WAX RENDERING. 55 
 
 obtained is from comb-cappings, removed 
 previous to extracting the honey. He may, 
 of course, have sundry pieces of combs that 
 have become too old for use, and which he may 
 desire to renew, cut out from his frames along 
 with combs from skeps from which bees have 
 been driven, and, as beeswax is of considerable 
 value and readily saleable, every scrap of 
 comb should be carefully preserved for melting. 
 
 Comb-cappings and any pieces of comb in 
 which no brood has been reared (Fig. 12, 
 Plate VI.) should have a separate melting, as 
 needing far less refining than combs which have 
 contained brood and pollen (Fig. 13, Plate VI.). 
 
 When combs intended for melting have 
 contained honey, this should be washed out of 
 them, and if they are not intended to be melted 
 at once should be broken up and kneaded into 
 solid balls, pressing out all the water. These 
 balls can then be dried and put away for 
 subsequent melting. They should be kepi 
 together in a dry place along with any other 
 pieces of comb, carefully preserved from wax-, 
 moth, which is particularly troublesome during 
 the summer months. The larva of the wax-moth 
 (Galleria cerella) (Fig. 19, Plate IX.) eats the 
 wax, fills the combs with cocoons, and, if not 
 stopped in time, will destroy the greater part of 
 
56 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 the wax and leave nothing but a mass of 
 entangled silky webs and debris extending in 
 all directions (Fig. 20, Plate IX.). 
 
 All wax should be carefully preserved in a 
 case or cupboard capable of being tightly closed, 
 and in which sulphur should be burnt from 
 time to time. Sulphur fumes destroy the eggs* 
 and larvae of the moth. 
 
 Many different methods are employed for 
 separating wax from its impurities, all of which 
 plans are based on the fact that beeswax melts 
 at a temperature of 143 deg. Fahr., when it 
 readily separates from such foreign substances 
 as it may contain by reason of its lighter specific 
 gravity. 
 
 The melting of combs can be done either by 
 the heat of the sun's rays, or with boiling water, 
 or by steam. But only rain or river water is 
 suitable for the purpose, and no other should 
 be used, seeing that well-water, if hard, is liable 
 to cause wax to turn brown in colour. Lime 
 in water also unites with the fatty acid of wax, 
 saponifying it, so that, after cooling, wax 
 rendered with hard water has on the under side 
 a spongy, greyish mass. When rain or river 
 water is not available, vinegar or a small 
 quantity of sulphuric acid should be put into 
 the water, just sufficient to neutralise the lime. 
 
WAX RENDERING. 57 
 
 Copper vessels are preferable, but if not 
 available, iron ones can be used, but they should 
 be first heated and rubbed with a piece of 
 mutton fat, which not only prevents the acid 
 from attacking the iron, but the latter will not 
 afterwards discolour the wax. It should also be 
 noted that the nearer to the melting-point at 
 which all melting operations are performed the 
 finer will be the product, a high temperature 
 destroying both the colour and aroma of the wax 
 produced. 
 
 The methods usually employed for rendering 
 wax may be divided into three classes: 
 
 1. Those depending only upon heat. 
 
 2. Those employing both water and heat. 
 
 3. Those dependent on presses and hot 
 
 water. 
 
 We will now describe the various ways of 
 extracting wax from the combs and the different 
 appliances used. 
 
 THE SOLAR WAX- EXTRACTOR. This appli- 
 ance is only suitable for melting the wax from 
 new combs or from cappings. Such combs as 
 have been used lor brood-rearing and are very 
 old contain many generations of cocoons 
 (Fig 13, Plate VI.), consequently very little 
 wax, if any, can be got from them by means of 
 
5* WAX CRAFT. 
 
 a solar extractor. It can, however, be usefully 
 employed for clarifying wax obtained by any of 
 the other mentioned processes and which is 
 already in the form of wax-cakes. But although 
 the solar extractor will only work during sun- 
 shine, every bee-keeper should possess one. It is 
 extremely handy for holding any piece of comb 
 cut out when manipulating among bees, and, 
 left to itself, the wax is melted without any 
 trouble to the bee-keeper. The appliance con- 
 sists of a wooden box with a double glazed frame 
 sloping from back to front (Fig. 23, Plate X.). 
 A slightly inclined tin tray fits inside, and on 
 this the combs or pieces of wax are laid. If 
 the apparatus is now placed in the sun, so that 
 the rays strike the sloping glass, the wax will 
 melt and run quite pure into the receptacle in 
 front of the tray, leaving nothing but the residue 
 behind on the wire gauze. 
 
 It has been found, by means of a thermometer 
 fixed inside the case, that the wax began to 
 melt when the temperature reached 147 deg. to 
 149 deg. Fahr., and on rising to between 
 161 deg. and 172 deg. the molten wax flowed 
 rapidly. 
 
 Dr. Bianchetti carried out a number of 
 experiments in this line, and found that with 
 a shade temperature of 69.8 deg. Fahr. at 
 
PLATE X. 
 
 tym&i* 
 
 
 24 
 
 23. Solar wax- extractor 
 
 24. The " Hatch-Gemmil " wax-preas. 
 
PLATE XI. 
 
WAX RENDERING. 59 
 
 midday the thermometer in the solar wax- 
 extractor registered 140 deg. at 9 a.m., 
 i72.4deg. at ii a.m., i86.8deg. at noon, and 
 165.2 deg. at 4 p.m. 
 
 Wax obtained by means of this apparatus is 
 very fine and requires no further refining. 
 
 EXTRACTING IN AN OVEN. Some have 
 advocated melting small quantities of combs in 
 an oven ; but this plan cannot be recommended, 
 because if the heat of the oven be too great 
 the wax is not only volatilised, but becomes 
 brown and acquires a disagreeable odour that 
 reduces its marketable value. If, however, it 
 is decided to use this method care should be 
 taken that the oven does not become too hot. 
 In no case should the temperature exceed 
 .172 deg. Fahr. The pieces of comb are put 
 into a sieve or wire-gauze strainer placed in a 
 basin containing water, and in due course the 
 molten wax percolates through the strainer and 
 drops into the water, on which it floats. When 
 all is melted the contents are allowed to cool 
 gradually, when the cake of wax can be 
 removed. This plan, like the solar, is also 
 unsuitable for old combs, for the same reasons. 
 
 EXTRACTING WITH HOT WATER. This way 
 of rendering wax is extensively adopted by 
 bee-keepers who are still working on old 
 
60 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 methods in places where wax is obtained in 
 large quantities. The combs are pressed to 
 rid them of the honey, then thoroughly soaked 
 in water for twenty-four hours, and afterwards 
 put into canvas bags and boiled in a copper 
 or other vessel of water. Brood-combs are 
 sometimes served in the same way in order to 
 get all the wax possible out of them. The object 
 of soaking is to impregnate with water the 
 skins of the cocoons (Fig. 13, Plate VI.), which 
 would otherwise absorb the wax as it became 
 melted. The larval excrement will also dissolve 
 in the water and discolour it. The bags are 
 kept floating below the surface of the water by 
 weighting down with stones, some of which 
 are so placed as to prevent the bags from 
 touching the bottom of the copper. Heat is 
 then applied, the wax melts, percolates through 
 the canvas, and floats to the top. The water 
 is only allowed to boil very gently, and the 
 boiling must be continued for from a quarter of 
 to half an hour, according to the amount of 
 refuse there is in the wax. Great care is taken 
 not to boil too fast or the wax will rise like milk 
 or become over-heated, and if this happens it 
 becomes dry, brittle, and brown an objection- 
 able colour, almost impossible to get rid of. 
 When most of the wax has been extracted the 
 
WAX RENDERING. 61 
 
 bag is removed and pressed between two 
 boards, thus securing what wax may be squeezed 
 from the refuse. The scum is then taken off, 
 the copper covered over with cloths, and the 
 water and wax are allowed to cool as slowly as 
 possible, for the slower in cooling the more 
 refined the wax becomes, and, consequently, 
 increases in value. When cold, the cake of 
 wax is taken out, the discoloured portion 
 adhering to the under side scraped off, and, 
 after re-melting a second time, it is cast into 
 round cakes. The refuse that is scraped off is 
 collected, and when there is a sufficient quantity 
 of it the same process is gone through and the 
 last trace of clean wax removed. 
 
 Another way is to put the combs into the 
 copper, and a hoop just fitting within, covered 
 with canvas or cheese-cloth, is pressed down 
 over the combs. The hoop is prevented from 
 rising by sticks wedged against the ceiling; 
 this done, the copper is filled with rain-water, 
 the fire lighted, and, upon boiling, the wax 
 rises through the canvas to the surface, leaving 
 the refuse behind. The cooling process is 
 the same as that followed in the previous 
 method. 
 
 There are several wax-extractors on the 
 market by means of which brood-combs are 
 
62 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 disintegrated in boiling water. A French one, 
 an improved form of which is shown in Fig. 25, 
 Plate XL, is very simple, and consists of an 
 outer cylindrical kettle, inside which is a basket 
 of perforated tin resting on small supports to 
 keep it off the bottom of the kettle, and having 
 a top of tinned-wire gauze stretched over and 
 fixed to an iron hoop, which fits into the basket, 
 and is kept down by means of two catches. This 
 has a bar across in which the spindle carrying 
 two fans revolves. Near the top of the kettle 
 is an outlet for the wax, closed by means of a 
 cork, and on the opposite side a funnel reaches 
 nearly down to the bottom. The basket, after 
 being filled with combs and the gauze top is 
 fitted on, is then put into the kettle and kept in 
 its place by means of two stops. The kettle is 
 next filled with water saturated with common 
 salt until it reaches a little higher than the 
 wax outlet. This done, it is put on the fire 
 and allowed to boil, while the crank at the end 
 of the spindle is turned from time to time to 
 thoroughly break up the combs under the hot 
 water, so that the wax is liberated and rises to 
 the surface. When all the wax is supposed to 
 be extracted the cork may be removed from the 
 spout and the wax allowed to flow into a 
 receptacle containing a little warm water. Some 
 
WAX RENDERING. 63 
 
 hot salt-water is then poured in at the funnel 
 until the last drop of wax has escaped, when 
 the cage can be taken out, emptied, refilled, and 
 the operation repeated, making use of the same 
 hot water. 
 
 EXTRACTING BY STEAM. For this purpose 
 some use the wax-extractor devised by Professor 
 Gerster, shown in Fig. 22, Plate IX. It consists 
 of an outer tin cylinder (A) having a dish (D) in- 
 side, communicating with the outlet (c). Between 
 this dish and the outer cylinder is a space which 
 allows the steam to pass up to the basket, and a 
 tube up the centre of the basket serves the same 
 purpose. The perforated tin basket (B) stands 
 about an inch from the bottom of the dish. 
 When working, the basket, filled with comb, 
 is inserted in cylinder (A). The whole is then 
 placed over a pan containing water on the fire. 
 When the water boils steam passes through 
 the openings in the direction shown by arrows 
 and melts the wax, which oozes through the 
 perforations in the basket into the dish and then 
 runs from spout (c) into a basin of water, leaving 
 the refuse in basket (B). Wax extracted by this 
 method is free from impurities and of a 
 beautiful colour, but it is only suited for new 
 combs or cappings. The latter can be put 
 into the wax-extractor when extracting, the 
 
64 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 honey drained from them, and when the basket 
 is full the wax may be melted. 
 
 WAX-PRESSES. By far the most satisfactory 
 plan, and one that now obtains extensively with 
 advanced bee-keepers, is to use some form of 
 wax-press, in which the pressure brought to 
 bear, combined with heat, removes the wax 
 without leaving more than from i to 3 per cent, 
 in the refuse. 
 
 Wax-presses may be divided into two classes : 
 those in which heat is either applied during the 
 pressure or the contrary, according to the one 
 chosen. 
 
 The first-named of the heated presses is also 
 made in two forms, one where great pressure 
 is applied to combs in hot water and another 
 where steam only is used. In such appliances 
 the pressure can be continued without danger 
 of cooling the combs and the pressure released 
 in order to allow the combs to be again 
 saturated with the boiling water or steam. The 
 pressure is then re-applied and the operation 
 repeated until all the wax has been removed. 
 
 With all the various presses we are now 
 about to describe it is advantageous to mingle 
 with the combs a certain quantity of straw, 
 preferably rye-straw, cut into lengths of about 
 two inches, as tending to make the mass 
 
WAX RENDERING. 65 
 
 more porous and facilitate the flowing of the 
 molten wax. 
 
 HOT-WATER PRESS. This consists of an 
 iron cylinder with a spout near the top and a 
 funnel at the side. Inside the vessel are 
 several division-racks, between which are placed 
 canvas bags containing the combs. On the 
 bottom is a coarse grating, over which is a wire 
 screen, so placed as to prevent the bags from 
 being pressed through and keep them from 
 touching the bottom. At the top there is a 
 flat board, and pressure is applied by means 
 of a screw. When using the extractor the 
 grating is placed in position, and one of the 
 bags of comb laid on it, and a division-rack 
 between every bag, two or three of which are 
 generally used at the same time. The combs 
 should have been soaked in water previous to 
 tying up in the bags. When as many layers 
 as will nearly fill the cylinder have been put in, 
 the flat 'board mentioned is placed on the top, 
 the bar carrying the screw adjusted, and the 
 vessel filled with water by means of the funnel 
 at the side until it begins to run out of the spout. 
 The whole is then put on the fire and allowed 
 to boil, pressure being applied by turning the 
 screw, when the wax is forced through the canvas 
 and floats on the top of the water. More hot 
 
 E 
 
66 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 water is introduced as required, and causes the 
 melted wax to overflow through the outlet. 
 The screw is then turned in the opposite 
 direction so that the mass is relieved of pressure, 
 and it becomes again saturated with boiling 
 water. 
 
 Owing to the continued high temperature 
 the colour of wax from such presses is not 
 very good, but if hot water is introduced 
 frequently so that the wax can be run off at 
 short intervals this difficulty is overcome and 
 the colour is unimpaired. 
 
 The pressure in every case should be inter- 
 mittent, it being found that more wax can be 
 extracted from old combs than by continuous 
 steady pressure. Messrs. Root, who have had 
 great experience with such presses, say that old 
 combs may be pressed as many as fifteen or 
 twenty times, rendering it possible to reduce 
 the final loss of wax to a fraction of i per cent. 
 
 STEAM PRESS. Methods of applying 
 pressure to combs permeated with steam 
 have also been in use for a long time, and 
 although such presses have the advantage that 
 the wax drops down out of the way as soon 
 as it leaves the refuse, the quality is not so good 
 owing to the high temperature to which it is 
 subjected. 
 
WAX RENDERING. 67 
 
 One of the most popular is that known as 
 the German steam press. Fig. 26, Plate XL, 
 illustrates one as now made by the A. I. Root 
 Company. Steam, generated in the compart- 
 ment (H), rises through an opening in the false 
 bottom (G), and surrounds the comb beneath the 
 plunger in the perforated metal basket. The 
 wax as it oozes through this runs down on to 
 the conical false bottom and passes out of 
 the spout. In working the press the can is first 
 put on the fire, so that the water may become 
 heated while the perforated basket is being 
 filled to about 8 in. or loin, in depth with old 
 combs previously soaked in water and put 
 into a canvas bag. Instead of putting all the 
 comb into one bag, it is preferable to have two 
 or three, with circular boards between each 
 layer. The basket is then placed in the can and 
 the screw turned up as far as it will go in the 
 cross-arm, which is locked in position by turning 
 it until the bolts catch in the ears at the sides. 
 As soon as steam is generated it will rise, 
 thoroughly heat the comb, and the molten wax 
 runs out of the spout at the bottom. When the 
 wax stops running pressure is applied by turning 
 the screw, very slowly at first, and increasing 
 the pressure by degrees. When the screw is 
 down as far as it will go it is turned back, the 
 
 E 2 
 
68 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 cross-bar taken out, and the contents of the 
 bags shaken up previous to being subjected to 
 renewed steaming and pressure, two or three 
 repeats being necessary to secure thorough work. 
 
 A Swiss appliance working on the same 
 principle is shown in Fig. 27, Plate XL It con- 
 sists of an outer vessel containing an inner one 
 with a conical bottom and an outlet tube. A 
 perforated cylinder is supported by means of 
 a flange on the top edge of the outer vessel. This 
 is closed at the top with a strong iron cover, 
 fixed by means of four screws. Through the 
 cover passes a screw, having a wheel on the 
 end, which when turned moves the plunger 
 up or down. The funnel at the side is for 
 supplying the vessel with water. The combs 
 are treated as explained above and a bag 
 containing them placed in the perforated 
 cylinder. Steam passes through holes between 
 the two outer vessels, softens the wax, which 
 can be pressed out by turning the wheel at the 
 top, and the molten wax then runs from the tube. 
 
 The same objection applies to steam presses 
 as to steam extractors, the best methods by far 
 being those in which unheated presses are used. 
 
 UNHEATED PRESS. With this press neither 
 hot water nor steam surrounds the comb while 
 pressure is being applied, but the comb is 
 
PLATE XII. 
 
PLATE XIII. 
 
 iiLf 
 
WAX RENDERING. 69 
 
 previously heated, and is pressed without 
 additional heat during the operation. It is 
 melted with boiling water and then dipped into 
 the press, the latter being lined with canvas. 
 This material is then folded over carefully and 
 the pressure applied by means of a screw. The 
 work must be done expeditiously in order to 
 prevent the wax from getting chilled. Fig: 24, 
 Plate X., shows the " Hatch-Gemmil " press, 
 and sufficiently explains itself. It is made of 
 wood as being best for retaining heat and is 
 generally filled with boiling water to warm it 
 just before using, otherwise much of the wax 
 becomes chilled and adheres to the sides of 
 the press. 
 
 Another form of press, known as the 
 " Rockwood," is shown in Fig. 28, Plate XII. 
 
 A press somewhat different in design and 
 perfected by Messrs. Root is shown in Figs. 29, 
 30, and 31, Plates XII. and XIII. By refer- 
 ence to Fig. 29, Plate XII., it will be seen 
 that, instead of having a square wooden 
 box, a round can, constructed of tin, is 
 used. A heavy wire-cloth or perforated-metal 
 lining, made rather smaller than the outer can, 
 is placed inside this. Messrs. Root now 
 prefer to use vertical wooden cleats in lieu of 
 the perforated-metal lining, as they provide a 
 
70 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 freer exit for the wax. The round form of 
 can is much stronger than a square box, which 
 tends to bulge out when pressure is applied, 
 thus bursting the canvas. Being more compact, 
 the mass is also less liable to chill. The screw 
 extends downwards into a hole in the centre 
 of the cast-iron follower, and thus prevents the 
 latter from going down sideways, in which 
 case the pressure would be distributed unevenly 
 and more wax remain in the thick part than in 
 the thinner. The circular wooden follower 
 is cleated, and this assists the wax and water 
 in flowing off. Since no heat is applied to 
 the combs during the pressing, it is advisable 
 to do the extracting in warm weather or in a 
 room that can be heated by means of a stove 
 in order to avoid chilling the wax and thus 
 hindering the work. The boiler used for 
 melting the combs is placed on the stove, and 
 the press should stand as near to it as possible 
 to avoid " drip " when the melted comb is being 
 dipped from the boiler into it. 
 
 When ready for work put water in the boiler, 
 and when it begins to boil immerse the combs 
 by degrees, stirring frequently and taking care 
 not to add too much comb in proportion to 
 the water, the best results being obtained when 
 there is plenty of the latter. Keep stirring until 
 
WAX RENDERING. 71 
 
 no lumps remain and the combs have been 
 reduced to a mash. A wooden plug is placed 
 in the spout at the bottom of the wax-press 
 can, and, after putting therein the follower and 
 canvas sacking, heat the press thoroughly by 
 filling it with boiling water to prevent the mass 
 from becoming chilled. The water is then 
 drawn off by removing the plug, the can being 
 drawn forward, and the canvas spread over it, 
 as seen in Fig. 30, Plate XIII. About a gallon 
 of melted comb and water is dipped out of the 
 boiler into the press and the canvas folded 
 over it. The latter should be about a foot 
 larger on each side than the press, so that it 
 may fold over neatly and evenly. The cleated 
 follower is next placed on the top, with the 
 cleats running in the direction of the spout, 
 which should also be the position of the cleated 
 board at the bottom. The can is then pushed 
 back under the screw (Fig. 31, Plate XIII.), 
 and pressure applied slowly, turning the screw 
 until no more wax runs out. This point reached, 
 the press is tipped up in order to drain the 
 wax and water from the can, when another 
 turn or two of the screw will squeeze out all 
 that remains in the refuse. When neither wax 
 nor water comes away the screw is turned back, 
 the follower removed, and the whole contents 
 
72 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 of the canvas put into a receptacle close at hand 
 for after treatment, it having been found that 
 one extracting will only remove from 88 to 92 
 per cent, of the total amount of wax. When 
 all the melted combs have gone through the 
 first operation the accumulated refuse is 
 returned to the boiler, heated up again, and 
 pressed as before. This takes less time than 
 the first treatment, and only about i to 3 per 
 cent, of waste remains. 
 
 The whole of the wax and water from the 
 press is then poured into a can and kept 
 covered so as to cool very slowly, thus 
 preventing the wax from cracking and allowing 
 of its removal next day in a solid cake. 
 
 The quality of wax obtained from such a 
 press is of the best, and the colour generally 
 so good as to need little or no refining. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 BEESWAX IN COMMERCE. 
 
 BEE-KEEPING is carried on throughout 
 Europe, but the main producers of 
 wax are Germany, Austria-Hungary, 
 France, Russia, Spain, Italy, and Turkey. 
 In these countries many bees are kept, and 
 from the Middle Ages German bee-masters 
 were foremost in the honey and the wax- 
 producing industry. Later on, however, other 
 countries have entered the field, and the New 
 World, with its virgin pastures and the great 
 activity of its inhabitants, has proved a formid- 
 able competitor. 
 
 Large quantities of beeswax now come from 
 the Orient, the principal countries supplying it 
 being the East Indies, China, and Asiatic 
 Turkey. The West Indies, Australia, Africa, 
 and North and South America also produce 
 wax which finds its way into European markets. 
 
 It is generally admitted that the best wax is 
 that collected in England, after which comes 
 that from other parts of Europe, Australia, 
 
74 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 Africa, and America, the worst being Gambia 
 wax, while that from Senegal is very dark and 
 has an unpleasant odour. Both the latter come 
 in blocks or cylindrical masses of about 50 Ib. 
 weight. 
 
 Considerable quantities are also imported 
 from the United States of America, the best of 
 which is shipped from New York. Chile also 
 sends good wax; whereas most of that from 
 South America is of inferior quality and bleaches 
 with difficulty, that from Brazil not bleaching 
 at all. 
 
 Germany has always produced a much-prized 
 wax for technical, medicinal, and artistic uses, 
 but, although some of this finds its way into 
 other markets, most of it is used in the country 
 where produced, manufactured articles chiefly 
 being exported. 
 
 Excellent wax is found in the markets of 
 Austria-Hungary and Switzerland, but Turkey 
 is said to produce wax of finer quality than any 
 of those named, great care being taken in its 
 preparation. It is of a bright orange-red colour 
 and fetches the highest price on the market. 
 That from Greece is nearly as good. In France 
 bee-keeping is carried on extensively, Brittany 
 and the South producing the best wax of that 
 country; but none of this gets into foreign 
 
BEESWAX IN COMMERCE. 75 
 
 markets, being exclusively used in the country 
 where obtained, a certain additional quantity 
 being imported in order to supply the whole 
 demand. In Paris quite a number of firms deal 
 exclusively in wax and honey, and there are also 
 many wax-bleaching factories employing several 
 hundreds of workmen. Closely following the 
 French we have Spanish wax, which comes in 
 cakes of from 2 Ib. to 3 Ib. in weight. Italy also 
 produces a considerable quantity of excellent 
 wax, and manages to export some, notwithstand- 
 ing the large amount used in that country for 
 religious and other purposes. 
 
 In Russia the peasants use honey extensively 
 instead of sugar, and the churches make a heavy 
 demand on wax for tapers. It is said that in the 
 Government of Ekaterinoslav there are nearly 
 four hives to every inhabitant, so that the pro- 
 duction of wax there must be enormous. From 
 other than European countries we have wax from 
 Egypt and Morocco, large quantities of good 
 quality, but full of impurities, being shipped from 
 Mogador. Excellent wax also comes from 
 Abyssinia, Zanzibar, and Madagascar, that from 
 the last-named place having a pleasant aromatic 
 odour. The islands of the Indian Archipelago, 
 Timor, Timor-Laut, and Flores export annually 
 about 20,000 piculs of wax in Portuguese vessels 
 
76 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 to China, where also large quantities of wax are 
 obtained, but not sufficient for the requirements 
 of the country. 
 
 Apis dorsata, the famous and fierce wild 
 honey-bee of India, builds an enormous single 
 comb, sometimes 5 ft. or 6 ft. long, usually in 
 inaccessible places. The wax, of excellent 
 quality, is eagerly sought after, in spite of the 
 difficulty and danger in securing it. One comb 
 is said to yield from i Ib. to i-J- Ib. of wax. 
 
 Wax from the West Indian Islands varies 
 much in colour and quality, the best coming from 
 Hayti, though this is hard and nearly black ; that 
 from Jamaica is also highly esteemed. A very 
 dark wax, which cannot be bleached, comes from 
 Guadeloupe. It is obtained from wild bees and 
 contains much earthy matter. 
 
 Beeswax forms a considerable part of the 
 cargoes of ships trading to the Gold and Ivory 
 Coasts and districts of Sierra Leone and the 
 western shores of Africa, a very small quantity 
 coming to us from the Niger. 
 
 Wax differs much not only in colour, but in 
 the amount of impurities it contains, the natives 
 in some countries being very careless in their 
 preparation of it for market. This fault regu- 
 lates the price, which varies from 6 to 8 per 
 cwt, wholesale. 
 
BEESWAX IN COMMERCE. 77 
 
 The following are some of the places from 
 which come the supplies to the London and 
 Liverpool markets, showing the principal waxes 
 and their respective colours : 
 
 Places whence Imported. Colour of Wax. 
 
 Abyssinia Pale yellow to orange. 
 
 Australia Grey, nearly white, and pale yellow 
 
 to light orange. Some is of a 
 dirty yellow and contains a certain 
 admixture of grease. 
 
 Brazil Mahogany colour. 
 
 Chile Bright yellow. 
 
 East Indies Yellow, contains as much as 7 per 
 
 cent, of impurities. 
 
 France Bright orange. 
 
 Gambia Dark brown. 
 
 Hayti Nearly black, hard, with aromatic 
 
 odour. 
 
 Jamaica Bright yellow to dark brown. 
 
 Madagascar Light brown, aromatic odour. 
 
 Mauritius Light to dark brown. 
 
 Mombassa Light yellow to dark orange. 
 
 Niger Grey, yellow to dark brown. 
 
 Senegal Dark brown, unpleasant odour. 
 
 Turkey Bright orange-red. 
 
 United States of America Yellow to brown, greenish-white, 
 very variable in colour and aroma. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 REFINING AND BLEACHING WAX. 
 
 THE colour of beeswax obtained from 
 melting combs varies from pale yellow 
 to brown, and when procured from 
 bee-keepers working on modern principles is 
 pretty free from impurities. But much of the 
 wax dealt with in ordinary commerce comes 
 from countries where modern methods are 
 unknown, and where the natives use primitive 
 means of preparing it for market, consequently 
 imported wax contains many impurities, which 
 have to be got rid of before it can be used. 
 
 For many manufacturing purposes colour is 
 of little importance, and the imported article 
 can be used after eliminating its impurities. 
 Certain industries, however, require a white 
 wax, and bleaching is therefore necessary in 
 order to remove all colouring matter from the 
 commercial product. It is also notable that 
 different kinds of wax bleach with differing 
 degrees of facility; thus the waxes of Eng- 
 land, Hamburg, Odessa, Portugal, Mogador, 
 
REFINING AND BLEACHING WAX. 79 
 
 Zanzibar, East and West Indies, and North 
 America all bleach very rapidly, while those of 
 Cuba, Danzig, Konigsberg, Gaboon, and 
 Gambia can only be bleached with difficulty, 
 and it is found impossible to bleach the 
 soft, mahogany-coloured wax of the Brazils 
 at all. 
 
 The refining and bleaching of wax was at 
 one time carried on as an independent trade, 
 the extent of which may be gauged from the 
 fact that towards the end of the seventeenth 
 century there were in Hamburg alone fourteen 
 bleaching-houses. The introduction in later 
 years of vegetable and mineral substitutes for 
 beeswax has considerably lessened the trade, 
 yet wax-bleaching is still an important industry 
 -both in Europe and in America. 
 
 Chemical processes, as a rule, more or less 
 injure wax. All bleaching is, therefore, done 
 in the open air by subjecting it to the rays of 
 the sun, the factories being usually situated in 
 country places far removed from the con- 
 taminating influence of smoke and other 
 impurities, it being found that the process of 
 bleaching cannot be carried on in towns, where 
 the air is charged with dust and tarry soot, which 
 clings to the wax and gives it a brown tint 
 impossible to remove. 
 
8o WAX CRAFT. 
 
 TESTING COMMERCIAL WAX. Wax, as 
 imported, is received at the bleaching factories 
 in cakes of all sizes and colours, therefore 
 before these are mixed each sample is tested 
 to ascertain its bleaching capacity, and, it being 
 necessary to make these tests as rapidly as 
 possible, chemicals are employed. For this 
 purpose a solution is prepared by adding i 
 part of fresh chloride of lime to 10 parts of 
 water, stirring this well in order thoroughly 
 to blend the two. The solution is then passed 
 through filtering-paper. This operation should 
 be performed as rapidly as possible so that the 
 chlorine (the active agent in bleaching) should 
 not volatilise and thus be lost. 
 
 The sample of wax to be tested is first cut 
 into thin flakes, which are placed in a glass- 
 stoppered bottle, and some of the clear solution 
 mentioned above poured on them ; the stopper 
 is then replaced and the whole well shaken. If 
 it becomes white in from five to seven minutes, 
 the wax may be classed among those bleaching 
 rapidly. Each sample is tested separately, and 
 the time occupied in bleaching noted on the 
 label, in order that some idea may be formed 
 of the time required in the longer process of 
 bleaching by sunlight. The wax is then assorted 
 in accordance with these results, the cakes of 
 
REFINING AND BLEACHING WAX. Si 
 
 equal bleaching capacity being mixed. This 
 done, the process of refining to eliminate impuri- 
 ties is commenced. 
 
 REFINING WAX. In this process the melting 
 is done in water at a low temperature, and the 
 more frequent the meltings the cleaner the wax 
 becomes, the colour separating along with the 
 impurities. Some factories use steam for the 
 purpose, and under its influence wax is cleaned 
 and filtered, thus avoiding a great deal of the 
 after manipulation entailed in the first-named 
 method. 
 
 Steam apparatus in which wax is melted are 
 either jacketed or have a spiral tube within the 
 tank through which the steam passes, and in 
 this way water can be kept at an even tempera- 
 ture. The filters are also double-walled, the 
 steam passing between the walls, the smallest 
 impurities being thus removed. 
 
 Some refiners in melting wax use a small 
 quantity of sulphuric acid, and thus facilitate the 
 separation of certain impurities, which subside in 
 the acidulated water. The wax is cut by 
 machinery into very small shavings, and in this 
 condition is put into a vat with water, a little 
 concentrated sulphuric acid being added the 
 proportion of acid is one pint to a ton of wax. 
 Steam is then blown into the vat by means of a 
 
 F 
 
82 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 coiled pipe pierced with holes, the mixture mean- 
 while being kept in constant agitation. After a 
 time it is covered over with cloths and allowed 
 to stand quiet, when the impurities subside to 
 the bottom and the wax floats to the surface as 
 a clear and almost colourless liquid. 
 
 The A. I. Root Company, of Medina, Ohio, 
 who manufacture an enormous quantity of comb- 
 foundation yearly, use sulphuric acid. For this 
 purpose they employ a wooden tank a little over 
 3^ ft. in diameter and about 5 ft. high, and 
 describe in their latest "A B C" book the 
 method of procedure in the following words : 
 " Water is run into it to a depth of 12 in., and 
 then i,5oolb. of wax is thrown in, making it 
 about full. The mass is then heated by means of 
 a jet of steam from a pipe projecting down into 
 the water from the top. When all the wax is 
 melted the acid is poured in. If all the wax is so 
 dark as to make brood-foundation, seven pints of 
 acid are used ; but if light enough to make super- 
 foundation, not more than three quarts are used. 
 If the wax is already of good quality, so small 
 an amount as two quarts of acid will answer. 
 On an average, therefore, we use three quarts of 
 acid to eighty gallons of water for i,5oolb. of 
 wax. Soon after this is poured in the colour of 
 the boiling wax will be seen to grow lighter, and 
 
REFINING AND BLEACHING WAX. 83 
 
 after a minute or so the boiling is stopped. The 
 steam-pipe is now drawn out and the tank 
 covered with a cloth or carpet, and allowed to 
 stand as many hours as the wax will remain 
 liquid, or about twenty-four hours. At the 
 expiration of this time the water and acid will 
 have settled to the bottom by reason of their 
 greater specific gravity, and the acid, in turn, 
 having a greater specific gravity than the water, 
 will settle to the bottom of the water, and the 
 consequence is that the wax itself, after being 
 purified, is allowed to become thoroughly 
 cleansed of any residue of acid, and the dirt 
 accumulation will all have settled to the bottom 
 of the wax and into the water. The melted wax 
 is now drawn off from the top and poured into 
 any sort of receptacle with flaring sides. When 
 the wax is nearly to the bottom, or when it 
 shows evidence of coming near the dirt, the rest 
 is allowed to stand. As soon as it is caked in 
 the tank it is lifted out, and the dirt clinging to 
 the bottom scraped off." 
 
 Where steam is not used the melting is done 
 by putting the wax, broken into small pieces, in 
 a tinned copper with water, to every gallon of 
 which i-| oz. of sulphuric acid is added. This 
 is heated, and the mass constantly stirred with 
 a wooden stick, in order that the wax may be 
 
 F 2 
 
84 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 thoroughly blended with the water. It is then 
 kept for two hours at a temperature of 158 deg. 
 Fahr., when the firing is stopped, the copper 
 covered over, and the mass allowed to cool very 
 slowly. In this way some of the impurities go 
 to the lower side of the wax, the remainder being 
 precipitated to the bottom of the copper. When 
 cold, the cake of wax is removed and the impure 
 portion of the under side scraped off, after which 
 the cakes are melted again. The water used in 
 melting is then passed through a canvas filter, 
 as particles of wax still adhere to the impurities. 
 These are again melted until the last trace of 
 wax is removed, the refuse being ultimately 
 burnt or used as manure. 
 
 Some factories expedite the refining process 
 by adding tartar and borax to the water, the 
 proportion being 50 parts (by weight) of water 
 and 40 of wax to i of refined tartar and 
 \ of borax. The tartar and borax are first 
 dissolved in the water, the wax being then put 
 into it. 
 
 It is important to notice that in melting and 
 manipulating wax, if the tanks or kettles are of 
 copper, they must be tinned, or if of iron, they 
 should be enamelled. The verdigris from 
 copper gives a green tint to wax, while iron 
 imparts a reddish tint from the oxide of iron, 
 
REFINING AND BLEACHING WAX. 85 
 
 both elements spoiling the wax for bleaching 
 purposes. 
 
 In France, where the preparation of wax is 
 an important industry, about 4 oz. of cream of 
 tartar or alum is added to the water in the first 
 melting copper. The whole is then left for some 
 time, after which the supernatant wax is run off 
 into a settling cistern, whence it is discharged by 
 a tap into moulds, or used for making into strips 
 for bleaching. 
 
 After going through any of the processes men- 
 tioned, the wax comes out bright yellow in 
 colour, and in this condition is suited for 
 making comb-foundation and a number of other 
 purposes. 
 
 BLEACHING WAX. When a fine, white wax is 
 required the usual way of bleaching is by means 
 of light, the colouring matter being destroyed 
 under the influence of the sun's rays. In prac- 
 tice the wax is cut into thin shavings, so as to 
 expose as much surface as possible to the action 
 of air and light, the latter being the principal 
 agent in the operation. 
 
 The refined wax-cakes are broken up, put into 
 a vat, and melted by means of steam. The liquid 
 is then run into an oblong trough called a cradle, 
 which has in the bottom a line of holes, each 
 about the size of a quill. There is also a strainer 
 
86 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 to prevent any particles of dirt from passing 
 through. This trough is placed over a 
 horizontal drum or wooden cylinder which 
 revolves half-immersed in cold water, a current 
 of this constantly passing through the tank to 
 keep the water cool. The melted wax, running 
 in small streams upon the revolving wet drum, is 
 floated off upon the surface of the water in the 
 form of exceedingly thin strips called ribbons. 
 These are collected at the opposite end of the 
 tank, and, after being drained in baskets, the 
 ribbons of wax are laid upon long webs of 
 canvas stretched horizontally between standards, 
 a couple of feet above the surface of a sheltered 
 field, having a free exposure to the sunbeams. 
 Here they are frequently turned over, then 
 covered by nets to prevent their being blown 
 away by winds, and watered from time to time. 
 Whenever the colour of the wax seems 
 stationary, it is collected, re-melted, and run 
 again into ribbons upon the wet cylinder for the 
 purpose of exposing new surfaces to the blanch- 
 ing operation. After several repetitions of these 
 processes, if the weather proves favourable, the 
 wax eventually loses its yellow tint. The whole 
 operation occupies from ten to sixty days, 
 according to the season, the weather, and the 
 colour of the wax. In Fig. 32, Plate XIV., is 
 
PLATE XIV. 
 
PLATE XV. 
 
REFINING AND BLEACHING WAX. 87 
 
 shown the factory and bleaching-yard of Will 
 & Baumer, Syracuse, N.Y., where bleaching on 
 a large scale is carried on. 
 
 The bleached wax is finally melted, strained 
 through silk sieves, and then run into circular 
 cavities in a moistened table, to be cast or 
 moulded into thin disc pieces, weighing from 
 2 oz. to 3 oz. each and measuring 3 in. to 4 in. in 
 diameter. 
 
 The wax is not only whitened but hardened 
 in the bleaching process, and its melting-point 
 raised by i deg. Fahr. Such wax is white and 
 translucent in thin segments, and has neither 
 taste nor smell. It also loses i to 2 per cent, in 
 weight in the process of bleaching. 
 
 A common practice in bleaching is to add 
 i to 5 per cent, of tallow, which makes yellow 
 wax bleach much more rapidly. The addition of 
 tallow is indispensable when dealing with highly 
 coloured wax, which bleaches with some diffi- 
 culty and is very brittle, and tallow added 
 in the proportions named is therefore univer- 
 sally allowed, not being considered an adul- 
 teration unless more than 5 per cent, is 
 introduced. 
 
 In lieu of tallow, 5 to 10 per cent, of essence 
 of turpentine is sometimes employed. As this 
 evaporates in the air and light, the wax bleaches 
 
88 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 rapidly, and the process can be completed in 
 from ten to fourteen days. 
 
 Modern chemistry has shown that bleaching 
 can be rapidly performed with chlorine or other 
 chemical bleaching agents, but these are 
 not generally satisfactory. For instance, wax 
 bleached with chlorine cannot be used for 
 candles, seeing that a chlorine compound is 
 formed, which on burning gives off fumes of 
 hydrochloric acid. 
 
 Wax bleached by any chemical process what- 
 ever must be thoroughly washed in several 
 changes of water so that not a trace of the 
 chemicals remains, as these would be detrimental 
 to many articles in the manufacture of which the 
 wax is used. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 ADULTERATION OF WAX. 
 
 THERE are few products which undergo 
 so much adulteration as beeswax. Owing 
 to the high price wax realises, dealers 
 are tempted to sophisticate it with a great 
 variety of cheap substances, selected with 
 much skill from those having physical pro- 
 perties similar to wax obtained from bees. 
 Among the adulterants used, paraffins with 
 a high melting-point are chosen ; also mineral 
 waxes such as ozokerit, vegetable waxes like 
 Carnauba, and those that come from China 
 and Japan. All these have physical properties 
 resembling beeswax, but their chemical composi- 
 tions are quite different. The white Chinese 
 and Japanese vegetable waxes are generally used 
 to adulterate bleached wax. In addition to the 
 substances mentioned above, wax may be adul- 
 terated with tallow, stearine, resin, mineral 
 powders, kaolin, ochre, chalk, sulphate of baryta, 
 gypsum, and even starch. 
 
 Inasmuch as the melting, mixing, and casting 
 
90 W4fc CRAFT. 
 
 cost something, the adulterations are generally 
 considerable, and it is not unusual to find as 
 much as 50 per cent, or more of these foreign 
 substances mixed with wax. 
 
 Apart from what are known as adulterants, we 
 may mention a not very ingenious fraud resorted 
 to by an unscrupulous dealer and shown in 
 Fig. 15, Plate VIII. The wax-cake weighed 
 i lb., and the sophisticator had actually forced 
 nails into it and filled up the cavity with melted 
 wax. This, however, was of a different shade 
 from that of the original cake, and the pur- 
 chaser's attention being naturally drawn to it, 
 the fraud was discovered. 
 
 Although the melting-point and specific 
 gravity of the different adulterants vary con- 
 siderably, these cannot always be relied upon as 
 a test of purity, the skill of adulterators having 
 been carried to such perfection that by mixing 
 different ingredients they are able to produce an 
 imitation that very closely resembles genuine 
 beeswax. 
 
 Pure yellow beeswax has a specific gravity of 
 .960 to .963, and tropical waxes may reach .967. 
 The melting-point of yellow wax is about 
 143 deg. Fahr., whereas that of bleached wax 
 may rise to 156 deg. On the other hand, 
 the melting-point of Chinese insect wax is 
 
ADULTERATION OF WAX. 91 
 
 between 177. 8 deg. and i79.6deg. All vege- 
 table waxes have a much higher specific 
 gravity, ranging between .992 and i.oio, the 
 melting-point being variable. Japanese wax 
 melts between 107 deg. and H3deg. Fahr., 
 myrtle wax about 115 deg. to 120 deg., palm 
 wax 161 deg., Carnauba wax 185 deg. to 
 1 86 deg., purified ceresin melts at 185 deg. 
 to 194 deg., paraffin varies from 1004 deg. to 
 176 deg., and tallow from 96 deg. to 122 deg. 
 
 From this it will be seen that by various com- 
 binations a mixture can be produced very closely 
 resembling beeswax, while not containing a 
 particle of the pure product of the hive. As an 
 instance, Messrs. Buisine mention two French 
 patents described in the Journal de pharmacie et 
 de chimie for artificial wax. One consists of 
 a mixture of 2 parts resin and i part paraffin, the 
 other being 3 parts resin and i part stearic acid. 
 
 Mr. Otto Hehner has grouped the several 
 organic substances which may be used as 
 adulterants of wax into three classes: 
 
 1. Acid substances, which embrace the 
 solid, fatty acids, mainly palmitic and 
 stearic, and the acids which constitute 
 resin (practically sylvic acid). 
 
 2. Neutral, but saponifiable compounds 
 viz., stearine and palmitine of Japan- 
 
92 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 ese wax, spermaceti, and Carnauba 
 wax. 
 
 3. Paraffin, indifferent to alcoholic 
 potash, is the only marketable product 
 belonging to this class. 
 
 Referring to the analysis of the different sub- 
 stances and the possibility of mixing them so as 
 to deceive even the chemist, he says : " But it 
 is quite easy to imagine mixtures of fatty acids, 
 fat, and paraffin quite devoid of wax, yet giving, 
 on analysis, in the manner proposed, results 
 identical with those yielded by pure wax. Thus 
 a mixture of 9.48 per cent, of fatty acids, 36.84 
 per cent, of fat, and 53.68 per cent, of paraffin 
 would show on analysis 1440 per cent, of cerotic 
 acid and 88.09 f myricine." It will be seen, by 
 referring to page 51, that the chemical con- 
 stituents of this mixture are very similar to 
 those of genuine beeswax. 
 
 Paraffin is most frequently used to adulterate 
 beeswax, it being possible to add as much as 
 20 per cent, of this without sensibly altering the 
 physical properties of the wax. On the other 
 hand, some of the substances mentioned cannot 
 be mixed with beeswax without changing its 
 character considerably, while tallow, stearine, 
 Japanese wax, and Carnauba wax alter its 
 character entirely if the addition exceeds certain 
 
ADULTERATION OF WAX. 93 
 
 limited quantities. Stearine and Japanese wax 
 render it more brittle and less malleable ; tallow 
 makes it softer and greasier ; Carnauba wax not 
 only makes it harder, but raises the melting- 
 point. 
 
 Ceresin, often sold as beeswax, is simply 
 ozokerit (bleached and purified by means of sul- 
 phuric acid and distillation), and is used as a 
 substitute for beeswax. It is a mineral wax, 
 which melts at 140 deg. to 149 deg. Fahr., and 
 has nearly the same properties as beeswax. 
 Being obtainable pure white in colour, it 
 resembles bleached wax of the best quality. If 
 a yellow wax is in demand, the imitation article 
 is coloured with gamboge or turmeric, and 
 by adding some aromatic essence even the 
 characteristic odour of beeswax may be fairly 
 imitated. 
 
 To test the melting-point of any sample of 
 wax, an apparatus similar to that illustrated 
 in Fig. 21, Plate IX., is used. It consists of 
 a tin vessel standing on a tripod, and has 
 a Wedgwood-ware evaporating dish, on a 
 wire support, for holding the wax. Water 
 is put into the tin, and heated by means 
 of the spirit lamp beneath. A thermometer 
 standing in the water shows the temperature, and 
 when it reaches 143 deg. Fahr. the lamp is 
 
94 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 removed. If the wax melts before reaching this 
 temperature, adulteration may be suspected, 
 while if a much higher temperature is needed in 
 order to melt the wax, it will probably be adul- 
 terated with substances having a high melting- 
 point. 
 
 A complete quantitative and qualitative 
 analysis of wax is difficult, and can only be 
 carried out by experts. Dr. A. de Planta, who 
 was an eminent chemist, wrote : " The adul- 
 terations of wax are so difficult to detect that it 
 is scarcely practicable for those who are not 
 experts. Pure beeswax melts at 63.5 C. I 
 have tried the melting-point of twenty-five such 
 pure specimens of beeswax obtained from 
 different countries, and it entirely agreed with 
 that stated above." But since adulteration has 
 been effected with earth-wax, paraffin, and 
 animal fats, the melting-point does not provide 
 sufficient evidence. Otherwise this method 
 would have furnished a good test for those who 
 are not experts. 
 
 There remains, therefore, no other way but 
 submitting the wax to a qualified chemist, who 
 will find out the quantity of cerotic acid and non- 
 volatile fatty acids it contains ; only an analysis 
 such as this will afford a safe criterion with regard 
 to the adulteration. 
 
ADULTERATION OF WAX. 95 
 
 We give the following simple tests, which 
 have often been found useful : 
 
 i. Such inert substances as baryta, ochre, 
 white lead, kaolin, chalk, and gypsum can be 
 detected by melting wax in boiling water, and 
 then thoroughly stirring it; the water becomes 
 clouded, and after allowing it to stand for a short 
 time the solid substances are precipitated. 
 
 2. Another way is to dissolve the wax in 
 ether, benzine, or spirits of turpentine. The 
 solids will then be precipitated, and the amount 
 of adulteration can be judged by the quantity 
 deposited. 
 
 3. Beeswax, when chewed, should afford no 
 unpleasant taste, and it should not stick to the 
 teeth or become pasty, but disintegrate and 
 break up as it is chewed, adulterated wax being 
 cohesive when subjected to the same treatment. 
 
 4. To test the specific gravity, mix in a glass 
 i part of alcohol with 2 parts of water. A piece 
 of wax of known purity, and the size of a pea, is 
 then put into this mixture, and, when taken out, 
 pressed between the fingers and replaced. Next 
 add alcohol gradually, stirring all the time, until 
 the wax floats evenly without any tendency to 
 sink to the bottom or to rise above the surface. 
 Then take a piece of the suspected wax, place it 
 in the liquid and treat it in the same way. If it 
 
96 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 sinks rapidly, or rises above the surface when 
 pushed down, it may be suspected of adultera- 
 tion. If it behaves like the pure wax, it may be 
 unsophisticated, because beeswax, from what- 
 ever country derived, has a specific gravity 
 within very narrow limits. This test is not 
 always to be relied upon, because the adultera- 
 tion may have been accomplished with sub- 
 stances that are heavier or lighter in such pro- 
 portions as to be nearly the same as pure wax. 
 To determine its purity with absolute certainty 
 the two following tests are necessary : 
 
 A. Place a small piece of the suspected wax 
 in a test-tube, add some spirits of turpentine, and 
 gently heat over a spirit lamp. If the solution 
 is imperfect or very cloudy, or if a precipitate is 
 formed, the wax is adulterated, for spirits of 
 turpentine dissolves pure wax completely. 
 
 B. A piece of wax that has successfully 
 undergone the last test is placed in a test-tube 
 half-filled with alcohol and boiled. Then after 
 being allowed to cool for half an hour it is fil- 
 tered. To the filtered liquid an equal amount of 
 water is next added, also a piece of blue litmus- 
 paper. The whole is then agitated, and if at 
 the end of fifteen minutes the liquid remains 
 clear, or only very slightly cloudy, and the test 
 paper has not turned red, one may conclude that 
 
ADULTERATION OF WAX. 97 
 
 the wax is pure, if it has successfully undergone 
 the two previous tests, On the other hand, much 
 cloudiness and the changing to red of the test 
 paper indicate adulteration. If wax successfully 
 passes tests 4, A, and B, we may conclude with 
 certainty that it is pure. 
 
 5. To detect paraffin in wax, heat it with 
 fuming sulphuric acid, which destroys the wax, 
 converting it into a black jelly-like mass, while 
 the paraffin is left as a transparent layer on the 
 surface. 
 
 6. The admixture of fats may be detected by 
 the acrid odour of the vapours given off on 
 throwing the suspected wax upon red-hot 
 charcoal. 
 
 7. Pure beeswax, as differing from that 
 adulterated, may also be determined by first 
 bumping quickly a small piece of beeswax which 
 is known to be pure on a hot iron plate. The 
 smell given off is noticed. Then the piece of wax 
 to be examined is burnt in the same way. If it 
 contains ceresin a disagreeable, fatty, white 
 smoke is given off, which differs from the smell 
 of wax according to the amount of ceresin mixed 
 with it. This is a simple way of testing the 
 purity of purchased comb-foundation. 
 
 For fuller particulars we would refer readers 
 to Mr. Otto Hehner's paper on " The Analysis 
 
 G 
 
98 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 of Beeswax." in the Analyst of February, 1883, 
 and to the more recent work of Messrs. A. and 
 P. Buisine, entitled " La Cire des Abeilles 
 (Analyse et Falsifications)." This is a most 
 exhaustive work, and not only treats fully of 
 analysis, but also shows how skilfully adultera- 
 tions are made by mixing different substances to 
 make the specific gravity and melting-points 
 correspond with those of beeswax. 
 
 We will next describe the physical properties 
 of the usual adulterants of beeswax. 
 
 VEGETABLE WAX. 
 
 All vegetables secrete more or less of a 
 fatty substance resembling wax. This is 
 found in different parts of a plant, either 
 in the seeds, fruit, or on the leaves. The 
 last are frequently covered with a thin layer of 
 this waxy matter, which has some of the proper- 
 ties of beeswax. Some palms in Brazil yield a 
 sufficient amount to make it commercially profit- 
 able to collect and send it to market. 
 
 JAPANESE WAX. This forms an important 
 article of export from Japan, and reaches London 
 in large white or yellowish hard cakes, often 
 covered with a white powdery efflorescence that 
 adheres to the fingers. It is obtained from the 
 fruits of Rhus succedanea (red lac sumach) 
 
ADULTERATION OF WAX. 99 
 
 and several other trees belonging to the A nacar- 
 diacece. The cultivation of this tree is the prin- 
 cipal industry in the island of Kiushiu. It is 
 also found near Nagasaki and Osaka, and the 
 wax comes to us from those ports. The fruits 
 are ground, and the wax, of which about 20 per 
 cent, can be extracted, either by heating and 
 pressure or boiling in water, is then bleached. 
 It has a resinous and tallowy odour, melts at from 
 107.6 deg. to I29deg. Fahr., and the specific 
 gravity, unbleached, is 1.002 to 1.006, and .970 
 to .980 when bleached. It consists almost 
 entirely of palmitine, is more brittle than bees- 
 wax, and breaks with a clean fracture. Japanese 
 wax becomes translucent at about 53 deg. under 
 its melting-point. It is sparingly soluble in cold 
 alcohol, soluble in boiling alcohol, and on cooling 
 forms a crystalline precipitate ; hardly soluble 
 in cold ether, but soluble in chloroform, benzol, 
 &c. Added to beeswax, it diminishes its malle- 
 ability, renders it more brittle, and lowers its 
 melting-point. The natives use it for illumina- 
 tion, and in Europe it serves for adulterating 
 beeswax. Rhus vernicifera (Japan lacquer- 
 tree) also yields considerable quantities of wax. 
 
 CHINESE WAX. This must not be confounded 
 with Chinese insect wax, which is mentioned 
 later. The vegetable wax is obtained from 
 
 G 2 
 
ioo WAX CRAFT. 
 
 different species of Rhus. It is opaque-white, 
 resembling spermaceti, harder and more brittle 
 than Japanese wax, fibrous, easily pulverised, and 
 crystalline. Its specific gravity is .970 and melt- 
 ing-point between i;9.6deg. and i8i.4deg. 
 Fahr. It is partially soluble in alcohol or ether, 
 but soluble in boiling naphtha, and crystallises 
 on cooling. Used for the same purposes as 
 Japanese wax, but raises the melting-point. 
 
 CARNAUBA WAX. This is the product of an 
 exudation on the surface of the leaves of Coper- 
 nicia cerifera (Carnauba, or wax palm), which 
 grows in abundance in Chile and Peru, and is 
 one of the finest palms of the Brazilian forests 
 (Fig. 34, B, Plate XVI.). The natives collect the 
 wax in the form of a grey powder, by drying and 
 shaking the young leaves, on the under side of 
 which it is deposited. The powder is melted, and 
 then the wax is cast in moulds into irregular-sized 
 cakes of a dirty greenish-yellow or grey colour. 
 It is hard, brittle, powders like resin, and has an 
 aromatic odour. The refined wax has a light 
 greenish-yellow colour and is odourless. On 
 cooling, the melted wax cracks in all directions 
 and has a crystalline appearance. It burns with 
 a bright, white flame, has a specific gravity of 
 995 to -999> an d melts between i8i.4deg. and 
 i86.8deg. Fahr. It is partly soluble in cold, 
 
PLATE XVI. 
 
PLATE XVII. 
 
ADULTERATION OF WAX. 101 
 
 and soluble in boiling, alcohol, ether, and chloro- 
 form. Added to beeswax, it hardens it and raises 
 the melting-point. Carnauba wax is a product of 
 considerable commercial importance in Brazil, 
 whence large quantities are sent to Europe. In 
 1906, 2,259,247 kilos of this wax were exported, 
 principally from the north of Brazil. The 
 provinces of Pernambuco, Ceara, Maranhao, 
 and the island of Cajueiro alone exported 
 1,688,435 kilos, the greater part coming to 
 England. In Brazil it is used for candle- 
 making, and in Europe as a substitute for and 
 an adulterant of beeswax. The increase in the 
 exports and value of this wax, it is stated, is 
 largely due to its use in making phonograph and 
 gramophone records, for which it is very well 
 suited. 
 
 SUMATRA WAX is extracted from Ficus ceri- 
 '/era, and comes from Java and Sumatra, where 
 it is called Getah-Lahoe. The extract is a milky 
 juice, which, after boiling, becomes a grey wax 
 and bleaches well. It usually arrives in cakes, 
 nearly black on the outside, pale pink inside, and 
 is very porous. It becomes semi-fluid at 1 22 deg. 
 Fahr., and melts completely at 141. 8 deg. 
 It is insoluble in cold and soluble in hot alcohol, 
 being precipitated, on cooling, in the form of a 
 white powder; soluble in ether, chloroform, 
 
102 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 and spirits of turpentine. Added to beeswax, it 
 raises its melting-point. 
 
 BORNEO WAX is extracted from a species of 
 Sophora. It is a good-looking, yellowish wax, 
 with a peculiar aromatic odour. It has a crystal- 
 line texture, powdering when broken, melting at 
 86 deg. Fahr., and solidifying very slowly. 
 Partially soluble in boiling alcohol, depositing, on 
 cooling, needle-like crystals; soluble in chloro- 
 form. Lowers the melting-point of beeswax. 
 
 MYRTLE-BERRY WAX. This is obtained from 
 the fruit of Myrica cerifera and M. caroliensis in 
 North America, M. caracassana in Colombia, 
 and from the berries of M. lacinata, M. querci- 
 folia, and M. cordifolia from the Cape of Good 
 Hope. The berries are covered with a white 
 wax, which melts on the berries being put into 
 boiling water, and floats on the surface. It is a 
 hard, greenish substance with a pleasant odour, 
 and when purified has a pale greenish-yellow 
 appearance. With age it becomes covered with 
 a thin white pellicle. It is more brittle than 
 beeswax, has a specific gravity of 1.004 to 1.015, 
 and its melting-point is about u6.6deg. to 
 1 20 deg. Fahr. Partly soluble in cold alcohol 
 and ether, soluble in 4 parts of boiling ether, 
 and 20 parts of hot alcohol. It is used in com- 
 bination with beeswax for making candles, prin- 
 
ADULTERATION OF WAX. 103 
 
 cipally in the United States. The Hottentots 
 are said to eat it like cheese. 
 
 PALM-TREE WAX is obtained from Ceroxylon 
 andicola (wax palm), and comes from the 
 Cordillera range of mountains in Colombia 
 (Fig. 34, A, Plate XVI.). It is an exuda- 
 tion on the stems of the tree named, and 
 when scraped off is obtained in small grey 
 scales, which when melted form into a compact 
 mass, a mixture of wax and resin, and by 
 re-melting it is purified, and has a yellowish-white 
 appearance ; is porous and friable. Its melting- 
 point is between 215 deg. and 221 deg. Fahr. 
 The pure wax may be separated by digesting 
 with boiling alcohol, when its melting-point 
 is 1 6 1. 6 deg. Fahr., and it is then similar in 
 composition to Carnauba wax. The average 
 yield of one tree is said to be about 25 Ib. This 
 wax forms an article of trade in Colombia, and 
 is used by the people for making candles. A 
 similar wax is also obtained from Ceroxylon 
 cerifera, found in the Andes of Colombia and 
 Peru. 
 
 OTOBA WAX. This is obtained from 
 Myristica Otoba (Otoba wax-tree), a native 
 of the mountains of Colombia, M. officinalis, 
 and M. sebifera (tallow nutmeg of Cayenne) 
 by boiling the berries in water, when the waxy 
 
io 4 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 substance floats on the top. The wax is in 
 colour a yellowish-white with a greenish tinge, 
 and is softer than beeswax; has a specific 
 gravity of .920, and melts at 97 deg. Fahr. The 
 berries yield as much as 18 per cent, of wax, 
 which is really a mixture of fatty acids and resin. 
 It is soluble in ether and boiling alcohol, and 
 sparingly soluble in cold alcohol. This is 
 sometimes erroneously called Ocuba wax. 
 Another wax similar in composition is obtained 
 from Myristica bicuiba, another South American 
 species, but its melting-point is still lower, being 
 only 95 deg. Fahr. ; it is also soluble in boiling 
 alcohol. 
 
 COW-TREE WAX is obtained from the milky 
 juice of Brosimum galactodendron (milk-tree). 
 This so-called Cow-tree, or Palo de Leche, is 
 regularly milked by the inhabitants of the 
 Cordilleras of Venezuela, who, by incision, 
 obtain an enormous quantity of a white and 
 somewhat viscous liquid, presenting all the 
 physical properties of the best milk, with a slight 
 balsamic odour. It contains a large proportion 
 of a fatty, waxy matter. When the rind of the 
 tree is cut this milk runs out and soon thickens, 
 assumes a grey appearance, and ceases to flow. 
 To extract the wax the liquid is boiled and 
 allowed to cool. The wax thus secured is of 
 
ADULTERATION OF WAX. !05 
 
 a yellowish-white colour, translucent, malleable, 
 and melts at 140 deg. Fahr., burns well, and 
 closely resembles beeswax. 
 
 Wax is also obtained from the seeds of 
 Stillingia sebifera (Chinese wax-tree), which are 
 covered with a very white wax, used in China 
 for making candles. It is often mixed with 
 insect wax. 
 
 Myrica serrata, in the Cape of Good Hope, 
 M. Xalapensis, in Mexico, and M. Faya, from 
 the Azores and Canaries, also produce wax, but 
 it seldom reaches European markets. 
 
 WAX OF ANIMAL ORIGIN. 
 
 CHINESE INSECT WAX, or Pe La as it is 
 sometimes called, is a secretion produced by an 
 insect (Coccus chinensis], and deposited on the 
 twigs of Fraxinus chinensis (Chinese ash) in 
 the provinces of Che-Keang and Sze-Chuen, 
 where as much as 400,000 Ib. of it are gathered. 
 It is separated from the twigs and purified, and 
 then becomes a hard, translucent, odourless, and 
 tasteless white crystalline body, melting at from 
 1 79.6 deg. to 1 86.8 deg. Fahr. In China it is 
 largely used, mixed with tallow, for making 
 candles. In Europe it is sometimes used for 
 adulterating beeswax. 
 
 SPERMACETI is obtained from the cachelot 
 
io6 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 whale, Physeter macrocephalus, and is found in 
 the fat of this and some other species of whale. 
 It lies principally in the head, and the mass 
 consists almost entirely of spermaceti and oil, 
 which is boiled, and on cooling the spermaceti 
 congeals, and is separated by being thrown into 
 large filter-bags, when the oil filters through, 
 leaving the spermaceti behind. The latter is 
 then subjected to hydraulic pressure, and melted 
 in water, the impurities being then removed. 
 After undergoing further refining it is poured 
 into tin pans and allowed to cool slowly, forming 
 a semi-transparent, brittle, lamellar, crystalline 
 mass, tasteless and almost odourless; has a 
 specific gravity of .950, and melts at 1 1 5 deg. to 
 1 20 deg. Fahr. It is insoluble in water, slightly 
 soluble in cold and soluble in hot alcohol, 
 chloroform, and carbon bisulphide. Owing to 
 its high price it is rarely used to adulterate 
 beeswax. 
 
 TALLOW is the concrete fat of animals, and 
 is generally obtained from the ox and sheep. 
 Ox tallow comes principally from Russia, while 
 Australia sends us large quantities of mutton 
 tallow. Its specific gravity is between .881 
 and .942, and it melts between 96.8 deg. 
 and 122 deg. Fahr. It consists of variable pro- 
 portions of stearine, palmitine, and oleine. 
 
ADULTERATION OF WAX. 107 
 
 When mixed with wax this is softened and 
 made more plastic, and it lowers its density and 
 melting-point. It imparts a disagreeable odour 
 and renders it greasy to the touch. 
 
 MINERAL WAX. 
 
 OZOCERIT, OZOKERIT, or CERESiN is a mineral 
 resin found in England, the Caucasus, Tran- 
 sylvania, Roumania, Texas, and many other 
 places. It is purified by means of sulphuric acid 
 and distillation. When purified it usually goes 
 by the name of ceresin. The colour is white 
 with a yellow tinge, sometimes inclined to green, 
 of a waxy consistence, and greasy in appearance ; 
 it has an aromatic odour, is flexible, and may 
 be cut like wax, and easily kneaded when 
 slightly warmed. The specific gravity varies 
 from .915 to .925, and the melting-point 
 from i4odeg. to I76deg. Fahr., according 
 to where it comes from. It is sparingly soluble 
 in boiling alcohol, and is precipitated on cooling ; 
 soluble in chloroform and benzol. It is 
 extensively used for adulterating, and as much 
 as 20 per cent, may be added to beeswax 
 without altering the physical properties of the 
 latter. 
 
 The following substances are classed among 
 
io8 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 mineral waxes, and are sometimes used for 
 adulterating beeswax : 
 
 ZIETRISIKITE. A mineral wax very similar to 
 ozokerit. It is found at Zietrisika, in Moldavia, 
 whence its name. Its behaviour is the same as 
 that of ozokerit. 
 
 HATCHETTINE or HATCHETTITE is a waxy 
 substance found in Glamorganshire and 
 Moravia, near Liege, in Belgium, and a few 
 other places. It is of greenish-yellow colour or 
 brown, pearly in appearance, and in consistency 
 like spermaceti. This substance is sparingly 
 soluble in boiling alcohol and ether, leaving a 
 viscous residue. 
 
 ELATERITE is a mineral resin, blackish in colour, 
 verging on green, and occurs in soft, flexible 
 masses, sometimes called mineral caoutchouc. 
 Found near Castleton, in Derbyshire, and in 
 the coal measures of Montrelais, in France, and 
 melts at a very low temperature. 
 
 IDRIALINE or IDRIALITE. A bituminous sub- 
 stance obtained from the mercury mines of Idria, 
 where it occurs mixed with cinnabar. The 
 colour is white, resembling spermaceti, and it 
 is sparingly soluble in alcohol. 
 
ADULTERATION OF WAX. 109 
 
 VARIOUS INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS. 
 
 RESIN or COLOPHONY, commonly called rosin, 
 is obtained when common turpentine is distilled 
 with water. That which is of brown colour is 
 obtained from Pinus excelsa and the white from 
 Pinus maritima. Resin is translucent, brittle, 
 with a conchoidal fracture, pulverises readily, 
 and is easily decomposed with heat. Its specific 
 gravity varies between .986 and 1.108, and the 
 melting-point is very high, being 275 deg. Fahr. 
 It is soluble in alcohol, ether, wood alcohol, and 
 chloroform. Added to beeswax, it makes the 
 latter brittle and raises its melting-point con- 
 siderably. It is used in connection with the 
 adulterants previously mentioned which have a 
 low melting-point. 
 
 STEARINE or STEARIC ACID is obtained by 
 the saponification of mutton tallow. After having 
 gone through the process of manufacture it is 
 cast into solid blocks, and on cooling affects the 
 form of white, brilliant needles grouped together. 
 Besides being insipid and inodorous, it has a 
 molecular weight of .890, and melts at 158 deg. 
 Fahr. It dissolves in all proportions in boiling 
 anhydrous alcohol, and on cooling to 122 deg. 
 crystallises in pearly plates. Insoluble in water, 
 but soluble in ether, benzol, and chloroform. 
 
no WAX CRAFT. 
 
 Small quantities added to beeswax render it 
 brittle and impair its malleability. 
 
 PARAFFIN is a waxy substance obtained by 
 the dry distillation, at a low temperature, of 
 wood, coal-tar, peat, petroleum, naphtha, and 
 other bodies of a similar nature. The most 
 abundant source of stearine is Boghead coal, 
 from which it is extracted in enormous 
 quantities. It is a white, translucent body, 
 slightly greasy to the touch, a little softer than 
 beeswax, and has a molecular weight of .869 
 to .912, while its melting-point varies between 
 100.4 deg. and 176 deg. Fahr., according to the 
 source from which it is derived. It is insoluble 
 in water, but is readily dissolved in hot olive oil, 
 ether, oil of turpentine, benzol, chloroform, 
 carbon bisulphide, and less readily in boiling 
 alcohol. It is used to adulterate beeswax, 
 which it renders translucent, dry, and brittle. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 MANUFACTURE OF COMB* 
 FOUNDATION. 
 
 IN the course of civilisation and the world's 
 history there came a time when bees, being 
 creatures who are wondrous builders, but 
 know no change, failed to satisfy the needs of the 
 modern bee-keeper so far as regards accuracy 
 in fashioning the parallel rows of comb with 
 which their dwellings are now furnished. The 
 introduction of the movable frame, so necessary 
 for easy manipulation, demanded that the combs 
 should be built as evenly and regularly within 
 the wooden rectangle as possible, both for 
 convenience in handling and other purposes 
 connected with the craft. Many devices were 
 therefore tried with the object of attaining the 
 desired end, such as a projecting slip of wood, 
 a line of wax, rollers to impress the cells on a 
 strip of wax laid on the bar, and others. These 
 methods succeeded more or less, but they 
 required constant time-wasting manipulations, 
 so that all one's hopes raised were not realised, 
 
ii2 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 the vexation being especially great when the 
 bee-keeper, in early spring, after putting in a 
 frame provided with these wax impressions, 
 found that, instead of worker-cells, superfluous 
 drone-cells in abundance were being built. 
 
 The German carpenter J. Mehring, of 
 Frankenthal, was the first to conceive the idea 
 in 1857 Q f constructing a pair of wooden plates 
 on which were engraved the impressions of the 
 bases of worker-cells, and with the aid of these 
 he impressed sheets of wax with the first 
 foundations of comb. Schober, with Mehring's 
 plates as a pattern, afterwards engraved the first 
 metal plates. These were further perfected by 
 Peter Jacob in Switzerland, Dummler in 
 Homburg, Otto Schulz of Buckow, and others. 
 Workable foundations were made from such 
 plates or dies, but Mr. A. I. Root in 1875 was 
 the first to construct a practical machine, having 
 metal rollers embossed with indentures corre- 
 sponding to the bases of the cells. Since then 
 these machines have been much improved, 
 so that sheets of wax now produced from 
 those of the latest form have attained great 
 perfection. 
 
 Two methods of producing comb-foundation 
 are now in use, one casting and pressing in 
 moulds, the other and more advanced form of 
 
MANUFACTURE OF COMB-FOUNDATION. 113 
 
 machine impressing the wax-sheets by means 
 of rolls. 
 
 FOUNDATION-PRESSING. With such a presser 
 as the "Rietsche" (shown in Fig. 35, Plate 
 XVI.) bee-keepers are enabled to make for 
 themselves the foundation they require. By its 
 means the molten wax is poured on the lower 
 plate, which has a border round it; the upper 
 plate is then pressed down as tightly as possible, 
 the superfluous wax being forced out at the 
 sides. The impressed sheet of wax when 
 removed is trimmed to size and the trimmings 
 returned to the melting-pot. Previous to press- 
 ing, the plates are lubricated with thin starch 
 paste or soap made into a lather, which prevents 
 the wax from sticking to them. 
 
 Making comb-foundation with such presses, 
 however, is wasteful, more wax being left in the 
 sheets than is really required, seeing that, 
 although bees readily thin down the side-walls 
 in lengthening out the cells, they will not reduce 
 the thickness of the midrib which forms the bases 
 of the cells. The process is also very slow and 
 tedious, consequently nearly all bee-keepers 
 now use foundation made on rolls. 
 
 FOUNDATION-ROLLING. For this purpose 
 sheets of wax are first prepared and then passed 
 through rollers of various designs. 
 
 H 
 
H4 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 Both skill and experience are, however, 
 required in preparing the wax-sheets properly. 
 The operation consists of dipping a thin 
 wooden board into a deep vessel containing 
 molten wax. A film of this adheres to the 
 board and is afterwards peeled off. The boards 
 are made of clean yellow pine, free from knots, 
 and the size of sheet required. The wax must 
 be melted in a vessel standing in an outer one 
 containing hot water, and as this will not exceed 
 boiling-point there is no danger of burning 
 the wax. The dipping-tank is a vessel deep 
 enough for holding sufficient wax when melted 
 to allow of the dipping-boards being immersed 
 in wax to within two inches of the upper end. 
 Before using the boards they must be soaked 
 in brine-water for a few hours ; this soaking acts 
 as a lubricant and prevents the grain of the 
 wood from rising. A cooling-tank of cold water 
 is also needed, and should stand close by. 
 ' In order to secure the best results the wax 
 should be at a temperature of 165 deg. to 
 i7odeg. Fahr. If too cold, ripples appear on 
 the sheet, and if too hot, the sheets crack on 
 being peeled off. When the sheets begin to 
 stick to the boards the latter must be sand- 
 papered to remove the roughness, which causes 
 adhesion. 
 
MANUFACTURE OF COMB-FOUNDATION. 115 
 
 The number of dippings varies according to 
 the thickness of the foundation required, from 
 one to five dippings being needed, and the board 
 is placed in the cooling-tank after each dipping. 
 After each sheet has received the required 
 number of dips and the boards are cold, the 
 edges are scraped with a knife, one corner is 
 pulled up, and the sheet of wax pulled off. 
 
 The sheets being now ready for rolling, the 
 rolls are adjusted according to the thickness 
 required and lubricated with soap lather or thin 
 starch paste. They are then placed into a 
 tank containing 3 in. or 4 in. in depth of salt- 
 water, kept at a temperature of nodeg. Fahr. 
 At one end of this tank are placed the rolls 
 (Fig. 36, Plate XVI.), and on the opposite 
 side is a table for receiving the comb- 
 foundation when finished. The temperature 
 of the room should be kept at about 
 80 deg. Fahr. The sheet of wax is taken out 
 of the tank and the end inserted between the 
 rolls, while the crank is turned gently. As 
 the sheet comes out on the other side it is seized 
 with grippers and firmly held until it comes 
 through. The sheets as they leave the rolls are 
 laid squarely one upon another, and when 
 the pile is 2 in. or 3 in. high a board is put on 
 them and they are cut to the exact size 
 
 H 2 
 
n6 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 required with a thin-bladed knife, dipped in 
 starch paste to prevent it from sticking to 
 the wax. 
 
 The greatest advance by far, however, in the 
 production of foundation during the past few 
 years is the invention of Mr. E. B. Weed, who 
 in 1896 devised a method of sheeting wax which 
 has practically superseded all others. By means 
 of the " new process," as it is termed, a tougher 
 and more transparent article is obtained in long 
 sheets by passing through rollers exercising a 
 pressure of several hundred pounds to the square 
 inch, and when these sheets are put through 
 the milling or embossing process the result is 
 a, foundation with the thinnest possible midrib 
 and higher side-walls than by any former 
 methods of production. 
 
 The new process not only produces a much 
 superior article, but it also effects a great 
 reduction in labour. It will be seen from the 
 description given above that the old process 
 involved much hand labour. By the " ' Weed ' 
 New Process " this is entirely obviated, as the 
 machines do the work automatically, one person 
 being able to attend to them. A cake of wax 
 is placed in the machine, and it comes out 
 converted into a continuous sheet rolled up on 
 a bobbin. This is then put into another 
 
MANUFACTURE OF COMB-FOUNDATION. 117 
 
 automatic machine, which feeds it into the 
 mill, and it is cut to size without any waste. The 
 trimmed wax-sheet is then made to lie squarely 
 on a sheet of paper, automatically pick it up, and 
 it then settles itself on the pile, which the 
 machine finally trues up as well as could be done 
 by hand and very much quicker. 
 
 The A. I. Root Company are the sole makers 
 of the " Weed " foundation machinery, but the 
 exclusive right to manufacture " Weed " foun- 
 dation in this country, along with the necessary 
 machinery from Messrs. Root, is now the 
 property of Messrs. James Lee and Son. It 
 is termed " British * Weed ' foundation, in 
 order to distinguish it from the American 
 product. An illustration of the " British 
 ' Weed ' Foundation Factory is shown in 
 Fig. 33, Plate XV. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 COLOURING WAX. 
 
 'TpHERE are two methods of imparting 
 JL colour to wax. One is by incorporating 
 the pigment in molten wax, so that the 
 whole mass becomes evenly coloured, and 
 any article moulded from wax thus coloured 
 shows the same tint throughout. The other 
 plan is by applying to articles made of white 
 wax layers of molten wax in which the various 
 desired colours are introduced. In this case 
 the interior is white, with an outer covering of 
 coloured wax. 
 
 Great care should be taken not to use 
 poisonous colours, although, as a rule, these are 
 the brightest. They are extremely dangerous 
 when used for making wax candles, as the heat 
 from the flame produces noxious vapours which 
 are highly deleterious. Candles coloured with 
 vermilion give off mercurial vapours when 
 alight, and those coloured with white lead 
 produce poisonous lead fumes, and verdigris 
 also, which is sometimes used to impart a green 
 
COLOURING WAX. 119 
 
 tint, produces dangerous vapours impregnated 
 with arsenic acid. In addition to these, the 
 following are most deleterious to health and 
 should be avoided: Cinnabar, red lead, 
 chrome-red, chrome-yellow, and chrome-green. 
 Finally, all colours containing mercury, copper, 
 lead, and arsenic should be studiously avoided. 
 
 Among the harmless colours are alkanet-root, 
 madder, and dragon's blood for red ; indigo for 
 blue; turmeric, saffron, fustic, quercitrin for 
 yellow ; indigo and turmeric for green ; alkanet- 
 root and indigo for violet ; and combinations of 
 these in different proportions will produce all 
 colours that may be required. For instance, 
 with a combination of alkanet-root and turmeric 
 in varying proportions we may obtain all the 
 different shades from light yellow to orange. A 
 mixture of indigo and turmeric produces a green 
 which, by increasing one or the other of these 
 colours, gives according to the predominance 
 required many different shades of green. 
 
 For coarser work the above are too costly, and 
 the cheaper earth-colours, such as ochre, umber, 
 burnt and raw sienna, and others, can be used 
 to advantage. 
 
 Nothing can be found more suitable for 
 colouring wax than aniline dyes, and by selecting 
 those soluble in fats they readily mix with molten 
 
120 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 wax. A very small quantity is sufficient to 
 impart the desired colour, these pigments being 
 very penetrating; their only drawback is that 
 when exposed to light they are liable to fade 
 in course of time. If, however, those only 
 soluble in water or alcohol can be obtained the 
 wax must be kept hot until all the water or spirit 
 has evaporated. 
 
 The wax requires melting in a pan standing 
 in water on a couple of sticks to avoid burning, 
 which would happen if the bottom of the vessel 
 came in direct contact with the flame. After 
 adding the colours, the water must be kept 
 boiling for half an hour, when the mass is 
 strained through canvas or linen. Suitable 
 proportions for different tints are the following : 
 
 BLUE. White wax, 100 parts ; indigo, 6 parts. 
 
 GREEN. White wax, TOO parts; indigo, 
 3 parts ; turmeric, 4 parts. 
 
 YELLOW. (i) White wax, 200 parts; 
 powdered turmeric, 13 parts. (2) White wax, 
 20 parts; saffron, i part. (3) White wax, 
 100 parts; quercitrin, 9 parts. 
 
 RED. (i) White wax, 20 parts; alkanet- 
 root, 2 parts. (2) White wax, 100 parts; 
 dragon's blood, 6 parts. (3) White wax, 
 20 parts ; safflower, 2 parts. 
 
COLOURING WAX. 121 
 
 VIOLET. White wax, 400 parts; safflower, 
 12 parts ; indigo, 7 parts. 
 
 BLACK. Melt 50 parts of yellow wax and stir 
 in 2 parts of the finest lampblack. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 WAX CANDLES AND TAPERS. 
 A LLUSIONto candles has been made in 
 
 the historical chapter of this work, but 
 it is uncertain when they were first used. 
 Pliny mentions candles made of rushes, and we 
 are told that in Rome the upper classes used 
 wax and tallow candles. The very word candle 
 is derived from the Latin candela, which means 
 a light of wax. In the Middle Ages candles 
 weighing as much as 50 Ib. were made, and at 
 that time the Britons and Anglo-Saxons used 
 ornamental tapers in their processions. 
 
 There are several ways of making wax 
 candles, among them the following: (i) By 
 dipping a wick and drawing it through melted 
 wax; (2) by building up by hand with soft 
 wax; (3) by pouring melted wax on wicks; 
 (4) by pressing through a cylinder; (5) in 
 moulds. 
 
 Candles and tapers should only be made from 
 the best and purest beeswax, as it not only 
 gives a better light, but is also free from the 
 
WAX CANDLES AND TAPERS. 123 
 
 smell given off by other substances. But, as 
 already said, owing to its high price manufac- 
 turers adulterate beeswax with numerous 
 vegetable and mineral waxes and with tallow, 
 the whole of which are very much cheaper and 
 always more or less objectionable. 
 
 The most important part in the manufacture 
 is the preparation of the wicks. These are 
 either twisted or plaited. The former bear the 
 appearance of a spiral, similar to the strands of 
 a rope, the plaited wicks being made by 
 interlacing and crossing the strands, as in 
 ordinary straw-plaiting. 
 
 Although machinery is now extensively used 
 in wick-making, the best are still made from 
 cotton-rovings imported from Turkey. Four or 
 more of these, according to the thickness of the 
 wick, are wound off into clues and cut by 
 machinery into such lengths as are needed for 
 the candles in course of manufacture. 
 
 The thickness of the wicks varies propor- 
 tionately to the diameter of the candles required, 
 the number of cotton threads requisite to form 
 the wick also varying according to their 
 firmness. The material of which the wicks 
 consist differs with the sort of candle required, 
 and may be either cotton, flax, or hemp yarn. 
 But whatever material is used, it is important 
 
i2 4 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 that the threads are all of exactly the same 
 thickness, free from knots, and burn slowly 
 without leaving any residue. They are rendered 
 less combustible by wick-mordants, composed 
 of solutions of ammoniac salts, of bismuth, and 
 of borates. A good mordant is a solution of 
 2\ oz. boracic acid in 10 Ib. of water, with 
 ^oz. of strong alcohol and a few drops of 
 sulphuric acid. If a weaker solution is used a 
 spark will remain on the wick after the candle 
 has been blown out, and by burning down to 
 the wax make re-lighting difficult. 
 
 To prevent the wick from carbonising at the 
 end, and thus obscuring the light, it is twisted 
 with one strand shorter than the others, by means 
 of which the wick is bent and the end pulled 
 outside the flame, this having the effect of its 
 being completely burnt by coming in contact 
 with the oxygen of the air. Another way of 
 attaining the same end is by dipping one of the 
 wick threads in fused bismuth, and so forming 
 a metallic wick, in which the metal fuses at the 
 end and forms a small globule, which bends the 
 wick over while burning. Sometimes a very fine 
 wire is included in the wick. It must be clearly 
 understood that all wicks must be thoroughly 
 dried before using. 
 
 WAX TAPERS. For these, twisted wicks only 
 
WAX CANDLES AND TAPERS. 125 
 
 are used, which are wound on a drum. This 
 is placed at one end of a stand supporting 
 a trough of melted wax, kept fluid by means of 
 a lamp underneath it. The wick is led by 
 means of a guide-roller into the trough, from 
 which it passes through a series of holes in a 
 draw-plate on to a second drum, where it is 
 wound up (Fig. 37, Plate XVII.). To increase 
 the thickness of the wax-coating the drums are 
 made to change places, and the same operation 
 is repeated. The holes in the draw-plate are 
 progressively smaller and smaller, so that any- 
 sized taper can be made. A little turpentine is 
 added to the wax to render it plastic so that it 
 may not crack as it bends over the drum. It is 
 afterwards unrolled and cut up into lengths or 
 wound into various-shaped rolls, some of them 
 displaying considerable taste in the arrangement 
 of the designs. 
 
 The short tapers used for Christmas-trees are 
 made in the same way, the colouring on the 
 outside being produced by drawing them 
 through coloured wax for the last coating. 
 These tapers, however, are now seldom made of 
 pure beeswax, but generally have a large 
 admixture of ozokerit. They do not burn so 
 brightly, and give off a disagreeable smell, 
 cheapness appearing to be their only recom- 
 mendation. 
 
126 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 WAX CANDLES. These are made either by 
 hand or with a ladle. 
 
 The large wax candles used in churches are 
 formed by rolling the wick in a thin layer of 
 wax, and then, after adding layer upon layer, 
 finished off by rolling the candle by means 
 of a long, square instrument of box, smooth at 
 the bottom, on a table (usually made of walnut 
 wood) until a uniform thickness of the candle is 
 attained. 
 
 Candles are also made by hand. The wax 
 (kept soft in hot water) is applied a small piece 
 at a time to the wick, which latter is hung to a 
 hook from the wall, and finished by rolling as 
 described above, or, if the candles are small, 
 they can be rolled between two marble slabs 
 until a uniform thickness is attained. 
 
 POURING MELTED WAX ON WICKS. This 
 operation is conducted in the following 
 manner: The wicks are first warmed in 
 a stove and then suspended to an iron 
 circle over a large tinned-copper basin full 
 of melted wax. This wax is poured 
 from a ladle over each wick in succession, 
 the latter being sharply rotated between the 
 fingers and thumb to prevent the wax from 
 accumulating more on one side of the wick than 
 on the other. When about one-third of their 
 
WAX CANDLES AND TAPERS. 127 
 
 proper size has been reached the candles are 
 allowed to cool for a short time, and the opera- 
 tion is repeated until they are half-made. 
 This done, they are removed from the hoop and 
 rolled, as already described. The upper end of 
 each candle is formed by cutting it down to a 
 metal tag which covers one end of the wick. 
 The candles are again suspended to the hoop, 
 but in a reversed position, and the same process 
 of pouring on melted wax and rolling is repeated 
 as often as necessary. The lower ends of the 
 candles are then cut square to the desired length. 
 
 PRESSING THROUGH A CYLINDER. Wax 
 candles are also made by pressing soft wax 
 through a cylinder in which the wick runs, thus 
 forming a continuous candle, which is after- 
 wards cut to any required length. 
 
 MOULDING. As wax not only cools very 
 rapidly, but also contracts while cooling, it is 
 unsuitable for moulding. In cases, however, 
 where moulded candles must be produced the 
 wicks are placed in moulds made of tin and 
 highly polished. If in one piece, they are made 
 slightly tapering to allow of the candle being 
 drawn out. Many moulds are made in two 
 pieces. In the process of making, a number of 
 such moulds are generally placed together so 
 that they can all be filled with one pouring. 
 
128 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 The moulds are rubbed over with an oily rag 
 before using in order to lubricate them, otherwise 
 the wax would stick to the metal. The wax is 
 melted in a water-bath so that it should not 
 become over-heated. A very good composition 
 for moulding consists of 7 Ib. of spermaceti, the 
 latter being melted slowly over a moderate fire 
 in a well-tinned copper kettle, and while stirring 
 adding to it piecemeal 5 Ib. of white wax. 
 
 A cheaper candle is made of 10 parts stearic 
 acid and i part of white wax melted together over 
 a water-bath. The mixture must remain in the 
 bath for half an hour without being stirred, 
 then the fire is extinguished, and as soon as a 
 slight pellicle is formed on the surface it is cool 
 enough to cast direct into the moulds, which 
 must be previously heated to the same tem- 
 perature, and allowed to cool gradually. 
 
 Fluted and spiral candles are generally made 
 in moulds. 
 
f Ttffc, 
 
 JNIVERSIT 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 MANUFACTURE OF WAX FLOWERS, 
 FRUITS, AND FIGURES. 
 
 A LTHOUGH wax flowers are no longer 
 \_ so fashionable as in former days, a 
 great many are still manufactured. 
 Museums make extensive use of them for 
 illustrating botanical specimens, some being 
 such exquisite works of art that it is difficult 
 to believe they are not real but only imitations 
 in wax. None but perfectly pure beeswax 
 is used in making, and the greatest care is 
 taken that it contains no adulterant. None of 
 the numerous mineral or vegetable waxes have 
 the plasticity of pure beeswax, and they are 
 therefore not suitable for such work. 
 
 The artist mixes a little Venice turpentine 
 with the wax, which adds to the plasticity during 
 the process of working, and as it evaporates 
 in course of time, the necessary hardness is 
 obtained. The turpentine is thoroughly boiled 
 in water until the latter runs off quite clear, and 
 then incorporated with the molten wax in 
 
 i 
 
130 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 sufficient quantity to turn the latter into a thick 
 paste. It is then put into moulds and worked 
 up into the desired forms. The proper propor- 
 tions are 4 parts of turpentine to 50 parts of wax. 
 To impart the required colour of natural, flowers 
 to the wax the pigments are mixed with it, as 
 explained on page 120. In addition to this, 
 various shadings are obtained by rubbing in dry 
 powdered colours of the desired tints either with 
 the fingers or various-sized stumps, with which 
 the finest detail can be worked in. 
 
 When making wax flowers the chief materials 
 used are sheets of wax no thicker than paper, 
 from which are formed both petals and leaves. 
 To make these wax-sheets strips of paper, sized 
 and glazed, are soaked in water, and the super- 
 fluous moisture removed by placing them 
 between blotting-paper. These damp strips 
 are then floated on the surface of molten wax, 
 care being taken that the wax does not flow on 
 to the upper surface of the paper. They are 
 then lifted off, when a thin film of wax will be 
 found adhering, which can, by several floatings, 
 be increased to any desired thickness. The 
 paper is then stripped off the wax-sheets, and 
 these are cut into the required shape with 
 scissors or a thin, sharp knife. 
 
 Considerable experience is necessary in 
 
MANUFACTURE OF WAX FLOWERS, ETC. 131 
 
 preparing the wax-sheets, for if the wax be too 
 hot, it is impossible to make a whole sheet, and 
 if too cold, sheets of uneven thickness will result. 
 If the wax boils and becomes frothy, the sheets 
 will be porous. Should the paper be too wet, it 
 is likely to tear in peeling, or if too dry, the sheet 
 of wax will stick to it. Should the wax crack 
 on the paper, it probably needs more turpentine, 
 or if too soft and the sheet will not peel off 
 easily, more wax must be added. 
 
 When flowers are made on a large scale the 
 artist uses various-shaped cutters and polished 
 metal moulds when forming the leaves and 
 petals, putting them together and giving the 
 finishing touches by hand. 
 
 When the various pieces are ready the 
 coloured powders required are rubbed into them, 
 copying Nature as closely as possible. 
 Powdered asbestos is also applied if a shiny 
 leaf is needed, and dry powdered starch put on 
 with a camel-hair brush for producing a matt 
 surface. In this way different colours can be 
 made to blend in imitation of Nature. A high 
 polish may be imparted by applying gum 
 sandarach dissolved in alcohol with a camel-hair 
 brush. The veining of the leaves is done by 
 means of a stamp, or by hand with a boxwood 
 or agate style. They are then bent into the 
 
 I 2 
 
132 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 proper shapes and securely fixed on waxed silk- 
 covered wires of the proper thickness. The 
 connecting parts have to be warmed in order 
 that the wire may be embedded when pressed 
 into the wax. The leaves prepared in this way 
 are collected together before starting to build 
 up the plant, the stems being first formed by 
 covering them with plastic wax in which to hide 
 the wires and make them appear natural. The 
 stamens and stigmas are made of fine wire 
 dipped in wax and coloured in the same way as 
 the petals. 
 
 It is in his ability to imitate Nature in the 
 final arrangement and finishing off that the skill 
 of the artist is shown. 
 
 s WAX FRUITS, FIGURES, AND MODELS. When 
 such large articles as figures are being made 
 plaster-of- Paris moulds are used. These are 
 generally constructed in two or more pieces so 
 that when the figure is cast the mould can be 
 easily removed. The moulds are painted over 
 inside with shellac dissolved in spirits of wine, 
 which fills the pores and prevents the wax from 
 penetrating the plaster. In preparing for use 
 the moulds are first dipped in cold water, which 
 is allowed to run off them. Should metal moulds 
 be used, they require lubricating with oil to 
 prevent the wax from adhering to them. The 
 
MANUFACTURE OF WAX FLOWERS, ETC. 133 
 
 molten wax must not be too hot, or on cooling 
 it will shrink considerably and destroy the 
 symmetry of the figures, while if too cool, it will 
 not run into the finer cavities of the mould. 
 Large figures are generally made hollow to 
 economise wax. The moulds for these are first 
 filled with molten wax, allowed to stand for a 
 few minutes, and when the outside has cooled 
 down to the desired thickness the remainder of 
 the wax is poured out. 
 
 As beeswax is rather soft, it is usual now in 
 making large figures to add a certain quantity 
 of stearine or resin, or a little of both. The 
 following are the proportions used: 
 
 1 . White wax, 4 parts ; stearine, i part. 
 
 2. White wax, 6 parts; stearine, i part; 
 
 resin, i part. 
 
 3. White wax, 12 parts; resin, 3 parts. 
 
 Very large articles may have wooden or iron 
 braces inserted to strengthen them. 
 
 Fruit and anatomical specimens for museums 
 are modelled in the same manner, the finishing 
 colours being put on in the way described in 
 making flowers. 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 TECHNICAL USES OF WAX. 
 
 PRACTICAL RECIPES. 
 
 1. MODELLING- WAX. The wax used for this purpose is 
 white, melted, and mixed with lard to make it malleable. 
 In working it, the tools and the board are kept moistened 
 with water to prevent adhesion. 
 
 2. GRAFTING-WAX. Resin, i Ib. ; beeswax, i Ib. ; adding 
 sufficient tallow or lard to soften so that it can be readily 
 applied with the hand. After melting, allow it to cool, and 
 roll the mass out on a slab into sticks. 
 
 3. SEWING-WAX. The beeswax is usually made up into 
 small, round cakes, about i| in. diameter, and gives stiff- 
 ness and smoothness to sewing-thread. 
 
 4. FRENCH POLISH. i oz. each of gums mastic, sanda- 
 rach, seed-lac, shellac, and gum arable. Reduce to powder, 
 then add 3 oz. of virgin wax. Dissolve in a bottle with 
 i quart of rectified spirits of wine. After standing for 
 twelve hours it is fit for use. 
 
 5. FURNITURE PASTES. (i) Beeswax, spirits of turpen- 
 tine, and linseed-oil, equal parts. Melt and cool. (2) Bees- 
 wax, 4 oz. ; turpentine, 10 oz. ; alkanet-root to colour. Melt 
 and strain. (3) White : White wax, i Ib. ; liquor of potassa, 
 gallon. Boil to the proper consistency. (4) Beeswax, 
 i Ib. ; soap, Ib. ; pearlash, 3 oz. ; dissolve in water, 
 gallon. Strain and boil, as last. (5) To keep wood light, 
 scrape \ Ib. of beeswax into pint of turpentine. 
 
TECHNICAL USES OF WAX. 135 
 
 6. FURNITURE CREAM. (i) Beeswax, i Ib. ; soap, 4 oz. ; 
 pearlash, 2 oz. ; soft water, i gallon. Boil together till 
 thoroughly mixed. (2) Yellow wax, 4 oz. ; yellow soap, 
 2 oz. ; water, 50 oz. Boil, with constant stirring, and add 
 boiled oil and oil of turpentine, each 5 oz. 
 
 7. FURNITURE OIL. (i) Boiled linseed-oil, i pint; yellow 
 wax, 4 oz. Melt, and colour with alkanet-root. (2) Alkanet- 
 root, i part ; shellac varnish, 4 parts ; linseed-oil, 16 parts ; 
 turps, 2 parts; wax, 2 parts. Mix, and let them stand 
 together for a week. 
 
 8. FURNITURE VARNISH. White wax, 15 oz. ; yellow resin, 
 i oz. (powdered) ; spirits of turpentine, i quart. Digest 
 until dissolved. Lay on with a brush or cloth, and well 
 polish with a clean piece of woollen cloth. 
 
 9. FURNITURE POLISH. (i) Beeswax, % Ib. ; alkanet-root, 
 | oz. Melt together in a pipkin until the former is well 
 coloured; then add linseed-oil and spirits of turpentine, of 
 each | gill. Strain through a piece of coarse muslin. (2) 
 Melt 2 parts of wax, and stir into it i part of turpentine, 
 after removal from the fire. 
 
 10. POLISH FOR TURNERS' WORK. Dissolve i oz. of 
 sandarach in J pint of spirits of wine ; shave i oz. of bees- 
 wax, and dissolve it in a sufficient quantity of spirits of tur- 
 pentine to make it into a paste. Add the former mixture to 
 it by degrees, then with a woollen cloth apply it to the work 
 while it is in motion in the lathe, and polish it with a soft 
 linen rag. It will appear as if highly varnished. 
 
 11. FLOOR POLISH. Potash, 2 oz. ; water, 2 oz. Heat to 
 boiling-point, and gradually add, while stirring, 4 oz. of 
 yellow wax. This done, boil up again, and pour in 9 oz. 
 of water, and heat until a milky fluid results. This can 
 also be used for polishing furniture. 
 
 12. VARNISH. Boiled oil, 100 parts; finely powdered 
 litharge, 6 parts; beeswax, 5 parts. Boil until sufficiently 
 thick and stringy, then pour off the clear portion. 
 
136 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 13. TABLE VARNISH. Oil of turpentine, i Ib. ; beeswax, 
 
 2 oz. ; colophony, i dr. Digest the mixture for twenty-four 
 hours; the decanted portion is then fit for immediate use. 
 
 14. WHITE FURNITURE VARNISH. White wax, 6 parts; 
 petroleum, 48 parts. Apply to the work while warm, and 
 allow the varnish to cool; then polish by rubbing with a 
 coarse cloth. 
 
 15. VARNISH FOR PRINTS, ENGRAVINGS, OR MAPS. A piece 
 of plate-glass is heated, and while yet warm a little wax is 
 rubbed over it. Water is then poured over the plate, and 
 the moistened picture laid thereon, and pressed closely down 
 by means of a piece of filtering-paper. When dry, the 
 picture is removed, and will be found to possess a surface 
 of great brilliancy. 
 
 16. MASTIC VARNISH. Gum mastic, 5 Ib. ; spirits of tur- 
 pentine, 2 gallons. Mix with a moderate heat (carefully 
 applied) in a close vessel, then add pale turpentine varnish, 
 
 3 pints. Mix well. 
 
 17. COMMON OIL VARNISH. Resin, 4 Ib. ; beeswax, Ib. ; 
 boiled oil, i gallon. Mix with heat, and add spirits of 
 turpentine, 2 quarts. 
 
 18. IMPERMEABLE VARNISH. Boiled oil, 100 parts; finely 
 powdered litharge, 6 parts; beeswax, 5 parts. Boil until 
 sufficiently thick and stringy, then pour off the clear part. 
 
 19. ETCHING VARNISH. (i) White wax, 2 oz. ; asphaltum, 
 2 oz. Melt the wax in a clean pipkin, add the asphaltum 
 in powder, and boil to a proper consistence. Pour into 
 warm water, and form into balls, which must be kneaded 
 and put into taffeta for use. (2) White wax, 2 oz. ; Bur- 
 gundy pitch, oz. ; black pitch, oz. Melt together, and 
 add by degrees 2 oz. of powdered asphaltum, and boil till 
 a drop cooled on a plate becomes brittle. (3) Soft linseed- 
 oil, 4 oz. ; gum benzoin, | oz. ; white wax, | oz. Boil until 
 only two-thirds of bulk remains. 
 
TECHNICAL USES OF WAX. 137 
 
 20. ETCHING VARNISH FOR IVORY. White wax, 2 parts; 
 tears of mastic, 2 parts. Mix well. 
 
 21. VARNISH FOR ETCHING ON COPPER. (i) Yellow wax, 
 
 1 oz. ; mastic, i oz. ; asphaltum, 5 oz. Melt, pour into water, 
 and form into balls for use. (2) Tallow, i part ; yellow wax, 
 
 2 parts. (3) Wax, 2 oz. ; common turpentine, i dr. ; olive- 
 oil, i dr. 
 
 22. VARNISH FOR ENGRAVING ON GLASS. Wax, i oz. ; 
 mastic, oz. ; asphaltum, | oz. ; turpentine, dr. 
 
 23. LITHOGRAPHIC CRAYON. W T hite wax, 4 parts; gum- 
 lac, 2 parts. Melt over a gentle fire, then add dry tallow- 
 soap in shavings, 2 parts. Stir until dissolved. Next add 
 white tallow, 2 parts; copal varnish, i part; lampblack, 
 
 1 part. Mix well, and continue the heat and stirring until, 
 on trial by cooling a little, it is of such hardness as to bear 
 cutting to a fine point, and will trace delicate lines without 
 breaking. 
 
 24. LITHOGRAPHIC CHALK. Common soap, i oz. ; tallow, 
 
 2 oz. ; virgin wax, z\ oz. ; shellac, i oz. ; lampblack, \ oz. 
 The wax and tallow are first put in an iron saucepan with 
 a cover, and heated till the mixture will ignite. Whilst it 
 is burning, the soap (cut into small pieces) must be thrown 
 in, one piece at a time, taking care that the first piece is 
 melted before adding the second. When all the soap is 
 melted, the ingredients are allowed to continue burning till 
 they are reduced one-third in volume. The shellac is now 
 added, and directly the latter is melted the flame must be 
 extinguished. The black is then added, and when com- 
 pletely mixed the whole is poured out on a marble slab. 
 
 25. LITHOGRAPHIC INK. (i) Tallow, 2 oz. ; virgin wax, 
 2 oz. ; shellac, 2 oz. ; common soap, 2 oz. ; lampblack, oz. 
 Mix as for lithographic chalk. (2) Venice turpentine, 
 i part ; lampblack, 2 parts ; tallow, 6 parts ; hard tallow- 
 soap, 6 parts; mastic in tears, 8 parts; shellac, 12 parts; 
 wax, 16 parts. Melt, and pour out on a slab. 
 
138 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 26. LITHOGRAPHIC TRANSFER INK. Virgin wax, 2 parts ; 
 white soap, i part; shellac, i part; lampblack, % part. 
 Mix as for lithographic chalk. 
 
 27. AUTOGRAPHIC INK FOR LITHOGRAPHERS. White soap, 
 15 parts ; white wax, 25 parts ; mutton suet, 6 parts ; lamp- 
 black, 6 parts ; shellac, 10 parts ; mastic, 10 parts. Mix 
 with heat, and proceed as for lithographic ink. 
 
 28. CRAYONS FOR DRAWING ON GLASS. Melt together 
 equal quantities of asphaltum and yellow wax, add lamp- 
 black, and pour the mixture into moulds for crayons. 
 
 29. ENGRAVERS' BORDER- WAX. Beeswax, i part; pitch, 
 2 parts; tallow, i part. Mix. 
 
 30. BLACK SEALING-WAX. Yellow resin, 15 Ib. ; lard, i Ib. ; 
 beeswax, i Ib. ; lampblack, 3 Ib. Mix with heat. 
 
 31. SOFT SEALING-WAX. Yellow resin, i part; beeswax, 
 4 parts; lard, i part; Venice turpentine, i part; colour to 
 fancy. Mix with gentle heat. 
 
 32. GILDERS' WAX. (i) Yellow wax, 3 Ib. ; verdigris, 
 i Ib. ; sulphate of zinc, i Ib. ; red oxide of iron, 2\ Ib. 
 Powder the last three articles very fine. (2) Yellow wax, 
 7 Ib. ; colcothar, 7 Ib. ; verdigris, 3 Ib. ; borax, | Ib. ; alum, 
 \ Ib. (3) Oil, 25 parts; yellow wax, 25 parts; acetate of 
 copper, 13 parts; red ochre, 37 parts. The whole is melted 
 and stirred until cold. 
 
 33. BOTTLE WAX. Black: Black resin, 63 Ib. ; beeswax, 
 Ib. ; finely powdered ivory black, i Ib. Melt together. 
 Red: As the last, but substitute Venetian red, or red lead, 
 for the ivory black. 
 
 34. RAZOR PASTE. Mix the finest flour-emery intimately 
 with tallow and wax until the proper consistency is obtained 
 in the paste, and then rub it well into the leather strop. 
 
 35. TURNERS' CEMENT. Beeswax, i oz. ; resin, oz. ; 
 pitch, oz. Melt, and stir in fine brickdust. 
 
TECHNICAL USES OF WAX. 139 
 
 36. CEMENT FOR JOINING SPAR AND MARBLE ORNAMENTS. 
 Melt together 8 parts of resin, i part of wax, and stir in 
 4 parts, or as much as may be required, of plaster of Paris. 
 The broken pieces to be made hot before applying the 
 cement. 
 
 37. BOTTLE CEMENT. Resin, 15 parts; wax, 3 parts; 
 highly-dried red ochre, 5 parts. 
 
 38. CEMENT FOR ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND GALVANIC 
 TROUGHS. Melt together 5 Ib. of resin and i Ib. of beeswax, 
 and stir in i Ib. of red ochre (highly dried and still warm) 
 and 4 oz. of plaster of Paris, continuing the heat a little 
 above 212 deg. Fahr., and stirring constantly till all frothing 
 ceases. Or (for troughs) : Resin, 6 Ib. ; dried red ochre, i Ib. ; 
 calcined plaster of Paris, | Ib. ; linseed-oil, | Ib. 
 
 39. AIR-TIGHT COVERING FOR BOTTLES, &c. Melt india- 
 rubber (to which 15 per cent, of wax is added) and gradu- 
 ally add finely powdered quick-lime till a change of odour 
 shows that combination has taken place and a proper con- 
 sistence is obtained. 
 
 40. SOFT CEMENT. Melt yellow wax with half its weight 
 of common turpentine and stir in a little Venetian red, pre- 
 viously well dried and finely powdered. This cement does 
 very well as a temporary stopping for joints and openings 
 in glass and other apparatus where the heat and pressure 
 are not great. 
 
 41. MAHOGANY-COLOURED CEMENT. Melt 2 oz. of beeswax 
 and 2 oz. of resin together, then add | oz. of Indian red and 
 a small quantity of yellow ochre to bring the cement to the 
 desired colour. Keep it in a pipkin for use. 
 
 42. CEMENT MASTIC. Beeswax, 2 parts; Burgundy pitch, 
 3 parts; resin, 8 parts. Melt and put into spring-water to 
 solidify the paste, then roll into sticks, and in using melt 
 only so much as is immediately required, as it becomes more 
 brittle by repeated heating. 
 
140 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 43. REMOVING STAINS FROM MARBLE. Clean with diluted 
 hydrochloric acid or warm soap and vinegar, then heat a 
 gallon of water, in which dissolve i Ib. of potash; add 
 
 1 Ib. of wax, boiling the whole for half an hour, then allow 
 to cool, when the wax will float on the surface. Put the 
 wax into a mortar and triturate it with a marble pestle, 
 adding soft water to it until it forms a soft paste, which, 
 laid on marble, and when dry, rubbed with a woollen rag, 
 gives a bright polish. 
 
 44. To POLISH ALABASTER. Take white wax, melt it in a 
 convenient vessel, and dip the cast or figure into it; with- 
 draw, and repeat the operation of dipping until the liquid 
 wax rests upon the surface of the cast; allow it to become 
 cool and dry, when it may be polished with a clean brush. 
 
 45. WAX VARNISH TO PRESERVE STATUES. White wax, 
 
 2 parts ; essence of turpentine, 8 parts. Melt and apply hot ; 
 spread evenly so as not to destroy the lines of the figure. 
 
 46. WATERPROOF PACKING-PAPER. Blue soap, 24 parts; 
 white soap, 4 parts; wax, 15 parts. Boil in 120 parts of 
 water. Dip the packing-paper into it, and after being well 
 soaked hang up over a string to dry. 
 
 47. WAXED PAPER. Take cartridge or other paper, place 
 it on a hot iron and rub it with beeswax, or make a solution 
 of the wax in turpentine and apply it with a brush. Use- 
 ful for making water or air proof pipes for chemical experi- 
 ments, &c. 
 
 48. WATERPROOFING LEATHER. (i) Wax, 25 oz. ; Bur- 
 gundy pitch, 15 oz. ; ground-nut oil, 2 oz. ; iron sulphate, 
 i i oz. ; essence of thyme, oz. (2) India-rubber in small 
 pieces, i oz. ; boiled oil, i pint. Dissolve by heat, then add 
 i pint of hot boiled oil, stir well, and cool. (3) Beeswax 
 and yellow resin, of each 2 oz. Melt in i pint of boiled oil. 
 (4) White wax and spermaceti, each i oz. ; mutton suet, 
 4 oz. Melt in i pint of olive-oil. The above solutions should 
 be applied while warm. 
 
TECHNICAL USES OF WAX. 141 
 
 49. WATERPROOFING BOOTS AND SHOES. Beeswax, i oz. ; 
 suet, | oz. ; olive-oil, 2 oz. ; lampblack, oz. Melt the wax 
 and suet in the oil, add the lampblack, and stir till cool; 
 warm the shoes and rub in the compound. 
 
 50. WAX DUBBING. Melt together 6 parts yellow wax, 
 26^ parts mutton fat, 6 parts thick turpentine, 6 parts 
 olive-oil, 13 parts lard, stirring into this 5 parts of well- 
 heated lampblack. The mass is then poured into little 
 tin boxes for convenience in using. The dubbing is 
 first warmed and then applied by being rubbed in well with 
 the fingers. Hard leather is thus softened and becomes 
 perfectly waterproof. 
 
 51. WATERPROOF HARNESS PASTE. Put into a glazed 
 pipkin 2 oz. of black resin, place on a gentle fire till melted ; 
 add 3 oz. of beeswax, and when this also is melted remove 
 the mixture from the fire; add \ oz. of fine lampblack and 
 \ dr. of Prussian blue in fine powder. Stir till mixed 
 well and add sufficient spirits of turpentine to form a thin 
 paste. When cool apply a thin coat of the paste with a rag 
 and polish with a soft polishing brush. 
 
 52. POLISH FOR HARNESS. Melt 8 oz. of beeswax in an 
 earthen pipkin and stir in 2 oz. ivory black, i oz. Prussian 
 blue ground in oil, i oz. oil of turpentine, and | oz. copal 
 varnish. Make into balls. Apply with a brush and polish 
 with an old handkerchief. 
 
 53. BOOT BLACKING. Ordinary starch is dissolved in hot 
 water and wax added ; the mixture is stirred and allowed to 
 cool. Then add a small quantity of iodine to give a bluish- 
 black colour. To i gallon of this mixture add 8 oz. 
 of a solution of iron perchloride, a small quantity of gallic 
 acid, and sometimes about 2 dr. of oil of cloves along with 
 8 oz. of glycerine. The whole is thoroughly stirred. 
 
 54. NICOLET'S BLACKING. Dissolve 150 parts wax and 
 15 of tallow in a mixture of 200 of linseed oil, 20 of litharge, 
 and 100 of molasses at a temperature of 230 deg. to 250 deg. 
 Fahr. Then add 103 parts lampblack. When cold dilute 
 
142 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 with 280 of spirits of turpentine. Finally mix with a solu- 
 tion of 5 parts of gum-lac and 2 of aniline violet in 35 of 
 alcohol. 
 
 55. HEIN'S BLACKING. Another shoe blacking is made by 
 melting 90 parts beeswax, 30 of spermaceti, and 350 of 
 spirits of turpentine with 20 of asphalt varnish, adding 
 10 of borax, 20 of lampblack, 10 of Prussian blue, and 5 of 
 nitro-benzol. 
 
 56. LEATHER BLACKING. Melt 2 Ib. wax and add l<b. 
 washed and well-dried litharge by screening it through a 
 fine sieve; then add 6 oz. ivory black and stir until cool, 
 but not cold; add enough turpentine to reduce it to a thin 
 paste, after which add a little birch or other essential oil 
 to prevent it from souring. 
 
 57. HARNESS BLACKING. Mutton suet, 2 oz. ; beeswax, 
 6 oz. ; melt them and add sugar candy, 6 oz. ; soft soap, 
 2 oz. ; lampblack, 2^ oz. ; finely powdered indigo, oz. When 
 thoroughly intermixed add oil of turpentine, pint. 
 
 58. FARM HARNESS PRESERVATIVE. Mix i Ib. each pure 
 yellow wax, oil of turpentine, and castor-oil with 125 Ib. 
 linseed-oil and i% Ib. tar, the whole to be thoroughly mixed. 
 By occasional application from time to time (say about every 
 six months) harness is protected from the influence of air, 
 heat, perspiration, and all moisture. 
 
 59. WAX SHOE POLISH. Melt together i Ib. of white wax, 
 i Ib. crown soap, 5 oz. ivory black, i oz. indigo, and % pint 
 nut-oil. Dissolve over a slow fire, stir until cool, and turn 
 into small moulds. 
 
 60. SHOEMAKER'S HEEL-BALL. Beeswax, 8 oz. ; tallow, 
 i oz. Melt and add powdered gum arable, i oz., and lamp- 
 black to colour. 
 
 61. SUPERFINE HEEL-BALL. Melt together beeswax, 2 Ib. ; 
 suet, 3 oz. ; stir in ivory black, 4 oz. ; lampblack, 3 oz. ; 
 powdered gum arabic, 2 oz. ; powdered rock-candy, 2 oz. 
 Mix, and when partly cold pour into tin or leaden moulds. 
 
TECHNICAL USES OF WAX. 143 
 
 These balls are used not merely by shoemakers, but for 
 copying inscriptions, raised patterns, &c., by rubbing the 
 ball on paper laid over the article to be copied. 
 
 62. IMITATION WAX CANDLES. Purify melted tallow by 
 throwing- in powdered quicklime, then add 2 parts wax to 
 
 1 of tallow, and a beautiful candle closely resembling pure 
 wax will be the result. Dip the wicks in lime-water and 
 saltpetre on making. To i gallon of water add 2 oz. salt- 
 petre and ^ Ib. of lime. It improves the light and prevents 
 the tallow from running. 
 
 63. ADAMANTINE CANDLES. Melt together 10 oz. mutton 
 tallow ; camphor, | oz. ; beeswax, 4 oz. ; and alum, 2 oz. 
 
 64. STARCH POLISH. White wax, i oz. ; spermaceti, 2 oz. 
 Melt together with a gentle heat. When sufficient starch is 
 prepared in the usual way for a dozen pieces put into it a 
 piece of the polish about the size of a large pea, more or 
 less, according to large or small washings. This gives a 
 beautiful gloss to linen articles. 
 
 65. SIZING FOR LINEN. Crystallised carbonate of soda, i 
 part ; white wax, 6 parts ; stearine, 4 parts ; pure white soap, 
 6 parts ; fine Paris white or carbonate of magnesia, 20 parts ; 
 potato starch, 40 parts; fine wheat starch, 160 parts. Boil 
 with sufficient water to form an aggregate of 1,600 parts, 
 adding, if desired, sufficient ultramarine to counteract the 
 yellow tint of the linen. The latter is saturated with this 
 preparation and afterwards steamed and dried, then 
 sprinkled with soap-water and placed in the stamping-mill, 
 and lastly steamed and calendered. 
 
 66. AMALGAM FOR ELECTRICAL MACHINES. First pour into 
 a wooden box (previously coated with chalk) 6 oz. of quick- 
 silver; then put into a suitable iron ladle oz. of beeswax, 
 
 2 oz. of purified zinc, and i oz. of grain tin ; set the ladle 
 over a brisk fire, and when the metals are fused pour them 
 into the box containing the quicksilver, avoiding the dross. 
 When cold reduce the whole to powder and mix with lard. 
 
i 4 4 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 Keep in a box covered with tallow and spread on leather 
 for use. 
 
 67. To PREVENT IRON FROM RUSTING. Warm the iron 
 till it is too hot to touch. Then rub the surface over with 
 new and clean white wax. Return the iron to the fire and 
 leave till it has absorbed the wax. This done, rub the 
 surface over with a piece of serge, and the iron will not 
 rust afterwards. 
 
 68. To DRILL HARDENED STEEL. Cover your steel with 
 a coating of melted beeswax, and when cold make a 
 circular hole in the wax with a fine-pointed needle or other 
 article to the size required, and into it drop sufficient strong 
 nitric acid to fill the hole thus made. An hour afterwards 
 rinse off and apply acid again, and it will gradually eat 
 through the metal. 
 
 69. WRITING INSCRIPTIONS ON METALS. Take Ib. of 
 nitric acid and i oz. of muriatic acid. Mix and shake well 
 together, when it is ready for use. Warm the metal it is 
 desired to mark till the surface will melt beeswax when the 
 latter is applied to it. When cold the wax will have set 
 fairly hard ; then with a sharp instrument write your inscrip- 
 tion plainly in the wax right through to the metal surface; 
 then apply the mixed acids with a feather, carefully filling 
 each letter. In from one to ten minutes (according to the 
 appearance desired) the exposed surface of the metal will 
 have been eaten away, so to speak, by the acid, and thus 
 the inscription is engraved thereon. A free application of 
 cold water then stops the process and the wax is removed 
 by warming. 
 
 70. HORSES' CRACKED HOOFS. Wax and honey in equal 
 parts are melted together over a slow fire and thoroughly 
 mixed. In using, the hoof is first thoroughly cleaned with 
 tepid water and the above mixture then well rubbed in with 
 a brush. After several applications the fissures and cracks 
 disappear and the hoof regains its softness. 
 
TECHNICAL USES OF WAX. 145 
 
 71. HORSE OINTMENT. Resin, 4 oz. ; beeswax, 4 oz. ; lard, 
 8 oz. ; honey, 2 oz. Mix slowly and gently, bring to a boil, 
 and add less than i pint spirits of turpentine; then remove 
 from the fire and stir till cool. Unsurpassed for horses' 
 cracked hoofs, &c. 
 
 USES OF WAX IN MEDICINE. 
 
 72. REMEDY FOR COUGHS, EXPECTORATION, &c. Breathe 
 the vapour arising from wax when the latter is being melted 
 on a hot iron or a brazier of charcoal. 
 
 73. HOLLOWAY'S OINTMENT. Butter, 22 oz. ; beeswax, 
 3 oz. ; yellow resin, 3 oz. Melt, add vinegar of cantharides, 
 i oz. Evaporate, and add Canada balsam, i oz. ; oil of 
 mace, ^ dr. ; balsam of Peru, 15 drops. 
 
 74. CORN PLASTER. (i) Beeswax, i Ib. ; resin, 4 oz. ; 
 Venice turpentine, 8 oz. ; sulphate of copper, 8 oz. ; arsenic, 
 i oz. Mix with heat. (2) Yellow wax, i Ib. ; Burgundy 
 pitch, 6 oz. ; turpentine, 4 oz. ; powdered verdigris, 2 oz. 
 Mix with heat, and spread the composition on linen or 
 leather, polish the surface, and cut into small pieces. 
 
 75. TOOTH-STOPPING. Melt 3 parts pure white wax with 
 3^ parts mastic, adding a few drops of oil of peppermint 
 and making it into pills on a marble slab. The pills are 
 pressed into hollow teeth so that food may not lodge in them 
 and irritate the nerves. 
 
 76. PILE OINTMENT. Powdered nut gall, 2 dr. ; camphor, 
 
 1 dr. ; melted wax, 10 oz. ; tincture of opium, 2 dr. Mix 
 and apply three times a day or as the pain may require. 
 
 77. SPERMACETI OINTMENT. Olive-oil, 4 Ib. ; white wax, 
 
 2 Ib. ; spermaceti, i Ib. ; water, i Ib. Mix and stir until 
 
 cold. 
 
 K 
 
146 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 78. SALVE FOR WOUNDS AFTER REMOVAL OF WARTS. Pre- 
 pare a salve of white wax and fresh unsalted butter in equal 
 parts and mix a little white wine with it. 
 
 79. SALVE FOR BURNS. A mixture of wax and linseed-oil 
 makes an excellent plaster for burns. 
 
 80. WAX SALVE FOR SKIN DISEASES. White wax, 5 parts ; 
 spermaceti, 5 parts; sweet almond-oil, 5 parts. Melt 
 together in an enamelled saucepan, pour out into paper 
 boxes, and when cold cut up into small tablets. 
 
 81. WHITE LIP-SALVE. Olive-oil, i Ib. ; spermaceti, i Ib. ; 
 white wax, i Ib. ; refined lard, i Ib. Melt, and while cooling 
 stir in rose-water, 8 oz. ; essence of lemon, 2 dr. ; bergamot, 
 2 dr. 
 
 82. RED LIP-SALVE. Olive-oil, i Ib. ; alkanet-root, 2 oz. 
 Macerate with heat until the oil is well coloured, then add 
 spermaceti, 2 oz. ; white wax, 8 oz. ; suet (prepared), 12 oz. 
 W T hen nearly cold stir in orange-flower water, i oz. ; oil of 
 lavender, ^ dr. 
 
 83. RUSSIAN SALVE. Take equal parts of yellow wax and 
 sweet oil ; heat and let the mixture melt slowly, carefully 
 stirring as it does so ; when cooling add a small quantity of 
 glycerine. Good for all kinds of wounds, &c. 
 
 84. DOWNER'S SALVE. Beeswax, 4 oz. ; opium, | oz. ; 
 sugar of lead, i oz. Melt the beeswax and w r ork up the lead 
 in the wax, then the opium; add i gill of sweet oil and 
 incorporate the whole thoroughly together, spread lightly on 
 cloth. Good for burns, piles, &c. 
 
 85. AMERICAN SALVE. Burgundy pitch, beeswax, white 
 pine pitch, and resin, i oz. each ; mutton tallow, 8 oz. ; goose 
 oil, i gill; tar, i gill. Melt and mix thoroughly. A first- 
 rate salve. 
 
 86. GREEN MOUNTAIN SALVE. For rheumatism, burns, 
 pains in the back or side, &c., use 2 Ib. resin; Burgundy 
 pitch, I Ib. ; beeswax, | Ib. ; mutton tallow, I Ib. Melt 
 
TECHNICAL USES OF WAX. 147 
 
 slowly ; when not too warm add oil of hemlock, i oz. ; 
 balsam fir, i oz. ; oil of origanum, i oz. ; oil of red cedar, 
 i oz. ; Venice turpentine, i oz. ; oil of wormwood, i oz. ; 
 verdigris, oz. The verdigris must be finely pulverised and 
 mixed with the oils; then add as above, and work in cold 
 water till the mass is cool enough to roll. 
 
 87. GREEN OINTMENT. Honey and beeswax, each | Ib. ; 
 spirits of turpentine, i oz. ; wintergreen-oil and laudanum, 
 each 2 oz. ; verdigris, finely pulverised, | oz. ; lard, i Ib. 
 Mix by a stove fire in a copper kettle, heating slowly. 
 
 88. PILLS TO IMPROVE THE VOICE. Beeswax, 2 dr. ; 
 copaiba balsam, 3 dr. ; liquorice-root powder, 4 dr. Melt 
 the copaiba balsam with the wax in a new earthen pipkin 
 and make pills of 3 gr. each. Two of these pills to be taken 
 occasionally, three or four times a day. They are the very 
 best known for the purpose. 
 
 89. REMEDY FOR DIARRHCEA. In France the following 
 remedy is frequently found efficacious : Scoop out the core 
 of a quince, fill it with hot wax, and let it roast gently and 
 for a long time by the fire. This is eaten before taking 
 food for three consecutive mornings. 
 
 90. LEECH BITES, TO STOP. 2 parts olive oil to i part 
 yellow wax, spread them on linen, and apply to the orifice. 
 
 91. LOCATELLI'S BALSAM. Olive-oil, i pint; Strasburg 
 turpentine and yellow wax, of each Ib. ; red saunders, 
 6 dr. Melt the wax with part of the oil over a gentle fire, 
 then add remaining oil and the turpentine; afterwards 
 mix in the saunders, previously reduced to a powder, and 
 keep them stirring together till the balsam is cold. This 
 balsam is recommended in erosions of the intestines, 
 dysentery, haemorrhages, internal bruises, and in some com- 
 plaints of the breast. Outwardly it is used for healing and 
 cleansing wounds and ulcers. The dose when taken inter- 
 nally is from 2 sc. to 2 dr. 
 
 K 2 
 
148 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 COSMETICAL SPECIALITIES. 
 
 92. COLD CREAM. Oil of almonds, 5 Ib. ; white wax, 
 i Ib. ; spermaceti, Ib. Melt by gentle heat, then stir in 
 rose-water, i Ib. ; otto of roses, 6 drops. Used to keep the 
 skin delicate and soft. 
 
 93. ORIENTAL COLD CREAM. Oil of almonds, 4 oz. ; white 
 wax and spermaceti, of each 2 dr. Melt, and add rose- 
 water, 4 oz. ; orange-flower water, i oz. To use, apply on 
 a cotton or linen cloth to the face, &c. 
 
 94. SHAVING CREAM. White wax, spermaceti, almond-oil, 
 
 1 oz. of each. Melt, and while warm beat in 2 squares 
 of Windsor soap, previously reduced to a paste with rose- 
 water. 
 
 95. SHAVING PASTE. Oil of almonds, 2 parts; white soap, 
 
 2 parts; common soda, i part; rose-water, i part. Melt 
 and perfume with otto of roses. 
 
 96. POMATUM. Strained suet, 10 Ib. ; white wax, f Ib. 
 Melt, then stir well in essence of bergamot, i oz. ; essence 
 of lemon, \ oz. ; oil of rosemary, \ oz. ; oil of lavender, \ oz. ; 
 rose-water, i pint. 
 
 97. PLAIN, HARD POMATUM. Lard, suet, white wax, equal 
 parts. Mix with heat. 
 
 98. POMADE DE LA JEUNESSE. Lard, 16 oz. ; white wax, 
 i oz. ; dinitrate of bismuth or pearl white, 2 oz. ; scent as pre- 
 ferred. Used as a pomade for dyeing the hair black. 
 
 99. PLAIN, SOFT POMATUM. Olive-oil, white wax, lard, 
 suet, equal parts. If required softer, use a little less wax 
 or more lard and oil. 
 
 100. SOFT POMATUM. Suet, 9 Ib. ; lard, 10 Ib. ; beeswax, 
 3 oz. ; gum benjamin, 5 oz. ; perfume to taste. 
 
TECHNICAL USES OF WAX. 149 
 
 10 1. POMADE D'ORANGE. Beeswax, 5 Ib. ; lard, 6 Ib. ; 
 suet, 6 Ib. ; palm-oil, 2 Ib. Melt, and while cooling stir in 
 orange-flower water, 9 oz. ; essence of neroli, 3 dr. 
 
 102. POMADE DIVINE. Lard, 3 Ib. ; white wax, f Ib. ; 
 balm of Gilead, 3 oz. ; oil of cloves, 6 dr. ; essence of berga- 
 mot, 4 dr. Melt the first two with a gentle heat, remove 
 them from the fire, and while cooling stir in the scent. 
 
 103. CREAM OF ROSES. Oil of almonds, i Ib. ; rose-water, 
 
 1 pint; white wax and spermaceti, each i oz. Mix in a 
 pipkin under a slight heat, then add essence of neroli, 
 20 drops; otto of roses, 15 drops. Put it into pots and tie 
 over with skin or oiled leather. 
 
 104. MILLE-FLEURS POMATUM. Lard and suet, each i Ib. ; 
 white wax, 2 oz. ; essence of lemon, f oz. ; essence of musk, 
 90 drops; gum benzoin, i oz. Melt the solids, then with- 
 draw the pot from the fire, and when partly cold stir in the 
 essences. 
 
 105. ORANGE POMATUM. Clarified lard, 7 Ib. ; mutton 
 suet, if Ib. ; yellow wax, if Ib. ; palm-oil, f Ib. Melt and 
 strain, then add, while cooling, Portugal water, f pint; 
 essence of bergamot, i dr. ; neroli, if dr. Stir in well and 
 pour into earthenware pots. 
 
 106. SOFT MARE"CHAL POMATUM. Lard and suet, each 
 12 Ib. ; beeswax, 5 Ib ; mare"chal powder, 12 oz. Scent. Melt 
 the first three with a gentle heat, then add the powder and 
 perfume. 
 
 107. OX-MARROW. Melt 4 oz, ox-tallow ; white wax, i oz. ; 
 fresh lard, 6 oz. When cold add if oz. oil of bergamot. 
 
 108. CRME CELESTE. White wax, if parts; spermaceti, 
 3 parts; sweet almond-oil, 3 parts. Melt together in a 
 porcelain dish over a water bath, and when cold stir in 
 
 2 parts of rose-water. 
 
150 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 iog. GLYCERINE WAX BALSAM. White wax, 2 parts; sper- 
 maceti, 2 parts; sweet almond-oil, 8 parts; glycerine, 
 4 parts ; otto of roses, >6 part. Carefully melt together in an 
 enamelled saucepan over a slow fire. Stir until cold and 
 put into glass jars. 
 
 no. COSMETIQUE. Melt in a porcelain dish over a water 
 bath 500 parts of yellow wax and 125 parts of white soap ; 
 remove from the fire to cool, and before the mass has set 
 stir in 5 parts of bergamot and i part of Peruvian balsam. 
 Roll into small sticks on a glass or marble slab and cover 
 with paper. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Abdomen, ventral plate on, 46 
 
 Abyssinia, 75 ; colour of wax 
 from, 77 
 
 Acid, fatty, 56, 91, 94; sulphu- 
 ric, 56, 81, 93, 97, 124; stearic, 
 91, 109, 128; hydrochloric, 87; 
 cerotic, 51, 94; substances, 
 91 ; palmitic, 91 ; sylvic, 91 ; 
 arsenic, 119 
 
 Adamantine candles, 143 
 
 Adonis festival, 34 
 
 Adulterants used, 89, 90, 100, 
 101, 105, 107, 109, no, 129; 
 physical properties of, 98 
 
 Adulteration, 89-110, 123; of 
 beeswax, 43, 53 ; of bleached 
 wax, 89; see " Adulterants " 
 
 Adulterators, skill of, 90 
 
 Africa, 73, 74 j western shores of, 
 
 76 
 
 Agnus Dei, origin of, 32 
 Air, necessary in bleaching, 85 ; 
 -tight covering for bottles, 139 
 Alabaster, to polish, 140 
 Alcohol, 51, 96, 124; cold, 99, 
 100, 101, 104, 106, 108, 109 ; 
 boiling, 99, 101, 103, 104, 106, 
 107, no; wood, 109; anhy- 
 drous, 109 
 
 Alexander the Great, extent of 
 wax painting during time of, 
 
 2 3 
 
 Alexandria, fruits and flowers 
 made in, 34 
 
 Alfred, King, directs how can- 
 dles are to be formed, 33 
 
 Alkanet root, 119 
 
 Alum, use of, in France, 85 
 
 Amalgam for electrical ma- 
 chines, 143 
 
 America, North, 73, 79; South, 
 
 73, 74, 104; United States of, 
 
 74, 103 
 American salve, 146 
 
 Ammoniac salts for wick mor- 
 dants, 124 
 
 Anacreon, his allusion to wax 
 painting, 23 
 
 Analysis, quantitative and quali- 
 tative, 94 ; to be carried out by 
 experts, 94; Otto Hehner's 
 paper on, 97; Messrs. Bui- 
 sine's work on, 98 
 
 "Analyst, 3 ' Otto Hehner's 
 paper in, 98 
 
 Anatomical dissections, model- 
 ling, 44 
 
 Anatomical specimens, 133 
 
WAX CRAFT. 
 
 Ancestors, miniature figures of, 
 
 34 
 Anglo-Saxons, use of candles 
 
 by, 122 
 Aniline dyes, for colouring wax, 
 
 119; their drawback, 120 
 Animal fats, 94 
 
 Animal origin, wax of, 105-107 
 Animals, images of, 34 
 Anne of Austria, bust by 
 
 Benoist, 22 
 Apis dorsata, 76 
 Apollo, 17 
 Aiistides of Thebes, painting in 
 
 wax by, 23 
 Aioma of beeswax, 52; from 
 
 Madagascar, 7$; from Hayti, 
 
 77 
 
 Arsenic acid, 119 
 Artificial flowers, 18 
 Artistic, uses of wax, 74; skill 
 
 shown in imitating Nature, 132 
 Asbestos, powdered, 131 
 Asser's " Annals," 33 
 Assyrians embalming the dead, 
 
 37 
 
 Australia, 73 ; colour of wax 
 from, 77 ; grease in wax from, 
 
 77 
 
 Austria-Hungary, 73, 74 
 Autographic ink, 138 
 Automatic machine for making 
 
 comb-foundation, 116 
 
 B 
 
 Bacchantes painted in wax, 23 
 Bacchus, festival of, 31 
 
 Bachelier revives art of wax- 
 painting, 24 
 
 Bags for wax-extracting, 60, 65, 
 67, 68 
 
 Balsam, Locatelli's, 147 ; gly- 
 cerine wax, 150 
 
 Baryta sulphate, 89; detecting, 
 
 95 
 
 Beadle's staff-head, description 
 of, 42 
 
 Bee-keeping, importance to far- 
 mer of, 18 ; carried on exten- 
 sively, 43 ; primitive methods 
 of, 54; in Europe, 73; in 
 France, 74 
 
 Beeswax, known in ancient 
 times, 15 ; the production of, 
 45-52; its origin, 45, 46; not 
 ready made in Nature, 46 ; 
 composition of, 50 ; specific 
 gravity of, 50, 56, 90; melting- 
 point of, 50, 56, 90 ; colour of 
 when pure, 50; cerotic acid, 
 myricine, or palmitate of 
 myricyle in, 51 ; ceroleine in, 
 51 ; its solubility, 51 ; in com- 
 merce, 52, 73-77; its fracture, 
 52 ; its aroma, 52 ; its plas- 
 ticity, 52; its tenacity, 52; 
 tasteless when chewed, 52 ; its 
 ductility, 52 ; from skeps, 54 ; 
 its importation from different 
 countries, 73 ; colour of com- 
 mercial, 78; produced by mod- 
 ern methods free from impuri- 
 ties, 78; adulteration of, 43, 
 89-110; adulterants used in, 
 89 ; imitation of genuine, 90 ; 
 combinations resembling, 91 ; 
 paraffin used in, 92 ; ceresin 
 sold as, 93 ; odour of, imitated, 
 
INDEX. 
 
 93; should not be unpleasant 
 when chewed, 95 ; adulterated, 
 detected by burning, 97 ; vege- 
 table wax has some properties 
 of, 98 ; malleability dimin- 
 ished by addition of Japanese 
 wax, 99 ; Carnauba wax hard- 
 ens, 101 ; Sumatra wax raises 
 melting-point of, 102 ; purest 
 only to be used for candles 
 and tapers, 122 
 
 Eenoist, Antoine, his skill as 
 painter and sculptor, 22 ; pa- 
 tent granted him by Louis 
 XIV., 22; his coat of arms, 22; 
 his fame, 22 ; invited to Eng- 
 land, 22 ; model portrait of 
 James II., 22; makes fortune 
 and has imitators, 22 
 
 Benzine, 95 
 
 Benzol, solubility of beeswax in, 
 51 ; of ozokerit in, 107 ; of 
 stearine in, 109 
 
 Berlepsch, 49 
 
 Best wax produced in England, 
 
 73 
 
 Bianchetti, Dr., 58 
 Bible reference to wax, 15 
 Bismuth for wick mordants, 124 
 Bisulphide of carbon, solubility 
 of beeswax in, 51 ; of sperma- 
 ceti in, 106; of paraffin in, 
 no 
 
 Bites from leeches, to stop, 147 
 Black colour, proportions for 
 
 producing, 121 
 Black sealing-wax, 138 
 Blacking, boot, 141 ; Nicolet's, 
 141 ; Hein's, 142 ; leather, 142 
 Bleached wax, adulteration of, 
 89; ceresin resembles, 93 
 
 Bleaching, wax, 51, 78-88; 
 composition altered in, 52 ; dif- 
 ficult in that from South 
 America, 74 ; factories for, 75, 
 79, 80, 87; an independent 
 trade, 79; by means of light, 
 85 ; time required for, 86 
 
 Bleaching capacity of wax from 
 England, 78; Hamburg, 78; 
 Odessa, 78; Portugal, 78; 
 Mogador, 78; Zanzibar, 79; 
 East and West Indies, 79; 
 North America, 79 ; Cuba, 79 ; 
 Danzig, 79; Konigsberg, 79; 
 Gaboon, 79 ; Gambia, 79 ; Bra- 
 zil, 79 
 
 Bleaching capacity, testing, 80; 
 chemicals used, 80 
 
 Bleaching, chemical processes 
 of, 79 ; in open air, 79 ; process 
 hardens wax, 87 ; raises melt- 
 ing-point, 87 ; weight lost in, 
 87 ; adding tallow in, 87 ; im- 
 portance of tallow in, 87 
 
 Bleaching, essence of turpentine 
 used in, 87 
 
 Bleaching factory of Will and 
 Baumer, 87 
 
 Blue colours, 120 
 
 Boards, dipping, 114, 115 
 
 Body, portion of, moulded in 
 wax, 35 
 
 Boghead coal source of paraffin, 
 no 
 
 Boiling water in unheated 
 presses, 69, 71 
 
 Bonnet, M. C., 46 
 
 Boots, waterproofing, 141 ; black- 
 ing for, 141 
 
 Borates for wick mordants, 124 
 
 Borax, use of, in refining, 84 
 
154 
 
 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 Border-wax, engravers', 138 
 Borneo wax, 102 
 Bottle, wax, 138; cement, 139 
 Bottles, air-tight covering for, 
 
 i39 
 
 Boxes, 54 
 Brande on composition of wax, 
 
 50 
 Brazil wax, does not bleach, 74, 
 
 79 ; colour of, 77, 79 
 Brine water for soaking dip- 
 ping boards, 114 
 "British 'Weed'" foundation, 
 
 117; factory, 117 
 Britons, use of candles by, 122 
 Brodie, Sir Benjamin, 51 
 Brood, 55 ; combs, 60 ; founda- 
 tion, 82 
 
 Brosimum galactodendron, 104 
 Buisine, Messrs., 91 ; their de- 
 scription of patent imitation 
 of beeswax, 91 ; their work, 
 " La Cire des Abeilles," 98 
 Burns, salve for, 146 
 
 Cakes, 58, 59, 61, 72, 75, 80, 84, 
 116; size of Spanish, 75; of 
 all colours, 80 ; of equal 
 bleaching capacity to be 
 mixed, 81 ; sophisticated, 90; 
 of Sumatra wax, 101 
 
 Candela, 122 
 
 Candle-making in fifteenth cen- 
 tury, 40; importance of, 40 
 
 Candles, earliest use of, .29; 
 public lighting with, 30; in 
 religious ceremonies, 30 ; used 
 
 in rites of Zoroaster, 30 ; in 
 pagan Rome, 30; in Eleusinian 
 mysteries, 30 ; when first used 
 by early Christians for ritual 
 purposes, 31 ; at festivals of 
 Saturn, Bacchus, and Ceres, 
 31 ; used in daytime by East- 
 ern and Roman Churches, 31 ; 
 not made by regular crafts- 
 men, 33; King Alfred directs 
 how they should be formed, 
 33; burnt before a Madonna or 
 saint, 35 ; for Mass to be of 
 pure wax, 35; use by Greek 
 Orthodox Church, 43 ; use by 
 Roman Catholic Church, 43 ; 
 to be used at Mass compul- 
 sory, 43; ornamental, 43; for 
 Christmas-trees, 43, 125; vege- 
 table wax used for, 101, 102, 
 103, 105 ; insect wax used for, 
 105 ; poisonous colours dan- 
 gerous in making wax, 118; 
 different ways of making, 122 ; 
 building-up by hand, 122, 126; 
 pressing through cylinder, 
 122, 127; pressing in moulds, 
 122, 127; rolling, 126; used in 
 churches, 126; by pouring 
 melted wax on wicks, 126; 
 composition for moulded, 128; 
 adamantine, 143 ; imitation 
 wax, 143; cheap, 128; fluted, 
 128; and tapers, wax, 122-128; 
 wax, 122 ; used in Rome, 122 
 
 Candles coloured with vermil- 
 ion, 118; verdigris, 118 
 
 Canvas, used in presses, 69, 71 ; 
 for straining coloured wax, 
 1 20 
 
 Cape of Good Hope, 102, 105 
 
INDEX. 
 
 155 
 
 Carbon bisulphide, 51, 106, no 
 
 Carbonising, to prevent wick 
 from, 124 
 
 Carnauba wax, 89, 92, 93, 100 ; 
 melting-point of, 91, 100; 
 characteristics of, too ; specific 
 gravity of, 100 ; solubility of, 
 100 ; importance of industry in 
 Brazil, 101 ; provinces that ex- 
 port, 101 ; its use in Brazil, 
 101 ; its use in Europe, 101 
 
 Castleton, elaterite in, 108 
 
 Catacombs, 31 
 
 Catullus, his reference to writ- 
 ing on tablets, 20 
 
 Caucasus, ozokerit in the, 107 
 
 Caylus, Count, revives art of 
 wax-painting, 24 
 
 Cement, 37; Turner's, 138; for 
 joining spar and marble orna- 
 ments, 139; bottle, 139; for 
 electrical machines and gal- 
 vanic troughs, 139; soft, 139; 
 mahogany-coloured, 139; mas- 
 tic, 139 
 
 Cerates, 36 
 
 Ceres, festival of, 31 
 
 Ceresin, 43, 52, 93, 97. 107; 
 melting-point of purified, 91 ; 
 sold as beeswax, 93 ; burnt, 
 produces white smoke, 97; its 
 melting-point, 93; its proper- 
 ties similar to beeswax, 93 
 
 Cereus, 29 
 
 Ceroleine, 51 
 
 Ceromancy, 28 
 
 Cerotic acid in beeswax, 51, 94; 
 bleached wax, 51 ; mixture, 
 92 
 
 Ceroxylon andicola, 103 ; ceri- 
 fera, 103 
 
 Ceylon, candles used in worship 
 in, 3 1 
 
 Chalk, 89; detecting, 95; litho- 
 graphic, 137 
 
 Charms used by magicians, 26 
 
 Chemical composition of wax, 
 89 
 
 Chemical processes of bleaching, 
 79, 87, 88 
 
 Chemicals for testing bleaching 
 capacity, 80 ; washing to re- 
 move, 88 
 
 Chile, good wax from, 74 ; 
 colour of wax from, 77 ; wax- 
 palm in, 100 
 
 China, 73, 89, 105 
 
 China, importation of wax into, 
 75, 76 ; wax from, 89 
 
 Chinese insect wax, 90, 105 ; its 
 melting-point, 90, 105 ; differs 
 from vegetable wax, 99 
 
 Chinese wax, 99 ; its specific 
 gravity and melting-point, 
 100 ; its solubility, too 
 
 Chinese wax-tree, 105 
 
 Chloride of lime, its use, 80 
 
 Chlorine, 80, 87 
 
 Chloroform, 99, 101, 109, no; 
 solubility of beeswax in, 
 51 ; solubility of stearine in, 
 109 
 
 Christians, early, meet in cata- 
 combs, 31 
 
 Christmas-trees, tapers for, 125 ; 
 contain ozokerit, 125 
 
 Chrome-red, 119; -yellow, 119; 
 -green, 119 
 
 Church of Rome, use of medal- 
 lions of Agnus Dei by, 32 
 
 Churches in Russia use wax, 
 75 
 
'56 
 
 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 Cinnabar, ng 
 
 Clarifying wax, 58 
 
 Cleated follower, 70, 71 ; board, 
 
 7 1 
 Coal-tar, paraffin obtained from, 
 
 no 
 
 Coccus chinensis, 105 
 
 Cocoons of wax-moth, 55 ; bees, 
 
 57> 60 
 Cold cream, 148; Oriental, 
 
 148 
 
 Colombia, 103 
 Colophony, 109 
 Colour of wax, destroyed by 
 
 high temperature, 57, 66; 
 
 brown, 59, 60; scales, 48; 
 
 differs, 76; from different 
 
 countries, 77 ; when of little 
 
 importance, 78 ; after refining, 
 
 85 
 
 Coloured powders, 131 
 
 Colouring wax, 118-121; for 
 flowers, 130 
 
 Colours, poisonous, should not 
 be used, 118; enumerated, 
 119; harmless, 119; powdered, 
 130 
 
 Comb-cappings, 55, 57, 63 
 
 Comb-foundation, 52, 82 ; test- 
 ing purity of, 97 ; manufacture 
 of, in; casting, 112; press- 
 ing, 112; temperature of wax 
 for making, 114 
 
 Combinations resembling bees- 
 wax, 91 
 
 Combs, 54, 55, in ; melting, 56; 
 new, 57, 63; pressing, 60; 
 brood, 60 ; soaking, 60 ; old, 
 66 ; when straw should be 
 mingled with, 64 
 
 Commerce, beeswax in, 73-77 
 
 Common oil-varnish, 136 
 Composition for moulded can- 
 dles, 128 
 
 Composition of beeswax, 50 
 Conchoidal fracture of beeswax, 
 
 5 2 
 
 Conde, Prince of, funeral cus- 
 toms during time of, 22 
 
 Constantine orders illumination 
 of Constantinople, 30 
 
 Cooling of wax to be slow, 60, 
 72, 84 
 
 Copernicia cerifera, 100 
 
 Copper, melting in, 60, 61 ; 
 varnish for engraving on, 
 
 '37 
 Copper vessels, 57 ; must be 
 
 tinned, 84 
 Corn-plaster, 145 
 Corns extracted with laser-wort, 
 
 36 
 Corsica, tax on inhabitants, 
 
 39 
 
 Cracked hoofs, horses', 144 
 Cradle, 85 
 Crayon, lithographic, 137 ; for 
 
 drawing on glass, 138 
 Cream, furniture, 131 ; cold, 
 
 148; shaving, 148; of roses, 
 
 149 
 Cream of tartar, use of, in 
 
 France, 85 
 Creme celeste, 149 
 Cosmetique, 150 
 Cotton-rovings, 123 
 Coughs, remedy for, 145 
 Cow-tree wax, 104 
 Cuba wax, its bleaching 
 
 capacity, 79 
 Cutters for making flowers, 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Daedalus, 16 ; his inventions, 16 ; 
 his flight from Athens, 16 
 
 Danzig wax, its bleaching cap- 
 acity, 79 
 
 Death, masks taken after, 21 
 
 Derbyshire, elaterite in, 108 
 
 Diarrhoea, remedy for, 147 
 
 Dioscorides, physician and bota- 
 nist, 1 8 
 
 Dipping boards, 114; to be 
 soaked in brine water, 114 
 
 Dipping tank, 114 
 
 Diptycha, tablets with two 
 leaves, 19 
 
 Discs of bleached wax, 87 
 
 Divination by dropping wax, 28 
 
 Division racks, 65 
 
 Dolls, wax figures used as, 21 
 
 Downer's salve, 146 
 
 Dragon's blood, 119 
 
 Draw-plate, 125 
 
 Drums for drawing tapers, 125 
 
 Dubbing, wax, 141 
 
 Ductility of wax, 52 
 
 Duff, Scottish king, intended 
 death of, 28 
 
 Dumas, 49 
 
 Dummler, M., 112 
 
 Earth, wax, 94; colours, 119 
 East Indies, 73; colour of wax 
 
 from, 77 ; wax from, bleaches 
 
 rapidly, 79 
 
 Eastern Church uses candles, 31 
 Egypt, 75 
 Egyptian magicians, wax figures 
 
 used by, 26 
 
 Egyptians, figures used by, 21 ; 
 
 embalming the dead, 37 
 Ekaterinoslav, number of hives 
 
 in > 75 
 
 Elaterite, 108 
 
 Electrical machines, cement for, 
 139; amalgam for, 143 
 
 Eleusinian mysteries, 30 
 
 Embalming the dead, 37 
 
 Encaustic painting, 24 
 
 "Encyclopaedia of Antiquities," 
 Fosbrook's, 33 
 
 England, produces best wax, 
 73 ; bleaching property of wax 
 in, 78; ozokerit in, 107 
 
 Engravers' border-wax, 138 
 
 Engraving on glass, varnish 
 for, 137 
 
 Engravings, varnish for, 136 
 
 Enormous demand, how sup- 
 plied, 38 
 
 Etching varnish, 136; for ivory, 
 137; for copper, 137 
 
 Ether, 95, 99, 100, 101, 109, no; 
 solubility of beeswax in, 51 
 
 Europe, use of Japanese wax in, 
 99; Carnauba wax, 101 
 
 Evangelical Church does away 
 with tapers at Reformation, 33 
 
 Expectoration, remedy for, 145 
 
 Extracting, in oven, 59 ; proper 
 temperature for, 59 ; unsuit- 
 able for old combs, 59 
 
 Extracting, with hot water, 59 ; 
 by steam, 63.; where to be 
 done, 70 
 
 Extractor, solar wax, 57; for 
 disintegrating brood-combs, 
 61, 62 ; French, 62 ; Gerster's, 
 
 63 
 Eye-salves, 36 
 
WAX CRAFT. 
 
 Factories, for wax bleaching, 
 75, So, 84; should be in coun- 
 try places, 79 ; using steam, 
 81 ; of Messrs. Will and Bau- 
 mer, 87 
 
 Farm harness preservative, 142 
 
 Fat, 92; animal, 94; how de- 
 tected, 97 
 
 Fatty acid, 56, 91, 92 
 
 Festival, Adonis, 34 
 
 Festivals of Saturn, Bacchus, 
 and Ceres, use of candles and 
 wreaths at, 31 
 
 Fez, torches used on Mahomet's 
 birthday in city of, 32 
 
 Figures, of deities used by 
 Egyptians, 21 ; used as dolls 
 by Greek children, 21 ; minia- 
 ture, used by Egyptian magi- 
 cians, 26 ; miniature, of ances- 
 tors, 34; in use in Roman 
 Catholic Church, 34; numer- 
 ous in Italy, 35 ; moulding 
 wax, 129, 132; large, how 
 made, 133; adding stearine or 
 resiri^ in making, 133 
 
 Filters, steam, 81 ; canvas, 84 
 
 Flaxman, his portraits and 
 figures, 23 
 
 Floor polish, 135 
 
 Flores, island of, 75 
 
 Flowers, wax, 129; used by 
 museums, 129; only pure bees- 
 wax to be used for, 129 
 
 Follower, 70 ; caution regard- 
 ing, 70; to be cleated, 70, 71 
 
 Foundation, brood, 82; super, 
 82; rolls, 113; pressing, 113; 
 rolling, 113; proper tempera- 
 
 ture of wax for making, 114; 
 
 room, temperature of, 115 
 Fracture of beeswax, 52 
 France, 73, 108; bee-keeping in, 
 
 74; quality of wax in, 74; no 
 
 wax exported from, 74, 75 ; 
 
 wax imported into, 75 ; colour 
 
 of wax from, 77 ; use of cream 
 
 of tartar and alum in, 85 
 Fraud resorted to, 90 
 Fraxinus chinensis, 105 
 French extractor, 62 
 French polish, 134 
 Frettar, John de, his rent, 39 
 Fruit, vegetable wax found in, 
 
 98; of Rhus succedanea, 98; 
 
 of Rhus vernicifera, 99 
 Fruits and flowers, made in 
 
 Rome and Alexandria, 34; 
 
 moulding, 129; wax, 129, 132 
 Funeral, processions, 20; masks 
 
 used in, 21 ; lights used in, 
 
 31 ; ceremonies of princes, 22 ; 
 
 during time of Philip of 
 
 Valois and of Prince de 
 
 Conde, 22 
 Furniture, pastes, 134; cream, 
 
 '355 oil, 135; varnish, 135; 
 
 polish, 135; white, varnish, 
 
 136 
 Fustic, 119 
 
 Gaboon, bleaching capacity of 
 
 wax from, 79 
 Galleria cerella, 55 
 Galvanic troughs, cement for, 
 
 139 
 Gambia, wax bad, 74; colour of 
 
INDEX. 
 
 159 
 
 wax from, 77 ; bleaching 
 capacity of wax from, 79 
 
 Gamboge, 93 
 
 German steam press, 67 ; method 
 of working, 67 
 
 Germans, modelling in wax by, 
 21 
 
 Germany, 73 ; produces much- 
 prized wax, 74 ; manufactured 
 articles only exported from, 
 
 74 
 
 Gerster, Professor, his extrac- 
 tor, 63 
 
 Gilder's wax, 138 
 
 Glamorganshire, hatchettine in, 
 108 
 
 Glass, varnish for engraving on, 
 137; crayon for drawing on, 
 
 138 
 Gold and Ivory Coasts, ships 
 
 trading to, 76 
 Grafting wax, 134 
 Gramophone records, 101 
 Grease in wax from Australia, 
 
 77 
 
 Grecian magicians, 26 
 
 Greece, 74 
 
 Greek Orthodox Church, 43 
 
 Greeks, understood wax bleach- 
 ing, 17; wax figures used as 
 dolls by, 21 ; recognised medi- 
 cinal value, 35 
 
 Green, mountain salve, 146; 
 ointment, 147 ; colour, how 
 produced, 119; proportions 
 for, 120 
 
 Grevin Museum, 23 
 
 Guadeloupe wax difficult to 
 bleach, 76 
 
 Gypsum, 89; detecting in wax, 
 
 95 
 
 H 
 
 Hamburg, wax from, 78 ; bleach- 
 ing houses in, 79 
 
 Hardened steel, to drill, 144 
 
 Harness, paste, waterproof, 
 141 ; polish for, 141 ; pre- 
 servative of farm, 142 
 
 Hatchettine or hatchettite, 108 
 
 " Hatch-Gemmil " press, 69 
 
 Hayti, wax hard, 76 ; colour of 
 wax from, 76, 77 
 
 Heat combined with pressure, 
 64 
 
 Heated, presses, 64 ; room, 70 
 
 Heather pollen white, 50 
 
 Heel-ball, shoemakers', 142 ; 
 superfine, 142 
 
 Hehner, Otto, his analysis, 51 ; 
 his grouping of organic sub- 
 stances, 91 ; on mixing to de- 
 ceive chemist, 92; his paper 
 on "The Analysis of Bees- 
 wax," 97 
 
 Hein's blacking, 142 
 
 Heliogabalus, his banquet, 34 
 
 Herculaneum and Pompeii, en- 
 caustic painting in, 25 
 
 Herodotus on embalming, 37 
 
 Historical, 15-44 
 
 Hives, number in Ekaterino- 
 slav, 75 
 
 Holloway's ointment, 145 
 
 Homer, 19 
 
 Honey, 37, 43, 47, 49, 53, 54, 
 55, 60; amount consumed for 
 producing wax, 50; in Paris, 
 75; used by peasants in 
 Russia, 75 
 
 Honey-comb, 15 
 
 Hoofs, horses' cracked, 144 
 
i6o 
 
 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 Hornbostel, Hermann C., 46 
 Horse ointment, 145 
 Horses' cracked hoofs, 144 
 Hot water, extracting with, 59; 
 
 press, 65 
 Huber, F., 47; his experiments 
 
 in producing wax, 49 
 Hunter, John, 47 
 
 Icarus, 16; his flight and fall, 
 16 
 
 Idrialine or idrialite, 108 
 
 Images, of wax, 35 ; of animals, 
 34 ; used in sorcery, 25 
 
 Imitation wax candles, 143 
 
 Imperishable varnish, 136 
 
 Importation of wax, from 
 different countries, 74-77 j 
 into France, 74 
 
 Imported wax contains impuri- 
 ties, 78 
 
 Impurities in imported wax, 78 ; 
 must be got rid of, 78 
 
 India, Apis dorsata in, 76 
 
 Indian Archipelago, 75 
 
 Indies, East, 73, 79 ; West, 73, 
 
 79 
 
 Indigo, 119 
 
 Industrial products, 109 
 Ink, lithographic, 137 ; transfer, 
 
 138; autographic, 138 
 Inscriptions, writing on metals, 
 
 144 
 
 Insect wax, Chinese, 90 
 Insects, wax from, 52 
 Insolubility of beeswax in 
 
 water or cold alcohol, 51 
 
 Iron, oxide of, imparts red tint, 
 84; to prevent from rusting, 
 144 
 
 Iron vessels, 57; to be 
 enamelled, 84 
 
 Italians, moulding in wax by, 
 
 21 
 
 Italy, 73; early bronzes in, 23; 
 large amount of wax used in, 
 
 75 
 
 Ivory, varnish for engraving 
 on, 137 
 
 Jacob, Peter, 112 
 
 Jamaica wax, esteemed, 76; 
 colour of, 77 
 
 James II., portrait modelled by 
 Benoist, 22 
 
 Japan wax, 89, 91, 92, 98, 
 100 ; melting-point of, 91; if 
 added to beeswax makes it 
 brittle, 93 ; important article 
 of export, 98 ; whence 
 obtained, 98 ; its clean frac- 
 ture, 99; its solubility, 99; 
 its use by natives, 99; its use 
 in Europe, 99 
 
 John, Martin, 46 
 
 "Journal de pharmacie et de 
 chimie," 91 
 
 K 
 
 Kaolin, 89; detecting, 95 
 Konigsberg, bleaching capacity 
 of wax from, 79 
 
INDEX. 
 
 161 
 
 Larnpridius, 34 
 
 Laser-wort, 36 
 
 Lead, white, 95 
 
 Leather, waterproofing, 140; 
 blacking, 142 
 
 Leaves, vegetable wax found 
 on, 98; wax sheets for mak- 
 ing, 130; veining of, 131; for 
 building up plant, 132 
 
 Lee, James, and Son, their 
 foundation factory, 117 
 
 Leech-bites, to stop, 147 
 
 Lewy, 51 
 
 Liege, 108 
 
 Light, bleaching by means of, 
 
 85 
 Lighting, public, with candles. 
 
 3 
 
 Lime in water, 56 
 
 Linen, sizing for, 143 
 
 Lip-salve, white, 146 ; red, 146 
 
 Lithographers, autographic ink 
 for, 138 
 
 Lithographic, crayon, 137 ; 
 chalk, 137 ; ink, 137 ; transfer 
 ink, 138 
 
 Liverpool, places whence sup- 
 plies come to, 77 
 
 Locatelli's balsam, 147 
 
 London, places whence supplies 
 come to, 77; Japanese wax in, 
 98 
 
 Louis XIV., 22; grants patent 
 to Benoist, 22 
 
 Love-letters written on tablets, 
 20 
 
 Lubricating, presser, 113; dip- 
 ping boards, 114; rolls, 115; 
 
 moulds for candles, 128; 
 plaster-of-Paris moulds, 132 
 Lysistratus of Sicyon, 21 
 
 M 
 
 Madagascar, 75 ; colour of wax 
 
 from, 77 
 Madder, 119 
 Madonna, candles burnt before 
 
 a > 35 
 
 Magic in the West, 28 
 
 Magicians, Grecian, 26; Egyp- 
 tian, 26 
 
 Mahogany-coloured cement, 139 
 
 Mahomet's birthday, 32 
 
 Malicious influence of statue, 
 27 
 
 Manufacture of, comb-founda- 
 tion, 111-117; wax flowers, 
 fruits, and figures, 129-133 
 
 Manure, refuse used as, 84 
 
 Maps, varnish for, 136 
 
 Maraldi, 45 
 
 Marble, polishing, 37 ; remov- 
 ing stains from, 140 
 
 Marble ornaments, cement for 
 joining, 139 
 
 Marel, John, 39 
 
 Masks, taken after death, 21 ; 
 Lysistratus first to mould, 21 
 
 Mastic, varnish, 136; cement, 
 
 i39 
 Materials for wicks, 123 ; should 
 
 be free from knots, 124 
 Mauritius, 77 ; colour of wax 
 
 from, 77 
 Medallions of Agnus Dei, used 
 
 in Church of Rome, 32 ; 
 
 blessed by Pope, 32 
 
 L 
 
162 
 
 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 Medical purposes, wax for, 35, 
 
 74 
 
 Mehring, J., 112; his wooden 
 plate, 112 
 
 Melting, in tinned copper, 83 ; 
 for colouring, 120; water-bath 
 for wax, 128; to be done at 
 low temperature, 81 
 
 Melting combs, 56, 78 ; by sun's 
 rays, 56 ; by boiling water, 
 56 ; by steam, 56 ; rain or river 
 water only suitable for, 56 ; 
 vinegar used in, 56 
 
 Melting-point, of beeswax, 50, 
 90 ; of bleached wax, 90 ; of 
 different adulterants, 90; not 
 always reliable as test of 
 purity, 90; of Chinese insect 
 wax, 90; of vegetable waxes 
 variable, 91, 100; testing, 93; 
 high, 94; Dr de Planta on, 
 94; of Japanese wax, 99; of 
 Carnauba wax, 100; oi 
 Sumatra wax, 101 ; of myrtle- 
 berry wax, 102; of Borneo 
 wax, 102 ; of palm-tree wax, 
 103; of Otoba wax, 103; of 
 cow-tree wax, 104 ; of Chinese 
 insect wax, 105; of sperma- 
 ceti, 106; of tallow, 106, 109; 
 of ozokerit, 107 ; of resin, 109 ; 
 of paraffin, no 
 
 Mercurial vapours, 118 
 
 Mercury, 119 
 
 Metals, writing inscriptions on, 
 144 
 
 Mezerai, reference to malicious 
 incantation of Charles of 
 Valois, 27 
 
 Milk tree, 104 
 
 Mille-fleurs pomatum, 149 
 
 Milne-Edwards, 49 
 
 Mineral powders, 89 
 
 Mineral resin, 109 
 
 Mineral wax, 107-110, 123, 129; 
 ozokerit, 107 ; zietrisikite, 108 ; 
 not suited for making flowers, 
 129 
 
 Minerals, wax from, 43, 52, 79, 
 129 
 
 Miniature figures of ancestors, 
 34 
 
 Minium, painting with, 24 
 
 Modelling, in earlier centuries, 
 21 ; Emperor Valentinian 
 accomplished in the art of, 
 21 ; by Italians, Germans, 
 and Spanish artists, 21 ; ana- 
 tomical dissections, 44; wax, 
 i34 
 
 Models, wax, 132 
 
 Modern bee-keeping yields less 
 wax, 54 
 
 Mogador, 75 ; bleaching proper- 
 ties of wax from, 78 
 
 Moldavia, 108 
 
 Mombassa, 77; colour of wax 
 from, 77 
 
 Montrelais, elaterite in, 108 
 
 Moravia, 108 
 
 Mordants, wick, 124; recipes, 
 for, 124 
 
 Morocco, 75 
 
 Moth, wax, 55 
 
 Moulds, 85 ; for bleached wax, 
 87; for making candles, 122, 
 128; for flowers, 129; for 
 leaves and petals, 131 ; plaster 
 of Paris, 132; how prepared, 
 132; metal, 132; for large 
 figures, 133 
 
 Movable-comb hives, 54, m 
 
INDEX. 
 
 163 
 
 Museums, use of wax flowers in, 
 
 129 
 Myrica, angustifolia, latifolia, 
 
 and cerifera, 46; cerifera, 
 
 102 ; caroliensis, 102 ; caracas- 
 
 sana, 102 ; lacinata, 102 ; cor- 
 
 difolia, 102 ; quercifolia, 102 ; 
 
 serrata, 105 ; Xalapensis, 105 ; 
 
 Fay a, 105 
 Myricine, in beeswax, 51 ; in 
 
 mixture, 92 
 Myristica, Otoba, 103 ; officin- 
 
 alis, 103 ; sebifera, 103 ; bi- 
 
 cuiba, 104 
 Myrtle-berry wax, 102 ; its use 
 
 by Hottentots, 103 
 Myrtle wax, melting point, 91 
 Mythology, dark ages of, 16 
 
 N 
 
 Nails in wax, 90 
 
 Naphtha, 100, no 
 
 Nets used in bleaching, 86 
 
 "New Process" foundation, 116 
 
 New World, 73; a formidable 
 
 competitor, 73 
 New York, wax shipped from, 
 
 74 
 
 Niger wax, 76; colour of, 77 
 Normansell Cup, description of, 
 
 4i 
 North America, 73; wax from, 
 
 bleaches rapidly, 79 
 
 Occult mystery connected with 
 use of wax candles, 30 
 
 Ochre, 89, 119; detecting, 95 
 
 Odessa, wax from, 78 
 
 Odour of beeswax imitated, 93 
 
 Offerings, votive, 34; in Roman 
 Catholic Church, 34 
 
 Oil, of turpentine, no; furni- 
 ture, 135 
 
 Ointment, horse, 145 ; Hollo- 
 way's, 145; pile, 145; sper- 
 maceti, 145; green, 147 
 
 Old combs, 66; may be pressed 
 many times, 66 
 
 Old methods, 59 
 
 Oleine, 106 
 
 Olive oil, solubility of paraffin 
 in, no 
 
 Orange, colour, how produced, 
 119; pomatum, 149 
 
 Orient, wax imported from the, 
 73 
 
 Oriental cold cream, 148 
 
 Otoba, wax, 103 ; erroneously 
 called Ocuba, 104 
 
 Oven, extracting in, 59 
 
 Ovid, his reference to malicious 
 influence of statue made of 
 wax, 27 
 
 Ox-marrow, 149 
 
 Ozokerit, 89, 107, 125; purified 
 ceresin, 93 ; amount of, added 
 to beeswax, 107 
 
 Packing-paper, waterproof, 140 
 Painters and sculptors, use of 
 
 wax by, 20 
 
 Painting in wax, 23 ; mention by 
 Anacreon, 23; original inven- 
 tor of, 23; by Aristides of 
 
 L2 
 
164 
 
 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 Thebes, 23 ; by Praxiteles, 23 ; 
 decline of, 23 ; recovery of art 
 in France, 24; with minium, 
 
 24 
 
 Palmitate of myricyle in bees- 
 wax, 51 
 
 Palmitic acid, 91 
 
 Palmitine, 91, 106 ; in Japanese 
 wax, 99 
 
 Palms, in Brazil, 98; in Peru, 
 100 
 
 Palm-tree wax, 103 
 
 Palm wax, melting-point of, 91 
 
 Palo de Leche, 104 
 
 Pan, 16 
 
 Paper, waxed, 140 
 
 Paraffin, 52, 89, 91, 92, 94, no; 
 melting-point of, 91 ; to de- 
 tect, 97 
 
 Paris, firms dealing in wax, 75 
 
 Paschal candle, ceremony of the, 
 20 ; distribution of the, 32 
 
 Paste, furniture, 134 ; razor, 
 138; waterproof harness, 141; 
 shaving, 148 
 
 Pausanias, 16 
 
 Penteptycha, tablets with five 
 leaves, 20 
 
 Persians, embalming the dead, 
 
 37 
 
 Peru, wax palm in, 100, 103 
 Petals, wax sheets for, 130 
 Petroleum, no 
 
 Phoenicians, understood wax- 
 bleaching, 17 
 Phonograph records, 101 
 Physeter macrocephalus, 106 
 Physical properties, of wax, 89; 
 when not altered, 92; of 
 adulterants, 98; 
 Pile ointment, 145 
 
 Pilgrimage, places of, 35 
 Pills, 36, 37; to improve voice, 
 
 *47 
 
 Pinarius, Praetor, 39 
 Pinus, excelsa, 109; maritima, 
 
 109 
 
 Places, whence come supplies of 
 wax to London, 77 ; Liver- 
 pool, 77 
 
 Plaited wicks, 123 
 Planta, Dr. de, on saliva in 
 wax, 49; on colour in wax, 
 50 ; on difficulty of detecting 
 adulteration, 94 
 Plants, secreting wax, 45; wax 
 
 from, 43, 52 
 Plasters, 36; corn, 145 
 Plasticity of beeswax, 52 
 Plato, relative to poisoning and 
 
 sorcery, 27 
 
 Pliny, his reference to prepara- 
 tion and bleaching wax, 17 ; 
 on writing tablets, 19; on 
 portraits modelled in wax, 20 ; 
 refers to Lysistratus, 21 ; on 
 painting in wax, 23 ; on paint- 
 ing with minium, 24; on 
 encaustic painting, 24; refers 
 to wax used for medical pur- 
 poses, 36; his mention of 
 candles, 122 
 
 Polish, French, 134; furniture, 
 135 ; for turners' work, 135 ; 
 floor, 135 ; for harness, 141 ; 
 wax shoe, 142 -, starch, 143 
 Polishing walls and marble, 37 
 Pollen, 49, 54, 55 ; colour in wax 
 due to, 50; heather, 50; sain- 
 foin, 50 
 
 Polyptycha, tablets with more 
 than five leaves, 20 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Pomade, de la jeunesse, 148; 
 d'orange, 149; divine, 149 
 
 Pomatum, 148 ; plain hard, 148 ; 
 soft, 148; plain soft, 148; 
 orange, 149 ; mille-fleurs, 149 ; 
 soft marechal, 149 
 
 Pompeii, Herculaneum and, en- 
 caustic painting in, 25 
 
 Portrait medallions, 21 
 
 Portraits by Flaxman, 23 
 
 Portugal, wax from, 78 
 
 Poultices, 36 
 
 Powders, coloured, 131 ; asbes- 
 tos, 131 
 
 Practical recipes, 134-150 
 
 Praxiteles, painting in wax by, 
 
 23 
 
 Preservative, farm harness, 142 
 
 Press, foundation, 113; lubri- 
 cating, 113 
 
 Presses, 57, 64 ; combined with 
 heat, 64 ; hot water, 65 ; steam, 
 66; unheated, 68; expedition 
 necessary with unheated, 69; 
 " Hatch-Gemmil," 69; "Rock- 
 wood," 69 ; Root's, 69-72 ; boil- 
 ing water to be put in, 69, 71 
 
 Pressing combs, 59, 64; between 
 boards, 60 
 
 Pressure, intermittent, 66 
 
 Primitive methods of rendering 
 wax, 53, 54, 78 
 
 Princes, funeral ceremonies of, 
 
 22 
 
 Prints, varnish for, 136 
 Producing wax, countries, 73 
 Production of beeswax, 45-52 ; 
 
 formerly very large, 54 
 Profiles of wax, 20 
 Punic wax, 17; best for medi- 
 cinal preparations, 18 
 
 Purchas, refers to Mahomet's 
 
 birthday, 32 
 Puy, Bishop of, 39 
 
 Qualitative and quantitative 
 
 analysis, 94 
 Quercitrin, 119 
 
 Racks, division, 65 
 
 Rain-water, 56, 61 
 
 Rameses III., papyrus of time 
 
 of, refers to waxen figures, 
 
 26; sacrificial funds, 31 
 Razor paste, 138 
 Reaumur, 45, 47 
 Recipes, practical, 134 
 Records, gramophone, 101 ; 
 
 phonograph, 101 
 Red colours, proportions for 
 
 producing, 120 
 Refining, 79, 81 ; quantity of 
 
 sulphuric acid used in, 82 ; 
 
 process expedited by use of 
 
 tartar and borax, 84; and 
 
 bleaching, 78-88 
 Reformation severely affects 
 
 wax trade, 33, 43 
 Refuse from refining used as 
 
 manure, 84 
 Religious ceremonies in France, 
 
 39 
 
i66 
 
 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 Remedy for, diarrhoea, 147 ; 
 coughs, expectoration, &c., 
 
 '45 
 
 Removing stains from marble, 
 140 
 
 Rendering wax, 53-72; primi- 
 tive methods of, 53 ; by boiling 
 in bags, 54; by heat, 57; by 
 water and heat, 57 ; by presses 
 and hot water, 57 
 
 Resin or rosin, 89, 91, 109 
 
 Rhus succedanea, 98; where 
 found, 99; melting-point of 
 wax from, 99 ; specific gravity 
 of, 99 
 
 Rhus vernicifera, 99 
 
 Ribbons, 86 
 
 " Rietsche " comb-foundation 
 press, 113; wasteful, 113 
 
 River water, 56 
 
 " Rockwood " unheated press, 
 69 
 
 Rollers, to impress cells, in ; 
 Root's metal, 112, 113, 116 
 
 Rolling, foundation, 113, 115; 
 candles, 126, 127 
 
 Rolls, foundation, 112; lubri- 
 cating, 115; of tapers, 125 
 
 Roman Church, use of candles 
 in daytime by, 31 
 
 Romans, understood wax-bleach- 
 ing, 17; used figures in 
 sorcery, 27 ; recognised value 
 for medical purposes, 35 ; 
 their first use of seals, 37 
 
 Rome, candles used in pagan, 
 30 ; fruits and flowers made 
 in, 34 
 
 Root Co., The A. I., their ex- 
 perience with presses, 66; 
 their German steam press, 67 ; 
 
 their unheated press, 69-72 ; 
 their use of sulphuric acid in 
 refining, 82; their "A B C" 
 book, 82 ; their metal rollers, 
 112; makers of "Weed" 
 foundation machinery, 117 
 Ropes preserved from rotting, 
 
 37 
 
 Roses, cream of, 149 
 
 Roumania, ozokerit in, 107 
 
 Rush used for candle, 29; 
 Pliny's mention of, 122 
 
 Rushlight holder, 29 
 
 Russia, 73; peasants use honey 
 instead of sugar in, 75; 
 churches in, use wax, 75 ; tal- 
 low from, 106 
 
 Russian salve, 146 
 
 Rye-straw, 64 
 
 Saffron, 119 
 
 Sainfoin pollen, orange - 
 coloured, 50 
 
 Saint, candles burnt before 
 figure of a, 35 
 
 Saliva, 49 
 
 Salt, common, use of, 62 ; water 
 in foundation-making, 115 
 
 Salve for wounds, 145 ; for 
 burns, 146 ; for skin diseases, 
 146; white lip, 146; red lip, 
 146 ; Russian, 146 ; Downer's, 
 146 ; American, 146 ; Green 
 Mountain, 146 
 
 Sandarach, gum, 131 
 
 Saponifiable compounds, 91 
 
 Saturn, festival of, 31 
 
 Schober, M., first engraver of 
 
INDEX. 
 
 167 
 
 metal comb-foundation plates, 
 
 112 
 
 Schulz, Otto, 112 
 
 Scriptural reference to honey 
 
 and wax, 15 
 Sealing, tablets with wax, 19 ; 
 
 urns, 37 
 Sealing-wax, black, 139; soft, 
 
 138 
 Seals, of wax first used by 
 
 Romans, 37; ingredients vary 
 
 in > 37 
 
 Seeds, vegetable wax found in, 
 98 
 
 Senegal wax dark and un- 
 pleasant, 74, 77 
 
 Separating wax from im- 
 purities, 56 
 
 Sewing-wax, 134 
 
 Shakespeare alludes to use of 
 wax, 38 
 
 Shaving paste, 148 
 
 Sheets, wax, 113, 114, 115, 130; 
 skill required in preparing, 
 114, 130, 131; rolling, 115 
 
 Shoemakers' heel-ball, 142 
 
 Shoes, waterproofing, 141 ; 
 polish for, 142 
 
 Sienna, burnt, 119; raw, 119 
 
 Sierra Leone, ships trading to 
 districts of, 76 
 
 Simple tests, 95 
 
 Sizing for linen, 143 
 
 Skeps, 54, 55 
 
 Skill of adulterators, 90 
 
 Skin diseases, salve for, 146 
 
 Soaking combs, 60, 65 
 
 Soap-lather, for lubricating 
 rolls, 115 
 
 Soft, pomatum, 148; plain, 148; 
 marechal, 149 
 
 Soft, sealing-wax, 138; cement, 
 
 i39 
 
 Solar wax-extractor, 57, 58 ; 
 temperature at which wax 
 melts in, 58 
 
 Solubility in various liquids of, 
 Japanese wax, 99; Chinese 
 wax, 100 ; Carnauba wax, 100 ; 
 Sumatra wax, 101 ; Borneo 
 wax, 102 ; myrtle-berry wax, 
 102 ; Otoba wax, 104 ; sper- 
 maceti, 106 ; ozokerit, 107 ; 
 hatchettine, 108 ; idrialine, 
 108; tallow, 109; paraffin, no 
 
 Solubility of beeswax in, ether, 
 51 ; chloroform, 51 ; benzol, 
 51 ; bisulphide of carbon, 51 ; 
 turpentine, 51 
 
 Solubility, partial, of beeswax 
 in boiling alcohol, 51 
 
 Sophora, 102 
 
 Sorceress burnt alive, 28 
 
 Sorcery, witchcraft and, 25 ; 
 Plato refers to poisoning and, 
 27 
 
 South America, 73; wax from, 
 difficult to bleach, 74 
 
 Spain, 73 ; quality of wax from, 
 75 ; size of cakes from, 75 
 
 Spanish artists, modelling in 
 wax by, 21 
 
 Spar ornaments, cement for 
 joining, 139 
 
 Specific gravity of, beeswax, 50, 
 56, 90 ; of adulterants, 90 ; not 
 always reliable, 90 ; Carnauba 
 wax, 100; myrtle-berry wax, 
 102 ; Otoba wax, 104 ; sperma- 
 ceti, 106 ; tallow, 106, 109 ; 
 ozokerit, 107 ; resin, 109 ; 
 paraffin, no; Japanese wax, 
 
i68 
 
 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 99; Chinese wax, 100; vege 
 
 table waxes, 91 
 
 Specific gravity, to test, 95 
 
 Spermaceti, 92, 105 ; idrialit 
 
 resembles, 108 ; ointment, 145 
 
 Spirits of turpentine, 95, 102 
 
 109 
 Stains from marble, removing 
 
 140 
 Stamens and stigmas, how 
 
 made, 132 
 Starch, 89 ; powdered, 131 ; 
 
 polish, 143 
 Starch for lubricating, founda- 
 tion press, 113; rolls, 115 
 Statues, varnish to preserve, 
 
 140 
 Steam apparatus for bleaching, 
 
 81 ; even temperature of, 81 
 Steam, extracting by, 63; only 
 suited for new combs or cap- 
 pings, 63 
 
 Steam press, 66 ; German, 67 
 Stearic acid, 91, 109, 128 
 Stearine, 43, 89, 91, 93, 106, 109 ; 
 added to beeswax makes it 
 brittle, 93 
 
 Steel, to drill hardened, 144 
 Stillingia sebifera, 105 
 Stopping, tooth, 145 
 Strabo, on embalming, 37 
 Strainer, wire-gauze, 59 
 Straw to be mingled with 
 
 combs, 64 
 
 Strips for bleaching, 85 
 Sugar, introduction of, 43; 
 honey used in place of, 75; 
 syrup, 49 ; moist, 49 
 Sulphate of baryta, 89 
 Sulphur fumes, 56 
 Sulphuric acid, 56, 81, 93, 97; 
 
 use by the Root Co., 82; 
 quantity of, used in refining, 
 81, 82, 83 
 
 Sumatra wax, 101 ; melting- 
 point, 101 
 
 Sun-god, candles used in wor- 
 ship of, 30 
 
 Superfine heel-ball, 142 
 
 Super-foundation, 82 
 
 Swammerdam, 45 
 
 Swiss steam press, 68; method 
 of working, 68; objection to, 
 68 
 
 Switzerland, 74; P. Jacob in, 
 112 
 
 Sylvic acid, 91 
 
 Table varnish, 136 
 
 Tablets, writing, 18; their 
 
 appellation when consisting 
 
 of two or more leaves, 19, 20; 
 
 Catullus on, 20 
 Tallow, 87, 89, 92, 106, 123; 
 
 melting-point of, 91, 106; 
 
 added to wax makes it softer, 
 
 93; mutton, 109 
 Tapers, 33, 122, 124 ; not used in 
 
 Evangelical Church, 33 ; thin, 
 
 44; used in Russian Church, 
 
 75; machine for making. 125; 
 
 short, 125 
 
 Tartar, use of in refining, 84 
 Taxes, paid in wax, 38; in 
 
 Middle Ages, 39 
 Technical uses of wax, 74, 134- 
 
INDEX. 
 
 169 
 
 Temperature, high, destroys 
 colour and aroma, 57 ; at 
 which wax melts in solar 
 extractor, 58; melting at low, 
 8 1 ; at which wax should be 
 kept when refining, 84; of 
 foundation-room, 115 
 
 Tenacity of beeswax, 52 
 
 Testing, commercial wax, 80; 
 melting-point, 93 ; specific 
 gravity, 95; with litmus- 
 paper, 96 
 
 Tests, simple, 95-97 
 
 Texas, ozokerit in, 107 
 
 Thorley, 46 
 
 Timor, island of, 75 
 
 Timor-Laut, island of, 75 
 
 Tooth-stopping, 145 
 
 Transfer ink, lithographic, 138 
 
 Transylvania, ozokerit in, 107 
 
 Trebizond, tribute paid by in- 
 habitants of, 39 
 
 Tribute paid to Romans, 39 
 
 Triptycha, tablets with three 
 leaves, 20 
 
 Turkey, 73; Asiatic, 73, 74; 
 colour of wax from, 74, 77; 
 cotton rovings from, 123 
 
 Turks, use of magic by, 29 
 
 Turmeric, 93, 119 
 
 Turner's, cement, 138; work, 
 polish for, 135 
 
 Turpentine, solubility of bees- 
 wax in, 51 ; used in bleaching, 
 87; spirits of, 95, 96, 102, 125 ; 
 Venice, 129 
 
 Tussaud's, Madame, 23 
 
 Twisted wicks, 123, 124 
 
 u 
 
 Umber, 119 
 
 Unheated press, 69; " Hatch - 
 Gemmil," 69; to be filled with 
 hot water before use, 69; 
 "Rockwood," 69; Root's, 
 69-72 ; how best results ob- 
 tained with, 70; quality of 
 wax from, 72 
 
 United States of America, 74; 
 colour of wax from, 77 
 
 V 
 
 Valentinian, Emperor, his skill 
 in modelling, 21 
 
 Valois, Charles of, incantation 
 of, 27 
 
 Valois, Philip of, funeral cus- 
 toms during time of, 22 
 
 Varnish, 135; furniture, 135; 
 table, 135; white furniture, 
 136; for prints, engravings, 
 and maps, 136; mastic, 136; 
 common oil, 136; imperish- 
 able, 136; etching, 136; for 
 etching on ivory, 137; for 
 etching on copper, 137 ; for 
 engraving on glass, 137; to 
 preserve statues, 140 
 
 Vegetable wax, 79, 98, 99, 123, 
 129; specific gravity of, 91; 
 found in seeds, fruit, or 
 leaves, 98 ; has not the plas- 
 ticity of beeswax, 129 
 
 Venezuela, cow-tree in, 104 
 
 Venice turpentine, 129 
 
 Ventral plates on abdomen of 
 bee, 46, 47 
 
170 
 
 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 Verdigris, from copper in- 
 jurious, 84; produces arsenic 
 acid vapours when burnt, 119 
 
 Vermilion, candles coloured 
 with, 118 
 
 Vessels, copper preferable, 57; 
 iron, 57 
 
 Vinegar, 56 
 
 Violet colour, how produced, 
 119; proportions for produc- 
 ing, 121 
 
 Virgil, his Second Eclogue, 16 
 
 Voice, pills to improve, 147 
 
 w 
 
 Walls, polishing, 37 
 
 Warm weather, extracting in, 
 70 
 
 Warts, removal of, 145 
 
 Washing wax to remove last 
 trace of chemicals, 88 
 
 Water, rain, 56, 61 ; river, 56 ; 
 well, 56 
 
 Water-bath for melting wax, 
 128 
 
 Waterproof, packing paper, 140 ; 
 harness paste, 141 
 
 Waterproofing, leather, 140; 
 boots and shoes, 141 
 
 Wax, rolled into sheets, 18; used 
 by painters and sculptors, 20; 
 profiles of, 20 ; taxes paid in, 
 38 ; Shakespeare's allusion to, 
 38; used for seals, 37; from 
 plants, 43, 52 ; from minerals, 
 43, 52, 79, 107, 123; as a 
 vegetable product, 45, 79, 123 ; 
 in pollen, 45; scales, 46, 47, 
 48; fluid, 48; pockets, 48; of 
 voluntary secretion, 48; tem- 
 
 perature at which produced, 
 48; from insects, 52; render- 
 in g> 535 discoloured from 
 burning, 54 ; destroyed by 
 moth, 56; to be preserved in 
 cupboard, 56; high tempera- 
 ture destroys colour of, 57; 
 separating from impurities, 
 56; extracting, 57; white, 78, 
 87, 128; loses weight in 
 bleaching, 87; clarifying, 58; 
 cakes, 58, 59, 61, 72, 75, 116; 
 volatilised, 59 ; becomes brown 
 by overheating, 59; rendering 
 with hot water, 59 ; presses, 
 64; small loss in pressing, 
 66; chilled, 69, 70, 71 ; amount 
 recovered at one extracting, 
 72 ; quality of, from unheated 
 press, 72; from different 
 countries, 73; best from Eng- 
 land, 73 ; from Senegal dark, 
 74 ; from Guadeloupe difficult 
 to bleach, 76; colour of, 
 differs, 76; refining and 
 bleaching, 78-88 ; bleaches 
 with different degrees of 
 facility, 78; testing bleaching 
 capacity, 80 ; refining, 81 ; be- 
 comes cleaner by frequent 
 meltings, 81 ; purified with 
 sulphuric acid, 83; bleaching 
 factory of Will and Baumer, 
 87 ; bleached, 87 ; washing, 88 ; 
 adulteration of, 89 ; high 
 price of, 89 ; from China, 
 89 ; from Japan, 89, 91 ; Car- 
 nauba, 89, 100; adulterants 
 used in, 89 ; nails in, 90 ; 
 Chinese insect, 90; myrtle, 
 91; palm, 91, 100 j Dr. dt> 
 
INDEX. 
 
 171 
 
 Planta, on difficulty of de- 
 tecting adulteration of, 94 ; 
 testing, 95-97 ; detecting 
 paraffin in, 97 ; Sumatra, 101 ; 
 Borneo, 102 ; myrtle-berry, 
 102; palm-tree, 103; Otoba, 
 103 ; cow-tree, 104 ; of animal 
 origin, 105 ; Chinese insect, 
 105; strips as starters, in; 
 sheets, 112, 115, 116, 130, 131; 
 "Weed" method of sheeting, 
 116; colouring, 118; melting, 
 for colouring, 120; candles 
 and tapers, 122; flowers, 129; 
 fruits, 129, 132; figures, 129, 
 132; models, 132; technical 
 uses of, 134-150; modelling, 
 134; grafting, 134; sewing, 
 134; engravers' border, 138; 
 black sealing, 138; soft seal- 
 ing, 138; gilders', 138; bottle, 
 138; varnish to preserve 
 statues, 140; dubbing, 141; 
 shoe polish, 142 ; its use in 
 medicine, 145 ; salve for skin 
 diseases, 146; balsam, glycer- 
 ine, 150 
 
 Wax-bleaching, 79 ; factories, 75 
 Wax Chandlers, Guild of, 40 
 Wax-extractor, solar, 57, 58; 
 French, 62 ; Professor Ger- 
 ster's, 63 
 Wax-glands, 47 
 Wax-moth, 55 
 
 Wax-presses, 64; of two classes, 
 64; steam, 66; German, 67; 
 Swiss, 68; unheated, 68; 
 " Hatch-Gemmil," 69; "Rock- 
 wood," 69; Root's, 69-72; 
 canvas used in unheated, 69, 
 
 Wax-tapers, 33, 44, 75, 122, 124; 
 not used in Evangelical 
 Church, 33 ; thin, 44 ; used in 
 Roman Church, 75 ; machine 
 for making, 125 ; short, 125 
 
 Wax-trade affected by Reforma- 
 tion, 33 
 
 Waxed paper, 140 
 
 Webs of canvas used in bleach- 
 ing, 86 
 
 Weed, E. B., 116; his method of 
 sheeting wax, 116 
 
 "Weed" foundation, 117; 
 machinery for making, 117; 
 British, 117 
 
 Well-water, 56 
 
 W T est Indies, 73, 76 
 
 White lead, n8 
 
 White wax, 78, 87 ; loses weight 
 in bleaching, 87 
 
 Wick, dipping, 122 ; pouring 
 wax on, 122; -making 
 machinery, 123 ; -mordants, 
 124; including wire in, 124 
 
 Wicks, preparation of, 123; 
 twisted, 123, 124; plaited, 
 123; thickness of, 123; 
 materials for, 123; dipping in 
 fused bismuth, 124; to be 
 dried before using, 124; 
 pouring melted wax on, 126 
 
 Wild bees, wax from, 76 
 
 Wildman, 46 
 
 Will and Baumer, Messrs., their 
 bleaching factory, 87 
 
 Willelmi, M., 46 
 
 Wire-gauze strainer, 59, 62 
 
 Witchcraft and sorcery, 25 ; 
 images of wax used for spells 
 in, 25 
 
 Wood, paraffin obtained from, no 
 
172 
 
 WAX CRAFT. 
 
 Wooden writing tablets, 18; in 
 form of book, 19 
 
 Worshipful Company of Wax 
 Chandlers, 40; its existence 
 prior to 1371, 40; its incor- 
 poration, 40; grants of arms 
 to, 40 ; its by-laws, 40 ; its 
 punishment of offenders, 41 ; 
 its valuable plate, 41 ; its 
 Normansell Cup, 41 ; its 
 Beadle's staff-head, 41 
 
 Wounds, salve for, 145 
 
 Writing inscriptions on metals, 
 144 
 
 Writing tablets, wooden, 18; 
 Pliny on, 19; Homer on, 19; 
 in form of book, 19 
 
 Yellow colour, how produced, 
 119; proportions for, 120 
 
 Zanzibar, 75 ; wax from, 
 bleaches rapidly, 79 
 
 Zietrisika, 108 
 
 Zietrisikite, 108 
 
 Zoroaster, candles used accord- 
 ing to rites of, 30 
 
The British Bee-keeper's 
 
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